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HOOVER INSTITUTION
on War, Revolution, and Peace
FOUNDED BT HERBEHT HOOVER L4I9
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
edition, published in three
volumes,
1768— 1771.
SECOND
»»
,, ten
„
1777— 17«4.
THIRD
»»
„ ' eighteen
»»
1788— 1797.
FOURTH
t»
„ twenty
„
1 801— 1 8 10.
FIFTH
>•
„ twenty
»»
1815—18x7.
SIXTH
!»
„ twenty
,,
1823—1834.
SEVENTH
»»
tt twenty-one
»»
1830—1842.
EIGHTH
M
„ twenty-two
it
1853—1860.
NINTH
It
„ twenty-five
„
1875—1889.
TENTH
M
ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes,
1902—1903.
ELEVENTH
published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910— X91X.
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME X
EVANGELICAL CHURCH to FRANCIS JOSEPH
NEW YORK
THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY
1910
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Eacydopadia Britdnafca Comptoy,]
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME X, TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL.
CONTRIBUTORS,* WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. B. B. Alfred Barton Rendle, M.A., D.Sc.. F.R.S., F.L.S. f
Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of TV* Book on Class*- i FltVtt,
*"* ■ * 'if Plants; Ac. I
jUpttom of Flowering Plants;
stxn Dobson, LL.D.
Sea the biographical article: Dobson, H. Austin.
A. Dl Austin Dobson, LL.D. .._... J
4.P. B. AIMED FAffJLER_BARKER, M.SC. _ ........ <f|tlL
History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls'
isistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-
seman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, itoA Author of
Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College.
A. F. P. . Amsbt Frederick Pollard, M.A1, F.R.Hist«Soc.
Professor of English Histor
College. Oxford. Assistant
toot. Lothian Prizeman, .
England under Protector Somerset; Hoary VIII.; Ufa 0/ Thomas Cremmer; Ac.
A. G. Major Arthur George Frederick Griffiths (d. 1008).
H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;
Secrets of tie Prison House; Ac.
A.G*.* Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A. S^HLJ?* 1 ' JlC ° itt * "*
Lecturer on Chinch History in the University of Manchester. 1 *~?' _ , _
1 flBBUIII IMH o.;
Ffcffir, Bisbof;
Fox, 'Edwirt;
Fox,Rfct*rd. *
Floor Prints.
A.B>A. Sir A. Houtum-Schlndler, CLE. /Fmrt;
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. IFtnisabli.
A.L. Andrew Lang.
See the biographical article: Lang, Andrew.
A. L. B. Alfred Lys Baldry.
Art Critic of the Globe, 1891-1908. Author of Modem MutmJ DetotaUe m and
" biographies of Albert Moore, Sir H. von Herkomer. R.A., Sir J. E. Miftais, P.R.A.
Marcus Stone, R.A., and G. H. Boughtoa, R.A,
A. I. Alfred Newton, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: Newton, Alfred.
A. f. Arthur Smrhells, F.R.S.
Proiesaor of Chemistry in tha University ol Leeds. Author of Scientific Papers on
Fame and Spectrum Analysis.
A. fl. 0. Agnes Mary Clerke.
See the biographical article: Clerke, A. M.
A. W. Arthur Watson.
Secretary in the Academic Department. University of London.
A. W. R. Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B.
. Puisne Jmlge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of Ao Lavs
A. W. W. Adolphos William Ward, D.Litt., LL.D. J Fool*, Samoa!;
Set thebiographicalarticle: Ward, A. W. 1 Fold, JohaV
G. B. Sot Charles Norton Edccumbe Eliot. K.C.M.G.* C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College,
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Afnca •
Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German
East Africa, 1900-1904.
C. F. B. Charles Francis Bastable, M.A., LL.D.
Regius Professor o( Law* and Professor of Political Economy in the University of
Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International
tf.tx C. F. Cross, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S.. F.I.C.
Analytical and Consulting Chemist.
1 A complete list, showing all indivtdaal contributors, appears in the Una! volume*
vi
C.P.B.
C. H. T.*
C.J.
C.JB.1.
C. J. H. P.
C.L.K.
C.P.L
C.W.A.
D.H.
D.Mm.
D. M. P.
P:W a
E.B.
ECa.
E.C.B.
E.C.Q.
B.D.B.
B.B.A*
B.B.H.
KG.
B.H.P.
B.K.
B.M.Ha
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Charles Francis Richardson, A.M., Ph.D.
Professor of English at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.A.
Author of A Story of English Rhyme; A History of American Literature; Ac.
Crawford Howell Toy, A.M.
See the biographical article: To*. Crawford Howell.
■{
Charles Johnson, M.A.
Clerk in H.M. Public
Record Office. Joint Editor of the Domesday Simmy for the i
Victoria County History: Norfolk. I
Charles John Bruce Marriott, M.A. J
Clare College, Cambridge. Secretary of the Rugby Football Union. I
Charles James Nicol Fleming. I
H.M. Inspector of Schools, Scotch Education Department. 1
'CtfftXLES LETHBRibCE KlNOSFORD. M.A., F.R. Hist. Sot., P.S.A.'
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author olAif* of Henry V. Editor
ol <farnlcUs*fbmdonuid$*m* Survey vflmdok.
Sir Courtenay Perecrtnb Ilbert, K£.B n KXLSX, CLE.
Clerk of the Heuse'of Goniottns.. ChatanaA of Statute Law Committee. Parlia-
mentary Counsel to the Treasury, 1899-1901 . Legal Member of Council of Governor-
General of India, 188 2- 1886; President, 1886. Fellow of the British Academy.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Government
of India; Legislative Method and Forms.
Charles Wtluam Alcoce (d. roo7).
Formerly Secretary of the Football Association, London.
.Dawd Hanhry.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.
Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; Ac.
impart).
Rugby (m pert).
Rugby (*i part).
Fabian;
Author of Snort History of the Royal
i Foatball: Association {in part).
Pint af June, Battle of the;
PwGtaflMjaflMs.
Director of the London
Rev. Duoald Macfadyen, M.A.
, -• Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Higbgate.
Missionary Society.
Diajuop Noel Patom, M.D„ F.R.CP. (Edia.).
Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Super*
intendent Of Research Laboratory of Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh.
Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University, 1884. Author of Essential* qf JSfsa
David Samuel Maegououth, M.A., D.Lrrr.
Laudbn Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author of Arabic
Papyri of the Bodleian Library; Mohammed and the Rise^of /dew; Cairo, Je rus alem
■' and Dm
{
ivard Brbce;, M.Am Ph.D. f
.Formerly Foreign Correspondent of <he Nn» York Herald and the New York Thus, i
Author of Fencing; Wilderness Pets; Sportint in Nooo Scotia; Ac I
PoU-lesMtoc;
Football: American (t» for/).
{Fencing.
- fmix {in part).
Ecerton Castle, M.A.. F.S.A.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Schools and Masters of Fence; Ac.
The Hon. Edward Evan Charters.
Barrhter-at-Law, .Inner Temple. '
Rt. Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B., M. A.. D.Litt. fFonfavrault;
' Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladia*/' < FraneJ* of ASsItt, St;
t . .mCkmnhmp Texts and Studies. nLvl I FTancit Of Paom, •*.
Edmund Cros$y Quiooin, M.A, f
Fellow: and Lecturer In Modem Languages' and Monro Lecturer in Celtic,'! ftDB ttM OaaL
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. I
UEUfc'CocOsTEL Emtuus C. Delme Radclxffe. .
Author of Falconry: Notes on the Faleonidae used in India in Falconry.
Bams? -E. Austen.
Assistant in Department of Zoology. Natural History Museum, South Kensington.
Rev. Bdwaxd Everett Hale.
See the biographical article: Hals, E. E.
Edmund Oosse, LL.D.
See the biographical artkfc; Gosas, Edmund.
Edward Henry Palmer, M.A. .
See the biographical article: Palmer, E. H.
Edmund Knbcbt, Ph.D., M.Sc.Tech. (Manchester), PXC.
Ptpfesepr of Techaologtcal Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical
Department, Municipal School of Technology. Manchester. Examiner In Dyeing,
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing] Ac. Editor
or Journal of she Society of Dyers and Colourists.
Ernest Maes Harvey.
Partner in Messrs, Alk* Harvey A Rote, Bullion Brokers, Looe>%.
Fabre, Fardinand; IfcsJDst;
Finland: Ukrahtre\
FlUGerali, Edward; Flauberl;
{in pari).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES :vtt
too Owttt, MB, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc I
Consulting Surgeon e» St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children'* Hospital,
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Lesion of Honour. LateExamineH
in Surgery at the University of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of A J
tee, Vies President, National J „«. *-* »-, i
Fire Service Council. Autaor 1 ™ iaI ™ J
R&* Bnsui© OwnrM.B, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f
" i Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, (
load Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. LateExamineH
.../ at the University of Cambridge, London and Dnrhanv Author of A \
Manual of Anatomy Jor Senior Students. j,
E 0. fc Edwtk Otho Smm, F.R.S. (Ediii.), A.M.IMST.M.E.
Chairman of the British Fire Pr ev ention Committee.
Fire Brigades Union. Vice-President, International
B. ft E&CAR POSTAGE.
Special Lectun .
mendsdir, Portuguese Order of S. Tbtago. (^nespondini
Royal Academy oi Sciences and Lit bo fi G t tig's rt«cn » Society.
Speciaf Lecturer in Portuguese Literature at the University of Manchester. Com- J Fnlcno;
mmdaitr, Portuguese Order of S. Thmgo. Corresponding Member of Lisbon [ Ferrelra.
RUs. gusts Rictus. /■.
See the biographical article: Rkclus, J. J. E. \ ™"
aV. Tn. ]tzv. Ethelred Leonard Taunton, (d. 1907). f 1
Author of Tko English Black Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits in Enfant. \ Ffchef, John.
LW.H. Ernest Wiuiam Hobson, M.A. t D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Fellow and Tutor jn Mathematics, Christ's College, Cambridge. Stokes Lecturer \ Fourier's Series,
in Mathematics in the University.
F. C CL Frederick Gornwallxs Conybeare. M.A., DTh. (Giessen).
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxl
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; Ac.
P.6.F, Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst.
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women.
Formerly Huntenan Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
F. J. H. Francis John Havertteld, M.A.. LL.D., F.S.A.
Camden Profeesor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow
Brasenose College. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of the British Academ;
Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c
F. 1. W. Frederick Joseph Wall, F.CS.
Secretary to the Football Association.
F.B.O. Frank K Cana.
Author of Soutk Africa from Ike Great Trek to Urn Union,
F.sV Francis Stow, M.A.
Editor of (ho Journal of Education, Loado*. Oficier d'Acedtmie, Paris,
0. A. B* George A. Boulekckr, D.Sc.. Ph.D., F.R.S.
In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes. Department of Zoology, British
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. ' .
Q. A. In. George Andreas Berry, M.B., F.R.C.S., F.R.S. (Edin.).
Hon. Surgeon Oculist to His Majesty in Scotland. Fori
Surgeon, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and Lecturer on Ophthalsnology in the Uni* | _ _ .
versity of Edinburgh. Vice-President, Ophthalmologic*! Society. Author of 1 *9* Dueam.
Diseases of Ike Bye; The Elements of Ophthalmoscopic Diagnosis; Subjective \
0. B. A* George Burton Adams, A.M.. B.D., FH.D., Lrrr.D. r
Professor of History, Yale University. Editor of American Historical Booum.)
Aix^xAGkVnnMHoninrmtikomfkm jo66^\
tat6;6c. {
0.CL Geo rge Co llins Levxy 1 CM.G. __.- »__-
Member of Hoard of Advice to Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly Editor and
Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal
Commission to Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, 188?.
and Melbourne, 1873, i*76» 1878, 1880-1881.
A
Q.B. Rev. Georoe Edmvndson, MJl.*, FJUHJuS.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909,
Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, andForeiga Member, Netherlands Associa-
tion c4 Literature
Q.F. Z» George Frederick Zdoter, A.M.Inst.CE. r
Author of Mechanical Handling of Material \
CO. P.* George GiBKVraE PmniMORE, M. A y B.C.L. fiUirff Ls»sr
Christ Church, Oxford. Barriater-at-fAw, Middle Temple. | Fisnoij, Law 01.
0. P. Gdtord Pinchot, A.M.. D.Sc., LL.D
Professor of Forestry, Vale University. Formerly Chief Forester, U.S.A.
of the National Cosiservatioa Association, Member of the Society of American .
Foresters, Rovsl English Arboriculture! Society, &c Author of The White Pine;
A Primer of Forestry ; ftc .
ft. W.T. Bsv. GahHths Wheeler Thatchir, M.A.. B.D.
Warden of Camden O" - " ' ~
Testament History at
garden ef Camden College, Sydiwy.'N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebts* and Old -
at Mansfield College, Oxford.
Forest! stud ToMttjl
United Stales.
MrUttftnt;
FahhrudrDInBlxl;
FirtW; Fanudaq.
viii
H.B.S.
H.CH.
H.De.
H. F. 0.
H.L.8.
H.SL
H.W.CD.
H.W.I
J.A.R.
J.B*
J.B.P.
j.m.
J.C.JL
J.E.&B.
J.B.P.W.
J.P.St.
J.O.H.
J.G.R.
J.H.P.*
I.HLR,
IB. 8,
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Rev. Henry Barclay Swete, M.A., D.D., Lrrr.D. e
Regius Professor of Divinity, Cambridge University. Fellow of Gonville end Cuius J -. llrt ,.. . _
Cofcge. Cambridge. FcUow of King's Colfee. London. Feltow of Brkish Academy.! WM»«tts*
Hon- Canon of EiyCathedtaL Author of fbHolySpir4iulheNmT$tmment;&c. {
Hugh Chisholm, M.A.
Fc " '
of
HZPPOLYTE DeLEHAYE, S.T.
Assistant in the compilation of the BoUandist publications: Anolecta Bottoudioua
mad Acta Sanctorum.
m Chisholm , M.A. f , .
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Chrisd College, Oxford. Editor of the litb EdUm)*} ******
of the Enc y clopaedia Brisaunica; Co-Editor of the ioth edition. I
in the University of Ctabridfe..
■-"-"- Natural History.
Hans Frtedrich Gadow, F.R.S., PkJ).
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on
Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles." in the
H. Lawrence Swinburne (d. 1909).
Henry Stuit, M.A.
Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Fret Church' s Personal Idealism.
FU«ra,oaJat;
in*
.LotwfcA.
1 Fill Heal;
Fits Piter, Geoffrey;
Pttx SleflstiL WUBaa;
flta Ttodnar Fts^eard:
Florence of W orse st er.
H. Wickham Steed. f
Correspondent of 71c Times at Vienna. , Correspondent of The Times at Rome, \ FahrixL
1897-1903. i
Israel Abrahams, M.A.
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, .University of Cambridge- President,
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera-
ture ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages.
Sn Joseph Archer Crowe, K.C.M.G.
See the biographical ankle: Crowe, Sir JosEra A.
[ohn Allen Howe, B.Sc
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Authorof
The Geology of Building Stones.
[OHN AdDXNGTON SYMONDS, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Symohds, John A.
fosEPH Burton.
Partner in Pilkington's Tile and Pottery Co., Clifton Junction, Manchester.
[ames Bell Pettzorew. M.D.. LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. (Edin.) (iSta-xooS).
Chandos Professor of Medicine and Anatomy, University of St Andrews, 1875-
1908. Author of Animal Locomo ti o n ; Ac
[AMES BaRTLETT.
Lecturer on Construction, Arcbttectuee, Sanitation, Quantities, &c- at King's
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of
Junior Engineers.
ames Clerk Maxwell, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Maxwell, James Clerk.
ohn Edward Courtenay Bodley, MA
BaUiol College, Oxford. Corresponding^ Member of the Institute of Francs. Author
of France; The Coronation of Edward VII.; Sec
[ohn Edward Power Wallb, M.A.
Puisne Judge, Madras. Vice-Chancellor of Madras University. Inns of Court
Reader In Constitutional Law, 1892-1897. Formerly Editor of Slate Trials.
font Frederick Stemming. M.A.
Dean and Fellow of Wadham College. Oxford. University Lecturer in Aramaic
Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College.
oseph G. Horner, A.M.I.Mech.E.
Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; ftc
ohn George Robertson, M.A., Ph.D.
Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer 00 the
English Language, Strassburg University. Author of History of German Literature \
Ac
OHN HUNCKRfORD POLLEN, M.A. (d. 1908)
Formerly Professor of Fine Arts in Catholic University of Dublin. Fellow of
Merton CoHege. Oxford. Cantor Lecturer, Society of Arts, 1885. Author of,
Ancient and Modem Furniture and Woodwork; Ancient and Modern Gold and
Silversmith's Worh; The Trajan Column; Ac-
Toon Holland Rose, M.A., Lrrr.D.
Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate.
, Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic Studies ; The Development of the European
' Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; chapters in the Cambridge Modem History.
John Horace Round, M.A..LL.D. (Edin.).
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage ami
Pedigree; &c
Ejbeschirta.
{***.
Van.
Fnnee: Geology.
(in part).
IThrlit sad Firing G*AorO.
. FteRdRf .
Fnusoei History, 1870-1910.
*
FaiL
FvrTSfss Futuuy,
FlhRjWM* Fout&y.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J.K.L.
J. LB.
Lata.
J.bLS.
J.Fft.
J.P.B.
J.R.G.
J.R.F*
I.R.J.J.
J.S.HL
I.S.F.
4.1 X.
J.T.Bo.
1.8.
LB.'
UF.L
L.J.
L?*
Jules Isaac
Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons.
Sot John Knox Lauchton, M.A.. Lrrr.D. m m m
Professor of Modern History. Kins'* College, London. .Secretary of the Navy
Records Society. Served in the Baltic 1894-1855; « China, 1896-1850, Mathe-
matical and Naval Instructor, Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, 1866-1879;
Greenwich, 1873-1885. President, Royal Meteorological Society, 18&1-1884.
Honorary Fellow, GonvOle and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow. Kiiv&CeJIegc.
London. Author of Physical Geography in its Relation to the PrecatTsniWtnds and
Currents; Stadia in Naval History* Sea Fig/Us and Adttnturesi Ac.
TtmaahLU
to the City and Guilds J
of the Institute I
Julian Levett Baker, F.I.C.
Analytical and Consulting Chemist. Examiner in
of London Institute, Department of Technology,
of Brewing. Author of The Brewing Industry-, Ac.
John Macoonald.
James Montgomery Stuart.
Author of The History of Free Trade in Tuscany; Reminiscences and Essays
James Paton, F.L.S.
Superintendent of Museums and Art Galleries of Corporation of Glasgow. Assistant
fn Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh, 1 861-1876. President of Museums A Feather (impart).
Association or United Kingdom, 1896. Editor and part-author of Scottish National I
Memorials, 1890. I
Jean Paul Hippolyte Emmanuel Adhemar Esmexn. f
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J fy.^. r-— amd Imatitmthma
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cows elementaire fkisloire dn droit \ wtmmm * *"" —* *"*—"***>
francais; Qbc I
Joseph Rocebson Cotter, M.A.
Assistant to the Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Trinity College,
Dublin. Editor of and edition of Preston's Theory of Heat.
Joseph R. Fisher. I
Editor of the Northern Whtg, Belfast. Author of Finland and the Tsars; Law of A
the Press; Ac I
Julian Robert John Jocelyn.
Colonel, R.A. Formerly Commandant. Ordnance College;
Committee; Commandant, Schools of Gunnery.
•{
Member of Ordnance < Fireworks: History.
Rxv John Sutherland Black, M.A., LL.D.
Assistant Editor, oth edition. Encyclopaedia FrUannica
. . . . . Joint Editor of the
Encyclopaedia Bibfica. Translated Ritschl's Critical History of the Christian
Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation.
Fasting;
John Smith Flett, D.Sc. t F.G.S.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J FelftUe:
burgh University. NeUlMedallist of the Ror ' ' "-"-"-^ "" ^ J ^
Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
: Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby
-'{
John Scott Keltie, LL.D., F.S.S. F.S.A. (Scot.).
Secretary. Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Star.
Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon. Member. Geographical 1 — _..
Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, Ac. Editor of Statesman's Year Book. Editor of I FlUMsHB.
the Geographical Journal.
John T. Bealby. i
Joint Author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical {
Magasine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; Ac [
Kathleen Schlesinger.
Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra.
Louis Duchesne.
See the biographical article: DrcBESNS. L. M. 0.
Leslie Frederic Scott, M.A, K.C.G
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple,
Lieut.-Colonel Louis Charles Jackson, R.E., C.M.G.
Assistant Director of Fortifications and Works. War Office. Formerly Instructor
in Fortification, R.M.A, Woolwich. Instructor in Fortification and Military
Engineering. School of Military Engueering, Chatham
(M#on);
{in part)
Fluts (in part).
Fatter.
Luna VniAsx
Italian Foreign Office (Eougrattoo Dept.).
,. Formerly Newspaper Correspondent
m east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia. 1907;
Boston. U.S.A. 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life im Town and Country i Fin and
3woed in the Cantatas; Ac.
Fmiiero; Fiatt, Manfred©;
Fmrlnl, Lttlfl Carlo; -
Fimsst: Family;
Ls^IV.ef Nassss:
IL of the Two
C;
Franeki IL of the Twe
IrsMisIV.aiMl V. of
INITIALS AMD HEADINGS OP ARTICLES
M. Ha.
M. W. T.
O.H.*
O.lt
P.A.
P.A.K.
P. C. Y.
P.C.M.
P. G. K.
P.J.R.
P.W.
R. Ad ,
It A. 8. M.
r. H.a
R.J.H.
R.L.*
R.N. B.
IttPeV -
R. P. S.
R.S.C.- .
ft.lt.
. Hashes Hartog. M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. |
' •• Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of " Protozoa," m Cam><\
bridge Natural History, and papers for various scientific journals.
NORTHCOTE Wb08U>G» THOMAS, M.A.
FonuDlnifin*
Government Anthropologist to'Southern Nigeria. Corre sp onding Member of the J v*HM*!m-
SejtMf* d\Ant*ro^ogie«e Fans. Author of ******* Transference; Kinship and] ™»*™ »»
of the]
Jtformfi m iCtufnaWs; Ac*
Otto Hehner, F.I.C., F.C.S. ^ f
Public Analyst. Formerly President of Society of Public Analysts. Vice-President I f^ J
of Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. Author of works on Butter 1
Analysis; Alcohol Tables; &c I
David Omt Masson, M.A.. D.Sc., F.R.5. [_ ,. .-,
Professor of Chemistry, Melbourne University. Author of papers on chemistry in < FlreWGf ■»: Modern.
the transactions of various learned societies. I
PAui Daniel Alphandery. f
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecofe Pratique^ des Haute* Etudes, ^rbonne, J j
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Haute* Etudes, iorbonne, I
Pads. Author of Les Idtes morales cha Us Utirodoxes latines on Wbvt dn XT1I* ]
stele.
Prince Peter Alexeivttch JUopotktn.
Sec the biographical article: Kropotkin, P. A.
Philip Chesney Yorke. M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.
Pets* Chalmers Mitchell. F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc. IX. D. ,
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com* [
parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1881-1891. -J Evolution*
Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. Author of Outlines of
Riokfy; &c l
Paul Georce Konooy.
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Hail. Formerly Editor of The Artist.
Author of The Art of Walter Cram; Vehfiquet, Lift and Work; &c.
Philip Joseph Hartog, M.A., L. is Sc. (Paris). 1
Academic Registrar of the University of London. Author of Tho Writing of English, 1
and articles in the Special Reports on educational subject* of the Board of Edu* 1
cation. . I
Paul WirIath.
Director of the Ecole Superieurc Pratique de Commerce etd' Industrie, Paris.
RonEjrr AbAMSON, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Adamson, R.
Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A.
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex-
ploration Fund.
Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A., D.D., DJjtt. (Oron.).
Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British
Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity College, Dublin. Author and
Editor x>f Book of Enoch; Book of Jubilees; Apocalypse of Baruch; A sumption of
' r ' J — ' ' ~ ' 't XII. Pal ' -
f Ferghana (w» Jar*)}.
iFtnland(Mi^iW).
f Falkland; Fanshaw;
-J Fawkes, Gay; Fell, John;
[Fettesoae, Sir John.
f Floreoio 41
\ Fragonard.
(tsi part).
{ Franco: ffistory to 1870.
rFIehfe;
\ Fourier, F. C. M.
•{
Moses; Ascension of Isaiah; Testaments of the ft II. Patriarchs ; &c. '
Ronald John McNeill, M.A. f Pedant;
Christ Church. Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Fbnneriy Editor of the St James's' Fltia^rald, Lord Edward;
. GanetiCt London. "" --■" -- ---
Font
tea: Third end Fourth
Boohs of.
Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S, 1
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1883. Author of J
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer]
of all hands ; The Came Animals of Africa ; $c .
Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1900).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the
Potitftal History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1*13-1900; The First Romanovs.
1613-172* ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History -of Poland- and JLum from leto
tO I79O; B.C. . ,.;'*'
r. irXNE PotffrARbIN, ft. BS X.
Secretary of the Ecole des Chartcs. Honorary Librarian at the Bibllotheque
Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous Us Carotin gien s ; Recueil'
de} enattes de Saint-Germain ; &c.
' R. Phex£ Spiers, F.S.A.. F.R.I.B.A. r
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past |
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of Kim ' ~
Rood, Henry.
Flying-Squirrel;
Fo*
Counts yon.
Franehe-Comt*.
Jlow of King's College, 4 Flute;, Architecture.
London ' Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of rexgusson'i 1 '
............ , -..^. 'Trfrjae. ' I
. History of Architecture, ' Author of Arckitectnrei East and Wett\
Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., ^LrrT. (Canlabp. , f
Proiojnor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in t"hc University of Manchester. J
Formerly Professor of Latin in University Colloge. Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonvillc ]
and Calus College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. L
Roland Troblove, M.A. f
FaUsot.
Formerlv Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Fellow, Dean and Lecturer in Classics \ Franeo: Statistic*.
at Worcester College, Oxford. I
INITIALS/ AND HEADINGS. OF ARTICLES
S.A.CL
stc
S.E.B.
1E.S.-H.
T.A.L
| T.As.
T.Ba.
T.H.H.*
T.K.&
T.fc.
T.K.
W.A.B.C
WJLP.
W.B.*
W.Ca.
f.Ga.
V.ik
VLB.
Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.
Editor for PaksniAe Exploration Fund.
formerly Fellow, Gonvflk and Galus Cottage, Cambridge.
Aramaic. London University, 1004-1008. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Instrip*
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
Examiner in Hebrew and
RKoda^Tn*;
Ezra and Hehemlah,
Books ol
Fine Arte; Flnljnafrsj
{
{FaiMlDn.
UJSJL
{m pmtX
Dm.
Mam; Falerto;
Ferenttno; Fton*
FhunJnJaYb;
Florae*): Early History:
Fondl; Fonnl;
tions\ The Laws of Mow and the Colt of Hammurabi', Critical Notes on Old Testa-
ment History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; fe.
Sidney Colvtn, LL.D.
See the biographical article: CoLvnr, S.
Viscount St Cyres.
See the biographical article: Ioobslexgu, ist Earl of
Hon. Simeon Eben Baldwin. M. A,, LL.D.
Prfctator of Constitutional and Private International Law in Yale University.
Director of the Bureau of Comparative Law of the American- Bar Association.
Formerly Chief Justice of Connecticut. Author of Modem Political Institutions;
American Railroad Law; Ac
Stephen Edward SprinoRice, M.A., C.B. (1856-1002).
Formerly Principal Clerk. H.M. Treasury! and Aaditotf of the Civil List. Fellow of
Trinity College, Cambridge,
Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.
Ttirtaf AS ASHBX, M.A., Dim. (Oxon.), F.S.A.
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church. Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Corresponding Member of the Imperial
German Archaeological Institute. Author of. the Cla ssic al Topography of He Roman
Campagna; 8ec
Sis Thomas Barccay, M.P. I
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of J
the Congo Free State Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of]
Inter n at i onal Practice and Diplomacy; Ac M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. I
Sir Thomas Hunoerpord Holdich, K.C.M.G.. K.GI.E., D.Sc, F.R.G.S.
Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India. 189a-
1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., London. 1887. H.M. Cotnmuisaooer for the'
Persia-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gams of
India; Ac.
Rev. Thomas Kelly Cheyne, D.D.
See the biographical article: Cheyne, T. K.
iXHOafaa SeccombeI MA.
Lecturer in History, East London and Btrkbeck Colleges, UnHcrshy of London.
Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Formerly Assistant Editor of Diehouary of.
National Biography, 1891-1901. Joint-author of The Bookman History of English
Literature. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c
Thomas Wqoohouu.
Head of Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee.
Victor Charles Mahillon.
Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de^i usique at Brussels. Chevalier of the Legion •
of Honour.
Key. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G S.. PhJ). (Bern).
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's.
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switeerhnd; The Alps in
Nature and in History; Ac Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889.
Walter Alison Phillips, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, •
Oxford. Author of Modem Europe; Sec
William Burton, M.A., F.C.S. f
Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. Author of < Firebrick (in part),
English Stoneware and Earthenware; Ac I
Walter Camp. A.M. ("«_«_.■ * _, ,. ._*
Member of Yale University Council. Author of American Football; Football Facts \ Football: American (m parfi,
and Figures ;Ac I
Walter Garstang, M.A., D.Sc.
{■ft (in part).
flax.
Flute (in parti
FeWktreh.
-{
Professor of Zoology at the University of Leeds.
" gates ■ - - ■ ~
neriy
of the Mackerel; The Impoverishment of the Sea; dec
Y
Delegates on the International Council lor the Exploration of the Sea, 1901-1907.
Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. * r ' " ~ . xr. x-
Scientific Adviser to H.M.
ation of the Sea, 1901-1907.
Author of The Races and Migrations
Walter Hepworth.
Formerly Commissioner of the Council of Education, Science and Art Department,
South Kensington.
William Michael Rossetti.
See the biographical article: Rossetti. Dante G.
■{
I PtaMlng, Copley;
W.P.P.
W.I. 8.
W.P.R.
W.R.8.
W.R.E/H.
W.Seh.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Formerly Aawstaatj
%-President of the]
Feathor (fr/ar0.
ft*
William Plane Pycraft, F.Z.S.
Assistant in. the Zoological Department, British Museum.
Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Oxford. Vice-j
Selborne Society. Author of A History of Birds; Ac
William Nahei Shaw, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc. t F.R.S.
Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of
London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee.
Member of Meteorological Council, 1897-190$. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College,
Cambridge. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1877-1899; Senior Tutor, 1 890-1899.
Joint Author of Text Book of Practical Physics; Ac
How. William Pembe* Reeves.
Director of London School of Economic*.
for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour and Justice,
Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud, a History of New Zealand,
Ac
William Robertson Smith, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Smith, W. R.
William RJchard Eaton Hoocktnsok, Ph.D., F.R.S. i
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly J
Professor of Chemistry and Physics. R.M.A., Woolwich., Part Author of Valentin- 1
HodgJdnson's Practical Chemistry; Ac (
Sim Wilhelm Schuch, K.C.I.E.. M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. r
Professor of Forestry at the University of Oxford. Hon. Fellow of St John's College, j — ._ m - -
Author of A Manual of Forestry; Forestry in the United Kingdom; The Outlook at 1 IWW»«M POME**.
the World's Timber Supply; Ac I
i&l 1 * 1 *
I Eva (in pari).
EkfJoilfH.
W. W. P. 4 William Waeoe Fowlee, M.A.
W.W.R.*
lliam Waeoe Fowlee, MA r
Fellow of Lincoln College. Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gilford Lecturer, J
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Creeks and Romans;]
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period: Ac. I
William Walkex Rockwell, Lic.Tiieol. [
Aasisunt Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York; -J
Author of Die DoppeUhc da Landgrdfen PUilipp won Hesse*. I
Fenaia-FkraMa,
BfilEyt.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Execution.
Executors m
tretors.
Exile.
Eylau.
Fault
FIf.
Federal Government
Fulgrat
Federalist Party .
fir.
Fehmle Courts.
Fives.
Felony.
Ftsoms.
Fai.
Florida.
Fezxan.
Foil.
Fictions.
FoM.
Fife,
Fontanel
Fontenoy.
Foot *nd Matt
Forest Laws.
Forfarshlro.
Forgery.
Foundling Hotpltafe.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME X
EVANGELICAL CHURCH CONFERENCE, a convention of
delegates from the different Protestant churches of Germany.
The conference originated in 1848, when the general desire for
pofitkai unity made itself felt in the ecclesiastical sphere as well.
A preliminary meeting Was held at Sandbof near Frankfort in
Jane of that year, and on the sist of September some five
hundred delegates representing the Lutheran* the Reformed, the
United mad the Moravian churches assembled at Wittenberg:
The gathering was known as Kirckentog (church diet), and,
wink leaving each denomination f see in respect of constitution,
ritual, doctrine and attitude towards the state, agreed to act
ssnedly in bearing witness against the non-evangelical churches
tad in defending the rights and liberties of the churches in the
federation. The organisation thus dosely resembles that of the
Free Church Federation in England. The movement exe r cised
considerable influence during the middle of the 10th century.
Though no Kutkentag, as such, has been convened since 1871,
its place has been taken by the Kongress far innsre -Mission,
which holds annual meetings in different towns. There is also
t biennial c onfer en ce of the evangelical churches held at Eisenach
to discuss matters of general interest. Its decisions have no
legislative force.
EVANGELICAL UNION, a religious denomination which
originated in the suspension of the Rev. James Morison (1816-
1803), minister of a United Secession congregation in Kilmarnock,
Scotland, for certain views regarding faith, the work of the Holy
Spirit in salvation, and the extent ol the atonement, which were
regarded by the supreme court of Ms church as anti-Calvinistic
tod heretical. Morison was suspended by the presbytery in
1&41 and thereupon definitely withdrew from the Secession
Church. His father, who was minister at Bathgate, and two
other ministers, being deposed not long afterwards for similar
opinions, the font met at Kilmarnock on the 16th of May 1843
(two days before the " Disruption " of the Free Church), and,
« the basis of certain doctrinal principles, formed themselves
•sto an association under the name of the Evangelical Union,
" for the purpose of countenancing, counselling and otherwise
■ding one another, and also for the purpose of training up
spiritual and devoted young men to carry forward the work and
'pleasure of the Lord.' " The doctrinal views of the new de-
aomination gradually assumed a more decidedly antt-CaMnistlc
form, and they began also to find many sympathisers among
the Congregationa&sts of Scotland. Nine students were expelled
from the Congregational Academy for holding " Morfsouian*'
doctrines, and in 1845 eight churches were disjoined from the
Congregational Union of Scotland and formed a connexion with
the Evangelical Union. The Union exerdstd no jurisdiction
over the individual churches connected with it, and in this respect
adhered to the Independent or Congregational form of church
government; but those congregations which originally were Pres-
byterian vested their government in a body of elders. In 1889
the denomination numbered 03 churches; and in 1896$ after
prolonged negotiation, the Evangelical Union was incorporated
with the Congregational Union of Scotland.
See- The Boangdkal Union Annual; History 0/ fa* Rsangoiical
Union, by F. Ferguson (Glasgow, 1876); Tkt Worthies of tks BM~
(1883} ; W. Adamson, L$$ ojbr James Morison (1898).
EVANS, CHRISTMAS, (1766-1838), Welsh Nonconformist
divine, was born near the village of Uandyssul, Cardiganshire,
on the 15th of December 1766. His father, a shoemaker, died
early, and the boy grew up as an illiterate farm labourer. At
the age of seventeen, becoming servant to a Presbyterian
minister, David Da vies, he was affected by a religious revival and
learned to read and write in English and Welsh. The itinerant
Cahrinistic Methodist preachers and the members of the Baptist
church at Llandyssul further influenced him, and he soon joined
the latter denomination. In 1780 he went into North Wales
as a preacher and settled for two years in the desolate peninsula
of Lleyn, Carnarvonshire, whence he removed to Llangefni in
Anglesey. Here, on a stipend of £17 a year, supplemented by a
little tract<selling, he built up a strong Baptist community,
modelling his organization to some extent on that of the Calvin-
istic Methodists. Many new chapels were built, the money being
collected on preaching tours which Evans undertook in South
Wales.
In i8ao Evans accepted an invitation to Caerphilly, where
be remained for two years, removing in i8a8 to Cardiff.
In 1832, in response to urgent caUs from the north, he settled
in Carnarvon and again undertook the old work of building and
collecting. He was taken ill on a tour in South Wales, and died
at Swansea on the 10th of July 1838. In spite of his early dis-
advantages and personal disfigurement (he had lost an eye in *•
EVANS, E. H.— EVANS, O.
youthful brawl), Christmas Evans was a remarkably powerful
preacher. To a natural aptitude for this calling he united a
nimble mind and an inquiring spirit; his character was simple,
his piety humble and his faith fervently evangelical. For a time
be came under Sandemanian influence, and when the Wesleyans
entered Wales he took the Calvinist side in the bitter controversies
that were frequent from 1800 to 1810. His chief characteristic
was a vivid and affluent imagination, which absorbed and
controlled all his other powers, and earned for him the name of
" the Bunyan of Wales."
His works were edited by Owen Davie* in 3 vols. (Carnarvon,
1895-1897). See the Lives by D. R. Stephens (1847) and Paxton
Hood (1883).
EVANS, EVAN HBRBBR (1836-1806), Webb Nonconformist
divine, was born on the 5th of July 1836, at Pant yr Onen near
Newcastle Emlyq, Cardiganshire. As a boy he saw something,
of the " Rebecca {tiots," and went to school at the neigh oouring
village of Lleehryd. In 1853 he went into business, first at
Pontypridd and then at Merthyr, but next year made his way to
Liverpool. He decided to enter the ministry, and studied arts
and theology respectively at the Normal College, Swansea, and.
the Memorial College, Brecon, his convictions being deepened
by the religious revival of 1858-1859. In 1862 he succeeded
Thomas Jones as minister of the Congregational church at
Morriston near Swansea. In 1865 he became pastor of Salem
church, Carnarvon, a charge which he occupied for nearly thirty
years despite many invitations to English pastorates. In 1894
he became principal of the Congregational college at Bangor.
He died on the 30th of December 1806. He was chairman of
the Welsh Congregational Union in 1886 and of the Congregational
•Union of England and Wales in 1892; and by his earnest
ministry, his eloquence and his literary work, especially in the
denominational paper Y Dysgedyda\ he achieved a position of '
great influence in his country*
See Life by U. El vet Lewis. .
EVANS, SIR 6E0RGB DE LACY (1787-1870), British soldier, ,
\ras born at Moig, Limerick, in 1787. He was educated at
Woolwich Academy, and entered the army in 1 806 as a volunteer,
obtaining an ensigncy in the sind regiment in 1807. His early
service was spent in India, but he exchanged into the 3rd Light
Dragoons in order to take -part in the Peninsular War, and was
present in the retreat from Burgos in 181 1. In 1813 he was at
Vittoria, and was afterwards employed in making a military
survey of the passes of the Pyrenees. He took part in the cam-
paign of 1814, and was present at Pampeluna, the Nive and
Toulouse; and later in the year he served with great distinction
on the staff in General Ross's Bladcnsburg campaign,, and took
part in the capture, of Washington and of Baltimore and the
operations before New Orleans. He returned to England in the
spring of 181 5, in time to take part in the Waterloo campaign as
assistant quartermaster-general on Sir T. Picton's staff. As a
member of the staff- of the duke of Wellington he accompanied ,
the English army to Paris, and remained there daring the
occupation of the city by the allies. He was still a substantive
captain in the 5U1 West India regiment, though a lieutenant-
colonel by brevet, when he went on half -pay in 18 18. In 1830
he was elected M.P. for Rye in the Liberal interest; but in the
•election of 1832 he was an unsuccessful candidate both for that
borough and for Westminster. For the latter constituency he
was, however, returned in 1833, and, except in the parliament
of 1841-1846, he continued to represent it till 1865, when he
retired from political life. His parliamentary duties did not,
however, interfere with his career as neotdier. In 1835 he went
out to Spain in command of the Spanish Legion, recruited in
England, and 0600 strong, which served for two years in ithe
Cariist War on the side of the queen of Spain. In spite of great
difficulties the legion won great distinction on the battlefields
of northern Spain, and Evans was able to say that no prisoners
had been .taken from it in action, that it had never lost a gun
or an equipage, and that it had taken 27 guns arid 1 100 prisoners
from the enemy. He received several Spanish orders, and on bis
return in 1839 was made a colonel and K.C.B. In 1 846 he became
major-general; and in 1854, on the breaking-out of the Crimean
War, he was made lieutenant-general and appointed to command
the 2nd division of the Army of the East. At the battle of the
Alma, where he received a severe wound, his quick comprehension
of the features of the combat largely contributed to the victory.
On the 26th of October he defeated a large Russian force which
attacked his position on Mount Inkerman. Illness and fatigue
compelled him a few days after this to leave the command of his
division in the hands of General Pennefather; but be rose
from his sick-bed on the day of the battle of Inkerman, the 5th of
November, and, declining to take the command of his division
from Pennefather, aided him in the long-protracted struggle by
his advice. On his return invalided to England in the following
February, Evans received the thanks of the House of Commons.
He was made a G.C.B., and the university of Oxford conferred on
him Uie, d eg p ?c of -D-CJL In, 1864 he was promoted 10 the full
ralkk-ofgeneral, He die a in London on the oth of January 1870.
- EVANS, SIR' JOHN (1823-1008), English archaeologist and
geologist, son of the Rev. Dr A. B. Evans, head master of
Market Bosworth grammar school, was born at Britwell Court,
Bucks, on the 17th of November 1823. He was for many years
head of the extensive paper manufactory of Messrs John Dickin-
son at Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, but was especially dis-
tinguished as an antiquary and numismatist. He was the author
of three books, standard in their respective departments: The
Coins of the Ancient Britons (1864); The Ancient Stone Imple-
ments, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain (1872, 2nd ed.
1897); and The Ancient Bronte Implements, Weapons and
Ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland (1881). He also wrote a
number of separate papers on archaeological and geological sub-
jects— notably the paper* Oft "Clint Imptaneala in the Drift "
communicated in i860 and 1862 to Arckaeologta^ die organ of the
Society of Anttquarie& Of lhat society he was president from
1885 to 1802, and he was president of the Numismatic Society
from 1874 to the time of his death. He also presided over the
Geological Society, 1874-1876; ihe Anthropological Institute,
187 7-1879; the Society of Chemical Industry, 1802-1893;
the Britten Association, 1807-1808; and for twenty years (1878-
1808) he was treasurer of the Royal Society. As president of the
Society of Antiquaries he was an ex ojuio trustee of the British
Museum, and subsequently he became a permanent trustee
His academic honours included honorary degrees from several
universities, and he was a corresponding member of the Institut
de France. He was created a K.C.B. in 1802* He died ax
Barkhamsted on the 31 st of May tooB.
His eldest son, Arthur John Evans, bom in 185 1, was
educated at Btasenose College, Oxford, and Gottingen, He be-
came fellow of Brasenose and in 1884 keeper of the Aabmolean
Museum at Oxford. He travelled in Finland and Lapland in
1873-1874, and in r87$ i°*de a special study of archaeology
«nd ethnology in the Balkan States. In 1803 he began his
investigations in Crete, which have resulted in discoveries of
the utmost importance concerning tie early history of Greece
and the eastern Mediterranean (see Aegean Civilization and
Crete). He is a member of afl the chief archaeological societies
in Europe, holds honorary degrees at Oxford, Edinburgh and
Dublin, and is a fellow of the Royal Society. His chief publi-
cations are: Cntam Pictographs and Pr at- Phoenician Script
(1806); Further Discoveries of Cretan and Aegean Script (t8o8);
The Mycenaean Tree and Pillat Cult (1*01); Sanpta Minoa
(1000 foil.); and reports on the excavations. He also edited
with additions Freeman's History of Sicily, vol. iv.
EVANS, OUVER (175s 1 -****). American mechanician, was
born at Newport, Delaware, in 1735. He was apprenticed to a
wheelwright, and at the age of cwenty-two he invented a machine
for making the card-teeth used in carding wool and cotton.
In 1780 he became partner with his brothers, who were practical
millers, and soon introduced various labour-saving appliances
which both cheapened and improved the processes of flour-
milling. Turning his attention to the steam engine, be employed
steam at a relatively high pressure, and the plans of his invention
which he sent over to England in 1787 and in 1 704-1 7Q5 *** **»d
EVANSON— EVANSVILLE
3
to have been seen by R. TMrJxxcfc, whom in that caie he
intidpatcd in the adoption of the high-pressure principle. He
eade use of his engine for driving mill machinery; and in 1803
he constructed a steam dredging machine, which also propelled
itself on tend. In 1*19 a disastrous fire broke out in his factory
it Pittsburg, and he did not long survive it, dying at New York
on the 21st of April 1810.
■YaWON, EDWARD (1741-1805), English divine, was born
on the ant of April 1731 at Warrington, Lancashire. After
graduating at Cambridge (Emmanuel College) and taking holy
orders, he officiated for several years as curate at M it chain. In
1768 he became vicar of South Mimms near Basnet; and in
November 1760 he was presented to the .rectory of Tewkesbury,
with which, he held also the vicarage of Longdon in Worcester*
skire. In Use course of his studies be discovered what he thought
important variance between the teaching of the Church of Eng-
land and that of the Bible, and he did not conceal bis convictions.
lr. reading the service he altered or omitted phrases which seemed
tu him untrue, and in reading the Scriptures pointed.out errors
ia the translation. A crisis was brought on by his sermon on the
resurrection, preached at Easter 1771; and in November 1773
1 prosecution was instituted against him in the consistory court
of Gloucester. He was charged with " depraving the public
vorshrp of God contained f n the liturgy of the Church of England,
asserting the same to be superstitious and unchristian, preaching,
writing and conversing against the creeds and the divinity of
oar Saviour, and assuming to himself the power. of- making
irbitrary alterations in his performance of the public worship/'
A protest was at once signed and published by a large number
of his parishioners against the prosecution. The case was dis-
Based on technical grounds, but appeals' were made to the court
of arches and the court of delegates. Meanwhile Evaason had
aade his views generally known by several publications. In
1772 appeared anonymously his Doctrines of a Trinity and the
Incarnation of Cod, examined upon the Principles of Reason sad
Common Sense. Tms was followed in 1777 by A letter to Dr
Hvd, Bishop of Wordstar, wherein the Importance of the Prophecies
J the Sew Testament and the Nature of the Grand Apostasy pre-
dicted in them are particularly and impartially considered. He also
vrote some papers on the Sabbath, which brought him into
caatroversy with Joseph Priestley, who published the whole
discussion (1792). In the same year appeared Evanson's work
entitled The Dissonance of the few generally received Eeanielists,
'a which replies were published by Priestley and. David Simpson
(1793). Evanson rejected most of the books of the New Testa*
neat as forgeries, and of the four gospels he accepted only that
of St Luke. In his later years he ministered to a Unitarian
congregation at Lympston, Devonshire. In 1803 he pubEshed
Refections upon the State of Religion in Christendom, in which he
attempted to explain and illustrate the mysterious foreshadow-
iap of the Apocalypse. This he considered the most important
of his writings. Shortly before his death at Colford, near
Crediton, Devonshire, on the 25th of September 1805, he com-
pleted his Second Thoughts on the Trinity, in reply to a week of the
bishop of Gloucester.
His sermons (prefaced by a Life by O. Rogers) were published in
tvo volumes ia 1807, and were the occasion otT. Falconer's Bampton
Ltciurcs in 181 1. A narrative of the circumstances which led to the
prosecution of Evanson was published by N. Havard, the town-clerk
af Tewkesbury, in 1778.
BVAHSTOH, a city of Cook county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the
share of Lake Michigan, is m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1000)
19,259, of whom 4441 were foreign-bom; (1910 V. & census)
14478. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western, and the
Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by two electric
£00. The city is an important residential suburb of Chicago.
Ia 1008 the Evanston public library had 41 ,430 volumes. In the
city are the College of Liberal Arts (1855), the Academy (i860),
tad the schools of music (1805) and engineering (1008) of North-
system University, co-educational, chartered in 1851, opened in
1855, the largest school of the Methodist Episcopal Church in
America. In 1000-19x0 it had productive funds amounting to
tboot $7,500,000, and, including all the allied s c hools, a fscultyof
4x8 instructors and 4487 students; its schools of mecfidne (1809),
law (1850), pharmacy (x886), commerce (1908) and dentistry
(1887) are in Chicago. In 1909 its library had x 14,869 volumes
and 79,000 pamphlets (exclusive of the libraries of the professional
schools in Chicago); and the Garrett Bfbfical Institute bad a
library of 25,671 volumes and 4500 pamphlets. The university
maintains the Grand Prairie Seminary at Onarga, Iroquois
county, and the Elgin Academy at Elgin, Kane county. Enjoy-
ing the privileges of the university, though actually independent
of it, are the Garrett Biblical Institute (Evanston Theological
Seminary), founded in 1855, situated on the university campus,
and probably the best-endowed Methodist Episcopal theological
seminary in the United States, and affiliated with the Institute,
the Norwegian Danish Theological school; and the Swedish
Theological Seminary, founded at Galesburg in 1870, removed to
Evanston in 1882, and occupying buildings on the university
campus until 1007, when it removed to Orrington Avenue and
Noyes Street. The Cumnock School of Oratory, at Evanston,
also co-operates with the university. By the charter of the
university the sale of intoxicating liquors is forbidden within
4 m. of the university campus. The v manufacturing importance
of the city is slight, bat is rapidly increasing, The principal
manufactures are wrought iron and steel pipe, bakers' machinery
and bricks. In 1905 the value of the factory products was
$2,550,520, being an increase of 307*3% smce 1900. In
Evanston are the publishing offices of the National Woman's
Christian Temperance Union. Evanston was incorporated as a
town *in 1863 and as a village' in 187s, and was chartered
as a city in 1892. The villages of North Evanston and
South Evanston were annexed to Evanston in 1874 and 189?
respectively.
BVANSVILLB, a city and the county-seat of Vanderburg
county, Indiana, U.S.A., and a port of entry, on the N. bank of
the Ohio river, 300 m. below Louisville, Kentucky— measuring
by the windings of the river, which double the direct distance.
Pop. (1890) 50,756; (1900) 59,007; (1910 census) 60,647.
Of the total population in 1900, 5518 were negroes, 5626 were
foreign-bora (including 4380 from Germany and 384 from Eng-
land), and 17*419 were of foreign parentage (both parents,
foreign4x>rn), and of these 13,910 were of German parentage.
Evamvilie is served by the Evansville & Tenre Haute, the
Evansville k Indianapolis, the Illinois Central, the Louisville 81
Nashville, the Louisville, Henderson & St Louis, and the Southern
railways, by several interurban electric lines, and by river steam-'
boats. The city is situated on a plateau above the river, and
has a number of fine business and public buildings, including
the court house and dty hall, the Southern Indiana hospital for
the insane, the United States marine hospital, and the WiUard
library and art gallery, containing in 1908 about 30,000 volumes.
The city's numerous railway connexions and its situation in
a coal-producing region (there are five mines within the city
limits) and on the Ohio river, which is navigable nearly all the
year, combine to make it the principal commercial and manu-
facturing centre of Southern Indiana. It is in a tobacco-growing
region, is one of the largest hardwood lumber markets in the
country, and has an important shipping trade in pork, agricul-
tural products, dried fruits, lime and limestone, flour and tobaocev
Among Its manufactures in 1905 were flour and grist mill products'
(value, $2,638,914), furniture ($1,655,246), lumber and timber
products ($i,»2o,533), railway cars ($1,118,376), packed meats
($908,428), woollen and cotton goods, cigars and cigarettes*
malt liquors, carriages and wagons, leather and canned goads:'
The value of the factory products increased from $1 3,167, 5:4
in 1000 to $19,101,716 in 1005, or 57-8%, and in the latter year
Evansville ranked third among the manufacturing cities in the
slate. The waterworks are owned and operated by the city.
First settled about 18x2, Evansville was laid out in 1817, and
was named in honour of Robert Morgan Evans (1 783-1844), one
of its founders, who was an officer under General W, H. Harrison
in the war ef 181 s. It soon became a thriving commercial town
with an. extensive river trade, was incorporated in 1819, **<*
received a city charter in 1847. The completion of the Wabash.
EVARISTUS— EVE
& Erie Canal, in 1853, from Evansvtlle to Toledo, Ohio, a distance
of 400 m., greatly accelerated the city's growth.
EVARISTUS, fourth pope (c. 98-105), was the immediate
Successor of Clement.
BVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL (1818-1001), American
lawyer, was born in Boston on the 6th of February x8i8. He
graduated at Yale in 1837, was admitted to the bar in New York
in 1 84 1, and soon took high rank in his profession. In i860 he
was chairman of the New York delegation to the Republican
national convention. In 1861 be was an unsuccessful candidate
for the United States senatorship from New York. He was chief
counsel for President Johnson during the impeachment trial,
and from July x868 until March 1869 he was attorney-general of
the United States. In 187 2 he was counsel for the United States
in the " Alabama " arbitration. During President Hayes's ad-
ministration (1877-1881) he was secretary of state; and from
1885 to 1891 he was one of the senators from New York. As
an orator Senator Evarts stood in the foremost rank, and tome
of his best speeches were published. He died in New York on
the a8th of February 1001.
EVE, the English transcription, through Lat Eva and Gr. Efa,
of the Hebrew name TO Hawah, given by Adam to his wife
because she was " mother of all living," or perhaps more strictly,
" of every group of those connected by female kinship " (see
W. R. Smith, Kinship, and ed., p. 208), as if Eve were the per-
sonification of mother-kinship, just as Adam (" man ") is the
personification of mankind.
[The abstract meaning " life " (LXX. Zuft), once favoured by
Robertson Smith, is at any rate unsuitable an a popular story.
Wellhausen and Noldeke would compare the Ar. fayyatun,
" serpent," and the former remarks that, if this is right the
Israelites received their first ancestress from the xjtwites
(Hivites), who were originally the serpent-tribe {Composition its
HexaUucks, p. 343? cf. Reste arabischen Heidcntums, 2nd ed. f
p. 1 54). Cheyne, too, assumes a common origin for Hawah and
the Hiwites.]
[The account of the origin of Eve (Gen. iii. 21-23) runs thus:
" And Yahweh-Elohim caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man,
auAtiu . &nd he slept. And be took one of his ribs, and closed
J/Bw! U P tne flesh in iu **><*&» And the rib which Yahweh-
Elohim had taken from the man he built up into a
woman, and he brought her to the man." Enchanted at the
sight, the man now burst out into elevated, rhythmic speech:
" This one," he said, " at length is bone of my bone and flesh
of my flesh," &c; to which the narrator adds the comment,
" Therefore doth a man forsake his father and his mother, and
cleave to his wife, and they become one flesh (body)." Whether
this comment implies the existence of the custom of betna,
marriage (W.R.Smith, Kinship, 2nd ed., p. 208), seems doubtful.
It is at least equally possible that the expression "his wife "
simply reflects the fact that among ordinary Israelites circum-
stances had quite naturally brought about the prevalence of
monogamy. 1 What the narrator gives is not a doctrine of
marriage, much less a precept, but an explanation of a simple
and natural phenomenon. How is it, be asks, that a man is so
irresistibly drawn towards a woman? And be answers: Because
the first woman was built up out of a rib of the first man. At the
same time it is plain that the already existing tendency towards
monogamy must have been powerfully assisted by this presenta-
tion of Eve's story as well as by the prophetic descriptions of
Yabweh's relation to Israel under the figure of a monogamous
union.]
[The narrator is no rhetorician, and spares us a description of
the ideal, woman. But we know that, for Adam, his strangely
produced wife was a " help (or helper) matching or
1 corresponding to him "; or, as the Authorized Version
■puts it, " a help meet for him " (ii. 18*). This does
"** not, of course, exclude subordination on the part of the
woman; what is excluded is that exaggeration of natural
subordination which the narrator may have found both in his
• That polygamy had not become morally objectionable is shown
by the stories of Lantech, Abraham and Jacob.
own and in the neighbouring countries, and which he may ha
regarded as (together with the pains of parturition) the puna
ment of the woman's transgression (Gen. iii. 16). His own id<
of woman seems to have made its way in Palestine by alow degra
An apocryphal book (Tobit viii. 6, 7) seems to contain the 01
reference to the section till we come to the time of Christ,
whom the comment in Gen. ii. 24 supplies the text for an autho
tative prohibition of divorce, which presupposes and sanctil
monogamy (Matt. x, 7, 8; Matt. six. 5). For other Ni
Testament applications of the story of Eve see t Cor. xL 8,
(especially); a Cor. xi. jj x Tim. ii. 13, 14; and in general
Adam, and Ency. BiUica, " Adam and Eve/1
[The seeming omissions in the Biblical narrative have be
filled up by imaginative Jewish writers.! The earliest aoui
which remains to us is the Book of Jubilees, or Lepto-
genesis, a Palestinian work (referred by R. H. Charles
to the century immediately preceding the Christian era;
see Apocalyptic Literature). In this book, which was
largely used by Christian writers, we find a chronology
of the lives of Adam and Eve and the names of their daughters*
A van and Axura.* The Targum of Jonathan informs us that E
was created from the thirteenth rib of Adam's right side, thi
taking the view that Adam had a rib more than his descend ami
Some of the Jewish legends show clear marks of foreign infmenc
Thus the notion that the first man was a double being, af terwar
separated into the two persons of Adam and Eve (Btrachot, 6
Erubin, 18), may be traced back to Philo (De mmndi opif. §5
cf. Queesi. in Gen, lib. i. §25), who borrows the idea, and almo
the words, of the myth re ated by Aristophanes in the Platos
Symposium (189 d, 100 a), which, in extravagant form, explai
the passion of love by the* legend that male and female original
formed one body.
(A recent critic* (F. Schwally) even holds that this notk
was originally expressed in the account of the creation of man j
Gen. i. 27. This involves a textual emendation, and one mui
at least admit that the present text is not without difficult
and that Berossus refers to the existence of primeval monstroi
androgynous beings according to Babylonian mythologj
There is an analogous Iranian legend of the true man, whit
parted into man and woman in the Biindahish* (the Par
Genesis), and an Indian legend, which, according to Spiegt
has presumably an Iranian source.*
[It has been remarked elsewhere (Adam, |i6) that thou|
the later Jews gathered material for thought very widely, sue
guidance as they required in theological reflection was <
mainly derived from Greek culture. What, for in- j
stance, was to be made of such a story as that in Gen. <
ii.4v.? To " minds trained under the influence of the J
Jewish Haggada, in which the whole Biblical history
is freely intermixed with legendary and parabolic matter," tl
question as to the literal truth of that story could hardly t
formulated. It is otherwise when the Greek leaven begins 1
work.)
Josephus, in the prologue to his Archaeology, reserves tl
problem of the true meaning of the Mosaic narrative, but eta
not regard everything as strictly literal. Philo, the great repr»
scntative of Alexandrian allegory, expressly argues that In tl
nature of things the trees of life and knowledge cannot be take
otherwise than symbolically. His interpretation of the creatic
of Eve is, as has been already observed, plainly suggested by
Platonic myth. The longing for reunion which love implant
in the divided halves of the original dual man is the source 4
sensual pleasure (symbolized by the serpent), which in turn
the beginning of all transgression. Eve represents the sensuot
or perceptive part of man's nature, Adam the reason. Tl
serpent, therefore, does not venture to attack Adam directlj
» See West's authoritative translation in Pohlovi Tads (Sacrc
Book* of the East). , _
■ " Die bibl. Schopfungsbcrichte " {ArchivfUr RsHgtonsmssenscha^
ix. 171 ff.).
* Spiegel, Eroninhe Altertkunskwtde, I. Ml
• Muir. SojucrX Texts, vol. i. p. as: cf. Spiegel, voL i. p. 458.
EVECTION— EVELYN
hisscose which yields to pleasure, and in Corn enslaves the reason
ud destroys its immortal virtue. This exposition, in which
the elements of the Bible narrative become mere symbols of
the abstract notions of Greek philosophy, and are adapted to
Greek conceptions of the. origin of evil in the material and sensuous
put of man, was adopted into Christian theology by Clement
ud Origen, notwithstanding its obvious inconsistency with the
Fauiine anthropology, and the difficulty which its supporters
idt in reconciling it with the. Christian doctrine of the excellence
** the married state (Clemens Alex. Siromota, p. 174). These
difficulties had more weight with the Western church, which,
less devoted to speculative abstractions and more deeply in-
dented by the Pauline anthropology, refused, especially since
tagnstine, to reduce Paradise and the fall to the region of pure
xSeBigibiiia; though a spiritual sense was admitted along with
ikHteral (Aug. Civ. Dei, xiii. 21). 1
The history of Adam and Eve became the basis of anthropo-
logical discussions which acquired more than speculative import-
ance from their connexion with the doctrine of original sin and
•i* meaning of the sacrament of baptism. One or two points
•a Augustlnian teaching may be here mentioned as having to do
particularly with Eve. The question whether the soul of Eve
us derived from Adam or directly infused by the Creator is
otsed as an element in the great problem of traducianism and
crtationism (De Gen. ad til. lib. x.). And it is from Augustine
•Jat Milton derives the idea that Adam sinned, not from desire.
I t the forbidden fruit, but because love forbade him to dissociate
lufate from Eve's (ibid. lib. xi. sub Jin.). Medieval discussion
Toved mainly in the lines laid down by Augustine. A sufficient
•lople of the way in which the subject was treated by the school-
2*fi may be found in the Summa of Thomas, pars i. qu. xcii.
& production* mmlieris.
The Reformers, always hostile to allegory, and in this matter
specially influenced by the Augustlnian anthropology, adhered
^rictly to the literal interpretation of the history of the Proto-
plasts, which has continued to be generally identified with
frotestani orthodoxy. The disintegration of the confessional
tectrine of sin in last century was naturally associated with new
irories of the meaning of the biblical narrative; but neither
-cawed forma of the allegorical interpretation, in which every-
ifccg is reduced to abstract ideas about reason and sensuality,
■ct the attempts of Eichhorn and others to extract a kernel of
--3ple history by allowing largely for the influence of poetical
fens in so early a narrative, have found lasting acceptance.
0& the other hand, the strict historical interpretation is beset
*ib difficulties which modern interpreters have felt with in-
erasing force, and which there is a growing disposition to solve
ey adopting in one or other form what is called the mythical
ieory of the narrative. • But interpretations pass under this
ft* popular title which have no real claim to be so designated.
What is common to the " mythical " interpretations is to find the
H value of the narrative, not in the form of the story, but in the
thoughts which it embodies. But the story cannot be called
1 earth in the strict sense of the word, unless we are prepared
fe place it on one line with the myths of heathenism, produced
bf the unconscious play of plastic fancy, giving shape to the
zpressions of natural phenomena on primitive observers. Such
t theory does no justice to a narrative which embodies profound
tnahs peculiar to the religion of revelation. Other forms of the
trolled mythical interpretation are little more than abstract
&pxy in a new guise, ignoring the fact that the biblical story
'*s not teach general truths which repeat themselves in every
-ividual, but gives a view of the purpose of man's creation,
»M of the origin of sin, in connexion with the divine plan of
rckmption. Among his other services in refutation of the
u&storical rationalism of last century, Kant has the merit of
fevjng forcibly recalled attention to the fact that the narrative of
Uaesis, even if we do not take it literally, must be regarded as
1 Thus in medieval theology Eve is a type of the church, and her
fensatioo from the rib has a mystic reason, inasmuch as blood and
««ter (the aacraments of the church) flowed from the side of Christ
« lite croc* (Thomas, Summa, par. i. qu. xcii.).
presenting a view of the beginnings of the history of the human
race (ilutkmasslichar Anfaug der MensckengesckUkU, 1786).
Those who recognize this fact ought not to call themselves or be
called by others adherents of the mythical theory, although they
also recognize that in the nature of things the divine truths
brought out in the history of the creation and fall could not have
been expressed either in the form of literal history or in the shape
of abstract metaphysical doctrine; or even although they may
bold—as is done by many who accept the narrative ^s a part of
supernatural revelation— that the specific biblical truths which
the narrative conveys are presented through the vehicle of a
story which, at least in some of its parts, may possibly be shaped
by the influence of legends common to the Hebrews with their
heathen neighbours. (W. R. S.; fT. K. CD
EVECTION (Latin for " carrying away "), in astronomy, the
largest inequality produced by the action of the sun in the
monthly revolution of the moon around the earth. The deviation
expressed by it has a maximum amount of about i° 15' in either
direction. It may be considered as arising from a semi-annual
variation in the eccentricity of the moon's orbit and the position
of its perigee. It was discovered by Ptolemy.
EVELETH, a city of St Louis county, Minnesota, U.S.A., about
71m. N.N, W, of Duluth. Pop. (1000) 375a > (1005, state census)
5332, of whom 397S were foreign-born (1x45 Finns, 676 Aus-
trian* and 325 Swedes); (1010) 7036. Evekth is served by the
Duluth, Missabe & Northern and the Duluth & Iron Range rail-
ways. It lies in the midst of the great red and brown hematite
iron-ore deposits of the Mesabi Range— the richest in the Lake
Superior district— and the mining and shipping of this ore are
its principal industries. • The municipality owns and operates
the water-works, the water being obtained from Lake Saint
Mary, one of a chain of small lakes lying S. of the city Eve-
leth was first chartered as a dty in 190s.
EVELYN,. JOHN (1620-1706), English diarist, was born at
Wotton House, near Dorking, Surrey, on the 31st of October
1620. He was the younger son of Richard Evelyn, who owned
large estates in the county, and was in 1633 high sheriff of Surrey
and Sussex. When John Evelyn was five years old he went to
live with his mother's parents at Cliffe, near Lewes. He refused
to leave his " too indulgent " grandmother for Eton, and when
on her husband's death she married again, the boy went with her
to Southover, where he attended the free school of the place.
He was admitted to the Middle Temple in February 1637, and in
May be became a fellow commoner of Balliol College, Oxford
He left the university without taking a degree, and in 1640 was
residing in the Middle Temple. In that year his father died, and
in July 1641 he crossed to Holland. He was enrolled as a
volunteer in Apsley's company, then encamped before Genep
on the Waal, but his commission was apparently complimentary,
his military experience being limited to six days of camp life,
during which, however, he took his turn at " trailing a pike."
He returned in the autumn to find England on the verge of
civil war. Evelyn's part in the conflict is best told in his own
" 12th November was the battle of Brentford, surprisingly fought.
. . . 1 came in with my horse and arms just at the retreat; but
was not permitted to stay longer than the 15th by reason of the army
marching to Gloucester; which would have left both me and my
brothers exposed to ruin, without any advantage to his Majesty
. . . aod on the 10th (December! returned to Wotton, nobody
knowing of my having been in his Majesty's army."
At Wotton he employed himself in improving his brother's
property, making a fishpond, an island and other alterations in
the gardens. But be found it difficult to avoid taking a side;
he was importuned to sign the Covenant, and " finding it im-
possible to evade doing very unhandsome things," he obtained
leave in October 1643 from the king to travel abroad. From
this date his Diary becomes full and interesting. He travelled in
France and visited the, cities of 'Italy, returning in the autumn
of 1646 to Paris, where he became intimate with Sir Richard
Browne, the English resident at the court of France. In June
of the following year he married Browne's daughter and heiress,
Mary, then a child of not more than twelve years of age. Leaving.
EVELYN
Us wife in the care of her parents, he returned to England to
settle his affairs. He visited Charles I. at Hampton Court in
1647, and during the next two years maintained a cipher corre-
spondence with his father-in-law in the royal interest. In 1649
he obtained a pass to return to Paris, but in 1650 paid a short
visit to England. The defeat of Charles II. at Worcester in 165 1
convinced him that the royalist cause was hopeless, and he decided
to return to England. He went in 1652 to Saves Court at Dept-
ford, a house which Sir Richard Browne had held on a lease
from the crown. This had been seized by the parliament, but
Evelyn was able to compound with the occupiers for £3500, and
after the Restoration his possession was secured. Here his wife
joined him, their eldest son, Richard, being born in August 1652.
Under the Commonwealth Evelyn amused himself with his
favourite occupation of gardening, and made many friends among
the scientific inquirers of the time. He was one of the promoters
of the scheme for the Royal Society, and in the king's charter in
1662 was nominated a member of its directing council. Mean-
while he had refused employment from the government of the
Commonwealth, and had maintained a cipher correspondence
with Charles. In 1659 he published an Apology for the Royal
Party, and in December of that year he vainly tried to persuade
Colonel Herbert Morley, then lieutenant of the Tower, to forestall
General Monk by declaring for the king. From the Restoration
onwards Evelyn enjoyed unbroken court favour till his death in
1706; but he never held any important political office, although
he filled many useful and often laborious minor posts. He was
commissioner for improving the streets and buildings of London,
for examining into the affairs of charitable foundations, com-
missioner of the Mint, and of foreign plantations. In 1664 he
accepted the responsibility for the care Of the sick and wounded
and the prisoners in the Dutch war. He stuck to his post
throughout the plague year, contenting himself with sending his
family away to Wotton. He found it impossible to secure
sufficient money for the proper discharge of his functions, and in
1688 he was still petitioning for payment of his accounts in this
business. Evelyn was secretary of the Royal Society in 1672,
and as an enthusiastic promoter of its interests was twice (in
1682 and 169 1) offered the presidency. Through his influence
Henry Howard, duke of Norfolk, was induced to present the
Arundel marbles to the university of Oxford (1667) and the
valuable Arundel library to Gresham College (1678). In the
reign of James II-, during the carl of Clarendon's absence in
Ireland, he acted as one of the commissioners of the privy seal.
He was seriously alarmed by the king's attacks on the English
Church, and refused on two occasions to license the illegal sale
of Roman Catholic literature. He concurred in the revolution of
1688, in 1695 was entrusted with the office of treasurer of Green-
wich hospital for old sailors, and laid" the first stone of the new
building on the 30th of June 1696. In 1694 he left Sayes Court
to live at Wotton with his brother, whose heir he had become,
and whom he actually succeeded in 1699. He spent the rest of his
life there, dying on the 27th of February 1706. Evelyn's house
at Sayes Court had been let to Captain, afterwards Admiral John
Benbow, who was not a " polite " tenant. He sublet it to Peter
the Great, who was then visiting the dockyard at Dcptford.
The tsar did great damage to Evelyn's beautiful gardens, and,
it is said, made it one of his amusements to ride in a wheelbarrow
along a thick holly hedge planted especially by the owner. The
house was subsequently used as a workhouse, and is now alms-
houses, the grounds having been converted into public gardens
by Mr Evelyn in 1886.
It will be seen that Evelyn's politics were not of the heroic
order. But he was honourable and consistent in his adherence'
to the monarchical principle throughout his life. With the court
of Charles II. he could have bad no sympathy, his dignified
domestic life and his serious attention to religion standing in the
strongest contrast with the profligacy of the royal surroundings.
His Diary is therefore a valuable chronicle of contemporary
events from the standpoint of a moderate politician and a devout
adherent of the Church of England. He had none of Pepys's
teve of gossip, and was devoid of his afl-embracing. curiosity,
as of his diverting frankness of self-revelation. Both wereadml
able civil servants, and they had a mutual admiration for eai
other's sterling qualities. Evelyn's Diary covers more than hi
a century (1640-1706) crowded with remarkable events, whi
Pepys only deals with a few years of Charles II. 'a rdgn.
Evelyn was a generous art patron, and Grinling Gibbons w
introduced by him to the notice of Charles II. His domesi
affections were very strong. He had six sons, of whom Jd
(1655-1699), the author of some translations, alone reach
manhood. He has left a pathetic account of the extraordiiu
accomplishments of his son Richard, who died before he was s
years old, and of a daughter Mary, who lived to be twenty, si
probably wrote most of her father's A fundus ntuliebris (169c
Of his two other daughters, Susannah, who married Willia
Draper of Addiscombe, Surrey, survived him.
Evelyn's Diary remained in MS. until 18 18. It is in a quar
volume containing 700 pages, covering the years between 164 1 ai
1697, and is continued in a smaller book which brings the narrati
down to within three weeks of its author's death. A telcction fro
this was edited by William Bray, with the permission of the £vd]
family, in 1818, under the title of Memoirs illustrative of the Ltje a\
Writings of John Evelyn, comprising his Diary from 1641 to /'Ojl
and a Selection of his Familiar Letters. Other editions follnwc
the most notable being those of Mr H. B. Wheatley (1879) at
Mr Austin Dobson (3 vols.. 1906). Evelyn's active mind produci
many other works, and although these have been overshadowed I
the famous Diary they are of considerable interest. They includ
Of Liberty and Servitude . . . (1649), a translation from the Frero
ot Francois de la Mot he le Vayer, Evelyn's own copy of which contaii
a note that he was " like to be call'd in qaestion by the Rebells f
this bookc " ; The State of France, as it stood in the JXth year
. . . Louis XIII. (1652) ; An Essay on the First Book of T. Lucretii
Carus de Rerum Naluro. Interpreted and made English verse I
J. Evelyn (1656) ; The Golden' Book of St John Chrysostom, concemh
the Education of Children. Translated out of the Creek by J. J
(printed 1658, dated 1659); The French Gardener: instructing ka
to cultivate all sorts of Fruit-trees . . . (165&), translated from tl
French of N. de Bonnefons; A Character of England . . . (1655
describing the customs of the country as they Would appear to
foreign observer, reprinted in Somers" Tract* (ed. Scott, 1812), an
in the Harleian Miscellany (ed. Park, 1813); The Late News jro
Brussels unmasked . . . (1660), in answer to a libellous pamphli
on Charles I. by March mont Needham; Fumifugjum, or the inco\
venience of the Aer and Smoak of London dissipated (1661), in «dii<
he suggested that sweet-smelling trees should be planted in LondC
to purify the air; Instructions concerning erecting of a Library . .
(1661), from the French of Gabriel Naude; Tyrannus or the Mod
tn a Discourse of Sumptuary Laws (1661); Sculpt ura: or the Mito\
and Art of Chalcography and Engraving in Copper . . . (1662
Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees . . . to which is annex
Pomona . . . Also Kalendarmm H or tense . . . (1664); A Parali
of the Ancient Architecture with the Modern . . . (1664), fro
the French of Roland Freart; The History, of the three late fomo\
Imposters, viz. Padre Ottomano, Mahomed Bei, and Sabatei Se
. . . (1669); Navigation and Commerce . . . in which his Majesli
title to the Dominion of the Sea is asserted against the Novel ai
later, Pretenders (1674), which is a preface to a projected hUi«
of the Dutch wars undertaken at the request of Charles II., b;
countermanded on the conclusion of peace; A Philosophical Di
course of Earth . . . (1676), a treatise on horticulture, better kno«
by its. later title of Terra-. The CompUat Gardener . . . (1693), froi
the French of J. de la Quintinie; Numismata . . . (1697). Son
of these were reprinted in The Miscellaneous Writings of John E^T'
edited (1825) by William Upcott. Evelyn's friendship with Mai
Blagge, afterwards Mrs Godolphin, is recorded in the diary, when I
says he designed " to consecrate her worthy life to posterity." Til
he effectually did in a little masterpiece of religious biography wh«
remained in MS. in the possession of the Harcourt family until
was edited by Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Oxford, as the Life
Mrs Godolphin (1847), reprinted in the King's Classics " (ioo-I
The picture of Mistress Biagge's saintly life at court is heighten-
in interest when read in connexion with the scandalous rocraoi
of the comte de Gramont, or contemporary political satires on t
court, Nttwecoui other papers and letters of Evelyn on scientii
s rs of public interest are preserved, a collection 1
priv'ite d n-J t,\:\. letters and papers (1643-1712) by, or address*
tu. sir Kk kd i-'i l /neand hissoa-in-law being in the British Museui
{Add. MSS. 1 jh.^7 and 15858).
y Evelyn's n
gln«f faetnrit'4 and Iron furnaces the country was being rapid
depleted "f Wood, while no attempt was being made to replace tl
djmnge by planting. Evelyn put In a plea Tor afforestation, ai
besides producing a valuable work on arboricultore, he was able 1
assert in his preface to the king that he had really induced landowM
to plant many millions of trees
EVERDINGEN— EVERETT, A. H.
IfODBOn, AUART VAK (i6*t-?i*75>, I*»tch printer
ud engraver, the 90a of a government clerk at AJkmaar, was
bom, it is said, in rfiai, and educated, if we believe an old tradi*
tin, under fteeland Sa very at Utrecht. He wandered in 1645
to Haarlem, where he studied under Peter de Molyn, and finally
ettkd about 1657 at Amsterdam, where he 1 remained till his
data. It would be difficult to find a greater contrast than that
■tea is presented by the works of Savery and Evefttingen.
Savoy inherited the gaudy style of the Breughels, which he
turied into the 17th century; whilst Everdmgen realized the
arre and effective system of coloured and powerfully shaded
atutape which marks the precursors of Rembrandt: It is not
a* on this account to believe that Savery was Evercnugen's
outer, while it is quite within the range of probability that he
tfquired the elements of landscape painting from do Molyn.
Pieter de Molyn, by birth a Londoner, lived from 1624 till 166 r
a Harkm. He went periodically on visits to Norway, and his
■orb, though scarce, exhibit a broad and sweeping mode of
mention, differing but slightly from that transferred at the
qening of the 17th century from Jan van Goyen to Solomon
KandaeL His etchings have nearly the breadth and effect of
(tee of Everdingen. It is stf II an open question when de Molyn
•elded influence on his clever disciple. AUunaar, a busy trading
Pace near the Texel, had little of the picturesque for an artist
wept polders and downs or waves and sky. Accordingly we
*nd AUut at first a painter of coast scenery. Hut on one of his
iptdttioBs he is said to have been cast ashore in Norway, and
feiag the repairs of bis ship he visited the inland valleys, and
'ta five a new Course to his art. In early pieces he deverly
*7exsts the sea in motion under varied, but mostly clouded,
"PWsof sky. Their general intonation is sleong and brown,
ud effects ate rendered in a powerful key, .but the execution is
■oa awn uniform than that of JacobRuysdael. A dark scud
fcKJng on s rolling sea near the walls of Flushing characterizes
bndaifen'a " Mouth of the Schekle " in the Hermitage at St
tonbarg. Storm is the marked feature of • sea>pieces sa the
**dtJ or Rbbartes collections; and a strand* with wreckers
« k foot of a cliff in the Munich Pinakothek may be a rormnis*
ta* of personaladventure in Norway. But the Norwegian, coast
* studied in calms as well as in gales; and a fine canvas at
M Mie» shows fishermen on a still and sunny day taking herrings
»* smoking hut at the foot of a Norwegian crag. The earliest
« Emdiogen's sea-pieces bean the date of 1640. After 1045
* fl>eet with nothing but representations of inland scenery,
^pwtkuUriy of Norwegian valleys, remarkable alike for
**ukss and a decisive depth of tone. The master's favourite
'*■* » s fall in a glen, with mournful fringes of pinch inter-
jmed with birch, and log-huts at the base of rocks and craggy
wj**. The water tumbles over the foreground, so as to entitle
« painter to the name of " inventor of cascades," It gives
"erdingen his character as a precursor of Jacob Ruysdael in a
"tain form of landscape composition; but though very skilul
IUl BBgeincnt and clever in effects, Everdifigen remains much
*"* simple in execution; he is much less subtle fa feeling
? '*rwi in touch than b> great and incomparable countryman.
| '« of Everdingcn's cascades are in the museum of Copenhagen
***-d these, one is dated 1647. another 1649. Ia the Herrait-
*« St Petersburg is a fine example of 1647; another in the
^utoek at Munich was finished in 1656. English public
fcena \gwrt Everdingen; but one of his best^known master-
f 6 * b the Norwegian gfen belonging to Lord Listowek Of
* etchings and drawings there are much forger and more
-Qews specimens in England than elsewhere. Being a col-
*** a* well as an engraver and paiAter, he brought together
* ^ number of works of all kinds and masters; and the
** « these by his heirs at Amsterdam on the nth of March
**
gives an approximate clue to the date of the painter's
fata.
&two brothers Jan and Caesar, were both painters. Caesaa
|j? EvtjjDiNGE* (1606-1670), mainly known as a portrait
Fitter, enjoyed some vogue during his hfe, and many of his
ftots trc to be seen in the museums and private houses of
Holland. They show a certain cleverness, bat ate far from
entitling him to rank as a master.
EVEREST, SIR QBOROB (1790-1866), British surveyor and
geographer, was the son of Tristram Everest of Gwerndale,
Brecknockshire, and was born there on the 4th of July 1700.
From school at' Marlow he proceeded to the military academy
at Woolwich, where he attracted the special notice of the mathe-
matical master, and passed so 'well in his examinations that he
was declared fit for a commission before attaining the necessary
age. Having gone to India in 1806 as a cadet in the Bengal
Artillery, he was selected by Sir Stamford Raffles to take part in
the reconnaissance of Java (1814-18 16); and after being em-
ployed in varieus engineering works throughout India, he was
appointed in 1818 assistant to Colonel Lamb ton, the founder of
the great trigonometrical survey of that country. In 1823, on
Colonel Lambton's death, he succeeded to the post of super*
hrtendent of the survey; in 1830 he was appointed by the court
of directors of the East India Company surveyor-general of India;
and from that date till bis retirement from the service in 1843
be continued to discharge the laborious duties of both offices.
During the rest of his life he resided in England, where he became
fellow of the Royal Society and an active member of several
other scientific associations. In r86i he was made a C.B. and
received the honour of knighthood, and fn t86a he was chosen
vice-president of the Royal Geographical Society. He died at
Greenwich on the rst of December 1866. The geodatical laboirs
of Sir George Everest rank among the finest achievements of
their kind; and mow' especially his measurement of the meri*
dional arc of India, xi}° in length, is accounted as unrivalled
in the annals of the science. In great part the Indian survey is
what he made it.
His works-are purely profe*ional:— A paper In vol. i. of the
Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, pointing out a mistake
in La CaUle's measurement of an arc of the meridian which he
had discovered during sick-leave at the Cape of Good Hope; An
account of Ike measurement of the ate of the meridian between the
parallels of iV 3' and 34* 7', aril* a eomt i t ma t mn of the Grand
MeridionaJ Are of India, as detailed by LdeuL-Col. Lambton in the
volumes of (he Asiatic Society of Calcutta (London, 1830); An
account of the measurement of two sections of ike Meridional Arc of
India bounded by the parallels of 18* 3' 15', 24* f u' t and 20° 30'
48* (jUmdon, 1847)*
EVEREST, MOUNT, the highest mountain in the world. It
fa a peak of the Himalayas situated in Nepal almost precisely
on the intersection of the meridian 87 E. long, with the parallel
98 N. lat. Its elevation as at present determined by trigono-
metrical observation is 19,00a ft., but it is possible that further
investigation into the value of refraction at such altitudes will
result in placing the summit even higher. It has been confused
with ft peak to the west of it called Gaurisankar (by Schlagint-
weit), which is more than 5000 ft. lower; but the observations
of Captain Wood from peaks near Khatroandu, in Nepal, and
these of the same officer, and of Major Ryder, from the route
between Lhasa and the sources of the Brahmaputra in 1004,
have definitely fixed the relative position of the two mountain
masses, and conclusively proved that there is no higher peak
than Everest in the Himalayan system. The peak possesses
no distinctive native name and has been called Everest after
Sir George Everest (9.1.), who completed the trigonometrical
survey of the Himalayas m 1841 and first fixed its position and
altitude. (T. H. H *)
EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL (1 700-1847), American
author and diplomatist, was bom in Boston, Massachusetts, on
the 19th of March 1 700. He was the son of Rev. Oliver Everett
U7S3~ 1& °*)> * Congregational minister in Boston, and the
brother of Edward Everett. He graduated at Harvard in 1806,
taking the highest honours of his year, though the youngest
member of his class. He spent one year asa teacher in Phillips
Academy, Exeter, New Hampshire, and then began thestudy of
law m the office of John Quincy Adams. In 1809 Adams was
appointed minister to Russia, and Everett accompanied him as
his private secretary, itsnaining attached to the American
legation in Russia until 181 1. He was se vetary of the American
legation at The Hague in 1815-1816, and ckarg* d'af aires there
8
EVERETT, C. C— EVERETT, EDWARD
from 18x8 to 1824. From 1825 to iSag, daring the presidency
of John Quincy Adams, he was the United States minister to
Spain. At that time Spain recognized none of the governments
established by her revolted colonies, and Everett became the
medium of aU communications between the Spanish government
and the several nations of Spanish origin which had been estab-
lished, by successful revolutions, on the other side of the ocean.
Everett was a member of the Massachusetts legislature in 1830-
i8j5, was president of Jefferson College in Louisiana in 184a-
1844, and was appointed commissioner of the United States to
China in 1845, bat did not go to that country until the follow-
ing year, and died on the 29th of May 1847 at Canton, China.
Everett, however, is known rather as a man of letters than as
a diplomat. In addition to numerous articles, published chiefly
in the North American Review, of which he was the editor from
1820 to 1835, he wrote: Europe, or a General Survey of the
Political Situation of the Principal Powers, with Conjectures on
their Future Prospects (1822), which attracted considerable
attention in Europe and was translated into German, French
and Spanish; New Ideas on Population (182a); America, or a
General Survey of the Political Situation of the Several Powers
of the Western Continent, with Conjectures on their Future Pros-
pects (2827), which was translated into several European lan-
guages; a volume of Poems (184$); and Critical and Miscellane-
ous Essays (first series, 1845; second series, 1847).
EVERETT, CHARLES CARROLL (1820-1000), American
divine and philosopher, was born on the xpth of June 1829, at
Brunswick, Maine. He studied at Bowdoin College, where he
graduated in 1850, after which he proceeded to Berlin. Subse-
quently he took a degree in divinity at the Harvard Divinity
School From 1859 to 1869 he was pastor of the Independent
Congregational (Unitarian) church at Bangor, Maine. This
charge he resigned to take the Bussey professorship of theology
at Harvard University, and, in 1878, became dean of the faculty
of theology. Interested in a variety of subjects, he devoted
himself chiefly to the philosophy of religion, and published The
Science of Thought (Boston, 1869; revised 1891). He also wrote
Fichic's Science of Knowledge (1884); Poetry, Comedy and Duty
(1888); Religions before Christianity (1883); Ethics for Young
People (1891); The Gospel of Paul (1892). He died at Cambridge
on the 16th of October 1000.
EVERETT* EDWARD (1704-1865), American statesman and
orator, was born in Dorchester, ^Massachusetts, on the xith of
April 1704. He was the son of Rev. Oliver Everett and the
brother of Alexander Hill Everett (?.v.). His father died in
1802 , and his mother removed to Boston with her family after
her husband's death. At seventeen Edward Everett graduated
from Harvard College, taking first honours in his class. While
at college he was the chief editor of The Lyceum, the earliest
in the series of college journals published at the American
Cambridge. His earlier predilections were for the study of law,
but the advice of Joseph Stevens Buckminster, a distinguished
preacher in Boston, led him to prepare for the pulpit, and as a
preacher be at once distinguished himself. He was called to
the ministry of the Brattle Street church (Unitarian) in Boston
before he was twenty years old. His sermons attracted wide
attention in that community, and he gained a considerable
reputation as a theologian and a controversialist by his pub-
hcation in 1814 of a volume entitled Defence of Christianity,
written in answer to a work, The Grounds of Christianity Exa-
mined (1813), by George Bethune English (1787-1828), an
adventurer, who, bom in Cambridge, Massachusetts, was in turn
a student of law and of theology, an editor of a newspaper, and
a soldier of fortune in Egypt. Everett's tastes, however, were
then, as always, those of a scholar; and in 1815, after a service
of tittle more than a year in the pulpit, he resigned his charge
to accept a professorship of Greek literature in Harvard College.
After nearly five years spent in Europe in preparation, he
entered with enthusiasm on his duties, and, for five years more,
gave a vigorous impulse, not only to the study of Greek, but to
all the work of the college. In January 1820 he assumed the
charge of the North American Review, which now became a
quarterly; and he was indefatigable daring the four yean)
his editorship in contributing on a great variety of subject
From 1825 to 1835 he was a member of the National Hotas
Representatives, supporting generally the administration ,
President J. Q. Adams and opposing that of Jackson, whj
succeeded it. He bore a part in almost every important debt!
and was a member of the committee of foreign affairs dnri
the whole time of bis service in Congress. Everett was a meal
of nearly all the most important select committees, such as tot
on the Indian relations of the state of Georgia, the Appoitk
ment Bill, and the Bank of the United States, and drew t
report either of the majority or the minority. The report on t
congress of Panama, the leading measure of the first session
the Nineteenth Congress, was drawn up by Everett, although
waa the youngest member of the committee and had just enter
Congress. He led the u ns u cce ssf ul opposition to the Iadi
policy of General Jackson (the removal of the Cherokee and oti
Indians, without their consent, from lands guaranteed to the
by treaty).
In 1835 he was elected governor of Massachusetts. He brouf
to the duties of the office the untiring diligence which was t
characteristic of bis public life. We can only allude to a fit
of the measures which rece i ved his efficient support, e.g. tl
establishment of the board of education (the first of such boar
in the United States), the scientific surveys of the state (tbe fit
of such public surveys), the criminal law commission, and t
preservation of a sound currency during the panic of 1837.
-Everett filled the office of governor for four years, and was th
defeated by a single vote, out of more than one hundred thoussfl
The election is of interest historically as being the first imports
American election where the issue turned on the question of t!
prohibition of the retail sale of intoxicating liquors. In tl
following spring he made a visit with his family to Europe.
1 84 1, while residing in Florence, he was named United Stst
minister to Great Britain, and arrived in London to enter up
the duties of his mission at the dose of that year. Great aw
tions were at that time open between the two countries— t
north-eastern boundary, the affair of M'Leod, the seizure
American vessels on the coast of Africa, in the course of s f«
months the affair of the " Creole," to which was soon added tl
Oregon question. His position was more difficult by reason
the frequent changes that took place in the department at hen
which, in the course of four years, was occupied successively 1
Messrs Webster, Legare, Upshur, Calhoun and Buchanan. Frc
all these gentlemen Everett received marks of approbation si
confidence.
By the institution of the special mission of Lord Ashburtc
however, the direct negotiations between the two govennnw
were, about the time of Everett's arrival in London, transferr
to Washington, though much business was transacted st t
American legation in London.
Immediately after the accession of Polk to the presides
Everett was recalled. From January 1846 to 1849. as l
successor of Josiah Quincy, he was president of Harvard CoIIe]
On the death, in October 185a, of his friend Daniel Webster,
whom he had always been closely attached, and of whom be *
always a confidential adviser, he succeeded him as secretary
state, which post he held for the remaining months of Filhnor
administration, leaving it to go into the Senate in 1853, u °
of the representatives of Massachusetts. Under the work
the long session of 1853-1854 his health gave way. In M
1854 he resigned his seat, on the orders of his physician, s
retired to what was called private life.
But, as it proved, the remaining ten years of his life most wid*
established his reputation and influence throughout Ameri
As early as 1820 he had established a reputation as an orat
such as few men in later days have enjoyed. He was frequen
invited to deliver an " oration "on some topic of historical or oil
interest. With him these "orations," instead of being '
ephemeral entertainments of an hour, became careful stw
of some important theme. Eager to avert, if possible, the 1
pending conflict of arms between the North and South, E^
EVERETT— EVERGREEN
on George Washington, which he de-
fend in every part of America. In this way, too, he raised
see thaa one hundred thousand dollars, for the purchase of
the old home of Washington at Mount Vernon. Everett also
ppued for the Encyclopaedia BrUannka a biographical sketch
4 Washington, which was published separately in i860. In
ilte Everett was the candidate of the short-lived Consti-
tsfaftMJnion party for the vice-presidency, on the ticket
■ilk John Bell (q.i.), but received only 39 electoral votes.
Dariag the Civil War he zealously supported the national
pmunent and was called upon in every quarter to speak at
pbb meetings. He delivered the last of his great orations at
Gettysburg, after the battle, on the consecration of the national
<n*t«y there. On the oth of January 1865 he spoke at a public
wring in Boston to raise funds for the southern poor in
Smnaab. At that meeting he caught cold, and the immediate
nak wis his death on the i$th of January 1865.
In Everett's life and career was a combination of the results
ofdSsnt training, nn flinching industry, delicate literary tastes
ad uikcqualkd acquaintance with modern international politics,
fis combination made him in America an entirely exceptional
pnoa. He was never loved by the political managers; he was
inayi enthusiastically received by assemblies of the people.
Ee void have said himself that the most eager wish of his life
fad bees for the higher education of his countrymen. His
nfas have been collected in four volumes (1850-1859). A
nxkoa international law, on which he was engaged at his death,
tuaem finished. Allibonc records 84 titles of his books and
Nkbed addresses. (& E. H.)
ttOm, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
ifrmg Chelsea and $ m. N. of Boston, of which it is a resi-
fatal suburb. Fop. (1S80) 4*50; (1800) 11,068; (1900)
*U& of whom 688a were foreign-born; (ioxo census)
&4>t It covers an area of about 3 aq. m. and is served by
ihfitstoa k Maine railway and by intemrban electric lines.
brett has the Frederick E. Parlin memorial library (1878), the
fete memorial library {1898), the Whidden memorial hospital
u4 Woodlawn cemetery (176 acres). The principal manufac-
^aae coke, chemicals and boots and shoes; among others are
j» aad structural steeL According to the U.S. Census of
wactures (1905), " the coke industry in Everett is unique,
**roeh as illuminating gas is the primary product and coke
«% a by-product, while the coal used is brought from mines
'"ttd in Nova Scotia," The value of the city's total factory
Noct increased from $4,437,180 in xooo to $6,135,650 in 1005
"£3%. Everett was first settled about 1630, remaining a
W oj Maiden (and being known as South Maiden) until 1870,
** it was incorporated as a township. It was chartered as
"«y in 189a.
KVpUIT, a city, a sub-port of entry, and the county-seat of
^aoQsh county, Washington, U.S.A., on Puget Sound, at
^BKHith of the Snohomish river, about 35 m. N. of Seattle.
°M'9oo) 783*; (low U. S. census) 24,8x4. The city is
*vtd by the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern railways
*H ta western terminus of the lattcr's main transcontinental
!*• by intcrurban electric railway, and by several lines of
^ ud coasting freight and passenger steamboats. Everett
"? * fine harbour with several large iron piers. Among its
£*>pal buildings are a Carnegie library, a Y.M.C.A. building
** t*o hospitals. The buildings of the Pacific College were
?%ted here by the United Norwegian Lutheran Church in 1908.
^ city is ^ a rich lumbering, gardening, farming, and copper-,
P*-*fld saver-mining district. There is a U.S. assayer's office
-*• ud there are extensive shipyards, a large paper mill, iron
rjt^iad, just outside the city limits, the smelters of the
^tncaa Smelters Securities Company, in connexion with which
***af the two plants in the United States for saving arsenic
^•j'ndter fumes. Lumber interests, however, are of most
?* >ac e> sod here are some of the largest lumber plants in
« Picific Northwest. Red-cedar shingles are an important
™*ct- Everett was settled in 1891 and was incorporated in
*& Its rapid-growth is due to its favourable situation as a
commercial port, its transportation facilities, and its 1
to extensive forests whence the material for its chief industries
is obtained.
EVERGLADES, an American lake, about 8000 sq. m. in area,
in which are numerous half-submerged islands; situated in the
southern part of Florida, U.S.A., in Lee, De Soto, Dade and
St Lucie counties. West of it is the Big Cypress Swamp. The
floor of the lake is a limestone basin, extending from Lake
Okechobee in the N. to the extreme S. part of the state, and
the lake varies in depth from 1 to 12 ft., its water being pure
and clear. The surface is above tide level, and the lake is
enclosed, probably on all sides, within an outcropping limestone
rim, averaging about xo ft. above mean low tide, and approach-
ing much nearer to the Atlantic on the E. than to the gulf on the
W. There are several small outlets, such as the Miami river and
the New river on the E. and the Shark river on the S.W., but
no streams empty into the Everglades, and the water-supply is
furnished by springs and precipitation. There is a general south-
easterly movement of the water. The soil of the islands is .very
fertile and is subject to frequent inundations, but gradually
the water area is being replaced by land. The vegetation is
luxuriant, the live oak, wild lemon, wild orange, cucumber,
papaw, custard apple and wild rubber trees being among the
indigenous species; there are, besides, many varieties of wild
flowers, the orchids being especially noteworthy. The fauna
is also varied, the otter, alligator and crocodile are found, also
the deer and panther, and among the native birds are the ibis,
egret, heron and limpkin. There are two seasons, wet and dry,
but the climate is equable.
Systematic exploration has been prevented by the dense
growth of saw grass {Cladium efusum), a kind of sedge, with
sharp, saw-toothed leaves, which grows everywhere on the muck-
covered rock basin and extends several feet above the shallow
water. The first white man to enter the region wasEscalente
de Fontenada, a Spanish captive of an Indian chief, who named
the lake Laguno del Espiritu Santo and the islands Cayos del
Espiritu Santo. Between x&ix and 1856 various United States
military forces penetrated the Everglades for the purpose of
attacking and driving out the Seminoles, who took refuge here.
The most important explorations during the later years of the
19th century were those of Major Archie P. Williams in 1883,
James E. Ingrahaxn in 189a and Hugh L. WiUoughby in 1897.
The Seminole Indians were in 1909 practically the only inhabi-
tants. In 1850 under the " Arkansas Bill," or Swamp and Over-
flow Act, practically all of the Everglades, which the state had
been urging the federal government to drain and reclaim, were
turned over to the state for that purpose, with the provision
that all proceeds from such lands be applied to their reclamation.
A board of trustees for the Internal Improvement Fund, created
in 1855 and having as members ex officio the governor, comp-
troller, treasurer, attorney-general and commissioner-general,
sold and allowed to railway companies much of the grant.
Between x88z and 1896 a private company owning 4,000,000
acres of the Everglades attempted to dig a canal from Lake
Okechobee through Lake Hicpocbee and along the Caloosa
hatchee river to the Gulf of Mexico; the canal was closed in
190a by overflows. Six canals were begun under state control
in 1905 from the lake to the Atlantic, the northernmost at
Jensen, the southernmost at Ft. Lauderdale; the total cost,
estimated at $1,035,000 for the reclamation of j a, 500 sq. m.,
is raised by a drainage tax (not to exceed xo cents per acre)
levied by the trustees of the Internal Improvement Fund and
Board of Drainage commissioners. The small area reclaimed
prior to that year (1005) was found very fertile and particularly
adapted to raising sugar-cane, oranges and garden truck.
See Hush L. WiUoughby'. Across ike Beetgladet (Philadelphia,
1896), and especially an article " The Everglades of Florida by
Edwin A. Dix and John M. MacGonigle, in the Century kofatine
for February 1905.
EVERGREEN, a general term applied to plants which are
always in leaf, as contrasted with deciduous trees which
are bare for some, part of the year (see Hortkuctqkb). In
*o
EVERLASTING— EVESHAM
temperate or colder nones whew a season favourable to vegeta-
tion is succeeded by an unfavourable or winter season, leaves of
evergreens must be protected from the frost and cold drying
winds, and are therefore tougher or more leathery in texture
than those of deciduous trees, and frequently, as in pines, firs
and other conifers, are needle-like, thus exposing a much smaller
surface to the drying action of cold winds. The number of
seasons for which the leaves last varies in different plants; every
season some of the older leaves fall, while new ones are regularly
produced. The common English bramble is practically ever*
green, the leaves lasting through winter and until the new leaves
are developed next spring. In privet also the leaves fall after the.
production of new ones in the next year. In other cases the
leaves last several years, as in conifers, and may sometimes
be found on eleven-year-old shoots.
EVERLASTING, or Immortelle, a plant belonging to the
division Tubulijhrae of the natural order Compositae, known
botanically as Helkhrysum oriental*. It is a native of North
Africa, Crete, and the parts of Asia bordering on the Mediter-
ranean; and it is cultivated in many parts of Europe. It first
became known in Europe about the year 1020, and has been culti-
vated since 1815. In common with several other plants of the
same group, known as "everlastings," the immortelle plant
possesses a large involucre of dry scale-like or scariotis bracts,
which preserve their appearance when dried, provided the plant
be gathered in proper condition. The chief supplies of Hdickry-
tum orientate come from lower Provence, where it is cultivated
in large quantities on the ground sloping to the Mediterranean,
in positions well exposed to the sun, and usually in plots sur-
rounded by dry stone walls. The finest flowers are grown on the
slopes of Bandols and Clout, where the plant begins to flower in
June. It requires a light sandy or stony soil, and is very readily
injured by rain or heavy dews., It can be propagated in quantity
by means of offsets from the older stems. The flowering stems
are gathered in June, when the bracts are fully developed, all the
folly-expanded and immature flowers being pulled off and re-
jected. A well-managed plantation is productive for eight or
ten years. The plant is tufted in its growth, each plant produc-
ing 60 or 70 stems, while each stem produces an average of 20
flowers. About 400 such stems weigh a kilogramme. A hectare
of ground will produce 40,000 plants, bearing from 2,400,000 to
2,800,000 stems, and weighing from $| to t\ tons, or from 2 to
3 tons per acre. The colour of the bracts is a deep yellow.
The natural flowers are commonly used for garlands for the dead,
or plants dyed black are mixed with the yellow ones. The plant
is also dyed green or orange-red, and thus employed for bouquets
Or other ornamental purposes.
Other species of Hdichrysum and species of allied genera with
scarious heads of flowers are also known as " everlastings.*' One
of the best known is the Australian species H. bracleatum, with
several varieties, including double forms, of different colours;
H. vestihm (Cape of Good Hope) has white satiny heads. Others
are species of Hclipterum (West Australia and South Africa),
Ammdbium and Waihia (Australia) and Xeranthemum (south
Europe). Several members of the natural order Amarantaceae
have also " everlasting " flowers; such are Gotnpkreno glohoso,
with rounded or oval heads of white, orange, rose or violet,
scarious bracts, and Cehsia pyramidolis, with its elegant, loose,
pyramidal inflorescences. Frequently these everlastings are
mixed with bleached grasses, as Laptrus avatus, Brita maxima,
Bromus bnzaeformis, or with the leaves of the Cape silver tree
{Leucadendron argenltum), to form bouquets or ornamental
groups.
EVERSLEY. CHARLES SHAW LEFEVRE, Viscount (1794-
1888), speaker of the British House of Commons, eldest son of
Mr Charles Shaw (who assumed his wife's name of Lefevre in
addition to his own on his marriage), was born in London on the
22nd of February 1704, and educated at Winchester and at
Trinity College, Cambridge. He was called to the bar in 1819,
and though a diligent student was also a keen sportsman.
Marrying a daughter of Mr Samuel Whitbread, whose wife was J
the sister of Earl Grey, afterwards premier, he thus became I
connected with two influential political families, and in iAjo ]
entered the House of Commons as member for Downton, in l]
Liberal interest In iSji he was returned, after a severe comes
as one of the county members for Hampshire, in which he M&ido
and after the passing of the Reform Act of 1832 he was elfitb
for the Northern Division of the county. For some years I
Shaw Lefevre was chairman of a committee on petitions f
private bills. In 1855 he was chairman of a committee <
agricultural distress, but as his report, was not accepted by U
House, he published it as a. pamphlet addressed to his co
stituents. He acquired a high reputation in the House <
Commons for his judicial fairness, combined with singular u
and courtesy, and when Mr James Abercromby retired in 183
he was nominated as the Liberal candidate for the chair. Tj
Conservatives put forward Henry Goulbucn, but Mr Sha
Lefevre was elected by 31 7 votes to 209. The period was one 1
fierce party conflict, and the debates were frequently vei
acrimonious; but the dignity, temper and firmness of the m
speaker were never at fault. In 1857 he had served longer thi
any of bis predecessors, except the celebrated Arthur Onsk
(1691-1768), who was speaker for more than 33 years in 6'
successive parliaments. Retiring on a pension, he was raia
to the peerage as Viscount Eversley of HeckfieldVin the count
of Southampton. His appearance . in the' House of Lords we
vtry infrequent, but in his own county he was active in tl
public service. From 1859 he was an ecclesiastical commisstont
and he was also appointed a trustee of the British Museui
He died on the 28th of December 1888, the visoountcy becemii
extinct.
His younger brother, Sir John Geobge SaAwLutevxx (179;
1879), who was senior wrangler at Cambridge in 18x8, had a I01
and distinguished career as a pubfic official. ■ He was uode
secretary for the colonies, and had much to do with the intn
duction of the new poor law in 1834, and with the foundatk
of the colony of South Australia; then having served on sever
important commissions he was made clerk of the parliaments i
1853, and in the same year became one of the irst dvfl servu
commissioners. He helped to found the university of Londoi
of which he was vice-chancellor for twenty years, and also tk
Athenaeum Gub. He died on the 20th of August 1879. >
The tatter's son, Gbobcb John Shaw Lefevbe (b. 1832!
was created Baron Eversley in 1006, in recognition of long art
prominent services to the Liberal party. He had filled lb
following offices:— civil lord of the admiralty, 1856; seeretar
to the board of trade, 1 869-1871; wider-secretary, bom
office, 1871; secretary to the admiralty, 1871-1874; fin
commissioner of works, 1881^-1683; postmaster-general, 1883
1884; first commissioner of works, 1892-1893; president <
local government board, 1894-1895; chairman of royal eon
mission on agriculture, 1893-1896.
EVESHAM, a market -town and municipal borough in tfc
Evesham parliamentary division of Worcestershire, EngUnt
107 m. W.N.W. of London by the Great Western railway, an
15 m. S.E. by E. of Worcester, with a station on the Redditd
Ashchurch branch of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 7101
It lies on the right (north) bank of the Avon, m the rich an
beautiful Vale of Evesham. The district is devoted to markel
gardening and orchards, and the trade of the town is main!
agricultural. Evesham is a place of considerable antiquity,
Benedictine house having been founded here by St Egwin i
the 8th century. It became a wealthy abbey, but was alm«
wholly destroyed at the Dissolution. The churchyard, howeve
is entered by a Norman gateway, and there survives also
magnificent isolated bell-tower dating from 1533, of the bd
ornate Perpendicular workmanship. The abbey walls surrouri
the churchyard, but almost the only other remnant is a singl
Decorated arch. Close to the bell-tower, however, are the tw
parish churches of St Lawrence and of All Samts, the form<
of the i6tb» century, the latter containing Early English worl
and the ornate chapel of Abbot Lichfield, who erected the be!
tower. Other buildings include an Elizabethan town hall, tl
grammar school, founded by Abbot Lichfield, and the pfctureaqt
EVIDENCE
ii
tooory. The borough indudea the parish of Bengewortn
Si Peter, on the kf t but of the river. . Evesham is governed
^ a iMyor, 4 aldermen and ta councillors. Area, 8*63 acres*
Evesham (Hmtme, Etlmme) grew up acound the Benedict*)*
kbfacy, and had evidently become of .some importance u a trad*
eg centre in 1055, when Edward the Confessor gave it a market
lad the privileges of a commercial town. It is uncertain when
<]* town first became a borough, but the Domesday statement
that the men paid aos. may indicate the existence of a more: or
bs oganized body of tradesmen. Before 1482 the burgesses
wre holding the town at a fee farm rent of twenty macks, bat
te abbot still had practical control of the town, and his steward
presided over the court at which the bailiffs were chosen. After
the Dissolution the manor with the markets and fairs and other
privileges was granted to Sir Philip Hoby, who increased his
paw over the town by persuading the burgesses to agree that,
after ihey had nominated six candidates for the office of bailiff ,
tit steward of the court instructed by him should indicate the
t«o to be chosen. This privilege was contested by Queen
Efiabeth, but when the ease was taken before the court of the
odequer it was decided in favour of Sir Philipb heir, Sir
Edward Hoby. In 1604 James I. granted the burgesses their
fat charter, but in the following year, by a second charter, he
anrporated Evesham with the village of Bengeworth, and
pated that the borough should be governed by a mayor and
ei«a aldermen, to whom he gave the power of holding markets
tad f airsand several other privileges which had formerly belonged
to the bid of the manor. Evesham received two later charters,
fet in 1688 that of 1605 was restored and still remains the govern*
if charter of the borough. Evesham returned two members
to parliament in 1395 and again in 1337, after which date the
swikgelapsed until 1 604. Its two members were reduced to one
k the act of 1867, and the borough was disfranchised in 1885.
Eveiham gave- its name to the famous battle, fought on the
<A of August 1*05, between the forces of Simon de Montfort,
ad of Leicester, and the royalist army under Prince Edward.
After a masterly campaign, in which the prince had succeeded
a defeating Leicester in: the valleys of the Severn and Usk, and
W destroyed the forces of the younger Montfort at Kenflworth
jd«t he could effect a junction with the main body, the royalist
fcw approached Evesham In the morning of the 4th of August
a time to intercept Leicester's march towards Kenflworth.
ttqat is the bend of the river Avon by the converging cohunns,
ad surrounded on all sides, the old earl attempted to cut ha
«? out of the town to the northward. At first the fury of his
ttult forced back the superior numbers of the prince; but
*m'i Wekh levies melted away and his enemies dosed the
J* avenue of escape. The final struggle took place on Green
«*.» little to the. north-west of the town, where the devoted
,7 »xa of de Montfort formed a ring bound their leader, and died
"Jljjn. The spot is marked with an obelisk.
wDsUCE (Lau criduUi*, widen, to appear clearly), a term
^ut may be defined briefly as denoting the facts presented to
« Bind of a person for the purpose of enabling him to decide
'disputed question. Evidence in the widest sense includes all
J* hcta, and reference may be made to the article LociC for
" skace or art of dealing with the proper way of drawing
%c ^ conclusions and the nature of proof. In a narrower
m -' wwevcr, evidence includes in English law only such facts
"jfc allowed to be so presented in the course of judicial pro
|*%- Thus we say that a fact is not evidence, meaning
*% that it is not admissible as evidence in accordance with
^nucs of English law. The law of legal evidence is part of the
^ °f procedure. It determines the kinds of evidence which
^ybc produced in judicial proceedings, and regulates the mode
<frch, and the conditions under which, evidence may be
^ and tested.
I, ftft EagUsh law of evidence is of comparatively modern growth*
"urines certain maxims, some derived from Roman law,
***. some invented by Coke, who, as J. B. Thayer says,
"spawned Latin maxims freely." But for the most
m it was built up by English judges in the course of the
18th century, and consists of. this judge-made law, as modified
by statutory enactments of the 19th century. Early Teutonic
procedure knew nothing of evidence in the modem sense,; just
as it knew nothing of Uials in the modern sense. What it knew
was " proofs." There were two modes of proof, ordeals and
oaths. Both were appeals to the supernatural. The judicial
combat was a bilateral ordeal. Proof followed, instead of pre*
ceding, judgment. A judgment of the court; called by Germs*
writers the BeweisnrUU, and. by M. M. Blgelew the "medial
judgment," awarded that one of the two litigants must prove
his case, by his body in battle, or by a one-sided ordeal, or by
as oath with cjeth-heipera, or by the oaths of witnesses. The
court had no desire to hear or weigh conflicting testimony. To
do so would have been to exercise critical faculties, whkh the
court did not possess, and the exercise of which would have been
foreign to the whole spirit of the age. The litigant upon whom
the borden of furnishing proof was imposed had a certain task
to perform. If he performed it, he won; if he failed, he lost.
The number of oath-helpers varied in different cases, and wag
determined by the haw or by the court. They were probably,
at the outset, kintfawn, who would have had to take up the
blood-feud. At a later stage they became witnesses to character.
In the cases, comparatively rare, where the oaths of witnesses
were admitted aa proof, their oaths differed materially from the
sworn testimony of modem court*. As a rule no one could
testify to a fact unless, when the fact happened, he was solemnly
" taken to witness." Then, when the witness was adduced, he
came merely to swear to a set formula. He did not make a
promissory oath to answer questions truly. He merely made an
assertory oath in a prescribed form.
In the course of the irth and 13th centuries the old formal
accusatory procedure began to break down, and to be supers
seded by another form of procedure known aa bujuisitiff, inquest,
orcnfwJte. Its decay was hastened by the decree of the fourth
Lateran Council m rare;, which forbade ecclesiastics to take part
in ordeals. The Norman administrative system introduced into
England by the Conquest wasmmihur with a method of ascer-
taining and determining facts by means of s verdict, rerun or 7
finding made on oath by a body of men drawn from the locality.
The system may be traced to Carobngian, and even earlier;
sources* Henry II., by instituting the grand assise and the
four petty assises, placed at the disposal of litigants m certain
actions the opportunity of giving proof by the verdict of a sworn
inquest of neighbours, proof " by the country." The -system was
gradually extended to other cases, criminal as well as dvfl. The
verdict given was that of persons having a general, hut not neces-
sarily a particular, acquaintance with the persons, places and
facts to which the inquiry related: It was, in fact, a finding by
local popular opinion. Had the finding of such an inquest been
treated as final and conclusive in criminal cases, English
criminal procedure might, like the con t inen t al inquisition, .the
French tnauHe, have taken the path whkh, in the forcible Ian*
guafie of Fortescue (De Utfdibks, Ac.) " leads to hell " (stmit*
ipsa est ad jttktimam). Fortunately English criminal procedutt
took a different course. The spirit of the old accusatory pit*
cedure was applied to the new procedure by inquest. • In serious
cases the words of the jurors, the accusing juron, were treated
not as testimony, but as accusation, the new indictment was
treated as corresponding to. the old appeal, and the preliminary
finding by the accusing jury had to be supplemented by the
verdict of another, jury. In course of time the second jury were
required to base their findings not on their own knowledge, but
on evidence submitted to them. Thus the modem system of
inquiry by grand jury and trial by petty jury waa gradually
developed.
A few words may here be said about the parallel development
of criminal procedure on the continent of Europe. The tendency
in the xath and 13th centuries to abolteft the old formal methods
of procedure, and to give the newprocedure the name of inquisi-
tion or inquest, was not peculiar to England. Elsewhere the
old procedure was breaking down at the same time, and for
similar reasons. It was the great pope Innocent in., the pope
12
EVIDENCE
of the fourth Lateran Council, who Introduced the new in-
quisitorial procedure into the canon law. The procedure
was applied to cues of heresy, and, as so applied, especially by
the Dominicans, speedily assumed the features which made it
infamous. "Every safeguard of innocence was abolished or
disregarded ; torture was freely used. Everything seems to have
been done to secure a conviction." Yet, in spite of its monstrous
defects, the inquisitorial procedure of the ecclesiastical courts,
secret in its methods, unfair to the accused, having torture as
an integral element, gradually forced its way into the temporal
courts, and may almost be said to have been adopted by the
common law of western Europe. In connexion with this in-
quisitorial procedure continental jurists elaborated a theory of
evidence, or judicial proofs, which formed the subject of an
extensive literature. Under the rules thus evolved full proof
{plana prcbatio) was essential for conviction, in the absence of
confession, and the standard of full proof was fixed so high that
it was in most cases unattainable. It therefore became material
to obtain confession by some means or other. The most effective
means was torture, and thus torture became an essential feature
in criminal procedure. The rules of evidence attempted to
graduate the weight to be attached to different kinds of testi-
mony and almost to estimate that weight in numerical terms.
" Le parlement de Toulouse," said Voltaire, "tun usage ires
singulier dans tes preuves par temoins. On admet ailleurs des
demi-preuves, . . . mais a Toulouse on admet des quarts et des
huitiemes de preuves." Modern continental procedure, as em-
bodied in the most recent codes, has removed the worst features
of inquisitorial procedure, and has shaken itself free from the
trammels imposed by the old theory and technical rules of proof.
But in this, as in other branches of law, France seems to have
paid the penalty for having been first in the field with codification
by lagging behind in material reforms. The French Code of
Criminal Procedure was largely based on Colbert's Ordonnance of
1670, and though embodying some reforms, and since amended
on certain points, still retains some of the features of the un-
ref ormed procedure which was condemned in the 1 8th century by
Voltaire and the pkilosopka. Military procedure is in the rear
of civil procedure, and. the trial of Captain Dreyfus at Rennes in
1899 presented some interesting archaisms. Among these were
the weight attached to the rank and position of witnesses as
compared with the intrinsic character of their evidence, and the
extraordinary importance attributed to confession even when
made under suspicious circumstances and supported by flimsy
The history of criminal procedure in England has been traced
by Sir James Stephen. The modern rules and practice as to
evidence and witnesses in the common law courts, both in dvil
and in criminal cases, appear to have taken shape in the course
of the x8th century. The first systematic treatise on the
English law of evidence appears to have been written by Chief
Baron Gilbert, who died in 1726, but whose Law of Evidence
was not published until 1761. In writing it he is said to have
been much influenced by Locke. 1 It is highly praised by Black-
stone as 4< a work which it is impossible to abstract or abridge
without losing some beauty and destroying the charm of the
Whole"; but Bentham, who rarely agrees with Blackstone,
speaks of it as running throughout "in the same strain of
anility, garrulity, narrow-mindedness, absurdity, perpetual mis-
representation and indefatigable self-contradiction." In any
case it remained the standard authority on the law of evidence
throughout the remainder of the x8th century. Bentham wrote
his Rational* of Judicial Evidence, specially applied la English
Practice, at various times between the .years 1803 and 181 a.
* Reference may be made to a well-known passage in the Essay
concerning Human Understanding (Book iv. ch. xv.) : " The grounds
of probability are— First, the conformity of anything with our own
knowledge, observation and experience. Second, the testimony of
others touching their observation and experience. In the testimony
of others is to be considered (1) the number, (2) the integrity,
(3) the skill of the witnesses. (4) The design of the author, where
it is a testimony ouf of a book -cited. (O The consistency of the
pam ajxl circumstances of tl*reUckm. (6) Contrary'
By tms time he had lost the nervous and simple style of hi
youth, and required an editor to make him readable. Hi
great interpreter, Dumont, condensed his views on evident
into the TraMi des preuves jndiciairts, which was rmblisbed i
1823. The manuscript of the Rationale was edited for Eoglo
reading, and to a great extent rewritten, by J. S. Mill, an
was published in five volumes in 1827. The book had a grd
effect both in England and on the continent. The Eagft
version, though crabbed and artificial in style, and unmeasun
in its invective, is a storehouse of comments and criticisms on tl
principles of evidence and the practice of the courts, which ai
always shrewd and often profound. Bentham examined tl
practice of the courts by the hght of practical utility. Surtii
from the principle that the object of judicial evidence is tl
discovery of truth, he condemned the rules which excluded son
of the best sources of evidence. The most characteristic featu
of the common-law rules of evidence was, as Bentham point*
out, and, indeed, still is, their exclusionary character. Tin
excluded and prohibited the use of certain kinds of evident
which would be used in ordinary inquiries. In particular, th<
disqualified certain classes of witnesses on the ground of intere
in the subject-matter of the inquiry, instead of treating U
interest of the witness as a matter affecting his credibility. 1
was against this confusion between competency and credibflil
that Bentham directed his principal attack. He abo attack*
the system of paper evidence, evidence by means of affidavr
instead of by oral testimony in court, which prevailed in tl
court of chancery, and in ecclesiastical courts. Subsequei
legislation has endorsed bis criticisms. The Judicature Ac
have reduced the use of affidavits in chancery proceedings with!
reasonable limits. A series of acts of parliament have remove
step by step, almost all the disqualifications which former]
made certain witnesses incompetent to testify.
Before Bentham's work appeared, an act of 1814 had remove
the incompetency of ratepayers as witnesses in certain cast
relating to parishes. The CivQ Procedure Act 1833 enacti
that a witness should not be objected to as incompetent, sole-
on the ground that the verdict or Judgment would be admissib
in evidence for or against him. An act of 1840 removed son
doubts as to the competency of ratepayers to give evident
in matters relating to their parish. The Evidence Act 184
enacted broadly that witnesses should not be excluded fro
giving evidence by reason of incapacity from crime or interes
The Evidence Act 1851 made parties to legal proceedings at
missible witnesses subject to a proviso that " nothing herd
contained shall render any person who in any criminal protect
ing is charged with the commission of any indictable offence, t
any offence punishable on summary conviction, competent <
compellable to give evidence for or against himself or herself, ■
shall render any person compellable to answer any quesli<
tending to criminate himself or herself, or shall in any crimio
proceeding render any husband competent or compellable to gr
evidence for or against his wife, or any wife competent or cot
pellable to give evidence for or against her husband." 71
Evidence (Scotland) Act 1853 made a similar provision for Sec
land. The Evidence Amendment Act 1853 made the husban
and wives of parties admissible witnesses, except that husbam
and wives could not give evidence for or against each other
criminal proceedi n gs or in proceedings for adultery, and cou
not be c o mpelled to disclose communications made to each oti
during marriage. Under the Matrimonial Causes Art 1857 t
petitioner can be examined and cross-examined on oath at t
hearing, but is not bound to answer any question tending
show that he or she has been guilty of adultery. Under t
Matrimonial Causes Act 1859, on a wife's petition for dissolutt*
of marriage on the ground of adultery coupled with cruelty
desertion, husband and wife are competent and compellable
give evidence as to the cruelty or desertion. The Crown Su
&c Act 1865 declared that revenue proceedings were not
be treated as criminal proceedings for the purposes of the a<
of 1851 and 1853. The Evidence Further Amendment Act 18
declared that parties to actions for breach of promise of marris
EVIDENCE
«S
wrc competent to give evidence in the action, subject to a
proviso that the plaintiff should not recover unless his or her
testimony was corroborated by some other material evidence*
Ii also made the parties to proceedings instituted in consequence
i adultery, and their husbands and wives, competent to give
wiieoce, but t witness in any such proceeding, whether a party
or sot, is not to be liable to be asked or bound to answer any
ytum tending to show that he or she has been guilty of
iMcxy, unless the witness has already given evidence in the
as* proceeding in disproof of the alleged adultery. There are
suJir provisions applying to Scotland in the Conjugal Rights
Jutland) Amendment Act x86x, and the Evidence Further
beadment (Scotland) Act 1874. The Evidence Act 1877
ona that " on the trial of any indictment or other proceeding
br the non-repair of any public highway or bridge, or for a
'..fiance to any public highway, river, or bridge, and of any
user indictment or proceeding instituted for the purpose of
ayinj or enforcing a civil right only, every defendant to such
indictment or proceeding, and the wife or husband of any such
defendant shall be admissible witnesses and compellable to give
cridenct" From 2873 onwards numerous enactments were
passed making persons charged with particular offences, and
liar husbands and wives, competent witnesses. The language
tid effect of these enactments were not always the same, but
ik insertion of some provision to this effect in an act creating
1 oew offence, especially if it was punishable by summary
proceedings, gradually became almost a common form in legis-
lation. In the year 1874 a bill to generalize these particular
provisions, and to make the evidence of persons charged with
siziail offences admissible in all cases was introduced by Mr
^stone's government, and was passed by the standing com-
met of the House of Commons, During the next fourteen
Ton bills for the same purpose were repeatedly introduced,
kIw by the government of the day, or by Lord B ram well as
u independent member of the House of Lords. Finally the
Crisrinal Evidence Act 1808, introduced by Lord Halsbury, has
owed in general terms that " every person charged with an
3§eace, and the wife or husband, as the case may be, of the
pe»« so charged, shall be a competent witness for the defence
a rmy stage of the proceedings, whether the person so charged
b charged solely or jointly with any other person." But this
pwal enactment is qualified by some special restrictions, the
h:ve of which will be noticed below. The act applies to
^■xlaod but not to Ireland. It was not to apply to proceedings
a coons-martial unless so applied by general orders or rules
tide under statutory authority. The provisions of the act have
k° applied by rules to military courts-martial, but have not
J* been applied to naval courts-martial. The removal of dis-
<^ations for want of religious belief is referred to below
«*r the head of "Witnesses."
Jbact of 1898 finishes for the present the history of English
*»■«>« on evidence. For a view of the legal literature on the
l*^. subject it b necessary to take a step backwards. Early
in the 19th century Chief Baron Gilbert was Mjrperaectod
£ authority on the English law of evidence by the books of
?> (1814) and Starlde (1824). who were followed by Roscoe
w Prim, I8a7; Criminal Casts, 1835), Greenkaf (American,
•3"cIV ,or G )a * ed °° Grecnleaf, 1848). and Beat (ti49)- In
t 7 ** James Fitx James Stephen brought out hit- Diitit af the
J^J&iaeace, based upon the Indian Evidence Act 1B7J, wnkh
* ■* prepared and passed as law member of the council of the
£?™*«eneral of India. This Digest obtained a rapid and
^nerved success, and has matenaDy influence: the form of
;^"]*fit writings on the English law of evidence. It :\U<:4
" *J>t Stephen conceived to be the main rules of evidence
?Jt* mass of extraneous matter m which they had been env
JJ*i Roscoe's Digests told the lawyer what things must be
^m order to sustain particular actions or criminal charges,
• 4~? ** mucn *° P ,c *dings and to substantive law as to
J 2* proper. Taylor's two large volumes were a vast storehouse
5^?l? Qrm * tion * but *" Dook wa3 one to consult, not to master.
s ^chmtnated much of this extraneous matter, and summed up
• f*» « a series of succinct propositions, supplemented by apt
rfatipm, and couched in such a form that they could be easily
^ w remembered. Hence the English Digest, like the Indian
£• ~? ben of much educational value. Its most original feature,
* wortuoatery also its weakest point, is its theory of relevancy.
Pondering the multitude of " exclusionary " rules which had been
laid down by the English courts, Stephen thought that he had
discovered the general principle on which those rules reposed, and
could devise a formula by which the principle could be expressed.
" My study of the subject," he says, " Doth practically and in books
has convinced me that the doctrine that all facts in issue and relevant
to the issue, and no others, may be proved, is the unexpressed
principle which forms the centre of and gives unity to all the express
negative rules which form the great mass of the law." The result was
the chapter on the relevancy of facts in the Indian Evidence Act,
and the definition of relevancy in a. 7 of that act. This definition
was based on the view that a distinction could be drawn between
things which were and things which were not causally connected
with each other, and that relevancy depended on causal connexion.
Subsequent criticism convinced Stephen that his definition was in
some respects too narrow and in others too wide, and eventually
he adopted a definition out of which all reference to causality was
dropped. But even in their amended form the provisions about
relevancy are open to serious criticism. The doctrine of relevancy,
t.« of the probative effect of facts, is a branch of logic, not of law,
and is out of place both in an enactment of the legislature and in a
compendium of legal rules. The necessity under which Stephen
found himself of extending the range of relevant facts by making it
include facts " deemed to be relevant," and then narrowing it by
enabling the judge to exclude evidence of facts which are relevant,
illustrates the difference between the rules of logic and the rules of
law. Relevancy is one thing; admissibility is another; and the
confusion between them, which is much older than Stephen, is to
be regretted. Rightly or wrongfy English judges have, on practical
grounds, declared inadmissible evidence of tacts, which are relevant
in the ordinary sense of the term, and which are so treated in non-
judicial inquiries. Under these circumstances the attempt so to
define relevancy as to make it conterminous with admissibility is
misleading, and most readers of Stephen's Act and Digest would
find them more intelligible and more useful if " admissible " were
substituted for " relevant " throughout. Indeed it is hardly too
much to aay that Stephen's doctrine of relevancy is theoretically
unsound and practically useless. The other parts 01 the work contain
terse and vigorous statements of the law, but a Procrustean attempt
to make legal rules square with a preconceived theory has often
made the Language and arrangement artificial, and the work, in
spite of its compression, still contains rules which, under a more
scientific treatment, would find their appropriate place in other
branches of the law. These defects are characteristic of a strong
and able man, who saw clearly, and expressed forcibly what he did
see, but was apt to ignore or to deny the existence of what he did
not see, whose mind was vigorous rather than subtle or accurate,
and who, in spite of his learning, was somewhat deficient in the
historical sense. But notwithstanding these defects, the con-
spicuous ability of the author, his learning, and his practical
experience, especially in criminal cases, attach greater weight to
Fit* James Stephen's statements than to those of any other English
writer on the (aw of evidence.
The object of every trial is, or may be, to determine two
classes of questions or issues, which are usually distinguished
as questions of law, and questions of fact, although *?■*«,
the distinction between them is not so clear as might
appear on a superficial view. In a trial by jury these two classes
of questions are answered by different persons. The judge lays
down the law. The jury, under the guidance of the judge, find
the facts. It was with reference to trial by jury that the English
rules of evidence were originally framed; it is by the peculiarities
of this form of trial that many of them are to be explained; it
is to this form of trial alone that some of the most important of
them are exclusively applicable. The negative, exclusive, or
exclusionary rules which form the characteristic features of the
English law of evidence, are the rules in accordance with which
the judge guides the jury. There is no difference of principle
between the method of inquiry in judicial and in non-judicial
proceedings. In either case a person who wishes to find out
whether a particular event did or did not happen, tries, in the
first place, to obtain information from persons who were present
and saw what happened (direct evidence), and, failing tins, to
obtain information from persons who can tell him about facts
from which he can draw an inference as to whether the event
did or did not happen (indirect evidence). But in judicial
inquiries the information given must be given on oath, and be
liable to be tested by cross-examination. And there are rules
of law which exclude from the consideration of the jury certain
classes of facts which, in an ordinary inquiry, would, or might,
be taken into consideration. Facts so excluded are said to be
" not admissible as evidence/' or " not evidence," according
14
u the word £1 used in the wider or in the narrower sense. And
the easiest way of determining whether a fact is or is not evidence
in the narrower sense, is first to consider whether it has any
bearing on the question to be tried, and, if it has, to consider
whether it falls within any one or more of the rules of exclusion
laid down by English law. These rules of exclusion are peculiar
to English law and to systems derived from English law. They
have been much criticized, and some of them have been repealed
or materially modified by legislation. Most of them may be
traced to directions given by a judge in the course of trying a
particular case, given with special reference to the circumstances
of that case, but expressed in general language, and, partly
through the influence of text-writers, eventually hardened into
general rules. In some cases their origin is only intelligible by
reference to obsolete forms of pleading or practice. But in most
cases they were originally rules of convenience laid down by the
judge for the assistance of the jury. The judge is a man of trained
experience, who has to arrive at a conclusion with the help of
twelve untrained men, and who is naturally anxious to keep them
straight, and give them every assistance in his power. The
exclusion of certain forms of evidence assists the jury by con-
centrating their attention on the questions immediately before
them, and by preventing them from being distracted or be-
wildered by facts which either have no bearing on the question
before them, or have so remote a bearing on those questions as
to be practically useless as guides to the truth. It also prevents a
jury from being misled by statements the effect of which, through
the prejudice they excite, is out of all proportion to their true
weight. In this respect the rules of exclusion may be compared
to blinkers, which keep a horse's eyes on the road before him.
In criminal cases the rules of exclusion secure fair play to the
accused, because he comes to the trial prepared to meet a specific
charge, and ought not to be suddenly confronted by statements
which he had no reason to expect would be made against him.
They protect absent persons against statements affecting their
character. And lastly they prevent the infinite waste of time
which would ensue in the discussion of a question of fact if an
inquiry were allowed to branch out into all the subjects with
which that fact is more or less connected. The purely practical
grounds on which the rules arc based, according to the view of
a great judge, may be illustrated by some remarks of Mr Justice
Willes (1814-1872). In discussing the question whether evi-
dence of the plaintiff's conduct on other occasions ought to be
admitted, he said:—
** It is not easy in all cases to draw the line and to define with
accuracy where probability ceases and speculation begins; but
we are bound to lay down the rule to the best of our ability. No
doubt the rule as to confining the evidence to that which is relevant
and pertinent to the issue is one of great importance, not only as
regards the particular case, but also with reference to saving the
time of the court, and preventing the minds of the jury from being
drawn away from the real point they have to decide. . . . Now it
appears to me that the evidence proposed to be given in this case,
if admitted, would not have shown that it was more probable that
the contract was subject to the condition insisted upon by the
defendant. The question may be put thus. Does the fact of * person
having once or many, times in his life done a particular act in a
particular way make it more probable that he has done the same
thins in the same way upon another and different occasion? To
admit such speculative evidence would, ! think, be fraught with
great danger. ... If such evidence were held admissible it would
be difficult to say that the defendant might not in any case, where
the question was whether or not there had been a sale of goods on
credit, call witnesses to prove that the plaintiff had dealt with other
persons upon a certain credit; or, in an action for an assault, that
the plaintiff might not give evidence of former assaults committed
by the defendant upon other persons, or upon other persons of a
particular class, for the purpose of showing that he was a quarrelsome
individuat, and therefore that it was highly probable that the
particular charge of assault was well founded, lite extent to which
this sort of thing might be carried is inconceivable. ... To obviate
the prejudices, the injustice, and the waste of time to which the
admission of such evidence would lead, and bearing in 'mind the
extent to which it might be carried, and that litigants are mortal,
It is necessary not only to adhere to the rule, but to lay it down
strictly. I think, therefore, the fact that the plaintiff had entered
into contracts of a particular kind with other persons on other
occasions could not be properly admitted in evidence where no
EVIDENCE
custom of trade to make such contracts, and no connexion between
such and the one in question, was shown to exist " (Hotliutkam v.
Bead, 1858, 4 C.B. N.S. 388).
There is no difference between the principles of evidence in
dvil and in criminal cases, although there are a few special rules,
such as those relating to confessions and to dying declarations,
which are only applicable to criminal proceedings. But in civil
proceedings the: issues are narrowed by mutual admissions of
the parties, more use is made of evidence taken out of court, such
as affidavits, and, generally, the rules of evidence are less strictly
applied. It Ss often Impolitic to object to the admission of
evidence, even when the objection may be sustained by previous
rulings. The general tendency of modern procedure is to place
a more liberal and less technical construction on rules of evidence,
especially in civil cases. In recent volumes of law reports cases
turning on the admissibility of evidence are conspicuous by their
rarity. Various causes have operated in this direction. One of
them has been the change in the system of pleading, under which
each party now knows before the actual trial the main facts on
which his opponent relies. Another is the interaction of chancery
and common-law practice and traditions since the Judicature
Acts. In the chancery courts the rules of evidence were always
less carefully observed, or, as Westminster would have said,
less understood, than in the courts of common law. A judge
trying questions of fact alone might naturally think that blinkers,
though useful for a jury, are unnecessary for a judge. And the
chancery judge was apt to read his affidavits first, and to deter*
mine their admissibility afterwards. In the meantime they had
affected bis mind.
The tendency of modern text-writers, among whom Professor
J. B. Thayer (1831-1902), of Harvard, was perhaps the most
independent, instructive and suggestive, is to restrict materially
the field occupied by the law of evidence, and to relegate to other
branches of the law topics traditionally treated under the head
of evidence. Thus in every way the law of evidence, though
still embodying some principles of great importance, is of less
comparative importance as a branch of English law than it was
half a century ago. Legal rules, like dogmas, have their growth
and decay. First comes the judge who gives a ruling in a parti-
cular case. Then comes the text-writer whoeoBects theacattered
rulings, throws them into the form of general propositions,
connects them together by some theory, sound or unsound,
and often ignores or obscures their historical origin. After him
comes the legislator who crystallites the propositions into enact-
ments, not always to the advantage of mankind. So also with
decay. Legal rules fall into the background, are explained away,
are ignored, are denied, are overruled* Much of the R*gifoh
law of evidence is In a stage of decay.
The subject-matter -of the- law of evidence may be arranged
differently according to the taste or point of view of the writer.
It will be arranged here under the following heads:—!. Prelimin-
ary Matter; II. Classes of Evidence; III. Rules of Exclusion;
IV. Documentary Evidence; V. Witnesses.
L P&xuMUiAay Mattxe
Under this head may be grouped certain principles and con-
siderations which limit the range of matters to which evidence
1. Lam and Fact. — Evidence relates only to facts. It is
therefore' necessary to touch on the distinction between law
and facts. Ad quaestionem foctt non respondent indices; ad
quatstiantm juris nan respondent juratons* Thus Coke, at Uibu t -
rag, after Us wont, to Brae ton a maxim which may have been
Invented by himself. The maxim became the subject of political
controversy, and the two rival views are represented by Ful-
teney's lines—
* " For twelve honest men have decided the cause
Who are judges alike of the facts and the laws,"
and by Lord Mansfield's variant—
" Who are judges of facts, but not judges of laws?'
The particular question raised with respect to the law of libel
EVIDENCE
*5
ess settled by Fox's Libel Act 1792. Coke's
ia a broad general way the distinction between the functions of
the judge and of the jury, but is only true subject to important
qualifications* Judges in jury cases constantly decide what may
be properly called questions of fact, though their action is
<&en disguised by the language applied or the procedure em-
ployed. Juries, in giving a general verdict, often practically
take the law into their own hands. The border-line between the
two Hawan of questions is indicated by the " mixed questions
of law and fact," to use a common phrase* which arise ia such
oses as those relating to "necessaries/' "due diligence/'
"negligence." " reasonableness," "seasonable and probable
cause," In the treatment of these cases the line has been drawn
dilerently at different times, and two conflicting .tendencies
are discernible. On the one hand, there is the natural tendency
t© generalize common inferences into legal rules, and to fix legal
stindaxds of duty. On theother hand, there is the sound instinct
that it is a mistake to define and refine too much in these cases,
sod that the better course is to leave broadly to the jury, under
the general guidance of the judge, the question what would be
done by the ^reasonable" or "prudent' 1 man a particular
cases. The Utter tendency predominates in modern English
law, and is reflected by the enactments in the recent acts codify-
ing the law on bills of exchange and sale of goods, that certain
questions of reasonableness are to be treated as questions of
bet. On the same ground rests the dislike to limit the right of
a jury to give a general verdict in criminal cases, Questions of
custom begin: by being questions of met, but as the^ustomobtains
general recognition it becomes law. Many of the rules of the
r wg «^h mercantile law were " found " as customs by Lord
siansneld's special juries. Generally, it must be remembered
that the jury act in subordinate cooperation with the judge,
aad that the extent to which the judge, limits or encroaches on
the province of the jury is apt to depend on the personal idiosyn-
crasy of the judge.
2. Judicial Notice.— It may be doubted whether the subject
of judicial notice belongs properly to the law of evidence, and
whether it does not belong rather to the general topic of legal or
jadictal reasoning. Matters which are the subject of judicial
notice sre part of the equipment of the judicial mind. It would
be absurd to require evidence of every fact; many nets must
be srnnimH to be known. The judge, like the juryman, is sup-
posed to bring with him to the consideration of the question
which he has to try common sense, a general knowledge of
human nature and the ways of the world, and also knowledge of
things that " everybody ia supposed to know." Of such matters
judicial notice is said to be taken. But the range of general
knowledge is indefinite, and the range of judicial notice has, for
reasons of convenience, been fixed or extended, both by rulings
«?f the judges and by numerous enactments of the legislature.
Is. would be impossible to enumerate here the matters of which
jtwlifiai notice must or may be taken. These are to be found
ia the text-books. For present purposes it must suffice to say
that they include not only matters of fact of common and certain
knowledge, but the law and practice of the courts, and many
asaiters connected -with the government of the country.
3. Presumptions.— A presumption in the ordinary sense is an
inference. It is an argument, based on observation, that what
has happened in some cases will probably happen in others of the
lake nature. The subject of presumptions, so far as they are
fiacre inferences or arguments, belongs, not to Lhe law of evidence,
or to law at all, but to rules of reasoning; But a legal presump-
tion, or, as it i$ sometimes called, a presumption of law, as dis-
tinguished from a presumption of fact, is something more. It
anay be described, in Stephen's language, as " a rule of law that,
courts and judges shall draw a particular inference from a
particular fact, or from particular evidence, unless and until
Lh« troth " (perhaps it would be better to say 'soundness ')
*" of the inference is disproved." Courts and legislatures have
said down such rules on grounds of public policy Or general con-
veniences and the rales have then to be observed as rules of
positive law, not merely used as part of the ordinary process of
reasoning or argument. Some so-called presumptions. ate rules
of substantive law under a disguise. To this class appear to
belong " condusive presumptions of law," such as the common-
law presumption that a child under seven years of age cannot
commit a felony. So again the presumption that every one
knows the law is merely an awkward way of saying that ignorance
of the law is not a legal excuse for breaking it. Of true legal
presumptions, the majority may be dealt with most appropriately
under different branches of the substantive law, such as the law
of crime, of property, or of contract, and accordingly Stephen
has included in bis Digest of the Law of Evidence only some winch
arc common to more than one branch of the law. The effect
of a presumption is to impute to certain facts or groups of facts
a prima, fade significance or operation, and thus, in legal pro-
ceedings, to throw upon the party against. whom it works the
duty of bringing forward evidence to meet it. Accordingly the
subject of presumptions is intimately connected with the subject
of the burden of proof, and the same legal rule may he expressed
in different forms, either as throwing the advantage of a presump*
tion oh one side, or as throwing the burden of proof on the other.
Thus the rule in Stephen's Digest, which says that the burden of
proving that any person has been guilty of a crime or wrongful
act is on the person who asserts it, appears in the article entitled
" Presumption of Innocence." Among the more ordinary and
more important legal presumptions are the presumption of
regularity in proceedings described generally as vpresumption
omnia esse rite acta, and including the presumption that the
holder of a public office has been duly appointed, and has duly
performed his official duties, the presumption of the legitimacy
of a child bom during the mother's marriage, or within the
period of gestation after her husband's death, and the presump*
tions as to life and death. A A person shown not to have been
heard of for seven yean by those (if any) who, if he had been
alive, would naturally have heard of him, is presumed tobedead
unless the circumstances of the case are such as to account for
his not being heard of without assuming his death; but there is
no presumption as to the rime when he died, and the burden of
proving has death at any particular time is upon the person who
asserts it. There is no presumption " (i.e. legal presumption)
" as to the sge at which a person died who is shown to have been
alive at a given time, or as to the order in which -two or more
persons died who are shown to have died in the same accident,
shipwreck or battle " (Stephen, Dig., art. 99). ' A document
proved or purporting to be thirty yean old is presumed to he
genuine, and to have been properly executed and (if necessary)
attested if produced from the proper custody. And the legal
presumption of a " lost grant," i.e. the presumption that aright
or alleged right which has been long enjoyed without interrup-
tion had a legal origin, still survives hi addition to the common
law, and statutory rules of prescription,
4. Burden of Proof.— The expression onus probaudi has come
down from the classical Roman law, and both it and the Roman
msrim% A genii incumbit probatio, NecessiSas proband* incumbk
ei qui dkit nan ei qui negat, and Reus exeipiendo fit actor, must
be read with reference to the Roman system of actions, under
which nothing was admitted, but the plaintiff's case was tried
first; then, unless that failed, the defendant's on his execptia;
then, unless that failed, the plaintiff's on his replkaiio, and so
on. Under such a system the burden was always on the " actor."
In modern law the phrase " burden of proof " may mean one of
two things, which are often confused — the burden of establish**
ing the proposition or issue on which the case depends, and the
burden of producing evidence on any particular point either at
the beginning or at a later stage of the case. The burden in the
former sense ordinarily rests on the plaintiff or prosecutor* The
burden in the latter sense, that of going forward with evidence
on a particular point, may shift from side to side as the case
. proceeds. The general rule is that he who alleges a fact muse
pmve.it, whether the allegation is couched in affirmative or
negative terms. But this rule is subject to the effect of presump*
tions in particular cases, to the principle that in considering the
amount of evidence necessary to shift the burden of proof regard
i6
EVIDENCE
must be bed to the opportunities of knowledge possessed by the
parties respectively, and to the express provisions of statutes
directing where the burden of proof is to lie in particular cases.
Thus many statutes expressly direct that the proof of lawful
excuse or authority, or the absence of fraudulent intent, is to lie
on the person charged with an offence. And the Summary
Jurisdiction Act 1848 provides that if the information or com-
plaint in summary proceedings negatives any exemption, excep-
tion, proviso, or condition in the statute on which it is founded,
the prosecutor or complainant need not prove the negative, but
the defendant may prove the affirmative in his defence,
II. Classes or Evidence
Evidence is often described as being either oral or document*
ary. To these two .classes should be added a third, called by
Bentham real evidence, and consisting of things presented
immediately to the senses of the judge or the jury. Thus the
judge or jury may go to view any place the sight of which may
help to an understanding of the evidence, and may inspect any-
thing sufficiently identified and produced in court as material
to the decision. Weapons, clothes and things alleged to have
been stolen or damaged are often brought into court for this
purpose. Oral evidence consists of the statements of witnesses.
Documentary evidence consists of documents submitted to the
judge or jury by way of proof. The distinction between primary
and secondary evidence relates only to documentary evidence,
and will be noticed in the section under that head. A division
of evidence from another point of view is that into direct and
indirect, or, as it is sometimes called, circumstantial evidence.
By direct evidence is meant the statement of a person who saw,
or otherwise observed with his senses, the met in question. By
indirect or circumstantial evidence is meant evidence of facts
from which the fact in question may be inferred. The difference
between direct and indirect evidence is a difference of kind,
not of degree, and therefore the rule or maxim as to " best
evidence " has no application to it. Juries naturally attach
more weight to direct evidence, and in some legal systems it is
only this class of evidence which is allowed to have full probative
force. In some respects indirect evidence is superior to direct
evidence, because, as Paley puts it, " facts cannot lie," whilst
witnesses can and do. On the other hand facts often deceive;
that is to say, the inferences drawn from them are often erroneous.
The circumstances in which crimes are ordinarily committed are
such that direct evidence of their commission is usually not
obtainable, and when criminality depends on a state of mind,
such as intention, that state must necessarily be inferred by
means of indirect evidence.
III. Rules or Exclusion
It seems desirable to state the leading rules of exclusion in
their crude form instead of obscuring their historical origin by
attempting to force them into the shape of precise technical
propositions forming parts of a logically connected system. The
judges who laid the foundations of our modern law of evidence,
like those who first discoursed on the duties of trustees, little
dreamt of the elaborate and artificial system which was to be
based upon their remarks. The rules will be found, as might be
expected, to be vague, to overlap each other, to require much
explanation, and to be subject to many exceptions. They may
be stated as follows: — (1) Facts not relevant to the issue cannot
be admitted as evidence, (a) The evidence produced must be
the best obtainable under the circumstances. (3) Hearsay is
not evidence. (4) Opinion is not evidence.
1. Rule of Rdeutncy.—Thc so-called rule of relevancy is some-
times stated by text-writers in the form in which it was laid
down by Baron Parke in 1837 (Wright v. Doe and Tatham, 7 A.
and E. 384), when he described " one great principle " in the
law of evidence as being that " all facts which are relevant to the
issue may be proved." Stated in different forms, the rule has
been made by Fitxjames Stephen the central point of his theory
of evidence. But relevancy, in the proper and natural sense,
as we have said, is a matter not of law, but of logic. If Baron
Parke's dictum relates to relevancy in its natural sense it h not
true, if it relates to relevancy in a narrow and artificial sense,
as equivalent to admissible, it is tautological. Such pncUcal
importance as the rule of relevancy possesses consists, not In
what it includes, but in what it excludes, and for that reason
it seems better to state the rule in a negative or exclusive form.
But whether the rule is stated in a positive or in a negative form
its vagueness is apparent. No precise line can be drawn between
" relevant " and " irrelevant " facts. The two classes shade
into each other by imperceptible degrees. The broad truth is
that the courts have excluded from consideration certain matters
which have some bearing on the question to be decided, and
which, in that sense, are relevant, and that they have done m
on grounds of policy and convenience. Among the matters $0
excluded are matters which are likely to mislead the jury, or to
complicate the case unnecessarily, or which are of slight, remote,
or merely conjectural importance. Instances of the classes of
matters so excluded can be given, but it seems difficult to refer
their exclusion to any more general principle than this. Rules
as to evidence of character and conduct appear to fall under tab
principle. Evidence is not admissible to show that the person
who is alleged to have done a thing was of a disposition or char-
acter which makes it probable that he would or would not have
done it. Hiis rule excludes the biographical accounts of the
prisoner which are so familiar in French trials, and is an im-
portant principle in English trials. It is subject to three excep-
tions: first, that evidence of good character is admissible in
favour of the prisoner in all criminal cases; secondly, that a
prisoner indicted for rape is entitled to call evidence as to the
immoral character of the prosecutrix; and thirdly, that a
witness may be called to say that he would not believe a previous
witness on bis oath. The exception allowing the good character
of a prisoner to influence the verdict, as distinguished from the
sentence, is more humane than logical, and seems to have been
at first admitted in capital cases only. The exception to rape
cases does not allow evidence to be given of specific acts of im-
morality with persons other than the prisoner, doubtless on the
ground that such evidence would affect the reputations of third
parties. Where the character of a person is expressly in issue,
as in actions of libel and slander, the rule of exclusion, as stated
above, does not apply. Nor does it prevent evidence of bad
character from being given in mitigation of damages, where the
amount of damages virtually depends on character, as in cases of
defamation and seduction. As to conduct there is a similar
general rule, that evidence of the conduct of a person on other
occasions is not to be used merely for the purpose of showing the
likelihood of his having acted in a similar way on a particular
occasion. Thus, on a charge of murder, the prosecutor cannot
give evidence of the prisoner's conduct to other persons for the
purpose of proving a bloodthirsty and murderous disposition.
And in a civil case a defendant was not allowed to show that
the plaintiff had sold goods on particular terms to other persons
for the purpose of proving that be had sold similar goods on the
same terms to the defendant. But this general rule must be
carefully construed. Where several offences are so connected
with each other as to form parts of an entire transaction, evidence
of one is admissible as proof of another. Thus, where a prisonei
is charged with stealing particular goods from a particular place
evidence may be given that other goods, taken from the saro<
place at the same time, were found iu his possession. And when
it is proved or admitted that a person did a particular act, ad
the question is as to his state of mind, that is to say, whether 1m
did the act knowingly, intentionally, fraudulently, or the like
evidence may be given of the commission by him of similar acti
on other occasions for the purpose of proving his state of tniru
on the occasion. This principle is most commonly applied ii
charges for uttering false documents or base coin, and not uncorn
monly in charges for false pretences, embexdement or murdef
In proceedings for the receipt or possession of stolen properly
the legislature has expressly authorised evidence to be given
the possession by the prisoner of other stolen property, or of hi
previous conviction of an offence involving fraud or dishonest!
EVIDENCE
17
(Pretention of Crimes Act 1*71). Again, where there is a
qaestion whether a person committed an offence, evidence may
ixp'ven of any fact supplying a motive or constituting prepara-
•m for the offence, of any subsequent conduct of the person
loosed, which b apparently influenced by the commission of
& offence, and of any act done by him, or by his authority, in
consequence of the offence. Thus, evidence may be given that,
ilits the commission of the alleged offence, the prisoner ab-
raded, or was in possession of the property, or the proceeds
0! the property, acquired by the offence, or that he attempted
to conceal things which were or might have been used in com-
eLtting the offence, or as to the manner in which he conducted
tecietf when statements were made in his presence and hearing.
Stnements made to or in the presence of a person charged with
1: offence are admitted as evidence, not of the facts stated, but
a the conduct or demeanour of the person to whom or in whose
pKseoce they are made, or of the general character of the trans-
ition of which they form part (under the res gestae rule men-
^ted below).
2. Bat Evidence Rule.— Statements to the effect of the best
evidence role were often made by Chief Justice Holt about the
inning of the 28th century, and became familiar in the courts.
Gael Baron Gilbert, in his book on evidence, which inust have
fcw written before 1726, says that " the first and most signal
nit in relation to evidence is this, that a man must have the
*wt evidence the nature of the fact is capable of." And in
•'* great case of Omkkund v. Barker (1744), Lord Hardwicke
*«at so far as to say, " The judges and sages of the law have laid
■i?a that there is but one general rule of evidence, the best that
* nature of the case will admit " (x Atkyns 49). It is no
roder that a ru]e thus solemnly stated should have found a
'foment place in text-books on the law of evidence. But,
W from its application to documentary evidence, it does not
an 10 be more than a useful guiding principle which underlies,
saay be used in support of, several rules.
It fc to documentary evidence that the principle is usually
9PK in the form of the narrower rule excluding, subject to
BBptions, secondary evidence of the contents of a document
»b* primary evidence is obtainable. In this form the rule is
1 role of exclusion, but may be most conveniently dealt with
3 connexion with the special subject of documentary evidence.
^noticed above, the general rule does not apply to the differ-
®a between direct and indirect evidence. And, doubtless on
juut of its vague character, it finds no place in Stephen's
j-nVonoy.— The term " hearsay - primarily applies to what
1 *itotu has beard another person say in respect to a fact in
'-spate. But it is extended to any statement, whether reduced
feinting or not, which is brought before the court, not by the
J 8 ** of the statement, but by a person to whose knowledge the
"^^est has been brought. Thus the hearsay rule excludes
8 f^wnts, oral or written, made in the first instance by a person
'» snot called as a witness in the case. Historically this rule
*7 be traced to the time when the functions of the witnesses
*=* 6m distinguished from the functions of the jury, and when
Jt vjtoeses were required by their formula to testify de visu
*Jj*», to state what they knew about facts from the direct
^bk* of their senses, not from the information of others.
«e role excludes statements the effect of which is liable to be
^ by the narrator, and which purport to have been made
? persons who did not necessarily speak under the sanction of
^ouh, and whose accuracy or veracity is not tested by cross-
^tion. It is therefore of practical utility in shutting out
**y fate statements and much irresponsible gossip. On the
^fhand, it excludes statements' which are of some value as
j-^ttce, and may indeed be the only available evidence. Thus,
J^Bftt has been excluded as hearsay, even though it can be
*** that the author of the statement made it on oath, or
"** was against his interest when he made it, or that he is
^ed by insanity or other illness from giving evidence him-
^ ^t he has left the country and disappeared, or that be
Owing to the inconvenience* which would be caused by a strict
application of the rule, it has been so much eaten into by exception*
that some persons doubt whether the rule and the exceptions ought
not to change places. Among the exceptions the following may he
noticed: (a) Certain sworn statements.— In many cases statements
made by a person whose evidence is material, but who cannot come
before the court, or could not come before it without serious diffi-
culty, delay or expense, may be admitted as evidence under proper
safeguards. Under the Indictable Offences Act 1848, where a person
has made a deposition before a justice at a preliminary inquiry into
an offence, his deposition may be read in evidence on proof that the
deponent is dead, or too ill to travel, that the deposition was taken
in the presence of the accused person, and that the accused then had
a full opportunity of cross-examining the deponent. The deposition
must appear to be signed by the justice before whom it purports to
have been taken. Depositions taken before a coroner are admissible
under the same principle. And the principle probably extends to
cases where the deponent is insane, or kept away by the person
accused. There are other statutory provisions for the admission of
depositions, as in the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1867; the
Foreign Jurisdiction Act 1890; and the Children Act 1908, incor-
porating an act of 1 894. In civil cases the rule excluding statements
not made in court at the trial is much less strictly applied. Frequent
use is made of evidence taken before an examiner, or under a com-
mission. Affidavits are freely used for subordinate issues or under
an arrangement between the parties, and leave may be given to use
evidence taken in other proceedings. The old chancery practice,
under which evidence, both at the trial and at other stages of a
proceeding, was normally taken by affidavit, irrespectively of consent.
was altered by the Judicature Acts. Under the existing rules of
the supreme court evidence may be given by affidavit upon any
motion, petition or summons, but the court or a judge may, on the
application of either party, order the attendance for cross-examina-
tion of the person making the affidavit, (s) Dying declarations. —
In a trial for murder or manslaughter a declaration by the person
killed as to the cause of his death, or as to any of the circumstances
of the transaction which resulted in his death, is admissible as
evidence. But this exception fa very strictly construed. It must
be proved that the declarant, at the time of malting- the declaration,
was in actual danger of death, and had given up all nope of recovery,
(c) Statements in pedigree cases.— On a question of pedigree the
statement of a deceased person, whether based on his own personal
knowledge or on family tradition, b admissible as evidence, if it is
proved that the person who made the statement was related to the
person about whose family relations the statement was made, and
that the statement was made before the question with respect to
which the evidence is required had arisen, (d) Stat ements ms e>
matters ef public or general interest. — Statements by deceased per-
sons are admissible as evidence of reputation or general belief in
questions relating to the existence of any public or general right
or custom, or matter of public and general interest. Statements of
this kind are constantly admitted in questions relating to right of
way, or rights of common, or manorial or other local customs.
Maps, copies of court rolls, leases and other deeds, and verdicts,
judgments, and orders of court fall within the exception in oases of
this kind. (•) Stat emen t s in course of duty or business.— A statement
with respect to a particular fact made by a deceased person isi
pursuance of his doty in connexion with any office, employment or
business, whether public or private, is admissible as evidence of that
fact, if the statement appears to have been made from personal
knowledge, and at or about the time when the fact occurred. This
exception covers eo tries by clerks and other employees. (J) Statements
against interest. — A statement made by a deceased person against
his pecuniary or proprietary interest is admissible aa evidence,
without r eference to the time at which it was made. Where such a
statement is admissible the whole of it becomes admissible, though
St may contain matters not against the interest of the person who
made it, and though the total effect may be in his favour. Thus,
where there was a question whether a particular sum was a gift>or m
loan, entries in an account book of receipt of interest on toe sum
were admitted, and a statement in the book that the alleged debtor
had on a particular date acknowledged the loan was also admitted,
(f ) Pvbiie documents.— Utukr this head may be placed recitals in
Sublicactsof parliament, notices in the London, Edinburgh, or Dublin
asttte (which an? made evidence by statute in 1 large number of
cases), and entries made in the performance of duty in official
registers or records, such a* register a of births, deaths or marriages,
regis (lts of companies, records injudicial proceeding* and the lUoe.
An 1 mry in a public document may be treated as a statement made
in ihe crnirse of duty, bur it is admissible whether the person who
maLr the statement is alive or dead, and without any evidence as
to personal knowledge, or the lime at which the statement is made,
(a) Admisiietts. — By the term " admission," as here used, is meant
a statement made out of the witness-box by a partv to thep
whether civil or criminal, or by some person whose 1 tat
binding on that party, against the intercut of that party. The term
includes admission* made in answer to intcrrogat ones, or to a notice
to admit iacts. but. n^L adi ns made on the pleadings. Admis-
sions, in this sense of the term, arc admissible as evidence against the
person by whom they are made, or on whom they are >*M'fj
i6
EVIDENCE
without reference to the life or death of the .person woo mode them.
A person U bound by the statements of bis agent, acting within the
scope of his authority, and barristers and solicitors are agents for
their clients in the conduct of legal proceedings. Conversely, a
person suing or defending on behalf of another, e.t. as agent or
trustee, is bound by the statements of the person whom be repre-
sents. Statements respecting property made by a predecessor in
title bind the successor. Where a statement is put in evidence asan
n by, or binding on, any a person, that person is entitled to
have the whole statement given in evidence. The principle of this
rule is obviously sound, because it would be unfair to pick out from
a man's statement what tells against him* and to suppress what is
in his favour. But the application of the rule is sometimes attended
with difficulty. An admission will not be allowed to be used as
evidence if it was made under a stipulation, express or implied, that
it should not be so used. Such admissions are said to be made
" without prejudice." (0 Confesstanss—A confession is an admission
by a person accused of an offence that he has committed the offence
bt which be is accused. But the rules about admitting as evidence
confessions in criminal proceedings are much more strict than the
rules about admissions in civil proceedings. The general rule is,
that a confession is not admissible as evidence against any person
except the person who makes it. But a confession made by one
accomplice in the presence of another is admissible against the latter
to this extent, that, if it implicates him, his silence under the charge
may be used against him, whilst on the other hand his prompt
repudiation of the charge might tell in his favour. In other words,
the confession may be used aa evidence of the conduct of the person
in whose presence it was made. A confession cannot be admitted
as evidence unless proved to be voluntary. A confession is not
treated as being voluntary if it appears to the court to have been
caused by any inducement, threat or promise which proceeded
from a magistrate or other person in authority concerned in the
charge, and which, in the opinion of the court, gave the accused
person reasonable ground for supposing that by making a confession
he would gain, some advantage or avoid some evil in reference to the
proceedings against him. This applies to any inducement, threat
or promise having reference to the charge, whether it ss addressed
directly to the accused person or is brought to his knowledge indirectly.
But a confession is not involuntary merely because it appears to
have been caused by the exhortations of a person in authority to
make it as a matter of religious doty, or by an inducement collateral
to the proceedings, or by an inducement held out by a person having
nothing to do with the apprehension, prosecution or examination
of the prisoner, Thus, a confession made to a gaol chaplain in con-
sequence of religious exhortation has been admitted as evidence.
So also has a confession made by a prisoner to a gaoler in consequence
of a promise by the gaoler, that if the prisoner confessed he should
be auowed to see his wife. To make a confession involuntary, the
inducement must have reference to the prisoner's escape from the
charge against nim, and must be made by some person having power
to relieve him, wholly or partially, from the consequences of the
charge. A confession is treated as voluntary if, in the opinion of the
court, it was made after the complete removal of the impression
produced by any inducement, threat or promise which would have
made it involuntary. Where a confession was made under an
inducement which makes the confession involuntary, evidence
may be given of facta discovered in consequence of the confession,
aad of so much of the confession as distinctly relates to those facts.
Thus, A. under circumstances which make the confession involuntary,
tells a policeman that he. A., had thrown a lantern into the pond.
Evidence may be given that the lantern was found in the pond, and
that A. said he had thrown it there. It is of course improper to try
to extort a confession by fraud or under the promise of secrecy.
But if a confession is otherwise admissible as evidence, it does not
become inadmissible merely because it was made under a promise
of secrecy, or in consequence of a deception practised on the accused
person for the purpose of obtaining it, or when lie was drunk, or
because it was made in answer to questions, whether put by a
magistrate or by a private person, or because he was not warned
that he was not bound to make the confession, and that it might
be used against him. If a confession is given in evidence, the whole
of it must be given, and not merely the parts disadvantageous to the
accused person. Evidence amounting to a confession may be used
as such against the person who gave it, though it was given on oath,
and though the p roceeding in which it was given had reference to
the same subject-matter as the proceeding in which it is to be used,
and though the witness might have refused to answer the questions
put to him. But if, after refusing to answer such questions, the
witness is improperly compelled to answer, his answers are not
a voluntary confession. The grave jealousy and suspicion with
which the English law regards coofessioas offer a marked contrast
to the importance attached to this form of evidence tn other systems
of procedure, such as the inquisitorial system which long prevailed,
and still to some extent prevails, on the continent. (;') Res testae,—
Statements are often admitted as evidence on the ground that they
form part of what is called the " transaction," or res gestae, the
occurrences nature of which is in question. For instance, where
an act
the act
There is no difficulty in understanding the principle on which t
exception from the hearsay rule rests, but there la often pradi
difficulty in applying it, and the practice has varied. How long!
the ** transaction " to be treated as lasting? What ought to
treated as " the immediate and natural effect of confirming acrid
and, for that reason, as nartof them* gsslac? When an act o? viola
is committed, to what extent are the terms of the complaint aa
by the sufferer, as distinguished from the fact of a complaint havj
been made, admissible as evidence ? These are some of the craestic
raised. The cases in which statements by a person aa to ha hod
or mental condition may be not in evidence may perbapa be treal
as falling under the same principle. In the Rugeley \ '
statements by the deceased person before his illness as to his st
of health, and as to his symptoms during illness, were admitted
evidence for the prosecui
rule as to a
don. Under the same principle i
may be proved, statements accompanying and explaining
made by or to the person doing it, may be given in evidence.
be brought die ntfe as to sUtenwnttm conspiracy caaes. In char]
of conspiracy, after evidence has been given of the evisfmcp of 1
plot, and of the connexion of the accused with it, the charge agali
one conspirator may be supported by evidence of anything doi
written, or said, not only by him, but by any other of theconeptratc
in furtherance of the common purpose. On the other hand, a eta
ment made by one conspirator, not in execution of the comic
purpose, but in narration of some event forming part of the ct
spiracy, would be treated, not as part of the " transaction,** but
a statement excluded by the hearsay rale. • Thus the admiaaibili
of writings in conspiracy cases may depend on the time when th
can be shown to have been in the possession of a felkrsAcanapirati
whether before or after the prisoner's apprehension. (*) Complait
in rape cases, eVc— In trials for rape and similar offence*, the fa
that shortly after the commission of the alleged offence a complai
was made by the person against whom the offence was oomnutti
and also the terms of the complaint, have been admitted aa evident
not of the facts complained of, but of the consistency of the coi
plainant's conduct with the story told by her in the witness-box, ai
aa negativing consent on her part.
4. Opinion.— l?ht rule excluding expressions of opinion al
dates from the first distinction between the functions of wj
nesses and jury. It was for the witnesses to state facts, for tl
jury to form conclusions. Of course every statement of fai
involves inference, and implies a judgment on phenomena ol
served by the senses. And the Inference is often erroneous, as i
the answer to the question, " Was he drunk ?" A prudent wi
ness wfll often guard himself, and is allowed to guard himself, I
answering to the best of bis belief. But, for practical purpose
it is possible to draw a distinction between a statement of fad
observed and an expression of opinion as t6 the inference to I
drawn from these facts, and the rule telling witnesses to stat
facts and not express opinions is of great value in keeping the
statements out of the region of argument and conjecture. Tl
evidence of M experts," that is to say, of 'persons having a specij
knowledge of some particular subject, is generally described i
constituting the chief exception to the rule. But perhaps
would be more accurate to say that experts art allowed a tout
wider range than ordinary witnesses in the expression of the
opinions, and in the -statement of facts on which their opinio*
are based. Thus, in a poisoning case, a doctor may be aske
as an expert whether, in hisopinion, a particular poison product
particular symptoms. And, where lunacy is set upas a def eoc
an expert may be asked whether, in his opinion, the symptom
exhibited by the alleged lunatic commonly show unsoundness t
mind, and whether such unsoundness of mind usually rendej
persons incapable of knowing the nature of their acts, or 4
knowing that what they do is either wrong or contrary to tl
law. Similar principles are applied to the evidence of engineer
and in numerous other cases. In cases of disputed handwritiii
the evidence of experts in handwriting is expressly recognise
by statute (Evidence and Practice on Criminal Trials 1865).
IV. Documentary Evidence
.Charters and other writings were exhibited to the jury at
very early date, and it is to writings so exhibited that the ten
" evidence " or " evidences " seems to have been original]
applied par excellence The oral evidence of witnesses can
later. Where a document is to be used* as evidence the fir
question is how its contents are to be proved. To this questk
the principle of " best evidence " applies, in the form of the ru
that primary evidence must be given except in the cases vrhei
secondary evidence is allowed. By primary evidence is meat
the document itself produced for inspection. By secondai
EVIDENCE
*9
fftdeaee m meant a copy of the document, of verbal accounts of
its contents.
The rale a* to the Inadmissibility of a copy ot a document is
ispeed much more strictly to private than to public or official
tamseats. Secondary evidence may be given of the contents of
i private document in die following casta:
(•) Where the original is shown or appears to be in the possession
of the advene party, and he, after having been served
with reasonable notice to produce it, does not do so.
(ft) Where the original is shown or appears to be in the possession
or po w er of a stranger not legally bound to produce it, and
he* after having been served with a writ of subpoena ducts
tecum, or after having been sworn as a witness and asked
for the document, and having admitted that it is in court,
refuses to produce it.
(r) Where it is shown that proper search has been made for the
original, and there is reason for believing that it is destroyed
or lost.
id) Where the original is of such a nature as not to be easily
movable, as m the case of a placard posted on a wall, or
of a tombstone, or is in a country from which it is not
permitted to be removed.
(0 Where the original is a document for the proof of which special
provision is made by any act of parliament, or any law in
force for the time being. Documents of that kind are
practically treated on the same footing as private docu-
ments.
if) Where the document is* an entry in a banker's book, provable
according: to the special provisions of the Bankers' Books
Evidence Act 1870,
Secondary evidence of a private document is usually given either
t? producing a copy and calling a witness who can prove the copy
a be correct, or, when there is no copy obtainable, by calling a
titans who baa seen the document, and can give an account of its
costeats. No general definition of public document is possible,
bu the rules of evidence applicable to public documents arc expressly
cdied by statute to many classes of documents. Primary evidence
tiny public document may be given by producing the document
\-m proper custody, and by a witness identifying it as being what
it professes to- be. Public documents may always be proved by
trodary evidence, but the particular kind of secondary evidence
-Vim! is in many cases defined by statute. Where a document
i rf «och a public nature as to be admissible In evidence on its mere
mloctioa from the proper custody, and no statute exists which
xzfen Us contents provable by means of a cop/, any copy thereof
t extract there f rom h admissible as proof of its contents, if it is
proved to be an examined copy or extract, orpnrports to be signed
-r certified as a tree copy or extract by the officer to whose custody
'bt rritiml is entrusted. Many statutes provide that various
anisettes, official and public documents, documents and proceed'
sg» of corporations ana of joint stock and other companies, and
-stifed copies of documents, by-laws, entries in registers and other
tab. shall be receivable as evidence of certain particulars in courts
« jastice, if they are authenticated in the manner prescribed by the
estates. Whenever, by virtue of any such provision, any such
'locate or certified copy ia receivable as proof of any pa/ 1 }"
-Jar in any court of justice, it is admissible as evidence, If It
"enmts to be authenticated in the manner prescribed by law,
vs&oot calling any witness to prove any stamp, seal, or signature
■eqssed for its authentication, or th? official character of the person
*fao appears to have signed it. The Documentary Evidence Acts
"A&. i982 and 1895, provide modes of proving the contents of
•^ral classes of proclamations, orders and regulations.
Lft document is of a kind which U required by law to be attested,
.* sot otherwise, an attesting witness must be called to prove its
£* execution. But this rule is subject to the following exceptions :
d) If it Is proved that there is no attesting witness alive, and
capable of giving evidence, then it is sufficient to prove
that the attestation of at feast one attesting witness a in
Ins handwriting, and that the signature of the person
executing the document is in the handwriting 01 that
person.
W If the document is proved, or purports to be, more than
thirty years old, and 4 is produced from what the court
coasstfters to be its proper custody, an attesting witness
need not be called, and it will be presumed without evidence
that the instrument was duly executed and attested.
Where a document embodies a judgment, a contract, a grant,
c disposition of property, or any other legal transaction or
vx in the law," on which rights depend, the validity of the
nuaciion may be impugned on the ground of fraud, incapacity,
»ui of consideration, or other legal ground. But this seems
izide the law of evidence. In this class of cases a question
■"en arisen whether extrinsic evidence can be produced to vary
•x nature of the transaction embodied in the document. The
~ wcr to ibis question seems to depend on whether the docu-
ment was or was not intended to be a complete and final state-
ment of the transaction which it embodies. If it was, you cannot
go outside the document for the purpose of ascertaining the
nature of the transaction. If it was not, you may. But the
mere statement of this test shows the difficulty of formulating
precise rules, and of applying them when formulated. Fits-
James Stephen mentions, among the facts which may be proved
in these cases, the existence of separate and consistent oral
agreements at to matters on which the document is silent, if there
is reason to belie ve that the document is not a complete and final
statement of the transaction, and the existence of any usage or
custom with reference to which a contract may be presumed to
have been made. But he admits that the rules on the subject
are " by no means easy to apply* inasmuch as. from the nature
of the case an enormous number of transactions fall dose on
one side or the other of most of them." The underlying principle
appears to be a rule of substantive law rather than ot evidence.
When parties to an arrangement have reduced the terms of the
arrangement to a definite, complete, and final written form, they
should be bound exclusively by the terms embodied in that form.
The question in each case is under what circumstances they
ought to be treated as having done so.
The expression " parol evidence," which includes written as
well as verbal evidence, has often been applied to the extrinsic
evidence produced for. the purpose of varying the nature, ot the
transaction embodied in a document. It is also applied to ex-
trinsic evidence used for another purpose, namely, that of e*>
plaining the meaning of the terms used in t document. The two
questions, What b the real nature of the transaction referred
to in a document? and, What is the meaning of a document? are
often confused, but are really distinct from each other. The
rules bearing on the latter question are rules of construction or
interpretation rather than of evidence, but are ordinarily treated
as part of the law of evidence, and are for that reason included
by Fits James Stephen in his Digest. In stating these rules he
adopts, with verbal modifications, the six propositions hud down
by Vke-ChaQcellor Wigram in his Examination* if the Rules of
Law respecting the admission of Extrinsic Evidence in Aid of the
Interpretation of Wills. The substance of these propositions
appears to be this, that wherever the meaning of a document
cannot he satisfactorily ascertained from the document itself,
use may be made of any other evidence for the purpose of
elucidating the meaning, subject to one restriction, that, except
in cases of equivocation, i.e. where a person or thing is describes!
in terms applicable equally to more than one, resort cannot be
had to extrinsic expressions of the author's intention.
V. WmrEBSBB
1. AtkMonce.—lt a witness does not attend voluntarily he
can be required to attend by a writ of subpoena.
a. Competency.— te a general rule every person is a com-
petent witness. Formerly persons were disqualified by crime
or interest, or by being parties to the proceedings, but these
disqualifications have now been removed by statute, and the
circumstances which formerly created them do not affect the
competency, though they may often affect the credibility, of a
witness.
Under the general law as it stood before the Criminal Evidence
Act 1898 came into force, a person charged with an offence was
not competent to give evidence on his own behalf. But many
exceptions had been made to this rule by legislation', and the rule
itself was finally abolished by the act of 1898. Under that law
a pe son charged Is a competent witness, but he can only give
evidence for the defence, and can only give evidence if he himself
applies to do so. Under the law as it stood before 1898, persons
jointly charged and being tried together were not competent to
give evidence either for or against each other. Under the act
of 1898 a person charged jointly with another is a competent
witness, but only for the defence, and not for the prosecution.
If, therefore, one of the persons charged applies to give evidence
his cross-examination must not be conducted with a view to
establish the guilt of the other. Consequently, if it is thought
so
EVIDENCE
desirable to use against one prisoner the evidence of another
who is being tried with him, the latter should be released, or a
separate verdict of not guilty taken against him. A prisoner so
giving evidence is popularly said to turn king's evidence. It
follows that, subject to what has been said above as to persons
tried together, the evidence of an accomplice fa admissible
against his principal, and tit* versa. The evidence of an accom-
plice is, however, always received with great jealousy and caution.
A conviction on the unsupported testimony of an accomplice
may, in some cases, be strictly legal, but the practice is to require
it to be confirmed by unimpeachable testimony in some material
part, and more especially as to his identification of the person or
persons against whom his evidence may be received. The wife
of a person charged is now a competent witness, but, except in
certain special cases, she can only give evidence for the defence,
and can only give evidence if her husband applies that she should
do so. The special cases in which a wife can be calkd as a
witness either for the prosecution or for the defence, and without
the consent of the person charged, are cases arising under parti-
cular enactments scheduled to the act of 1898, and relating
mainly to offences against wives and children, and cases in which
the wife is by common law a competent witness against her
husband, ue. where the proceeding is against the husband for
bodily injury or violence inflicted on his wife. The rule of ex-
clusion extends only to a lawful wife. There is no ground for
supposing that the wife of a prosecutor is an incompetent witness.
A witness is incompetent if, in the opinion of the court, he is
prevented by extreme youth, disease affecting his mind, or any
other cause of the same kind, from recollecting the matter on
which he is to testify, from understanding the questions put to him,
from giving rational answers to those questions, or from knowing
that he ought to speak the truth. A witness unable to speak
or hear is not incompetent, but may give his evidence by writing
or by signs, or in any other manner in which he can make it in-
telligible. The particular form of the religious belief of a witness,
or his want of religious belief, does not affect his competency.
This ground of incompetency has now been finally removed by the
Oaths Act 188ft. It will be seen that the effect of the successive
enactments which have gradually removed the disqualifications
attaching to various classes of witnesses has been to draw a
distinction between the competency of a witness and his credibility.
No person is disqualified on moral, or religious grounds, but his
character- may be such as to throw grave doubts on the value
of his evidence. No relationship, except to a limited extent that
of husband and wife, excludes from giving evidence. The parent
may be rramined on the trial of the child, the child on that of
the parent, master for or against servant, and servant for or
against master. The relationship of the witness to the prose-
cutor or the prisoner in such cases may affect the credibility of
the witness,, but does not exclude his evidence.
3. Privilege. — It does not follow that, because a person is
competent to give evidence, he can therefore be compelled to
do so.
No one, except a person charged with an offence when giving
evidence on his own application, and as to the offence where-
with he is charged, is bound to answer a question if the answer
would, in the opinion of the court, have a tendency to expose
the witness, or the wife or husband of the witness, to any criminal
charge, penalty, or forfeiture, which the court regards as reason-
ably likely to be preferred or sued for. Accordingly, an accom-
plice cannot be examined without his consent, but if an accom-
plice who has come forward to give evidence on a promise of
pardon", or favourable consideration, refuses to give full and fair
information, he renders himself liable to be convicted on his
own confession* However, even accomplices in such circum-
stances are not required to answer on their cross-examination
as to other offences. Where, under the new law, a person charged
with an offence offers himself as a witness, he may be asked any
question in cross-examination, notwithstanding that it would
tend to criminate him as to the offence charged. But he may
not be asked, and if he is asked must not be required to answer,
any question tending to show that he has committed, or been
convicted of - t or been charged with, any other offence, or is of
bad character, unless: —
(L) The proof that he has committed, or been convicted of, the
other offence » adnuanble evidence to show that he m
guilty of the offence with which he is then charged; or.
(iL) He has personally, or by his advocate, asked ijim ■■■ of
the witnesses tor the prosecution, with a view to establish
his own good character, or has given evidence of hi* good
character, or the nature or conduct of the defence is such
as to involve imputations on the character of the prose-
cutor or the witnesses for the prosecution; or*
(UL) He has given evidence against any other person charged
with the same offence.
He may not be asked questions tending to criminate his wife.
The privilege as to criminating answers does not cover answers
merely tending to establish a civil liability. No one is *»*«-ii^
from answering a question or producing a document only because
the answer or document may establish or tend to establish that
he owes a debt, or is otherwise liable to any civil proceeding.
It is a privilege for the protection of the witness, and therefore
may be waived by him. But there are other privileges which
cannot be so waived. Thus, on grounds of public policy, no one
can be compelled, or is allowed, to give evidence relating: to any
affairs of state, or as to official communications between public
officers upon public affairs, except with the consent of the head
of the department concerned, and this consent is refused if the
production of the information asked for is considered detri-
mental to the public service.
Again, in cases in which the government is immediately con-
cerned, no witness can be compelled to answer any question the
answer to which would tend to discover the names of persons
by or to whom information was given as to the commission of
offences. It is, as a rule, for the court to decide whether the per-
mission of any such question would or would not, under the
circumstances of the particular case, be injurious to the ad-
ministration of justice.
A husband is not compellable to disdose any communication
made to him by his wife during the marriage; and a wife is not
compellable to disdose any communication made to her by ha
husband during the marriage.
A legal adviser is not permitted, whether during or after the
termination of his employment as such, unless with his client'i
express consent, to disclose any communication, oral or docu-
mentary, made to him as suck legal adviser, by or on behalf cd
his client, during, in the course of, and for the purpose of hh
employment, or to disdose any advice given by him to his diem
during, in the course of, and for the purpose of such empk>ymenx
But this protection does not extend to—
' (a) Any such communication if made in furtherance of anj
criminal purpose; nor
(0) Any fact observed by a legal adviser a the course of hat
employment as such, showing that any crime or fraud has beer
committed since the commencement of his employment, whethei
his attention was directed to such fact by or on* behalf of hh
client or not; nor
(c) Any fact with which the legal adviser became acquainted
otherwise than in his character as such.
Medical men and clergymen are not privileged from the ctis
dosure of communications made to them in professional con
fidence, but it is not usual to press for the disclosures of com
munications made to dergymen.
4. OaiJkf.— A witness must give his evidence under the s&nctio
of an oath, or of what is equivalent to an oath, that is to say, c
a solemn promise to speak the truth. The ordinary form of oat
is adapted to Christians, but a person belonging to a nox
Christian religion may be sworn in any form prescribed c
recognized by the custom of his religion. (See the article Oath:
5. Publicity.— "The evidence of a witness at a trial must, a
a general rule, be given in open court in the course of the tria
The secrecy which was such a characteristic feature of tjj
" inquisition " procedure is abhorrent to English law, amd, eve
I where publicity conflicts with decency, English courts axe vei
reluctant to dispense with or relax the safeguards for justu
which publicity involves.
EVIL EYE
21
6. Ezamtnation.— The normal comae of procedure fa this.
The party who begins, i.t. ordinarily the plaintiff or prosecutor,
calls his witnesses in order. Each witness is first examined on
behalf of the party for whom be is called. This is called the
examination in chief. Then he is liable to be cross-examined
on behalf of the other side. And, finally, he may be re-examined
on behalf of his own side. After the case for the other side has
been opened, the same procedure fa adopted with the witnesses
for that side. In some cases the party who began fa allowed to
adduce further evidence in reply to his opponent's evidence.
The examination is conducted, not by the court, but by or on
behalf of the contending parties. It will be seen that the prin-
ciple underlying this procedure is that of the duel, or conflict
between two contending parties, each relying on and using his
own evidence, and trying to break down the evidence of his
opponent. It differs from the principle of the " inquisition "
procedure, in which the court takes a more active part, and in
which the cases for the two sides are not so sharply distinguished.
In a continental trial it is often difficult to determine whether
the case for the prosecution or the case for the defence fa proceed-
ing. Conflicting witnesses stand up together and are "con-
fronted " with each other. In the examination in chief questions
must be confined to matters bearing on the main question at
issue, and a witness must not be asked leading questions, *.«.
questions suggesting the answer which the person putting the
question wishes or expects to receive, or suggesting disputed
facts about which the witness is to testify. But the rule about
leading questions is not applied where the questions asked are
simply introductory, and form no part of the real substance of
the inquiry, or where they relate to matters which, though
material, are not disputed. And if the witness called by a person
appears to be directly hostile to him, or interested on the other
side, or unwilling to reply, the reason for the rules applying to
examination in chief breaks down, and the witness may be
asked leading questions and cross-examined, and treated in every
respect as though be was a witness called on the other side, except
that a party producing a witness must not impeach his credit by
general evidence of bad character (Evidence and Practice on
Criminal Trials Act 1865). In cross-examination questions not
bearing on the main issue and leading questions may be put and
(subject to the rules as to privilege) must be answered, as the
cross-examiner is entitled to test the examination in chief by
every means in his power. Questions not bearing on the main
issue are often asked in cross-examination merely for the purpose
of putting off bis guard a witness who is supposed to have learnt
ap his story. In cross-examination questions may also be asked
which tend either to test the accuracy or credibility of the
witness* or to shake his credit by impeaching his motives or in-
juring his character. The licence allowed in cross-examination has
often been seriously abused, and the power of the court to check
it is recognized by one of the rules of the supreme court (R.S.C.
xxxvL 39, added in 1883). It fa considered wrong to put
questions which assume that facts have been proved which have
sot been proved, or that answers have been given contrary to
the fact. A witness ought not to be pressed in cross-examination
at to any facts which, if admitted, would not affect the question
at issue or the credibility of the witness. If the cross-examiner
intends to adduce evidence contrary to the evidence given by
the witness, he ought to put to the witness in cross-examination
the substance of the evidence which he proposes to adduce, in
order to give the witness an opportunity of retracting or explain-
ing. Where a witness has answered a question which only tends
to affect his credibility by injuring his character, it is only in a
tailed number of cases that evidence can be given to contra-
dict bis answer. Where he is asked whether he has ever been
convicted of any felony or misdemeanour, and denies or refuses
to answer, proof may be given of the truth of the facts suggested
US & 29 Vict, c 15, s. 6). The same rule is observed where
be fa asked a question tending to show that he is not impartial
Where a witness has previously made a statement inconsistent
«ith his evidence, proof may be given that be did in fact make
k. But before such proof fa given the circumstances of the alleged
statement, sufficient to designate the particular occasion, must
be mentioned to the witness* and he must be asked whether he
did or did not make the statement. And if the statement was
made in, or has been reduced to, writing, the attention of the
witness must, before the writing fa used against him, be called to
those parts of the writing which are to be used for the purpose of
contradicting him (Evidence and Practice on Criminal Trials Act
1865, as. 4, 5). The credibility of a witness may be impeached
by the evidence of persons who swear that they, from their
knowledge of the witness, believe him to be unworthy of
credit on his oath. These persons may not on their examina-
tion in chief give reasons for their belief, but they may be
asked their reasons in cross-examination, and their answers
cannot be contradicted. When the credit of a witness fa so-
impeached, the party who called the witness may give evidence
in reply to show that the witness is worthy of credit. Re-
examination must be directed exclusively to the explanation
of matters referred to in cross-examination, and if new matter
4s, by the permission of the court, introduced in re-examination,
the other side may further cross-examine upon it. A witness
under examination may refresh his memory by referring to any
writing made by himself at or about the time of the occurrence
to which the writing relates, or made by any other person, and
read and found accurate by the witness at or about the time.
An expert may refresh his memory by reference to professional
treatises.
For the hittory of the English law of evidence, see B runner,
Entsieknnt dtr Sckuwrgerichte \ frigelow, History of Procedure in
Entfandi Stephen {Sir L FXJthtr<ryoftke Criminal Law of England;
Pollock and Malt land. Mitery of English Law, blc 11. ch. ix.;
Thayer. Preliminary Treaiii* m Evidence at the Common Law. The
principal tent -booln now in uk .• ne — Roscoe, Digest of the Law of
Eridtnre en the Trial of Actions at Nisi Prius 7i8th ed., 1907);
Roscoe. Digest 0/ Me Law of Evidence in Criminal Cases (13th ed.,
1908); Taylor. Ttmiiit m thr L>jw of Evidence (loth eo\, looo):
Bene. Ftiwiplrs cj m Low <>f E\Uence (10th ed., 1906); Powell,
Principles and Practice of ikr Saw of Evidence (8th ed., 1904);
(8th ed., 1907) ; Wills. Theory
of the law
procedure
criminal?* en Frame. For Germany, see Holtzendorff, Encycloffddie
der rZuhitwirsentchap Spa&agrc indexed under head "Bewcts");
Holme adorn*, RcihisUiikon ( ' Bcwefa "). (C. P. I.)
EVIL ETB. The terror of the arts of " fascination," i.e. that
certain persons can bewitch, injure and even kill with a glance,
has been and is still very widely spread. The power was not
thought to be always maliciously cultivated. It was as often
supposed to be involuntary (cf. Deuteronomy xxviii. 54); and
a story fa told of a Slav who, afflicted with the evil eye, at last
blinded himself in order that he might not be the means of injur*
ing his children (Woyciki, Polish Folklore, trans, by Lewenstein,
p. as). Few of the old classic writers fail to refer to the dread
power. In Rome the " evil eye " was so well recognized that
Pliny states that special laws were enacted against injury to
crops by incantation, excantation or fascination. The power
was styled flaoKavia by the Greeks and fascinatio by the Latins.
Children and young animals of all kinds were thought to be speci-
ally susceptible. Charms were worn against the evil eye both
by man and beast, and in Judges viii. 21 it fa thought there is
a reference to this custom in the allusion to the " ornaments "
on the necks of camels. In classic times the wearing of amulets
was universal. They were of three classes: (x) those the in-
tention of which was to attract on to themselves, as the light*
ning-rod the lightning, the malignant glance; (2) charms hidden,
in the bosom of the dress; (3) written words from sacred writ-
ings. Of these three types the first was most numerous. They
were oftenest of a grotesque and generally grossly obscene nature.
They were also made in the form of frogs, beetles and so on.
But the ancients did not wholly rely on amulets. Spitting was
among the Greeks and Romans a most common antidote to the
poison of the evil eye. According to Theocritus it is necessary
to spit three times into the breast of the person who fears fascina-
tion. Gestures, too, often intentionally obscene, were regarded
as prophylactics on meeting the dreaded individual The evil
eye was believed to have its impulse in envy, and thus ij. came
Stephen. Digeti pf the Law vj i-i-.-l.nce (8th ed., 1907); Wills. Theory
tnJ Pro mm pf the Lots pj Evidence 1 1907). For the history of the law
if criminal evidence in France. *je Esmein, Hist, de la procedure
22
EVOLUTION
fHKTORY
to be regarded as unlucky to hare any of your possession* praised.
Among the Romans, therefore, it was customary when praising
anything to add Praefiscini dixerim (Fain Evil! I should say).
This custom survives in modern Italy, where in like circumstances
is said Si met oechio tun ci fosse (May the evil eye not strike it).
The object of these conventional phrases was to prove that the
speaker was sincere and had no evil designs in his praise. Though
there is no set formula, traces of the custom axe found in English
rural sayings, eg. the Somersetshire " I don't wish ee no harm,
so I on't say no more." This is what the Scots call " fore-
speaking," when praise beyond measure is likely to be followed
by disease or accident. A Manxman will never say he is very
well: he usually admits that he is " middling," or qualifies his ad-
mission of good health by adding " now " or " just now." The
belief led in many countries to (he saying, when one heard any-
body or anything praised superabundantly, " God preserve him
or it." So in Ireland, to avoid being suspected of having the evil
eye, it is advisable when looking at a child to say " God bless it";
and when passing a farm-yard where cows are collected at milking
time it is usual for the peasant to say, " The blessing of God be
on you and all your labour." Bacon writes: " It seems some
have been so curious as to note that the times when the stroke
. . . of an envious eye does most hurt are particularly when
theparty envied is beheld in glory and triumph."
The powers of the evil eye seem indeed to have been most
feared by the prosperous. Its powers are often quoted as almost
limitless. Thus one record solemnly declares that in a town
of Africa a fascinator called Elzanar killed by his evil art no less
than 80 people in two years (W. W. Story, Castle St Angdo,
1877, p. 149)* The belief as affecting cattle was universal in the
Scottish Highlands as late as the 18th century and still lingers.
Thus if a stranger looks admiringly on a cow the peasants still
think, she will waste away, and they offer the visitor some of her
milk to drink in the belief that in this manner the spell is broken.
The modern Turks and Arabs also think that their horses and
camels, are subject to the evil eye. But the people of Italy,
especially the Neapolitans, are the best modern instances of
implicit believers. The jcUalore, as the owner of the evil eye is
called, is so feared that at his approach it is scarcely an ex-
aggeration to say that a street will dear: everybody will rush
Into doorways or up alleys to avoid the dreaded glance. The
feHatore di bambini (fascinator of children) is the most dreaded
of all. The evil eye is still much feared for horses in India,
China, Turkey, Greece and almost everywhere where horses are
found. In rural England the pig is of all animals oftcnest
" overlooked." While the Italians are perhaps the greatest
believers in the evil eye as affecting persons, the superstition
» rife in the East. In India the belief i& universal. In Bombay
the blast of the evil eye is supposed to be a form of spirit-pos-
session. In western India all witches and wizards are said to
be evil-eyed. Modern Egyptian mothers thus account for the
sickly appearance of their babies. In Turkey passages from
the Koran are painted on the outside of houses to save the in-
mates, and texts as amulets are worn, upon the person, or hung
tipon camels and horses by Arabs, Abyssinians and other
peoples. The superstition is universal among savage races.
For a full discussion see Boil Eye by F. T. Elworth- " ~
iS95); also W. W. Story, Castle St Angelo and the Evil
For a full discussion see Evil Eye by F. T. Elworthy (London,
■95); also W. W. Story, Castle St Angelo and the Evil Eye (1877) ;
E. N. Rolfe and H. Ingleby, Naples in iSSS (1888); Johannes
Christian Frommann, Tractatns de fasebtatione novns el stnjndaris,
ftc., &c. (Nuremburg, 1675) ; R> C Maclagan, Evil Eye in the Western
Highlands (looa).
EVOLUTION. Toe modern doctrine of evolution or " evolv-
ing, as opposed to that of simple creation, has been defined by
Prof. James Sully in the oth edition of this encyclopaedia as a
" natural history of the cosmos including organic beings, ex-
pressed in physical terms as a mechanical process." The follow-
ing exposition of the historical development of the doctrine is
taken from Sully's article, and for the most part is in his own
words.
In the modern doctrine of evolution the cosmic system appears
as a natural product of elementary matter and its laws. The
various grades of life on our planet are the natural consequences
of certain physical processes involved m the gradual transfor-
mations of the earth. Conscious life is viewed ascopditkwa' by
physical (organic and more especially nervous) processes, and
as evolving itself in close correlation with organic evolution.
Finally, human development, as exhibited in historical and pn>
historical records, is regarded as the highest and most coupler
result of organic and physical evolution. This modern doctrine
of evolution is but an expansion and completion of those physical
theories (see below) which opened the history of speculattoa.
It differs from them in being grounded on exact and verified
research. As such, moreover, it is a much more limited theory
of evolution than the ancient. It does not necessarily concern
itself about the question of the infinitude of worlds in space and
in time. It is content to explain the origin and course of develop-
ment of the world, the solar or, at most, the sidereal system
which falls under our own observation. It would be difficult 10
say what branches of science had done most towards the establish-
ment of this doctrine. We must content ourselves by referring
to the progress of physical (including chemical) theory, which has
led to the great generalisation of the conservation of energy; to
the discovery of the fundamental chemical identity of the matter
of our planet and of other celestial bodies, and of the chemical
relations of organic and inorganic bodies; to the advance of
astronomical speculation respecting the origin of the solar system,
&c; to the growth of the science of geok>& which has necessi-
tated the conception of vast and unimaginable periods of time
in the past history of our globe, and to the rapid march of the
biological sciences which has made us familiar with the simplest
types and elements of organism; finally, to the development
of the science of anthropology (including comparative psycho-
logy, philology, &c.), and to the vast extension and improvement
of all branches of historical study.
History of ike Idea of Evolution.— Tht doctrine of evolution
in its finished and definite form is a modern product. It required
for its formation an amount of scientific knowledge which could
only be very gradually acquired. It is vain, therefore, to look
for clearly denned and systematic presentations of the idea among
ancient writers. On the other hand, nearly all systems of philo-
sophy have discussed the underlying problems 1 . Such questions
as the origin of the cosmos as a whole, the production of organic
beings and of conscious minds, and the ™»»"™c of theobservable
grades of creation,have from the dawn of speculation occupied
men's minds; and the answers to these questions often impry a
vague recognition of the idea of a gradual evolution of things.
Accordingly, in tracing the antecedents of the modern philosophic
doctrine we shall have to glance at most of the principal systems
of cosmology, ancient and modem. Yet since in these systems
inquiries into the esse and fieri of the world are rarely distin-
guished with any precision, it will be necessary to indicate
very briefly the general outlines of the system so far as they
are necessary for understanding their bearing on the problems
of evolution.
Mythological Interpretation.— The problem of the origin of the
world was the first to engage man's speculative activity. Nor
was this line of inquiry pursued simply as a step m the more
practical problem of man's final destiny. The order of ideas
observable in children suggests the reflection that man began to
discuss the "whence " of existence before the "whither.*' At
first, as in the case of the child, the problem of the genesis of
things was conceived anthroporaorphically: the question
" How did the world arise?" first shaped itself to the human
mind under the form " Who made the world?" As long as the
problem wasconceived in this simple manner there was, of course,
no room for the idea of a necessary self-conditioned evolution.
Yet the first indistinct germ of such aa idea appears to emerge
in combination with that of creation in some of the ancient 1
systems of theogony. Thus, for example, in the myth of the
ancient Parsees, the gods Ormuzd and Ahriman are stid to
evolve themselves out of a primordial matter. It may be sup-
posed that these crude fancies embody a dim recognition of the
physical forces and objects personified under the forms of deities.
and a rude attempt to account for their genesis as a natural;
HISTORY]
proem. These first unscientific ideas of a genesis of the per-
fluncnt objects of nature took as their pattern the process oi
•sank reproduction and development, and this, not only
because these objects were regarded as personalities, but also
became Out particular mode of becoming would most impress
doe early observers. This same way of looking at the origin
«f ibe material world is illustrated in the Egyptian notion of a
cosmic egg out oi which issues the god (Phta) who creates the
world.
Indiiin PA^^/ry.— Passing from mythology to speculation
properly so called, we find in the early systems of philosophy of
India theories of emanation which approach in some respects
tbe idea of evolution. Brahma is conceived as the eternal sclf-
easttnt being, which on its material side unfolds itself to the
wild by gradually condensing itself to material objects through
tse gradations of ether, fire, water, earth and the elements. At
ik same time this eternal being Is conceived as the all-embracing
vorld-soul from which emanates the hierarchy of individual
wuls. Id the later system of emanation of Sankhya there is a
more marked approach to a materialistic doctrine of evolution.
II, ve are told, we follow the chain of causes far enough back
ic reach unlimited eternal creative nature or mattes. Out of
tbis "principal thing " or " original nature " all material and
spiritual existence issues, and into it will return. Yet this prim-
ordial creative nature is endowed with volition with regard to
it* own development Its first emanation as plastic nature
cumins the original soul or deity out of which all individual
»di issue.
Evly Cnek Physicists.— Passing by Buddhism, which, though
tacbing the periodic destruction of our world by fire, &c, does
a* ieck to determine the ultimate origin of the cosmos, we come
to those early Greek physical philosophers who distinctly set
'Jsraselves to eliminate the idea of divine interference with the
*odd by representing its origin and changes as a natural process.
T& early Ionian physicists, including Thales, Anaximander and
Aouimcncs, seek to explain the world as generated out of a
primordial matter (Gr. CX?; hence the name " Hyloxoists "),
*fcitb is at the same time the universal support of things. This
ataince is endowed with a generative or transmutative force
ty virtue of which it passes into a succession of forms. They
lies resemble modem evolutionists, since they regard the world
ub its infinite variety of forms as issuing from a simple mode
* natter. More especially the cosmology of Anaximander
"sentries the modern doctrine of evolution in its conception of
& indeterminate (rd licttpov) out of which the particular forms
c ' tie cosmos are differentiated. Again, Anaximander may be
ad to prepare the way for more modern conceptions of material
"rfution by regarding his primordial substance as eternal, and
ty looking on aU generation as alternating with destruction,
^ step of the process being of course simply a transformation
°! tb< indestructible substance. Once more, the notion that
'^iodeterminate body contains potentially in itself the funda-
^Mil contraries— hot, cold, &c— by the excretion or evolution
d which definite substances were generated, is clearly a forc-
ing of that antithesis of potentiality and actuality which
fern Aristotle downwards has been made the basis of so many
jbeoriei of development. In conclusion, it is noteworthy that
'**& resorting to utterly fanciful hypotheses respecting the
*&rof the development of the world, Anaximander agrees with
^m evolutionists in conceiving the heavenly bodies as
j&ag out of an aggregation of diffused matter, and in assigning
<3 «Eanjclife an origin in the inorganic materials of the primitive
otb (pristine mud). The doctrine of Anaximenes, who unites
'* conceptions of a determinate and indeterminate original
j*ance adopted by Thales and Anaximander in the hypothesis
^primordial and all-generating air, is a clear advance on these
*°ria, inasmuch as it introduces the scientific Idea of con-
**uion and rarefaction as the great generating or transforming
**f*i. For the rest, h» theory is chiefly important as em-
***« the -vital character of the original substance. The
**riia! air is conceived as animated. Anaximenes seems
• km indued to a vie* of cosmic evolution a* throughout
EVOLUTION
2$
involving a quasi-spiritual factor. This idea oi the air as the
original principle and source of Hie and intelligence is much
more clearly expressed by a later writer, Diogenes of Apollonia.
Diogenes made this conception of a vital and intelligent air the.
ground of a teleological view of climatic and atmospheric pheno-
mena. It is noteworthy that he sought to establish the identity
of organic and inorganic matter by help of tbe facts of vegetal
and animal nutrition. Diogenes distinctly taught that the world
b of finite duration, and will be renewed out of the primitive
substance.
Heraclitus again deserves a prominent place in a history of
the idea of evolution. Heraclitus conceives of the incessant
process of flux in which all things are involved as consisting of
two sides or momenta— generation and decay— which are re-
garded as a confluence of opposite streams. In thus making
transition or change, viewed as the identity of existence and
non-existence, the leading idea oi his system, Heraclitus antici-
pated in some measure Hegel's peculiar doctrine of evolution
as a dialectic process. 1 At the same time we may find expressed
in figurative language the germs of thoughts which enter into
still newer doctrines of evolution. For example, the option of
conflict (roVjtos) as the father of all things and of harmony as
arising out of a union of discords, and again of an endeavour by
individual things to maintain themselves in permanence against
the universal process of destruction and renovation, cannot but
remind one of certain fundamental ideas in Darwin's theory of
evolution.
Empedodcs.—Empedoclcs took an important step in the direc-
tion of modern conceptions of physical evolution by teaching that
all things arise, not by transformations of some primitive form of
matter, but by various combinations of a number of permanent
elements. Further, by maintaining that the elements are con-
tinually being combined and separated by the two forces love
and hatred, which appear to represent in a figurative way tbe
physical forces of attraction and repulsion, Empcdocles may be
said to have made a considerable advance in the construction
of the idea of evolution as a strictly mechanical process. It
may be observed, too, that the hypothesis of a primitive com-
pact mass (sphacrus), in which love (attraction) is supreme,
has some curious points of similarity to, and contrast with, that
notion of a primitive nebulous matter with which the modern
doctrine of cosmic evolution usually sets out. Empedodes tries
to explain the genesis of organic beings, and, according to Lange,
anticipates the idea of Darwin that adaptations abound, because
it is their nature to perpetuate themselves. He further recog-
nizes a progress in the production of vegetable and animal forms,
though this part of his theory is essentially crude and unscientific.
More important in relation to the modern problems of evolution
is his thoroughly materialistic way of explaining the origin of
sensation and knowledge by help of his peculiar hypothesis of
effluvia and pores. The supposition that sensation thus rests
on a material process of absorption from external bodies natur-
ally led up to the idea that plants and even inorganic subtanccs
are predpient, and so to an indistinct recognition of organic life
as a scale of intelligence.
Alomisls.— In the theory of Atomism taught by Lcucippus
and Democritus we have the basis of the modern mechanical
conceptions of cosmic evolution. Here the endless harmonious
diversity of our edsmos, as weD tfs of other worlds supposed to
coexist with our own, is said to arise through the various com-
bination of indivisible material elements differing in figure and
magnitude only. The force which brings the atoms together in
the forms of objects is inherent in the elements, and all their
motions are necessary. The origin of things, which is also their
substance, is thus laid in the simplest and most homogeneous
elements or principles. The real world thus arising consists only
of -diverse combinations of atoms, having the properties of
magnitude, figure, weight and hardfess, all other qualities' being
relative only to the sentient organism. The problem of the
genesis of mind is practically solved by identifying the soul,
1 This is brought out by F. UssaHe, Di* Pktiosopnii HtnkttitH,
p. 126.
*4
EVOLUTION
JHISTOKY
or vital principle, with beat or fire which pervades in unequal
proportions, not only man and animals, but plants and nature
as a whole, and through the agitation of which by incoming
effluvia all sensation arises.
Aristotle.— Aristotlt is much nearer a conception of evolution
than bis master Plato. It is true he sets out with a transcendent
Deity, and follows Plato in viewing the creation of the cosmos
as a process of descent from the more to the less perfect accord-
ing to the distance from the original self-moving agency. Yet
on the whole Aristotle leans to a teleologfcal theory of evolution,
which he interprets dualistually by means of certain meta-
physical distinctions. Thus even his idea of the relation of the
divine activity to the world shows a tendency to a pantheistic
notion of a divine thought which gradually realises itself in the
process of becoming. Aristotle's distinction of form and matter,
and his conception of becoming as a transition from actuality
to potentiality, provides a new ontological way of conceiving
the process of material and organic evolution. 1 To Aristotle
the whole of nature is instinct with a vital impulse towards some
higher manifestation. Organic life presents itself to him as a
progressive scale of complexity determined by its final end,
namely, man.' In some respects Aristotle approaches the
modern view of evolution. Thus, though he looked on species
as fixed, being the realization of an unchanging formative prin-
ciple (0fots), he seems, as Ucberweg observes, to have inclined
to entertain the possibility of a spontaneous generation in the
case of the lowest organisms. Aristotle's tcleological concep-
tion of organic evolution often approaches modern mechanical
conceptions. Thus he says that nature fashions organs in the
order of their necessity, the first being those essential to life.
So, too, in his psychology he speaks of the several degrees of
mind as arising according to a progressive necessity.* In his
view of touch and taste, as the two fundamental and essential
senses, he may remind one of Herbert Spencer's doctrine. At
the same time Aristotle precludes the idea of a natural develop-
ment of the mental series by the supposition that man contains,
over and above a natural finite soul inseparable from the body,
a substantial and eternal principle (raw) which enters into the
individual from without. Aristotle's brief suggestions respect-
ing the origin of society and governments in the Politics show a
leaning to a naturalistic interpretation of human history as a
development conditioned by growing necessities.
Strato. — Of Aristotle's immediate successors one deserves
to be noticed here, namely, Strato of Lampsacus, who de-
veloped his master's cosmology into a system of naturalism.
Strato appears to reject Aristotle's idea of an original source
of movement and life extraneous to the world in favour of an
immanent principle. All parts of matter have an inward plastic
life whereby they can fashion themselves to the best advantage,
according to their capability, though not with consciousness.
The Stoics. — In the cosmology of the Stoics we have the germ
of a monistic and pantheistic conception of evolution. All things
are said to be developed out of an original being, which is at once
material (fire) and spiritual (the Deity), and in turn they will
dissolve back into this primordial source. At the same time the
world as a developed whole is regarded as an organism which is
permeated with the divine Spirit, and so we may say that the
world-process is a self-realization of the divine Being The forma-
tive principle or force of the world is said to contain the several
rational germinal forms of things. Individual things arc sup-
posed to arise out of the original being, as animals and plants out
of seeds. Individual souls are an efflux from the all-compassing
world-soul. The necessity in the world's order is regarded by
the Stoics as identical with the divine reason, and this idea is
used as the basis of a tcleological and optimistic view of nature.
Very curious, in relation to modern evolutional ideas, is the
Stoical doctrine that our world is but one of a series of exactly
1 Zeller says that through this distinction Aristotle first made
possible the idea of development.
* See this well brought out in G. H. Lcwes's Aristotle, p. 187
* Grote calls attention to the contrast between Plato's and Aris-
totle's way of conceiving the gradations of mind (Aristotle, U. 171).
identical ones, aH of which are destined to be burnt up sad
destroyed.
The Epicureans— Lucretius.— The Epicureans differed ton
the Stoics by adopting a purely mechanical view of the worts'.
process. Their fundamental conception is that of Democrats;
they seek to account for the formation of the cosmos, vita its
order and regularity, by setting out with the idea of an original
(vertical) motion of the atoms, which somehow or other ranks
in movements towards and from one another. Our world is hat
one of an infinite number of others, and all the harmonies ana
adaptations of the universe are regarded as a special case of the
infinite possibilities of mechanical events Lucretius regards the
primitive atoms (first beginnings or first bodies) as seeds eat
of which individual things aredeveloped. AH living and sentient
things are formed out of insen t ient atoms (e.g. worms spring oat
of dung). The peculiarity of organic and sentient bodies is dne
to the minuteness and shape of their particles, and to their special
motions and combinations. So, too, mind consists but of ex«
tremely fine particles of matter, and dissolves into air when the
body dies. Lucretius traces, in the fifth book of his poem, the
progressive genesis of vegetal and animal forms out of the mother-
earth. He vaguely anticipates the modern idea of the world
as a survival of the fittest when he says that many races may
have lived and died out, and that those which still exist have
been protected either by craft, courage or speed. Lucretius
touches on the development of man out of a primitive, hardy,
beast-like condition. Pregnant hints are given respecting a
natural development of language which has its germs in sounds
of quadrupeds and birds, of religious ideas out of dreams and
waking hallucinations, and of the art of musk by help of the
suggestion of natural sounds. Lucretius thus recognizes the
whole range of existence to which the doctrine of evolution may
be applied.
Neoplatonists.—lD the doctrines of the Neoplatonists, oi
whom Plotinus is the most important, we have the world-
process represented after the example of Plato as a series of
descending steps, each being less perfect than its predecessors,
since it is further removed from the first cause. 4 The system
of Plotinus, Zellar remarks, is not strictly speaking one of
emanation, since there is no communication of the divine
essence to the created world; yet it resembles emanation inas-
much as the genesis of the world is conceived as a necessary
physical effect, and not as the result of volition. In Proclus we
find this conception of an emanation of the world out of the
Deity, or the absolute, made more exact, the process being re-
garded as threefold— (1) persistence of cause in effect, (2) the
departure of effect from cause, and (3) the tendency of effect to
revert to its cause.
The Fathers.— The speculations of the fathers respecting
the origin and course of the world seek to combine Christian
ideas of the Deity with doctrines of Greek philosophy. The
common idea of the origin of things is that of an absolute creation
of matter and mind alike. The course of human history is
regarded by those writers who are most concerned to refute
Judaism as a progressive divine education. Among the Gnostics
wc meet with the hypothesis of emanation, as, for example, in
the curious cosmic theory of Valentinus.
Middle Ages— Early Schoolmen,— la the speculative writings
of the middle ages, including those of the schoolmen, we find
no progress towards a more accurate and scientific view of nature
The cosmology of this period consists for the most part of th<
Aristotelian teleological view of nature combined with th<
Christian idea of the Deity and His relation to the world. Ii
certain writers, however, there appears a more elaborate trans
formation of the doctrine of creation into a system of emanation
According to John Scotus Erigena, the nothing out of which tbi
world is created is the divine essence. Creation is the act b]
which God passes through the primordial causes, or universa
ideas, into the region of particular things (processio), inorde
finally to return to himself (reversio). The transition from tb<
« Zeller observes that this scale of decreasing perfection la i
necessary consequence of the idea of a transcendent deity
HiSTORVl
EVOLUTION
25
tuversal to the particular ia of course conceived as a descent
or degradation. A similar doctrine of emanation ia to be found
ia the writings of Bernhard of Chartres, who conceives the
process of the unfolding of the world as a movement in a circle
torn the most general to the individual, and from this back to
tat most general This movement is said to go forth from God
to the animated heaven, stars, visible world and man, which
represent decreasing degrees of cognition.
Arab Philosophers.— Elaborate doctrines of emanation, largely
based on Neoplatonic ideas, are also propounded by some of
tat Arabic philosophers, aa by Firabi and Avicenna. The
lading thought is that of a descending series of intelligences,
oca emanating from its predecessor, and having its appropriate
itgioB ia the universe.
Jewish Philosophy.— In the Jewish speculations of the middle
ifa may be found curious forms of the doctrine of emanations
miag the Biblical idea of creation with elements drawn from
the Persians and the Creeks. In the later and developed form
d the Kabbela, the origin of the world is represented as a gradu-
illy descending emanation of the lower out of the higher. Among
lie philosophic Jews, the Spanish Avicebron, in his Fans Vilae,
opounds t curious doctrine of emanation. Here the divine will
s viewed as an efflux from the divine wisdom, as the inter*
atdiate fink between God, the first substance, and all things,
tod as the fountain out of which all forms emanate. At the
nme time aH forms, including the higher intelligible ones, are
aid to have their existence only in matter. Matter is the one
uwastl substance, body and mind being merely sperifica-
tws of this. Thus Avicebron approaches, as Salomon Munk
(teems, 1 a pantheistic conception of the world, though he
taiactly denies both matter and form to God.
Uitr Scholastics. — Passing now to the later schoolmen, a bare
Baton must be made of Thomas Aquinas, who elaborately
mjsts (or the absolute creation of the world out of nothing, and
I if Albotos Magnus, who reasons against the Aristotelian idea
«* tie past eternity of the world. More importance attaches to
has Scotus, who brings prominently forward the idea of a
I PRptsshw de v elopment in nature by means of a process of
fatnauiatkn. The original substance of the world is the
"fris primo-primo t which is the immediate creation of the
fcty* This serves Duns Scotus as the most universal basis
4 existence, all angels having material bodies. .This matter
8 differentiated into particular things (which are not privations
ta perfections) through the addition of an individualizing
^Qple (hoeueitas) to the universal (quidditas). The whole
*M is represented by the figure of a tree, of which the seeds
£d mots are the first indeterminate matter, the leaves the
•fcdents, the twigs and branches corruptible creatures, the
^axns the rational soul, and the fruit pure spirits or angels.
fc is tbo described as a bifurcation of two twigs, mental and
ta% creation out of a common root. One might almost say
'■*» Dtms Scotus recognises the principle of a gradual physical
Nation, only that he chooses to represent the mechanism by
*^& the process is brought about by means of quaint scholastic
tons.
tarf •/ Learning.— -The period of the revival of learning,
'feh was also that of a renewed study of nature, is marked by
*«asderable amount of speculation respecting the origin of
* c&hrerse. In some of these we see a return to Greek theories,
*$ the influence of physical discoveries, more especially those
rf( Vnikus, Kepler and Galileo, is distinctly traceable.
frejfe.— An example of a return to early Greek speculation
,: °be met with in Bernardino Telesio. By this writer the world
loptaiotd aa a product of three principles— dead matter, and
^active forces, heat and cold. Terrestrial things arise through
*[*&Knce of heat, which issues from the heavens, and cold,
**& comes from the earth. Both principles have sensibility,
* ^w all products of their collision are sentient, that is, feel
£** and pain. The superiority of animals to plants and
J* in the possession of special organs of sense is connected
""tiie greater complexity and heterogeneity of their structure.
1 UHangss do pkihsophie juim et mrabc, p. 225.
Giordano Bruno.— In the system of Giordano Bruno, who
sought to construct a philosophy of nature on the basis of new
scientific ideas, more particularly the doctrine of Copernicus,
we find the outlines of a theory of cosmic evolution conceived
as an essentially vital process. Matter and form are here identi-
fied, and the evolution of the world is presented as the unfolding
of the world-spirit to its perfect forms according to the plastic
substratum (matter) which is but one of its sides. This process
of change is conceived as a transformation, in appearance only,
of the real unchanging substance (matter and form). All parts
of matter are capable of developing into all forms; thus the
materials of the table and chair may under proper circumstances
be developed to the life of the plant or of the animal The
elementary parts of existence are the minima, or monads, which
are at once material and mental. On their material side they are
not absolutely unextended, but spherical. Bruno looked on our
solar system as but one out of an infinite number of worlds.
His theory of evolution is essentially pantheistic, and he does not
employ his hypothesis of monads in order to work out a more
mechanical conception.
CampaneUa.—A word must be given to one of Bruno's con-
temporary compatriots, namely Campanella, who gave poetic
expression to that system of universal vitalism which Bruno
developed. He argues, from the principle quitquid est in ejections
esse et in causis, that the elements and the whole world have
sensation, and thus he appears to derive the organic part of
nature out of the so-called " inorganic."
Boehme.— Another writer of this transition period deserves
a passing reference here, namely, Jacob Boebme the mystic,
who by his conception of a process of inner cSremption as the
essential character of all mind, and so of God, prepared the
way for later German theories of the origin of the world as
the self-differentiation and seU-externaliration of the absolute
spirit.
Hobbes and Gassendi.— The influence of an advancing study of
nature, which was stimulated if not guided by Bacon's writings,
h seen in tfae more careful doctrines of materialism worked out
almost simultaneously by Hobbes and Gassendl. These theories,
however, contain little that bears directly oa the hypothesis of
a natural evolution of things. In the view of Hobbes, the
difficulty of the genesis of conscious minds is solved by saying
that sensation and thought are part of the reaction of the organ-
ism on external movement. Yet Hobbes appears (as Clarke
points out) to have vaguely felt the difficulty; and in a passage
of his Physics (chap. 25, sect. 5) he says that the universal exist-
ence of sensation in matter cannot be disproved, though he
shows that when there are no organic arrangements the mental
side of the movement (phantasma) is evanescent. The theory
of the origin of society put forth by Hobbes, though directly
opposed in most respects to modern ideas of social evolution,
deserves mention here by reason of its enforcing that principle
of struggle (betlum omnium contra omnes) which has played
so conspicuous a part In the modern doctrine of evolution.
Gassendi, with some deviations, follows Epicurus in his theory
of the formation of the world. The world consists of a finite
number of atoms, which have in their own nature a self-moving
force or principle. These atoms, which are the seeds of all things,
are, however, not eternal but created by God. Gassendi dis-
tinctly argues against the existence of a world-soul or a principle
of life in nature.
Descartes.— In the philosophy of Descartes we meet with a
dualism of mind and matter which does not easily lend itself
to the conception of evolution. His doctrine that consciousness
is confined to man, the lower animals being unconscious machines
(automata), excludes all idea of a progressive development of
mind. Yet Descartes, in his Principia Philosopkiae, laid the
foundation of the modern mechanical conception of nature and
of physical evolution. In the third part of this work he Incb'nes
to a thoroughly natural hypothesis respecting the genesis of the
physical world, and adds in the fourth part that the same kind
of explanation might be applied to the nature and formation
of plants and animals. He is indeed careful to keep right with
2b
EVOLUTION
(HISTORY
the orthodox doctrine of creation by saying that he does noi
•believe the world actually arose in this mechanical way out of
the three kinds of elements which he here supposes, but that he
simply puts out his hypothesis as a mode of conceiving how it
anight have arisen. Descartes 's account of the mind and its
passions is thoroughly materialistic, and to this extent he works
in the direction of a materialistic explanation of the origin of
mental life.
Spinoza.— la Spinoza's pantheistic theory of the world, which
regards thought and extension as but two sides of one substance,
the problem of becoming is submerged in that of being. Al-
though Spinoza's theory attributes a mental side to all physical
events, he rejects all ideological conceptions and explains the
order of things as the result of an inherent necessity. He recog-
nizes gradations of things according to the degree of complexity
of their movements and that of their conceptions. To Spinoxa
(as Kuno Fischer observes) man differs from the rest of nature
in the degree only and not in the kind of his powers. So far
Spinoza approaches the conception of evolution. He may be
said to furnish a further contribution to a metaphysical con*
ception of evolution in his view of all finite individual things
as the infinite variety to which the unlimited productive power
of the universal substance gives birth. Sir F. Pollock has
taken pains to show how nearly Spinoza approaches certain
ideas contained in the modern doctrine of evolution, as for
example that of self-preservation as the determining. force in
things.
Locke.— In Locke we find, with a retention of certain anti-
evolutionist ideas, a marked tendency to this mode of viewing
the world. To Locke the universe is the result of a direct act of
creation,: even matter being limited in duration and created.
Even if matter were eternal it would, he thinks, be incapable of
producing motion; and if motion is itself conceived as eternal,
thought can never begin to be. The first eternal being is thus
spiritual or "cogitative," and contains in itself all the perfections
that can, ever alter exist. He repeatedly insists on the impos-
sibility of senseless matter putting on sense. 1 Yet while thus
placing himself at a point of view opposed to that of a gradual
evolution of the organic world, Locke prepared the way for this
doctrine in more ways than one. First of all, his genetic method
as applied to the mind's ideas— which laid, the foundations of
English analytical psychology— was a step in the direction of
a conception of mental life as a gradual evolution. Again he
works towards the same end in his celebrated refutation of the
scholastic theory of real specific essences. In this argument he
emphasizes the vagueness of the boundaries which mark off
organic species with a view to show that these do not correspond
to absolutely fixed divisions in the objective world, that they
are made by the mind, not by nature.* This idea of the continuity
of species is developed more fully in a remarkable passage
(Essay, bk. iii. ch. vi. § 12}, where he is arguing in favour of the
hypothesis, afterwards elaborated by Leibnitz, of a graduated
series of minds (species of spirits) from the Deity down to the
lowest animal intelligence. He here observes that " all quite
down from us the descent is by easy steps, and a continued
series of things, that in each remove differ very little from one
another." Thus man approaches the beasts, and the animal
kingdom is nearly joined with the vegetable, and so on down
to the lowest and " most inorganics! parts of matter." Finally,
it is to be observed that Locke had a singularly clear view of
organic arrangements (which of course he explained according
to a theistic teleology) as an adaptation to the circumstances
of the environment or to " the neighbourhood of the bodies that
surround us." Thus he suggests that .man has not eyes of a
microscopic delicacy, because he would receive no great advan-
tage from such acute organs, since though adding indefinitely
to his speculative knowledge of the physical world they would
1 Yet he leaves open the question whether the Deity has annexed
thought to matter as a faculty, or whether it rests on a distinct
spiritual principle.
• Locke half playfully touches on certain monsters, with respect
to which it is difficult to determine whether they ought to be called
men. {Essay, book iii. ch. vi sect. 26. 27)
not practically benefit their possessor (e»g. by enabling him to
avoid things at a convenient distance). 1
Idea of Progress in History.— Before leaving the 17th century
we must just refer to the writers who laid the foundations of the
essentially modern conception of human history as a gradual
upward progress. According to Flint, 4 there were four men who
in this and the preceding century seized and made prominent
this idea, namely, Bodin, Bacon, Descartes and Pascal. The
former distinctly argues against the idea of a deterioration of
man in the past. In this way we see that just as advancing
natural science was preparing the way for a doctrine of physical
evolution, so advancing historical research was leading to the
application of a similar idea to the collective human life.
English Writers of the 1 8th Century— Hum*.— -The theological
discussions which make np so large a part of the English specu-
lation of the 18th century cannot detain us here. There is,
however, one writer who sets forth so dearly the alternative
suppositions respecting the origin of the world that he claims a
brief notice. We refer to David Hume. In his Dialogues con-
cerning Natural Religion he. puts forward tentatively, in the
person of one of his interlocutors, the ancient hypothesis that
since the world resembles an animal or vegetal organism rather
than a machine, it might more easily be accounted for by a pro*
cess of generation than by an act of creation. Later on he
develops the materialistic view of Epicurus, only modifying It
so far as to conceive of matter as finite. Since a finite number
of particles is only susceptible of finite transpositions, it must
happen (he says), in an eternal duration that every possible
order or position will be tried an infinite number of times, and
hence this world is to be regarded (as the Stoics maintained) as an
exact reproduction of previous worlds. The speaker seeks to
make intelligible the appearance of art and contrivance in the
world as a result of a natural settlement of the universe (which
passes through a succession of chaotic conditions) into a stable
condition, having a constancy in its forms, yet without its
several parts losing their motion and fluctuation.
French Writers of the iSth Century.— Let us now pass to the
French writers of the 18th century. Here we are first struck
by the results of advancing physical speculation in their bearing
on the conception of the world. Careful attempts, based on new
scientific truths, are made to explain the genesis of the world as
a natural process. Manpertuis, who, together with Voltaire,
introduced the new idea of the universe as based on Newton's
discoveries, sought to account for the origin of organic things by
the hypothesis of sentient atoms. Buffon the naturalist specu-
lated, not only on the structure and genesis of organic beings,
but also on the course of formation of the earth and solar system,
which he conceived after the analogy of the development of
organic beings out of seed. Diderot, too, in his varied intellectual
activity, found time to speculate on the genesis of sensation
and thought out of a combination of matter endowed with an
elementary kind of sentience. De la Mettric worked out a
materialistic doctrine of the origin of things, according to which
sensation and consciousness are nothing but a development out
of matter. He sought (UHomme-machinc) to connect man in
his original condition with the lower animals, and emphasised
(L'Homitu-plonte) the essential unity of plan of aU living things.
Helvetius, in his work on man, referred all differences between
our species and the lower animals to certain peculiarities of
organization, and so prepared the way for a conception of human
development out of lower forms as a process of physical evolution.
Charles Bonnet met the difficulty of the origin of conscious beings
much in the same way as Leibnitz, by the supposition of eternal
minute organic bodies to which are attached immortal souls.
Yet though in this way opposing himself to the method of the
modern doctrine of evolution, he aided the development of
this doctrine by his view of the organic world as an ascending
* A similar coincidence between the teleolooical and the modern
evolutional way of viewing thing* is to be met with in Locke's account
of the use Of pain in relation to the preservation of our being (bk. ii.
ch. vil. sect. 4).
• Philtnophy of History (1803), P« ,0 3» where en interesting sketch
of the growth of the idea of progress is to be found.
HISTORY)
EVOLUTION
*7
scale from the simple to the complex. Robinet, in his treatise
De U no/art, worked out the same conception of a gradation in
organic existence, connecting this with a general view of nature
as a progress from the lowest inorganic forms of matter up to
man. The process is conceived as an infinite series of variations
or specifications of one primitive and common type. Mas is
the ckej-d'muvt of nature, which the gradual progression of
beings was to have as its last term, and all lower creations are
regarded as pre-conditions of man's existence, since nature
" could only realize the human form by combining in all imagin-
able ways each of the traits which was to enter into it." The
formative force in this process of evolution (or " metamor-
phosis ' ') is conceived as an intellectual principle (isar gen&aUice).
Robinet thui laid the foundation of that view of the world as
wholly vital, and as a progressive unfolding of a spiritual for-
mative principle, which was afterwards worked out by Schelling.
It is to be added that Robinet adopted a thorough-going
materialistic view of the dependence of mind on body, going
even to the length of assigning special nerve-fibres to the moral
sense. The system of Holbacb seeks to provide a consistent
matesalistic view of the world and its processes. Mental opera*
lions are identified with physical movements, the three con-
ditions of physical movement, inertia, attraction and repulsion,
being in the moral world self-love, love and hate. He left open
the question whether the capability of sensation belongs to all
matter, or is confined to the combinations of certain materials.
He looked on the actions of the individual organism and of
society as determined by the needs of self-preservation. He
conceived of man as a product of nature that had gradually
developed itself from a low condition, though he relinquished the
I problem of the exact mode of his first genesis and advance as
not soluble by data of experience. Holhach thus worked out the
basis of a rigorously materialfstic conception of evolution.
The question of human development which Holbach touched
on was one which occupied many minds both in and out of
Trance during the i£th century, and more especially towards
its close. The foundations of this theory of history as an upward
progress of man out of a barbaric and animal condition were
laid by Vico in his celebrated work Principii di sciema nuota.
In France lie doctrine was represented by Turgot and Condorcet.
German Writers of the 18th Century— LeibniU.— In Leibnitz
we find, if not a doctrine of evolution in the strict sense, a theory
of the world which Is curiously related to the modern doctrine.
The chief aim of Leibnitz is no doubt to account for the world
in its static aspect as a coexistent whole, to conceive the ultimate
reality of things in such a way as to solve the mystery of mind
and matter. Yet by his very mode of solving the problem he
is led on to consider the nature of the world-process. By placing
substantial reality in an infinite number of monads whose essen-
tial nature Is force or activity, which is conceived as mental
(representation), Leibnitz was carried on to the explanation of
the successive order of the world. He prepares the way, too,
for a doctrine of evolution by his monistic idea of the substantia]
similarity of all things, inorganic and organic, bodily and spiritual,
and st ill more by his conception of a perfect gradation of existence
from the lowest M inanimate " objects, whose essential activity
is confused representation, up to the highest organized being-
man — with fab dear intelligence. 1 Turning now to Leibnitz's
conception of the world as a process, we see first that he supplies,
in his notion of the underlying reality as force which is repre-
sented as spiritual {qntique ■ chose d'anatogique an sentiment et
i rapt&l), both a mechanical and a teleological explanation of
its order. More than this, Leibnitz supposes that the activity
el the monads takes the form of a self-evolution. It is the follow-
ing out of an inherent tendency or impulse to a series of changes,
ail of which were virtually pre-existent, and this process cannot
he interfered with from without. As the individual monad,
so the whole system which makes up Che world is a gradual
1 G. H. Lewes points out that Leibnitz is iaconaiatent in hi» account
of the intelligence of man in relation to that of lower animals, since
when answering Locke he no longs* regards theatre* dtfferieg '
degree only.
development. In this case, however, we cannot say that each
step goes oat of the other as in that of individual development.
Each monad is an original independent being, and it determined
to take this particular point in the universe, this place in the scale
of beings. We see bow different this metaphysical conception
is from that scientific notion of cosmic evolution in which the
lower stages are the antecedents and conditions of the higher.
It ia probable that Leibnitz's notion of time and apace, which
approaches Kant's theory, led him to attach but little importance
to the successive order of the world. Leibnitz, in fact, presents
to us an infinite system of perfectly distinct though parallel
developments, which on their mental side assume the aspect of
a scale, not through any mutual action, but solely through
the determination of the Deity. Even this ides, however, is
incomplete, for Leibnitz fails to explain the physical aspect of
development. Thus he does not account for the foot that organic
beings— which have always existed as preformations (in the case
of animals as antmou* ipenwoi tf y wc r)--coma to be developed
under given conditions. Yet Leibnitz prepared the way for a
new conception of organic evohttioq. The modem monistic
doctrine, that all material things consist of sentient elements, <
and thai consciousness arises through a combination of these,
was a natural transformation of Leibnitz's theory. 1
UssMfi—Ot Leibnitz's immediate followers we may mention
Leasing, who in his Education */ the Hitman Bmc* brought out
the truth of the process of gradual development underlying
human. history, even though he expressed this in a form incon-
sistent with the idea of a spontaneous evolution.
fferifcr.— Herder, on the other hand, Lessiog's cosUemporary,
treated the subject of man's development in a thoroughly
naturalistic spirit. In his Ideen %ur Phitoopku 4er GacJticklp,
Herder adopts Leibnitz's idea of a graduated Kale of beings, at
the same time conceiving of the lower stages as the conditions
of the higher. Thus man is said to be the highest product of
nature, and as such to be dependent on all lower products. All
material things are assimilated to one another as organic, the
vitalizing principle being inherent in all matter. The develop-
ment of man is explained in connexion with that of the earth,
and in relation to climatic variations, &c Man's mental (acuities
are viewed as related to his organization, and as developed under
the pressure of the necessities of life '
Kant.— Kant's relation to the doctrine of evolution is a
many-sided one. In the first place, his peculiar system of sub-
jective idealism,, involving the idea that time is but a mental
form to which there corresponds nothing in the sphere of
noumenal reality, serves to give a peculiar philosophical inter-
pretation to every doctrine of cosmic evolution, Kant, like
Leibnitz, seeks to reconcile the mechanical and teleological
views of nature, only he assigns to these different spheres. The
order of the inorganic world is explained by properly physical
causes. In his Naturgeschkhte dts Himmets, in which he antici-
pated the nebular theory afterwards more fully developed by,
Laplace, Kant sought to explain the genesis of the cosmos as .
a product of physical forces and laws. The worlds, or systems
of worlds, which fill infinite space are continually being formed
and destroyed. Chaos passes by a process of evolution into a
cosmos, and this again into chaos. So far as the evolution of
the solar system is concerned, Kant held these mechanical causes
as adequate. For the world as a whole, however, be postulated
a beginning in time (whence his use of the word creation), and
further supposed that the impulse of organization which was
conveyed to chaotic matter by the Creator issued from a central
point in the infinite space spreading gradually outwards. 4 'While
* Both Lewes and du Bois Rcymond have brought out the points
of contact between Leibnitz's theory of monads and modern bio-
logical apccohtkxu {Hist. «/ Phil. ii. 287, and Leibnitzscfu Cedanhen
in 4er modemm Nalurwsunsekufi, p. 2% «eq.).
* For Herder's position in relation to the modern doctrine of evolu*
ttbn see F. von BArenbach's Herder alx Vorgdnger Daneins, a work
which tends to exaggerate the proximity of the two writers.
* Kant held it probable that other planets besides our earth are
inhabited, and that their' inhabitants form a scale of beings, their
perfection increasing with the distance of the planet which they
_i" L«. '~>n» the sun.
*8
EVOLUTION
[HISTORY
in his cosmology Kant thus relies on mechanical conceptions, in
his treatment of organic life his mind is, on the contrary, domin-
ated by teleological ideas. An organism was to him something
controlled by a formative organising principle. It was natural,
therefore, that be rejected the idea of a spontaneous generation
of organisms (which was just then being advocated by his friend
Forster), not only as unsupported by experience but as an in-
adequate hypothesis. Experience forbids our excluding organic
activity from natural causes, also our excluding intelligence from
purposeful (zweckUUigen) causes; hence experience forbids our
defining the fundamental force or first cause out of which living
creatures arose. 1 Just as Kant thus sharply marks off the regions
of the inorganic and the organic, so he sets man in strong oppo-
sition to the lower animals. His ascription to man of a unique
faculty, free-will, forbade his conceiving our species as a link
in a graduated series of organic developments. In his doctrine
of human development he does indeed recognise an early stage
of existence in which our species was dominated by' sensuous
enjoyment and instinct. He further conceives of this stage as
itself a process of (natural) development, namely, of the natural
disposition of the species to vary in the greatest possible manner
so as to preserve its unity through a process of self -adaptation
(Anarten) to climate. This, he says, must not be conceived as
resulting from the action of external causes, but is due to a
natural disposition (Anlage). From this capability of natural
development (which already involves a teleological idea) Kant
distinguishes the power of moral self-development or self-
liberation from the dominion of nature, the gradual realization
of which constitutes human history or progress. This moral
development is regarded as a gradual approach to that rational,
social and political state in which will be realized the greatest
possible quantity of liberty. Thus Kant, though he appropriated
and gave new form to the idea of human progress, conceived of
this as wholly distinct from a natural (mechanical) process.
In this particular, as in his view of organic actions, Kant dis-
tinctly opposed the idea of evolution as one universal process
swaying alike the physical and the moral world.
Scheiling. — In the earlier writings of Scheiling, containing
the philosophy of identity, existence is represented as a becom-
ing, or process of evolution. Nature and mind (which are the
two sides, or polar directions, of the one absolute) are each
viewed as an activity advancing by an uninterrupted succession
of stages. The side of this process which Scheiling worked out
most completely is the negative side, that is, nature. Nature
is essentially a process of organic self-evolution. It can only be
understood by subordinating the mechanical conception to the
vital, by conceiving the world as one organism animated by a
spiritual principle or intelligence {Weltsede). From this point
of view the processes of nature from the inorganic up to the most
complex of the organic become stages in the self-realization of
nature. AH organic forms are at bottom but one organization,
and the inorganic world shows the same formative activity in
various degrees or potences. Scheiling conceives of the gradual
self-evolution of nature in a succession of higher and higher forms
as brought about by a limitation of her infinite productivity,
showing itself in a scries of points of arrest. The detailed exhi-
bition of the organizing activity of nature in the several processes
of the organic and inorganic world rests on a number of fanciful
and unscientific ideas. Schelling's theory is a bold attempt to
revitalize nature in the light of growing physical and physio-
logical science, and by so doing to comprehend the unity of the
world under the idea of one principle of organic development.
His highly figurative language might leave us in doubt how far
he conceived the higher stages of this evolution of nature as
following the lower in time. In the introduction to his work
Van der Weltsede, however, he argues in favour of the possibility
of a transmutation of species in periods incommensurable with
ours. The evolution of mind (the positive pole) proceeds by
*Kant calls the doctrine of the transmutation of species "a
hazardous fancy of the reason." Yet. as Strauss and others have
shown, Kant's mind betrayed a decided leaning at times to a more
mechanical conception of organic forms as related by descent.
way of three stages— theoretic, practical and aesthet Jcal activity.
Schelling's later theosophk speculations do not specially concern
us here.
Followers of Schilling.— Ot the followers of Scheiling a word
or two must be said. Heinrich Steffens, in his Anthropologies
seeks to trace out the origin and history of man in connexion
with a general theory of the development of the earth, and this
again as related to the formation of the solar system. All these
processes are regarded as a series of manifestations of a vital
principle in higher and higher forms. Oken, again, who carries
Schelling's ideas into the region of biological science, seeks to
reconstruct the gradual evolution of the material world out of
original matter, which is the first immediate appearance of God,
or. the absolute. This process is an upward one,, through the
formation of the solar system and of our earth with its inorganic
bodies, up to the production of man. The process is essentially
a polar linear action, or differentiation from a common centre.
By means of this process the bodies of the solar system separate
themselves, and the order of cosmic evolution is repeated in
that of terrestrial evolution. The organic world (like the world
as a whole) arises out of a primitive chaos, namely, the infusorial
slime. A somewhat similar working out of Schelling's idea is
to be found in H. C. Oersted's work entitled The Soul in Nature
(Eng. trans.). Of later works based on Schelling's doctrine of
evolution mention may be made of the volume entitled Nahtr
und Idee, by G. F. Cams. According to this writer, existence is
nothing but a becoming, and matter is simply the momentary
product of the process of becoming, while force is this process
constantly revealing itself in these products.
Hegel.— Like Scheiling, Hegel conceives the problem of exist-
ence as one of becoming. He differs from him with respect to
the ultimate motive of that process of gradual evolution which
reveals itself alike in nature and in mind. With Hegel the
absolute is itself a dialectic process which contains within itself
a principle of progress from difference to difference and from
unity to unity. "This process (W. Wallace remarks) knows
nothing of the distinctions between past and future, because it
implies an eternal present" This conception of an immanent
spontaneous evolution is applied alike both to nature and to
mind and history. Nature* to Hegel is the idea in the form of
hetereity; and finding itself here it has to remove this exteriority
in a progressive evolution towards an existence for itself in life
and mind. Nature (says Zellcr) is to Hegel a system of grada-
tions, of which one arises necessarily out of the other, and is the
proximate truth of that out of which it results. There are three
stadia, or moments, in this process of nature— (i) the mechanical
moment, or matter devoid of individuality; (2) the physical
moment, or matter which has particularized itself in bodies —
the solar system; and (j) the organic moment, or organic beings,
beginning with the geological organism— or the mineral kingdom,
plants and animals. Yet this process of development is not to
be conceived as if one stage 'is naturally produced out of the other,
and not even as if the one followed the other in time. Only
spirit has a history; in nature all forms are contemporaneous.*
Hegel's interpretation of mind and history as a process of evolu-
tion has more scientific interest than his conception of nature*
His theory of the development of free-will (the objective spirit),
which takes its start from Kant's conception of history, with
its three stages of legal right, morality as determined by motive
and instinctive goodness (SiUlkhketi), might almost as well be
expressed in terms of a thoroughly naturalistic doctrine of
human development. So, too, some of his conceptions respect ing
the development of art and religion (the absolute spirit) lend
themselves to a similar interpretation. Yet while, in its applica-
tion to history, Hegel's theory of evolution hss points of re-
semblance with those doctrines which seek to explain the world-
process as one unbroken progress occurring in time, it constitutes
on the whole a theory apart and svi generis. It does not conceive
of the organic as succeeding on the inorganic, or of conscious life
* Hegel somewhere says that the question of the eternal duration
of the world is unanswerable : time as well as space can be predicated
of finitudes only.
HISTORY]
as conditioned in time by lower forms. In this respect it re-
sembles Leibnitz's idea of the world as a development; the idea
of evolution is in each case a metaphysical as distinguished from
a scientific one. Hegel gives a place in his metaphysical system
to the mechanical and the teleological views; yet in his treatment
of the world as an evolution the idea of end or purpose is the
predominant one.
Of the followers of Hegel who have worked out his peculiar
idea of evolution it is hardly necessary to speak. A bare reference
may be made to J. K. F. Rosenkranz, who in his work Hegel's
Hattaphilosopku seeks to develop Hegel's idea of an earth-
organism in the light of modern science, recognizing in crystalliza-
tion the morphological element.
Schopenhauer.— Of the other German philosophers immediately
following Kant, there is only one who calls for notice here,
namely, Arthur Schopenhauer. This writer, by his conception of
the world as will which objectifies itself in a series of gradations
from the lowest manifestations of matter up to conscious man,
gives a slightly new shape to the evolutional view of Schclling,
though be deprives this view or its optimistic character by
denying any co-operation of intelligence in the world-process.
In truth, Schopenhauer's conception of the world as the activity
of a blind force is at bottom a materialistic and mechanical
rather than a spiritualistic and teleological theory. Moreover,
Schopenhauer's subjective idealism, and his view of time as
something illusory, hindered him from viewing this process as a
sequence of events in time. Thus he ascribes eternity of existence
to species under the form of the " Platonic Ideas." As Ludwig
Noire observes, Schopenhauer has no feeling for the problem
of the origin of organic beings. He says Lamarck's original
animal is something metaphysical, not physical, namely, the
«iU to live. " Every species (according to Schopenhauer) has of
its own will, and according to the circumstances under which
it would live, determined its form and organization,— yet not
as something physical in time, but' as something metaphysical
out of time."
Von Beer.— Before leaving the German speculation of the
first half of the century, a word must be said of von Baer, to
whose biological contributions we shall refer later in this article,
who recognized in the law of development the law of the universe
as a whole. In his Enhoickelungsgcschichte der Thiere (p. 264)
fee distinctly tells us that the law of growing individuality is
" the fundamental thought which goes through all forms and
degrees of animal development and all single relations. It is
the same thought which collected in the cosmic space the divided
nasses into spheres, and combined these to solar systems;
the same which caused the weather-beaten dust on the surface
of our metallic planet to spring forth into living forms." Von
Baer thus prepared the way for Herbert Spencer's generalization
of the law of organic evolution as the law of all evolution.
Comte.— As we arrive at the 19th century, though yet before the
days of Darwin, biology is already beginning to affect the general
aspect of thought. It might suffice to single out the influence
of Augux.2 Comte, as the last great thinker who wrote before
Darwinism began to permeate philosophic speculation. Though
Comte did not actually contribute to a theory of cosmic organic
evolution, he helped to lay the foundations of a scientific con-
ception of human history as a natural process of development
determined by general laws of human nature together with the
scannulating influences of the past. Comte does not recognize
fiat this process is aided by any increase of Innate capacity;
t-a the contrary, progress is to him the unfolding of fundamental
faculties of human nature which always pre-existed in a latent
condition; yet he may perhaps be said to have prepared the
»?y for the new conception of human progress by his inclusion
of mental laws under biology.
Development of the Biological Doctrine.— In the 19th century
the doctrine of evolution received new biological contents and
became transformed from a vague, partly metaphysical theory
to the dominant modern conception. At this point it is con-
venient to leave the guidance of Professor J. Sully and to follow
closely T. H. Huxley, who in the oth edition of this encyclopaedia
EVOLUTION
39
traced the history of the growth of the biological idea of evolution
from its philosophical beginnings to its efflorescence in Charles
Darwin.
In the earlier half of the 18th century the term " evolution n
was introduced into biological writings in order to denote the
mode in which some of the most eminent physiologists of that
time conceived that the generation of living things took place;
in opposition to the hypothesis advocated, in the preceding
century, by W. Harvey in that remarkable work 1 which would
give him a claim to rank among the founders of biological science,
even had he not been the discoverer of the circulation of the
blood.
One of Harvey's prime objects is to defend and establish, on
the basis of direct observation, the opinion already held by
Aristotle, that, in the higher animals at any rate, the formation
of the new organism by the process of generation takes place,
not suddenly, by simultaneous accretion of rudiments of all or
the most important of the organs of the adult, nor by sudden
metamorphosis of a formative substance into a miniature of
the whole, which subsequently grows, but by epigenesis, or
successive differentiation of a relatively homogeneous rudiment
into the parts and structures which are characteristic of the
adult.
** Et orirao, quidem, quoiuam per epigenesin sive partiura super-
exorientium additamentura pullum fabneari certum est : quaenam
para ante alias omnes exstruatur, et quid de ilia ej usque generandi
modo observanduro veniat, dispiciemua. Ratura aane eat et in ovo
manifeste aoparet quod Aristotaes de perfectorum animalium genera-
tione enuntiat: nimirum, non omnes partes simul fieri, ted ordine
altam post aliam; primumque existere particulam genitalem, cujus
virtute pootea (tanquera ex principio quodam) reliquae omnes
partes prosiliant. Qualem in plantarum seminibus (labia, puta,
aut glandibus) gemmam sive apicera protuberantera cernimus, totius
futurae arborts principtum. Estque haee particula velutfilius eman*
cipaius seorsumquo collocaius, et principtum per u veeens; undo
postea membrorum ordo ducribilur; et quaeeunque ad abseltendum
animal pertinent, disponuntur.* Quoniara enim nulla pars se ipsam
general; sed postquam generata est, se ipsam jam auget; ideo earn
primum orirt necesse est, quae principtum augend* contineat (sive
enim planto, sive animal est, aequo omnibus inest quod vim habeat
vegetandi, sive nutriendt),* simulque reliquas omnes partes suo
quamque ordine distinguat et formet ; promdeque in eadem primo-
genha particula anima primario inest, sensus, motusque, et totius
vitae auctor et principtum." (Exercitatio 51.)
Harvey proceeds to contrast this view with that of the
" Medici," or followers of Hippocrates and Galen, who, " badly
philosophizing," imagined that the brain, the heart, and the
liver were simultaneously first generated in the form of vesicles;
and, at the same time, while expressing his agreement with
Aristotle in the principle of epigenesis, he maintains that it is
the blood which is the primal generative part, and not, as
Aristotle thought, the heart.
In the latter part of the 17th century the doctrine of epigenesis
thus advocated bv Harvey was controverted on the ground of
direct observation by M. Malpighi, who affirmed that the body
of the chick is to be seen in the egg before the punctum sanguineum
makes it appearance. But from this perfectly correct observa-
tion a conclusion which is by no means warranted was drawn,
namely, that the chick as a whole really exists in the egg ante-
cedently to incubation; and that what happens in the course of
the latter process is no addition of new parts, " alias post alias
natas," as Harvey puts it, but a simple expansion or unfolding
of the organs which already exist, though they are too small
and inconspicuous to be discovered. The weight of Malpighi s
observations therefore fell into the scale of that doctrine which
Harvey terms metamorphosis, in contradistinction to epigenesis.
The views of Malpighi were warmly welcomed on philosophical
grounds by Leibnitz, 4 who found in them a support to his
* The Exercitationes de generationo animalium, which Dr George
Ent extracted from him and published in 1651.
* De generationo animalium, lib. ii. cap. x.
* De generationo animalium J lib. ii. cap. iv.
4 " Cependant, pour revenir aux formes ordinalres ou aux tines
mateneUes, cette durfe qu'il leur faut attribuer, 4 la place de celle
qu'on avoit attribute aux atones pourroit faire dourer si elles ne vont
pas de corps en corps; ce qui serott la metempsychose, a pen prts
\ philosophes ont cru la transmission du n
JQ
EVOLUTION.
[HISTORY
hypothesis of monads, and by Nicholas Malebrancbe; 1 while, in
the middle of the 18th century, not only speculative considera-
tions, but a great number of new and interesting observations on
the phenomena of generation, led the ingenious Charles Bonnet
and A. von Haller, the first physiologist of the age, to adopt,
advocate and extend them.
Bonnet affirms that, before fecundation, the hen's egg contains
an excessively minute but complete chick; and that fecundation
and incubation simply cause this germ to absorb nutritious
matters, which are deposited in the interstices of the elementary
structures of which the miniature chick, or germ, is made up.
The consequence of this intussusceptive growth is the " develop-
ment " or " evolution " of the germ into the visible bird Thus
an organized individual (tout organist) " is a composite body
consisting of the original, or elementary, parts and of the matters
which have been associated with them by the aid of nutrition ";
so that, if these matters could be extracted from the individual
{tojtt) t it would, so to speak, become concentrated in a point,
and would thus be restored to its primitive condition of a germ;
" just as, by extracting from a bone the calcareous substance
which is the source of its hardness, it is reduced to its primitive
state of gristle or membrane." 1
" Evolution " and " development " are, for Bonnet, synony-
mous terms; and since by " evolution " he means simply the
expansion of that which was invisible into visibility, he was
naturally led to the conclusion, at which Leibnitz had arrived
by a different line of reasoning, that no such thing as generation,
in the proper sense of the word exists in nature. The growth of
an organic being is simply * process of enlargement, as a particle
of dry gelatine may be swelled up by the intussusception of
water; its death is a shrinkage, such as the swelled jelly might
undergo on desiccation. Nothing really new is produced in the
living world, but the germs which develop have existed since the
beginning of things; and nothing really dies, but, when what we
call death takes place, the living thing shrinks back into its germ
state.*
et cellc des especes. Mais cette imagination est bien eloignee de
la nature des choses. II n'y a point de tel passage: et e'est ici
ou les transformations de Messieurs Swamtncrdam, Malpighi, et
Leewenhoek, qui sont des plus exccllens observateurs de notre terns,
■oat venues a mon secours et m'ont fait admettre plus aisement, que
ranimaf, et toute autre substance organisee ne commence point
lorsque nous le crayons, et que sa generation apparent* n'est qu'un
developpement et une espece d'augmeatation. Aussi ai-je remarque
que l'auteur de la Recherche de la verili, M. Regis, M. Hartscelccr,
et d'autres habile* homines n'ont pas etc fort clotgnes de ce senti-
ment." Leibnitz, Systhne nouveau de la nature (l 695). The doctrine
of " Embottement " is contained in the Considerations fur le Principe
de vie (1705) ; the preface to the Thiodicie (1710); and the JPrincipes
de la nature etdela gr&ce (| 6) (1718).
1 " II est vrai que la pensee la plus raisonnable et la plus conformc
a ('experience tor cette question tres difficile de la formation du
foetus; e'est que les enfans soot deja presque tout formes a van*
meme Taction par laquelle its sont concus; et que leurs meres ne
font que leur donner raccroissement ordinaire dans lc temps de la
grossesse." De la recherche de la viriti, livrc ii. chap. vii. p. 334
?7th ed.. mi).
1 Considerations sur les corps organist's, chap. x.
* Bonnet had the courage of his opinions, and in the Palingpnisie
philosophique, part vi. chap, iv., he develops a hypothesis which he
terms "evolution naturelle "; and which, making allowance for his
peculiar views of the nature of generation, bears no small resemblance
to what is understood by " evolution " at the present day:—
" Si la vokrate divine a cree par un scul Acte I'Universalite des
etrcs, d'ou venoient ces plantes et ces animaux dont Moysc nous
decrit la Production au troisiemc et au cinquieme jour du renouvelle-
ment de notre monde ?
" Abttserois-je de la liberte de conjectures si je disois, que lea
Plantes et les Animaux qui existent aujourd'hui sont parvenus par
une sorte devolution naturelle des fores organises qui peuplaient cc
premier Monde, sorti immediatement des Mains du Crbatecr r. . .
" Ne supposons que trots revolutions. La Terre vient de sortir
des Mains duCRBATBvn. Des causes prepactes par ssSagbsss font
ce premier Monde differoit de celui que nous habitons. Nous
manquon* de moyens pour juger de ces dissemblances, et peut-etre
|ue le plus habile Naturatiste qui auroit ete place dans ce premier
y auroit tntierement meconnu nos Plantes et nos Animaux"
1S&
The two parte of Bonnet's] hypothesis, namely, the doctrine
that all living things proceed from pre-existing germs, and that
these contain, one enclosed within the other, the germs of all
future living things, which is the hypothesis of " embottement/'
and the doctrine that every germ contains in miniature all the
organs of the adult, which is the hypothesis of evolution or
development, in the primary senses of these words, must be
carefully distinguished. In met, while holding firmly by the
former, Bonnet more or less modified the latter in his later
writings, and, at length, he admits that a " germ " need not be
an actual miniature of the organism, but that it may be
merely an " original preformation " capable of producing the
latter. 4
But, thus defined, the germ is neither more nor less than the
" particula genitalis " of Aristotle, or the " primordium vegetsle "
or " ovum " of Harvey; and the " evolution " of such a germ
would not be distinguishable from " epigenesis."
Supported by the great authority of Haller, the doctrine of
evolution, or development, prevailed throughout the whole
of the 18th century, and Cuvier appears to have substantially
adopted Bonnet's later views, though probably he would not
have gone all lengths in the direction of " emboJteinenL" In
a well-known note to Charles Leopold Lanrillard's £lege, prefixed
to the last edition of the Ossemensfossiks, the " radical de l'etre "
is much the same thing as Aristotle's " particula genitalis " and
Harvey's " ovum."*
Bonnet's eminent contemporary, Buffon, held nearly the same
views with respect to the nature of the germ, and ex pre sses them
even more confidently.
" Ceux qui ont cm que le cceur etoit le premier forme, se sont
trompea; ceux qui disent que e'est le sang se trompeot aussi: tout
est forme en meme temps. Si Ton ne consulte que robservarion, le
poulet se voit dans 1'ceuf avant qu'il ait etc couve." *
" J'ai ouvert une grande quantite d'emfs a differens temps avant
et apnea I'incubation, et ic me suis convaincu par mes yeux que le
poulet existe en entier dans le milieu de la ocatrule an — Arw«n
qu'il sort du corps de la potue." '
The " moule inteneur n of Buffon is the aggregate of ele-
mentary parts which constitute the individual, and is thus the
equivalent of Bonnet's germ,* as defined in the passage dted
above. But Buffon further imagined that innumerable " mole-
cules organiques " are dispersed throughout the world, and that
alimentation consists in the appropriation by the parts of nn
organism of those molecules which are analogous to them.
Growth, therefore, was, on this hypothesis, partly a process
of simple evolution, and partly of what has been termed syn-
genesis. Buffon's opinion is, in fact, a sort of combination of
views, essentially similar to those of Bonnet, with others, some-
what similar to those of the " Medid " whom Harvey condemns.
The " molecules organiques " are physical equivalents of Leib-
nitz's " monads."
It is a striking example of the difficulty of getting people
to use their own powers of investigation accurately, that this
form of the doctrine of evolution should have held its ground
so long; for it was thoroughly and completely exploded, not
long after its enunciation, by Caspar Frederick Wolff, who in his
Tkeoria gencraiionis, published in 1759, placed the opposite
theory of epigenesis upon the secure foundation of fact, from
which it has never been displaced. B ut Wolff had no immediat e
* " Ce mot (gcrtne) ne designers pas seuletnent un corps organise
riduit en petit; il designera encore toute espece de priformaiton
originelle dont un Tout organique pent r( suiter contme de sen principe
itnmidiat." — Palingittisic philosophique, part. x. .chap. ii.
» " M. Cuvier ronstderant que tous les it res organises sont derive*
de parens, et ne voyant dans la nature aucune force capable de
produire 1 organisation, croyait a la pre-existence des rermes; son
pas a la pre-existence d'un etre tout forme, puisqu'il est bien evident
que ce n est que par des developpemens successus que l'etre acquiert
sa forme; mais, si Ton peut s'exprimer ainai, 4 la pre-existence du
radical de /'Jnv,'radical qui existe avant que la serie des evolutional
ne commence, et qui remonte certainement, suivant la belle observa-
tion de Bonnet, a plusieurs generations."— Laurillard. Eloge de
Cuvier, note 13.
• Histeire naturelle, torn. ii. ed. ii. (1750). p. 3$x
' Ibid. p. y$i. • Sec particularly Buffon, U. p. 41.
HISTORY]
tuecoMi The school of Gmer was lainentsfatj deficient in
enibryoiqgists; and H was only in the course of the first thirty
years of the loth century that Prevost and Dumas in France,
and, later on, Bollinger, Pander, von Bar, Rathke, and Remak
in Germany, founded modem embryology; and, at the same
time, proved the utter incompatibility of the hypothesis of
evolution as formulated by Bonnet and Haller with easily
demonstrable facts.
Nevertheless, though the conceptions originally denoted
by " evolution " and " development " were shown to be unten-
able, the words retained their application to the process by which
the embryos of living beings gradually make their appearance;
and the terms" development,' 1 " Entsrickehing/'and" evolatio "
are now indiscriminately used for the series of genetic changes
exhibited by Irving beings, by writers who would emphatically
deny that " development " or " Entwickelung " or " evolutio,"
in the sense in which these words were usaally employed by
Bonnet or Heller, ever occurs.
Evolution, or development, is, in fact, at present employed
in biology as a general name for the history of the steps by
which any living being has acquired the morphological and the
physiological characters which distinguish it. As civil history
may be divided into biography, which is* the history of individuals,
and universal history, which is the history of the human race,
so evolution falls naturally into two categories — the evolution
of the individual (see Embryology) and the evolution of the
sara of living beings.
The Evolution o] Ike Sum of Ltseag Beings.— The notion that
all the kinds of animals and plants may have come into existence
by the growth and modification of primordial germs is as old
as speculative thought; bat the modern scientific form of the
doctrine can be traced historically to the influence of several
converging lines of philosophical speculation and of physical
observation, none of which go further back than the x 7th century.
These axe;—
r. Use enunciation by Descants of the conception that the
physical universe, whether living or not living, is a mechanism,
and that, as such, it is explicable on physical principles.
2. The observation of the gradations of structure, from
extreme simplicity to very great complexity, presented by
living things, and of the relation of these graduated forms to
one another.
3. The observation of the existence of an analogy between
the series of gradations presented by the species which compose
any great group of animals or plants, and the series of embryonic
conditions of the highest members of that group.
4. The observation that large groups of species of widely
different habits present the same fundamental plan of structure;
and that parts of the same animal or plant, the functions of which
are very different, likewise exhibit modifications of a common
plan.
5. The observation of the existence of structures, In a rudi-
mentary and apparently useless condition, in one species of a
group, winch are fully developed and have definite functions
in other spedes-of the same group.
6. The observation of the effects of varying conditions in
modifying living organisms.
7. The observation of the facts of geographical distribution.
8. The observation of the fact? of the geological succession
of the forms of life.
1. Notwithstanding the elaborate disguise which fear of
the powers that were led Descartes to throw over his real opinions,
it is impossible to read the Principes de la philosophic without
acquiring the conviction that this great philosopher held that the
physical world and all things in it, whether living or not Hving,
have originated by a process of evolution, due to the continuous
operation of purely physical causes, out of a primitive relatively
females* matter. 1
* As Buffon has welt said:— < M L'idee de ramener t explication de
tons les phenomenes a des principes mecaniques est assortment
paade et befle.ee pas est le plus hardi qo'on pent fairc en philosophic,
Cf e'est Descartes qui la fait.^W.^p. 50.
EVOLUTION
3»
The following passage is especially instructive;—
" Et tant s'en faut que je veuille que Ton crote toutee les choses
que j'ecrirai, que meme je pretends en proposer ici quelques-unes
que » crois absdhiment etre (aliases; a. savolr, }e no- doute point
flue le monde n'ait et6 cree au commencement avec autaat de per*
cction qu'il en a; en aorte que le soleil. la term, la tunc, et las
etoiles ont ete des tors; ct que la tcrre n'a pas eu seulement en spi
les semences des plantes, mais que les pbntes meme en ont convert
one panic; et qu Adam et Eve n'ont pas etc cress enfant mais en
age d'horames parfaits. La religion chretienne veut que sous le
croyons ainst. et la raison naturefle nous persuade eatterement cette
▼entt; car si nous considerons la toute puissance de Dieu, nous
devons juger que tout ce qu'il 8 fait a eu des le commencement
toute la perfection qu'il devoir avoir. Mais neanmoin*. comma on
connoltroit beaucoup mieux quelle a ete la nature d'Adam et celle
des arbres de Paradls si on avoit examine comment les enfants se
forment peu a peu dans le ventre de Ieurs mires el comment les
plantes sortent de Ieurs sentences, que si on avoit seulement consider*
quels Us ont ete quand Dieu les a crecs: tout de meme, nous fcrons
mieux entendre quelle est generaleracnt la nature de toutes les
choses qui sont au moodc si nous pouvons imagmer quelques prin-
cipes qui soicnt fort intelligiblcs et fort simples, aesqucls nous
puissions voir clairement que les astres et la terre et ennn tout ce
monde visible auroit pu etre produit ainsi que de quelques eemences
(bien que nous sachions qu'il n'a pas ete produit ea cette facon)
que si nous la decrivions seulement corame il est. ou bien oomme
nous croyons qu'il a ete cree. Et parccque je pense avoir trouve des
principes qui sont tels, je tacherai id de les expliqucr. ■
If we read between the lines of this singular exhibition of
force of one kind and weakness of another, it is clear that
Descartes beh'eved that he had divined the mode in which the
physical universe had been evolved; and the TraiU de Vhomm
and the essay Sur Us passion* afford abundant additional
evidence that he sought for, and thought he had found, an
explanation of the phenomena of physical hie by deduction
from purely physical laws.
Spinoza abounds in the same sense, and is as usual perfectly
candid—
" Naturae leges et regulae, secundum quae omnia Bunt et ex unk
forma in alias rautsatur, sunt ubique el semper eadetn." •
Leibnitz's doctrine of continuity necessarily led him in the
same direction; and, of the infinite multitude of monads with
which he peopled the world, each is supposed to be the focus of
an endless process of evolution and involution. In the Protogae*,
xxvi., Leibnitz distinctly suggests the mutability of species-*
" Ahi ndrantur in saxis passim species videri quas vel in orbe
cognito, vel saltern in vidnis lods frustra queeras. Its CornuQ
Amnumis, quae ex nautilorum numero habeantur, passim et forma
et magnitudine (nam et pedali diametro aliquando reperiuntarl
ab omnibus illis naturis discrepare dicunt, quas praebet mare. Sed
quis absconditos ejus recessus ant subterraneas abyssos pervesti-
gavit ? quam multa nobis animalia antca ignota often novus orbis?
Et crediblle est per magnas bias conversiones etiam aniraalium
spedes plurimum immutatas."
Thus in the end of the 17th century the seed was sown which
has at intervals brought forth recurrent crops of evolutional
hypotheses, based, more or less completely, on general reasonings.
Among the earliest of these speculations is that put forward
by Benolt de Maillet in his Telliamcd, which, though printed in
1735, was not published until twenty-three years later. Con-
sidering that this book was written before the time of Roller,
or Bonnet, or Linnaeus, or Hut ton, it surely deserves more
respectful consideration than it usually receives. For De
Maillet not only has a definite conception of the plastidty of
living things, and of the production of existing species bv trie
modification of their predecessors, but he clearly apprehends
the cardinal maxim of modern geological science, that the
explanation of the structure of the globe is to be sought in the
deductive application to geological phenomena of the prfndples
established inductively by the study of the present course ol
nature. Somewhat later, P. L. hi. de Maupertuis* suggested
a curious hypothesis as to the causes of variation, which he
thinks may be sufficient to account for the origin of all animals
1 Principes de la pkilosopfrit, Troisieme partie, f 45.
* Ethires, Pars tertia, Praefatio.
4 Systime de h Nature. Essai sur lajormation des corps organists*
1751, xiv.
3*
EVOLUTION
(HISTORY
from a single pur, Jean Baptlste Rene" Robinet 1 followed out
much the same line of thought as De Maillet, but less soberly;
and Bonnet's speculations in the PoMngenisie, which appeared
in 1769, have already been mentioned. Buffon (1753-17 78),
at first a- partisan of the absolute immutability of species, subse-
quently appears to have believed that larger or smaller groups
of species have been produced by the modification of a primitive
stock; but he contributed nothing to the general doctrine of
evolution.
Erasmus Darwin (Zoonomia, 1794), though a zealous evolu-
tionist, can hardly be said to have made any real advance on his
predecessors; and, notwithstanding the fact that Goethe had
the advantage of a wide knowledge of morphological facts, and
a true insight into their signification, while he threw all the
power of a great poet into the expression of his conceptions, it
may be questioned whether he supplied the doctrine of evolution
with a firmer scientific basis than it already possessed. Moreover,
whatever the value of Goethe's labours in that field, they were
not published before 1820, long after evolutionism had taken
a new departure from the works of Treviranus and Lamarck —
the first of its advocates who were equipped for their task with
the needful large and accurate knowledge of the phenomena
of life as a whole. It is remarkable that each of these writers
seems to have been led, independently and contemporaneously,
to invent the same name of " biology " for the science of the
phenomena of life; and thus, following Buffon, to have recog-
nized the essential unity of these phenomena, and their contra-
distinction from those of inanimate nature. And it is hard to
say whether Lamarck or Treviranus has the priority in pro-
pounding the main thesis of the doctrine of evolution; for
though the first volume of Treviranus's Biologic appeared only
in 1802, he says, in the preface to his later work, the Ersckei-
nungen und Gescfte des organischen Lebens, dated 1831, that he
wrote the first volume of the Biologic " nearly five-and-thirty
years ago," or about 1796.
Now, in 1704, there is evidence that Lamarck held doctrines
which present a striking contrast to those which are to be
found in the Philosophic xoologique, as the following passages
show:—
" 68£. Quoique mon unique objet dans cet article n'ait ete que
de traiter de la cause physique de l'entretien de la vie des elres
organiquea, malgre ccla j'ai ose avancer en debutant, que l'existcnce
de ces.etrea etonnants n'appartiennent nulleraent 4 la nature; que
tour ce qu'on peut entendre par k mot nature, ne pouvoit donner
la vie, c est-a-dire, que Unites lea qualites de la matiere, jointes 4
toutes lea drconstances possibles, et meme 4 1'activite repandue
dans runivera, ne pouvaient point produire un etre muni du mouve-
ment organique, capable de reproduire son serablable, et aujet 4
la mort.
" 686. Toua let individus de eette nature, qui existent, proviennent
d'individus semblables qui tous ensemble constituent l'espice
entiere. Or,
la cause ph. .
d'assigaer aussi physiquement la cause de
de runivers entier. C'est au moins ce que le resultat de mes con-
naissances et de mes reflexions me portent 4 penser. S'il existe
beaucoup de varietes produites par l'effet des drconstances, ces
varietes ne denaturent point les especes; raais on se trompe, sans
doute souvent, en indiquant comme espece, ce qui nest que variete;
et alers je sens que cette erreur peut tirer 4 consequence dans lea
raisonnements que Ton fait sur cette matiere." *
The first three volumes of Treviranus's Biologic, which contains
his general views of evolution, appeared between 1802 and 1805.
The Rcchcrches sur I'organisolion des corps vivanls, which sketches
out Lamarck's doctrines, was published in 1802; but the full
development of his views in the Philosophic xoologique did not
take place until 1809.
1 Considerations phUosophiques sur la gradation natureUc des
formes de I'itre; ou lis essais de la nature qui append of aire I'homme
* RccherChes cur Us causes des principaux fails physiques, par I. B.
Lamarck. Paris. SecondeaaneedelaRepublique. In the preface,
Lamarck says that the work was written in 1776, and presented to
the Academy in 1780; but it was not published before 1794, and at
that time it presumably expressed Lamarck's mature views. It
would be interesting to know what brought about the change of
opinion manifested in the Rcchcrches sur I'organiiotwn des corps
twanls, published only seven years later.
us semoiaoies qui tous ensemoie constituent 1 espece
Or, je crots qu'il est aussi impossible 4 I'homme de connoltre
physique ou premier individu de chaque espece, que
r aussi physiquement la cause de 1 'existence de la matiere ou
The Biologic and the Philosophic sootogique are both very
remarkable productions, and are still worthy of attentive study,
but they fell upon evil times. The vast authority of Cuvier
was employed in support of the traditionally respectable hypo-
theses of special creation and of cataatrophism; and the wad
speculations of the Discours sur les revolutions de la surface au
globe were held to be models of sound srirnrfftc thinking, while
the really much more sober and philosophical hypotheses of
the Hydrogcolofie were scouted. For many yean it was the
fashion to speak of Lamarck with ridicule, while Treviranus was
altogether ignored.
Nevertheless, the work had been done. The conception of
evolution was henceforward ir r e sp rea si bk, and it incessantly
reappears, in one shape or another,* up to the year 1858, when
Charles Darwin and A. R. Wallace published their Theory of
Natural Selection. The Origin of Species appeared in 1859;
and thenceforward the doctrine of evolution assumed a position
and acquired an importance which it never before possessed. In
the Origin of Specks, and in his other numerous and important
contributions to the solution of the problem of biological
evolution, Darwin confined himself to the discussion of the
causes which have brought about the present condition of living
matter, assuming such matter to have once come into existence.
On the other hand, Spencer 4 and £. Haeckel* dealt with
the whole problem of evolution. The profound and vigorous
writings of Spencer embody the spirit of Descartes in the know-
ledge of our own day, and may be regarded as the Priudpcs
de la philosophic of the 19th century; while, whatever hesita-
tion may not unfrequently be felt by less daring minds in
following Haeckel in many of his speculations, his attempt
to systematise the doctrine of evolution and to exhibit its
influence as the central thought of modern biology, cannot fail
to have a far-reaching influence on the progress of sdence.
If we seek for the reason of the difference between the sdentific
position of the doctrine of evolution in the days of Lamarck
and that which it occupies now, we shall find it in the great
accumulation of facts, the several classes of which have been
enumerated above, under the second to the eighth heads. For
those which are grouped under the second to the seventh of these
dasses, respectively, have a dear significance on the hypothesis
of evolution, while they are unintelligible if that hypothesis
be denied. And those of the eighth group are not only unin-
intelligible without the assumption of evolution, but can be
proved never to be discordant with that hypothesis, while, in
some cases, they are exactly such as the hypothesis requires.
The demonstration of these assertions would require a volume,
but the general nature of the evidence on which they rest may be
briefly indicated.
a. The accurate investigation of the lowest forms of animal
life, commenced by Leeuwenhoek and Swammerdam, and
continued by the remarkable labours of Reaumur, Abraham
Tremblcy, Bonnet, and a host of other observers in the latter
part of the 17th and the first half of the 18th centuries, drew
the attention of biologists to the gradation in the complexity
of organizat ion which is presented by living beings, and culminated
in the doctrine of the ichcllc des ttrcs, so powerfully and dearly
stated by Bonnet, and, before him, adumbrated by Locke and
by Leibniu. In the then state of knowledge, it appeared that
all the spedes of animals and plants could be arranged in one
scries, in such a manner that, by insensible gradations, the
mineral passed into the plant, the plant into the polype, the
polype into the worm, and so, through gradually higher forms
of life, to man, at the summit of the animated world.
But, as knowledge advanced, this conception ceased to be
tenable in the crude form in which it was first put forward
Taking into account existing animals and plants alone, it became
obvious that they fell into groups which were more or less
sharply separated from one another; and, moreover, that even
• See the " Historical Sketch " prefixed to the last edition of the
Origin of Species.
* First Principles and Principles of Biology (1860-1864).
» CenereUe Morphologic (1866).
HISTORY]
EVOLUTION
33
the specks at a gums can hardly ever be arranged in Knew
series. Their natural resemblances and differences are only
to be expressed by disposing them as if they were branches^
springing .from a common hypothetical centre.
Lamarck, while affirming the verbal proposition that animals
form a single series, was forced by his vast acquaintance with
the details of zoology to limit the assertion to such a series as
may be formed out of the abstractions constituted by the
common characters of each group. 1
Cnvier on anatomical, and Von Baer onembryological grounds,
made the further step of proving that, even in this limited sense,
a mm ah cannot be arranged in a single series, but that there are
several distinct plans of organisation to be observed among
them, no one of which, in its highest and most complicated
modification, leads to any of the others.
The conclusions enunciated by Cuvier and Von Baer have been
confirmed in principle by all subsequent research into the
structure of animals and plants. But the effect of the adoption
of these conclusions has been rather to substitute a new metaphor
lor that ol Bonnet than to abolish the conception expressed by it.
Instead of regarding living things as capable of arrangement in
one series like the steps of a ladder, the results of modern in-
vestigation compel us to dispose them as if they were the twigs
and branches of a tree. The ends of the twigs represent in*
Sviduala, the smallest groups of twigs species, larger groups
genera, and so on, until we arrive at the source of all these
ramifications of the main branch, which is represented by a
common plan of structure. At the present moment it is im-
possible to draw up any definition, based on broad anatomical
or developmental characters, by which any one of Cuvier** great
groups shaD be separated from all the rest. On the contrary,
the lower members of each tend to converge towards the lower
SMsabers of aU the others. The same may be said of the vegetable
world. The apparently clear distinction between flowering and
Boweries* plants has been broken down by the series of grada-
tions between the two exhibited by the Lycopodicuat, Rkuo-
cerpoac, and Gymttespcrmed*. The groups of Fungi, LUhenecc
and Alga* have completely run into one another, and, when the
lowest forms of each are alone considered, even the animal and
vegetable kingdoms cease to have a definite frontier.
If it Is penimsihlc to speak of the relations of living forms to
one another' metaphorically, the similitude chosen must un-
doubtedly be that of a common root, whence two main trunks,
oee representing the vegetable and one the animal world, spring;
sad, each dividing into a few main branches, these subdivide into
smititudes of branchlets and these into smaller groups of twigs.
As Lamarck has well said:— 1
'Mln>aqwcceaxQin^KMrtlonftenptetfort«mentoccopesdcla
determination dee eaoeces, et qui oat consult* de riches collection*,
qui peuvent savoir lusqu'a quel point les upkett, parmi les corps
wants, se fondent les unes dans les autres, et qui ont pu se con-
vasocre que, dans les parties ou nous voyons des espfrcs tsoleet, cela
a'eat aiswi que parcequ'il nous en manque d'autres qui en sent plus
wonnea et que nous n'avons pas encore recueUhes,
" Je ne veux pas dire pour cela que lcsanimauxqui existent fonnent
one aerie tres-simple et partout egalcment nuancee; mais je dis
qa*3s fonnent una aerie rameuse, irregulierement graduce et qui
a'a point de discontinuity dans ses parties, ou qui, du laoint, o en
a toujour* pas eu, s'il est vrai que, par suite de queloues espei _
perdue*, fl s'en trouve quelque part. 11 en resulte que les tspicss
oai terrainent chaque raroeau de la serie generate tiennent, au moins
dan cote, A d'autres especes voisines qui se nuancent avec dies.
Votta ce que Vetat bien connu des chosesme met maintenant a
portee de desnoatrer. Je n'ai besoin d'aucune hypo t he se ai d'aucune
wppoairion pour cela : j en atteste tous les naturakstes observateurs."
j. In a remarkable essay * Meckel remarks.—
'* There is no good physiologist who has not been struck by the
observation that the original form of aU organisms is one and the
1 " II sagit done de prouver que la serie qui constitute I'echeNe
animate resade essentieltement dans la distribution des masses princt-
pales qui la component et non dans celle des especes ni mema toujours
dans celle des genres.** — Phil, toolopque, chap. v.
* Philosophic woobrique, premiere partie, chap. ill.
* ** Entwurt doer Darstellung der zwischen dem Embryoauatlnde
der hofacrea Thicre uad dem permancnten der niederen •tattfindenden
PaiaHele," Beytri§t %ur vergUkhenden Anatomu, Bd. ii. isu.
same, and that out of tab one form, all, the lowest as weM as the
highest, are developed in such a manner that the latter pass through
the permanent forms of the former as transitory stages. Aristotle,
Haller, Harvey, Ktelmeyer, Autenrieth, and many others have
either made this observation incidentally, or, especially the latter,
have drawn particular attention to it, and drawn therefrom results
of permanent importance for physiology."
Meckel proceeds to exemplify the thesis, that the lower forms
of animals represent stages in the coarse of the development
of the higher, with a large series of illustrations.
After comparing the salamanders and the perenni-branchiate
UrodeU with the tadpoles and the frogs, and enunciating the
law that the more highly any animal. is organised the more
quickly does it pass through the lower stages, Meckel goes on to
say:—
" From these lowest Vertebrata to the highest, and to the highest
forms among these, the comparison between the embryonic condi-
tions of the higher animals and the adult states of the lower can
be more completely and thoroughly Instituted than if the survey is
extended to the Invertebrata. inasmuch as the latter are in many
respects constructed upon an altogether too dissimilar type; indeed
they often differ from one another Tar more than the lowest vertebrate
does from the highest mammal; yet the following pages will show
that the comparison may be also extended to them with interest.
I n fact, there u a period when, as Aristotle long ago said, the embryo
of the highest animal has the form of a mere worm, and, devoid of
internal and external organization, Is merely an almost structureless
lump of rjolvpe-substaace. Notwithstanding the origin of organs, it
still for a certain time, by reason of its want of an internal bony
skeleton, remains worm and moilusk, and only later enters into the
series of the Vertebrata. although traces of the vertebral column
even in the earliest periods testify its claim to a place in that series. ' —
Op. eft. pp. 4, 5.
If Meckel's proposition is so far qualified, that the comparison
of adult with embryonic forms is restricted within the limits of
one type of organisation; and if it is further recollected, that
the resemblance between the permanent lower form and the
embryonic stage of a higher form is not special but general, it
is in entire accordance with modern embryology; although there
is no branch of biology which has grown so largely, and unproved
its methods so much since Meckel's time, as this. In fU original
form, the doctrine of " arrest of development," as advocated by
Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire and Serres, was no doubt an overstate-
ment of the case. It is not true, for example, that a fish is a
reptile arrested in its development, or that a reptile was ever a
fish; but it is true that the reptile embryo, at one stage of its
development, is an organism which, if it had an independent
existence, must be classified among fishes; and ail the organs
of the reptile pass, in the course of their development, through
conditions which are closely analogous to those which ate
permanent in some fishes.
4. That branch of biology which is termed morphology is a
commentary upon, and expansion of, the proposition that widely
different animals or plants, and widely different parts of animals
or plants, are constructed upon the same plan. From the rough
comparison of the skdeton of a bird with that of a man by
Pierre Delon, in the x6th century (to go no further back), down
to the theory of the limbs and the theory of the skull at the
present day; or, from the first demonstration of the homologies
of the parts of a flower by C. F. Wolff, to the present elaborate
analysis of the floral organs, morphology exhibits a continual
advance towards the demonstration of a fundamental unity
among the seeming diversities of living structures. And this
demonstration has been completed by the final esUblishment of
the cell theory (see Cytology), which invdves the admission of a
primitive conformity, not only of all the elementary structures
in animals and plants respectively, but of those in the one of
these great divisions of living things with those in the other.
No a priori difficulty can be said to stand in the way of evolution,
when it can be shown that all animals and all plants proceed by
modes of development, which are similar in principle, from a
fundamental protoplasmic material.
5. The innumerable cases of structures, which are rudimentary
and apparently useless, in specks, the close allies of which
possess well-developed and functionally important hornologous
3+
EVOLUTION
[ONTOGENY
structures, are readily intelligible -on the theory of evolution,
while It is hard to conceive their raison d'tlre on any other
hypothesis. However, a cautious reasoner will probably rather
explain such cases deductively from the doctrine of evolution
than endeavour to support the doctrine of evolution by them.
For it is almost impossible to prove that any structure, however
rudimentary, is useless— that is to say, that it plays no part
whatever in the economy; and, if it is in the slightest degree
useful, there is no reason why, on the hypothesis of direct
creation, it should not have been created. Nevertheless, double-
edged as is the argument from rudimentary organs, there is
probably none which has produced a greater effect in promoting
the general acceptance of the theory of evolution.
6. The older advocates of evolution sought for the causes of
the process exclusively in the influence of varying conditions,
such as climate and station, or hybridization, upon living forms.
Even Treviranus has got no further than this point. Lamarck
introduced the conception of the action of an animal on itself
as a factor in producing modification. Starting from the well-
known fact that the habitual use of a limb tends to develop the
muscles of the limb, and to produce a greater and greater facility
in using it, he made the general assumption that the effort of
an animal to exert an organ in a given direction tends to develop
the organ in that direction. But a little consideration showed
that, though Lamarck had seized what, as far as it goes, is a true
cause of modification, it ia a cause the actual effects of which
are wholly inadequate to account for any considerable modifica-
tion in animals, and which can have no influence at all in the
vegetable world; and probably nothing contributed so much
to discredit evolution, in the early part of the 19th century, as
the floods of easy ridicule which were poured upon this part
of Lamarck's speculation. The theory of natural selection, or
survival of the fittest, was suggested by William Charles Wells
in 1 813, and further elaborated by Patrick Matthew in 1831.
But the pregnant suggestions of these writers remained practically
unnoticed and forgotten, until the theory was independently
devised and promulgated by Charles Robert Darwin and Alfred
Russell Wallace in 1858, and the effect of its publication was
immediate and prof ound.
Those who were unwilling to accept evolution, without
better grounds than such as are offered by Lamarck, and who
therefore preferred to suspend their judgment on the question,
found in the principle of selective breeding, pursued in all its
applications with marvellous knowledge and skill by Darwin,
a valid explanation of the occurrence of varieties and races;
and they saw clearly that, if the explanation would apply to
species, it would not only solve the problem of their evolution,
but that it would account for the facts of teleology, as well as
for those of morphology; and for the persistence of some forms
«f life unchanged through long epochs of time, while others
undergo comparatively rapid metamorphosis.
How far " natural selection " suffices for the production of
species remains to be seen. Few can doubt that, if not the
whole cause, it is a very important factor in that operation;
and that it must play a great part in the sorting out of varieties
into those which are transitory and those which are permanent.
• But the .causes and conditions of variation have yet to be
thoroughly explored; and the importance of natural selection
will not be impaired, even if further inquiries should prove
that variability is definite, and is determined in certain directions
rather than in others, by conditions inherent in that which varies.
It is quite conceivable that every species tends to produce
varieties of a limited number and kind, and that the effect of
natural selection is to favour the development of some of these,
while it opposes the* development of others along their pre-
determined lines of modification.
7. No truths brought to light by biological investigation
were better calculated to inspire distrust of the dogmas intruded
upon science in the name of theology than those which relate
to the distribution of animals and plants on the surface of the
earth. Very skilful accommodation was needful, if the limitation
of sloths to South America, and of the Omitkorhynckus to
Australia, was to be reconciled with the literal interpretation
of the history of the Deluge; and, with the establishment of
^the existence of distinct provinces of distribution, any serious
'belief in the peopling of the world by migration from Mount
Ararat came to an end.
Under these circumstances, only one alternative was left for
those who denied the occurrence of evolution; namely, the
supposition that the characteristic animals and plants of each
great province were created, as such, within the limits in whici
we find them. And as the hypothesis of "specific centres,'
thus formulated, was heterodox from the theological point o\
view, and unintelligible under its scientific aspect, it may be
passed over without further notice, as a phase of transition from
the creational to the evolutional hypothesis.
8. In fact, the strongest and most conclusive arguments in
favour of evolution are those which are based upon the facts
of geographical, taken in conjunction with those of geological,
distribution.
Both Darwin and Wallace lay great stress on the close relat ion
which obtains between the existing fauna of any region and that
of the immediately antecedent geological epoch in the same
region; and rightly, for it is in truth inconceivable that there
should be no genetic connexion between the two. It is possible
to put into words the proposition, that all the animals and plants
of each geological epoch were annihilated, and that a new set
of very similar forms was created for the next epoch, but it
may be doubted if any one who ever tried to form a distinct
mental image of this process of spontaneous generation on the
grandest scale ever really succeeded in realizing it.
In later years the attention of the best palaeontologists has
been withdrawn from the hodman's, work of making "new
species " of fossils, to the scientific task of completing our
knowledge of individual species, and tracing out the succession
of the forms presented by any given type in time.
Evolution at the Beginning of the aoih century."- Since Huxley
and Sully wrote their masterly essays in the oth edition of this
encyclopaedia, the doctrine of evolution has outgrown the
trammels of controversy and has been accepted as a fundamental
principle. Writers on biological subjects no longer have to waste
space in weighing evolution against this or that philosophical
theory or religious tradition; philosophical writers have frankly
accepted it, and the supporters of religious tradition have made
broad their phylacteries tb write on them the new words. A
closer scrutiny of the writers of all ages who preceded Charles
Darwin, and, in particular, the light thrown back from Darwin
on the earlier writings of Herbert Spencer, have made plain
that without Darwin the world by this time might have come
to a general acceptance of evolution; but it seems established
as a historical fact that the world has come to accept evolution,
first, because of Darwin's theory of natural selection, and second,
because of Darwin's exposition of the evidence for the actual
occurrence of organic evolution. The evidence as set out by
Darwin has been added to enormously; new knowledge has in
many cases altered our conceptions of the mode of the actual
process of evolution, and from time to lime a varying stress has
been laid on what are known as the purely Darwinian factors
in the theory. The balance Of these tendencies has been against
the attachment of great importance to sexual selection, and in
favour of attaching a great importance to natural selection,
but the dominant feature in the recent history of the theory
has been its universal acceptance and the recognition that this
general acceptance has come from the stimulus given by Darwin.
A change has taken place in the use of the word evolution.
Huxley, following historical custom, devoted one section of his
article to the ** Evolution of the Individual." The a^-—..
facts and theories respecting this are now discussed
under such headings as Embryology; Heredity; Variation
and Selection; under these headings must be sought informa-
tion on the important recent modifications with regard to the
theory of the relation between the development of the individual
and the development of the race, the part played by the environ-
ment on the individual, and the modem developments of the
PHYLOGeWYl
EVOLUTION
33
dd^iMrntlb«cveaiewol«iidikttd«pige«aift Tl» most striking
genexal change has been a^aiiisi seeing in the facts of ontogeny
any direct evidence as to phytogeny. The general proposition
aatompeanUcfani between individual and ancestral development
is no doubt indisputable* but extended knowledge of the very
different ontogenetic histories of dosely allied forma baa led us
to st Bach fuller conception of the mode m which stages in
eotb«yonic end larval history have been modified in. relation
to their swrottedings, nod to a consequent reluctance- to attach
detailed importance to the etnbryoJogical argument for evolution.
The vast bulk, of botanical and. zoological work on Jiving and
extinct forms published during the last quarter of the i-oth
nutommr oea * ur y increased almost beyond all expectation the
* evidence for the fact of evolution. The discovery of
a single fossil creature in a geological stratum of a wrong period,
the detection of a single anatomical ox physiological fact irrecon-
cilable with origin by descent with modification, would have been
destructive of the theory and would have made the reputation
of the observer. But in the prodigious number of supporting
discoveries that have been made no single negative factor has
appeared, and the evolution from their predecessors of the
forms of life existing now or at any other period must be taken
as proved. It is necessary to notice, however, that although
the general course of the stream of life is certain, there is not the
same certainty as to the actual, individual pedigrees of the
existing forms. In the attempts to place existing creatures in
approximately phylogenetic order, a striking change, due to a
more logical consideration of the process of evolution, has become
established and is already resolving many of the earlier difficulties
and banishing from the more recent tables the numerous hypo-
thetical intermediate forms so familiar in the older phylogenetic
trees. The older method was to attempt the comparison between
the highest member of a lower group and the lowest member of
a higher group — to suppose, for example, that the gorilla and the
ririmpaaaee, the highest members of the ape*, were the existing
representatives of the ancestors of man and to compare these
forms with the lowest members of the human race. Such a
comparison is necessarily illogical, as the existing apes are
separated from the common ancestor by at least as large a number
of generations as separate it from any of the forms of existing
man. In the natural process of growth, the gap must necessarily
be wider between the summits of the twigs than lower down,
and, instead of imagining " missing links," it is necessary to
trace each separate branch as low down as possible, and to
institute the comparisons between the lowest points that can be
reached. The method is simply the logical result of the fact
that every existing form of life stands at the summit of a long
branch of the whole tree of life. A due consideration of it leads to
'be curious paradox that if any two animals be compared, the
zoologically lower will be separated from the common ancestor
by a larger number of generations, since, on the average, sexual
maturity is reached more quickly by the lower form. Naturally
\try many other factors have to be considered, but this alone is
a sufficient reason to restrain attempts to place existing forms
ia linear phylogenetic series. In embryology, the method finds
i f s expression in the limitation of comparisons to the correspond-
ing stages of low and high forms and the exclusion of the com-
parisons between the adult stages of low forms and the embryonic
wages of higher forms. Another expression of the .same method,
dje to Cope, and specially valuable to the taxonomist, is
riit when the relationship between orders is being considered,
characters of subordinal rank must be neglected. It must not
be supposed that earlier writers all neglected this method, or
sJiD less tbat all writers .now employ it, but merely that formerly
tt was frequently overlooked by the best writers, and now is
oeglected only by the worst. The result is, on the one hand,
a clearing away of much fantastic phylogeny, on the other,
an enormous reduction of the supposed gaps between grdups.
There has been a renewed activity in the study of existing
forms from the point of view of obtaining evidence as to the
nature and origin of species. Comparative anatomists have been
learning to refrain from basing the diagnosis of a species, or the
description of the condition of an organ, en theievidenoa of a
single specimen. Naturalists who deal specially with museum
collections have been compelled, tt ia true, for other
reasons to atij^ an increasing importance to what ia .JjJJJjy
called the type specimen, but they find that this insist- t9my ,
ence on the individual, although invaluable from the
point of view of recording species, is unsatisfactory from the point
of view of scientific zoology] and propositions for the nmeliora*
tioa of this condition of affairs range from a refusal of Linoaeen
nomenclature in such cases, to the institution of a division
between *wtor speties for such species as have been properly
revised by the comparative morphologist, and provisional species
for such species as have been provisionally registered by those
working at collections. Those who work with living forms of
which it is possible to obtain a large number of specimens, and
those who make revisions of the provisional species of palaeonto-
logists, are slowly coming to some such conception as that, a
species is the abstract central point around which a group of
variations oscillate, and that the peripheral oscillations of one
species may even overlap those Of an allied species. It is plain
that we have moved far from the connotation and denotation
of the word sptcjgs at the time when Darwin began to discuss the
origin of species, and that the movement, on the one hand, tends
to simplify the problem philosophically, and, on the other, to
make it difficult for the amateur theorist.
The conception of evolution is being applied more rigidly to
the comparative anatomy of organs and systems of organ*
When a series of the modifications of an anatomical structure
has been sufficiently examined, it is frequently possible to decide
that one particular condition ia primitive, ancestral or central,
and that the other conditions have been derived from it. Such
a condition has been termed, with regard to the group of animals
or plants the organs of which are being studied, orckaceniric.
The possession of the character in the archecentric condition
in (say) two of the members of the group does not indicate that
these two members are more nearly related to one another
than they are to other members of the group; the archecentric
condition is part of the common heritage of all the members of
the group, and may be retained by any. On the other hand,
when the ancestral condition is modified, it may be regarded
as having moved outwards along some radius from the arche-
centric condition. Such modified conditions have been termed
Qpocentric, It is obvious that the mere apocentricity of a char-
acter can be no guide to the affinities of its possessor. It is
necessary to determine if the modification be a simple change
that might have occurred in independent cases, in fact if it
be a multiradial apocentricity, or if it involved intricate and
precisely combined anatomical changes that we could not expect
to occur twice independently; that is to say, if it be a uniradial
apocentricity. Multiradial apocentricities lie at the root of
many of the phenomena that have been grouped under the
designation convergence. Especially in the case of manifest
adaptations, organs possessed by creatures far apart gencslogicr
ally may be moulded into conditions that are extremely alike.
SirE. RayLankestcr's tefm,homoplasy, has passed into currency
as designating such cases where different genetic material has
been pressed by similar conditions into similar moulds. These
may be called, heterogeneous homoplasics, but it is necessary
to recognize the existence of homogeneous homoplasies,
here called multiradial apocentricities. A complex apocentric
modification of a kind which we cannot imagine to have
been repeated independently, and which is to be designated as
uniradial, frequently forms a new centre around which new
diverging modifications are produced. With reference to any
particular group of forms such a new centre of modification
may be termed a melnutUre, and it is plain that the archecentre
of the whole group is a metacentre of the larger group of which
the group under consideration is a branch. Thus, for instance,
the archecentric condition of any Avian structure is a meta-
centre of the Sauropsidan stem. A form of apocentricity
extremely common and often perplexing may be termed pseudo*
centric; in such a condition there is an apparent simplicity that
36
EVOLUTION
{BIONOMICS
reveals its secondary nature by tome small and apparently
meaningless complexity.
Another group of investigations that seems to play an im-
portant part in the future development of the theory of evolution
mam _ relates to the study of what is known as organic
f^tfj symmetry. The differentiations of structure that char-
acterise animals and plants are being shown to be
orderly and definite in many respects; the relations of the
various parts to one another and to the whole, the modes of
repetition of parts, and the series of changes that occur in groups
of repeated pans appear to be to a certain extent inevitable,
to depend on the nature of the living material itself and on the
necessary conditions of its growth. Closely allied to the study
of symmetry is the study of the direct effect of the circumambient
media on embryonic young and adult stages of living beings
(see Embryology: Physiology, Heredity; and Variation
and Selection), and a still larger number of observers have
added to our knowledge of these. It is impossible here to give
even a list of the names of the many observers who in recent
times have made empirical study of the effects of growth-forces
and of the symmetrical limitations and definitions of growth.
It is to be noticed, however, that, even after such phenomena
have been properly grouped and designated under Greek names
as laws of organic growth, they have not become explanations of
the series of facts they correlate. Their importance in the theory
of evolution is none the less very great. In the first place, they
lessen the number of separate facts to be explained; in the
second, they limit the field within which explanation must be
sought, since, for instance, if a particular mode of repetition of
parts occur In mosses, in flowering-plants, in beetles and in
elephants, the seeker of ultimate explanations may exclude
from the field of his inquiry all the conditions individual to
these different organic forms, and confine himself only to what
is common to all of them; that is to say, practically only
the living material and its environment. The prosecution
of such inquiries is beginning to make unnecessary much in-
genious speculation of a kind that was prominent from x88o
to iooo; much futile effort has been wasted in the endeavour
to find on Darwinian principles special "selection-values" for
phenomena the universality of which places them outside the
possibility of having relations with the particular conditions
of particular organisms. On the other hand, many of those
who have been specially successful in grouping diverse pheno-
mena under empirical generalizations have erred logically in
posing their generalizations against such a vera causa as
the preservation of favoured individuals and races. The thirty
years which followed the publication of the Origin of Species
were characterized chiefly by anatomical and embryological
work; since then there has been no diminution in anatomical
and embryological enthusiasm, but many of the continually
increasing body of investigators have turned again to bionomical
work. Inasmuch as Lamarck attempted to frame a theory of
evolution in which the principle of natural selection had no part,
the interpretation placed on their work by many bionomical
investigators recalls the theories of Lamarck, and the name
Neo-Lamcrckism has been used of such a school of biologists,
particularly active in America. The weakness of the Neo-
Lamarckian view lies in its interpretation of heredity; its
strength lies in its zealous study of the living world and the
detection therein of proximate empirical laws, a strength shared
by very many bionomical investigations, the authors of which
would prefer to call themselves Darwinians, or to leave them-
selves without sectarian designation.
Statistical inquiry into the facts of life has long been employed,
and in particular Francis Galton, within the Darwinian period, has
advocated its employment and developed its methods.
Within quite recent years, however, a special school
has arisen with the main object of treating the pro-
cesses of evolution quantitatively. Here ft, is right to speak of
Karl Pearson as a pioneer of notable importance. It has been
the habit of biologists to use the terms variation, selection,
elimination, correlation and so forth, vaguely; the new school.
which has been strongly reinforced from the side of physical
science, insists on quantitative measurements of the terms.
When the anatomist says that one race is characterized by bug
heads, another by round heads, the biometridst demands numbers
and percentages. When an organ is stated to be variable, the
biometridst demands statistics to show the range of the varia-
tions and the mode of their distribution. When a character is
said to be favoured by natural selection, the bSometricist dfmands
investigation of the death-rate of individuals with or without
the character. When a character is said to be transmitted, or
to be correlated with another character, the biometridst declares
the statement valueless without numerical estimations of the
inheritance or correlation. The subject is still so new, and Us
technical methods (see Variation and Selectiok) have as
yet spread so little beyond the group which is formulating and
defining them, that it is difficult to do more than guess at the
importance of the results likely to be gained. Enough, however,
has already been done to show the vast importance of the
method in grouping and codifying the empirical facts of life,
and in so preparing the way for the investigation of ultimate
" causes." The chief pitfall appears to be the tendency to attach
more meaning to the results than from their nature they can bear.
The ultimate value of numerical inquiries must depend on the
equivalence of the units on which they are based. Many of
the characters that up to the present have been dealt with by
biometrical inquiry are obviously composite. The height or
length of the arm of a human being, for instance, is the result
of many factors, some inherent, some due to environment, and
until these have been sifted out, numerical laws of inheritance
or of correlation can have no more than an empirical value.
The analysis of composite characters into their indivisible units
and statistical inquiry into the behaviour of the units would
seem to be a necessary part of biometric investigation, and one
to which much further attention will have to be paid.
It is well known that Darwin was deeply impressed by differ-
ences in flora and fauna, which seemed to be functions of
locality, and not the result of obvious dissimilarities of ^_^_
environment. A. R. Wallace's studies of island life, {jy 11 *
and the work of many different observers on local
races of animals and plants, marine, fluviatile and terrestrial,
have brought about a conception of segregation as apart from
differences of environment as being one of the factors in the
differentiation of living forms. The segregation may be geo-
graphical, or may be the result of preferential mating, or of
seasonal mating, and its effects plainly can be made no more of
than proximate or empirical laws of differentiation, of great
importance in codifying and simplifying the facts to be explained.
The minute attention paid by modern systematists to the exact
localities of subspecies and races is bringing together a vast
store of facts which will throw further light on the problem
of segregation, but the difficulty of utilizing these facts is in-
creased by an unfortunate tendency to make locality itself one
of the diagnostic characters.
Consideration of phylogenetic series, especially from the
palaeontologies! side, has led many writers to the conception
that there is something of the nature of a growth-force -^ •_*-_
inherent in organisms and tending inevitably towards
divergent evolution. It is suggested that even in the absence of
modification produced by any possible Darwinian or Lamarckian
factors, that even in a neutral environment, divergent evolution
of some kind would have occurred. The conception is necessarily
somewhat hazy, but the words balhmism and bathmic Evolution
have been employed by a number of writers for some such
conception. Closely connected with it, and probably under-
lying many of the facts which have led to it, is a more definite
group of ideas that may be brought together under the phrase
" phylogenetic limitation of variation." In its simplest form,
this phrase implies such an obvious fact as that whatever be the
future development of, say, existing cockroaches, it. will be on
lines determined by the present structure of these creatures.
In a more general way, the phrase implies that at each successive
branching of the tree of life, the branches become more specialized,
EVORA— EVREUX
37
ncredenngd,tnd, in a sense, mote Emitted Theiun implications
«f the group of idea* require, and are likely to receive, much
attention in the immediate future of biological investigation,
bit It ia enough at present to point out that until the more
obvious finai of inquiry have been opened out much more fully,
we cannot be in a position to guest at the existence of a residuum,
for which auch a metaphysical conception aa oathnrnm would
serve even at a convenient disguise for ignorance.
Almost every side of zoology hat contributed to the theory
of evolution, but of special importance are the facta and theories
tttodated with the names of Gregor Mendel, A. Weissnann
and Hugo de Vnes. These are discussed under the headings
Heuzhty; Mehdeusk; and Vaixaxiov and Ssucno*. It
ass been a feature of great promise in recent contributions to the
theory of evolution, that such contributions have received
attention almost directly in proportion to the new methods of
observation and the new tenet of nets with which they have
come. Those have found little favour who brought to the
debate onrjr formal criticisms or amplifications of the Darwinian
arguments, or le-maiahalMngs of the Darwinian facts, however
amy conducted The time has not yet come for the attempt
to synthesis* the results of the many different and often
apparentrysAtagonistk groups of workers. The great work that
is going on ia the simplification of the facts to be explained by
pouping them under empirical Uws; ajid the most general state-
neat relating to these that can yet be made is that no single one
«f these laws has aa yet shown signs of taking rank aa a vera cosue
comparable with the Darwinian principle of natural selection.
For evolution in relation to society see Sociology.
RxFEStmtfCES.— -Practically, every botanical and xoological pub-
Section of recent date has its bearing on evolution. The following
avc a lew of the more general works: Bateson, Materials for the
Slmdv of Variatiwi Bunge, Vitalisnuu und MeckamisMUs; Cope,
Chip* of tie Fittest, Primary Factors of Organic Eeolulion. Darwin's
Island Letters\_H. de Vries, Species and varieties and their Origin
h Mttrnt itmy Elmer, OrgonUEvolmtion;^ Gulick, M Divergent
Evolution through Cumulative Segregation," Jouf,lA$tu, Sot* jee;
Haaeke, StMttf*** dee Mensckm; Mitchell, " Valuation of Zoo-
fapcal Characten, Trans. Linn. Soc. via. pt. 7; Pearson, Grammar
if Science; •Romanes, Darwin and after Darwin; Sedgwick. Presi-
dential Address to Section Zoology, BriL Ate. £#*. 189Q', Wallace.
Darwimismi Weiamana, The Germ-Plosm. Farther references el
ssest value will be found in the works of Bateson and Pearson
tdaxtd to above, and in the annual volumes of the Zoological
hcord, particularly under the head " General Subject.'* (P. CM.)
B70RA, the capital of an administrative district in the
province of Alemtejo, Portugal; 72 m. E. by S. of Lisbon, on
the Caen Bianca-Evora-Elvas railway. Pop. (1000) 16,020.
Event occ up ies a ferule valley enclosed by low hills. It is sur-
msnded by ramparts flanked with towers, and is further
defended by two forts; but the neglected condition of these,
<imhmed with the narrow arcaded streets and crumbling walls
ef Reman or Moorish masonry, gives the city an appearance
eorrespcexding with its real antiquity. Evora is the see of an
airhhfihop, and has several churches, convents and hospitals,
btrrarks, a riioman school and a museum. A university,
{sanded in 1550, was abolished on the expulsion of the Jesuits
a the 18th century. The cathedral, originally a Romanesque
bmkfing erected x 186-1204, was restored in Gothic style about
1400; its richly decorated chancel was added in 1761. The
cknrch of Sao Francisco (1507-1525) is a good example of the
Headed Moorish and Gothic architecture known as ManeeUian.
The art gallery, formerly the archbishop's palace, contains a
collection, of Portuguese and early Flemish paintings. An
aacsent tower, and the so-called aqueduct of Scrtorius, 9 xn.
hag, have been partly demolished to make room for the market-
sqoare, in which one of the largest fairs in Portugal is held at
aadsammer. Both tower and aqueduct were long believed to
save been of Roman origin, but are now known to have been
contracted about 1540-1555 in the reign of John III., at the
ffitance of an antiquary named Resende. The aqueduct was
probably constructed on the site of the old Roman one. A small
toman temple is used as a public library; it is usually known
« the tcxapie of Diana, a name for which no valid authority
exists. Event is of little commercial importance, except as ah
agricultural centre, but its neighbourhood is famous for its mules
and abounds in cork-woods; there are also mines of iron, copper,
and asbestos and marble quarries.
Under its original name of Ebora, the city was from 80 to 7s B.C.
the headquarters of Sertorius, and it long remained an important
Roman military station. It was called Liberalises fuliae on
account of certain municipal privileges bestowed on it by
Julius Caesar (c 100-44 B.C.). Its bishopric, founded in the
5th centnry, was raised to an archbishopric in the 16th. In
719 Evora was conquered by the Moors, who named it faburo;
audit was only retaken in 1166. Fom 1663 to 1665 it was held
by the Spaniards. In 183 a Doni Miguel, retreating before Don
Pedro, took refuge in Evora; and here was signed the con-
vention of Evora, by which he was banished. (See Po&tuoal.)
The administrative district of Evora coincides with the central
part of Alemtejo (?.v.); pop. (xooo) 128,062; area, 2856 sq. m.
BVBBUX, a town of north-western Fiance, capital of the
department of Eure, 67 m. W.N.W. of Paris on the Western
railway to Cherbourg. Pop. (xooo) town, 13,77$; commune,
18,071. Situated in the pleasant valley of the Iton, arms of
which traverse it, the town, on the south, slopes up toward
the public gardens and the railway station. It is the seat of a
bishop, and its cathedral is one of the largest and finest ia France.
Part of the lower portion of the nave dates from the xxth century;
the west facade with its two ungainly towers is, for the most part,
the work of the late Renaissance, and various styles of the
intervening period are represented in the rest of the church.
A thorough restoration was completed in 1896. The elaborate
north transept and portal are in the flamboyant Gothic; the choir,
the finest part of the interior, is in an earlier Gothic style.
Cardinal de la Baxue, bishop of £vreux in the latter half of the
15th century, constructed the octagonal central tower, with its
elegant spire; tohimisalso due the Lady chapel, which ia remark-
able for some finely preserved stained glass. Two rose windows
in the transepts and the carved wooden screens of tne side chapels
are masterpieces of 16th-century workmanship. The episcopal
palace, a building of the 15th century, adjoins the south side
of the cathedral. An interesting belfry, lacing the handsome
modern town hall, dates from the 15th century. The church of
St Taurin, in part Romanesque, has a choir of the 14th century
and other portions of later date; It contains the shrine of St
Taurin, a work of the 13th century. At Vieil £vreux, 35 m.
south-east of the town, the remains of a Roman theatre, a palace,
baths and an aqueduct have been discovered, as well as various
relicswmcharenowo^positedmtbemuseumoffivreux. nvreux
ia the seat of a prefect, a court of assizes, of tribunals of first
instance and commerce, a chamber of commerce and a board of
trade arbitrators, and has a branch of the Bank of France, a
lycee and training colleges for teachers. The making of ricking;
boots and shoes, agricultural implements and gas motors, and
metal-founding and bleaching are carried on.
Yleu*£vreux {Medioiamm Anlercorum) was the capital of the
Gallic tribe of the AuUrci Eburovkes and a flourishing city due
ing the GaJlo-Roman period. Its bishopric dates from the 4th
century.
The first family of the counts of nvreux which is known
was descended from an illegitimate son of Richard L, duke of
Normandy, and became extinct in the male line with the death
of Count William in ni8. The coenlahip passed in right of Agnes,
William's sister, wife of Simon de MontforM'Amaury (d. 1087)
to the house of the lords of Montfort-TAmaury. AmaurylH.
of Montfort ceded it in 1200 to Ring Philip Augustus. Philip
the Fair presented it (1307) toon brother Louis, for whose benefit
Philip the Long raised the countship of nvreux into a peerage
of France (13x7). PhiHp of nvreux, son of Louis, became king
of Navarre by his marriagr with Jeanne, daughter of Louis the
Headstrong (Hntin), and their son Charles the Bad and their
grandson Charles the Noble were also kings of Navarre. The
latter ceded his countshxps of fivreux, Champagne and Brie
to King Charles VI. (1404). In 1427 the countship of £vretix
was bestowed by King Charles VTL on Sir John Stuart M
3*
EWALD
Darnley (c. 1365-1^9), the commander of his Scottish body-
guard, who in 1423 had received the seigniory of Aubtgny end
in February 1427/8 was granted the right to quarter the royal
arms of France for his victories over the Engnsh (see Lady
Elisabeth Cust, Account of the Stuarts of Aubigny in France,
J423-1672, x8oi). On Stuart's death (before Orleans during an
attack on an English convoy) the countship reverted to the crown.
It was again temporarily alienated (1569-1584) aa an appanage
for Frauds, duke of Anjou, and in 1651 was finally mad© over to
Frtdenc Maurice de la Tour d'Auvergne, duke of Bouillon, in
exchange for the principality of Sedan.
EWAUX OBORQ HBINRICH AUGUST VOM (1803-1S75),
German Orientalist and theologian, was born on the x6th of
November 1805 at GOttingen, where his father was a linen-
weaver. In z8i5 he was sent to the gymnasium, and in 1820
he entered the university of his native town, where under
J. G. Ekhhorn and T. C. Tychsen he devoted himself specially
to the study of Oriental languages. At the dose of hisacademical
career in 1813 he was appointed to a mastership in the gymnasium
at Wolfenbllttel, and made a study of the Oriental manuscripts
in the Wotfenbttttel library. But in the spring of 1*24 he was
recalled to GOttingen as repetent, or theological tutor, and in
1827 (the year Of Eichhorn's death) he became professor extra-
ordinarius in philosophy and lecturer in Old Testament exegesis.
In 1831 he was promoted to the position of professor ordinarius
in philosophy; in 1833 he became a member of the Royal
Scientific Society, and in 1835, after Tychsen's death, he entered
the faculty of theology, taking the chair of Oriental languages.
Two years later occurred the first important episode in his
studious life. In 1837, on the 18th of November, along with six
of his colleagues he signed a formal protest against the action
of King Ernst August (duke of Cumberland) in abolishing the
liberal constitution of 1833, which had been granted to the
Hanoverians by his predecessor William IV. This bold procedure
of the seven professors led to their speedy expulsion, from the
university (14th December). Early in 183& Ewald received a
call to Tubingen, and there for upwards of ten years he held a
chair as professor ordinarius, first in philosophy and afterwards,
from 1841, in theology. To this period belong some of his most
important works, and also the commencement of .his bitter feud
with F. C Baur and the Tubingen school In 1847, " the great
shipwreck-year in Germany, 11 as he has called it, he was invited
back to GOttingen on honourable terms— the liberal constitution
having been restored. He gladly accepted the invitation. In
1869-1863 he took an active part in a movement for reform
within the Hanoverian Church, and he wasa member of the synod
wbf chpassed the new constitution. He had an important share
also in the formation of the Protestantenverein, or Protestant
association, in September 1863. But the chief crisis in his life
arose out of the political events of 1866. His loyalty to King
George (son of Ernst August) would not permit him to take the
oath of allegiance to the victorious king of Prussia, and he was
therefore placed on the retired list, though with the full amount
of his salary as pension. Perhaps even this degree of severity
might have been held by the Prussian authorities to be un-
necessary, had Ewald been less exasperating in his language.
The violent tone of some of his printed manifestoes about this
time, especially of his Lob its Kdnigs u. des Votkes, led to his
being deprived of the utnia Ugendi (1868) and -also to a criminal
process, which, however, resulted in his acquittal (May 2869).
Then, and on two subsequent occasions, he was returned by the
city of Hanover as a member of the North German and German
parliaments. In June 1874 he was found guilty of a libel on
Prince Bismarck, whom he had compared to Frederick II. in
" his unrighteous war with Austria and his ruination of religion
and morality," to Napoleon III. in his way of " picking out the
best time possible for robbery and plunder." For this offence
he was sentenced to undergo three weeks' imprisonment. He
died in his 7*nd year of heart disease on the 4th of May 1875.
Ewald was no common- man. In Us public life he displayed
many noble characterUtios,-*^perfect simplicity and sincerity,
intense 'moral earnestness, sturdy ladcfrendcnee, absolute
fearlessness. As a teacher he had a r«t*»fc*bfe power of tindKi
enthusiasm; and he sent out many distinguished pupils, amoi
whom may be mentioned HiUig, Schrader, Ndldeke, Dkst
and DiUmann. His disciples were not aU of one school, but nai
eminent scholars who apparently have been untouched by 1
influence have in fact developed some of the many ideas which 1
suggested. His numerous writings, from 1823 onwards, n
the reservoirs in which the entire energy of a life was fiat
His Hebrew Grammar inaugurated anew era in biblical phuoloi
All subsequent works in that department have been avowee
based on his, and to him will always belong the honour of ha vi
been, as Hitzig has called him, " the second founder of t
stienceof the Hebrew language." As anexegeteand biblical ail
no less than as a grammarian he has left hig abiding mark. I
Getckicklt des Voihes Israel, the result of thirty yeas' Ww
was epoch-xnakingm that branchof research. While in every li
it bears the marks of intense individuality, it is at the same til
a product highly characteristic of the age, and even of the dead
in which it appeared. Hitisobvtaiary theotrtcomeofimmefl
learning on the part of Its author, it is no less manifestly t
result of the speculations and researches of many laborio
predecessors in all departments of history, theology and phil
sophy. Taking up the idea of a divine education of the hum
race, which Leasing -and Herder had made so familiar to tl
modern mind, and firmly believing that to each of the ksdii
nations of antiquity a special task had been providential
assigned, Ewald felt no difficulty about Israel's place in wavers
history, or about the problem which that race had been calk
upon to solve. The history of Israel, according to him, is simp]
the history of the manner in which the one true religion real
and truly came into the possession of mankind. Other nation
indeed, had attempted the highest problems in religion; bi
Israel alone, in the providence of God, had succeeded, for Isra
alone had been inspired. Such is the supreme meaning of thi
national history which began with the exodus and cuuamaM
(at the same time virtually terminating) in the appearing 1
Christ. The historical interval that separated these two events
treated as naturally dividing itself into three great period
—those of Moses, David and Ezra. The periods are external
indicated by the successive names by which the chosen peop
were called— Hebrews, Israelites, Jews. The events prior I
the exodus are relegated by Ewald to a preliminary chapter 1
primitive history; and the events of the apostolic and pos
apostolic age are treated as a kind of appendix. The entire coi
struction of the history as based, as has already been said, on
critical examination and chronological arrangement of tl
available documents. So far as the results of criticism are st
uncertain with regard to the age and authorship of any of the*
Ewald's conclusions must of course be regarded as unsatisfactor,
But his work remains a storehouse of learning and is tocreasiiui
recognized asa work of rare genius.
Of his works the more important are >— IHr Composition i
Genesis kritisch unlersuckt (1823), an acute and able attempt .
account for the use of the two names of God without recourse to tl
document-hypothesis; he was not himself, however, permanent
convinced by it; De metres carminum Arabieorum (1825); D
Hokdied Salome's aberseW u, erkldri {1B26; 3rd od., 1866): KriUsc
Grammatik dor hebr. Spracke (1827)— this afterwards became t
AusfUhrlickes Lekrbuck der hebr. Spracke (8th ed., 1670); and it »
followed by the Hebr. SprachUhre far Anfdnger (4th ed., ity
Vber einigs Were Sanskrilmetra (18*7); Liber VoheW 4* Mel
potamiae expugnakso histaria (1827}; Comnunumus in Apotolypi
Jokannis (1828); Abhandlungeri tur bibliscken u. orientaltsth
Literatur (1832V; Grammatka critica linguae Arabicae (1831-183J
Die poetischen packer des alien Bundes (1835-1837, 3rd ed., iw
1867); Die Prophden des alien Bundes (1840-1841, 2nd ed., 186
1868); Gesckichte des Voltes Israel (1843-1850. 3rd ed., 1864-186!
Alterthilmer Israels (1A18) J Die drei ersten Evangdien ibersetsl,
erkldri (1850); Vber das dthiopische Buck Henoch (1854); \
Sendschreiben des Apostets Paulus Hbersettt u. erkUrt (1857); I
Johanneischen Sehrifien tibersetel n. erkldri (1861-1862); Vber <1
vierle Esrabuck (1863); Sieben Sendsckreiben des neuen Bwi
(1870); Das Sendschreiben an die Hebraer u. Jakobos' RnndscbrtA
(1870); Die Ltkrc der Bibel von Goit, oder Theologie des alien
neuen Bundes (1871-1875). The Jahrbicker der bibliscken Wis*
sehaft (1849-1863) were edited, and for the most part written,
him. He was thechief promoter of theZeitschriftJilrdis£.ue4t<
EWALD
39
sV s ws s sW . begfle io 1847; and he frequently contributed on
mm subjects to the Gtthng. gtUkrU Auuigen. He was also the
uthor of many pamphlet! of an occasional character.
Use followinff name been translated into English *—H<Anm Gram*
w, by John Nicboboa (from 2nd German edition) (London 1836) ;
M w A erj Htkrtrn Grammar (from 3rd German edition) (London,
1S70); History of I trad. 5 vols, (corresponding to vols, i.-iv. of the
Gotaaa), by Rtiasell Martineau and J. Estlin Carpenter (London,
1*7-1874); Anfomties of I trad, by H. S. Sotty {London. 1876);
frMMJsrt on the Prophets of ike Old Testament, by j. Frederick
Snith (2 vols., London. 1876-1877) ; Ifoiak Iks Prophet, chaps.
luxE, by 0. Glover (London, i860) ; Life of Jesus Christ, also
by 0. Clover (London, 1865).
5* the article fat Hereojr-Hauek; T. Wltton Davies, Hetnrich
hdd (1903); and cf. T. ft. Cheyne, Founders of Old Tesimueui
IVAID, JOHsJOTRS (1743-1781), the greatest lyrical poet of
Deanaxk, vat the son of a melancholy and sickly chaplain at
Copenhagen, when he was bom on the 18th of November 1743.
At toe age of eleven he was sent to school at Schleswig, his
atbers birthplace, and returned to the capital only to enter
tie university in 1758. His father was by that time dead, and
in fab mother, a frivolous and foolish woman, he found neither
^pathy nor moral support* At fifteen he fell passionately
a love with Arense Hidcgaard, a girl whose father afterwards
Buried the poet's mother; and the romantic boy resolved on
nrious modes of making himself admired by the young lady.
He began to learn Abyssinian, for the purpose of going out as a
nonary to Africa, but this scheme was soon given up, and he
peaaded a brother, four years older than himself, to run away
lau they might enlist as hussars in the Prussian army. They
unajed to reach Hamburg just when the Seven Years' War
ns commencing and were allowed to enter a regiment. But
kdder brother soon got tired and ran away, while the poet,
tier 1 series of extraordinary adventures, deserted to the
fatriaa tray, where from being drummer he rose to being
"put, and was only not made an officer because he was a
foittuat. In 1760 lie was weary of a soldier's life and deserted
^b. getting safe heck to Denmark. For the nest two years
« *wked with great diligence at the university, but the Arense
atfSflB he had gone through so much hardship and taken so
*** pains married another man almost immediately after
tnld't ami and very successful r Tsminarion. The disappoint-
■* »u one from which he never recovered, but his own
■«**« of wfll was largely to blame for it- He plunged into
*»P»UMi of every kind, and gave hie serious thoughts only to
Wry.
k 1763 his fast work, a perfunctory dissertation, Da pyrabgU
"w.fat taw the light. In 1764 he nude a coiisiderabfe success
*J . s abort prose story in the popular, manner of Snesdorf,
W*»Ttmpd (The Temple of Fortune), which was translated
^fennanand Icelandic. On the death of Frederick V,, how-
otf.Ewaldarst appeared prominently as a poet; he published in
rottae£fcgjej over the dead king, which were received with
-s-Tsial acclamation, and of which one, at least, is a veritable
^tepitte. But his dramatic poem Aden eg Eva (Adam and
"". by far the finest imaginative work produced in Denmark
*9toUint time, was rejected by the Society of Arts in 1767 and
"* not published until 1769. At the Utter date, however, its
^ were perceived In 1770 Ewald attained success with
'*»> s narrative and lyrical poem, and still more- with his
w&JMfKrop, the first original Danish tragedy. For the
^ ten years Ewald was occupied la producing one brilliant
^5*1 work after another, in rapid succession. In 1771 he
; **4«1 De brutal* Kiapptn (The Brutal Clappers), a tragi.
***? or parody satirising the dispute- then raging between
* critics and the manager of the Royal Theatre; in 1772
< tnosUted from the German the lyrical drama of Ptiteme*
f «*», and brought out his versified comedy of Harkqum
;**» * satire on the passion for political scribbhng created by
^ee's introduction of the liberty of the press. In 1775 he
**tai Pebtnmmdena (Old Bachelors), a prose comedy.
''Hi he had already collected some of his lyrical poems under
^QJAdskiUiftafJokamux* BmldjUnraUudm). In 1774
appeared the heroic opera of AstttrV IM Cn^MerVDeeA),
and in 1770 the finest of his works, the lyrical drama Pishtrua
(The Fishers), which contains the Danish National Song, " King
Christian stood by jthe high Mast,' 1 his mast famous lyric. In
the two poems last mesttaoned, however, Ewald passed beyond
contemporary taste, and. these great works, the pride of Danish
literature, were coldly received. But white the new poetry was
slowly winning its way into popular esteem, the poet did not lack
admirers, and at the head of thesene founded in 1775 the Danish
Literary Society, a body which became inflwantasi, and which
made the study of Ewald a coitus. But the poet's health had
broken; when he was writing Rolf Krat< he was already an
inmate of the consumptive hospital, and when he seemed to be
recovering, his bealth was shattered again by a sight spent in the
frosty streets. He embittered his existence by the iwfkbsiness
of his private life, and finally, through a fall from a bene, he
ended by becoming a coniplete invalid. His last ten years were
full of acute suffering; Us mother treated him with cruelty;
bis family with neglect* and but lew even of has friends showed
any manliness or generosity towards him. In 1774 he was placed
in the house of an inspector of fisheries at Bungsted, where
Anna Hedevig Jacobsea, the daughter of the house, tended the
wasted poet with infinite tenderness and akilL He stayed in
this house for three years, and wrote there some of his finest later
lyrics. Meanwhile he had fallen deeply in love with die charming
solace of Iris sufferinga and won her consent to. a marriage.
This step, however, was prevented by his family, who ronghry
removed him to their own keeping near Kroaborg. Here he
was treated so infamously that he insisted on being taken back
to Copenhagen in 1777, where he found an older, but no less
tender nurse, in Ane Kirsdne Skott. Here he wrote Fmhwne
with his imagination full of the ianrinar shore at Hombaek,
near Rungsted. In 1780 he was a little better, and snanaged to
be present at the theatre at the first performance of his poem.
But this excitement hastened his end, assdaftcr months oicxtrcmo
agony he died on the 17th of March 1781, and was carried to
the gave by a large assembly of ksadmiotrs, since he was now
just recognised by the public for the first time as the greatest
national poet. Among his papers were found fragments of
three dramas, two on old Scandinavian subjects, entitled
Freds- and Help, and the third a tragedy on the story of
Hamlet, which he meant to treat in a way wholly distinct from
Shakespeare's.
Ewald belongs to the race of poetical r e fo rmers who appeared
in all countries of Europe at the end of the r8th century; but it is
interesting to observe that in point of rinse he preceded all of
them. He was born six years earlier than Goethe and Alfieri,
sixteen yeses before ScbiUer, nine, yean before Andre Cheater,
and twenty-seven yean earner than Wordsworth, but he did for
Denmark what each of these poets did for has own country:
Ewald found Danish literature given over to tasteless rhetoric,
and without art or vigour. He introduced vivacity of style,
freshness and brevity of form, and an imaginative stody of nature
which was then unprecedented. But perhaps his greatest claim
to notice is tpe fact that he was the first person to call the atten-
tion of the Scandinavian peoples to the treasuries of their ancient
history and mythology, and to suggest the use of these in tmagjnav-
tive writing. With a colouring more distinctly modern than that
of Colatns and Gray, his lyrics yet resemble the odes of these his
Ens^ashcontempoEsuaesmore closely tha&those of any continental
poet; from another point of view his baHadsxemind us of those
of Schiller, which they preceded. His dramas, which had an
immense influence on the Danish stage, see now chiefly of anti*
quarian interest* with the exception of " The Fishers," a work
that must always live as a great national poem. In personal
character- and in fate Ewald seems to have been not unlike
Heinrich Heine.
The first collected edition of Ewald's works began to appear la
his lifetime. It is in four volumes, 1780-1784. His works have
constantly been reprinted, but .the standard edition is that by
Liebenbcrg, In 8 vols., 1 850-1 855. The best biographies of him are
those by C Motbech (1831), Hammerich (i860) and Andreas DoBeris
(1900). <e.o>
40
EWART— EWING
WILLIAM <i7o*-x8$o), Enfjish politician, was
born in Liverpool on the xst of May 1708. He was educated at
Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, gaining the Newdigate prize
for English verse. He was called to the bar at the Middle
Temple in 1817, and the next year entered parliament for the
borough of BletchingJey in Surrey. He subsequently sat for
Liverpool from 1830 to 1837, for Wigan in- 1839, and for Dumfries
Burghs from 1841 until his retirement from public life in 1868.
He died at Broadleas, near Devises, on the 33rd of January i860.
Ewart, who was an advanced liberal in politics, was responsible
during his long political career for many useful measures. In
1834 he carried a bill for the abolition of hanging in chains, and
in 1837 he was successful in getting an act passed for abolishing
capital punishment for cattle-stealing and other offences. In
1850 he carried a bill for establishing free libraries supported out
of the rates, and in 1864 he was instrumental in getting an act
passed for legalising the use of the metric system of weights and
measures. He was always a strong advocate for the abolition
of capital punishment, and on his motion in 1864 a select corn-
tnittee was appointed to consider the subject. Other reforms
which he advocated and which have since been carried out were
an annual statement on education, and the examination of
ca ndida tes for the civil service and army.
EWE, a group of Negro peoples of the Slave Coast, West
Africa. By the natives their country is called Bwe-me, " Land
of the Ewe." The Ewe family forms five linguistic groups:
the Anlo or Anglawa on the Gold Coast frontier, the Krepi of
Anfueh speech, the Jeji, the Dahomeyans and the Mahi.
See further Dahombt, and A. B. Ellis, The Eke*Speahing Peoples
of the Slave Const . . . (London, 1890).
SWELL, RICHARD STODDERT (1817-1872), American
soldier, lieutenant-general in the Confederate army, was bom in
Georgetown, now a part of Washington, D.C., on the 2nd of
February 18x7, and graduated at West Point in 1840. As a
cavalry officer he saw much active service in the Mexican War
and later in Indian warfare in New Mexico. He resigned his
commission at the outbreak of the Civil War, and entered the
Confederate service. He commanded a brigade in the first Bull
Run campaign, and a division in the famous Valley Campaign
of" Stonewall "Jackson, to whom he was next in rank. At Cross
Keys he was in command of the forces which defeated General
Fremont. E well's division served with Jackson in the Seven
Days and in the campaign of Second Bull Run. At the action
of Groveton Ewell lost a leg, but did not on that account retire
from active service, though other generals led his men in the
sanguinary battles of Antietam (where they lost 47% of their
numbers) and Fredericksburg. After the death of " Stonewall "
Jackson, Ewell was promoted lieutenant-general and appointed
to command the and Corps, with which he had served from the
beginning of the Valley Campaign. His promotion set aside
General J. E. B. Stuart,- the temporary commander of Jackson's'
corps; that Ewell, crippled as he was, was preferred to the
brilliant cavalry leader was a marked testimony to his sterling
qualities as a soldier. The invasion of Pennsylvania soon
followed, EwelTs corps leading the advance of Lee's army. A
federal force was skilfully cut off and destroyed near Winchester,
Va., and Ewell's corps then raided Maryland and southern
Pennsylvania unchecked. At the battle of Gettysburg, the
snd Corps decided the fighting of the first day in favour of
the Confederates, driving the enemy before them; on the
second day it fought a desperate action on Lee's left wing.
Ewell took part in the closing operations of 1863 and in all the
battles of the Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns. In the
final campaign of 1865 he and the remnant of his corps were cut
off and forced to surrender at Sailor's Creek, a few days before
his chief capitulated to Grant at Appomattox. After the war
General EweU lived in retirement. He died near Spring Hill,
Maury County, Tennessee, on the 15th of January 2872.
EWINO, ALEXANDER (181 4-1873), Scottish divine, was
bora of an old Highland family in Aberdeen on the 35th of
March 1814. In October 1838 he was admitted to deacon's
ordtas, and after his return from Italy he took charge of the
episcopal congregation at Forres, and was ordained a presort
in the autumn of 1841. In 1846 he warelected first bishop <
the newly restored diocese of Argyll and the Isles, the duties <
which position he discharged till his death on the asnd of Ma
1873. In 1851 he received the degree of D.CJL. from the unta
sity of Oxford. Though hampered by a delicate bodily constit
tion, he worked in a spirit of buoyant cheerfulness. By t|
charm of his personal manner and his catholic sympathies 1
gradually attained a prominent position. In theological d
cussion he contended for the exercise of a wide tolerance, ai
attached little importance to ecclesiastical authority ai
organization. His own theological position had dose amni
with that of Thomas Erskine of Lmlathen and Frederi
Denison Maurice; but his opinions were the fruit of his 01
meditation, and were coloured by his own individuality. T
trend of his teaching is only to be gathered from fragments
publications— letters to the newspapers, pamphlets, sped
sermons, essays contributed to the series of Present Day Pafe\
of which he was the editor, and a volume of sermons entitl
Revelation considered as Light.
Besides bis strictly theological writings, Ewing was the autt
of the Cathedral or Abbey Church of Iona (1865), the first part
which contains drawings and descriptive letterpress of the roil
and the second a history of the early Celtic church and the jniesi
of St Columba. See Memoir of Alexander Ewing, D.CA., by A.
Ross (1877).
EWINO. JULIANA HORAHA ORR (1841-1885), Englr
writer of books for children, daughter of the Rev. Alfred Gati
and of Margaret Getty (qs>X was born at Fcclesfield, Yorkshii
in 1841. One of a large family, she was accustomed to act \
nursery story-teller to her brothers and sisters, and her broth
Alfred Scott Gatty provided music to accompany her play
She waa well educated in classics and modem languages, and 1
an early age began to publish verses, being a contributor 1
Aunt Judy's Magamme, which her mother started in 1866. Ti
Laud of Lost Toys and many other of Juliana's stories appear*
in this magazine. In 1867 she married Major Alexander Ewini
himself an author, and the composer of the well-known hyn
"Jerusalem the Golden." From this time until her deal
(13th may 1885), previously to which she had been a coastal
invalid, Mrs Ewing produced a number of Asjming children
stories. The best of these are: The Brownies (1870), A Flat-In
for a Farthing (1873), Lob4Mry the Fin (1874), The Story of
Short Life (1885) and Jackanapes (1884), the two last-named, i
particular, obtaining great success; among others may 1
mentioned Mrs Cher -Ike-Way's Remembrances (1869), Six 1
Sixteen, Jan of the Windmill (1876), A Great Emergency (1877
We and the World (1881), Otd-Foshioned Fairy Tales, Brotkc
of PUy (1882), The Doll's Wash, Master Frit*, Our Garden, .
Soldier 1 s Children, Three Little Nest-Birds, A Week Spent in
Glass-House, A Swet Little Dear, and Blue-Red (1883). Man
of these were published by the S.P.C.K* Simple and unaffecte
in style, and sound and wholesome in matter, with quiet touch<
of humour and bright sketches of scenery and character, Mi
E wing's best stories have never been surpassed in the style <
lit eratu re to which they belong.
EWINO, THOMAS (1780-1871), American lawyer and state
man, was born near the present West Liberty, West Virginia,
the 28th of December z 789. His father, George Ewing, settled a
Lancaster, Fairfield county, Ohio, in 1702. Thomas graduate
at Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, in- 1815, and in August 181
was admitted to the bar at Lancaster, where he won high ran
as an advocate. He was a Whig member of the United Stati
senate in 1831-1837, and as such took a prominent part in tt
legislative struggle over the United States Bank, whose n
chartering he favoured and which he resolutely defended again)
President Jackson's attack, opposing in able speeches the wit]
drawal of deposits and Secretary Woodbury's " Specie Circular
of 1836. In March 1841 he became secretary of the treasury I
President W. H. Harrison's cabinet. When, however, aft<
President Tyler's accession, the relations between the Preside!
and the Whig Party became strained, be retired (Septemb
2841) and waa succeeded by Walter Forward (1786- 185 2),
EXAMINATIONS
4»
Subsequently from Mart* 1849 to July 1850 he was a member
of President Taylor's cabinet as the first secretary of the newly
established department of the interior. He thoroughly organized
the department, and in his able annual report advocated the
construction by government aid of a railroad to the Pacific
Coast. In 1850-1851 he filled the unexpired term of Thomas
Corwin in the U.S. Senate, strenuously opposing Clay's com-
promise measures and advocating the abolition of slavery in the
District of Columbia. He was subsequently a delegate to the
Peace Congress in i86t, and was a loyal supporter of President
Lincoln's war policy. He died at Lancaster, Ohio, on the s6th
of October 1871. .
His daughter was the wife of General William T. Sherman.
His son, Hugh Boyle Ewing (1826-1905), served throughout the
Gvil War in the Federal armies, rising from the rank of colonel
(1861) to that of brigadier-general (1862) and brevet major-
general (1865), and commanding brigades at Antietam and
VIcksburg and a division at Chickamauga; and was minister of
the United States to the Netherlands in 1866-1870. Another son,
Thomas Ewing (1820-1806), studied at Brown University in
1852-1854 (in 1804, by a special vote, he was placed on the
list of graduates in the class of 1856); he was a lawyer and a free-
st ate politician in Kansas in 1857-1861, and was the first chief-
justice of the Kansas supreme court (1861-1862). In the Civil
War he attained the rank of brigadier-general (March i86j) and
received the brevet of major-general (1865). He was sub-
sequently a representative in Congress from Ohio in 1877-1881;
acd from 1882 to 1806 practised law in New York City, where he
was long one of the recognized leaders of the bar.
EXAMINATIONS. The term " examination " (i.e. inspecting,
weighing and testing; from Lat. examen, the tongue of a balance)
b used in the following article to denote a systematic test of
knowledge, and of either special or general capacity or fitness,
arried out under the authority of some public body.
1. History. — The oldest known system of examinations in
history is that used in China for the selection of officers for the
public service (c. 1115 B.C.), and the periodic tests which they
undergo ** ltr entrv ( c - * 2 °° BC )- See China; also VV. A. P.
Martin, The Lore of Cdlhay (1001), p. 311 et scq.; T. L. Bullock,
"Competitive Examinations in China" (Nineteenth Centttry,
July 1894); and £tienne Zi, Pratique des examens litttraires en
Chine (Shanghai, 1894). The abolition of this system was
announced in 1006, and, as a partial substitute, it was decided to
bold an annual examination in Peking of Chinese graduates
educated abroad (Times, 22nd of October 1006).
The majority of examinations in western countries are derived
from the university examinations of the middle ages. The first
sniversities of Europe consisted of corporations of teachers and
of students analogous to the trade gilds and merchant gilds of
the time. In the trade gilds there were apprentices, companions,
and masters. No one was admitted to mastership until he had
served his apprenticeship (?.?.), nor, as a rule, until he had shown
that he could accomplish a piece of work to the satisfaction of the
guM
The object of the universities was to teach; and to the three
classes established by the gild correspond roughly the scholar,
the bachelor or pupH-teacher (see Rashdall i. 209, note 2, and 221,
sate 5), and the master or doctor (two terms at first equivalent)
who, having served his apprenticeship and passed a definite
technical test, had received permission to teach. The early
universities of Europe, being under the same religious authority
and animated by the same philosophy, resembled each other very
closely in curriculum and general organisation and examinations,
tad by the authority of the emperor, or of the pope in most cases,
the permission to teach granted by one university was valid in
a3 (jus vbiatnque docendi).
The earliest university examinations of which a description is
available are those in civil and in canon law held at Bologna
at a period subsequent to 1219. The student was admitted
wi'hout examination as bachelor after from four to six years'
ttudy. and after from six to eight years' study became
qualified as a candidate for the doctorate. He might obtain
the doctorate hi both branches of law in ten yean (Rashdall L
S2I-222).
The doctoral examination at Bologna la the I3th-I4tb
centuries consisted of two part*—* private examination which
was the real test, and a public one of a ceremonial character
(cementus). One candidate first took an " oath that he had
complied with all the statutable conditions, that he would give
no more than the statutable fees or entertainments to the rector
himself, the doctor or his fellow-students, and that he would
obey the rector." . He was then presented to the archdeacon of
Bologna by one or more doctors, who were required to have
satisfied themselves of his fitness by private examination. On
the morning of the examination, after attending mass, he was
assigned by one of the doctors of the assembled college two
passages (puntta) in the civil or canon law, which he retired to
his house to study, possibly with the assistance of the presenting
doctor. Later in the day he gave a lecture on, or exposition of,
the prepared passages, and was examined on them by two of
the doctors appointed by the college. Other doctors might then
put supplementary questions on law arising out of the passages,
or might suggest objections to his answers. The vote of the
doctors present was taken by ballot, and the fate of the candidate
was determined by the majority. The successful candidate,
who received the title of licentiate, was, on payment of a heavy
fee and other expenses, permitted to proceed to the content**
or final public examination. This consisted in the delivery of
a speech and the defence of a thesis on some point of law,
selected by the candidate, against opponents selected from among
the students. The successful candidate received from the arch-
deacon the formal " licence to teach " by the authority of the
pope in the name of the Trinity, and was invested with the
insignia of office. At Bologna, though not at Paris, the " per-
mission to teach " soon became fictitious, only a small number
of doctors being allowed to exercise the right of teaching in that
university (Rashdall).
In the faculty of arts of Paris, towards the end of the 13th
century, the system was already more complicated than at
Bologna. The baccalaureate, licentiateship, and mastership
formed three distinct degrees. For admission to the baccalaureate
a preliminary test or " Responsions " was first required, at which
the candidate had to dispute In grammar or logic with a master.
The examiners then inspected the certificates (sckedulae) of
residence and of having attended lectures in the prescribed
subjects, and examined him in the contents of his books. The
successful candidate was admitted to maintain a thesis against
an opponent, a process called " determination " (see Rashdall
i. 443 et seq.), and as bachelor was then permitted to give
"cursory" lectures. After five or six years from the date of begin-
ning his studies (matriculation) and being twenty years of age
(these conditions varied at different periods), a bachelor was
permitted to present himself for the examination for the licentiate-
ship, which was divided into two parts. The first part was
conducted in private by the chancellor and four examiners
(temptatoret in comeris), and included an inquiry into the
candidate's residence, attendance at lectures, and performance
of exercises, as well as examination In prescribed books; those
candidates adjudged worthy were admitted to the more im-
portant examination before the faculty, and the names of
successful candidates were sent to the chancellor in batches of
eight or more at a time, arrangedjn order of merit. (The order
of merit at the examination for the licentiateship existed in
Paris till quite recently.) Each successful candidate was then
required to maintain a thesis chosen by himself (qnodiibetica)
in St Julian's church, and was finally submitted to a purely
formal public examination (caUatio) at either the episcopal
palace or the abbey of Ste Genevieve, before receiving from
the chancellor, in the name of the Trinity, the licence to incept
or begin to teach in the faculty of arts. After some six months
more the licentiate took part " in a peculiarly solemn disputa-
tion known as his 'Vespers,' " then gave his formal inaugural
lecture or disputation before the faculty, and was received into
the faculty as master. This last process was called " inception/'
4*
EXAMINATIONS
In riwrtmng the value of medieval eiaqiimtions of the kind
described, Paulsen (The German Universities (1906), p. 2 j} asserts
that they were well adapted to increase a student's alertness,
his power of comprehending new ideas, and his ability quickly
and surely to assimilate them to his own, and that " they did
more to enable [students] to grasp a subject than the mute and
solitary reviewing and cramming of our modern examinations
can possibly do." At their best they fulfilled precisely the
technical purpose for which they were intended; they fully
tested the capacity of the candidate to teach the subjects which
he was required to teach in accordance with the methods which
he was required* to use. The limitations of the test were the
limitations of the educational and philosophic ideals of the time,
in which a dogmatic basis was presupposed to all knowledge
and criticism was limited to the superstructure. At their worst,
even with venal examiners (and additional fees were often offered
as a bribe), Rashdall regards these examinations (at the end of
the 13th century) as probably " less of a farce than the pass
examinations of Oxford and Cambridge almost within the
memory of persons now living." It is, however, to be pointed out
that the standard in Paris and elsewhere at a later date became
scandalously low in some cases. In some universities the sons of
nobles were regularly excused certain examinations. At Cam*,
bridge in 1774 Fellow Commoners were examined with such
precipitation to fulfil the formal requirements' of the statutes
that the ceremony was termed " huddling for a degree " (J*bb,
Remarks upon the- Present Mode of Education in the University
of Cambridge 4th ed., 1774, p. 3*). The last privileges of this
kind were abolished at Cambridge by a grace passed on the aoth
of March 1884.
In the medieval examinations described above we find most of
the elements of our present examinations: certificates of previous
study and good conduct, preparation of set-books, questioning
on subjects not specially prepared, division of examinations
into various parts, classification in order of merit, payment of
fees, the presentation of a dissertation, and the defence and
publication of a thesis (a teem of which the meaning has now
become extended).
The requirement to write answers to questions written or
dictated, to satisfy a practical test (other than in teaching),
and a clinical test in medicine, appear to be of later dale. 1 The
medieval candidate for the doctorate in medicine, although
required to have attended practice before presenting himself,
discussed as his thesis a purely theoretical question, often
semi-theological in character, of which as an extreme example
may be quoted " whether Adam had a navel."
The competitive system was developed considerably at
Louvain, and in the 15th century the candidates for the master-
ship of arts were divided into three classes (rigorosi, honour-men;
transibilcs, pass-men; gratiosi, charity-passes), while a fourth,
which was not published, contained the names of those who failed.
In the 17th century the first class comprised the names of twelve,
and the second, of twenty-four, candidates, who were divided
on the reriort of their teachers into classes before the examination,
and finally arranged in order of merit by the examiners
(Vernulaeus, quoted by Sir W. Hamilton, Discussions, 18$ a;
p. 647; Rashdall, loc. cit. ii. 362). At the Cambridge tripos (as
described by Jcbb in 1774, Remarks, &c, pp. 20-31) the first
twenty-four candidates were also selected by a preliminary test;
they were then divided further into " wranglers" (the disputants,
par excellence) and Senior Oplimes, the next twelve on the list
being called the Junior Optima. These names have in the
mathematics tripos survived the procedure. (The name Tripos
is derived from the three-legged stool on which " an old
bachilour," selected for the purpose, sat during his disputation
with the senior bachelor of the year, who was required to pro-
pound two questions to him.)
» W. W. Rouse Ball in his History of the Study of Mathematics at
•Cambridge (1889). p. 193. states that ne can find no record of any
European examinations by means of written papers earlier than
those introduced by R. Bentley at Trinity College, Cambridge, in
1 rotf.
The subjects in which the medieval universities g™««H
were (i.) those of the irivjum and quadrivium in the faculty of
arts; (ii.) theology; (iiL) medicine; and (iv.) civil and canon
law. The number of subjects In which examinations are held
has since grown immensely. We can only sketch in outline
the transformations of certain typical university systems oi
examinations.
At Oxford there is no record of a process of formal examination
on books similar to that of Paris (Rashdall, ii. 442 et seq.),
disputations being apparently the only test applied in its early
history. Examinations were definitely introduced for the B.A.
and M.A. degrees by Laud in 1636-1638 (Brodrick, History of
Oxford, p. 114), but the standard prescribed was so much beyond
the actual requirements of later times that it may be doubted if
it was enforced. The studies fell in the iSth century into an
" abject state," from which they were first raised by a statute
passed in 1800 {Report of Oxford University Commission of
18 '$<>- 1851, p. 60 et seq.), under which distinctions were first
allotted to the ablest candidates for the bachelor's degree.
Further changes were -made in 1807 and 1825; and in 183a a
distinction was made between honours examinations of a more
difficult character, at which successful candidates were divided
into four classes, and pass examinations of an easier character.
By the statutes of 1849 and 1858 an intermediate " Moderations "
examination was instituted between the preliminary examination
called " Rcsponskms " and the final examination. Since 1850.
although fresh subjects of examination have been introduced,
no considerable change of system has been made.
The bachelor's degree at Oxford tended from an early period to
be postponed to an advanced stage of studies, while the require-
ments for the master's degree diminished until, in 1807, the
examination for the M.A. was abolished. It is now awarded to
bachelors of three years' standing on payment of a fee.
Cambridge in early times followed the example of Oxford,
and here also the bachelor's degree became more and more
important (BassMullinger, History of Ike University of Cambridge
fromtsSS* - • > P- .4M)»*nd the M.A. has been finally reduced to
a mere formality, awarded on terms similar to those of the sister
university. The standard of examinations was raised in Cam-
bridge at an earlier date than at Oxford, and in the 18th century :
the tripos '* established the reputation of Cambridge as a School
of Mathematical Science." The school, however, produced .
few, if any, great mathematicians between Newton and George
Green. It was only between 1830 and 1840 that the standard
of the tripos became a high one, At Cambridge there is no 1
intermediate examination between the " Previous Examination "
(commonly called " Little-go "), which corresponds to Oxford
" Responsions " or " Smalls " and the triposes and examinations j
for the " Poll " degree, which correspond to the Oxford final
honours and pass examinations respectively. ■ But most of the
triposes have been divided into two parts, of which the second is ;
notobligatoryinordertoobtainadegree. The "senior wrangler'
was the first candidate in order of merit in the first part of tht ,
mathematical tripos. The abolition of order of merit at thii ,
examination was decided on in 1006, and names of candidate*. ,
appeared in this order for the last time in 1009.
At the Scottish universities the B.A. degree has becom*
extinct, and the.M.A., awarded on the results of examination
is the first degree in the faculty of arts.
The incorporation of the university of London in 1836 marks at
era in the history of examinations; the teaching and examinia
functions of a university were dissociated for the first time
Until 1858. the London examinations were open only to student
in affiliated colleges, and the teachers had no share in the appoint -
ment of the examiners or indetermining the curricula for examine -
ttons; in 1858 the examinations were thrown open to all comet? . ,
and no requirements were insisted on with regard to courses (
study except for degrees in the faculty of medicine. The so) .',
function of the university was to examine, and its exaroinatioi
for matriculation and for degrees in arts and science were carrit
on by means of written papers not only in London but in man -
ccotfes in the United Kingdom and the colonies. From tf
EXAMINATION
43
it the degrees were (unlike those of Oxford and Cambridge
iu1 1871) open to til male persons without religious distinctions;
id in 1878 they were opened to women. (Tripos examination*
n thrown open to women at Cambridge by the grace of aath
h. iiS 1, and at Oxford women were admitted to examinations
r honours by statute of 29th April 1884* Proposals to admit
men to university degrees were rejected by Oxford and
uobridge in 1896 and 1807 respectively.)
The standard of difficulty set by the university of London
u ithigh one, very much higher for its pass degrees than the
Responding standards at Oxford and Cambridge) while the
unhid for honours was equally high. In medicine the
iminations were made both wider in range and more searching
as those of any other examining body. But, for reasons dealt
its below, great discontent was roused by the new system.
1 1SS0 the Victoria University, Manchester, was established,
which teaching and examining were again united; and In the
uveroties since established, with the exception of the Royal
ihrosnyof Ireland (which was created in 1880 as an examining
•ly oa the model of London, but which was dissolved under the
ash Universities Act 1008, and replaced by the National Univer-
ity of Ireland and the Queen's University- of Belfast), the pre*
tdnt of Victoria has been followed. By an act passed in 1808,
itbich the provisions came into force in 1000, the university of
'Q&doa was reconstituted as a teaching university, although
Kmsion was made for the continuance of the system of examina-
iwby " external examiners " for " external students, M together
*• " internal examinations " for " internal students," in which
1* teachers and the external examiners of the university are
saoited, The examinations in music and the final examina-
to* m law and medicine are carried on Iioioj both for
'eternal " and " external " students by " external " examiners
riy. who are, however, appointed on the recommendation of
tenis of studios consisting mainly of London teachers.
At the university of Dublin, examinations have been main-
&2d both for the B.A. and M.A. degrees, and students may be
daaied to the examinations in subjects other than divinity,
"t.acdkine, and engineering without attendance at university
Re examinations of the newer universities, the Victoria Uni-
**y of Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield
4 Wales, are open only to students at these universities,
•*! ue conducted by the teachers in association with one of
*t oterul examiners for each subject. In some universities,
(Manchester, the MA. degree is given after examination to
'-^u who have taken a pass, and without examination to
** *ho have taken an honours degree.
ik universities which have departed furthest from the
*^il system of examinations, at. any rate in appearance,
* &se of Germany. The baccalaureate has disappeared,
! Rodents cannot be matriculated without having passed the
lt 4*i*kn-<xomen (see below), probably the most severe of
» Qtruce examinations (foreign students may be exempted
J* certain conditions). The student desiring to proceed to
"doctorate is free from examinations thereafter until he
£*» his thesis for the doctor's degree, 1 when, if it is accepted,
'submitted to a public oral examination not only in his
N*l subject (Hauptfach), but also as a rule in two or more
fttal subjects (Nebenfackcr). The doctor's degree docs not
-to right to teach in a faculty (Mum legend i). To acquire
' doctor must present a further thesis {Habilitations$ekrifi) t
taw deliver two lectures, one before the faculty, followed
• discussion {colloqwiun), the other in public; but these
*° " seem to be merely secondary and are tending to become
sad more "; " scientific productiveness is so sharply
among the conditions for admission that it over*
aU the rest " (Paulsen, /ec. ril. p. 165).
tauld be mentioned that the professors of chemistry of a
? « German. Austrian and Swiss uiuvertitiea, have, by agree-
£*itutcd an intermediate examination in that subject which
tear* required to pass before beginning work on the doctoral
Reexamination of the students is conducted by the teachers
t"
In France the examination for the baccalaureafe, though
conducted in part by university examiners, has become a school-
leaving examination (see below). The licentiateship has been
preserved in the faculties of arts, science and laws, and is in
point of difficulty about equal to the pass degree examinations
of the university of London, though differing in the nature of the
tests. In the faculty of sciences, the three subjects of examina-
tion selected may, under a recent regulation, be taken separately.
Until a few years ago the successful candidates at the licentiate-
ship were arranged in order of merit. For the doctorate in the
facutty of letters two theses must be submitted, of which the
subject and plan must be approved by the faculty (until recently
one of them was required to be written in Latin). Permission
to print the theses is given by the rector or vice-rector after
report from one or more professors, and they are then discussed
publicly by the faculty and the candidate (soutenance de these).
In this public discussion the " disputation " of the middle ages
survives in its least changed form. The literary theses required
by French universities are, as a rule, volumes of several hun-
dred pages, and more important in character even than the
German Habilitationsschrifl. The possession of the doctorate
is a sine qua turn for eligibility to a university chair, and to a
lectureship in the university of Paris.
In the faculty of sciences a candidate for the doctorate msy
submit two theses, or else submit one thesis and undergo an
oral examination.
For the doctorate in law, a thesis and two oral examinations are
required.
In the faculty of medicine there is no licentiateship, but for
the doctorate six examinations must be passed and a thesis
submitted.
There is also a special doctorate, the *' doctoral d'Unhersitt,"
awarded on a thesis and an oral examination; and there are
diplomas (DiplSmes d'JStndes sttptrieures) awarded on disserta-
tions and examinations on subjects in philosophy, history and
geography, classics or modern languages, selected mainly by the
candidate and approved by the faculty.
a. Professional Examinations, (a) Teaching. — University ex-
aminations for degrees having ceased to be used as technical
tests of teaching capacity, new examinations have been devised
for this purpose. The test for German university teachers has
been described above. For secondary teachers, W. von Hum-
boldt instituted a special examination in 1810 (Paulsen, Gesch.
des gelehrtm Unterrickts, ti. pp. 283 and 393), and an examina-
tion for primary teachers was instituted in Prussia in 1794.
In France there is a competitive examination for secondary
teachers, the agrigation, originally established in 1766. Agrtgis
have a right to state employment and they alone can occupy the
highest teaching post (chaire de professeur) in a state secondary
school, other posts being open to licentiates. There arc also
examinations for primary teachers. The tests for teachers are
different for the two sexes.
In England there is no obligatory test for secondary teachers.
The universities and the College of Preceptors conduct examina-
tions for teaching diplomas. The Board of Education holds
special examinations (Preliminary Certificate examination and
Certificate examination, ftc.) for primary teachers.
(6) Medicine. —Set Medical Education.
(c) Oltter Professions. —A system of professional examinations
carried on by professional bodies, in some cases whh legal
sanction, was developed in England during the 19th century.
Those in the following subjects are the most important:
Accountancy (Institute of Chartered Accountants and Society
of Accountants and Auditors), actuarial work (Institute of
Actuaries), music (Royal Academy of Music, Royal College of
Music, Trinity College of Music, Royal College of Organists, and
the Incorporated Society of Musicians) , pharmacy (Pharmaceuti-
cal Society), plumbing (the Plumbers' Company), surveying
(Surveyors' Institution), veterinary medicine (Royal College of
Veterinary Surgeons), technical subjects, e.g. cotton-spinning,
dyeing, motor-manufacture (City & Guilds of London Institute)!
architecture (Royal Institute of British Architects), commercial
44
EXAMINATIONS
subjects, shorthand (the Society of Arts sod London Chamber
of Commerce), engineering (Institutions of Civil Engineers, of
'Mechanical Engineers, and of Electrical Engineers).
3. Sckod-Ucving Examinations,— Tht faculty of arts in
medieval universities covered secondary as well as higher
education in the subjects concerned. The division in arts subjects
between secondary and university education has been drawn at
different levels in different countries. Thus the first two years
of the arts curriculum in English and American universities
correspond, roughly speaking, to the last two years spent in a
secondary school of Germany or* France, and the continental
"school-leaving examinations" correspond to the intermediate
examinations of the newer English universities and to the pass
examinations for the degree at Oxford and Cambridge (Mark
Pattison, Suggestions on Academical Organisation, 1868, p. 238,
and Matthew Arnold, Higher Schools and Universities in
Germany, 1892, p. 209). ,
A tabular summary is given (see Tables I., II., III., IV.) of the
requirements of the secondary school-leaving examinations of
France, Prussia (for the nine-year secondary schools) and
Scotland, and of the university of London.
There are in England a number of school examinations which,
under prescribed conditions, also serve as school-leaving examina-
tions, and give entrance to certain universities, especially the
Oxford and Cambridge local examinations (both established in
1 858), and the examinations of the Oxford and Cambridge "Joint
Board. " A movement to reduce the number of entrance examina-
tions and to secure uniformity in their standard was set on foot in
j 00 1. In that year the General Medical Council communicated
to the Board of Education a memorial on the subject from
the Headmasters' Conference. The memorial was further com-
municated to various professional bodies concerned. Conferences
were held by the consultative committee of the Board of Educa-
tion in 1903, with representatives of the universities, the Head-
masters' Conference, the Association of Head-Masters, the
Association of Head-Mistresses, the College of Preceptors, the
Private Schools' Association, and with representatives of pro-
fessional bodies. The committee were of opinion that a central
board, consisting of representatives of the Board of Education
and the different examining bodies, should be established, to
co-ordinate and control the standards Of the examinations,
and to secure intcrchangcability of certificates, &c, as soon as
a sufficient number of such bodies signified their willingness to
be represented on the board. They recommended that the
examination should be conducted by external and internal ex-
aminers, representing in each case the examining body and the
school staff respectively, and that reports on the school work of
candidates should be available for reference by the examiners
(circular of the Board of Education of 12th of July 1904).
The " accrediting " system in the United States was started by
the university of Michigan in 1871. A school desiring to be
accredited is submitted to inspection without previous notice.
If the inspection is satisfactory, the school is accredited by a
university for from one to three years, and upon the favourable
report of its principal any of its students are admitted to the
university by which it has been accredited without any entrance
examination. In practice it is found that many students whom
their teachers refuse to certify are able to pass the university
entrance examination. The statistics of nine years show that the
standard of the certified students is higher than that of non-
certified students. Two hundred and fifty schools arc accredited
by the university of Michigan. In 1904 it was stated that the
system was gaining favour in the east, 1 and that it had been
adopted more or less by all the eastern colleges and universities
with the exception of Harvard, Yale, Princeton and Columbia.
4.. Methods of Examination.— Examinations may test (i.)
knowledge, or, more exactly, the power of restating facts and,
arguments of a kind that may be learnt by rote; (ii.) the power
'See E. E. Brown in Monographs on Education in the United
States (ed. by N. M. Butler, 1900, i. 164), and T. Gregory Foster and
H. R. Reirhet, Report of Mostly Educational Commission (1004),
pp. 117-119 and 288-289.
of doing something, e*. of making npHds of a written document,
of writing a letter or a report on a particular subject with a
particular object in view, of translating from or into a foreign
language, of solving a mathematical problem, of criticizing a
passage from a literary work, of writing an essay on an historical
or literary subject with the aid of books in a library, of diagnosing
the malady of a patient, of analysing a chemical mixture or com-
pound; and (the highest form under the rubric) of making an
original contribution to learning or science as the result of
personal investigation or experiment. Examinations are carried
out at present by means of (1) written papers; (2) oral examina-
tions; (3) practical, including in medicine clinical, tests; (4)
theses; or a combination of these*
In written examinations the candidates are, as a rule, supplied
with a number of printed questions, of which they must answer
all, or a certain proportion, within a given trine, ^^^
varying, as a rule, from 1} to 3 hours, the latter being
the duration most generally adopted for higher examinations in
England* Whereas in France and Germany the questions are
generally few in number and require long answers, showing
constructive skill and mastery of the mother-tongue on the part
of the candidates, such "essay-papers" are comparatively rare
in England. In many subjects, the written examinations test
memory rather than capacity. It has been suggested that sets
of questions to be answered in writing should as a rule be divided
into two parts: (i.) a number of questions requiring short answers
and intended to test the range of the candidate's knowledge;
(ii.) questions requiring long answers, intended to test its depth,
and the candidate's powers of co-ordination and reflection.
A necessary condition for the application of the second kind of
test is that lime should be given for reflection and for rewriting,
say one-third or one-quarter of the whole time allowed. A
further distinction is important, especially in such subjects as
mathematics or foreign languages, in which it is legitimate to ask
what precise power on the part of a candidate the passing of
an examination shall signify. Owing to a prevailing confusion
between tests of memory and tests of capacity, the allowance
for chance fairly applied to the former is apt to be unduly
extended to the latter. In applying tests of memory, it may be
legitimate to allow a candidate to pass who answers correctly
from 30 to 50% of the questions; such an allowance if applied
to a test of capacity, such as the performance of a sum in addi-
tion, the solution of triangles by means of trigonometrical tables,
or the translation of an easy passage from a foreign language,
appears to be irrational. • A candidate who obtains only 50%
of the marks in perform ing^uch operations cannot be regarded as
being able to perform them; and, if the examination is to be
treated as a test of his capacity to perform them, he should be
rejected unless he obtains full marks, less a certain allowance
(say to, or at most 20%) in view of the more or less artificial
conditions inherent in all examinations.
The oral examination is better suited than the written to
discover the range of a candidate's knowledge; it also serves
as a test of his powers of expression in his mother- QmL
tongue, or in a foreign language, and may be used (as
in the examination for entrance to the Osborne Naval College)
to test the important qualities (hardly tested in any other
examinations at present), readiness of wit, common-sense and
nerve. It may be objected that candidates are heavily handi-
capped by nervousness in oral examinations, but this objec-
tion docs not afford sufficient ground for rejecting the test,
provided that it is supplemented by others. Oral tests are
used almost invariably in medical examinations; and there
is a growing tendency to make them compulsory in dealing
with modern languages. Oral examinations are much more
used abroad than in England, where the pupils during their
school years receive but little exercise in the art of consecutive
speaking.
The laboratory examination may be used in subjects like
physics, chemistry, geology, zoology, botany, anatomy, physio-
logy, to test powers of manipulation and knowledge of
experimental methods. In some cases {e.g. in certain honours
EXAMINATIONS
TABLE I.— PRUSSIA: ABITURIENTEN EXAMEN
+5
L
Kmmmci
"Srstf-
in.
Length of Course
IV.
Co-ortfnation with
Teaching.
VII.
Nature of Examination ana
la Cymmat imn.
oom. Tbe
usual age b
X7-A
CandkUtos who
have not i
traded the o
years' school
course may be
admitted to tot
•J?", 1 * 1 »p-
I-
Translation from Creek into
Cera
Ladti.
Oreek.
Tbe object of the ex-
ami n ation is defined
as being a test of
whether the audi,
date has fulfilled the
aims laid down in the
auricula. Ac, pre-
scribed for a Gym-
Mathematics.
Translation from Latin.
Translation from German into,
or essay in* English or French.
French.
Phnksoi
Refifton.
Jtoi-gvet-
mrium or Obtf-ftal-
xhtdt, as the case
nay be. and the sub-
jects of examination
are those prescribed
in the curricula for
the kind of school
The report on the
school work of each
candidate in his
various subjects is
laid before the Exam-
mine Board before
the beginning of the
laOUr-RtMltckmU.
Mathematics.
An exercise in French and in
English (an essay in one lan-
guage and a translation from
the other into German).
Physics or Chnnuscry.
English.
French.
Physics.
Chemistry.
Religion.
History.
Mathematics.
The Examine Board
ccjftt<iii of i lovcrt*
nvol Imtcilitf litr
tfi v-hnt ei tksk-
n>*n, rtn- bfjdjTuster
of i !w KhaA tad the
teichrti *t iV biaV
eai d&xar* is me
Sib* J The UL»peCtQT
may Jb?rniBuk A
d=tMFT *>o ia, as i
rtiir ibr heidmjjitf
Ot tbe KhotA.
f.j.h Lr.n-bcf CuO-
finned wfc-iJi rv ina
*Mll?n MJ&iUUBOH.
(hrw jdrcnwiin* ntb-
Jitli Uj hh Lrartck,
tan _ **Bui.b T atur
h-rriMicig: a report
l hfj-^m from the
hudPUUCer, liM Ld-
Itctior mAf* « foal
choice.
The papers are
marked by t he
teachers concerned,
and circulated to the
whole Board of Ex-
aminers, who then
decide whether in-
dividual candidates
shall be a) rejected.
m admitted with
days. Only one-paper is
given each day, for which
?, to si hours are allowed
si hours for tbe German
essay). For essays in
foreign languages diction-
aries may be used.
&
submitted » the
TABLE IL— FRANCE : BACCALAURflAT
L
Nam* of
m.
Length of Course
of Study.
IV
Subject*
Co-ordination with
Nature of F. „„_ .
General Remarks.
thf:iffl
Part IL may not
be taken within
Essr-
placed the
€*-UUra, *•*•
There b no re-
quirement of
attendance.
Part L of the
examination
corresponds ex-
actly to the
subjects taken
in the "second
cycle oftecpo-
QstfTCdOCal tlQB,
and Part IL to
the tUsu 4*
pkiUstpkit
and rinue dt
7*Vt 4m *
V.
Part I. is divided into four Branches,
is.:—
Latin-Greek.
The syllabus of the ex-
amination is that pre-
scribed for the higher
in the Gov-
n«*«n4««rfef
In each Branch the examination b
divided into two parts, via. written
and oral. The nature of tbe ex-
amination may be todkated by
the following requirements in
Branch (i):—
t ) French composition.
S« (ii.) Translation from Latin.
J I (ui.) Translation from Greek.
(i.) Explanation of n Greek
text,
(ii.) Explanation of a Latin
teas,
(HI.) Explanation of a French
(hr.) Tcstm a modern foreJf
language
(v.) Interrogation on and*
history,
(vi) Interrogation on modern
(viL) Iniarroganon on
grapby.
(vfi.) Interrogation on ma
Ox) Interrogation on physics.
II. b divided into two
The Board of Exam-
iners (or -Jury-)
consists of <D Uni-
versity examiners
being members', of a
faculty of letters or
faculty of sciences;
(ii.) secondary
teacher s, active or
retired, selected by
the minister of public
instruction. The
Tbr *ritlrt lurttcn nf
Fart 1. extends nw
frittf 9 » En hour? fa
all [Art Gfl m Hflflr <Uy),
in period* vi jqi t botnn
fi'iV the wnilcu pftrtiau
«f PmH It. exhmji mrr
froci 6 fa o boars- Th*
oral euntaaitcrti fn* enc N
r*n i-ati f hour ^ ihr
average* and U. public
from four to six ex-
aminers, of whom,
when the number b
even, half are chosen
from either category.
(>> Mathematics.
The nature of the examination may
be indicate d by the following re-
quirement! in Branch ( i ) j --
(I) An essay in French on a
philosophical subject.
(II.) An examination in physical
(L) {jutxTogationon philosophy
and philosophical writers
OL) Interrogation on contest
(M.) Interrogation on physical
(iv.) Interrogation on natural
4*
EXAMINATIONS
TABLE m.— SCOTLAND: SCHOOL-LEAVING EXAMINATION
I.
Name of
II.
Minimum Age
III.
Length of Course
of Study.
. IV.
Subjects.
V.
_ JilUrtio
Teaching.
VI.
Examiners.
VIL
General
Scottish school-
leaving exam*
(nation (estab-*
fished 1868).
(See pamphlet
on the "Leav-
ing Certificate
1?vafnin*t4<-m **
1 7 ooxat of Janu-
ary following
the year in
whkh the can-
didate puaea
the last of the
written exam-
ion Depart-
at, 1908.)
Cmilditn mull p»« in Itu-t lubfccts
•m H-.i- h.jCirr x'.ik ii-*i f d-*jil. or
ia ibim vibtcw* an the Liflhrf
-ri.<jv fitaadatd ltd nra <M taa
lu*er. A [on in driwkHf- if
U3£E;JtaJ lit IItU usl uH u£ E^e |Wq
b"T a/idt pistes, rt p4ia lb
GiPjKT U rccitmnf 14 A «*■ CD lit
lu»iT ftide. All i^JH|idj.[[^ oust
tun* fuavJ in V<hcr Fn e ij^h and
iH cirftff h.jhrr uf |;,k.t fradt
Hiilbcnulkt The itm-ULiu< nib-
|tfts mi j- He chfwt attesct *i(h
00* or ftibrc i-iJifj*jso i Litis,
CtTflr French, Gtimnn, ^Etuilaht
or Italian), or IjngiLaCD mJr Bu|
whete (Mr « tqurr JintfU**rs ©thST
Hub Eogliih ere taken, the utrfr
tUli'i group miul iikbrdc cither
Kifiitf ur fairer pack L*tiO A
Data ia Spanub, JuluA. or mcfirt
(us whJcb *iit.JELf3 thm u onJjr uac
extAiin.Ln^fi'1 j< rpeLnbrd iii pttat
Schools are inspected,
and the course of
The examinees are ap-
pointed by the Scot-
tish Education De-
TABLE IV.— UNIVERSITY OF LONDON SCHOOL EXAMINATION, MATRICULATION STANDARD
1.
Name of
i Age
For Entry.
III.
Length of Course
of Study.
IV.
Subjects.
V.
Teaching.
School
Hon, matricula-
tion standard
(estabtixbed in
190a).
JV«*r-A hither
school • leaving
certificate ts
awarded to
"" whof'
an approved
course of study
for a period of
years at a
school or
! . :njy
* 1 s . but if ih*
<a»»JiqUte b
tinder n'.i be
mini rtnuinal
I -;L- I bt
i* 16 jrif* Of
*.(." in (inlrr 10
I* qu4ijWKpr
r .•.■•- KJ !-3V-
\r\i trrtiflUl*.
and cannot be
ftaitWfd 4a a
«[tu!ri3l of ibt
1 'iji. r-».i y u"
E <l h r. bll
The curriculum
of each school
is considered
00 its own
Pupils must satisfy the
in not less '
than five subjects, as
I
Elementary mathematics.
"atin, or elementary meek
or elementary physics — ,
tight and sound, or elementary
chemistry, or
(4)
inspection ap-
proved by the
University;
and (iL) being
matriculated
students, have
passed the
"higher school
examination"
bat least three
subjects at one
ciihw ,. «* elementary botany,
or general eleme nta ry science.
and 7$) Two of the following
subjects, neither of which has
already becn-faken under section.
(1). If Latin be not taken, one
of the other subjects selected
must be another language, either
ancient or modern, from the
list, and languages other than
those included fa the fast may
be taken if approved by the
University, provided that the
language is included in the
regular curriculum : — Latin,
Greek, French, German, ancient
history, modern history, history
and geography, physical and
general geography, logic, geo-
metrical and mechanical draw-
ing, mathematics (more ad-
vanced), elementary mechanics,
' chemistry, elcmen-
Scbools under approved
imptction,aadcmtne
of instruction ap-
proved by the Uni-
versity.
The papers are
ordinarily set on the
matriculation sylla-
bus, but papers may
be specially set more
closely in accordance
with the school
curriculum provided
that the syllabus pro-
posed is approved by
the Uoiversity as st
least equivalent to
that for which it is
substituted.
over at least aS boon
and fndndm aa oral <
elementary chemistry, elemen-
tary physics — heat, tight and
sound, elementary physics —
electricity and magnetism, ele-
mentary biology— botany, ele-
cta! elementary science (chem-
istry and physics).
Examinations) the examination may be prolonged over one or
tnore days, and may test higher powers of investigation. But
Wjojlia suc ^ P° wers can on *y to* ^y testtd toy the perform-
ance of original work, under conditions difficult to
fulfil in the examination room or laboratory. At the French
examinations for the prix de Rome the candidates are required
to execute a painting in a given number of days, under strict
Supervision (en loge). t
In medicine the clinical examination of a patient is a test
carried out under conditions more nearly approaching those of
actual work than any other; and distinction in medical examina-
tions is probably more often followed by distinction in after life
than is the case in other examinations.
For the doctor's degree (where this is not an honorary dis-
tinction) a thesis or dissertation is generally, though not in-
nttlti variably, required in England. Of recent years the
thesis has been introduced into lower examinations;
it is required for the master's degree at London in the case of
Internal students, in subjects other than mathematics (1910);
bolh at Oxford and London, the B.3c. degree, and at Cambridj
the B.A. degree, may be given for research, although the numb
of students proceeding to a degree in this way is at presei
relatively small. In certain of the honours B.A. and B.S
examinations at Manchester and Liverpool, candidates may Lai
the written portion of the examination at the end of the secor
year's course of study and submit a dissertation at the end 1
the third year. Theses are generally examined by two or mo
specialists.
5. Competitive Examinations.— The arrangement of students
order of merit led naturally to the use of examinations not on
as a qualifying but also as a selective test, and to the offering
money prizes (including exhibitions, scholarships and fellowship
on the results. In 1854 selection by examination as a meth<
of appointment to posts in the English public service was fir
substituted for the patronage system, which had caused grai
dissatisfaction (see Macaulay's speech on the subject, The Tim
of the 25th of June 1853). The first public competitive exam in
tion for the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, took place
EXAMINATIONS
47
1*55, sad an 1870 the principle of open competition for the dva
service was adopted as a general rule. (For farther details
see Civil Szbvxcb.)
la Use Warttjemberg civil service candidates are admitted to
a year's probation after passing a theoretical examination, at
lot conclusion of which they must pass an examination of a more
ps*sticricku^&(A.Habcri*Sacri/U£QfEdMC4tfi*n. . ., 1880,
In the sward of schoUrsmps,^,nshodd be defit^ely decided
whether the scholarship is to he awarded (1) for attainment,
•n which case the examination-test pun; and simple may suffice,
or (s) for promise, in which case personal information and a
arricnlmm site* are necessary. To take a simple instance: a
candidate partly educated in Germany may obtain more marks
in German at a scholarship examination than another who is
more gifted, hut whose opportunities have been less; the question
at once arises, ere the examiners to take the circumstances of
the candidate into account or not ? It is understood that at the
colleges of the older universities such, circumstances are con-
adered. It must again be decided whether the financial circum-
stances of candidates are to be taken into account; are scholar-
ships intended as prises, or as a means of enabling poor students
10 obtain a university education? In some cases wealthy
Rodents have been known to return the emoluments of scholar-
ibtps. It many universities of the United States there is a
definite understanding that emoluments shall only he accented
by those needing them. It would not be difficult to ask candi-
dates to make a confidential declaration on this subject on
entrance and to establish in Great Britain a tradition similar
to that of the United States, and steps in this direction have been
taken both at Oxford and Cambridge (Lord Cursonof Kedteston,
UnveersUy Reform, p. 86).
A special allowance may be made forage. In certain scholar-
ship examinations held formerly by the London County Council
s percentage was added to the marks of each candidate pro-
portionate to the number of months by which his age fell short
of the maximum age for entry. The whole subject of entrance
scholarships at English schools add universities, and especially
their tendency to produce premature specialisation, has recently
been much discussed.
6. The Organs***** and Conduct of Examinations.— The
organization and conduct of examinations, in such a way that
each candidate shall be treated in precisely the same way as
eyery other candidate, is a complex matter, especially where
several thousand candidates ace concerned- The greatest
precautions must be taken to ensure the secrecy of the examina-
tion papers before the examination, and the effective isolation
cf individual candidates during the examination. The super-
vsion should be adequate to remove all temptation to copying.
The hygienic conditions should be such as to reduce the strain
to a minimum. The question of the mentaLfatigne produced
by examinations has been studied by certain German observers,
but has not yet been fully investigated.
7. Morkmt, Classification and Errors of Detail.— In applying
a single test in a qualifying examination it would be sufficient
to mark candidates as passing or failing. But examinations
consist as a rule of a number of tests, each one of which is complex;
and a mark, is recorded in respect of each test or portion of a
test in order to enable the examining body to estimate the per-
formance, considered as a whole, of the candidate. At Oxford
the marks are not numerical, but the papers are judged as of this
or that supposed " class," and various degrees of merit aw
indicated by the symbols a, /I, 7, A, to which the signs + or —
nuy be prefixed, according as they are above or below a
certain standard within each class. At Cambridge, numerical
marks are used. The advantage of numerical marks is that they
arc more easily manipulated than symbols; the disadvantage,
that they produce the false impression that merit can be estimated
with mathematical accuracy. Professor F. Y. Edgeworth, in
two papers on "The Statistics of Examinations " and the
" Element of Chance in Competitive Examinations " (Journal
cf ike Royal Statistical Society, 1888 and 1890), has dealt with
the subject, although on somewhat Kmited Knes. His investiga-
tions show dearly that with candidates near the border-hie of
failure, which must necessarily be fixed at a given point (subject
tacertain allowances, where more than one subject is considered),
the element of chance necessarily enters largely into the question
of pass and failure. The fact may be stated in this way:— the
general efficiency of the test being granted, it is true to say that
the large majority of those who pass an examination will be
superior in efficiency to those who fail; but a few of those who
fail may be superior to a few of those who pass* These errors are
not peculiar to the examination system, they are inherent in
all human judgments* It is necessary to allow for them in
considering the failure of an individual candidate as an index
of inefficiency.
The element of chance, which prevails in the region on either
side of the border between pass and failure, obviously prevails
equally on either side of the border between " dastes," where
candidates are classified; it has been suggested by Br Schuster
that numerical order should accompany dassification so as to
avoid the creation of an artificial gap between the last candidate
in one dass and the highest in the next. Edgeworth's objection
to such an argument is that the number of uncertainties is far
less when candidates are dassed than when they are placed 1 in
ostensible order of merit.
The difficulties of comparison of marks are further complicated
when students take different subjects and it is necessary tat
compare their merit by means of marks allotted hy different
examiners and' added together. In a pass examination the
question has to be considered bow far, if at all, excellence In one-
subject shall compensate for deficiency in another, a question
which is indeterminate until the precise object of the whom,
examination is formulated. In the competitive examination
for the Indian civil service, places are allotted on the aggregate
of marks obtained in a number of subjects selected by the
candidate from a list of thirty-two. The successful candidates are
compared a year later on the results of another examination, in
which there ts again a choice', though a much more limitedone. The
order of merit in the two examinations is, as a rule, very different.
Two further points may he noted. An examiner may have
underestimated the time required to answer the questions which'
he has set; this will be obvious if with a large number of
candidates (say 300 or 400) none approaches the maximum
mark. In this case the maximum should be reduced. Again, it
is generally recognised to be undesirable to give marks for a
smattering. In order to avoid tins various devices ate adopted.
The simplest is to award a proportion of marks (say to to 15,
or even ao%) for " general impression." In some examinations,
unless say 20% or more marks are obtained for a particular
sub ject , no credit is given for the paper in that subject. Latham
(The Action of Examinations, 1877, p. 400) describes other
numerical adjustments used to meet this difficulty, especially
that used in English civil service examinations. The numerical
results of the civil service examinations are reduced sq as to-
conform to a certain symmetrical *' frequency-curve," of which
the abscissae represent percentages of marks between definite
Emits and the ordjnates the number of candidates obtaining
marks between those limits. C £. Fawsitt (The Education of
the Examiner, Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1095)
shows that frequency-curves deduced from actual investigation
of class-marks are not symmetrical, but have two maxima
corresponding to. the performance of "non-workers" and of
" workers." In pass examinations of a weft-known character
there is a maximum just beyond the pass mark, this being the
point of efficiency at which many students aim.
8. The. Object and Efficiency of Examinations, and their Indirect
Effects.— In order to estimate the efficiency of an exaannation
as a test, the- precise question should be -asked in each case—
what is it intended to test? Jduch of the evil attributed to,
and resulting from, examinations is due to the fact that this
question has ndt been definitely put, and that a test legitimate
for certain purposes has been used for others to which it is
umwitcd. Examinations are suited in the fust instance for too
♦8
EXAMINATIONS
propose for which they wen originally designed in medieval
universities— the test of technical and professional capacity; it
has never been proposed to abolish qualifying examinations for
doctors, pharmaceutical chemists, &c.; the tests applied are
(or should be) .direct tests of capacity carried out under con-
ditions as nearly as possible like those of actual practice. If a
student can auscultate correctly, or make up a prescription, at
an examination, he will in all probability be able to do so in other
circumstances.
Examinations as tests of the knowledge of isolated facts are
necessarily of relatively small value, because the memory of such
facts is transient; and memorization of a large number of facts
for examination purposes is generally admitted to be specially
transient; the "knowledge-test," considered apart from a
test of capacity, is in fact not a test of permanent knowledge,
but of the power of retaining facts for a length of time which it is
impossible to estimate and which with some candidates extends
over a few weeks only. When used as tests of " general culture,"
examinations, in the view of Paulsen, based on a study of German
education, not only fail in their purpose, but tend to destroy the
faculties which it is desired to develop (GesckkkU des gelehrten
Untcrrichts, iL 684 ct seq.); to prepare ready answers to the
numberless questions which an examiner may ask on a large
variety of subjects is to paralyse the natural and free activity
of the mind (cf . A. C. Benson on the results of English secondary
^•—jral education, From a College Window, 3rd ed., 1906, pp.
s 54-177). If pushed to its logical conclusion the view of Paulsen
must, it is submitted, lead to the complete abandonment at
examinations of tests of " knowledge " as distinguished from
direct tests of capacity. Thus isolated questions on details of
grammar would disappear from papers on the mother-tongue
and on foreign languages, in which the test would consist mainly
or entirely of composition and translation. Erudition would
be tested by the power of writing, at leisure, a dissertation on
some, subject selected by the examiners or the candidate or, in
the case of a teacher, by the delivery of a lecture on the subject.
At the French agrigation candidates are given twenty-four
hours for the preparation of a lecture of this kind. 9uchexamina*
tsons would test the " skill in the manipulation of facts which is
the true sign of & trained intelligence " (cf . IL Pearson, " The
Function of Science in the Modern State," Ency. Brit. 10th ed.
xxxii. Prefatory essay). They might possibly be supplemented
by easy oral examinations to test both range of knowledge and
readiness of mind. But in the case of a pupil who had passed
through a good secondary school it would be as safe to rely for
supplementary information under this head on the testimony
of his teachers, as it is to rely on their evidence with regard to
the fundamental and all-important element on which no examina-
tion supplies direct information— personal character.
The main arguments of those opposed to the examination
system may be summarised as follows: (i.) Examinations
tend to destroy natural interests and exclude from the attention
of the pupil all matters outside the purview of the examination
(they would not do so if examinations were so limited in character
that preparation therefor could absorb* only a fraction of the
pupil's time); (ii.) they tend to cultivate a personal judgment
where no personal basis of judgment is possible (this argument,
directed mainly against the Oxford essay system, applies not to
examinations in general, but to the character of the subjects
set for essays); (iii.) competitive examinations on the home
and Indian civil services scheme tend to diffuse mental energy
over too many subjects (but see (xviii.) below) ; (iv.) examinations,
especially competitive examinations, tend to become more and
more difficult, difficulty being confused with efficiency— this has
shown itself with the Cambridge mathematical tripos, in which
for years questions of increasing difficulty were set on relatively
unimportant subjects, until the examination was reformed
(reply: all examinations should be overhauled periodically);
(vj they tend to paralyse the powers of exposition, all statements
of knowledge being thrown into a form suitable, not for an
uninstructed person, but for one who already possesses it, the
examiner (this tendency should be counteracted by definite
training in composition); (vi.) the sample of knowledge and
capacity yielded at an examination is frequently not a fair :
sample; it is liable to extreme variations in a favourable sense,
if the candidate happens to have prepared the precise questions
asked; in an unfavourable sense, if the candidate is suffering
from misfortune or from accidental ill-health, the latter, owing
to the periodic function, occurring much more frequently in the
case of women than of men — [the reform of examination
methods may remove to a great extent the element of chance in
questions set; in a competitive examination it is impossible to
allow for ill-health; in a qualifying examination it is difficult
to make any allowance unless the examination is definitely
conducted in whole or in part by the teachers, and the past record
of the cand i da te is taken into account (cf. Paulsen, The German
Universities, pp. 344*345)1; (vu\) examinations of several
hundred candidates at a time cannot be rationally conducted
so as to be equally fair to the individuality of all candidates;
the individual test is the only complete one (it is admitted
that examinations on a large scale necessarily involve a margin
of error; but this error may be reduced to a iwfatmww^ especi-
ally by a combination of oral and practical with written work) ;
(viii.) the multiplicity of school examinations r eq uiie d for
different reasons produces confusion in our secondary education
(there is a growing tendency to admit equivalence of " school-
leaving" and entrance examinations; thus entrance examina-
tions of Oxford, Cambridge and London, and the Northern
Universities Joint Board are interchangeable under certain-
conditions); (ix.) the multiplicity of »» aw "'«^tfont tends to
" underselling " (the success of the London examinations in
medicine proves that a high standard attracts candidates as
well as a low one; possibly intermediate standards may be
killed in the competition; it is by no means obvious that a
uniform system 6f examinations would conduce to efficiency);
(x.) examinations produce physical damage to health, especially
in the case of women-students (on this point more statistical
evidence is needed; see, however, Engehnann quoted by
G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence, 1905, ii. 588 et seq.); (xL) examina-
tions have in England mechankaliy cast the education of women
into the same mould as that of men, without reference to the
different social functions of the two sexes (the remedy is
obvious); (xii.) it is unjustifiable to give a man a university
position on the results of his performance In the examination
room, a practice common in England though almost unknown on
the continent ; a just estimate of a man's powers in research or for
teaching can only be properly based on his performance. The
present system merely leads to the Uansmission of the sterile art
of passing examinations. (At Oxford and Cambridge many
fellowships are now awarded on the results of examination; it is
sometimes stated, in defence of this system, that young men can-
not be expected to carry out research in classics or philosophy.)
On the other hand, the defenders of examinations reply that
(xiii.) examinations are necessary in order to test the efficiency
of schools to which grants of public money are given (this
argument has become somewhat out of date owing to the recent
substitution of " inspection " for examination as a test of the
efficiency of schools; a combination of inspection and examina-
tion is also sometimes used); (xiv.) they serve as a necessary
incentive to steady and concentrated work 1 (the reply made to
this is that the incentive is a bad one, and that with efficient
teachers it is unnecessary); (xv.) they show both student and
teacher where they have failed (unnecessary for efficient
teachers); (xvi.) though possibly harmful to the highest class of
men, they are good for the mass (replyr.no system which
damages the highest class of men is tolerable); (xvii.) they are
indispensable as an impartial means of selecting men for the
civil service; (xviii.) in a difficult examination like the first
class civil service examination the qualities of quickness of com-
prehension, industry, concentration, power of rapidly passing
1 The Oxford commissioners of 1852 reported that " the ex-
aminations have become the chief instruments not only for testing
the proficiency of the students but also for stimulating and directing
the studies of the place " (Report, p. 61),
EXARCH— EXCELLENCY
49
from one subject to another, good health, are necessary for success,
though not tested directly, and these qualities are valuable
in any kind of work (this appears to be incontrovertible);
(xii.) examination records show that success in examinations
b generally followed by success in after-life, and the test is
therefore efficient (it does not follow that certain rejected
candidates may not be extremely efficient); (xx.) as a plea for
purely "external examinations/' teachers cannot be trusted
to be impartial and it is better for a boy to "cram 11 than
to curry favour with his teacher (Latham).
The brief comments in brackets, appended above to the argu-
ments, merely indicate what has been said or can be said on the
other side. It can scarcely be doubted that in spite of the
powerful objections that have been advanced against examina-
tions, they are, in the view of the majority of English people,
an indispensable element in the social organization of a highly
sprnalir,rH democratic state, which prefers to trust nearly all
Aerisinn* to committees rather than to individuals. But in view
of the extreme importance of the matter, and especially of the
evidence that, for some cause or other (which may or may not
be the examination system), intellectual interest and initiative
seem to diminish in many cases very markedly during school
and college life in England, the whole subject seems to call for
a searching and impartial inquiry.
Sources or Information. — The works mentioned above, and
T. O. Acftaad, Some Account of the Origin and Objects of the New
Oxford Examinations for the Title of Associate in A rts (London, 1858) ;
Matthew Arnold, Higher Schools and Universities in Germany (1874) ;
Graham Balfour, The Educational Systems of Great Britain and
IreLsmd (2nd ed., Oxford, 1903); W. W. Rouse Ball, Origin and
History of ska Mathematical Tripos (Cambridge, 1880); Adolf Beier,
Die kokoreu Sckulen in Preussen und Hire Lehrer (1902-1906) (in
progress); Cloudesley Brcreton, "A New Method of awarding
Scholarships" School World, 1907. p. 4°9; G. C. Brodrick, A
History of the University of Oxford (London, 1886); F. Buisson,
Ihcnonnaire de pedagogie (1880-18*7); Lord Curzon of Kedleston,
Principles and Methods of University Reform (1909); J. Demogeot
and H. MontuccL De I'enseigncment supirieur en Angleterre et en
Basse (1870); H. Denifle, Die Universitdten des MiUelalters bis
1400 (Berlin. 1885); F. Y. Edgeworth, " The Statistics of Examina-
tion*/' and The Element of Chance in Competitive Examinations,"
Journal of the Statistical Society, 1868 and 1890 respectively;
H. W. Eve, Lecture " On Marking," in The Practice of Education
(Cambridge, 1883); Charles E. Fawsitt, The Education of the Ex-
emsner (Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow) (Glasgow, 190O ;
J. G. Fitch, " The Proposed Admission of Girls to the University
Local Examination," Education Miscellanies (1865), voL x.; W,
Garaett, " The Representation of certain Examination Results,"
Jo-urn, Statist. Sec. (Jan. 1910); G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence
(London, 1905); Sir W. Hamilton, Discussions on Philosophy
(London, 1853); P. J. Hartog, " Universities, Schools and Ex-
aminations" in the University Review (July 1905); P. J. Hartog
and Mrs A. H. Langdon, The Writing of English (1907); Auberon
Herbert (edited by), The Sacrifice of Education to Examination,
Letters from " All Sorts and Conditions of Men " (1889); Influence
ef Exomination» t Report by a Committee, British Association
Reports for 1903, p. 434, and for 1904, p. 360; John Jebb, Remarhs
upon Ike Present Mode of Education m the University of Cambridge
(4th ed., 1774); Henry Latham, On the Action of Examinations
(Cambridge, 1877); H. C. Maxwell Lyte, A History of the University
ef Oxford to Ike Year 1530 (London, 1886); W. A. P. Martin, The
Lore of Cathay (Edinburgh and London, loot); T. B. MulUnger,
Tie University of Cambridge (Cambridge, 1873); How to pass
Examinations successfully, by an Oxford Coach; Mark Patti-
son. Suggestions on Academical Organization (Edinburgh, 1 868);
Fnedrich Paulsen, The German Universities and University Study
(London, 1906) and Gesckkhte des gelehrien Untertichls (Leiptig,
1896) ; George Peacock, Observations on the Statutes of the University
' Cambridge (1841); Programme des examens du nouveau bacca
treat de Fenseignement secondaire, Oelalain freres, Paris; Hasting
ef Cambridge (1841); Programme des examens du nouveau bacca-
burial de Fenseignement secondaire, Oelalain freres, Paris; Hastings
RashdalL The Universities oj Eur ope in the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1895);
Rein's Encyhlop&dischcs Handbuch der Pddagogih (and ed., 1902, &c),
articles " Frflfungen " (by F. Paulsen), &c.; Third Report of the
Royal Commissioners on Scientific Instructions, 1873; J. E. Thorold
Rogers, Education in Oxford (1861); M. E. Sadler, r< Memorandum
on the Leaving Examinations ... in the Secondary Schools of
Prussia," in Report of Royal Commission on Secondary Education,
vol v. p. 27 (1895); C. A. Schmid, GeschichU der Ertiehung (Stutt-
gart. 1884. &c), and Encyhlopddie des gesammten Erziehungs- und
UnterrickUwesens (2nd ed., 1876-87), articles " Prflfung," " SchulprQ-
fangen," " Verattaungsprfifungen, &c. ; Scholarships, various papers
onTby H. B. Baker, A. A. David. H, A. Mien, M. E. Sadler add
U- Bcpnpas Smith, and others, British Association Report, 1907,
Education in Itnlia) (Bombay » 170*); Special Educations! Report*,
issued by tbc Board of Eduanifm. passim-; A- %L M* StoWn,
Oxford; its Life and Sthtwis (London* r&B?); L Taihunter, Conflict
of 5! ud im {J6ji>; William Whewcll* Of a Liberal Edmaiion (London,
1845); Christopher Wordsworth, Sthtifae academics* (Cambridge,
I877); £tiennc Zi (or Siti or Seu), /Ydfrgsc des cxumrni Htteraircs tn
( ..it, tfru). Privaiu information from FrofrMor M. E.
$ A, E + TwiityflHn, (P. J. H.; A. Wk.)
EXARCH (i$apxar> t chief peraon or leader), a tide that has
been conferred at different periods on certain chief officers or
governors, both in secular and ecclesiastical matters. Of these,
the most important were the exarchs of Ravenna (?.*.). In
the ecclesiastical organization the exarch of a diocese (the word
being here used of the political division) was in the ath and 5th
centuries the same as primate. This dignity was intermediate
between the patriarchal and the metropolitan, the name patriarch
being restricted after ajx 451 to the chief bishops of the most
important cities (see Patiiakch). The title of Exarch was also
formerly given in the Eastern Church to a general or superior
over several monasteries, and to certain ecclesiastics deputed
by the patriarch of Constantinople to collect the tribute payable
by the Church to the Turkish government. In the modern
Greek Church an exarch is a deputy, or legate a latere, of the
patriarch, whose office it is to visit the clergy and churches in the
provinces allotted to him. The title of exarch has been borne
by the head of the Bulgarian Church (see Bulgaria), since
in 187a it repudiated the jurisdiction of the Greek patriarch
of Constantinople. Hence the names of the politico-religious
parties in the recent history of the Near East: " Exarchists "
and " Patriarchists."
EXCAM BIOM (a word connected with a large class of Low Latin
and Romance forms, such as cambium, coneambhtm, scambium,
from Lat. cambire, Gr. sAtdhts* or Kasarrar, to bend, turn or
fold), in Scots law, the exchange (q.v.) of one heritable subject
for another. The modern Scottish excambion may consist in
the exchange of any heritable subjects' whatever, e.g. a patronage
or, what often occurs, a portion of a glebe for servitude. Writing
is not , by the law of Scot land , essential to an excambion. Chiefly
in favour of the class of cottars and small fenars, and for con-
venience in straightening marches, the law will consider the most
informal memoranda, and even a verbal agreement, if supported
by the subsequent possession. The power to excamb was gradu-
ally conferred on entailed proprietors. The Montgomery Act,
which was passed in 1770, to facilitate agricultural improvements,
permitted 50 acres arable and 100 acres not fit for the plough
to be excambed. This was enlarged by the Rosebery Act in
1836, under which one-fourth of an entailed estate, not including
the mansion-house, home farm and policies, might be excambed,
provided the heirs took no higher grassum (O.E. gtrsitm, fine)
than £200. The power was applied to the whole estate by the
Rutherford Act of 1848, and the necessary consents of substitute
heirs are now regulated by the Entail (Scotland) Act i88e.
EXCELLENCY (Lat. excctlentia, excellence), a title or predicate
of honour. The earliest records of its use are associated with
the Frank and Lombard kings; e.g. Anastasius Bibttoihecarius
(d. c. 886) in his life of Pope Honorius refers to Charlemagne
as " his excellency " (ejus exceUentta); and during the middle
ages it was freely applied to or assumed by emperors, kings and
sovereign princes generally, though rather as a rhetorical flourish
than as a part of their formal style. Its use is well illustrated in
the various charters in the Red Book of the exchequer, where
the addresses to the king vary between '• your excellency,**
"your dignity" (vestra dignilas), "your sublimity 1 ' (^estra
9ujblimitas) and the like, according to the taste and inventiveness
of the writers. Du Cange also gives examples of the style
exceUentta being applied to the pope and even to a bishop (in
a charter of 1182). With the gradual stereotyping of titles of
honour that of " excellency " was definitively superseded m the
case of sovereigns of the highest rank, about the beginning of the
15th century, by those of " highness " and " grace/' and later by
" majesty/ 1 first assumed in England by King Henry VIII.
2a
SO
EXCHANGE
Dukes and arants of the Empire and the Italian reigning princes
continued, however, to be " excellencies " for a while longer.
In X593 the bestowal of the title of excellence by Henry IV. of
France on the due de Nevers, his ambassador at Rome, set a
precedent that was universally followed from the time of the
treaty of Westphalia (1648). This, together with the reservation
in x 640 of the title " eminence " (q.v.) to the cardinals, led the
Italian princes to adopt the style of " highness 1 ' (aJleaa) instead
of "excellency." In France, from 1654 onwards, the title of
excellence was given to all high civil and military officials, and
this example was followed in Germany in the 18th century.
The subsequent fate of the title varies very greatly in different
countries. In Great Britain it is borne by the viceroy of India,
the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, all governors of colonies and
ambassadors. In the United States it is part of the official style
of the governors of states, but not of that of the president;
though diplomatic usage varies in this respect, some states
(e.g. France) conceding to him the style of "excellency," others
(e.g. Belgium) refusing it. ' The custom of other republics differs:
in France the president is addressed as excellence by courtesy;
in Switzerland the title is omitted; in the South American
republics it' is part of the official style (Pradier-Fod6r6, Cours de
droit diphm. i. 89). In Spain the title of escdencia properly
belonged to the grandees and to those who had the right to be
covered in the royal presence, but it was extended also to high
officials, viceroys, ministers, captains-general, lieutenants-general,
ambassadors and knights of the Golden Fleece. In Austria the
title Extdlem belongs properly to privy councillors. It has,
however, gradually been extended by custom to all the higher
military commands from lieutenant-field-marshal upwards.
Ministers, even when not privy councillors, are styled Exzdlttu.
In Germany the title is borne by the imperial chancellor, the
principal secretaries of state, ministers and Oberpr&sidenttn in
Prussia, by generals from the rank of lieutenant-general upwards,
by the chief court officials, and it is also sometimes bestowed
as a title of honour in cases where it is not attached to the office
held by its recipient. In Russia the title is very common, being
borne by all officers from major-general upwards and by all
officials above the rank of acting privy councillor. Officers
and officials of the highest rank have the title of " high ex*
cellency." Finally, in Italy, the title eccekma, which had come
to be used in the republics of Venice and Genoa as the usual
form of address to nobles, has become as meaningless as the
English title of "esquire " or the address of "sir/' being, especi-
ally in the south, the usual form of address to any stranger.
In the diplomatic service the title of excellency is technically
reserved to ambassadors, but in. addressing envoys also this
form is commonly used by courtesy. (W. A P.)
. EXCHANGE, in general, the action of mutual giving and
receiving objects, interests, benefits, rights, &c The word comes
through the French from the Late Lat. exeambium (see Ex-
Camion). The present article deals with the theory and
practice of exchange in monetary transactions, but this may,
conveniently be prefaced by a brief statement as to the law
relating to the exchange of property and other matters. In
English law exchange is defined as the mutual grant of equal
interests, the one in consideration of the other. The ancient
common law conveyance had certain restrictions, e.g. identity
hi quantity of interest, fee-simple for fee-simple, ftc., entry to
perfect the conveyance, and an implied warranty of title and
•right of entry by either party in case of eviction. Such exchanges
ate now effected by mutual conveyances with the usual covenants
for title. Exchanges are also frequently made by order of the
Board of Agriculture under the Inckeure Acts, and there are
also statutes enabling ecclesiastical corporations to exchange
benefices wish .the approval of the ecclesiastical commissioners.
The international exchange of territories is effected by treaties.
The exchange of prisoners of war is regulated by documents
called '• cartels" (Med. Lat. eurteHus, diminutive of carte,
paper, all), which specify a certain agreed-en value for each
rank of prisoners. The practice superseded the older one of
rantomottheendof awar. By the Regtmental Exchanges Act
2875 the sovereign may by regulation authorise exchanges by
officers from one regiment to another. (For " labour exchanges "
see Unemployment.)
Exchange in relation to money affairs denotes a spedes of
barter not of goods but of the value of goods, a payment in one
place being exchanged for a payment in another place. . The
popular statement of the theory of exchange represents four
principals involved in two transactions. A and B are two persons
residing in one place different from the domicile of C and D;
A sells goods to C; B buys goods from D; A sells his claim
on C to B, who remits ft to D in satisfaction of his debt, and D
receives the cash from C, so that, assuming the two transactions
to be of equal value, one piece of paper satisfies the four parties
to these two transactions, and the trouble, expense and risk of
sending money from both places are avoided. The piece of paper
which performs the service may be a telegraphic order, cheque
or bill of exchange. In this elementary proposition there would
be no difficulty of exchange, as the full value of A's daim on C
would be paid for by B, who is under the necessity of sending
in exactly similar amount of money to D; but it can be seen that
in actual practice the claims of one place on another place would
not be exactly balanced by the necessities of the one place to
meet obligations in the other place; thus arises the complication
of exchange, which may best be described as the price of monetary
claims on distant debtors.
Supposing, for example, that A in London had a claim on C in
Edinburgh amounting to £100, and that B in London did not
require to remit more than £90 to D in Edinburgh, it is evident
that B in London must be offered some inducement to take over
the whole of A's claim. B might give A £99: 19: o, and could
then, after satisfying his debt to D, have £10 to his credit in
Edinburgh, which he could retain there at interest until he had
incurred further liability to D, or he could have the balance of
£10 returned him in coin at an expense, say, of sixpence; this
would leave B with a profit of sixpence on the transaction, and,
assuming that these figures are reasonable, exchange on Edin-
burgh in London would be one shilling discount per £xoo.
Supposing the necessities of B induced him to offer A only
£09:14:0 for his £xoo claim, A would then prefer that C
remitted him £100 in coin, which, on the above scale of expenses
would cost 5s. and A would receive £09: 15: o net. On these
premises, exchange on Edinburgh in London cannot fall below
i% discount, and the same circumstances prevent it from rising
above \% premium, for B, in no case, would pay more for A's
claim than £100 plus the cost of sending coin to Scotland. If
this basis is appreciated, all exchange problems between different
countries can be mastered, and the quotations in the daily
papers of cable payments, sight drafts (cheques) and long bills'
are then understood and supply an interesting indication of the
state of international financial relations. As shown above, the
balance of indebtedness must eventually be remitted by coin,
and consequently when exchange in any dty is quoted at one or
other of the limit points given in our example as \% discount
or i% premium, this exchange immediately acquires a very
serious importance, because with the development of modem
monetary systems under which enormous trade is carried on
with a most moderate foundation of actual coin the weakening,
or strengthening of that foundation is a very vital matter.
While the understanding of the theory is essential for any
facile interpretation of an exchange, there are of course In-
numerable details of practice which require to be known to identify
the limit points of exchange in any particular, dty. The limit
points can only be taken advantage of byTjanklng experts, and,
although we assume a trader remitting his indebtedness in coin
when he is asked to pay too high a price for his bill of exchange*
in actual affairs the banker will supply the cheque or hill and
himself will do the professional business of sending away bullion.
Similarly, we have represented one trader drawing on another
trader and selling his draft to a third trader who remits the draft
to a fourth. In actual practice, however, No. x draws on No. a
and disposes of his draft to a banker; No. 4 draws on No. 3 and
setts his draft to a banker; because, speaking generally, whenever
EXCHANGE
5*
gtMHls nre siijppeo, the shipper IllHIWtifcttiy reqUlTCS AlS TOOUey i
be draws a bill against thegoods, and it is the function of a banker
to help, as a sort of debt-collecting agency, by buying these
drafts; and the bank, being a mart for ail forms of remittance,
gets an immens e variety of demand for cahk payments, cheques
and bills on all centres. ' This does not affect the theory, for it
most be remembered that the banker is a necessary link between
the buyer and seller of exchange, because the seller can only
sell what he has and the buyer must have csactly what he wants.
To return to the question of limit points: if a universal
currency system existed, with the same monetary standard'
that is used m England, and the coinage kept in a proper con-
dition of weight and fineness, and the coin readily supplied
to meet every reasonable churn— if, in fact, the pound sterling
were the prevalent coin and the English banking system obtained
everywhere, then we should find ail exchange quotations as simple
as our case of London and Edinburgh, that is to say, all exchanges
would be quoted at par or a premium or a discount. The limit
points in any place of the exchange on London would represent
simply and obviously the cost of the transmission of the coin.
These limit points would vary at* each place according to the
distance from London, the cost of freight, the risk involved
in the transmission and the local rate of interest. On the con*
tinent of Europe some advance has been made in the direction
of a universal! coinage. Countries subscribing to the Latin
Union have agreed on the franc as a common unit, and Belgium,
Switzerland, France and Italy quote exchange between them*
serves at a premium or discount.' Greece, Spain and .other
countries are also parties to the arrangement, but their currencies
are in a bad state, and the exchange quotations involve a con?
siderabk element of speculation. We have, however, to deal with
another factor in international finance, namely, the enormous
variety of currency systems; and we have then to discover,
in each case, the exchange which represents par and corresponds
to our £xoo for £xoo in the London-Edinburgh example. The
United States furnishes perhaps the easiest problem, and we must
nod out how many dollars in gold contain exactly the same
amount of the precious metal aa is contained in one hundred
sovereigns. The answer is 4&of , and the arithmetic is a question
of the mint laws of the two countries. Gold coin in the United
States contains one-tenth alley and in England one-twelfth
ahoy. Ten dollars contain a 58 grains of gold, nine-tenths fine.
One pound contains 123*274 grains of gold, eleven-twelfths fine,
consequently £100 is worth tt&of, or, to be exact, $486},
and when cable payments between London and New York are
quoted at 4'86f for the £1 sterling, exchange is about par. As
a cable payment is an immediate transfer from one city to
another, no question of interest or othef charge is involved.
Owing to the cost of sending gold as detailed above, the New
York cable exchange varies from about 4*84 to 4*80*; *t the
former point gold leaves London for New York, and at the
latter point gold comes to England. Besides insurance, freight,
packing, commission and interest, there must also be considered
the dscnsnstance that coin taken in bulk is always a little worn
and under full weight, and in the process of turning sovereigns
into doners, the result would not bear out the calculation based
on the mint regulations: consequently, when taking gold from
London, the demand would first fall on the raw metal as received
from South Africa or Australia to be minted in the United States,
then on any stock of American coin the Bank of England might
have and be willing to sell by weight (which would be accounted
by tak in New York), and lastly the demand would be satisfied
by sovereigns taken by tale from the Bank of England and con-
verted by weight in America.
The instance of the American quotation may be further taken
to explain some of the numerous points which the study of the
exchange involves. In the first place, H will be noted that we
have quoted "the price in dollars. In London, business in bills,
Ac, on New York is quoted either in pence or in dollars, that is
to say, payments are negotiated for so many dollars either at
49 rV pence per dollar, or at the equivalent rate $4-88 for the
In practice it is much more convenient to quote in
London in the money of the foreign country, as it makes com*
parison with the foreign rate on London very simple. Some
foreign countries quote exchange on London in pence, and then,
of course, in relation to those countries the same practice will
obtain In England* but the majority of the exchange quotations
on London are in francs, marks, gulden, lire, kronen or other
foreign money. Another point which must be explained is the
reason why exchange varies between what we have called the
limit points; why there is sometimes so much demand for bills
on London and why at other times so many bills are being
offered. Similar causes operate on other exchanges, and if we
develop the New York case we shall provide explanations for
exchange movements in other countries.
At one time the financial relations between. England and
America were as follows. England was the principal creditor of
the United States, and the latter country had to remit continually
very large amounts in payment of interest on English money
and profits on English investments, in payment for shipping
freights, for banking commissions, insurance premiums and an
immense variety of services, besides paying for the large imports
which crossed the Atlantic from English ports. In the fall of
the year these payments would be more than offset by the
enormous exports of food-stuffs, cotton, tobacco, &c, so that
during the first half of the year exchange would be at or about
the limit of 4-89} and gold would have to be sent from New York
to supplement the deficient quantity of bills. In the autumn
the produce bills would flood the exchange market and gold
Would be sent from London as exchange got to the other Umit
point of 4-84. These conditions are still very potent, but latterly
another element has entered into the position, and the new
development is so powerful as to reverse sometimes what we may
call the natural and legitimate movement in the exchange. This
new element is the more intimate banking and financial relation-
ship which has been established between the two countries.
As American conditions have become more stable, with better
security for capital and an assured feeling about the currency
of the United States, bankers in London have gladly allowed
their banking friends in New York and other large cities to draw
bills on London whenever there was a good demand for sterling
remittances. We have, therefore, to consider a fresh type oi
bill of which the drawer has no claim on the drawee, but, on the
other hand, incurs a debt to the drawee. To take a very usual
method, a banker in Wall Street, New York, will advance money
to stockbrokers, investors and speculators against bonds and
shares with a ao% margin. He deposits this security with a trust
company in New York which acts both for the American and
English banker. The Wall Street banker then draws a bill at
60 days' sight or 90 days' sight on the banker in Lombard Street
and sells this draft to supply the money he lends the stockbroker.
Two or three months hence the New York banker must send
money to London with which to meet the bill, so that, whereas, in
the case of a commercial bill, the produce is despatched and in due
course the consignee must find the money for the bill, in the case
of a finance bill, as it is called, the bill is drawn and in due course
the drawer must send the value with which it is to be honoured.
In any event the acceptor, the London banker, has to pay
the bill, so that it will be easily understood that relations of
the greatest confidence are necessary between the drawer and
drawee before finance bills of this class can be created.
The profit arising from the transaction we have sketched is
realized by the separate parties in this way. The New York
banker lends money for three months, say, at 5% per annum,
he pays a commission of *V% to the trust company which has
custody of the security, a charge equivalent to i% interest per
annum. He draws on London at 00 days' sight and sells the bill
at 4-831, the cable rate being 4*871, the buyer of a three months'
bill making the allowance for the English bill stamp of t per
milk and the London discount rate of 3%. The drawer of the
bill must also pay a commission of A % to the London banker
who accepts the draft; this is equivalent to another {% per
annum in the rate of discount, so that money raised in this way
costs i.% for the trust company, 3% the London discount rate,
52
EXCHANGE
about \% for bilTstamps, and f % lor London commission-
altogether, 4|%; and, as the money is loaned at 5%, there
appears to be | % profit to the drawer of the bilL This, however,
is on the assumption that the cable rate is still 4-87) when the
bul falls due for payment and that the drawer would have to
pay that price to telegraph the money to meet the draft. But
exchange on London can go up or down between 4*84 and 4*89},
and if at the end of the three months the cable rate is 4-84 the
New York banker will be able to cover his bill at almost the same
rate at which he sold it and will only be out of pocket to the
extent of the commissions and stamps, so that the accommodation
will only cost him i\% and his profit will be 3}%. If he has
to pay more than 4*87} for his cable at the maturity of the bill
his profit will be less than J %, and he may even be a loser on the
transaction.
It is obvious, then, that a high rate of interest in New York,
with a high rate of exchange on London and a low rate of dis-
count In England, would induce the creation of these finance
bills. The supply of these bills would prevent New York ex*
change reaching the limit point at which gold. leaves the United
States, and the maturity of these bills in the autumn would
ensure a demand for the produce bills and possibly prevent
exchange from falling to the other limit point at which London
has to send gold to New York.
We have pointed out the essential difference between these
finance bills and what we have called produce bills, but there is
another very striking difference, that of the question of supply.
These finance bills are obviously very difficult to limit in their
amounts; produce bills are, of course, limited by the extent of
the surplus crops of the United States and by the demand for
the produce. in Europe, but so long as it is mutually satisfactory
to the big finance houses in both countries to draw on credit
granted in London, so long may these accommodation bills be
created, and the pressure of the bills in New York may depress
exchange so much that gold leaves London at a time when it is
required in other directions. In such a case the embarrassment
caused by this artificial drain of the gold reserve would much
more than offset the amount of the commission earned by the
accepting houses. The Bank of Enf land may have to raise its
rate of discount at the expense of the entire home trade; prob-
ably, also, with the rise In the value of money, consequent on the
diminished resources, all investment securities fall in value and
more onerous terms must be submitted to by the government,
corporations and colonies, in the issue of any loans they may
require. It will, therefore, be appreciated that, although these
finance bills may be perfectly safe, their excessive creation is
viewed with great disfavour, and considerable apprehension is
felt when the adventures of speculators in New York make
great demands for loans against stocks and shares, and, through
the instrumentality of these finance bills, shift the burden on to
the shoulders of the London discount market. The effect of
this is to level money rates as between New York and London,
and in the process the pressure Calls on London and the relief
goes to America. Eventually, of course, the bills must be met
and funds sent for that purpose from across the Atlantic, but in
the meanwhile the disturbance of the gold supply is an incon-
venience.
We have explained the process of employing credits granted
in London to finance Wall Street; there are, also, many other
typesof bill to which the acceptor lends hisname on the assurance
that he will in due course be supplied with the funds required
to meet the acceptance. In the case of the produce bills, a
London banker will accept the bills in order that they may be
more easily marketable than if they were drawn direct on the
actual consignee of the cotton, tobacco or wheat. The consignees
in Liverpool, &c., pay a commission for this assistance and
•reimburse the London bank as the produce is gradually disposed
of. The transaction appears slightly more complicated when
English bankers accept bills for produce shipped from the
United States to merchants living in Hamburg, Genoa, Singapore
and all other great ports, but the principle is the same, and the
Influence of such business on the exchange affects, in the first
instance, the quotation between America and London, but after-
wards, when money must be sent to London with which to honour
the bills, the exchanges with Germany, Italy or the Straits
Settlements bear their share in the eventual adjestment, the
spinners, tobacco manufacturers and corn factors requiring
drafts on London where so much of the trade of the world is
financed.
We shall have to consider later the reasons which ensure to
London this peculiar and predominant position. We have so
far used the American exchange as an example to explain causes
which produce fluctuations in all the principal exchanges on
London and to show the points between which fluctuations are
limited. The fact that America is still developing at a much
greater rate than the Old World makes an important distinction
between the financial position in New York and the financial
position of the big capitals in Europe. There is not in America
the huge accumulation of savings and investment money which,
the Old World has collected, so that whereas Europe helps to
finance the United States, the latter country has so many home
enterprises that she can spare none of her funds to assist Europe.
It would not be possible for London to draw on New York such
bills as we have described as finance bills, for they could never be
discounted there except on the most onerous terms, and these is
nothing in America which corresponds to the London money
market.
We have to deal with dollars and cents in America, with francs
in France, with marks in Germany, and different money units in
nearly every country; but, given the mint regulations, the,
theoretical par of exchange and the theoretical limit points are
arrived at by simple arithmetic: An exhaustive statement with
reference to every country would involve an amount of tedious
repetition, so that for the purposes of this article it is more
instructive to consider the essential differences between the
important exchanges than to go into the details of coinage,
which would appeal rather to the numismatist than to the ex-
change expert.
The United States, offering as it dots a vast field for profitable
Investment, must annually remit huge amounts for interest
on bonds and shares held by Europeans; coupons and dividend
warrants payable in America are offered for sale daily in London,
and at the end of the quarters the amount of these chums,
coupons and drawn bonds is very large, and a considerable set
off to the indebtedness of Europe for American produce. It hi
often asserted that the United Statesismpidly gettingsiilnciently
wealthy to repurchase all these bonds and shares; but whenever-
trade conditions are exceptionally good in the States, fresh
evidence is forthcoming that assistance from London and Europe
is essential to finance the commercial development of the United
States. This illustrates a feature common to all new countries,
and the effect is that they make annual payments to the older
countries and especially to England.
A government loan or other large borrowing arranged abroad
will immediately move the exchange in favour of the borrowing
country. A tendency adverse to the United States results from
the drafts and letters of credit of the large number of holiday
makers who cross the Atlantic and spend so much money in.
Europe. When remittance is made of the incomes of Americana
who have taken up their residence in the Old World the exchange
is affected in a similar manner.
In one respect the United States stands far superior to most
of the older countries. There are no restrictions on the free
export of gold when exchange reaches the limit point showing
that the demand for bills on London exceeds the supply. .New.
York (with London and India) is a free gold market, and this is
undoubtedly one of the reasons why money is so readily advanced
to the United States, and the finance bills, to which we referred
above, would not be allowed to the same extent were it not for.
the fact that New York will remit gold when other forms of
remittance are insufficient to satisfy foreign creditors. When
exchange between Paris and London reaches the theoretical limit
point of 25-32 (25 francs 32 centimes for the £t sterling), gold
does not leave Paris for London unless the Bank, of France is
EXCHANGE
S3
j Co allow it. By law, silver is also k^ fender in France,
tad if the State Bank is pressed for gold a premium will be
charged foT it tf it is supplied. Gold saay be collected on cheaper
terms in small amounts from the great trading corporations
or from the offices of the railways, but a large shipment can only
be made by apeeial amngement with the Bank el France.
Smnmriy, in Germany, whan a gold standard is supposed to
obtain, if a hanker requites a large amount, of gold from the
feSchsbank he hi Warned that be had better not take it, and if
he persists he mcoxs the displeasure of toe genrernment institution
to the prejudice of his business, so that the theoretical limit
point of so marks 5* pi, to the pound sterling has no practical
ssjnincaiice, and gold cannot be secured front Berlin when
exchange is against that city, and Germany has, when put to the
test, an mcenvertibfe and sometime* a cfebas^ Then
n no state bank in the United States, and no government inter-
ference with the natural course of paying debts. On the other
hand, when monetary c on d i t ions in New York indicate a great
shortage of funds, and rates of interest are uncomfortably Ugh,
the United States treasury has sometimes parted with some of
its revenue accumulations to the principal New York bankers
on conc&tta that they at once engage a similar amount of gold
for import from abroad, which shall be ftrrncd over to the treasury
on arrival. An these advances are made free of interest the effect
is to adjust the limit point of 484 to about 485, and the United
States treasury seems to have taken a leaf out of the book of
the German Rekhsbank, which frequently offers similar facilities
to gold importers and creates an artificial limit point in the
Berlin Exchange. The Rekhsbank gives credit in Berlin for
gold that has only got as far as Hamburg, and sometimes gives
s» many days' credit that the agent in London of German banking
souses can afford an extravagant price for bar gold and even
risk the loss m weight on a withdrawal of sovereigns, although
the exchange may not have fallen to the other limit point of
a>3». In England the only effort that is made to attract gold
is some action by the Bank of England in the direction of raising
fiscount rates; occasionally, also, the bank outbids other
purchasers for the arrivals of raw gold from South Africa,
Australia and other mining countries. Quite exceptionally, for
instance during the Boer War, the Bank of England allowed
advances free of interest against gold shipped to London.
Many el the principal banking houses in all the important
capitals receive continually throughout the day telegraphic
adonnation of the tendency and movement of all the exchanges,
and on the smallest margin of profit a large business is done in
what s called arbitrage (*.».). For instance, cheques or bills
en London will be bought by X in Bark and remitted to Y in
London. X wQl recoup himself by selling a cable payment on
2 in New York. Z will put himself in funds to meet the cable
payment by selling 60 days* sight drafts on Y, who pays the 60
days' drafts at maturity out of the proceeds of the cheques or
hOls received from Paris, and this complicated transaction,
involving no outlay of capital, must show some minute profit
after all expense of bill stamps, discount, cables and commissions
fas been aflowed for. Such business is very difficult and very
technical The arbitrageur must be in first-class credit, must
make the most exact calculation, and be prompt to take
advantage of the small differences in exchange, differences
which can be only temporary, as these operations soon bring
about an adjustment.
The European exchanges wRh which London- is chiefly con*
cemed are Paris and Berlin, through which centres most of the
financial business of the rest of Europe is conducted; for example,
Scandinavia, Russia and Austria bank more largely with Berlin
than elsewhere, Italy, Switzerland, Belgium and Spain bank
chiefly in Paris. European claims on London or debts to London
are settled mostly through Germany or France, and consequently
the German and French rates of exchange are affected by the
relation of England with the rest of the Continent. The ex-
changes on Paris and Berlin are therefore most carefully watched
by afi those big interests which are concerned with the rate of
discount and the value of money in London.
If the Park cheque foils tor a$ta, gold arrivals in the London*
bullion market will be taken by French bankers unless the profit
shown by the exchange on some other country enables other
buyers to pay more for the gold than Paris can afford. If the
Paris cheque falls still further, it would pay to take sovereigns
from the Bank of England for export, and so much would be
taken as would satisfy the demand to send money to Prance, or
until the consequent scarcity of money in London made rates
of interest so high in England that French bankers would prefer
to leave money and perhaps increase their balances. As between
London and Bam and Berlin the greatest factor operating the
ftyrhangrs is the relative value of money In the three centres.
There is no great excess of trade balance at any season In favour
of Gesmany or France and against England. On the other hand
the banking relations between those countries are very intimate,
and if funds can be very profitably employed In one of these
places, there wQl be a good demand for remittance* and exchange
will move in favour of that place, that is to say, exchange will
go towards that limit point at which gold will be sent. The
great pastoral and agricultural countries like South America,
Egypt and India are in a position to draw very hugely on London
when their oops or other products are ready for shipment.
In the early months of the year gold goes freely to South America
to pay for the cereals, hides and meat, and in the autumn Egypt
and India send each quantities of cotton and wheat that exchange
moves beavny in favour of those countries, and gold must go
to adjust the trade balance. During the rest of the year the gold
tends to return as these countries always require bills on London
or some form of payment to meet interest and dividends on
European money invested in their government debts, railways
and trading enterprises, and to pay for the European manu-
factures which they import. Exchange then moves in favour
of England, and the Bank of England can replenish its reserve.
Over the greater part of the world the rate of exchange on London
is an indication simply of the trade balance. The greater part of
the world receives payment for food stuffs, and has to pay for
European manufactures, shipping freights, banking services
abd professional commissions.
The greatest complication in exchange "questions arises when
we have to deal with a country employing a silver st anria rd, and,
fortunately for the development of trade, this problem has
disappeared of late years in the case of India, Ceylon, Japan,
Mexico and the Straits Settlements, and now the only important
country using silver as a standard is China. When the monetary
standard in one country is only a commodity in another country
we are as far removed from the ideal of an international currency
as can be imagined. We can fix no Emit points to the exchange
and we cannot settle any theoretical par of exchange. The price
of silver in the gold-using country may vary as much as the price
of copper or tin, and in the silver-using country gold hi dealt
in just as any other metal. In both cases the only metal of
constant price is the metal which is used as the money standard.
The easiest method of explaining the position is to consider that
any one in a gold-using country having a claim in currency on
a silver-using country has to offer for sale so many ounces of
silver, and vice versa the exporter in a silver-using country
sending produce to Ldndon has to offer a draft representing so
many ounces of gold. This introduces a very unsatisfactory
element. To take a practical example*--* 1 tea-grower in China
has raised his crop in spite of the usual experience of weather and
labour difficulties and the endless risks that a planter must face;
the tea is then sent to London to take its chance of good or bad
prices, and at the same time the planter has a draft to sell repre-
senting locally a certain weight of gold; now, in addition to all
the risks of weather and trading conditions, and the chances of
the fluctuations fn the tea market, he is compelled to gamble
in the metal market on the price of gold. Some years ego when'
a large number of important countries employed a swver standard
it was seriously suggested that a fixed ratio should be agreed'
internationally at which gold and silver should be exchanged.
This advocacy of bimetallism (q.v.) was especially persistent at
a time when silver had sintered a very great fall in price end its
S.+
EXCHEQUER
prominent exponents could generally be identified either as
extremely practical men who were interested in the price of
silver, or as very inexperienced theorists. The difficulty of the
two standards was successfully solved by discarding the use of
silver, and the chid silver-using countries adopted -a gold
standard which has given greater security for the investment
of foreign capital, has simplified business- and brought about &
large increase of trade.
In the case of a country of which the government has been
subject to great financial difficulties gold has been shipped to
satisfy foreign creditors so long as the supply held out, and the
exchange with such a country will continue to move adversely
with every fresh political embarrassment andany other economic
cause reflecting on the national credit. With the collapse of the
monarchy in Brazil the value of the milieis fell from 27a 1 . to sd.,
and all the Spanish-American countries have from time to time
afforded most distressing exampJesof the demoralizing effects on
the currency of unstable and reckless administration. In Europe
similar results have been shown by the mistrust inspired by the
governments of Spain, Greece, Italy and some other states.
The raising of revenue by the use of the printing press creates
an inconvertible and depreciating paper currency which frightens
foreign capital and severely taxes the unfortunate country which
must make payment abroad for the service of debt and other
obligations. With the tardy appreciation of the old proverb that
" honesty is the best polky " nearly every country of importance
has made strenuous efforts to improve the integrity of its money.
Exchange quotations are not published from many of the
British colonies, as their financial business is in the hands of a
comparatively few excellently managed banks, which establish,
by agreement, conventional exchanges fixed for a considerable
period, notably in the case of Australia, New Zealand and South
Africa. The Scottish and Irish banks supply similar examples
of a monopoly in exchange.
The following table taken from the money article of a London
daily paper indicates the exchanges which are of most interest
to England:—
Foreign Exchanges.
Parbi cheques . .
„ Mkt. discount .
Brussels, cheques
Berlin, sight . .• .
8 days . .
„ Mkt. discount
Vienna, sight . . .
Amsterdam, sight .
Italy, sight . . .
Madrid, sight. . .'
Lisbon, sight . . .
St Petersburg, 3ms. .
Bombay, T.T. . .
Calcutta, T.T. '. .
Hong-Kong, T.T. .
Shanghai, T.T. . .
~ T.T
ma, T.T..
•Rio de Jan'ro, 90 days
"Valparaiso, 90 days
Coml
•B. Ayrcs, 90 days .
June 14. June 15.
25 f. 18 c.
aj-i P-c
25 f- 23 c.
20 m. 48! pf.
20 m. 46} pf .
Holiday
12 fl. \%\ c.
Holiday
94T.10
ls.4d.
is. 4d.
• as. I Ad.
23. I Ojd.
2s. 4Ad.
28. Old.
i6ftd.
& d :
25 f. 18 c.
2l-l p.c.
25 f. 23} c.
20 m. 48} pf.
so m. 46$ pf.
3i P.«- u
24 kr. 02I h.
12 fl, 13J c.
25 Kre 15 c.
27 ps.68
94 '• jo
is. 4<L
is. 4d.
as. 1 j»«d.
2s. 1 old.
2s. 4f\d.
2s. o|d.
I6ftd.
I4ld.
48d.
June 16.
25 f. 18 a
2,-i p.C.
20 m. 48 pf.
2om.45*pf-
3i p.c.
24 kr. 024 h.
is. 4d.
is. 4d.
2s. i,Vd.
2S. lOfd.
2s. 4Ad.
2S. o|d.-
l6Jid.
14W.
4 8d.
* These rates are telegraphed on the day preceding their receipt.
In the case of Paris and Berlin at will be noticed that the
local rate of discount is also given, as the value of money in these
centres, in relation to the value of money in London, is the most
important factor in a movement of the exchange. Vienna has
become important owing to the improvement in the financial
position of Austria, and still greater improvement is shown in
the case of Italy, whose currency stands in the above list better
even than that of France. Spain, which shduld stand at about
the same rate, still has a depreciated paper currency. Lisbon
stands also at a discount, as the milreis should be worth 53}
pence.
In Russia the exchange showing 94.10 roubles to £10 js care-
folly and cleverly controlled m spite of the bad internal position.
The India exchanges move slightly, as the currency is firmly
es t a bl is h ed at the rate of 15 rupees to the £x. Hong-Kong quotes
for the old Mexican dollar and a British trade dollar; Shanghai
for the tael containing on an average 5x7! grains of fine silver.
The Straits Settlements have fixed their money on a gold basis
at as. 4d. per dollar, on the lines of the arrangement made in
India. In Japan there is a gold standard, and par of exchange
is 2a. o}d. for the yen. Brazil, Chile and Argentina have a
depreciated paper currency, and the last quotation of 484L is for
the gold dollar equal to five francs, but there is a premium 00
gold in die River Plate of 127.274% and for the present a gold
standard is re-established on this basis. The letters T.T. with
the eastern exchanges signify telegraphic transfer or the rate for
payments made by cable. The very important New York rates
are always given in another part of the daily paper with other
details of American commercial interest.
These rates are all quotations for payments in F.ngisnd, and
all over the world the exchange on London is the exchange of
the greatest importance. This unique position was gained
originally, probably, through the geographical position of the
United Kingdom, and has been maintained owing to several
reasons which secure to London a peculiar position by comparison
with any other capital. Britain's colossal trade ensures a supply
of and a demand for English remittances. Even when goods
or produce are dealt in between foreign countrieaa credit isopened
in London, so that the shipper of the produce can offer in the
local market a bill of exchange which is readily saleable. With
the highly developed banking system a large amount of deposits
is collected in London, and the result is that bills of any usance
up to six months can be immediately discounted, and the pro-
ceeds, if required, can be handed over in gold. There are in
London a great number of wealthy banks and hanking houses
whose reputation and solidity allow any one of them to accept
bills for amounts varying from one to ten millions sterling,
whereby large commissions are earned.
These four advantages, namely, a free gold market, a huge
trade, an enormous accumulation of wealth, and a discount
market such as exists nowhere else, have made London an
unrivalled financial centre, and consequently bills on London
are an international money and the best medium of exchange,
AtfTHOWTias.— 4 B C of (he Foreign Exchanges, by George
Clare*, Foreign Exchanges, oy Goschen; Arbttrogc, by Deutsch;
Arbitrages el Panics-, by Ottomar Haupt; Swoboda, Arbitrage (12th
edition), by Max Fuerst. (E. M, Ha.)
EXCHEQUER. The word "exchequer " is the English form
of the Fr. Schiquier t low Lat. staccarimm, and its primary meaning
is a chess-board (see Chess). As the name of a governxnent
department dealing with accounts it is derived from the exchequer
or the " abacus " by means of which such accounts were kept,
such a contrivance being almost universally in use before the
introduction of the Arabic notation. In England the department
or court of accounts was named originally " the talhes " from
the notched sticks or tallies which constituted the primitive
means of account-keeping (which were only abolished in 1826),
and was only subsequently, probably in the reign of Henry I.,
named the exchequer from the use of the abacus. Both the name
and the general features of the institution may reasonably be
attributed to Norman influence, since we find both in Normandy
and in the Norman kingdom of Sicily, as well as in Scotland and
Ireland; the two latter cases, being directly due to English
example. As a court of law the exchequer owed its exist e nce in
England, as elsewhere, to the necessity of deciding legal questions
arising from matters of account, and its secondary activities soon
overshadowed its original functions.
We cannot say whether the exchequer, as known in England,
is older than the beginning of the 12th century. The treasury,
which may be regarded as one of its constituents, dates from
before the conquest, and the officers of the exchequer who were
drawn from the treasury staff can be traced back to Domesday.
But our earliest information about the exchequer itself, apart
from that afforded by the pipe rolls (see Record), rests on a
BXCHEQDER
55
treatise {DMogus de Seaecaric) written about jld. 1179 by
Richard, bishop of London and treasurer of England, Mis
tuber, Nigel, bishop of Ely, had been treasurer of Henry I., and
nephew to that king's gnat financial minister Roger, bishop of
Salisbury. .Nigel is said to have reconstituted the exchequer after
the troubles of Stephen's reign upon the model which he inherited
from bis uncle. The Angevin, or rather the Norman, exchequer
cannot be regarded in strictness as a permanent department.
It consisted of two parts: the lower exchequer, which was
closely connected with the permanent treasury and was an
office for the receipt and payment of money; and the upper
exchequer, which was a court sitting twke a year to settle
accounts and thus nearly related to the Curia Regis (?.*.). We
dare hardly say that either exchequer existed in vacation;
indeed the word (like the word "cfiet ") seems to have been
limited at first to the actual sitting of the king's courtfor financial
purposes. The Michaelmas and Easter exchequers were the
sessions of this court " at the exchequer " or chess-board as it
had previously sat " at the tallies," The constitution of the
court was that of the normal Prankish curia. The king was the
nominal president, and the court consisted of his great officers
of state and his barons, or tenants-in-chief, and ft is doubtless
due to the fact that the exchequer was originally the curia itself
sitting for a special purpose that its un o ffi c ial judges retained
the name of " barons " until recent times. Of the great officers
we may probably find the steward in the person of the Justiciary
the normal president of the court. He sat at the head of the
exchequer table. The butler was not represented. The chan-
cellor sat on the justiciar's left; he was custodian ex officio of
the seal of the court, and thus responsible for the issue of all writs
and summonses, and moreover for the keeping of a duplicate roll
of accounts embodying the judgments of the court. On the left
of the chancellor, and thus dear of the table, since their services
might be required elsewhere at any moment, sat the constable,
the two chamberlains and the marshal. The constable was the
chief of the outdoor service of the court, and was responsible
lor everything connected with the army, or with hunting and
backing. The two chamberlains were the lay colleagues of the
treasurer, and shared with him the duty of receiving and paying
money, and keeping safe the seal of the court, and all the records
and otJser contents of the treasury. The marshal, who was
subordinate to the constable, shared his duties, and was specially
responsible for the custody of prisoners and of the vouchers
produced by accountants. At the head of the table on the
justiciar's right sat, in Henry IL's time, an extraordinary member
of the court, the bishop of Winchester. The treasurer, like the
chancellor a. clerk, sat at the head of the right-hand side of the
tame. He charged the accountants with their fixed debts, and
dictated the contents of the great roll of accounts (or pipe roll)
which embodied the decisions of the court as to the indebtedness
ef the sheriffs and other accountants. These persons with certain
subordinates constituted the court of accounts, or upper ex-
chequer, whereas the tower exchequer, or exchequer of receipt,
consisted almost exclusively of the subordinates of the
treasurer and chamberlains. In the upper exchequer the
jsstfcfer appointed. the calculator, who exhibited the state of
each account by meant of counters on the exchequer table, so
that the proceedings of the court might be dear to the presumably
Siierate sheriff. The calculator sat in the centre of the side of
the tabie on the president's left. The chancellor's staff consisted
ef the Msgiskr ScriptorU (probably the ancestor of the modern
sassier of the rolls), whose duties are not stated; a clerk (the
Bodern chancellor of the exchequer) who settled the form of all
vrks and summonses, charged the sheriff with all fines and
one ! ce m ents, and acted as a check on the treasurer in the com*
position of the great roll; and a scribe (afterwards the otanp>
tiolkr of the pipe) , who wrote out the writs and summonses-and
kept a duplicate of the great roll, known as the chancellor's roll.
Tbe constable's subordinates were the marshal and a clerk, who,
besides the duty of paying outdoor servants of the crown, had the
special task of producing duplicate* of aO writs issued by the
Curia Regis. The treasurer and chamberlains, being colleagues.
hud a joint staff, the clerical or literate members of which 1
servants of the treasurer, while the- lay or illiterate 1
depended on the chamberlains. Hence while the treasurer and
his clerks kept their accounts by means of rolls, the chamberlains
and their Serjeants duplicated them so far as possible by means
of tallies. Thus tbe (peat roll was written by the treasurers
scribe (the engrosser, afterwards the clerk of the pipe), while the
payments on account and other allowances to be credited to the
sheriff were registered by the tally cutter of the chamberlains.
In the exchequer of receipt the staff was similarly divided
between the treasurer and chamberlains; the treasurer having
a clerk who kept the issue and receipt rolls (the later clerk of the
pells) and four tellers, while each of the chamberlains was repre-
sented by a knight (afterwards the deputy chamberlains), who
controlled the clerk's account by means of tallies, and held their
lands by tins serjeanty; these three had joint control of the
treasury, and could not act independently. The other Serjeants
were the knight or " pesour n who weighed the money, the melter
who assayed it, and the ushers of the two exchequers. It should
bo noted that all the lay offiossof the treasury in both exchequers
were hereditary. Henry II. had also a personal dork who
supervised the proceedings personally in the upper, and by
deputy in the lower, exchequer.
The business of the ancient exchequer was primarily financial,
although we know that some judicial business was done there and
that the court of common pleas was derived from it rather than
from the curia proper. The principal accountants were the
sheriffs, who were bound, as the king's principal financial agenu
in each county, to give an account of their stewardship twice a
year, at the exchequers of Easter and Mirhaflmai, Half the
annual revenue was payable at Easter, and at. M^V* 1 ")?* the
balance was exacted, and the accounts made up for tbe year,
and formally enrolled on the pipe roll. The fixed revenue con-
sisted^ the fanm of the kiiig's demesne lano^wkhm the cotmt^
of the county mints, and of certain boroughs (seeBoaotnra)
which paid annual sums as the price of their liberties. Danegekl
was also regarded as fixed revenue, though after the **xvmvr>\ of
Henry II. it was not frequently levied. There were also rente
of assarts and purprestures and mining and other royalties.
The casual revenue consisted of the profits of the feudal incidents
(escheat, wards h ip and marriage), of the profitsof justice (amerce-
ments, and goods of felons and outlaws) , and of fines, orpsyments
made by the king's subjects to secure grants of land, wardships
or marriages, and of immunities, as well as for the ^-^frff
and sometimes the delaying of justice. Besides this, there were
the revenues arising from aidsand scutages of the king's rmlitary
tenants, tallages of the crown lands, customs of ports, and special
11 gifts," or general assessments made on- particular occasions.
For the collection of all these thesheriff was primarily responsible,
though in some cases the accountants dealt directly with the
exchequer, and were bound to make their appearance in person
on tbe day when the sheriff accounted.
We gather both from tradition and from the example of the
Scottish exchequer that the farms of demesne lands were origin-
ally paid in kind, by way of purveyance for the royal household;
and although such farms are expressed even in Dqmesday Book
in terms of money, the tradition that there was a system of
customary valuation is a sufficient explanation, and not of itself
incredible. At some date, possibly under the aoministration of
Roger of Salisbury, the ^convenience of this arrangement led
to the substitution of money payments at the exchequer* The
rapid deterioration of a small silver coinage led to successive
efforts to maintain the value of these payments, first by a "scale "
deduction of dd. in the £ for wear, then by the substitution of
payment by 'weight for payment by tale, and finally by the
reduction' of most of such payments to their pure silver value
by means of an assay, a process originally confined to payments
from particular manors. Only the farms of counties, h o wt v or,
were so treated, and not all of those. The sincwit to be deducted
in these cases was settled by the weighing sad assaying of a
specimen pound of silver In the presence of the sheriff by tho
pesour and the melter in tbe tower exchequer. .The casual
56
EXCHEQUER
revenue was paid by tale, and for the determination of its
amount it was necessary to have copies of all grants made in the
chancery on which rents were reserved, or fines payable. These
wen known fiat as cmiirabrxria and later as originalia; the
profits of justice were settled by the delivery of " estreats "
from the justices, while for certain minor casualties the oath of
the sheriff was at first the only security. At a later date many of
them were determined by copies of inquisitions sent in from the
chancery. All this business might be transacted anywhere in
England, and though convenience placed the exchequer first at
Winchester (where the treasury was), and afterwards usually
at Westminster, it held occasional sessions at other towns even
in the 14th century.
The Angevin exchequer, described by Richard the Treasurer,
remained the ideal of the institution throughout its history, and
the lineaments of the original exemplar were never completely
effaced; but the rapid increase both of financial and judicial
business led to a multiplication of machinery and a growing
complexity of constitution. Even in the time of Henry II. we
gather that the great officers of state, except the treasurer and
chancellor, commonly attended by deputy. In the reign of
Henry III. the chancellor had also ceased to attend, and his clerk
acquired the title of chancellor of the exchequer. To the same
period belongs the institution of the king's and lord treasurer's
remembrancers. These at first had common duties and kept
duplicate rolls, but by the ordinance of 1323 their functions were
differentiated. Henceforward the king's remembrancer was more
particularly concerned with the casual, and the lord treasurer's
remembrancer with the fixed revenue. The former put all debts
in charge, while the latter saw to their recovery when they had
found their way on to the great roll. Hence the preliminary
stages of each account, the receiving and registering of the
king's writs to the treasurer and barons, and the drawing up of
all particulars of account, lay with the king's remembrancer, and
he retained the corresponding vouchers. The lord treasurer's
remembrancer exacted the " remanets " of such accounts as had
been enrolled, as well as reserved rents and fixed revenue, and
so became closely connected with the clerk of the pipe. Before
the end of the 14th century these three offices had already
crystallised into separate departments.
In the meantime the increasing length and variety of accounts,
as well as the growth of judicial business, had led to various efforts
at reform. As early as as Henry II. it became necessary to
remove from the great roll the debts which it seemed hopeless to
levy, and further ordinances to the same end were made by
statute in 54 Henry IH. and in it Edward I. By this last a
special "exannual roll" was established in which the
"desperate debts" were recorded, in order that the sheriff
might be reminded of them yearly without their overloading the
great rolL But the largest accession of financial business arose
from the " foreign accounts/' that is to say, the accounts of
national services, which did not naturally form part of the
account of any county. These did not in the reign of Henry II.
form a part of the exchequer business. Such expenses as appear
on the pipe roll were paid by the sheriffs, or by the bailiffs of
" honours "; payments out of the treasury itself would only
appear on the receipt and issue rolls, and the " spending depart-
ments " probably drew their supplies from the camera curie,
and not directly from the exchequer. In the course of the 13th
century the exchequer gradually acquired partial control of these
national accounts. Even in x8 Henry II. there is an account for
the forests of England, and soon the mint, the wardrobe and the
escbeaton followed. The undated statute of the exchequer
(probably about 1276) provides for escbeaton, the earldom of
Chester, the Channel Islands, the customs and the wardrobe.
During the reign of Edward I., the wardrobe account became
unmanageable, since it not only financed the household, army,
navy and diplomatic service, but raised money on the customs
independently of the exchequer. The reform of 13*3-1326, due
to Walter de Stapledon, in remedying this state of things, greatly
increased the number of " foreign accounts " by making the
great • wardrobe ' (the storekecping department), the. butler,
purveyors, keepers of hones or of the stud, the detk of the
44 hamper " of the chancery (who took the fees for the great
seal), and the various ambassadors, directly accountable to the
exchequer. At the same time the sheriffs' accounts were ex-
pedited by the further simplification of the great roll, and by
appointing a special officer, the " foreign apposer," to take the
account of the " green wax," or estreats, so that two accounts
could go on at once. Another baron (the 5th or curator baron)
was appointed, and the whole business at foreign accounts was
transferred to a separate btiikhng where one baron and certain
auditors spent their whole time in settling the balances doe on
the accounts already mentioned, as well as those of castles, &c,
not let to farm, Wales, Gascony, Ireland, aids (clerical and lay),
temporalities of vacant bishoprics, abbeys, priories and dignities,
mines of silver and tin, umage and so forth. These balances
were accounted for in the exchequer itself, and entered on the
pipe roll, but the preliminary accounts were filed by the king's
remembrancer, and enrolled separately by the treasurer's
remembrancer as a supplement to the pipe roU.
The next important change, about the end of the 15th century,
was the gradual substitution of special auditors appointed by the
crown, known as the auditors of the prests (the predecessors
of the commissioners for auditing public accounts), for the
auditors of the exchequer. Accounts when passed by them were
presented in duplicate and " declared " before the treasurer,
under-treasurer and chancellor. Of the two copies, one, on
paper, was retained by the auditors, the other, on parchment,
was successively enrolled by the king's and lord treasurer's
remembrancers, and finally by the clerk of the pipe, to secure
the levying of any "remanets " or " supers " by process of the
exchequer.
Besides the two great difficulties of the postponement of
financial to legal business, and of preventing the sheriffs from
exacting the same debt twice, the exchequer was, as has been
seen, hampered in its functions by the interference of other
departments in financial matters. Its own branches even
acquired a certain independence. The exchequer of the Jews,
which came to an end in 18 Edward I. was such a branch, In
27 Henry VIII. the court of augmentations was established to
deal with forfeited lands of monasteries. This was followed in
32 & 33 Henry VIII. by the courts of first-fruits and tenths
and of general surveyors. These were reabsorbed by the ex-
chequer in 1 Mary, but remained as separate departments
within it. But the development of the treasury, which succeeded
to the functions of the camera curie or the kings chamber,
ultimately reduced the administrative functions of the exchequer
to unimportance, and the audit office took over its duties with
regard to public accounts. So that when the statute of 3 & 4.
William IV. cap. 09, removed the sheriff's accounts also from
its competence, and brought to an end the series of pipe rolls
which begins in z 130, the ancient exchequer may be said to have
come to an end. (C J.)
In 1834 an act was passed abolishing the old offices of the
exchequer, and creating a new exchequer under a comptroller-
general, .the detailed business of payments formerly made at
the exchequer being transferred to the paymaster-general,
whose office was further enlarged in 7836 and 1848. And in
x666, as the result of a select committee reporting unfavour-
ably on the system of exchequer control as fift^Mnhrd in
1834, the exchequer was abolished altogether as a distinct
department of state,, and a new exchequer and audit depart-
ment established.
The ancient term exchequer now survives mainly as the
official title of the national banking account of the United
Kingdom. This central account is commonly called the ex-
chequer, and its statutory title is "His Majesty's Exchequer."
It may also be described with statutory authority as '* The
Account of the Consolidated Fund of Great Britain and Ireland."
This account is, in fact, divided between the Banks of England
and Ireland. At the bead office of each of these institution
receipts are accepted and payments made on account of the
exchequer; but an published, documents the two accounts axe 1
EXCHEQUER
57
consolidated Into one, Che balances only at the two bonks being
■town separately.
Operations affecting the exchequer are regulated by the
Exchequer and Audit Departments Act 1866. Section 10 pre-
scribes that the gross revenue of the United Kingdom (less
drawbacks and repayments, which are not really revenue) is
payable, and must sooner or later be paid into the exchequer.
Section 11 directs that payments should be made from the
fond so formed to meet the current requirements of spending
departments. Sections 13, 14, 1$ lay down the conditions
under which money can be drawn from the exchequer. Drafts on
the exchequer require the approval of art officer independent
of the executive government, the comptroller and auditor-
general. But the description of the formal procedure required
by statute cannot adequately express the actual working of
the system, or the part it plays in the national finance. The
simplicity of the system laid down by the act of x866 has been
disturbed by the diversion of certain branches or portions of
levenoe from the exchequer to u Local Taxation Accounts,"
onder a system initiated by the Local Government Act 1888,
and raach extended since.
While the exchequer is, as already stated, the central account,
h is not directly in contact with the details of either revenue
or expenditure. As regains revenue, the produce of taxes and
other sources of income passes, in the first instance, into the
separate accounts of the respective receiving departments—
nainiy, of course, those of the customs, inland revenue and post
office A not inconsiderable portion is received in the provinces,
and remitted to London or Dublin by bills or otherwise, and the
ultimate transfers to the exchequer are made (in round sums)
from the accounts of the receiving departments In London or in
Dublin. Thus, there are always considerable sums due to the
exchequer by the revenue departments; on the other hand, as
floating balances are (for the sake of economy) used temporarily
for current expenses, there are generally amounts due by the
exchequer to the receiving departments; such cross claims
are adjusted periodically, generally once a month. The finance
accounts of the United Kingdom show the gross amounts due
to the exchequer from the departments, and likewise the amounts
payable out of the gross revenue in priority to the claim of the
exchequer. On the expenditure side a similar system prevails.
No detailed payments are made direct from the exchequer, but
round sums are issued from it to subsidiary accounts, from
which the actual drafts for the public services are met. For
instance, the interest on the national debt is paid by the Bank
of England from a separate account fed by transfers of round
sums from the exchequer as required. Similarly, payments for
army, navy and most civil services are met by the paymaster*
seneral out of an account of his own, fed by daily transfers from
the exchequer.
This system has two noticeable effects. Firstly, it secures the
fcmpfaoiy and finality of the exchequer accounts, and therefore
of all ordinary statements of national finance. Every evening
the chancellor of the exchequer can tell his position so far as the
exchequer is concerned; on the first day of every quarter the
press b able to comment on the national income and expenditure
ap to the evening before. The annual account is closed on the
evening of the 31st of March, and there can be no reopening of
the budget of a past year such as may occur under other financial
systems. The second effect of the system is to introduce a certain
aninciality into the financial statements. Actual facts cannot be
reduced to the simplicity of exchequer figures; there is always
Us already explained) revenue received by government which
kas not yet reached the exchequer, and there must always
be a considerable outstanding liability in the form of cheques
issued but not yet cashed. The suggested criticism is, how*
ever, met if it can be shown that, on the whole, the differences
between the true revenue and the exchequer receipts, or
between the true (or audited) expenditure and the exchequer
ucs, are not, taking one year with another, relatively con*
aaerabJe. The following figures (oeo's omitted) illustrate this
point; —
Expenditure
Year.
ifiSH-s$8o
iSfic>-i3oo
Ifrjo- 1 391
iaNi-i39s
iS*)jj-i*93
rs*>j 1*94
1894- i*9S
i£i J96
1 &** -J fa
ifi'j;-j<J98
Total for/
10 years S
Exchequer
Issues.
i 7t7 H
89.928
90,375
91.303
93.919
97J64
IOM77
102,936
£927,19*
Audited
Expenditure.
£86,070
86,033
87.638
00.125
90,164
97.667
101,543
103,010
£927.598
Difference.
£+396
- 50
+197
—an
+227
— 101
+ 8
+ 74
£+407
Revenue.
Year.
18 I89
i8«v-iS90
16'j ■ 1 -(91
!8<>[-t899
i«'j- +93
1893-1*94
1894- 1 ^95
1845-1.196
1 896- 1 Sot
1897-1*98
Total for/
10 years \
Exchequer
Receipts.
£88,473
89.304.
89489
90.995
90.395
94!684
101,974
101.960
106,614
£947.011
Actual Revenue.
£88.038
89416
89,282
91428
90,181
91.265
94.873
102,011
104.089
106,691
£947.294
Difference
£-435
+ 112
-207
+433
-214
tig
t 57
+129
+ 77
£+273
Surplus.
Year.
1888-1889
1889-1890
1890-1 891
1 89 1-1892
1892-1893
1893-1894
1894-1895
1895-1896
1896-1897
1897-1898
Total for i
10 years \
Exchequer
Accounts.
£2.799
3.221
1.757
W
20
-/70
765
4*210
£8
£19,820
Diff. between
Actual Rev.
and Aud. Exp.
£19.606
DUTeseoce.
+2$
- 3
-95
+290
+154
+ 73
+ 3
£-124
The third column in the above shows the price which has to be
paid (in the form of discrepancies between facts and figures)
for the simplicity secured to statements and records of the national
finance by the present system embodied in the term exchequer.
Probably few will think the price too high in consideration of
the advantages secured.
The principal official who derives a title from the exchequer
In its living sense is, of course, the chancellor of the exchequer.
He is the person named second in the patent appointing com-
missions for executing the office of lord high treasurer of Great
Britain and Ireland; but he is appointed chancellor of the
exchequer for Great Britain and chancellor of the exchequer
for Ireland by two additional patents. Although, in fact, the
finance minister of the United Kingdom, he has no statutory
power over the exchequer apart from bis position as second
commissioner of the treasury; but in virtue of his afice he is
by statute mastar of the mint, senior commissioner for the
reduction of the national debt, a trustee of the British Museum,
an ecclesiastical commissioner, a member of the board of agri-
culture, a commissioner of public works and buildings, focal
government, and education, a commissioner for regulating the
offices of the House of Commons, and has certain functions
connected with the office of the secretary of state for India.
The only other exchequer officer requiring mention is the
5«
EXCISE
comptroller and auditor-general, whose functions as comptroller-
general of the exchequer have been already descr i bed.
The ancient name of the national banking account baa been
attached to two of the forms of unfunded national debt. Ex-
chequer bills, which date from the reign of William and Mary
(they took the place of the tallies, previously used for the same
purpose), became extinct in 1807, but exchequer bonds (first
issued by Mr Gladstone in 1853) still possess a practical import-
ance. An exchequer bond is a promise by government to pay a
specified sum after a specified period, generally three or five years,
and meanwhile to pay interest half-yearly at a specified rate
on that sum. Government possesses no general power to issue
exchequer bonds; such power is only conferred by a special act,
and for specified purposes; but when the power has been
created, exchequer bonds issued in pursuance of it are governed
by general statutory provisions contained in the Exchequer Bills
and Bonds Act 1866, and amending acts. These acts create
machinery for the issue of exchequer bonds and for the payment
of interest thereon, and protect them against forgery.
Some traces may be mentioned of the ancient uses of the
name exchequer which still remain. The chancellor of the
exchequer still presides at the ceremony of " pricking the list
of sheriffs, " which is a quasi- judicial function: and on that
occasion he wears a robe of black silk with gold embroidery,
which suggests a judicial costume. In England the last judge
who was styled baron of the exchequer (Baron Pollock) died
in 1897. In Scotland the jurisdiction of the barons of the
exchequer was transferred to the court of session in 1856, but the
same act requires the appointment of one of the judges as " lord
ordinary in exchequer causes," which office still exists. In
Ireland Lord Chief Baron Palles was the last to retain the old
title. A street near Dublin Castle is called Exchequer. Street,
recalling the separate Irish exchequer, which ceased in 1817.
The old term also survives in the full title of the treasury repre-
sentative in Scotland, which is " The King's and the Lord
Treasurer's Remembrancer in Exchequer," while his office in the
historic Parliament Square is styled " Exchequer Chambers."
(S.E.S.-R.)
DiSLiOOSArttV-— For the early exchequer Thomas Madox's
IJitioty aid Aniiqnilifi vfikt Ejshtqutt (London, 1711} remains the
btandard authority, and in it the Vmlctu, ,'*- >^xccano of Richard
ihe Trtaititrr (M7%) WM nT * 1 primed tMitctl tincc by A. Hughes.
Cn G* Cramp and (1. Johnson. Ohfurd, i<ya). 1 be publications of
the Pip* Roll Society (London, 1*84 et acq.), the Pipe Rolls and
Chancellor'* Roll* printed by the Record Commission (London, 1833
and 1H44K and IL Hall's edition of the Receipt }*'■ 11 vf tin Exchequer
p Hrnty If. i London t 1899) should al» be consulted. A popular
account is in U. H all's Court Life under the 1'i .tagenels (London,
1901), and a earful study in Dr Pd-rot/s throw, Compolus Vice-
tpmitn t Berlin. 1906). For the 13th ai^i 14th : mturies H. Hall's
edit ten of the Red Book of tfie Eschtiutr (London. Rolls Series, 1896)
t* ottcnfbl, as also the Public Record Oiiirc Lilt ./ Foreign Accounts
vuviiuui., lyoo). L«vvi pinwiiw ii«v be KauiucJ from the similar
List and Index of Declared Accounts (London, 1893), and from such
books as Sir T. Fanshawc's Practice of the Exchequer Court, written
about a.d. 1600 (London, 1658) ; Christopher Vernon's The Exchequer
Opened (London, 1661), or Sir Geoffrey Gilbert's Treatise on the
Court of Exchequer (London, 1758), as well as from the statutes
abolishing various offices in the exchequer. H. Hall's Antiquities
of the Exchequer (London, 1891) gives many interesting details of
various dates. For the Scottish exchequer The Exchequer Rolls of
Scotland (Edinburgh, 1878 et scq.) should be consulted, while
Gilbert's book noted above gives some details on that of Ireland.
See also Appendix 13 to the great account of Public Income nnd
Expenditure from 1688 to 1809, in three volumes, prepared for
parliament by H. W. Chisholm (1869); and for sidelights on the
working of the office from 182* to 1866 the reminiscences of the
same author (the last chief clerk of the exchequer) in Temple Bar
(January to April 189 1).
EXCISE (derived through the Dutch, excijs or occrjs, possibly
from Late Lat. acccnsare } —ad, to, and census, tax; the word
owes something to a confusion wkh excisum, cut out), a term now
well known in public finance, signifying a duty charged on home
goods, either in the process of their manufacture, or before their
sale to the home consumers. This form of taxation implies a
commonwealth somewhat advanced In manufactures, markets
and general riches; and it interferes so directly with the
industry and liberty of the subject that it has seldom been
introduced save in some supreme financial exigency, and has a
seldom been borne, even after long usage, with less than th
ordinary impatience of taxation. Yet excise duties can boas
a respectable antiquity, having a distinct parallel in the xectigt
return tenalium (or toll levied on all commodities sold b
auction, or in public market) of the Romans. But the Roma
excise was mild compared with that of modem nations, bavin
never been more than ccnUsima, or 1%, of the value; and i
was much shorter lived than the modern examples, having bee
first imposed by Augustus, reduced for a time one-half b
Tiberius, and finally abolished by Caligula, aj>. 38, so that ti
Roman excise cannot have had a duration of much more tha
half a century. Its remission must nave been deemed a grei
boon in the marts of Rome, since it was commemorated by ti
issue of small brass coins with the legend Remissis Centesimd
specimens of which are still to be found in collections.
The history of this branch of revenue in the United Kingdoi
dates from the period of the civil wars, when the republica
government, following the example of Holland, establish^
as a means of defraying the heavy expenditure of the tixn
various duties of excise, which the royalists when restored 1
power found too convenient or too necessary to be abandonee
notwithstanding their origin and their general unpopular! r
On the contrary, they were destined to be steadily increase
both in number and in amount. It is curious that ti
first commodities selected for excise were those on which th
branch of taxation, after great extension, had again in the perk
of reform and free trade been in a manner permanently reduce,
viz. malt liquors, and such kindred beverages as cider pen
and spruce beer. The other excise duties remaining are chief
in the form of licences, such as to kill game and to use and can
guns, to sell gold and silver plate, to pursue the business <
appraisers or auctioneers, hawkers or pedlars, pawnbroker
or patent-medicine vendors, to manufacture tobacco or snui
to deal in sweets or in foreign wines, to make vinegar, to roa.
malt, or to use a still in chemistry or otherwise. It may I
presumed that the policy of the licence duties was at first not 1
much to collect revenue, though in the aggregate they yielded
large sum, as to guard the main sources of excise, and to pla<
certain classes of dealers, by registration and an annual pay roei
to the exchequer, under a direct legal responsibility. The exci
system of the United Kingdom as now pruned and reform*
however, while still the most prolific of all the sources of revenu
is simple in process, and is contentedly borne as compared v*ii
what was the case in the 18th, and the beginning of the 191
century. The wars with Bonaparte strained the governmei
resources to the uttermost, and excise duties were multiple
and increased in every practicable form. Bricks, candles, call*
prints, glass, hides and skins, leather, paper, salt, soap, and oth
commodities of home manufacture and consumption were place
with their respective industries, under excise surveillance and fi v
When the duties could no longer be increased in number, th<
were raised in rate. The duty on British spirits, which hj
begun at a few pence per gallon in 1660, rose step by step
1 is. 8[d. per gallon in 1820; and the duty on salt was augment
to three or fourfold its value.
The old unpopularity of excise, though now somewhat out
date, must have had real enough grounds. It breaks out
English literature, from songs and pasquinades to grave politii
essays and legal commentaries. Blackstone, in quoting t
declaration of parliament in 1649 that " excise is the most ee
and indifferent levy that can be laid upon the people," adds
his own authority that " from its first original to the present 1 11
its very name has been odious to the people of England " (boo]
cap. 8, tenth edition, 1786); while the definition of " excise
gravely inserted by Dr Johnson in the Dictionary, at theimmin*
risk of subjecting the eminent author to a prosecution for libe
viz. "a hateful tax levied upon commodities, and adjudged 1
by the common judges of property, but wretches hired by th
to whom excise is paid"— can hardly be ever forgotten.
The duties of excise in the United Kingdom were, until
passing of the Finance Act 1908, under the control of
EXCOMMUNICATION
59
commissioners of inland revenue; they are now under the control
of the commissioners of customs; the amount raised, apart from
changes in the rate, shows • fairly constant tendency to increase,
and is usually regarded as one of the best tests of the prosperity
of the working classes.
The spirit duty is levied according to the quantity of " proof
spirit " contained in the prodact of distillation, and the charge
b taken at three different points in the process of manufacture,
the trader being liable for the result of the highest of the three
calculations. What is known as " proof spirit " is obtained
by mixing nearly equal weights of pure alcohol and water, the
quantity of pure alcohol being in bulk about 57% of the whole.
Owing to the high rate of duty as compared with the volume
and intrinsic value of the spirits, the whole process of manufacture
b carried on under the close supervision of revenue officials.
All the vessels used are measured by them and are secured with
revenue locks; the premises are under constant survey; and
notice has to be given by the distiller of the materials used and
of the several stages of ms operations. Though the charge for
duty is raised at the time when the process of distillation is
completed, the duty is not actually paid until the spirits are
required for consumption. In the meanwhile they may be
retained in an approved " warehouse/* which is also subject to
dose supervision.
The beer duty dates from 1880, in which year it was substituted
for the duty on malt. The specific gravity of the worts depends
chiefly on the amount of sugar which they contain, and is
ascertained by the saccharometer.
Excise licences may be divided into— (a) licences for the sale
er manufacture of excisable liquors, {b) licences for other trades,
rah as tobacco dealers or manufacturers, auctioneers, pawn-
brokers, frc, {c) licences for male servants, carriages, motors
acd armorial bearings, and (J) gun, game and dog licences.
Nearly the whole of the licence duties is paid over to the local
taxation account.
The railway passenger duly, which was made an excise duty
by the Railway Passenger Duty Act 1847, applies only to Great
Britain. It is levied on all passenger fares exceeding id. per mile,
the rate bring 7% on urban and 5% on other traffic.
The other Hems which go to make up the excise revenue
tre the charges on deliveries from bonded warehouses, and the
daties on coffee mixture labels and on chicory.
Tot more detailed information rc?ercnce should be made to
Hrghmore's Excite Laws, and the annual reports of the commissioners
d mLand revenue, especially those issued in 1870 and 1885. See
abo Taxation ; English Finance.
EZOOntsTUWICATlOW (Lat. ex, out of, away from; cvmmunit,
cczimon), the judicial exclusion of offenders from the rights
and privileges of the religious community to which they belong.
The history of the practice of excommunication may be traced
though (1) pagan analogues, (*) Hebrew custom, (3) primitive
Christian practice, (4) medieval and monastic usage, (5) modern
survivals in existing Christian churches.
1. Among pagan analogues are the Gr. gfjiri/SW ttpytafai
fOcmosth. 505, 14), the exclusion of an offender from purification
rltb hory water. This exclusion was enforced in the case of
persons whose hands were defiled with bloodshed. Its con-
sequences are described Aesch. Choiph. 383, Bum. 625 f., Soph.
Oii. Tyr. 236 ff. The Roman exstcratio and diris devolie was a
setann pronouncement of a religious curse by priests, intended
ts call down the divine wrath upon enemies, and to devote them
r J destruction by powers human and divine. The Druids claimed
tfee dread power of excluding offenders from sacrifice (Caes.
IG. vi i&. Primitive Semitic customs, recognise that when
persons axe laid under a ban or taboo (herein) restrictions are
©posed on contact with them, and that the breach of these
involves supernatural dangers. Impious sinners, or enemies
■& the community and its god, might be devoted to utter
Jatruction.
x Hebrew Custom.— In a theocracy excommunication is
necessarily both a civil and a religious penalty. The word used
a the New Testament to describe an excommunicated person,
Arfflfjicr(x Cor. xvi 22, Gal i. 8-0, Rom. ix. 3), is the
Septuagint rendering of the Hebrew kettm. The word means
" set apart " (cf. harem), and does not distinguish originally
between things set apart because devoted to God and things
devoted to destruction. v Lev. xxvii. 16-34 defines the law for
dealing with "devoted 11 things; according to »» 28 "No
devoted thing that a man shall devote unto the Lord, of all that
he hath, whether of man or beast, or of the field of his possession,
shall be sold or redeemed. None devoted shall be ransomed,
he shall surely be put to death." As in Greece and Rome whole
cities or nations might be devoted to destruction by pronounce*
ment of a ban (Numbers xxL a, 3, Deut. n. 34, iiL 6, viL a).
Occasionally Israelites as well as aliens fall under the curse
(Judg. xxl. 5, n>. A milder form of penalty was the temporary
separation or seclusion (niddaft) prescribed for ceremonial unclean*
ness. This was the ordinary form of religious discipline. In
the time of Exra the Jewish " magistrates and judges " among
their ecclesiastico-dvfl functions have the right of pronouncing
sentience whether it be unto death, or to " rooting out," or to
confiscation of goods, or to imprisonment (Ezra viL 96). There
is also a lighter form of excommunication which " devotes w
the goods of an offender, but only separates him from the
congregation. Both major and minor kinds of excommunication
are recognized by the Talmud. The lesser (niddok) involved
exclusion from the synagogue for thirty days, and other penalties,
and might be renewed if the offender remained impenitent.
The major excommunication (farem) excluded from the Temple
as well as the synagogue and from ail association with the faithful
Spinoza was excommunicated (July 16, 1656) for contempt of
the law. Seldon (De jure not. et gen., iv. 7) gives the text of the
curse pronounced on the culprit. The Exemplar Humauae Vitae
of Uriel d'Acosta also deserves reference. The practice of the
Jewish courts in New Testament times may be inferred from
certain passages in the Gospels. Luke vi. 22, John. ix. '22, xii. 4s
indicate that exclusion from the synagogue was a recognised
penalty, and that it was probably inflicted on those who confessed
Jesus as the Christ. John xvi. a (" Whosoever kiUeth you," &r.)
may point to the power of inflicting the major penalty. The
Talmu<j itself says that the judgment of capital cases was taken
away from Israel forty years before the destruction of the Temple.
" Forty " is probably a round number without historical value,
but the circumstance recorded by this tradition and confirmed
by the evangelist's account of the trial of Jesus is historical,
and is to be regarded as one of several restrictions imposed on
the Jewish courts in the time of the Roman procurators.
3. Primitive Christian Practice. — The use of excommunication
as a form of Christian discipline is based on the precept of Christ
and on apostolic practice. The general principles which govern
the exclusion of members from a religious community may be
gathered from the New Testament writings. Matt, xviii. 25*17
prescribes a threefold admonition, first privately, then In the
presence of witnesses (cf. Titus* iiL xo), then before the church.
This is a graded procedure as in the Jewish synagogue and makes
exclusion a last resort Nothing is said as to the nature and
effects of excommunication. The tone of the passage when
compared with the disciplinary methods of the synagogue in*
dicates that its purpose was to introduce elements of reason and
moral suasion in place of sterner methods. Its object is rather
the protection of the church than the punishment of the sinner.
The offender is only treated as a heathen and publican when the
purity and safety of the church demand it. In the locus dessicus
on this subject (x Cor. v. 5) Paul refers to a formal meeting of the
Corinthian church at which the incestuous person is " delivered
unto Satan for the destruction of the flesh that the spirit may be
saved in the day of the Lord Jesus." These are mysterious
words implying (1) a formal ecclesiastical censure, (a) a physical
penalty, (3) the hope of a spiritual result. The form of penalty
which would meet these conditions is not explained. There is a
reference in a Cor. 11. 6*ti to & case of discipline which may or
may not be the same. If it be the same it indicates thai the ex-
communication had not been final; the offender had been
received back. If it be not the same it shows the Corinthian
6o
EXCOMMUNICATION
church exercising discipline independently of apostolic advice.
Up to this point there is no established formal practice, x Tim.
i so (" Hymenseus and Alexander whom 1 delivered unto Satan
that they might be taught not to blaspheme ") seems to refer
to an excommunication, but it does not appear whether the
apostle had acted as representing a church, nor is there anything
to explain the exact consequences or limits of the deliverance
to Satan, x Cor. xvi. 22, GaL L 8, 9, Bom. ix. 3 refer to the
practice of regarding a person as anathema. Taking these
pawngfs as a whole they seem to point to an exclusion from
church fellowship rather than to a final cutting off from the hope
of salvation. In the pastoral letters there is already a formal
and recognized method of procedure in cases of church discipline.
1 Tim. v. 19, 20 requires two or three witnesses in the case of
an accusation against an elder, and a public reproof. Tit. iii. 20
recognizes a factious spirit as a reason for excommunication
after two admonitions (ef. Tim. vi, and 2 John v. xo). In 3 John
v. o-xo Diotrephes appears to have secured an excommunication
by the action of a party in the church. It is clear from these
illustrations that within the New Testament there is development
from spontaneous towards strictly regulated methods; also
that the use Of excommunication is chiefly for disciplinary and
protective rather than punitive purposes. A process which is
intended to produce penitence and ultimate restoration cannot
at the same time contemplate handing the offender over to
eternal punishments
4. Medieval and Monastic Usage.— Tho writings of the church
Fathers give sufficient evidence that two degrees of excommuni-
cation, the iuQopurpbs and the 6400107165 ramXfo as they
were generally called, were in use during, or at least soon after,
the apostolic age. The former, which involved exclusion from
participation in the eucharistic service and from the eucharist
itself, though not from the so-called " service of the catechu-
mens," was the usual punishment of comparatively light offences;
the latter, which was the penalty for graver scandals, involved
** exclusion from all church privileges,"— -a vague expression
which has sometimes been interpreted as meaning total exclusion
from the very precincts of the church building {inlet hitmantes
orate) and from the favour of God (Bingham, Antiquities of
Christian Church, xvi. 2. 16). For some sins, such as adultery,
the sentence of excommunication was in the 2nd century regarded
as Tcarriktp in the sense of being irrevocable. Difference of
opinion as to the absolutely " irremissible " character of mortal
sins led to the important controversy associated with the names
of Zcphyrinus, Tertullian, Calistus, Hippolytus, Cyprian and
Novatian, in which the stricter and more-montanistic party held
that for those who had been guilty of such sins as theft, fraud,
denial of the faith, there should be no restoration to church
fellowship even in the hour of death. On this point the
provincial synods of Illiberis (Elvira) in 30s and of Ancyra in
315 subsequently tame to conflicting decisions, the council of
Elvira forbidding the reception of offenders into communion
during life, and the council of Ancyra fixing a limit to the penally
in the same cases. But the excommunication was on all bands
regarded as being "medicinal" in its character. It is note-
worthy that the word IpoBeua had fallen into disuse about the
beginning of the 4th century, and that, throughout the same
period, no instance of the judicial use of the phrase ytapohovrox
r<p Sdravf can be found.
A new .chapter in the history of the church censure may be
said to have begun with the publication of those imperial edicts
against heresy, the first of which, De summa trinitate et fide
caiholkA, dates from 380. Till then exclusion from church
privileges had been a spiritual discipline merely; thenceforward
it was to expose a man to serious temporal risks. Excommunica-
tion still continued to be occasionally used in the spirit of genuine
Christian fidelity, as by Ambrose in the case of Theodosius
himself (390); but the temptation to wield it as an instrument
wf secular tyranny too often proved to be irresistible. The church
fell back on carnal weapons In her warfare and invoked the
secular powers to uphold the ecclesiastical. In the formula used
by Syseslns (410) which is to be found in Bingham's Antiquities,
we already find the attention of magistrates specially called to
the censured person. The history of the next thousand years
shows that the magistrates were seldom slow to respond to the
appeal; Even the hastiest survey of that long and interesting
period enables the student to notice a marked development is
the theory and practice of excommunication. One or two points
may be specially noted. (1 ) When the Empire became nominally
Christian and the quality of the church life was sacrificed to the
quantity of its adherents, the original character of excooxmunic*
tion was lost. The power of excommunication was transferred
from the community to the bishop, and was liable to abuse from
personal motives: Gregory the Great rebukes a bishop for using
for private ends power conferred for the public good (£pist. ii.
34). Excommunication became a common penalty applied in
numberless cases (see the Penitential of Archbishop Theodosius:
Haddan and Stubbs, Councils and Documents, iii. X737), and was
invested with superstitious terrors, (a) While it had been held
as an undoubted principle by the ancient church that this
sentence could only be passed on living individuals whose fault
had been distinctly stated and fully proved, we find the medieval
church on the one hand sanctioning the practice of excommunica-
tion of the dead (Morinus, Do poenit. x. c. 9), and, on the other
hand, by means of the papal interdict, excluding whole countrief
and kingdoms at once from the means of grace. The earliest
well-authenticated instance of such an interdict is that which
was passed (908) by Pope Gregory V. on France, in consequence
of the contumacy of King Robert the Wise. Other instances arc
those laid respectively on Germany in xioa by Gregory VII.
(Hildebrand), on England in 1208 by Innocent HI., on Rome
itself in 1 155 by Adrian IV. (3) While in the ancient church th«
language used in excommunicating had been carefully measured^
we find an amazing recklessness in the phraseology employee
by the medieval clergy. The curse of Ernuiphus or Anuilphw
of Rochester (c. xioo), often quoted by students of Englisl
literature, is a very fair specimen of that class of composition
With it may be compared the formula transcribed by Dr Burtoi
in his History of Scotland (iii. 31? ff.). To the spoken word mat
added the language of symbol. By means of lighted candle;
violently dashed to the ground and extinguished the faithfu
were graphically taught the meaning of the greater excommuni
cation— though in a somewhat misleading way, for it is i
fundamental principle of the canon law that discipline a
excommunicato, non eradicatio. The first instance, however,
excommunication by " bell, book and candle " is comparatively
late (c. 1 100).
5. Modern Survivals in Existing Christian Churches.— At th
Reformation the necessity for church discipline did not cease t
bo recognized; but the administration of it in many Refonnc
churches has passed through a period of some confusion. I
some instances the old episcopal power passed more or less inl
the bands of the civil magistrate (a state of matters which wj
highly approved by Erastus and his followers), in other cases
was conceded to the presby terial courts. In the Anglican Chun:
the bishops (subject to appeal to the sovereign) have the rigl
of excommunicating, and their sentence, if sustained, may j
certain cases carry with it civil consequences. But this rigl
is in practice never exercised. In the law of England seniexv
of excommunication, upon being properly certified by tl
bishop, was followed by the writ de excommunicato capiem
for the arrest of the offender. The statute 5 Elix. c. 23 pr
vided for the better execution of this writ. By the 53 Geo. I!
C 1 37 (which docs not, however, extend to Ireland) it was enact
that " excommunication, together with all proceedings follow h
thereupon, shall in all cases, save those hereafter to be specific
be discontinued." Disobedience to or contempt of the ecde
astical courts is to be punished by a new writ, dc contumc
capiendo, to follow on the certificate of the judge that t
defender is contumacious and in contempt. Sect. 2 provic
that nothing shall prevent " any ecclesiastical court fn
pronouncing or declaring persons to be excommunicate
definite sentences pronounced as spiritual censures for often
of ecclesiastical cognizance." No persons so cxcommunical
EXCRETION—EXECUTION
6s
shaft taew any tfvil penalty or incapacity whatever, save such
sentence of imprisonment, not exceeding six months, as the
court shall direct and certify to the king in chancery.
In the churches which consciously shaped their polity at ox
after the Reformation the principle of excommunication is
.preserved in the practice of church discipline. Calvin devotes a
chapter in the Institute* (bk. iv. chap, xii.) to the " Discipline of
the Church; its Principal Use in Censure and Excommunication."
The three ends proposed by the church in such discipline are
there stated to be, (x) that those who lead scandalous lives may
not to the dishonour of God be numbered among Christians,
seeing that the church is the body of Christ; (2) that the good
may not be corrupted by constant association with the wicked;
(5) that those who are censured or excommunicated, confounded
with shame, may be led to repentance. He differentiates
decisively between excommunication and anathema. " When
Christ promises that what his ministers bind on earth shall be
bound in heaven, be limits the power of binding to the censure of
the church; by which those who are excommunicated are not
cast into eternal ruin and condemnation, but by having their
life and conduct condemned are also certified of their final
condemnation unless tbey repent. For excommunication differs
from anathema: anathema which ought to be very rarely, or
never, resorted to, in precluding all pardon, execrates a person,
and devotes him to eternal perdition: whenasexcotnmunication
rather censures and punishes his conduct. Yet in such a manner
by warning him of his future condemnation it recalls him to
salvation " {Inst, bk. iv. chap. xii. 10). The Reformed churches
in England and America accepted the distinction between public
and private offences. The usual provision fe that private
offences are to be dealt with according to the rule in Matt. v.
13-24, jEviiL 15-17; public offences are to be dealt with according
to the rule in 1 Cor. v. 3-5, 13. The public expulsion or suspension
of the offender is necessary for the good repute of the church,
tad its influence over the faithful members. The expelled
member may be readmitted on showing the fruits of repentance.
In Scotland three degrees of church censure are recognized—
admonition, suspension from sealing ordinances (which may be
called temporary excommunication), and excommunication
properly so-called. Intimation of the last-named censure may
occasionally (but very rarely) be given by authority of a pres-
bytery in a public and solemn manner, according to the following
formula:—" Whereas thou N. hast been by sufficient proof
convicted (here mention the sin) and after due admonition and
prayer remainest obstinate without any evidence or sign of true
repentance: Therefore in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ,
aad before this congregation, I pronounce and declare thee N.
excommunicated, shut out from the communion of the faithful,
debar thee from privileges, and deliver thee unto Satan for the
destruction of thy flesh, that thy spirit may be saved in the day
of the Lord Jesus." This is called the greater excommunication.
The congregation are thereafter warned to shun all unnecessary
converse with the excommunicate (see Form of Process, c. &).
Formerly excommunicated persons were deprived of feudal
rights in Scotland; but in 1690 all acts enjoining civil pains
anon gtnf ""*•»* of excommunication were anally repealed
(Burton's History, vii. 435).
The question whether the power of excommunication rests
in the church or in the clergy has been an important one in the
history of English and American churches. Hooker lays down
(Smnoy, pt. 3, pp. 33-46) four necessary conditions for the
execution of a sentence Involving church discipline. " (1) The
cause exactly recorded is fully and nakedly to be presented to the
consideration of the congregation. (2) The elders are to go
before the congregation in laving open the rule so far aa reacheth
asy particular now to be considered, and to express their judg-
ment and determination thereof, so far as appertains to them-
i£ives. (3) Unless the people be able to convince them of errors
ir,d mistakes in their sentence, they are bound to joyn their
judgment with theirs to the compleating of the sentence. (4) The
sentence thus compleatly issued is to be solemnly passed and
pronounced upon the delinquent by the ruling Elder whether
it be of censure or excommunication." In this passage it it, dear
that the effective power of discipline is regarded as being wholly
in the power of the individual church or congregation. Hooker
expressly denies the power of synods to excommunicate: " that
there should be Synods, which have potestaUm juridical* is
nowhere proved in Scripture because it is net a truth" (Survey,
pt. 4. PP. 481 49).
The confession of faith issued by the London-Amsterdam
church (the original of the Pilgrim Fathers' churches) in 1596
declares that the Christian congregation having power, to elect
its minister has also power to excommunicate him if the case
so require (Walker, Creed* and Platform of CongretationalUm y
p. 00). In 1603 the document known as " Points of Difference "
(i.e. from the established Anglicanism) submitted to James L
sets forth: " That all particular Churches ought to be so con-
stituted as, having their owne peculiar Officers, the whole body
of every Church may meet together in one place, and jointly
perf orme their duties to God and one towards another. And that
the censures of admonition and excommunication be in dqe
manner executed, for ainne, convicted, and obstinately stood
in. This power also to be in the body of the Church whereof
the partyes so offending and persisting are members." The
Cambridge Platform of 1648 by which the New England churches
denned their practice, devotes ch. xiv. to " excommunication and
other censures." It follows in the main the line of Hooker and
Calvin, but adds (§6) an important definition: "Excommunica-
tion being a spiritual! punishment it doth not prejudice the ex-
communicate in, nor deprive him of his cm! rights, therfore
toucheth not princes, or other magistrates, in point of their civil
dignity or authority. And, the excommunicate being but as a
publican and a heathen, heathen being lawfully permitted to
come to hear the word in church assembly es; wee acknowledg
therfore the like liberty of hearing the word, may be permitted
to persons excommunicate, that is permitted unto heathen.
And because wee are not without hope of his recovery, wee are not
to account him as an enemy but to admonish him as a brother."
The Savoy Declaration of 1658 defines the theory and practice
of the older English Nonconformist churches in the section on
the " Institution of Churches and the Order appointed in them
by Jesus Christ" (xix.). The important article is as follows:—
" The Censures so appointed by Christ, are Admonition and
Excommunication; and whereas some offences ere or may be
known onely to some, it is appointed by Christ, that those to
whom they are so known, do first admonish the offender in
private: in publique offences where any sin, before all; or in
ease of non-amendment upon private admonition, the offence
being related to the Church, and the offender not manifesting
his repentance, he is to be duely admonished in the Name of
Christ by the whole Church, by the Ministery of the Elders of the
Church, and if this Censure prevail not for his repentance, then
he is to be cast out by Excommunication with the consent of
the Church."
In contemporary English Free Churches the purity of the
church is commonly secured by the removal of persons unsuitable
for membership from the church books by a vote of the re-
sponsible authority. (D. Mn.)
EXCRETION (Lat. as, out of, eemere, actum, to separate),
in plant and animal physiology, the separation from an organ of
some substance, also the substance separated. The term usually
refers to the separation of waste or harmful products, as dis-
tinguished from "secretion," which refers to products that
pl ay a u seful or necessary part in the functions of the organism.
EXECUTION (from Lat ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry
out), the carrying into effect of anything, whether a rite, a piece
of music, an office, &c; and so sometimes involving a notion of
skill in the performance. Technically, the word is used in law
in the execution of a deed (its formal signing and sealing), an
execution (see below) by the sheriff's officers under a " writ of
execution " (the enforcement of a judgment on a debtor's goods) ;
and execution of death has been shortened to the one word to
denote Capital Punishment (g.v.).
Civil Execution, may be defined as the process by which the
62
EXECUTION
judgments or orders of courts of law are made effectual. In
Roman law the earliest mode of execution was the seizure,
legalized by the actio per menus injeclionem, of the debtor as a
slave of the creditor. During the later Republic, Imprisonment
took the place of slavery. Under the regime of the actio per
menus injecHonem, the debtor might dispute the debt—the issue
being raised by his finding a substitute (vindex) to conduct the
case for him. By the time of Gahis (iv. 25) the actio per menus
injectionem had been superseded by the actio judicati, the object
of which was to enable the creditor to take payment of the debt
or compel the debtor to find security (pignut in causa judicaH
captum: Cautio judicatum solvt), and in a.d. 320 Constantino
abolished imprisonment for debt, unless the debtor were con-
tumacious. The time allowed for payment of a judgment debt
was by the XIL Tables 30 days; it was afterwards extended
to two months, and ultimately, by Justinian, to four months.
The next stage in the Roman law of execution was the recognition
of bankruptcy either against the will of the bankrupt {missio
iu bona) or on the application of the bankrupt (cessio benorum;
and see Bankruptcy). Lastly, in the time of Antoninus Pius,
judgment debts were directly enforced by the seizure and sale
of the debtor's property. Slaves, oxen and implements of
husbandry were privileged; and movable property was to be
exhausted before recourse was had to land (see Hunter, Roman
Law, 4th cd. pp. 1029 et seq., Sohm, Inst. Rom. Law, and ed.
pp. 3<»-305)-
Great BwTArw. — The English law of execution is very compli-
cated, and only a statement of the principal processes can here be
auiTTintcd-
Wtk Cauri^Fitri Facias. A j udjrmc nt for the recovery of money
or cu*U U enforced, a* a rule, by writ of fori facias addressed to the
ftlii.rifT, and directing him to cause to be made {fieri facias) of the
goods and chattels of the debtors levy of a sum sufficient to satisfy
the judgment and tons, which carry interest at 4% per annum.
The tribute effected by tie iberiff or his officer, under this writ,
of the proper* y of the debtor* is what is popularly known as " the
putting -in " nf an execution. The wirure should be carried out
with all possible despatch. The sheriff or his officer must not break
open the debtor's house in effecting a t* Loire, for " a man's house
is his castle " (Stwayru's Case [1604], % Coke Rep. 91); but this
principle applies only to a dwelling-house, and a barn or outhouse
unconnected with the dwelling-house nay be broken into. The
sheriff on receipt of the writ endorses on it the day, hour, month
»ntl year when be received it ; aod the writ binds the debtor's goods
as at the dale of its Unlivery, tJtu^. a* regards goods sold before
seizure in market -overt, or purchased for value, without notice
before actual seizure (Sale of Goods Act 1893, s. 26, which supersedes
s. 16 of the Statute of Frauds and s. 1 of the Mercantile Law Amend-
ment Act 1856). This rule is limited to goods, and does not apply
to the money or bank notes of the debtor which are not bound by
the writ till seized under it (Johnson v. Pickering, Oct. 14, 1907, GAj.
The mere seizure of the goods, however, although, subject to such
exceptions as those just stated, it binds the interest of the debtor,
and gives the sheriff such an interest in the goods as will enable
him to sue for the recovery of their possession, does not pass the
property in the goods to the sheriff. The goods are in the custody
of the law. But the property remains in the debtor who may get
rid of the execution on payment of the claim and fees of the sheriff
(as to which see Sheriffs Act 1887, s. 20, and order of 21st of August
18S8, Annual Practice (1908), vol. it p. 278). The wearing apparel,
bedding, tools, &c, of the debtor to the value of £5 are protected.
Competing claims as to the ownership of the goods seized are brought
before the courts by the procedure of " interpleader." Alter
seizure, the sheriff most retain possession, and, in default of payment
by the execution debtor, proceed to sell. Where the judgment debt,
including legal expenses, exceeds £20, the sale must be by public
auction, unless the Court otherwise orders, and must be publicly
advertised. The proceeds of sale, aftet deduction of the sheriffs
fees and expenses, become the property of the execution creditor
to the extent of his claim. The Bankruptcy Act 1890 (53 & 54
Vict. c. 71 . a. II [2]) requires the sheriff in case of sale under a
judgment for a sum exceeding £20 to hold the proceeds for 14
days in case notice of bankruptcy proceedings should be served upon
him (see Bankruptcy). The form of the writ of fieri facias requires
the sheriff to make a return to the writ. In practice this is seldom
done unless the execution has been ineffective or there has been
delay in the execution of the writ; but the judgment creditor may
obtain an order calling on the sheriff to make a return. A sheriff
or his officer, who is guilty of extortion in the execution of the writ,
is liable to committal for contempt, and to forfeit /200 and pay all
damages suffered by the person aggrieved (Sheriffs Act 1887 (50
6t 51 Vict. c. 55], s. 29 [2]), besides being civilly liable to such
person. Imprisonment for debt in execution of avil judgments is
now abolished except in oases of default in the suture of contempt,
unsatisfied judgments for penalties, defaults by persons in a fiduciary
character, and defaults by judgment debtors (Debtors Act 1869 (31
atrnilar
Vict
& 33 Vict c. 62), Bankruptcy Act 1883 U6& f7Vict. c sij,
1 in Scotland (Debtors [Scotia
; c 34] .
Vict. c. 57). There may still be imprisonment in England*!
103). Imprisonment for debt has I
limits in Scotland (Debtors (Scotland] Act 1880 (43 & 4
J and Ireland, T)ebtors [Ireland) Act 1872, 35 & 3
w . j. There may still be imprisonment in England, under
the writ — rarely used in practice — ne exeat regno, which issues to
prevent a debtor from leaving the kindgom.
Writ of Elegtl.— The writ of elegit is a process enabling the creditor
to satisfy his judgment debt out of the lands of the debtor. It
derives its name from the election of the creditor in favour of tail
mode of recovery. It is founded on the Statute of Westminster
(1285, 13 Ed. I. c. 18), under which the sheriff was required to dehve*
to the creditor all the chattels (except oxen and beasts of the plough)
and half the lands of the debtor until the debt was satisfied. By the
Judgments Act 1838 the remedy was extended to off the debtor's
lands, and by the Bankruptcy Act 1883 the writ no longer extends
to the debtor's goods. The writ is enforceable against legal interest!
whether in possession or remainder (Hood-Barrs v. CatJuart. 1895,
2 Ch. 41 1). but not against equitable interests in land (Earl of Jersey
v. Uxbridte Rural Sanitary Authority, 1891, % Ch. 183). When the
debtor's interest is equitable, recourse is had to equitable execution
by the appointment of a receiver or to bankruptcy proceedings.
The wnt is directed to the sheriff, who, after marking on it the
date of its receipt, at once in pursuance of its directions holds an
inquiry with a jury as to the nature and value of the interest of the
debtor in the lands extended under the writ, and delivers to the
creditor at a reasonable price and extent in accordance with the
writ, the lands of which the debtor was po sse ss e d in the bailiwick,
When the sheriff has returned and filed a record (in the central
office of the High Court) of the writ and the execution thereof, the
execution creditor becomes " tenant to the elegit." Where the
land is freehold the creditor acquires only a chattel interest in h;
where the land is leasehold he acquires the whole of the debtor'*
interest (Johns v. Pink, 1900, 1 Ch. 296). The creditor is entitled
to hold the land till his debt is satisfied, or enough to satisfy it u
tendered to him, and under the Judgments Act 1864 the creditor
may obtain an order for sale. Until the land is delivered on execu-
tion and the writs which have effected the delivery are registered
in the Land Registry, the judgment does not create any charge on
the land so as to fetter the debtor's power of dealing with h. Land
Charges Registration Acts 1888 and 190a (Sec R.S.C., O. xliii.)
Wnts of Possession and Delivery.— Judgments for the recovery 01
for the delivery of the possession of land are enforceable by writ of
possession. The recovery of specific chattels is obtained by writ
of delivery (R.S.C., O. xlvii., xlviii.).
Writ of Sequestration. — Where a judgment directing the payment
of money into court, or the performance by the defendant of an}
act within a limited time, has not been complied with, or where i
corporation has wilfully disobeyed a judgment, a writ of sequestra
tion is issued, to not less than tour sequestrators, ordering them t<
enter upon the real estate of the party in default, and " sequester *
the rents and profits until the judgment has been obeyed (R-S.C-
O. xliii. r. 6).
Equitable Execution,— Where a judgment creditor is other* is.
unable to reach the property of his debtor he may obtain equitab!
execution, usually by the appointment of a recover, who collect
the rents and profits of the debtor's land for the benefit of th
creditor (R.S.C, O. I it. 15A-22). But receivers navbe appoints
of interests in personal property belonging to the
of the Judicature Act 1873. •» 2 5 .(8).
r by virtu
Attachment. — A judgment creditor may " attach " debts doe b
third parties to his debtor by what are known as garnishee proceed
ings. Stock and shares belonging to a judgment debtor may b
charged by a charging order, so as, in the first instance, to pceven
transfer oi the stock or payment of the dividends, and ultimately t
enable the judgment creditor to realise his charge. A writ c
attachment of the person of a defaulting debtor or party may b
obtained in a variety of cases akin to contempt (e.g. against a perso
failing to comply with an order to answer interrogatories, or agairu
a solicitor not entering an appearance in an action, in breach of h
written undertaking to do so), and in the cases where imprison met
for debt is still preserved by the Debtors Act 1869 (R.S.C., O. xltv.
Contempt op Court (q.v.) in its ordinary forms is also punislxab
by summary committal.
County Courts. — In the county courts the chief modes of execu tic
are " warrant of execution in the nature of a writ o( fieri facias '
garnishee proceedings; equitable execution; warrants of poseessk
and delivery, corresponding to the writs of possession and dclivei
above mentioned; committal, where a judgment debtor ha*, c
since the date of the judgment has hatf, means to pay his deb
and attachment of the person for contempt of court. If the jud
ment debtor assaults the bailiff or his officer or rescues the good
he is liable to a fine not exceeding £5.
Scotland. — The principal modes of execution or " diligence; **
Scots law are (i.) Arrestment and furthcoming, which correspon
to the English garnishee proceedings; (ii.) arrestment jurisdiction
fundandae causa, i*. the seizure of movables within the jurisdietai
EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS
63
to found juradktkm against their owner, being a foreigner; this
procedure, which is not, however, strictly a " diligence," as it does
aot bind the goods, is analogous to the French saismhorrit, and
to the obsolete practice in the mayor's court of London known as
"foreign attachment" (see Glyn and Jackson, Mayor's Court
Predict, and ed., vii. 260) ; (Hi.) arrestment under meditatioue futae
warrant, cor re sp o n ding to the old English writ of ne extol regno.
sad applicable in the case of a debtor who intends to leave Scot l and
to evade an action; (iv.) arrestment on dependence, «'.*, of funds in
security; (v.) poinding, ue. valuation and sale of the debtor's
goods; (vi.) sequestration, *jt. of tenant's effects under a landlord's
:urity
' multipJepoindiag " is the equivalent of " interpleader.
l&ELAJfo.— The law of execution in Ireland (see R.S.C., 1905,
Orders xli.-xlviii.) is practicallv the same as in England.
BaiTXSE Possessions. — The Judicature Acts of msHt of the
Colonies h •■ also adopted Kri^leiLi Law. Farts of the French Code
it procedure <inU are mil in Jurce in Mauritius. But its provisions
have been I by local enactment (So, 19 t>t iKGB) as regards
realty, and the rules of the Supreme Court 1003 bavt introduced the
Efigbsh form* of writs, Quebec mid &t Lucia, wh*,^e French law
formerly prevailed, have no*- their own code* 0/ CivU [YL^edure.
The law of execution under the Quebec Code rt-^mblea the French,
that under the St Lucia Code the English py^em* In British
Guiana and Ceylon, in which Roman Dutch Uw in one Form or
another pcevoiJed, the Ln^li^h law of execution hat now in substance
been adopted fHriuih Guiana Rules of Court, tooo. Order jlucyi.).,
Ceylon (Code of Civil Procedure. No, J of iBSo) ; the modes of exe-
- ! Leal
Sheriffs'
cation in the South African Colonics are al*o the subject _of lucaj
tt\y
Ordinance* 1909, No- 9 of 1002). (Orange River Colour] and (l J ro-
tiifely influenced by English bw fcl.
trtec
tin
ctamation 17 of 190s), Transvaal (\atnan, Common Latv of South
Africa* vol rv. p. 3206); and generally, Van Zyl, Judicial Practice
ef Soaim Africa, pp. 108 et seq.
Ukitkd States.— Execution in the United States is founded
Bpon English law, which it closely resembles. Substantially the
tame forms of execution are in force. The provisions of the Statute
of Frauds making the lien of execution attach only on delivery to
the sheriff were generally adopted in America, and arc still law in
■any of the states, The law as to the rights and duties of sheriffs
b substantially the same as in England. The " homestead laws "
(j.s.) which are in force in nearly all the American States exempt
a certain amount or value of real estate occupied by a debtor as
his homestead from a forced sale for the payment of his debts.
This homestead legislation has been copied in some British colonies,
t-i. Western Australia (No. 370* 1898, Pt. viiL), Quebec (Rev. Stats.,
" % *' 'toba (Rev. f ~ - -. -»
Stats., 190a, c 58, a, 29, c ai, s. 9),
— x British Columbia (Rev. Stats.,
si. 1743-1748), Manitoba (Rev. Sta
OstarJo (Rev. Stats., 1897. c 29) ,
1S97. c 93), New South Wales (Crown Lands Act 1895, Pt. Hi.),
Ntw Zealand (Family Homes Protection Act 1895, No. 20 of 1895).
Faajtcs. — Provisional execution (sodsie-arrit) with a view to
obtain security has been already mentioned. Execution against
personalty (saisu^xtcuiion) is preceded by a ammondement or
^renv>ri«. personally served upon, or left at the domicile of the debtor
calling on him to pay. The necessary bedding of debtors and of
tbtar children residing with them, and the clothes worn by them,
cannot be seized in execution under any circumstances. Objects
declared by law to be immovable by destination {immeubUs par
tcTtinatwn), such as beasts of burden and agricultural implements,
books relating to the debtor's profession, to the value of 300 francs,
wkmen's tools, military equipments, provisions and certain cattle
caaaot be seized, even for a debt due to Government, unless in respect
cf provisions furnished to the debtor, or amounts due to the manu-
facturers or vendors of protected articles or to parties who advanced
moneys co purchase, manufacture or repair them. Growing fruits
easaot be seized except during the six weeks preceding the ordinary
;*riod when they become ripe. Execution against immovable
pmperty (la saiste immobilize) is preceded also by a summons to
j»v and execution cannot issue until the expiry of 30 days after
KrVke of such summons (see further Code Proc. Civ., Arts. 673-689).
Imprisonment for debt was abolished in all civil and commercial
suiter* by the law of 22nd of July 1867, which extends to foreigners.
h still smbsists in favour of the State for non-payment of fines, &c.
The French system is in substance in force In Belgium (Code Civ.
Prac-. Arts. 51 et seq.), the Netherlands (CodcCiv. Proc., Arts. 43°*t
*r«-). Italy (Code Civ. Proc., Arts. 553 et seq., 659 et seq.), and Spain.
GE*a«A»Y- — Under the German Code of Civil Prodecure (Arts.
796 et sseq-). both the goods and (if the goods do not offer adequate
security) the person of the debtor may be seized (the process is called
erwO as a guarantee of payment. The debtor's goods cannot be
«kt except, in pursuance of a judgment notified to the debtor either
Were or within a prescribed period after the execution (Art. 809
[•-' SLs.'d law of 30th of April 1886). Imprisonment for debt in civil
iM commercial matters has been abolished or limited on the lines
d tke Frersch law of 1867 in many countries (e.f. Italy, law of the
tek of December 1877: Belgium, law of the 27th of lury 1871:
Gneee law of the 9th of March 1900; Russia, decree of the 7th of
Uard>'i879>-
Authorities.— Anderson, Execution (London, 1889); Annual
Practice (London, 1008)1 Johnston Edwards, Execution (London,
1888); Mather, Sheriff Law (London, 1903). As to Scots law,
Mackay, Manual of Practice (Edinburgh, 1893). As to American
law, Bingham, Judgments and Executions (Philadelphia, 1836);
A. C. Freeman. Law of Execution, Gail Cases (3rd ed., San Francisco,
1900) ; H. M. Herman, Law of Executions (NewYork, 1875) ; American
Notes to tit. " Execution/ in Ruling Cases (London and Boston,
1897) ; Bouvier, Law Did., ed. Rawle (1897), s.s. " Execution."
EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS, in English law, those
persons upon whom the property of a deceased person both real
and personal devolves according as he has or has not left a will
Executors differ from administrators both in the mode of their
creation and in the date at which their estate vests. An execu tor
can only be appointed by the will of bis testator; such appoint-
ment may be express or implied, and in the latter case he is said
to be an executor "according to the tenor." The estate of an
executor vests in him from the date of the testator's death. An
administrator on the other hand is appointed by the probate
division of the High Court, and his estate does not vest till such
appointment, the title to the property being vested till then in
the judge of the probate division. As to whom the court will
appoint administrators and the various kinds of administrators
see under Administration. Apart from these two points the
rights and liabilities of executors and administrators are the
same, and they may be indifferently referred to as the repre-
sentative of the deceased. As to their appointment before the
establishment of the court of probate see articles Will and
Intestacy. Before the Land Transfer Act 1897, the real estate
of the deceased did not devolve upon the representative but
vested directly in the devisee or heir-at-law, but by that act
it was provided that the personal representative should be also
the real representative, and therefore it may now be said broadly
that the representative takes the whole estate of the deceased.
There are, however, a few minor exceptions to this rule, of which
the most important are lands held in joint tenancy and copyhold
lands. As the representative stands in the shoes of the deceased
he-is entitled to sue upon any contract or for any debt which the
deceased might have sued in his lifetime.
The duties of a representative are as follows: I. To bury the
deceased in a manner suitable to the estate he leaves behind him ;
and the expenses of such funeral take precedence of any duty or
debt whatever; but extravagant expenses will not be allowed.
No rule can be laid down as to what is a reasonable allowance for
this purpose, as it is impossible to know at the time of the funeral
what the estate of the deceased may amount to. The broad rule
is that the representative must allow such sum as seems reasonable,
having regard to all the circumstances of the case and the conditions
in life of the deceased, remembering that if he should exceed this be
will be personally liable for such excess in the event of the estate
proving insolvent.
2. He must obtain probate or letters oT administration to the
deceased within six months of the death, or, if such grant be dis-
puted, within two months of the determination of such suit. The
penalty for not doing so is fixed by the Stamp Act 1815, % 37, at
£100, and an additional stamp duty at the rate of 10%. As to
the formalities of Probate see that article.
3. Strictly speaking, he must compile an inventory of all the
estate of the deceased, whether in possession or outstanding, and he
is to deliver it to the court on oath. He is to collect all the goods so
inventoried and to commence actions to get in all those outstanding,
and he is responsible to creditors for the whole of such estate,
whether in possession or in action. This duty is thrown upon the
representative by an act of 1529, but it is not the modern practice
to exhibit such inventory unless he be cited for it in the spiritual
court at the instance of a party interested. It is, however, necessary
to file an affidavit setting out the value of the estate of the deceased
upon applying for a grant of probate or letters of administration.
4. The representative must pay the debts of the deceased according
to their priority. Next to the legitimate funeral expenses come
the costs of proving and administering the estate; in the event,
however, of the funeral and testamentary expenses being charged
by the will upon any particular fund, they will be primarily payable
out of that fund. The representative must be- careful to pay the
debts according to the rules of priority, otherwise he will become
personally liable to the creditors of one degree if he has exhausted
the estate in paying creditors of a lesser degree. First of all, a
solicitor has a lien for his costs upon any fund or duty which he has
recovered for the deceased ; next in order come debts dae to the
crown by record or speciality; then debts given a priority by
statute, as, for example, by the Poor Relief Act 1743, money due
by an overseer of the poor to his parish. Next, debts of record, is.
H
EXEDRA— EXELMANS
judgment recovered against the deceased in any court of record;
all such debts are equal among themselves, bat a judgment creditor
who has sued out execution is p referred to one who has not; another
class of debts of record are statutes merchant and staple, or recog-
nizances in the nature of statute staple, ij*. bonds of record acknow-
ledged before the lord mayor of London or the mayor of the staple.
Last in the order of debts come specialty and simple contract debts,
which by Hinde Palmer's Act (the Executors Act 1869) are of equal
degree, though as between specialty debts bonds given for value
rank before voluntary bonds unless assigned for value, and as
between simple contract debts those due to the crown have priority.
Though the creditors can if necessary take all the estate of the
deceased to satisfy their claims, yet as between the various classes
of assets the r e p rese n tative must pay the debts out of assets in the
following order: (i.) General personal estate not specifically be-
queathed nor exempted from payment of debts; (it.) real estate
appropriated to debts; (iii.) real estate descended; (rv.) real estate
devised charged with payment of debts; (v.) general pecuniary
legacies pro rata; (vi.) specific legacies and devises; (viL) real
estate over which a general power ofappointment has been exercised
by will; (viii.) the widow's paraphernalia.
5. The debts of the deceased being satisfied, the representative
must next proceed to satisfy the legacies and devises left by the
testator. Is order to enable him to do this with safety to himself,
it is provided that he cannot be compelled to divide the estate
among the legatees or next of kin until twelve months from the
death of the deceased (this is commonly known as " the executor's
year "), though if there is no doubt as to the solvency of the estate
he may do so at once. As a further protection the representative
ma/ give notice by advertisement for creditors to send in their
claims against the estate, and on expiration of the notices he may
proceed to divide, the estate, though even then the creditor may
follow the assets to the person who has received them and recover
for his debt. As between legatees the following priorities must be
observed: (1) Specific legatees arid devisees, (2) demonstrative
legatees, and (3) general legatees; and as to this last class the testator
can give priority to one over another. If there arc not sufficient
assets to pay the general legatees they must abate rctcibly. Legacies
were not payable out of the real estate prior to the Land Transfer
Act 1897, unless the testator charged the realty with them. Even
then unless the testator exonerates his personalty from payment of
the legacies the personalty will be the first fund chargeable. It
has been suggested that the effect of the act is to make the realty
chargeable pro rata with the personalty, but this is doubtful.
a 6. The residue, after all legacies and devise) ore satisfied, must,
if there be a will, be paid to the residuary legatee therein named,
and if there be no will the real estate will go to the heir (see In-
heritance and the personalty to the next of kin (see Intestacy).
It was held at one time that in default of a residuary legatee the
residue fell to the executor himself, but now nothing less than the
expressed intention or the testator can give it to him.
The liabilities of the representative may be shortly stated. He is
liable in his representative capacity in all cases where the deceased
would be liable were he alive. To this general rule there are some
exceptions. The representative cannot be sued for breach of a
contract for personal services which can be performed only in the
lifetime of the person contracting, nor again can he be sued in a
case where unliquidated damages only could have been recovered
against the deceased. He is liable in his personal capacity in the
following cases: if he contracts to pay a debt due by the deceased,
or if having admitted that he had assets in his hands sufficient to
pay a debt or legacy he has misapplied such assets so that he cannot
satisfy them; or lastly, if by mismanaging the estate and effects
of the deceased he has made himself liable tor a devastavit. Shortly
stated, a representative is bound to exercise the ordinary care of a
business man in administering the estate of the deceased, and he
will be liable for the loss to the estate caused by his own negligence,
or by the negligence of a co-representative which his act or neglect
has rendered possible. Though the general rule of delegatus non
potest deletari holds good of a representative, yet in certain cases he
may " rely upon skilled persons in matters in which be cannot be
expected to be experienced," e.g. he must employ solicitors to
conduct a lawsuit.
The privileges of the representative are these: he may prefer one
creditor to another of equal degree; he may retain a debt owing
to him from the deceased as against other creditors of equal degree
(see Retainer): he may reimburse himself out of the estate all
expe ns es incurred in the execution of his trust.
An executor de son tort is one who, without any title to do so,
wrongfully intermeddles with the assets of the deceased, dealing
with them in such a way as to hold himself out as executor. In
such a case he is subject to all the liabilities of an executor, and can
claim none of the privileges. He may be treated by the creditor as
the executor, and, if he is really assuming to act as executor, creditors
and legatees will get a good title from him. but he is liable to be sued
by the rightful representative for damages for interfering with the
property of the deceased.
5cofte*rf.---Exccutor in Scots Uw is a more extensive term than in
English. He is either nominative or dative, the latter appointed
by the court and corresponding in most respects to the English
administrator. Caution is required from the latter, not from the
By the common law doctrine of passive representation the
heir or executor was Habk to be sued for implement of the
obligations. The Roman principle of bentfieium i uw o n to r ii was first
introduced by an act of 1695. As the law at present stands, the heir
or executor is liable only to the value of the s ucce ssio n, except
where there has been vitious intromission in movables, and in
gestio pro hatred* (behaviour as heir) and other cases in berk-
abies. The present inventory duty on su cce ss i on to movables and
heritablesdependson the Finance Acts i8o4~i90o(see Estate Duty).
In England the executor is bound to pay the debts of the dece a s ed
in a certain order, but in Scotland they all rank pari passu except
privileged debts (sea Privilege).
Authorities.— R. L. Vaughan Williams. The Lam of Executors
and Administrators; W. G. Walker, Compendium on Ike Lam of
Executors and Administrators; James Schouler, Lam of Executor*
and Administrators (3rd ed., Boston, 1901).
EXEDRA, or Exhedsa (from Gr. e|, out, and Bpo, a seat),
as architectural term originally applied to a seat or recess out
of doom, intended for conversation. Such recesses were generally
semicircular, as in the important example built by Herodes
Atticus at Olympta. In the great Roman thermae (baths) they
were of large size, and like apses were covered with a hemispheri-
cal vault. An example of these exists at Pompeii in the Street
of the Tombs. From Vitruvtus we learn that they were often
covered over, and they are described by him (v. it) as places
leading out c' porticoes, where philosophers and rhetoricians
could debate or harangue,
EXELMANS, REM* JOSEPH ISIDORE, Count (i77S-t*5>).
marshal of France, was born at Bar-le-Duc on the 13th of
November 1775. He volunteered into the 3rd battalion of the
Meuse in 1 791 , became a lieutenant in 1707, and in 1 798 was aide-
de-camp to General £ble, and in the following year to General
Broussier. In his first campaign in Italy he greatly distinguished
himself; and in April 1709 he was rewarded for his services by
the grade of captain cf dragoons. In the same year he took
part with honour in the conquest of Naples and was again pro-
moted, and in 1 801 he became aide-de-camp to General Murat.
He accompanied Murat in the Austrian, Prussian and Polish
campaigns of 1805, 1806 and 1807. At the passage of the
Danube, and in the action of ^Veningen, he specially distin-
guished himself; he was made colonel for the valour whkh he
displayed at Austcrlits, and general of brigade for his conduct
at Eylau in 1807. In 1808 he accompanied Murat to Spain,
but was there made prisoner and conveyed to F.n gland
On regaining his liberty in 181 1 he went to Naples, where
King Joachim Murat appointed him grand-master of horse.
Exelmans, however, rejoined the French amy on the eve of the
Russian campaign, and on the field of Borodino won the rank of
general of division. In the retreat from Moscow his steadfast
courage was conspicuously manifested on several occasions.
In 1613 he was made, for services in the campaign of Saxony
and Silesia, grand-officer of the Legion of Honour, and in 1814
he reaped additional glory by his intrepidity and skill in the
campaign of France. When the Hpurbons were restored,
Exelmans retained his position in the army. In January 1S15
he was tried on an accusation of having treasonable relations
with Murat, but was acquitted. Napoleon on his return from
Elba made Exelmans a peer of France and placed him in
^command of the II. cavalry corps, which he commanded in
the Waterloo campaign, the battle of Ligny and Grouchy 's
march on Wavre. In the closing operations round Paris
Exelmans won great distinction. After the second Restora-
tion he denounced, an the House of Peers, the execution of
Marshal Ney as an " abominable assassination "; thereafter he
lived in exile in Belgium and Nassau for some years, till 18 to,
when he was recalled to France. In 1828 he was appointed
inspector-general of cavalry; and after the July revolution of
1830 he received from Louis Philippe the grand cross of the Legion
of Honour, and was reinstated as a peer of France. At the
revolution of 1848 Exelmans was one of the adherents of Louis
Napoleon; and in 185 1 he was, in recognition of bis long and
brilliant military career, raised to the dignity of a marshal of
France. His death, which took place on the xoth of July 185a,
was the result of a fall from his horse.;
EXEQUATURS-EXETER
65
mtOATOR, the fetter patent, sned by a foreign office
and signed by a sovereign, which guaraotees to a foreign consul
the rights tad privileges of his office, and ensures his recognition
in the state in whkh he is appointed to exercise them. If a
consul b not appointed by commission he receives no exequatur;
sad a notice in the Gautte in this case has to suffice. The exe-
quatur may be withdrawn, but in practice, where a consul is
obnoxious, an opportunity is afforded to his government to
recall hin&»
BJJTTKR. EARU MARQUESS AND DUKB OP. These
English titles have been borne at different times by members
of the famines of Holand Or Holland, Beaufort, Courtenay and
Cecil- Hie earls of Devon of the family of de Redvera were
sometimes called earls of Exeter, but the 1st duke of Exeter
was Jos* (c. 1355-1400), a younger son of Thomas Holand,
earl of Kent (d. 1360). John's mother, Joan (d. 1 385), a descend-
ant of Edward I., married for her third husband Edward the
Black Prince, by whom she was the mother of Richard II., and
her son John was thus the lung's half-brother, a relationship
to which he owed bis high station at the English court. He
married Elisabeth (d 1426), a daughter of John of Gaunt, duke
of Lancaster, and was constantly in Richard's train until 1385,
when his murder of Ralph Stafford disturbed these friendly
relations. John then went to Spain st constable of the English
army under John of Gaunt, but after his return to England in
1387 he was created earl of Huntingdon, was made admiral of
the fleet and chamberlain of England, and was again high in the
king's favour. He was Richard's chief helper in the proceedings
against the lords appellant in 1397. was created duke of Exeter
in September of this year, and went with the king to Ireland in
1399. After the accession of his brother-in-law, Henry IV.,
Holand was tried for his share in the events of 1397, and was
reduced to his earlier rank of carl of Huntingdon. He was
soon plotting against Henry's life, and after the projected
rising in 1400 had failed he was captured and was probably
beheaded at Pleshey in Essex on the z6th of January 1400.*
He was afterwards attainted and his titles and lands were,
forfeited.
In 14 16 Thomas Beaufort, earl of Dorset, was created duke
of Exeter; but this dignity was only granted for his life, and
consequently it expired on his death in 1426.
In 14 16 John (1395-1447) > son of John Holand, the former
duke of Exeter, was allowed to take his father's earldom of
Huntingdon. This nobleman rendered great assistance to
Henry V. in his conquest of France, fighting both on sea and
on land. He was marshal of England, admiral of England and
governor of Aquitaine under Henry VI , was one of the king's
representatives at the conference of Arras in 143$, and in 1443
was created duke of Exeter. When he died on the 5th of Aurjust
1447 his titles passed to his son Henry (1430-1473), who,
although married to Anne (d. 1476), daughter of Richard, duke of
York, fought for Henry VT during the Wars of the Roses. After
having been imprisoned by York at Pontefract, he was present
at the battle of Towton, sailed with Henry's queen, Margaret
of Anjou, to Flanders in 1463, and was wounded at Barnet m
147 1 In 1461 he bad been attainted and his dukedom declared
forfeited, and he died without sons, probably in 1473.
Coming to the family of Courtenay the title of marquess of
Exeter was borne by Henxy Courtenay (c 1496-1538), earl of
Devon, who was made a marquess in 1525. A grandson of
Edward IV , Courtenay was a prominent figure at the court of
Henry VIII until Thomas Cromwell rose to power, when his
high birth, his great wealth and his independent position made
Mm an object of suspicion. Some slight discontent in the west
of England gave the occasion for his arrest, and he was tried and
beheaded on the 9th of December 1538 A few days later he
was declared a traitor and his titles were forfeited, although
his only son, Edwaxd (c. 1526-1556), who was restored to the
• There is some difference of opinion about the place and manner
of cl»e earl's death, and this question has an important bearing upon
the privilege of trial by peers of the reaJra. See L. W. Vei
Harcourt, His Grace the Steward and Trtal of Peers (1907).
earldom of Devon in 155 j and was a suitor fat the hand of Queen
Mary, is sometimes calfcd marquess of Exete*.
lite title of earl of Exeter was first bestowed upon the Cecils
(see Cbol: Family) in 160$ when Itaoius, and Lord Burghlty
(1541-1643), the eldest son of William Cecil, Lord Burghley,
was made earl of Exeter by James L Thomas had been a
member of parliament during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, who
knighted him in 1575, and had fought under the earl of Leicester
in the Netherlands. After his father's death in 1508 he became
president of the Council of the North and was made a knight of
the Garter. He died on the 7th or 8th of February 16*3* His
direct descendants continued to bear (he title of earl of Exeter,
and in 1801 Henry (1754-1804), the xoth earl, was advanced to
the dignity of marquess of Exeter, the present marquess being
his lineal descendant. It may be noted that the zst marquess
Is Tennyson's " lord of Burghley."
SeeOE. C(okayne), Complete Petrate (1887-1898).
EXETER, a city and county of a city, municipal, county and
parliamentary borough, and the county town of Devonshire,
England, 17a m. W.S W. of London, on the London & South
Western and the Great Western railways. Pop. (1901) 47,185.
The ancient city occupies a broad ridge of land, which rises
steeply from the left bank of the Exe. At the head of the ridge
is the castle, on the site of a great British earthwork. The High
Street and its continuation, called Fore Street, are narrow, but
very picturesque, with many houses of the x6th and 17th
centuries. There is a maze of lesser streets within the ancient
walls, the line of which may be traced. All the gates have
disappeared. The suburbs, which have greatly extended since
the beginning of the 19th century, contain many good streets,
terraces and detached villas. The surrounding country is rich,
fertile and of great beauty. Extensive views are commanded in
the direction of Haldon, a stretch of high moorland which may
be regarded as an outlier of Dartmoor. The lofty mound of the
castle is laid out as a promenade, with fine trees and broad walks.
The cathedral, although not one of the largest in England, is
unsurpassed in the beauty of its architecture and the richness
of its details. With the exception of the Norman transeptal
towers, the general character is Decorated, ranging from about
i»8o to 1369. Transeptal towers occur elsewhere in England
only in the collegiate church of Ottery St Mary, in Devonshire,
for which Exeter cathedral served as a model. The west front
is of later date than the rest (probably 1360-1394), and the
porch a wholly covered with statues. Within, the most note-
worthy features are the long unbroken roof, extending throughout
nave and choir, with no central tower or lantern; the beautiful
sculpture of bosses and corbels, the minstrel's gallery, projecting
from the north triforium of the nave, and the remarkable
manner m which the several pails of the church are made to
correspond. The window tracery is much varied, but each
window answers to that on the opposite side of nave or choir}
pier answers to pier, aisle to aisle, and chapel to chapel, while
the transeptal towers complete the balance of parts. A complete
restoration under Sir G. G. Scott was carried out between 1870
and 1877 The modern stall work, the reredos, the choir pave*
rnent of tiles, rich marbles and porphyries, the stained glass and
the sculptured pulpits in choir and nave are meritorious. The
episcopal throne, a sheaf of tabernacle work in wood, was erected
by Bishop Stapeldon about 1320, and in the north transept is
an ancient dock. The most interesting monuments are those of
bishops of the rath and 13th centuries, in the choir and lady
chapel. Some important MSS., including the famous book of
Saxon poetry given by Leofnc to his cathedral, are preserved
in the chapter-house. The united sees of Devonshire and
Cornwall were fixed at Exeter from the installation there of
Leofnc (1050) by the Confessor, until the re-erection of the
Cornish see in 1876 The bishop's palace embodies Early
English portions. The diocese covers the greater part of Devon-
shire, with a very small part of Dorsetshire.
The guildhall in the High Street is a picturesque Elitabetban
building, which contains some interesting portraits, among
.them being one of General Monk, who was a natiye of Devon.
66
EXETER
and another of Henrietta, duchess of Orleans, given by her
brother Charles IL Both are by Sir Peter Ldy. The assise
hall and sessions uouse dates from 1774. The Albert Memorial
Museum contains a school of art, an excellent free library, a
reading-room, and a museum of natural history and antiquities.
There is a good collection of local birds, and some remarkable
pottery and bronze relics extracted from barrows near Honiton
or found in various parts of Devonshire. Of the castle, called
Rougemont, the chief architectural remnant is a portion of a
gateway tower which may be late Norman. Traces are also
seen of the surrounding earthworks, which may have belonged
to the original British stronghold. Beneath the castle wall is
the pleasant promenade of Northernhay. The churches of
Exeter are of little importance, being mostly small, and closely
beset with buildings, but the modern church of St Michael (i860)
deserves notice. The Devon and Exeter Institution, founded
in 1813, contains a large and valuable library, and among
educational establishments may be noticed the technical and
university extension college, the diocesan training college and
school; and the grammar school, which was founded under a
scheme of Walter de Stapeldon, bishop of Exeter and founder of
Exeter College, Oxford, in 133?, and refounded in 1629, but
occupies modern buildings (1866) outside the city. It is endowed
with a large number of leaving exhibitions, and about 150 boys
are educated. There are two market-houses in the city, many
hospitals and many charitable institutions, including the pictur-
esque hospital or almshouse of William Wynard, recorder of
Exeter (1430).
Exeter is one of the principal railway centres in the south-west,
and it also has some shipping trade, communicating with the
sea by way of the Exeter ship-canal, originally cut in the reign
of Elizabeth (1564), and enlarged in 1675 and 1827. This canal
is an interesting work, being the first canal carried out in the
United Kingdom for the purpose of enabling sea-going vessels to
pass to an inland port. The river Exe was very early utilized
by small craft trading to Exeter, parliament having granted
powers for the improvement of the navigation by the construc-
tion of a canal 3 m. long from Exeter to the river; at a later
date this canal was extended lower down to the tidal estuary of
the Exe. Previous to the year 1820 it was only available for
vessels of a draft not exceeding ft , but by deepening it, raising
the banks, and constructing new locks, vessels drawing 14 ft. of
water were enabled to pass up to a basin and wharves at Exeter.
These works were carried out under the advice of Thomas
Telford. A floating basin is accessible to vessels of 350 tons.
Larger vessels lie at Topsham, at the junction of the canal with
the estuary of the Exe; while at the mouth of the estuary is
the port of Exmouth. Imports are miscellaneous, while paper,
grain, cider and other goods are exported. Brewing, paper-
making and iron-founding are carried on, and the city is an
important centre of agricultural trade. The parliauentary
borough returns one member. The city is governed by a
mayor, 14 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 3x58 acres.
The eastern suburb of Heavitree, where is the Exeter city
asylum, is an urban district with a population (xooi) of 7520.
Exeter was the Romano-British country town of I sea Dam-
noniorum— the most westerly town in the south-west of Roman
Britain. Mosaic pavements, potsherds, coins and other relic*
have been found, and probably traces of the Roman walls survive
here and there in the medieval walls. It is said to be the Caer
Isce of the Britons, and its importance as a British stronghold is
shown by the great earthwork which the Britons threw up to
defend it, on the site of which the castle was afterwards built, and
by the number of roads which branch from it. Exeter is famous
for the number of sieges which it sustained as the chief town
in the south-west of England. In 1001 it was unsuccessfully
besieged by the Danes, but in the following year was given by
King £thelred to Queen Emma, who appointed as reeve, Hugh, a
Frenchman, owing to whose treachery it was taken and destroyed
by Sweyn in 1003. By 1050, however, it had recovered, and
was chosen by Leofric as the new scat of the bishops of Devon.
In 1068, after a siege of eighteen days, Exeter surrendered to
the Conqueror, who threw up a castle which was called Rouge
moot, from the colour of the rock on which it stood. Again in
1x37 the town was held for Matilda by Baldwin, de Redvcrs fox
three months and surrendered, ait last, owing to lack of water.
Three timtssubsequently Exeter held out successfully for the king
—in 1467 against the Yorkists, in 1497 against Feriin Warbeck
and in 1549 against the men of Cornwall and Devon, who row
in defence of the old religion. During the dvil wars the at)
declared for parliament, but was in 1643 taken by the royalists
who held it until 1646. The only other historical event o
importance is the entry of William, prince of Orange, in xoSS
shortly after* his arrival in England. Exeter was evidently *
borough by prescription some time before the Conquest, sine
the burgesses are mentioned in the Domesday Survey. It
first charter granted by Henry I. gave the burgesses all the fro
customs which the citizens of London enjoyed, and was confirm*
and enlarged by most of the succeeding kings. By 1 217 govern
ment by a reeve had given place to that by a mayor and foui
bailiffs, which continued until the Municipal Reform Act of 183 5
Numerous trade gilds were incorporated in Exeter, one of lb
first being the tailors' gild, incorporated in 1466. This by 148:
had become so powerful that it interfered with the governmen!
of the town, and was dissolved on the petition of the burgesses
Another powerful gild was that of the merchant adventurers
incorporated in 1559, which is said to have dictated laws to whicl
the mayor and bailiffs submitted. From 1295 to 1885 Exete:
was represented in parliament by two members, but in the latte:
year the number of representatives was reduced to one. Exete
was formerly noted for the manufacture of woollen goods
introduced in Elizabeth's reign, and the value of its export:
at one time exceeded half a million sterling yearly. The tradi
declined partly owing to the stringent laws of the trade gilds
and by the beginning of the 19th century had entirely dis
appeared, although at the time of its greatest prosperity i\
had been surpassed in value and importance only by that o
Leeds.
See Victoria County History, Devon: Richard Izacke, Anhquitie
of the City of Exeter (1677) : George Oliver, The History of Ike Cit
of Exeter (1861); and E. A. Freeman, Exeter (" Historic Towns
•cries) (London, 1887), in the preface to which the names of earlk
hist orian s of the city are given.
EXETER, a town and one of the -county-seats of Rockinghan
county, New Hampshire, U S.A., on the Squamscott river
about is m. S.W. of Portsmouth and about 51 m. N. by E. o
Boston, Mass. Pop. (1890) 4284, (1900) 4922 (1066 foreign
born), (1910) 4897, area, about 17 sq. m. It is served by tin
Western Division of the Boston & Maine railway. The towi
has a public library and some old houses built in the colonia
period, and is the scat of Phillips Exeter Academy (incorporate
in 1781 and opened in 1783). In its charter this institution t
described as " an academy for the purpose of promoting piet;
and virtue, and for the education of youth in the English, Latii
and Greek languages, In writing, arithmetic, music and the ar
of speaking, practical geometry, logic and geography, and sucl
other of the hberal arts and sciences or languages, as opportunity
may bireafter permit." It was founded by Dr John Phillip
(X710-1795), a graduate of Harvard College, who acquire)
considerable wealth as a merchant at Exeter and gave nearl;
all of it to the cause of education. The academy is one of th
foremost secondary schools in the country, and among it
alumni have been Paniel Webster, Edward Everett, Lewi
Cass (born in Exeter in a house still standing), John Parker Halt
George Bancroft, Jared Sparks, John Gorham Palfrey, Richar
Hildreth and Francis Bowen. The government of the academ
is vested in a board of six trustees, regarding whom the foundc
provided that a majority should be laymen and not inhabitant
of Exeter. In 1900-19x0 the institution had so buildings, 3
acres of recreation grounds, 16 instructors and 488 student;
representing 38 states and territories of the United States am
4 foreign countries. At Exeter also is the Robinson fcmal
seminary (1867), with 14 instructors and 279 students in rood
1007. The river furnishes water-power, and among the mam
factures of the town are shoes, machinery, cottons, brass, &<
EXETER BOOK,— EXHIBITION
67
The town is one of the oldest in the stale, it wis founded in
1638 by Rev John Wheelwright, an Antinomian leader who
with a number of followers settled here after his banishment
from Massachusetts. For their government the settlers adopted
(1639) a plantation covenant. There was disagreement from the
first, however, with regard to the measure of loyalty to the king;
and in 1643, when Massachusetts had asserted her claim to this
legion and the other three New Hampshire towns had submitted
to her jurisdiction, the majority of the inhabitants of Exeter
also yielded, while the minority, including the founder, removed
from the town. In 1680 the town became a part of the newly
created province of New Hampshire. During the French and
Indian wars it was usually protected by a garrison, and some
of the garrison houses are still standing. From 1776 to 1784
the state legislature usually met at Exeter.
See G H. Bell History of the Tom of Exeter (Exeter, 1888).
EXETER BOOK [Codex Exonunsis), an anthology of Anglo-
Saxon poetry presented to Exeter cathedral by Leofric, 1 bishop
of Exeter, England, from 1050 to 107 1, and still In the possession
of the dean and chapter. It contains some legal documents, the
poems entitled CWrt, Gvlhlac^ Phoenix, Juliana, The Wanderer
and others, and concludes with between eighty and ninety
riddles. It was first described in Humphrey Wanley's CatoUgtts
. . . (1705) In detail but with many inaccuracies; subse-
quently by J J Conybeare, Account of a Saxon Manuscript
(a paper read in 181 a, printed with some extracts from the
MS. in Ankaeologio, voL xvfi pp 180-197, 1814) A complete
transcript made (1831) by Robert Chambers is m the British
Museum (Addit. MS. 0067). It was first printed in 184s by
Benjamin Thorpe for the Soc of Antiq, London, as Codes
Exoniensis , . . with an English Translation, Notes and Indexes*
More recent editions, chiefly based on Thorpe's text, are:— in
Chr. Gresn's Biblietkek der AS, PoesU (vol. in. part x, ed-
it Wttlkex, Leipzig, 1897* with a bibliography), J Schipper in
Ffejffer's Gcrmama, voL xrx. pp. 337-330, and Israel Gollancx,
The Exeter Book, pt. L (1895), with English translation, for the
Early English Text Society
A detailed account, with bibliographies of the separate poems, is
riven by R. Walker, in Gmndriss . der A.S. LitertOur, pp. a 18-236
(Lcipac, 1885) ; see also the introduction to The Crtst of Cynewulf. ,
edited by Prof. A. S. Cook, with introduction, notes and a glossary
(Boston, U.S.A., 1000). For the poems contained in the MS. see
aho Cvnbwulf and Riddles.
EXHIBITION, a term, meaning in general a public display,*
which has a special modern sense as applied to pubnc shows of
goods for the promotion of trade (Fr. exposition). The first
exhibition in this sense of whkh there is any account, in either
sacred or profane history, was that held by King Ahasuerus,
who, according to the Book of Esther, showed in the third year
of his reign " the riches of his glorious kingdom, and the honour
of his excellent majesty, many days, even a hundred and four-
score days." The locale of this function was Shushan, the
palace and the exhibits consisted of " white, green and blue
hangings, fastened with cords of fine Hnen and purple to silver
rings and pillars of marble: the beds were of gold and silver,
upon a pavement of red, and blue, and white and black marble.
And they gave them drink in vessels of gold, the vessels being
diverse one from another." The first exhibition since the
Christian era was at Venice during the dogeship of Lorenzo
Ticpolo, in 1268. On that occasion there was a grand display,
consisting of a water fete, a procession of the trades and an
industrial exhibition. The various gilds of the Queen Gty of the
Seas marched through the narrow streets to the great square of
St Mark, and their leaders asked the dogaressa to inspect the
products of their industry. Other medieval exhibitions were
the fairs held at Leipzig and Nizhni Novgorod fn Europe, at
Tanta in Egypt, and in 1889 that by the Dutch at Leiden.
* For Leofric, see F, E. Warren, The Leofric Missel (1883).
* An ** exhibition/* in the sense of a minor scholarship, or annual
payment to a student from the funds of a school or college, is a
modern survival from the obsolete meaning of '* maintenance " or
" endowment " (cf. Late Lot. exhibit* tt tegMmen$mn» ia food and
The first modern exhibition was held at London in 1756 by
the Society of Arts, which offered prizes for improvements in
the manufacture of tapestry, carpers and porcelain, the exhibits
being placed side by. side. Five years afterwards, in 1761, the
same society gave an exhibition of agricultural machinery.
In 1797 * collective display of the art factories of France, includ-
ing those of Sevres, the Gobelins and the Sayonncrie, was made
in the palace of St Cloud, and the exhibition was repeated during
the following year in the rue deVarennes, Paris. This experiment
was so successful that in the last three days of the same year an
exhibition under official auspices, at which private exhibitors
were allowed to compete, was held in the Champ de Mars. Four
years later, in i8ox, there was a second official exhibition in
the grand court of the Louvre. Upon that occasion juries of
practical men examined the objects shown, and the winners of a
gold medal were invited to dine with Napoleon, who was at
that time First Consul. In the report of the jury the following
remarkable sentence appeared:—" There , is not an artist or
inventor who, once obtaining thus a public recognition of
his ability, has not found his reputation and his business
largely increased." The third Paris Exhibition, held in 1802,
was the first to publish an official catalogue. There were $40
exhibitors, including J. E. Montgolfier, the first aeronaut, and
J M. Jacquard, the inventor of the loom which bears his name.
The fourth exhibition was held in 1806 in the esplanade in front
of the Hotel des In valides, and attracted 14a a exhibitors. There
were no more exhibitions till after the fall of the empire, but in
1819 the fifth was held during the reign of Louis XVIII., with
1 6a a exhibitors. Others were held at Paris at various intervals,
that in 1849 having 4500 exhibitors.
Other exhibitions, though on a smaller scale, were held in
Dublin, London, and in various parts of Germany and Austria
during the first half of the 19th century— that in 1844, held at
Berlin, having 3040 exhibitors. Switzerland, Holland, Belgium,
Sweden, Russia, Poland, Italy, Spain and Portugal all held
exhibitions, and there was a Free Trade Bazaar of British
Manufactures at Covent Garden theatre in 184$, which at
the time created a great deal of interest. But all these
exhibitions were confined to the products of the country
in which they took place, and the first great International
Exhibition was held in London in 1851 by the Society of Arts,
under the presidency of the prince consort. All nations were
invited to compete; a site was obtained in Hyde Park, and a
building so acres in extent was erected, after the design of Sir
Joseph Paxton, at a cost of £103,168. The exhibition was open
for five months and fifteen days. The receipts amounted to
£506,100, and the surplus was £186,000- The number of visitors
was 6,039,195, and the money taken at the doors was £423,792.
The total number of exhibitors was 13,937, of which Great
Britain contributed 686x, the British colonies 520 and foreign
countries 6,556. The International Exhibition of 1851 was
followed by those of New York and Dublin in 1853, Melbourne
and Munich in 1854, and Paris in 1855— this latter was held in
the Palais d' Industrie, which remained in existence until pulled
down to make room for the two Palais des Beaux Arts, which
formed one of the attractions of the 1900 exhibition. The
exhibitors numbered 20,839 and the visitors 5,162430. There
were national exhibitions during the following years in several
European countries, but the next great world's fair was held at
London in 1862. The total space roofed in amounted to 988,000
sq. ft., 22-65 acres, the number of visitors was 6,211,103, and
the amount received at the doom £408,530. The death of the
prince consort had a depressing effect upon the enterprise.
In 1865 an exhibition was held at Dublin, the greater proportion
of the funds being supplied by Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness.
The number of attendances during six months was 900,000, and
the exhibition was opened at night. An Italian exhibition was
held at Rome in 1862.
The Paris Exhibition of 1867 was upon a far larger scale than
that of 1 855. It waslicld, like those that preceded and succeeded
it, at the Champ de Mars, and covered 41 acres. The building
I resembled an exaggerated gasometer. The external ring was
6S
EXHIBITION
devoted to machinery, the internal to the gradual develop-
ment of civilization, commencing with the stone age and con-
tinuing to the present era. A great feature of the exhibition was
the park, which was studded with specimens of every style of
modem architecture — Turkish mosques, Swedish cottages,
English lighthouses, Egyptian palaces and Swiss chalets. The
number of attendances was 6, 805,060. The exhibitors numbered
43,217, and the total amount received for entrances, concessions,
&c., was £420 J3 5. This was the first exhibition at which there
were international restaurants. The cost of the exhibition was
defrayed partly by the state and partly by private subscriptions.
Small exhibitions were held in various parts of Europe between
1867 and 1870, and in the latter year a series of international
exhibitions, confined to one or two special descriptions of
produce or manufactures, was inaugurated m London at South
Kensington These continued till 1 874 , but they failed to attract
any very large attendance of the public and were abandoned.
A medal was given to each exhibitor, and reports on the various
exhibits were published, but there was no examination of the
exhibits by jurors In 1873 there was an International Exhibi-
tion at Vienna The main building, a rotunda, was erected in
the beautiful park of the Austrian capital There were halls
for machinery and agricultural products, and hundreds of
buildings, erected by different nations, were scattered amongst
the woodlands of the Prater Unfortunately, an outbreak
of cholera diminished the attendance of visitors, and the receipts
were only £206,477, although the visitors were said to have
reached 6,740,500, and the number of exhibitors was 25,760.
None of the International Exhibitions held between 1857
and 1873 had attracted as many as 7,000,000 visitors, but the
gradual extension of education amongst the masses, and the
greater facilities for locomotion, brought about by the growth
of the railway system in all portions of the civilized world,
largely increased the attendances at subsequent World's Fairs
The Centennial Exhibition of 1 876, to celebrate the one-hundredth
anniversary of American Independence, was held at Fail-mount
Park, Philadelphia. The funds were raised partly by private
subscriptions, and partly by donations from the city of Phila-
delphia, from Pennsylvania and some of the neighbouring states.
The central government at Washington made a large loan,
which was subsequently repaid. The principal buildings, five in
number, occupied an area of 48$ acres, and there were several
smaller structures, which in the aggregate must have filled half
as much space more, the largest being that devoted to the ex-
hibits of the various departments of the United States govern-
ment, which covered 7 acres. Several novelties in exhibition
management were introduced at Philadelphia. Instead of gold,
silver and bronze medals, only one description, bronze, was
issued, the difference between the merits of the different exhibits
being shown by the reports. Season tickets were not issued,
and the price of admission, the same on all occasions, was half
a dollar, or about 23. xd. The exhibition was not open at night
or on Sundays, thus following the British, and not the con-
tinental, precedent The number of visitors was 9,892,625, of
whom 8,004,214 paid for admission, the balance being exhibitors,
officials and attendants. The total receipts amounted to
£763,899. Upon one occasion, the Pennsylvania day, 274,919
persons— the largest number that* had visited any exhibition
up to that date— passed through the turnstiles. The display
of machinery was the finest ever made, that of the United States
occupying 480,000 sq. ft. The motive-power was obtained from
a Corliss engine of 1600 horse-power. At this exhibition the
United Kingdom and the British Colonies of Canada, Victoria,
New South Wales, New Zealand, Cape Colony and Tasmania
made a very fine display, which was only excelled by that of the
United States,
The Paris Exhibition of 1878 was upon a far larger scale in
every respect than any which had been previously held in any
part of the world. The total area covered not less than 66 acres,
the main building in the Champ de Mars occupying 54 acres.
The French exhibits filled one-half the entire space, the remaining
moiety being occupied by the other nations of the world. Hie
United Kmgdom, British India, Canada, Victoria, New South
Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Cape Colony and some
of the British crown colonies occupied nearly one-third of the
space set aside for nations outside France. Germany was the
only great country which was not represented, but there were a
lew German paintings. The display of fine arts* ajid machinery
was upon a very large and comprehemave scale, and the Avenue
des Nations, a street 2400 ft . in length, was devoted to aprrhnrns
of the domestic architecture of nearly every country in Europe,
and of several m Asia, Africa and America. The palace of the
Trocadero, on the northern bank of the Seine, was erected for
the exhibition. It was a handsome structure, with towers 150 ft.
in height and flanked by two galleries. The rules for admission
were the same as those at Philadelphia, and every person-
exhibitor, journalist or official — who had the right of entrance
was compelled to forward two copies of his or her photograph,
one of which was attached to the card of entry. The ordinary
tickets were not sold at the doors, but were obtainable at various
government offices and shops, and from numerous pedlars in
all pans of the city and suburbs. The buildings were somewhat
unfinished upon the opening day, political complications having
prevented the French government and the French people from
paying much attention to the exhibition till about six months
before it was opened; but the efforts made in April were pro-
digious, and by June xst, a month after the opening, the exhibi-
tion was complete, and afforded an object-lesson of the recovery
of France from the calamities of 1870*1871. Hie decisions
arrived at by the international juries were accompanied by
medals of gold, silver and bronze. The expenditure by the
United Kingdom was defrayed out of the consolidated revenue,
each British colony defraying its own expenses. The display of
the United Kingdom was under the control of a royal commission,
of which the prince of Wales was president. The number of
paying visitors to the exhibition was 13,000,000, and the cost
of the enterprise to the French government, which supplied all
the funds, was a little less than a million sterling, after allowing
for the value of the permanent buildings and the Trocadero
Palace, which were sold to the city of Paris. The total number
of persons who visited Paris during the time the exhibition was
open was 571,792, or 308,974 more than came to the French
metropolis during the year 1877, and 46,021 in excess of the
visitors during the previous exhibition of 1867. It was stated
at the time that, in addition to the impetus given to the txade of
France, the revenue of the Republic and of the city of Paris
from customs and octroi duties was increased by nearly three
millions sterling as compared with the previous year.
Exhibitions on a scale of considerable magnitude were held at
Sydney and Melbourne in 1879 and 1880, and many continental
and American manufacturers took advantage of them in order
to bring the products of their industry directly under the notice
of Australian consumers, who had previously purchased their
supplies through the instrumentality of British merchants.
The United Kingdom and India made an excellent display at
both cities, but the effect of the two great Australian exhibitions
was to give a decided impetus to German, American, French and
Belgian trade. One of the immediate results was that lines of
steamers to Melbourne and Sydney commenced to run from
Marseilles and Bremen; another, that for the first time in the
history of the Australian colonies, branches of French banks
were opened hvthe two principal cities. The whole cost of these
exhibitions was defrayed by the local governments.
Exhibitions were held at Turin and Brussels daring 1880,
and smaller ones at Newcastle, Milan, Lahore, Adelaide, Perth,
Moscow, Ghent and Lille during i88x and 188a, and at Zurich,
Bordeaux and Caracas in Venezuela during 1883. The next
of any importance was held at Amsterdam in the latter year.
On that occasion a new departure in exhibition management
was made. The government of the Netherlands was to a certain
extent responsible for the administration of the exhibition,
but the funds were obtained from private sources, and a charge
was made to each natkm represented for the space h occupied.
The United Kingdom, India, Victoria and New South Wales
EXHIBITION
69
took put in the exhibition, but there was no official representa-
tion of the mother country. Exhibitions on somewhat similar
fines were held at Nice and Calcutta in the winter of 1883 and
1884, and at Antwerp in 1895.
A series of exhibitions, under the presidency of the then prince
of Wales, and managed by Sir Cunliffe Owen, was commenced at
South Kensington in 1883. The first was devoted to a display of
the various industries connected with fishing; the second, in
1884, to objects connected with hygiene; the third, in 1885, to
inventions; and the fourth, in 1886, to the British colonies and
India. These exhibitions attracted a large number of visitors
and reafiaed a substantial profit. They might have been con-
tinued indefinitely if it had not been that the buildings in which
they were held had become very dilapidated, and that the ground
covered by them was required for other purposes. There was
no examination of the exhibits by juries, but a tolerably liberal
supply of instrumental music was supplied by military and
dvfl bands. The Crystal Palace held a successful International
Exhibition in 1884, and there was a i> Italian Exhibition at Turin,
and a Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh, during the same year.
A World's Industrial Fair was held at New Orleans in 1884-1885,
and there were universal Exhibitions at Montenegro and Antwerp
to 1885, at Edinburgh in 1886, Liverpool, Adelaide, Newcastle
and Manchester in 1887, and at Glasgow, Barcelona and Brussels
in 1888. Melbourne held an International Exhibition in 1888-
1889 to celebrate the Centenary of Australia. Great Britain,
Germany, France, Austria and the United States were officially
represented, and an expenditure of £237,784 was incurred by the
local government.
The Paris Exhibition of 1889 marked an important change
in the policy which had previously characterised the management
of these gatherings. The funds were contributed partly by the
state, wbteh voted 17,000,000 francs, and by the municipality of
Paris, which gave 8,000,000. A guarantee fund amounting to
23,124,000 francs was raised, and on this security a sum of
18,000,000 francs was obtained and paid into the coffers of the
administration. The bankers who advanced this sum recouped
themselves by the issue of 1,200,000 " bom," each of 25 francs-.
Every dob contained 25 admissions, valued at 1 franc, and
certain privileges in the shape of participation in a lottery, the
grand prist being £20,000. The calculations of the promoters
were tolerably accurate. The attendances reached the then
unprecedented number of 32,350,297, of whom 25,398,609 paid
hi entrance tickets and 9,723,366 entered by season tickets. A
sun of 2,307,000 francs was obtained by concessions for
restaurants and " side-shows/* upon which the administration
relied for much of the attractiveness of the exhibition. The
total expenditure was 44,000,000 francs, and there was a small
surplus. Hie space covered in the Champ de Mars, the Trocadero,
the Palais dlndustrie, the Invalides and the Quai d'Orsay was
72 acres, as compared with 66 acres in 1878 and 41 acres in 1867.
Amongst the novelties was the Eiffel Tower, 1000 ft. in height,
and a faithful reproduction of a street in Cairo. The system of
international juries was continued, but instead of gold, silver
and copper medals, diplomas of various merits were granted,
each entitling the holder to a uniform medal of bronze. Some
of the M side-shows," although perhaps pecuniary successes,
did not add to the dignity of the exhibition. The date at which
it was held, the Centenary of the French Revolution, did not
commend it to several European governments, Austria,
Hungary, Belgium, China, Egypt, Spain, Great Britain, Italy,
Luxemburg, HoHand, Peru, Portugal, Rumania and Russia
took part, but not onldafly, while Germany, Sweden, Turkey
and Montenegro were conspicuous by their absence. On the
other hand, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, the United States, Greece,
Guatemala, Morocco, Mexico, Nicaragua, Norway, -Paraguay,
Salvador, the South African RepubKc, Switzerland, Uruguay
and Venezuela sent commissioners, who were accredited to the
axnrernment of the French Republic. The total number of
exhibitors was 61,722, of which France contributed 33.937. *nd
the rest of the world 27,785. The British and colonial section
was under the management of the Sodttyof-Arts, which obtained
a guarantee fund of £16,800, and, in order to recoup itself for its
expenditure, made a charge to exhibitors of 5s. per sq. ft. for the
space occupied. There were altogether 1149 British exhibitors,
of whom 429 were in the Fine Arts section. One of the features
of the exhibition was the number of congresses and conferences
held in connexion with it.
During the year 1890 there was a Mining Exhibition at the
Crystal Palace, and a Military Exhibition in the grounds of
Chelsea Hospital; in 1891 a Naval Exhibition at Chelsea and
an International at Jamaica. In 1891-1892 there were exhibi-
tions at Palermo and at Launceston in Tasmania; in 1892, a
Naval Exhibition at Liverpool, and one of Electrical Appliances
at the Crystal Palace. A series of small national exhibitions
under private management was held at Earl's Court between
1887 and 1 891. The first of the series was that of the United
States— Italy followed in x888, Spain in 1889, France in 1890
and Germany in 1891.
The next exhibition of the first order of magnitude was at
Chicago in 1893, and was held in celebration of the 400th anni-
versary of the discovery of America by Columbus. The financial
arrangements were undertaken by a company, with a Capital of
£2,000,000. The central government at Washington allotted
£20,000 for the purposes of foreign exhibits, and £300,000 for
the erection and administration of a building for exhibits from
the various government departments. The exhibition was held
at Jackson Park, a place for public recreation, 580 acres in extent,
situated on the shore of Lake Michigan, on the southern side of
the city, with which it was connected by railways and tramways.
Special provision was made for locomotion in the grounds
themselves by a continuous travelling platform and an elevated
electric railway. The proximity of the lake, and of some artificial
canals which had been constructed, rendered possible the service
of electric and steam launches. The exhibition remained open
from the 1st of May to the 30th of October, and was visited by
2M77./I2 persons, each of whom paid half a dollar (about
as. xd.) for admission. The largest number of visitors on any
one day was 7 16,881. In addition to its direct vote of £320,000,
Congress granted £500,000 to the exhibition in a special coinage,
which sold at an enhanced price. The receipts from admissions
were £2,120,000; from concessions, £750,000; and the miscel-
laneous receipts, £159,000: total, £3,029,000. The total
expenses were £5,222,000. Of the sums raked by the Company,
£400,000 was returned to the subscribers. Speaking roughly, it
may be said that the total outlay on the Chicago Exhibition was
six millions sterling, of which three millions were earned by the
Fair, two millions subscribed by Chicago and a million provided
by the United States government. ' The sums expended by the
participating foreign governments were estimated at £1,440,000.
The total area occupied by buildings at Chicago was as nearly as
possible 200 acres, the largest building, that devoted to manu-
factures, being 1687 ft. by 787, and 30-5 acres. The funds for
the British commission, which was under the control of the
Society of Arts, were provided by the imperial government,
which granted £60,000. The number of British exhibitors was
2236, of whom 597 were Industrial, 501 Fine Arts and 11 38
Women's work. In this total were included 18 Indian exhibi-
tors. The space occupied by Great Britain was 306,285 sq. ft.;
and, in addition, separate buildings were erected in the grounds.
These were Victoria House, the headquarters of the British
commission; the Indian Pavilion, erected by the Indian Tea
Association; the Kiosk of the White Star Steamship Company;
and the structure set tip by the Maxim-Nordenfelt Company.
Canada and New South Wales had separate buildings, which
covered 100,140 and 50,951 sq. ft. respectively; and Cape
Colony occupied 5250, Ceylon 27,574, British Guiana 3367,
Jamaica 4250, Trinidad 3400 and India 3584 sq. ft. in the
several buildings. The total space occupied by the British
Colonies was therefore 193,660 sq. ft. The system of awards
was considered extremely unsatisfactory. Instead of inter-
national juries, a single judge was appointed for each class, and
the recompenses were all of one grade, a bronze medal and a
diploma, on which was stated the reasons which induced the
70
EXHIBITION
juflge to make his decision. Some judges took a high standard,
and refused to "make awards except to a small proportion of
selected exhibits; others took a low one, and gave awards
indiscriminately. About 1x83 awards were made to British
exhibitors. The French refused to accept any awards. The
value of the British goods exhibited was estimated, exclusive
of Fine Arts* at £430,000, and the expenses of showing them at
£200,000. A large expenditure was incurred in the erection of
buildings, which were more remarkable for their beauty and
grandeur than for their suitableness to the purposes for which
they were intended. Considerable areas were devoted to " side-
shows," and the Midway Plaisance, as it was termed, resembled
a gigantic fair. Every country in the world contributed some-
thing. There were sights and shows of every sort from every-
where. The foreign countries represented were Argentina,
Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Cuba, Curacoa, Denmark, Danish West Indies,
Ecuador, France, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Honduras,
Hayti, Japan, Johbre, Korea, Liberia, Mexico, Monaco, Nether-
lands, Norway, Orange Free State, Paraguay, Persia, Portugal,
Russia, Slam, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United Kingdom and
Colonies, Uruguay and Venezuela.
Exhibitions were held at Antwerp, Madrid and Bucharest
in 1804; Hobart in 1804-1895; Bordeaux, 1805; Nizhni
Novgorod, Berlin and Buda-Pest in 1896; Brussels and Brisbane
in 1897. A series of exhibitions, under the management of the
London Exhibitions Company, commenced at Earl's Court in
1895 and continued in successive years.
The Paris Exhibition of 1900 was larger than any which had
been previously held in Europe. The buildings did not cover
so much ground as those at Chicago, but many of those at Paris
bad two or more floors. In addition to the localities occupied
in 1889, additional space was obtained at the Champs Eiysees,
the park of Vincennes, on the north bank of the Seine between
the Place de la Concorde, and at the Trocadero. The total
superficial area occupied was as follows: Champ dc Mars,
124 acres; Esplanade des Invalides, 30 acres; Trocadero
Gardens, 40 acres; Champs Eiysees, 37 acres; quays on left
bank of Seine, 23 acres; quays on right bank of Seine, 23 acres;
park at Vincennes, 2 70 acres : total, 549 acres. The space occupied
by buildings and covered in amounted to 4,865,328 «q. ft., in J
acres. The French section covered 2,691,000 sq. ft., the foreign
1,829,880, and those at the park of Vincennes 344,448 sq. ft.
About one hundred French and seventy-live foreign pavilions and
detached buildings were erected in the grounds in addition to
the thirty-six official pavilions, which were for the rnost part
along the Quai d'Orsay. Funds were raised upon the same
system as that adopted in 1889. The French government granted
£800,000, and a similar sum was contributed by the munici-
pality of Paris. £2,400,000 was raised by the issue of 3,250,000
" bons," each of the value of 20 francs, and containing 20
tickets of admission to the exhibition of the face value of one
franc each, and a document which gave its holder a right either
to a reduced rate for admission to the different " side-shows "
or else to a diminution in the railway fare to and from Paris,
together with a participation in the prizes, amounting to six
million francs, drawn at a series of lotteries. Permission to
erect restaurants, and to open places of amusement in buildings
erected for that purpose, were sold at high prices, and for these
privileges, which only realised 2,307,999 francs in 1889, the
concessionaires agreed to pay 8,86444a francs in 1900. The
results did not justify the expectations which had been formed,
and the administration finally consented to receive a much
smaller sura. The administration calculated that tbey would
have 65,000,000 paying visitors .though there were only 13,000.000
in 1878 and 25,398,609 in 1889. A very few weeks after the
opening day, April 15th, it became evident that the estimated
figures would not be reached, since a large number of holders
of " bons " threw them on the market, and the selling price of
an admission ticket declined from the par value of one franc to
less than half that amount, or from 30 to 50 centimes. The
proprietors of the restaurants and "side-shows" discovered
that tbey had paid too much for their concessions, that the
buildings they had erected were far too handsome and cosily
to be profitable, and that the public preferred the exhibition
itself to the so-called attractions. The exhibition was largely
visited by foreigners, but various causes kept away many
persons of wealth and position. Although many speculators were
ruined, the exhibition itself was successful. The attendance
was unprecedentedly large, and during the seven months the
exhibition was open, 30,000,000 persons paid for admission with
47,000,000 tickets, since from two to five tickets were demanded
at certain times of the day and on certain occasions. The entries
of exhibitors, attendants and officials totalled 0,000,000. The
receipts were 114,456,213 francs (£4,578,249), and the ex-
penditure x 16,500,000 (X4,6qo,ooo), leaving a deficiency of rather
more than two millions of francs (£80,000). It was calculated
that the expenditure of the foreign nations which took pan in
the exhibition was six millions sterling, and of the French
exhibitors and concessionaires three millions sterling.
A new plan of classifying exhibits was adopted at Paris, all
being displayed according to their nature, and not according to
their country of origin, as had been the system at previous
exhibitions. One-half the space in each group was allotted to
France, so that the exhibitors of that nation were enabled to
overwhelm their rivals by the number and magnitude of the
objects displayed by them. AJI the agricultural implements,
whatever their nationality, were in one place, all the ceramics
in another, so that there was no exclusively British and no
exclusively German court. The only exception to this rule was
in the Trocadero, where the French, British, Dutch, and Portu-
guese Colonies, Algeria, Tunis, Siberia, the South African
Republic, China and Japan were allowed to erect at their own
cost separate pavilions. The greater number of the nationalities
represented had palaces of their own in the rue des Nations along
the Quai d'Orsay, in which thoroughfare were to be seen the
buildings erected by Italy, Turkey, the United States, Denmark,
Portugal, Austria, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Peru, Hungary, the
United Kingdom, Persia, Belgium, Norway, Luxemburg,
Finland, Germany, Spain, Bulgaria, Monaco, Sweden, Rumania,
Greece, Servia and Mexico. Scattered about the grounds, in
addition to those in the Trocadero, were the buildings of San
Marino, Morocco, Ecuador and Korea. Nearly every civilized
country in the world was represented at the exhibition, the most
conspicuous absentees being Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and some
other South and Central American Republics, and a number
of the British colonies. The most noteworthy attractions of the
exhibition were the magnificent effects produced by electricity
in the palace devoted to it in the Chateau d'Eau and in the Hall
of Illusions, the two palaces of the Fine Arts in the Champs
Eiysees, and the Bridge over the Seine dedicated to the memory
of Alexander II. These permanent Fine Art palaces were
devoted, the one to modern painting and sculpture, the
other to the works of French artists and art workmen who
flourished from the dawn of French art up to the end of the iSlh
century.
The United Kingdom was well but not largely represented
both in Fine Arts and Manufactures, the administration of the
section being in the hands of a royal commission, presided over
by the prince of Wales. The British pavilion contained an
important collection of paintings of the British school, chiefly
by Reynolds, Gainsborough and their contemporaries, and by
Turner and Borne- Jones. Special buildings had been erected
by the British colonies and by. British India. Canada, West
Australia and Mauritius occupied the former, India and Ceylon
the latter. For the first time since the war of 1870 Germany
took part in a French International Exhibition, and the exhibits
showed the great industrial progress which had been made since
the foundation of the empire in 1870. The United States made
a fine display, and fairly divided the honours with Germany. Re-
markable progress was manifested in the exhibits of Canada and
Hungary. France maintained her superiority in all the objects
in which good taste was the first consideration, but the more
utilitarian exhibits were more remarkable lor their number than
EXHUMATION— EXILE
7*
their quality, except those connected -with electrical work and
display, automobile* and iron-work. The number of exhibitors
in the industrial section from the British empire, including India
and the colonies, was 1*50, who obtained 1647 awards, as many
persons exhibited in several classes. There were, hi addition,
465 awards for " collaborateura," that is, assistants, engineers,
foremen, craftsmen and workmen who had co-operated in the
production of the exhibits. In the British Fine Arts section
there were 499 exhibits by 269 exhibitors and 175 awards.
In later years, important international exhibitions have been
held at Glasgow, and at Buffalo, New York, in 1001, at St Louis
(commemorating the Louisiana purchase) in 1004, at Liege in
1005, at Milan in 1006, at Dublin m 1007, and in London(Franco«
British), 1908. In the artistic taste and magnificence of their
buildings and the interest of their exhibits these took their cue
from the great Paris Exhibition, and even In some eases went
beyond it, notably at Buffalo (*.*•.), St Louis (?.*.) and London.
And it might well be thought that the evolution of this type of
public show had reached its limits. (G. C L.)
EXHUMATION (from Med. Lat. txkumare; ex, out of, and
humus, ground), the act of digging up and removing an object
from the ground. The word is particularly applied to the
removal of a dead body from its place of burial. For the offence
of exhuming a body without legal authority, and the process of
obtaining such authority, see Burial and Burial Acts.
BX1LARCH. in Jewish history, "Chief or Prince. of the
Captivity." The Jews of Babylonia, after the faU of the first
temple, were termed by Jeremiah and Esekiel the people of the
" Exile." Hence the head of the Babylonian Jews was. the
exikreh (in Aramaic Rcsh Galutka). The office was hereditary
and carried with it considerable power. Some traditions regarded
the last king of Davidic descent (J e hoUchin) a* the first exUarch,
and all the later holders of the dignity claimed to be scions of the
royal house of Judah. Under the Araacids and Sassanids the
office continued. In the 6th century an attempt was made to
secure by force political autonomy for the Jews, but tbeexilarch
who led the movement (Mar Zutra) was executed. For some time
thereafter the office was in abeyance, but under Arabic rule there
was a considerable revival of its dignity. From the middle of
the 7th till the nth cent vies the exilarchs were all descendants
of Bostanai, through whom " the splendour of the office was
renewed and its political position made secure " (Bacher). The
fast exilarch of importance was David, son of Zakkai, whose
contest with Seadiah (q.v.) bad momentous consequences.
Hezekiah (c. 1040) was the last Babylonian exilarch, though
the title left its traces in later ages. Benjamin of Tudela
(Itinerary, p. 61) names an exilarch Daniel b. tfisdai in the 12th
century. Petafeiah (Trovtls, p. 17) records that this Daniel's
nephew succeeded to the office jointly with a R. Samuel. The
latter, according to Petahiah, had a learned daughter who
" gave instruction, through a window, remaining in the house
while the disciples were below, unable to see her."
Our chief knowledge of the position and function of the
exUarch concerns the period beginning with the Arabic rule in
Persia. In the age succeeding the Mabommedan conquest the
exilarch was noted for the stately retinue that accompanied him,
the luxurious banquets given at his abode, and the courtly
etiquette that prevailed there. A brilliant account has come
down of the ceremonies at the installation of a new exilarch.
Homage was paid to him by the rabbinfcaL heads of the colleges
(each of whom was called Gaon, q*.) \ rich gifts were presented;
he visited the synagogue in state, where a costly canopy had
been erected over his seat. The exilarch then delivered a dis-
course, and in the benediction or doxology (Qaddisk) his name
was inserted. Thereafter he never left his house except in a
carriage of state and in the company of a large retinue. He
would frequently have audiences of the king, by whom he was
graciously received. He derived a revenue from taxes which he
was empowered to exact. The exilarch could excommunicate,
and no doubt had considerable jurisdiction over the Jews. A
spirited description of the glories of the exilarch is given in
Disraeli's novel Alroy.
See Keubauer, Mrtmsai Jomish ChromitUs, 0. 68 seq. : Zacuto*
Yukasini Greets. GesckichU, vols. iv.-vL; Benjamin 01 Tudela,
Itinerary, ed. Adlcr, pp. 39 acq.; Bacher, Jewish Encyclopaedia,
vol. v. 288. (f. A.)
BULB (Lat. milium or exiUum, from exsul or txul, which is
derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in solir&, to
leap, consul, &c; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now
generally considered wrong), banishment from one's native
country by the compulsion of authority. In a general sense
exile is applied to prolonged absence from one's country either
through force of circumstances or when undergone voluntarily.
Among the Greeks, in the Homeric age, banishment (4try4) was
sometimes inflicted as a punishment by the authorities for
crimes affecting the general interests, but is chiefly known, in
connexion with cases of homicide. With these the state had
nothing to do; the punishment of the murderer was the duty
and privilege of the relatives of the murdered man. Unless the
relatives could be induced to accept a money payment by way
of compensation (tou^, weregeld; see especially Homer, Iliad,
xviiL 407), in which case the murderer was allowed to remain in
the country, his only means of escaping punishment was flight
to a foreign land. If, during his self-imposed exile, the relatives
expressed their willingness to accept the indemnity, he was at
liberty to return and resume his position in society.
In later times banishment is (1) a legal punishment for
particular offences; (2) voluntary.
x. Banishment for life with confiscation of property was
inflicted upon those who destroyed or uprooted the sacred olives
at Athens; upon those who remained neutral during a sedition
(by a law of Solon, which subsequently fell into abeyance) ; upon
those who gave refuge to or received on board ship a man who
had fled to avoid punishment; upon those who wounded with
intent to kill and those who prompted them to such an act (it is
uncertain whether in this case exile was for life or temporary);
upon any one who wilfully murdered an alien; for impiety.
Certain political crimes were also similarly punished— treason,
laconism, sycophancy (see Sycophant), attempts to subvert
existing decrees. For the peculiar form of banishment called
Ostracism, see separate article.
In cases of voluntary homicide the punishment was death;
but (except in cases of parricide) the murderer could leave the
country unmolested after the first day of the trial. He was
bound to remain outside Attica, and when on foreign soil was
not allowed to appear at the public games, to enter the temples
or take part in sacrifices; but provided that he adhered to the
prescribed regulations, he was accorded a certain amount of
protection. Even when a general amnesty was proclaimed,
he was not allowed to return; if he did so, he might at once be
put to death.
Temporary exile (the period of which is uncertain) without
confiscation, was the punishment for involuntary homicide. As
soon as the relatives of the deceased became reconciled to the
man who had slain him, the latter was permitted to return;
further, since banishment was only temporary, it is reasonable to
suppose that the law insisted upon such reconciliation.
2. Citizens sometimes voluntarily left the country for other
reasons (debt, inability to pay a fine). Since extradition was
only demanded in cases of high treason or other serious offences
against the state, the fugitive was not interfered with. He was
at liberty to return altera certain time had elapsed.
Little is known about exile as it affected Sparta and other
Greek towns, but it is probable that the same conditions pre-
vailed as at Athens.
At Rome, in early times, exile was not a punishment, but rather
a means of escaping punishment. Before judgment had been
finally pronounced it was open to any Roman citizen condemned
to death to escape the penalty by voluntary exile {solum vcrlere
exsilii causa). To prevent his return, he was interdicted from 1
the use of fire and water; if he broke the interdict and returned*
any one had the right to put htm to death. The aquae et ignis
(to which el Ucli "shelter" is sometimes added) inlerdictio is
variously explained as exclusion from the necessaries. of life*
72
EXILI— EXMOUTH
from the symbols of civic communion, or from M the marks of
«, pure society, which the criminal would defile by his further
use of them." Subsequently (probably at the time of the
Gracchi) it became a recognized legal penalty, practically
equivalent to " ezile," taking the place of capital punishment.
The criminal was permitted to withdraw from the city after
sentence was pronounced; but in order that this withdrawal
might as far as possible bear the character of a punishment, his
departure was sanctioned by a decree of the people which
declared his exile permanent. Authorities are not agreed
whether this exile by interdiction entailed loss of chitas; accord-
ing to some this did not ensue until (as in earlier times) the
criminal had assumed the citizenship of the state in which he
bad taken refuge and thereby lost his rights as a citizen of Rome,
while others hold that it was not until the time of Tiberius
(aju 13) that capitis deminidio media became the direct con*
sequence of t rial and conviction. Inierdictio was the punishment
for treason, murder, arson and other serious offences which came
under the cognizance of the quatsUonts perpeluae (permanent
judicial commissions for certain offences); confiscation of
property was only inflicted in extreme cases.
Under the Empire tnterdictio gradually fell into disuse and a
new form of banishment, introduced by Augustus, called depor-
tatio, generally in btsulam, took its place. For some time the two
probably existed side by side. Deportctio consisted in trans-
portation for life to an island (or some place prescribed on the
mainland, not of Italy), accompanied by loss of civilas and all
civil rights, and confiscation of property. The most dreaded
places of exile were the islands of Gyarus, Sardinia, an oasis in the
desert (quasi in insulam) of Libya; Crete, Cyprus and Rhodes
were considered more tolerable. Large bodies of persons were
also transported in this manner; thus Tiberius sent 4000
freedmen to Sardinia for Jewish or Egyptian superstitious
practices. Deportatio was originally inflicted upon political
criminals, but in course of time became more particularly a
means of removing those whose wealth and popularity rendered
them objects of suspicion. It was also a punishment for the
following offences: adultery, murder, poisoning, forgery, em-
bezzlement, sacrilege and certain cases of immorality.
Rekgatio was a milder form of deportatio. It either excluded
the person banished from one specified district only, with
permission to choose a residence elsewhere, or the place of exile
was fixed. ReUgaiio could be either temporary or for life, but
it did not in either case carry with it loss of eivitas or property,
nor was the exile under military surveillance, as in the case of
deportatio. Thus, Ovid, when in exile at Tomi, says (Tristia,
v. 11): " he (s*.«. the emperor) has not deprived me of life, nor of
wealth, nor of the rights of a citizen ... he has simply ordered
me to leave my home." He calls himself rclegatus, not exsul.
In later writers the word exsilium is used in the sense of all its
three ionas—aqvat el ignis interdiction deportatio and relegatio.
In England the first enactment legalizing banishment dates
from the reign of Elizabeth (39 Eliz. c. 4), which gave power
to banish from the realm "such rogues as are dangerous to the
inferior people." A statute of Charles II. (18 Car. II. c 3) gave
power to execute or to transport to America for life the moss-
troopers of Cumberland and Northumberland. Banishment or
transportation for criminal offences was regulated by an act of
1824 (5 Geo. IV. s. 84) and finally abolished by the Penal Servi-
tude Acts 2853 and 1857 (see further Deportation), The word
exile has sometimes, though wrongly, been applied to the sending
away from a country of those who are not natives of it, but who
may be temporary or even permanent residents in it (see Alien;
Expatriation; Expulsion).
Bibliography.— J. J. Thonissen, Le Droit penal de la rlpublique
aOitnienne (Brussels, 1875); G. F. Schumann. Criechische Alter-
timer (4th ed., 1897), p. 46; T. Mommsen, Romisches Strafreckt
(1899), pp. 68, 064, and RSmisthes Staatsreckt (1887), Hi. p. 48;
L. M. Hartmann, Do exilic apud Romanos (Berlin, 1887) ;« F. von
Holtzendorff-Vietmaiiadarf, Die DepoHationsstrnfe im rfmischen
AUerthum (Leipzig, 1859) ; articles in Smith's Diet, of Creek and
Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1890) and Daremberg and Saglio's Diet.
dee anHqnttts (C Lkrivain and G. Humbert).
EXILi, an Italian chemist and poisoner in the 17th century.
His real name was probably Nicolo Egidi or Eggidio. Few
authentic details of his life exist. Tradition, however, credits him
with having been originally the salaried poisoner at Rome of
Olympia Maidalchtna, the mistress of Pope innocent X. Subse-
quently he became a gentleman in waiting to Queen Christina
of Sweden, whose taste for chemistry may have influenced this
appointment. In 1663 his presence in France aroused the
suspicions of the French government, and he was imprisoned in
the Bastille. Here be is said to have made the acquaintance
of Godin de Sainte-Croix, the lover of the marquise de Brio-
villiers (?.«.). After three months' imprisonment, powerful
influences secured Exili's release, and he left France for England.
In 1681 he was again in Italy, where he married the countess
Fantaguzzi, second cousin of Duke Francis of Modena.
EXMOOR FOREST, a high moorland in Somersetshire and
Devonshire, England. The uplands of this district are bounded
by the low alluvial plain of Sedgemoor on the east, by the lower
basin of the Exe on the south, by the basin of the Taw (in part)
on the west, and by the Bristol Channel on the north. The area
thus defined, however, includes not only Exmoor but the Brendon
and Quantock Hills east of it. Excluding these, the total area in
the district lying at an elevation exceeding 1000 ft. is about
1 20 sq. m. The geological formation is Devonian. The ancient
forest had an area of about 30,000 acres, and was enclosed in
18 1 5. Large tracts are still uncultivated; and the wild red
deer and native Exmoor pony are characteristic of the district.
The highest point is Dunkery Beacon in the east (1707 ft.), but
Span Head in the south-west is 1618 ft., and a height of 1500 ft.
is exceeded at several points. The Exe, Barle, Lyn and other
streams, traversing deep picturesque valleys except in their
uppermost courses, are in favour with trout fishermen. The few-
villages, such as Exford, Withypool and Simonsbath, with
Lynton and Lynmouth on the coast, afford centres for tourists
and sportsmen. Exmoor is noted for its stag hunting. The
district has a further fame through Richard Blackmore's novel,
Lorna Doom.
EXMOUTH, EDWARD PELLEW, ist Viscount (17 57- 1833).
English admiral, was descended from a family which came
originally from Normandy, but had for many centuries been
settled in the west of Cornwall. He was born at Dover, on the
19th of April 1757. At the age of thirteen he entered the navy,
and even then his smartness and activity, his feats of daring, and
his spirit of resolute independence awakened remark, and pointed
him out as one specially fitted to distinguish himself in his pro-
fession. He had, however, no opportunity of active service till
1776, when, at the battle of Lake Champlain, his gallantry
promptitude and skill, not only saved the "Carleton" — whose
command had devolved upon him during the progress of the
battle— from imminent danger, but enabled her to take a
prominent part in sinking two of the enemy's ships. For his
services on this occasion he obtained a lieutenant's commission,
and the command of the schooner in which he had so bravely
done his duty. The following year, in command of a brigade of
seamen, he shared In the hardships and perils of the American
campaign of General Burgoyne. In 1782, in command of the
"Pelican," he attacked three French privateers inside the
lie de Batz, and compelled them to run themselves on shore
a feat for which he was rewarded by the rank of post-captain
On the outbreak of the French War in 1703, he was appointed to
the " Nymphe," a frigate of 36 guns; and, notwithstanding
that for the sake of expedition she was manned chiefly by
Cornish miners, he captured, after a desperate conflict, the
French frigate " La Cleopatre," a vessel of equal strength. * For
this act he obtained the honour of knighthood. In T794 he
received the command of the " Arethusa " (38), and in a 6ght
with the French frigate squadron off the tie de Bat* he com-
pelled the "Pomona" (44) to surrender. The same year the
western squadron was increased and its command divided, the
second squadron being given to Sir Edward Peilew in the "In-
defatigable " (44). While in command of this squadron he, on
several occasions, performed acts of great personal tearing
EXMOUTB— EXODUS, BOOK OF
73
and for his bravery in boarding the wrecked transport " Dutton,"
and his promptitude and resolution in adopting measures so as
lo save the Eves of all on board, he was in 1 796 created a baronet
In 1708 he joined the channel fleet, and in command of the
" Impetueux " (74) took part in several actions with great
distinction. In 1802 Sir Edward Pellew was elected member
of parliament for Dunstable, and during the time that he sat in
the Commons he was a strenuous supporter of Pitt. In 1804
he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and appointed commander-
in-chief in India, where, by his vigilance and rapidity of move-
ment, he entirely cleared the seas of French cruisers, and secured
complete protection to English commerce. He returned to
England in 1809, and in 18x0 was appointed commander-in-chief
in the North Sea, and in 181 1 commander-in-chief in the Mediter-
ranean. In 18 14 he was created Baron Exrnouth of Canonleign,
and in the following year was made K.C.B., and a little later
G.C.B. When the dey of Algiers, in 1816, violated the treaty for
the abolition of slavery, Exrnouth was directed to attack the
town. Accordingly, on the 26th of August, he engaged theAIgcrine
battery and fleet, and after a severe action of nine hours'duration,
he set on fire the arsenal and every vessel of the enemy's fleet, and
shattered the sea defences into ruins. At the close of the action
the dey apologized for his conduct, and agreed to a renewal of
the treaty, at the same time delivering up over three thousand
persons of various nationalities who had been Algerine slaves.
For this splendid victory Exrnouth was advanced to the dignity
of viscount. Shortly before his death, which took place on the
23rd of January 1833, he was made vice-admiral.
He had married Susan (d. 1837), daughter of James Frowde
of Knoyle, Wiltshire, who bore him four sons and two daughters.
His eldest son, Pownoll Bastard PeUew (1786-1833), became
ind Viscount Exrnouth, and his descendant, Edward Aldington
Hargreaves PeUew (b. 1800), became the 5th viscount in 1800.
Exmouth's second son, Sir Fleetwood Broughton Reynolds
Pellew (1789-1801), was like his father an admiral. The third
son was George Pellew (1793- 1866), author and divine, who
married Frances (d. 1870), daughter of the prime minister,
Lord Sidmouth, and wrote his father-in-law's life {The Life and
Correspondence of Henry AddingUm, 1st Viscount Sidmoutk, 1847).
Exrnouth had a brother, Sir Israel Pellew (1 758-1832), also
an admiral, who was present at the battle of Trafalgar.
A Life of the 1st viscount, by Edward Osier, was published in
1835.
EXMOXTTH, a market-town, seaport and watering-place in
the Honiton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England,
at the mouth of the river Exe, 10J m. SJ2. by S. of Exeter by
the London ft South-Westem railway. Pop. of urban district
door) 10,485. In the x8th century it consisted of a primitive
fishing village at the base of Beacon Hill, a height commanding
fine views over the estuary and the English Channel. After its
more modern terraces were built up the hillside, Exrnouth became
the first seaside resort in Devon. Its excellent bathing and the
beauty of its coast and moorland scenery attract many visitors
in summer, while it is frequented in winter by sufferers from
pulmonary disease. The climate is unusually mild, as a range of
hills shelters the town on the east. A promenade runs along the
sea wall; there are golf links and public gardens, and the port
is a favourite yachting centre, a regatta being held annually.
Near the town is a natural harbour called the Bight. The local
industries include fishing, brick-making and the manufacture of
Honiton lace. Exrnouth was carry a place of importance, and
in 1 J4 7 contributed 10 vessels to the fleet sent to attack Calais.
It once possessed a fort or " castelet," designed to command
the estuary of the Exe. This fort, which was garrisoned for the
king during the Civil War, was blockaded and captured by
Colonel Shapcoate in 1646.
EXODUS, BOOK OF, in the Bible, a book of the Old Testa-
ment which derives its name, through the Greek, from the event
which forms the most prominent feature of the history it
narrates, viz. the deliverance of Israel from Egypt. Strictly
speaking, however, this title Is applicable to the first half only,
the historical portion of the book, and takes no account of those
chapters which describe the giving of the Law on Mt Sinai, nor
of those which deal with the Tabemade and its furniture. By
the Jews it is usually styled after its opening words "W <W1
(We'tick Shimdlh) or, more briefly, nty (SfUmoUh).
In its present form the book sets forth (a) the oppression of
the Israelites in Egypt (ch. i.), (6) the birth and education of
Moses, and his flight to the land of Midian (ch. &.), (c) the thee-
pbany at Mt. Horeb (the Burning Bush), and the subsequent
commission of Moses and Aaron (iii. i-iv. 17), (d) the return of
Moses to Egypt, and his appeal to Pharaoh which results in the
further oppression of Israel (iv. 18-vii. 7), (*) the plagues of
Egypt (vii. 8-xL to), (/) the institution of the Passover and of
the Feast of Unleavened Cakes, the last plague, and Israel's
departure from Egypt (xii. r-xiii. 16), (g) the crossing of tht
Red Sea and the discomfiture of the Egyptians, the Song of
Triumph, the sending of the manna and other incidents of the
journeying through the wilderness (xni. 17-xviii. 27), (*) the
giving of the Law, including the Decalogue and the so-called
Book of the Covenant, on Sinai-Horeb (xix.-xxiv.), (0 directions
for the building of the Tabernacle and for the consecration of
the priests (xxv.~axxi.), (j) the sin of the Golden Calf, and
another earlier version of the first legislation (xxxti.-rmv.),
(A) the construction of the Tabernacle and its erection (xxxv.-xl.).
The book of Exodus, however, like the other books of the Hexa-
teuch, is a composite work which has passed, so to speak, through
many editions; hence the order of events given above cannot
lay claim to any higher authority than that of the latest editor.
Moreover, the documents from which the book has been compiled
belong to different periods in the history of Israel, and each of
them, admittedly, reflects the standpoint of the age in which it
was written. Hence it follows that the contents of the book are
not of equal historical value; and though the claim of a passage
to be considered historical is not necessarily determined by the
age of the source from which it is derived, yet, in view of the
known practice of Hebrew writers, greater weight naturally
attaches to the earlier documents in those cases in which the
sources are at variance with one another. Any attempt, there-
fore, at restoring the actual course of history must be preceded
by an inquiry into the source of the various contents of the book.
The sources from which the book of Exodus has been compiled
are the same as those which form the basis of the book of Genesis,
while the method of composition b very similar. Here, too, the
strongly marked characteristics of P, or the Priestly Document,
as opposed to JE, enable us to determine the extent of that
document with comparative ease; but the absence, in some
cases, of conclusive criteria prevents any final judgment as to
the exact limits of the two strands which have been united in
the composite JE. The latter statement applies especially to
the legislative portions of the book: in the historical sections
the separation of the two sources gives rise to fewer difficulties.
It does not, however, lie within the scope of the present article
to examine the various sources underlying the narrative with
any minuteness, but rather to sum up those results of modern
criticism which have been generally accepted by Old Testament
scholars. To this end it will be convenient to treat the subject-
matter of the book under three main heads: (a) the historical
portion (ch. i.-xviii.), (W the sections dealing with the giving of
the Law (xix.-xxiv., xxxii.-xxxiv.). and (c) the construction of
the Tabernacle and its furniture (xxv.-xxxi., xxxv.-xl).
(a) Israel in Egypt and tie Exodus (ch. i.-xviii.). (1) i. I-vii. 13.
—The analysis oftbese chapters shows that the history, in the main,
has been derived from the two sources J and E, chiefly the former,
and that a later editor has included certain passages from P, besides
introducing a slight alteration of the original order and other re-
dactions! changes. The combined narrative of JE sets forth the
rise of a new king In Egypt, who endeavoured to check the growing
strength of the children of Israel; it thus prepares the way for the
birth of Motes, his early life in Egypt, his flight to Midian and
marriage with Zipporah. the theophany at Mt. Horeb, and his divine
commisaiod to deliver Israel from Egypt.
At the very outset the two sources betray their divergent origin
and point of view. According to I (i. 6. 8-13, aob) the Israelites
dwell apart in the province of Goshen, and their numbers become
so great as to call for severe measures of repression, the method
employed being that of forced labour. E, on theothenhaed 0* 15-000,
74
EXODUS, BOOK OF
at, 22), represent* them as living among the Egyptians, and to
few in number that two midwives satisfy their requirements. It is
to this latter source that we owe the account of the birth of Moses
and of hb education at the court of Pharaoh (ii. t-io). On reaching
manhood Moses openly displays his sympathy with his brethren by
slaying an Egyptian, and has, in consequence, to flee to Midian,
where he marries Zipporah, the daughter of the priest of Midian
(ii. 1 1-22). In this section the editor nas undoubtedly made use of
the parallel narrative of J, though it is impossible to determine the
exact point at which I's account is introduced : certainly ii. 156-22
belong to that source. 1 The narrative of the call of Moses is by no
means uniform, and shows obvious traces of twofold origin (J iii.
2-4<x, 5, 7, 8, 16-18; iv. I-X2 (13-16), 29-31; E iii. 1, 46, 6, 9-14,
21, 22; iv. 17, 18, 206, 27, 28). These two sources present striking
points of difference, which rfrrppejir «n the subsequent narrative.
According to E, Moses ujrh Aaron is t*j dtnurnJ fri/m Pharaoh the
release of Israel, which will be effected in spice uf his opposition:
in assurance thereof the promise Is given that tru-yslvill *ervc God
upon this mountain; moreover, the people on their depjrture .tre
to borrow raiment and jewels from their Egyptian neighbours.
According to J, on the other hand, the spokesmen are to be Mvses
and the elders; and their n-qui.->.t is for a temporary departure only,
viz. "three days' journey itno the wilderness*'; their departure
from Egypt is a hurried one. Vet another difficulty, which dis-
appears as soon as the composite character of the narr.it i*c h re cog-
nized, is that of the sign 1. In J t liree si^ns arc given for the purpose
of reassuring Moses, oi.lv one of which is wrought with the rod (iv.
1-9), but in iv. 17 (E) the reference is clearly to entirely different
signs, probably the pfamsea of Egypt, which according to E were,
invariably wrought by " ilc r.*l <i£ God." Further, it is question-
able if the passage iv. 13-10 Rally forms part of the origLnai narrative
of J, and is not rather to be ascribed to the redactor of JE. The
name of Aaron has certainly been introduced by a later hand in J's
account of the plague of frogs (viii* u% and the only passage in J
in which Aaron is represented as taking an active part h iv. 29-31,
where the mention of his name causes nu little difficulty** In E,
on the other hand, Aa . i by God (0 meet Moses at Mt.
Horeb, after the latter had taken leave of Jcthro, and, Utcr on,
accompanies him into the presence o[ Pharaoh- Thr succeeding
narrative (v. l-vi. 1) U mainly taken from J t though E's account
of the first interview with Pharaoh has been partially retained in
v. 1, 2, 4. Moses and tl HrN r& .-: k kave to go three day*' journey
into the wilderness to sacrifice to Yahweh, a rcqui'-t which in met by
an increase of the burdensome w..rtc >A brkbmaking: he net' jrv ard
the Israelites have to provide their own straw. The people complain
bitterly to Moses, who appeals to Yahweh and is assured by him
of the future deliverance of Israel " by a strong hand."
With the exception of the genealogical list (i. 1-5) and the brief
notices of the increase of Israel (i. 7; and of its oppression at the
hands of the Egyptians (k 13, 14; i>. 23^-25), the narrative so far
exhibits no traces of P '. But in vt 2-vii. 13 we are confronted
with a narrative which carries us back to ii 236-25 and gives practic-
ally a parallel account to that of JE in ch. iii.— v. Thus the revelation
of the divine name, vi. 2 f., finds its counterpart in iii. iof., the message
to be delivered to Israel (vi. 6 f.) is very similar to that of ch. iii. 161.,
while the demand which is to be addressed to Pharaoh is identical
1 The fact that the father-in-law of Moses is called Reuei in v. 18,
as contrasted with the name Jethro, which occurs in iii. I f. and in
all subsequent passages from E, cannot be taken as conclusive on
this point, since critics are agreed that " Reucl " in this verse is a
Liter addition: had it been original we should have expected the
name to be given at v. 16 rather than at v. 18. But, if no argument
can be based on the discrepancy- between the two names, we may at
least assume that the namelessness of the priest in v. 16 f. points to
a different source for those verses from that of iii. x f. Elsewhere J
speaks of " Hobab, the son of Rcuel the Midianite, Moses* father-in-
law " (Num. x. 29) ; the addition, " the priest of Midian," only occurs
In the (secondary) passages iii. I, xviii. 1 (E). Probably RJE
omitted the name in ii. 16 and added " the priest of Midian " in
iii. l, xviii i f from harmonizing motives. Further, w. 15**22
speak of one son being born to Moses at this period, a statement
which is borne out by iv. 20, 25 (" sons " in iv. 20 is obviously a
correction), whereas ch. xviii. (E) mentions two sons.
The original order of events in J seems to have been as follows:
after the death of Pharaoh (ii. 23a; the Septuagint repeats this
notice before iv. 19) Mooes returns to Egypt with his wife and son
(iv. 19, 20) in obedience to Yahweh's command. On the way he is
seized with a sudden illness, which Zipporah attributes to the fact
that he has not been circumcised and seeks to avert by circumcising
her son (iv. 24-26). The scene of the thcophany, therefore, according
to J, is to be placed on the way from Midian to Goshen. Probably
the displacement of iv. 10, 20, 24-26 is due to the editor of JE, who
was thus enabled to combine the two narratives of the theophany.
* Cf. iv. 30; Aaron had received no command to do the signs.
and the words " and he did the signs " arc most naturally referred
to Moses.
1 The expansion in iii. 8*, 15, 176; iv. 22, 23, are probably the
work of a Deuteroaomistic redactor.
with that which had been already refused in ch. v. No allusion,
however, is made by Moses to this previous demand ; he merely
urges the same objection as that put forward in iv. 10 f. With the
resumption * of the story in vi. 28 f. Moses reiterates his objection,
and is told that Aaron shall be his " prophet " and speak for him.
and shall also perform the sign of the rod (cf. iv. 2-4). The sign,
however, has no effect on Pharaoh (vii. 13), and we thus reach the
same point in the narrative as at vi. 1. Apart from the literary
characteristics which dearly differentiate this narrative from the
preceding accounts of J and E, the following points of variation are
worthy of consideration: (l) The people refuse to listen to Moses;
(2) Aaron is appointed to be Moses spokesman, not with the people,
but with Pharaoh ; (3) one sign is given (not three) and performed
before Pharaoh ; (4) the rod is turned into a reptile (tannin), not a
serpent (n&hdsk),
(2) vii. 14-xL 10. The First Plagues of Egyft.—ln this section the
analysis again reveals three main sources, which are clearly marked
off from one another both by their linguistic features ami by their
difference of representation. The principal source is J, from which
are derived six plagues, via. killing of the fish in the river (vii. 14.
16, 17a, 18, 210, 24, 25). frogs (viii. 1-4. 8-150). insects (viii. 20-32).
murrain (ix. 17), hail (ix. 13-18, 236, 246, 256-34). locusts (x. la,
3-11, 136, 146, 15a, c-19, 24-26, 28, 29). the threat to slay all the
first-born (xi. 4-8). The most striking characteristic of this narrative
is that the plagues are represented as mainly due to natural causes
and follow a natural sequence. Thus Yahweh smites the river so
that the fish die and render the water undrinkable. This is suc-
ceeded by a plague of frogs. The swarms of flies and insects, which
next appear, are the natural outcome of the decaying masses of
to have been brought by a strong east wind. Other distinctive
features of J's narrative are: (1) Moses alone is bidden to interview
Pharaoh (vii. 14 f.; via. 1 f., 20 f.; ix. I f., 13 f.; x. 1 f.); (2) on
each occasion he makes a formal demand ; (3) on Pharaoh's refusal
the plague is announced, and takes place at a fixed time without any
human intervention ; (4) when the plague is sent, Pharaoh sends for
Moses and entreats his intercession, promising in most cases to
accede in part to hb request ; when the plague is removed, however,
the promise is left unfulfilled, the standing phrase being " and
Pharaoh's heart was heavy Cos), " or " and Pharaoh made heavy
(vaan) his heart " ; (5) the plagues do not affect the children of Israel
in Goshen. E's account (water turned into blood, vii. 15, 176, 20*,
23; hail, ix. 22, 230, 24a, 25a, 35; locusts, x. 12. 130, 14a, 15*)
•is more fragmentary, having been doubtless superseded in most cases
by the fuller and more graphic narrative of J, but the plague of
darkness (x. 20-23, 27) is found only in this source. As contrasted
with J the narrative emphasises the miraculous character of the
plagues. They are brought about by " the rod of God," which
Moses wields, the effect being instantaneous and all-embracing.
The Israelites are represented as living among the Egyptians, ami
-_s„. .. -__.._•_ #_._ *i__ _i — 1CS ^ except that of darkness,
irate; the people have time to
_ jewels Irora their neighbours. E regularly
uses the phrase " and Pharaoh's heart was strong (P»n), M or "and
Yahweh made strong (pin) Pharaoh's heart " and " he would not
let the children of Israel (or, them) go." In the priestly narrative
(P) the plagues assume the form of a trial of skill between Aaron,
who acta at Moses* command, and the Egyptian magicians, and thus
connect with vii. 8-13. The magicians succeed in turning the Nile
water into blood (vii. 19, 200, 21&, 22), and in bringing up frogs
(viii. 5-7), but they fail to bring forth lice (viii. 156-19), and are
themselves smitten with boils (ix. 8-12) : the two last-named plagues
have no parallel either in J or E. Throughout the P sections
Aaron is associated with Moses, and the regular command given to
the latter is "Say unto Aaron": no demand is ever made to
Pharaoh, and the description of the plague is quite short. The
formula employed by P is " and Pharaoh's heart was strong (pm),"
iUC 1M40CIIIC9 atC IC|MC9CI11CVI «u living a
enjoy no immunity from the plagues, 1
Their departure from Egypt is deliberate
borrow raiment and jewels from their
or, " and Pharaoh made strong (pro) his heart." as in E, But it i
distinguished from E's phrase by the addition of " and he hearkened
not unto them as Yahweh had spoken."'
(3) xii. i-xiii. 16. The Last Plague, the Deliverance from Egypt,
the Institution of the Passover and olthe Feast of Unleavened Cakes,
the Consecration of the First-born. — This section presents the usual
phenomena of a composite narrative, viz. repetitions and inconsist-
encies. Thus J's regulations for the Passover (xii. 21-23, 3 7&) seem
at first sight simply to repeat the commands given to Moses and
Aaron in xii. 1-13 (P), but in reality they are a parallel and divergent
account. In vs. 1-13 the choice of the lamb and the manner in
which it is to be eaten constitute the essential feature, the smearing
with the blood being quite secondary; in vs. 21 f. the latter point
is all-important, and no regulations are given for the paschal meal
(which, possibly, formed no part of J's original account). Similarly
the institution of the Feast of Matsotk, or Unleavened Cakes (xtii.
3-ioJ), does not form the sequel to the regulations laid down in xii.
4 The genealogy of Moses and Aaron (sv. 14-27) appears to be a
Utcr addition.
IXODUS, BOOK OP
75
14^0 (»}• out is independent Of then) 1 ft omits ail reference to
the " bo)y convocations " and to the abstinence from labour, and if
obviously simpler and more primitive. J 'a account, again, makes
important exceptions (xjii. 11-13) to the severe enactment of P with
reference to the first-born (xiii. 1). The description of the smiting
of the first-born of Egypt b derived from J (xfi. 19-34, 37-39)* who
1 in the Feast of Mazsoth a perpetual reminder of the
; the editor of IE,
" "iich
dearly
haste with which the Israelites fled from .
however, has included some extracts from E(xit. 31, 3$. 36), wh!
point to a more deliberate departure. The section has been worked
over by a Deuteronomistic editor, whose hand can be clearly traced
in the additions xii. 24-270 ; xiii. 3ft, 5, 8, o, 14- 16.
(4) xiii. 17-xv. 21. The Crossing of the Red Sea.— According to J
the children of Israel departed from Egypt under the guidance of
Yahweh, who leads them by day In a pillar of cloud and by night in ft
pntar of fire (xiii. 21, 22). On hearing of their flight Pharaoh at
once starts in pursuit. The Israelites, terrified by the approach 0/
the Egyptians, upbraid Moses, who promises them deliverance by
the hand of Yahweh (xiv. 3, 6, 76, ioa, 11-14, 196). Yahweh then
causes a strong east wind to blow all that night, which drives back
the waters from the shallows, and so renders ft possible for the host
of Israel to cross over. The Egyptians follow, bat the progress of
their chariots is hindered by the soft sand, and in the morning they
are caught by the returning waters (xiv. 21*, 14, 25, 27A, 28ft, 30).
The story, however, has been combined with the somewhat different
account of E, which doubtless covered the same ground, and also
with that of P. According to the former, Elohim did not hermit the
Israelites to take the shorter route to Canaan by the Mediterranean
coast, for fear of the Philistines, but led them southwards to the
Red Sea, whither they were pursued by the Egyptians (xiii. 17-19).
The remainder of E's account has only been preserved in a frag-
mentary form (xiv. yaa, job, iw, 19a, 200), from which it may be
gathered that Moses divided the waters by stretching out his rod,
thus presupposing that the crossing took place by day, and that
the dark cloud which divided the two hosts was miraculously caused
by the angel of God. P also represents the sea as divided by means
of Moses' rod, but heightens the effect by describing the crossing as
taking place between wajls of water (xiii* 20; xiv. 1-4, 8, 9, 150*
16*- 18, 210, c, 22. 23, 26, 27c'. 28a, 29).
J's version of the Song of Moses probably does not extend beyond
xv. 1 , and has its counterpart in the very similar song of Miriam (E),
in w. 20, 21. The rest of the song (w. 2-18) is probably the work
of a later writer; for these verses set forth not only the deliverance
from Egypt, but also the entrance of Israel into Canaan (t*. 13-17),
sod farther presuppose the existence of the temple (pip, 136, 170).
These phenomena have been explained as due to later expansion,
but the poem has all the appearance of being a unity, and the
language, style and rhythm all point to a later age. Verse 19 is
probably the work of the redactor (R 1 } who inserted the song.
(5) xv. 22-xviii. 27. Incidents tn the Wilderness.— The narrative
of the first journeying in the wilderness (xv. 22-xvii. 7) presents a
series of difficulties which probably owe their origin to the editorial
activity of R r , who appears to have transferred to the beginning
of the wanderings a number of incidents which rightly belong to the
end. The concluding verses of ch. xv. contain J's account of the
sweetening of the waters of Marah, with which has been incorporated
a fragment of E's story of Massah (xv. 250) and a Deutcronomic
expansion in 9. 26. Then follows (ch. xvi.) P's version of the sending
of the manna and quails. In Its present form, this narrative con-
tains a number of conflicting elements, which can only be the result
of editorial activity. Thus vo. 6, 7 must originally have preceded
tv. 1 1, 12, thonjgh the redactor has attempted to evade the difficulty
by inserting*. 0. Again, the account of the quails, which is obviously
incomplete, is undoubtedly derived from Num. xi.; but the latter
account, which admittedly belongs to JE, places the incident at
the end of the wanderings. Closer examination also of P's narrative
of the manna shows that its true position is after the departure
from Mt. Sinai; cf. the expressions used in sr. 9, 10, 33, 34, implying
the existence of the ark and the tabernacle. P's account of the
manna* however, can hardly have stood originally in dose juxta-
position with his account of the quails (cf. Num. ». 6), but the two
narratives were probably combined by R p before they were trans-
ferred to their present position. The same redactor doubtless added
». 8 (and possibly se. 17, 18) by way of explanation, and vsv 5 and
22-30, which imply that the law of the Sabbath was already known,
and introduce a fresh element into the story. A plausible ex-
planation of R*'s action is supplied by the theory that an earlier
account of the giving of the manna already existed at this point of
the narrative. We know from Deuteronomy viii. a f., 16 that JE
contained an account of the manna, which included the explanation
of Ex, xvi. 15, and also emphasised, as the motive for the gift,
Yahweh's desire "to prove thee (i.e. test thy disposition)
j4k# bfluin (its mMitivMiliiumM -»w. ■»!#» *• Bwm i
nts
R'
whether thou wouldst keep his commandments, or no. ' Fragmei
of tins early story of Massah (testing) were incorporated by
in his story of the manna and the quails, viz. xv. 256: xvi. 4, 15,
i6e, 190-21. These verses must be assigned to E. for In xviL 3, 2c
(wherefore do ye tempt the Lord ?), ia (to Massah), c (because they
tempted . . ., Ac), we find yet another version (J) of the same
t, according to which the people tempted (tested) Yahweh.
owing to the combination of this latter account with E's
29-32. The narrative, however, displays signs of com*
id it is not improbable that p* has incorporated in t».
t J'b account of the visit of Moses' father-in-law (cf. the
further description of the striving of the people lor water at Meribah
that the double name Maasah-Meribah arose, xviL Ift-7 (10 belongs
to P), though Deut. xxxlii. 8 makes it clear that Massah and Meribah
were separate localities (cf. Deut. is. 22, 2 f.. 16, where Massah
occurs alone): P's version of striving at Meribah, in which traces of
J's account have been preserved, is given at Num, xx. 1-13.
xvil. 8-16. The Bottle vnthAmaUk at Repkidim.—Thh incident is
derived from E, but is clearly out of place in its present context.
Its dote connexion with the end of the wanderings is shown by (a)
the description of Mosea a» an infirm old man; (0) the role played
by Joshua in contrast with xxftr. 13, xxxiiL ir, where he is Intro-
duced as a young man and Moses' minister; and (c) the references
elsewhere to the home of the Ainalefcites: according to Num. xiii.
20, xiv. 25, xfiii. 43, they dwelt in the & or S.W. of Jodah near
Kadeth (cf. r Sam. xv. 6 f., 30; Gen. xiv. 7;xxxvi. 1*).
Ch.xvflL ThevisHofJctkroto Moses and to appointment ofindges.
—This story, like the preceding one, is mainly derived from E and is
also out of place. Allusions in the chapter itself point unmistakably
to ■ time just before the departure from Sinai-Horeb, and this date
is confirmed both by Deut. L 9*16 and by the parallel account of j
in Num. x. ac-32. ** M - , ~ ■-— — - J ^-'- ■— -* - —
Dilation, and I '
7»ii part of J*_ _.
use of Yahweh).
(») Ch. xix.-*xiv., xxxii, xxxiv.— The contents of these chapters,
which, owing to their contents, form the most important section in
the book of Exodus, may be briefly analysed as follows. In ch. xix.
we have a twofold description of the theophany on Mt. Sinai (or
Horeb), followed by the Decalogue in xx. 1-17. Alongside of this
code we find another, dealing in part with the civil ana social (xxi.
2-xxii. 17), in part with the religious life of Israel, the so-called
Book of the Covenant, xx. 22-xxtil. 19. Ch. xxiv. contains a com-
posite narrative of the ratification of the covenant. In ens. xxxii.
and xxxiiL we have again two narratives of the sin of the people
and of Moses* intercession, while in ch. xxxjv. we are confronted
with yet another early code, which is practically identical with the
religious enactments of xx. 22-26; xxiL 20, 30; xxiii. 10-10.
with but few exceptions the provenance of the individual section*
may be said to have been finally determined by the labours of the
critics, but even ft cursory examination of their contents makes it
evident that the sequence of events, which they now present, cannot
be original, but Is rather the outcome of a long process of revision,
during which the text has suffered considerably from alterations:
omissions, dislocations and additions. Yet owing to the method of
composition employed by Hebrew editors, or revisers, it is possible
in this case,' as in others, not only to determine the source of each
individual passage, but also to trace with considerable confidence
the various stages in the process by which it reached its final form
and position. It must, however, be admitted that the evidence
at our disposal is, tn some oases, capable of more than one Interpre-
tation. Hence a final conclusion can hardly be expected, but with
certain modifications in detail the following solution of the problem
may be accepted as representing the point of view of recent criticism.
Ch. xix. contains two parallel accounts of the theophany on
Horeb-Smai, from E and J respectively, which differ materially
from one another. According to the former, Moses is Instructed by
God (Elohim) to sanctify the people against the third day (s». 9*,
xo, 1 ia). This is done and the people are brought oy Moses to the
foot of the mountain (Horeb), where they hear the divine voice
(14-17, 19). A noticeable feature of this- narrative, of which xx.
18-21 forms a natural continuation, is the fact that the theophany
is addressed to the peepU, who are too frightened to remain near
the mountain itself. In J, on the other hand, it ia the priests •who
are sanctified, and great cam must be taken to prevent the people
from " breaking through to gaze " (20*22). In this account the
mountain is called " Sinai " throughout, and " Yahweh " appears
instead of u Etohira " (lib, i», 20 f.). Moreover, Moses and Aaron
and the priests are summoned to the top of the mount (in «. 24*
cender. " thou and Aaron with thee, and toe priests: but let not the.
people," &c). rV. 3*-8» which have been expanded by a Deutcro-
nomic editor,, have been transferred from their original context after
xx. 21 ; the introductory verses 1, 20 form part of P's itinerary.
Of the succeeding legislation in xx.-xxiii., xxxii.-xxxiv., un-
doubtedly the earlier sections are xx. 22-26; xxii. 29, 30; xxiii.
jo- 10, and xxxiv. jo-26, which contain regulations with regard to
worship and religious festivals, and form the basis of the covenant
made by Yahweh with Israel on Sinai-Horeb, as recorded by E and J
respectively. The narrative which introduces the covenant laws
of J has been preserved partly in its present context, ch. xxxiv.,
partly in xxiv. 1, 2, 9-1 1; the narrative of E, on the Other hand,
has in part disappeared owing to the interpolation of later material,
in part has been retained in xxiv. t-8. J's narrative xxiv. x f..
Or II dearly forms the continuation of xix. 20 f., nb, 13, 25, but the
introductory words of v. 1, " and unto Moses he said," point to some
omission. Originally, nO doubt, it included the recital of the divine
instructions to the people in accordance with xix. 21 f., 119-13,
the statement that Yahweh came down on the third day, and that a
ram's horn [^3\ as opposed
: Moses and Aaron, Nadab
> were summoned to the top
long blast was blown on the trumpet (or 1
to ^s» El). From xxiv. 1 f . we learn that
and Abihu, and seventy of the elders w
7*
EXODUS, BOOK OF
of the mountain, but that Mom alone was permitted to approach
Yahwch. Then followed the theophany, and, as the text stands,
the sacrificial mcil (9-1 1).) The conclusion of J's narrative » given
in els. xxtiv t .' which describes bow Mast* hewed two tjbtes of stone
at Yah web's command, and went up lo the tap of the mountain,
where he received l be words of the covenant andTwrote them on the
table*. Aj it standi, however, this chapter represents the legislation
which it can tains as a renewal of a former covenant, alio written
on tables of stone, which had been broken (lb, ah). Out the docu*
incut from which the chapter, as a whole, U derived, is certainly J,
while the previous references to tables ai none and to Moses' breaking
them belong to the parallel narrative of E. Moreover, the covenant
bete set forth {v. 10 J.) is clearly a new one, and contains no hint
of any previous legislation, nor oF any breach of it by the people,
In view of these facts wc are Forced to conclude that lb [" like unto
the first , * , brakest ">, 4a (" and he hewed - . , the first ") and
e. in {" the ten word* ") formed no part of the original narrative,'
but were inserted by a later Deuteronomic redactor, tn the view
of this editor the Decalogue alone formed the basis of the covenant
at Sjnai'Horpbv and in order to retain J's version* he represented it
as a renewal o( tlic tables of ftone which Moses had broken.*
The legislation contained in xxxiv. jo- 2b, which may be described
as the oldest legal code of the rlcxateueh. is almost entirely religious.
Jt prohibits the making of molten imajjes (p. )7) r the use of leaven
in tacri&cea (250), the retention of the sacrifice until the morning
(j^), 1 and the seething of a kid in ks mother's milk {Jufr); and
Cubans the observance of the three annual fe:ir.tM and the Sabbath
(toa, at-?j), and the dedication of the first-born {i% 20, derived
from Kiii. ] 1 i^) and of the first- fruits (ata)*
The parallel collection of E is preserved in xx. J4-26. xxiii. 10-19,
to which we should probably add xfcii- 29-31 (for which *xiiL 2 90
was afterwards sutrttkuted). The two collections reaembfc one
another so closely, both in form and extent* that they can only be
regarded as two versions of the same code, E has, however, pre-
served certain additional regulations with regard to the building of
altars (*jl 2400) and the ol>servance of the seventh year (xxiii.
jo, Ji) r and omits the prohibition of molten image* (.v*. 22, 33,
appear 10 be Uie work ui a redactor); juuii. -Jo-jj, tin. jjjojjujes
attached to the observance of the covenant, probably formed no
part of the original code, but were added by the Deuteronomic
redactor; cf. especially wr. 23-250, 27, 28, 31^-33. The narrative of
E relative to the delivery of these laws has disappeared,* but xxiv.
3-8 (which manifestly nave no connexion with their immediate
context) clearly point back to some such narrative. These verses
describe how Moses wrote all the words of the Lord in a book and
recited them to the people (v. 7) as the basis of a covenant, which
was solemnly ratified by the sprinkling of.tbe blood of tlie accompany-
ing sacrifices.
tn the existing text the covenant laws of E (xx, 24-26, xxii. 20-31,
xxiii. 10-19) are combined with a mass of civil and other legislation ;
hence the title " Book of the Covenant " (referred to above, xxiv. 7)
has usually been applied to the whole section, xx. 22-xxiii. 33. But
this section includes three distinct elements: (a) the " words "
(D-cnn) found in xx. 24-26. xxii. 29-31, xxiii. 1-10; (0) the "judg-
ments " (coeron), xxi. 2-xxii. 17; and (c) a group of moral and
ethical enactments, xxii. 18-28, xxiii. 1-9; and an examination of
their contents makes it evident that, though the last two groups arc
unmistakably derived from E, they cannot have formed part of the
original " Book of the Covenant "; for the "judgments," which
are expressed in a hypothetical form, consist of a number of legal
decisions on points of civil law. The cases dealt with fall into five
divisions: (1) The rights of slaves, xxi. 2-11; (2) capital offences,
xxi. 12- 16 (v. 17 has probably been added later) ; (3) injuries inflicted
by man or beast, xxi. 18-32; (4) losses incurred by culpable
negligence or theft, xxi. 33-xxii. 6; (5) cases arising out of deposits,
loans, seduction, xxii. 7-17. It is obvious, from their very nature,
that these legal precedents could not have been included in the
covenant which the people (xxiv. 3) promised to observe, and it is
1 Unless we follow Riedel and read simply " and worshipped M
fvnnsn) instead of "and drank** (w>), treating "and ate"
(fam) as a later addition ; cf. HDB, extra vol. p. 631 note.
9 Vi>. 6-9 are out of place here: they belong to the story of Moses'
intercession in cb. xxxiiL
* This view is confirmed by (a) a comparison of v. lb (" and I will
write") with vv. 27, 28; according to the latter, Moses wrote the
words of the covenant: and (b) the tardy mention of Moses in 46;
the name would naturally be given at the beginning of the verse.
4 Others suppose that the present position of ch. xxxiv. is due. in
the first instance, to RJE, but in view of the other Deuteronomic
expansions in vv. 106-16, 23, 24, it is more probable that J's version
was discarded by RJE in favour of E's, and was afterwards restored
byRD.
* Reading" the sacrifice of my feasts " for " the sacrifice of the
feast of the Tassover."
* Unless, with Bacon, we are to regard xxiv. 12-14, ' W as original.
More probably a later editor has worked up old material of E (of
which there are unmistakable traces) in order to include the whole
of xx-xxiii. in the covenant; xxiv. 15-180 are an addition from P.
now generally admitted that the words "and the judgments"
(which are missing in c 1 b) have been inserted in xxiv. 3a by the
redactor to whom the present position of the " judgments is due. 7
The majority of critics, tbereiore, adopt Kuenen s conjecture that
the " judgments " were originally delivered by Moses on the borders
of Moab, and that when D's revised version of Ex. xxL-xxuL was
combined with IE, the older code was placed alongside of E's other
legislation at Horeb. The third group of laws (xxii. 18-28, xxiii.
1-0) appears to have been added somewhat later than the bulk of
xxi.-xxiiu Some of the regulations are couched in hypothetical form,
but their contents are of a different character to the " judgment*,"
e.g. xxii. 25 f., xxiii. 4 f. ; others, again, are of a similar nature, but
differ in form, e.g. xxii. 18 f. Lastly, xxii. 20-24, xxiii 1-3 set forth
a number of moral injunctions affecting the individual, which cannot
have found place in a civil code. At the same time, these addition!
must for the most part be prior to D, since many of them are included in
Dent. xii.-xxvL, though there are traces of deuteronomic revision.
Now it is obvious that the results obtained by the foregoing
analysis of J and E have an Important bearing on the history of the
remaining section of E's legislation, viz. the Decalogue (?.».), Ex.
xx. 1-17 (-Deut. v. 6-21). At present the "Ten Words" stand
in the forefront of E's collection of laws, and it is evident that they
were already found in that position by the author of Deuteronomy,
who treated them as the sole basis of the covenant at Horeb, The
evidence, however, afforded (a) by the parallel version of Deutero-
nomy and (6) by the literary analysis of J and E not only faih
to support this tradition, but excites the gravest suspicions as to
the originality both of the form and of the position tn which the
Decalogue now appears. For when compared with Ex. xx. 1-17
the parallel version of Deut. v. 6 ff. is found to exhibit a number
of variations, and, in particular, assigns an entirely different reason
for the observance of the Sabbath. But these variations an
practically limited to the explanatory comments attached to the
2nd, 4th, 5th and 10th commandments; and the majority of critics
are now agreed that these comments were added at a later date,
and that all the commandments, like the 1st and die 6th to the
oth, were originally expressed in the form of a single short sentence
This view is confirmed by the fact that the additions, or comments,
bear, for the most part, a close resemblance to the style of D. They
can scarcely, however, have been transferred from Deuteronomy to
Exodus (or vice versa), owing to the variations between the two
versions: we must rather regard them as the work of a Deuteronomic
redactor. But the expansion and revision of the Decalogue were
not limited to the Deuteronomic school. Literary traces of J and E
in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 10th commandments point to earlier activity
on the part of K1& while the addition of a. 11, which bases the
observance of the Sabbath on P 's narrative of the Creation (Gen. ii,
1-3), can only be ascribed to a priestly writer: its absence from
Deut. v* 6 rL is otherwise inexplicable. Thus the Decalogue, aj
given in Exodus, would seem to have passed through at least threy
stages before it assumed its present form. But even in its original
form it could hardly have formed part of E's Horeb legislation
for (a) bat h J and £ have preserved a different collection of law)
(or " word} "> inscribed by Moses, which are definitely set fort!
as the l*a*i* of the covenant at Sinai-Horeb (Ex. xxxiv. 10, xxiv
3 f.), anrj [hi the further legislation of E in ch. xx.-xxiii. afford
close parallels to nil the commandments (except the 7th and tru
10th), and a comparison of the two leaves no doubt as to which it
the more primitive. Hence we can only conclude that the Decalogue
in its original short form, came into existence during the period ai te
the completion of E, but before the promulgation of Deuteronomy
Its present position is, doubtless, to be ascribed to a redactor wh«
was influenced by the same conception as the author of Deuteronomy
This redactor, however, did not limit the Horeb covenant to th
Decalogue, but retained E's legislation alongside of it. The insertion
of the Decalogue, or rather the point of view which prompted it
insertion, naturally involved certain consequential changes of th
existing text. The roost important of these, via. the harmonisti
additions to ch. xxxiv., by means of which J 's version of the covenan
was represented as a renewal of the Decalogue, has already been dis
cussed; other passages which show traces of similar revision ar
xxiv. 12-150, 180, and xxxiv. 1-6.
The confusion introduced into the legislation by later additions
with the consequent displacement of earlier material, has not bee
without effect on the narratives belonging to the different source
Hence the sequence of events after the completion of the covenan
on Sinai-Horeb is not always easy to trace, though indications ar
not wanting in both J and E of the probable course of the biston,
The two main incidents that jprecede the departure of the child re
of Israel from the mountain (Num. x. 29 ff.) are (1) the sin of th
people, and (2) the intercession of Moses, of both of which a doubl
account has been preserved.
7 The present text of xxiv. 12 also has probably been transpose
in accordance with the view that the " judgment " formed part c
the covenant, cL Deut. v. 31. Originally the latter part of the vers
must have run, " That I may give thee the tables of stone which
have written, and may teach thee the law and the commandment.
For further details see Bacon, Triple Tradition qf Exodus, p;
til L. IJJ L r
EXODUS
77
(i) TU Sm a/ Urn Pmfri- According to J (xxxH. 95*9) the
people; during the absence of Moms, m break loose," is. mutiny.
Thar behaviour excite* the anger of Moan on his return, and in
r es po ns e to hia appeal the oona of Levi arm themaervea and slay a
large number of the people: aa a reward for their eervkea they are
bidden to coneecrate themselves to Yahweh. The fragmentary fo
of the narrative — we miss especially a fuller account ofthe '* break w
knee "— b doabtfeai due to the latter editor, who substituted the
story of the golden caff (xasii 1*6, 15-24, 3$), according to which the
»«a of the people onnsistert in direct violation of the and command'
sent. At the instigation of the people Aaron makes a molten call
cut of the golden ornaments brought from Egypt ; Moses and Joshua,
on their return to the camp, find the people holding festival in honour
of the occasion; Moses in his anger breaks the tables of the covenant
which he is carrying: he then demolishes the golden calf, and ad-
ministers a severe rebuke to Aaron. The punishment of the people
is briefly recorded In t. 35. This latter narrative, which is obviously
racoosisteat with the story of J, shows unmistakable traces of S.
In its present form, however, it can hardly be original, but must
have been revised in accordance with the later Deuteronomic
conception which represented the sin committed by the people as
a breach of the and commandment. Possibly w. 7-14 are also to be
treated aa a Deuteronomic expansion (cf. Deut. ix. 12-14). Though
they show clear traces of J, it is extremely difficult to fit them
into that narrative in view of Moses' action in te. 15-29 and of his
intercession in ch. irrfii.; in aay case, re. 8 and 13 must be regarded
as rcdacrJonal.
(a) Moms' Intercession.— The time far de p a rtu r e from the Sacred
Mono* had now arrived, and Moses is accordingly ^bidden to lead
the people to the p r omi s ed land. Yahweh himaeU refuses to accom-
pany Israel owing to their disobedience, but in response to Moses*
passionate appeal finally consents to let his presence go with them.
The account of Moses' intercession has been pr e s er v ed in J, though
the narrative has undergone considerable dislocation. The true
sequence of the narrative appears to be aa follows: Moses is com-
manded to lead the people to Canaan (xxxiii. 1-3); he pleads that
he is unequal to the task (Num. xi. iw, 11,12, 14, 15), and, presum-
ably; ansa for assistance, which is promised (omitted). Moses then
asks far a fuller knowledge of Yahweh and hia ways (xxxiii* 12, 13):
this request also ia granted (a. 17), and he is emboldened to pray that
he may see the glory of Yahweh; Yahweh replies that his prayer
can only be granted in part, for " man shall not nee me and live ";
a partial revelation ia then vouchsafed to Mosea (xxxiii. 18-93,
xxxiv. 6-8) : finally, Mosea beseeches Yahweh to go in the midst
of hia people, and is assured that Yahweh *s presence shall accompany
them (xxxfv. 9, xxxiii. 14- 16). The passage from Numbers xi.,
which is here included, is obviously out of place in its present context
(the story of the quails), and supplies in part the necessary ante-
cedent to Ex. xxxiii. 12, 13; the passage is now separated from
Ex. xxxm. by Ex. xxxiv. Q), which has been wrongly transferred to
the close of the Horeb-Sinai incidents (see above), and by the priestly
legislation of Ex. xxxv.-xl., Leviticus and Num. l.-x.; but originally
it moat have stood in dose connexion with that chapter. A similar
displacement has taken place with regard to Ex. xxxiv. 6-9, which
dearly forma the sequel to xxxiii. 17-23. The latter passage, how-
ever, can hardly r ep re sent the conclusion of the interview, which
t» found more naturally in xxxiii. 14-16. E's account of Moses'
intercession seems to have been retained, In part, in xxxii. 3°*34>
bat the passage has probably been revised by a later hand; in any
case its position before instead of after the dismissal would seem to
be redacrJonaL
It a plausible conjecture that the original narratives of J and E
aho contained directions for the construction of an ark, 1 as a sub-
stitute for the personal presence of Yahweh, and aho for the erection
of a " tent of meeting outside the camp, and that these commands
were omitted by R* in favour of the more elaborate instructions
given in ch. xxv.-xxix. (P). The subsequent narrative of J (Num.
x. 33-36, xrv. 44) implies an account of the making of the ark, while
the remarkable description in Ex. xxxiii. 7-11 (E) of Moses* practice
m regard to the M tent of meeting " points no less clearly to some
earner etalcmcat as to the making of this tent.
The history of Exodus is its original form doubtless concluded
with the visit of Moses' father-in-law and the appointment of judges
(ch. xvifi.). the departure from the mountain and the battle with
Amnesic (xvii. 8-16).
(jc) The Construction of the Tabernacle and itt Furniture (ch. xxv.-
xxxi., xxxv.-xL).— It has long been recognised that the elaborate
description of the Tabernacle and itafurniture, and the accompanying
directsona for the drew and consecration of the priests, contained in
ch. xxv.-xxxL, have no daim to be regarded as an historical present-
ment of the Mosaic Tabernacle and its service. The language,
style and contents of this section point unmistakably to the hand of
P; and it hi now generally admitted that these chapters form
part of an ideal representation of the post-exilic ritual system,
which has been transferred to the Mosaic age. According to this
» According to Deut. x. 1 f., which is in the main a sarin/ excerpt
Cram Ex. xxxiv. 1 f., Yahweh ordered Moaea to make an ark of acacia
wood before he ascended the mountain.
r e p rese nta tion. Moaea, on the seventh day alter the conctusina of
the covenant, was summoned to the top of the mountain, and there
received instructions with regard to (a) the furniture of the sanctuary,
via. tfceark* the uble and the lamp-stand (ch. xxv.>; (a) the Tabernacle
(ch. xxvL)( (c) the court of the Tabernacle and the altar of burnt-
offering (ch. xxvii.); (d) the dress of the priests (ch. xxviiL) : (a) the
consecration of Aaron and his sons (xxix. 1-37); and (/) the daily
burnt-offering (xxix. 38-42): the section ends with a formal con-
cfuaion (xxix. 43-46), The two following chapters contain further
instructions relative to the altar of incense (xxx. 1-10), the payment
of the half-ahekel (1 1-16), the braeen laver (17-at), the anointing oM
(»2-3j). the incense (34-38), the appointment of Bexaleel and Oholiab
(xxxi. 1-1 1) and the observance of the Sabbath (12-17). It ia hardly
doubtful, however, that these two chapters formed no part of Ps
original legislation, but were added by a later band.* For (1) the
altar of incense ia here mentioned for the first time, and wuappar*
ently unknown to the author of ch. xxv.-xxix. Had he known of ita
existence, he could hardly have failed to include it with the rest of
the Tabernacle furniture in ch. xxvL, and must have mentioned it at
xxvi. 34 f ., where the relative positions of the contents of the Taber*
nacle are defined ; further, the ritual of the Day of Atonement (Lav,
xvi. referred to in xxx. 10) ignores this altar, and mentions only one
altar (cf. * the altar," xxvii. 1). via. that of burnt-offering: (2) the
command aa to the half-shekel presupposes the census of Nam. ].,
and appears to have been unknown in the time of Neheanah (Nek
*'•' * tructiona aa to the brasen laver would
rude of those for the altar of burna-
x-32) (Heb. 33); (3) the instructions aa to the brasen laver would
naturally be expected alongside of those for the altar of burnt-
offering in ch. xxvii. ; (4) the following section relating to the anoint-
ing oil presupposes the altar of incense (v. *8), and further extends
the ceremony of anointing to Aaron's sons, though, elsewhere, the
ceremony ia confined to Aaron (xxix, 7, Lev. viii, 12), cf. the title
" anointed priest " applied to the high priest (Lev. iv. 3, Ac.);
(5) the directions for compounding the Incense connect naturally
with xxx. 1-10, while (6) the appointment of Bexaleel aad Ohotiai
cannot be separated from the rest of ch. xxx-xxxL The concluding
section on the Sabbath (xxxi. 12-17) shows marks of resemblance to
H (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.), especially in w. 12-140. which appear to have
been expanded, very possibly by the editor who inserted the passage.
The continuation of P'a narrative is given in xxxiv. 29*35, which
describe Mosea' return from the mount. The subsequent chapters
(xxxv.-xl.), however, can hardly belong to the original stratum of P,
U only because they presuppose ch. xxx., xxxL, and were probably
added at a later stage than the latter chapters. They narrate how
the commands of ch. xxv.-xxxi. were carried out, and practically
repeat the earlier chapters scrnofim, merely the tenses being changed,
the most noticeable omissions being xxvu. ao f. (oil for the lamps),
xxviii. 30 (TJrim and Thummim). xxix. 1-37 (the consecration of the
priests, which recurs in Lev. viii.) and xxix. 38-42 (the daily burnt-
offering). Apart from the omissions the most striking difference
between the two sections is the variation v» order, the different
sections of ch. xxv.-xxxi. being here set forth in their natural sequence.
The secondary character of these concluding chapters receives con-
siderable confirmation from a comparison of the Septuagint text.
For thie version exhibits numerous cases of variation, both as regards
order and contents, from the Hebrew text ; moreover the translation,
more particularly of many technical terms, differs from that of ch.
xxv.-xxxi., and seems to be the work of different translators, Hence
it is by no means improbable that the final recension of these chapters
had not been completed when the Alexandrine version was made.
Authorities.— In addition to the various English and German
commentaries on Exodus included under the head of the Pentateuch,
the following English works are especially worthy of mention:
S. R. Driver, Introd. to the Literature of the O.T., and " Exodus 1 ' m
the Cam*. Bible; B. W. Bacon. The Triple Tradition of Ike Exodus
(Hartford, U.SJV., 1804). and A. H. McNeUe, The Book ef Exodus
(Westminster Commentaries) (1008) ; also the articles on " Exodus "
by G. Harford-Battersby (Hastings, Via. Bib. vol i.) and by G. R
Moore, £a*y. Biblica, vol ii (J- F.St.)
BXDDUS, THB, the name given to the journey (Gr. !£ooot) of
the Israelites from Egypt into Palestine, under the leadership
of Moses and Aaron, as described In the books of the Bible from
Exodus to Joshua. These books contain the great national epic
of Judaism relating the deliverance of the people from bondage
in Egypt, the overthrow of the pursuing Pharaoh and his army,
the divinely guided wanderings through the wilderness and the
final entry into the promised land. Careful critidsm of the
narrative** has resulted in the separation of later accretions
from the earliest records, and the tracing of the elaboration of
older traditions under the influence of developing religious and
social institutions. In the story of the Exodus there have been
incorporated codes of laws and institutions which were to be
observed by the descendants of the Israelites in their future
• To the same band are to be ascribed also xxvfi. 6, *o, 21;
tviii. 41 ; xxix. 21, 38-41.
• See the articles on Use books in question.
7 8
EXODUS
home, and these, really of late* origin, have thus been thrown
back to the earlier period in order to give them the stamp o!
Authority. So, although a certain amount of the narrative
could date from the days of Moses, the Exodus story has been
made the vehicle for the aims and ideals of Subsequent ages,
and has been adapted from time to time to the requirements
of later stages of thought. The work of criticism has brought
to light important examples of fluctuating tradition, singular
lacunae in some places and unusual wealth of tradition in others,
and has demonstrated that much of that which had long been
felt to be impossible and incredible was due to writers of the
post-exilic age many centuries after the presumed date of the
events.
The book of Genesis closes with the migration of Jacob's
family into Egypt to escape the famine in Canaan. Jacob died
and was buried in Canaan by his sons, who, however, returned
again to the pastures which the Egyptian king had granted
them in Goshen. Their brother Joseph on his death-bed promised
that God would bring them to the land promised to their fore-
fathers and solemnly adjured them to carry up his bones (Gen. 1.).
In the book of Exodus the family has become a people. 1 The
Pharaoh is hostile, and Yahweh, the Israelite deity, is moved
to send a deliverer; on the events that followed see Exodus,
Book or; Moses. It has been thought that dynastic changes
occasioned the change in Egyptian policy {e.g. the expulsion of
the Hyksos), but if the Israelites built Rameses and Pithom
(Ex. Lu), cities which, as excavation has shown, belong to the
time of Rameses II. (13th century B.C.), earlier dates are in-
admissible. On these grounds the Exodus may have taken
place under one of his successors, and since Mineptah or
Merneptah (son of Rameses) , in relating his successes in Palestine,
boasts that Yxiraal is desolated, it would seem that the Israelites
had already returned. On the other hand, it has been suggested
that when Jacob and his family entered Egypt, some Israelite
tribes had remained behind and that it is to these that Mineptah 'i
inscription refers. The problem is complicated by the fact that,
from the Egyptian evidence, not only was there at this time
no remarkable emigration of oppressed Hebrews, but Bedouin
tribes were then receiving permission to enter Egypt and to
feed their flocks upon Egyptian soil. It might be assumed that
the Israelites (or at least those who had not remained behind
in Palestine) effected their departure at a somewhat later date,
and in the time of Mineptah'a successor, Seti XL, there is an
Egyptian report of the pursuit of some fugitive slaves over the
eastern frontier. The value of all such evidence will naturally
depend largely upon the estimate formed of the biblical narra-
tives, but it is n e c essa r y to observe that these have not yet
found Egyptian testimony to support them. Although the
information which has been brought to bear upon Egyptian life
and customs substantiates the general accuracy of the local
colouring in some of the biblical narratives, the latter contain
several inherent improbabilities, and whatever future research
may yield, no definite trace of Egyptian influence has so far
been found in Israelite institutions.
No allusions to Israelites in Egypt have yet been found on the
monuments; against the view that the Aperiu (or Apury) of the
inscriptions were Hebrews, see S. R. Driver in D. G. Hogarth,
Authority and Archaeology, pp. 56 sqq.; H. W. Hogg. Emcy, Btb. coL
13x0. The plagues of Egypt have been shown to be those to which
the land is naturally subject (R. Thomson, Planus of Egypt), but
the description of the relations of Moses and Aaron to the court
raises many difficult questions (H. P. Smith, O.T. Hid. pp. 57-69).
Those who reject Ex. l 11 and hold that 480 years elapsed between
the Exodus and the foundation of the temple (1 Kings vi. 1, see
Bible: Chronology) place the former about the time of Tethmosis
(Thothraes) HI., and suppose that the hostile tfabiri (Khabiri) who
1 There is a lacuna between the oldest traditions in Genesis and
those in Exodus: the latter beginning simply "and there arose a
new ldng over Egypt which knew not Joseph. The interval between
Jacob's arrival Tn Egypt and the Exodus is given varymgry as .
or 430 years (Gen. xv. 13, Ex. xii. 40 seq.. Acts vii. 6); but the
Samaritan and Septuagint versions allow only 215 years (Ex. loc. cUX
and a period of only four generations is stesupposed in Gen. xv. 16
(cf. the length of the genealogies between the contemporaries of
Joseph and those of Moses ia Ex. vi 16*20).
troubled Palestine in the 15th century are no other than Hebrews
ithe equation is philologically sound), fc*. the invading Israelites.'
Jut although the evidence of the Amarna tablet* might thus support
the biblical tradition in its barest outlines, the view in question, if
correct, would necessitate the rejection of a great mats of the biblical
narratives as a whole.
In the absence of external evidence the study of the Exodus
of the Israelites must be based upon the Israelite records, and
divergent or contradictory views must be carefully noticed.
Regarded simply as a journey from Egypt Into Palestine it is the
most probable of occurrences: the difficulty arises from the
actual narratives. The first stage is the escape from the land of
Goshen (9.*.), the district allotted to the family of Jacob (Gen.
xlvi. 38-34, xlvii. z, 4, 6). $ As to the route taken across the
Red Sea {Yam SApk) scholars are.not agreed (see W. M. UuHer,
Ency. Bib. col. 1436 sqq.); it depends upon the view held
regarding the second stage of the journey, the road to the
mountain of Sinai or Horeb and thence to Kadesh. The last-
mentioned place is identified with Ain Kadis, about 50 m. south
of Beersheba; but the identification of the mountain is uncertain,
and it is possible that tradition confused two distinct places.
According to one favourite view, the journey was taken across
the Sinaitic peninsula to Midian, the home of Jethro. Others
plead strongly for the traditional site Jebel Must or Serbtl in
the south of the peninsula (see J. R. Harris, Did. Bibte, iv.
pp. 536 sqq.; H. Winckler, Ency. Bib. coL 4641). The latter
view implies that the oppressed Israelites left Egypt for one
of its dependencies,, and both theories find only conjectural
identifications in the various stations recorded in Num. xxxixi.
But this list of forty names, corresponding to the years of
wandering, is from a post-exilic source, and may be based
merely upon a knowledge of caravan-routes; even if it be of
older origin, it is of secondary value since it represents a tradition
differing notably from that in the earlier narratives themselves,
and these on inspection confirm Judg. xi. 16 seq., where the
Israelites proceed immediately to Kadesh.
Ex. xvL-arvuL presuppose a settled encampment and a law-
giving, and thus belong to a stage after Sinai had been reached (Ex.
xix. sqq.). They are closely related, as regards subject matter, &c,
to the narratives in Num. x. 29^x1., xx. i-it (Sinai to Kadesh).
and the initial step is the recognition that the latter is their original
context (see G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib. coL 1443 [v.]). Further,
internal peculiarities associating events now at Sinai-Horeb with
those at Kadesh support the view that Kadesh was their true scene,
and it is to be noticed that in Ex. xv. 22 seq. the Israelites already
reach the wilderness of Shur and accomplish the three days' journey
which had been their original aim (cf. Ex. ill. 18, v. 3, vtii. 27).
The wilderness of Shur (Gen. xvi. 7, xx. 1 ; 1 Sam. xv. 7, xxviL 8)
is the natural scene of conflicts with Amalekites (Ex. xvii. 8 sqq.),
and its sanctuary of Kadesh or En Mishpat (" well of Judgment,"
Gen. xiv. 7) was doubtless associated with traditions of the giving
of statutes and ordinances. The detour to Sinai-Horeb appears to
belong to a later stage of the tradition, and is connected with the
introduction of laws and institutions of relatively later form. It is
foreshadowed by the injunction to avoid the direct way into Palestine
(see Ex. xiu. 17-IQ). since on reaching Kadesh the Israelites would
be within reach of hostile tribes, and the conflicts which it was pro-
posed to avoid actually ensued. 4 The forty years of wandering in
the wilderness is characteristic of the Deuteronomic and post-exilic
narratives; in the earlier sources the fruitful oasis of Kadesh is the
centre, and even after the tradition of a detour to Sinai-Horeb was
developed, only a brief period is spent at the holy mountain.
From Kadesh spies were sent into Palestine, and when the
people were dismayed at their tidings and incurred the wrath
of Yahweh, the penalty of the forty years 1 delay was pronounced
* See, e.g., J. Orr, Problem of the O.T. pp. 41a sqq.; Ed. Meyer. Die
Israelite*, pp. 222 sqq. Some, too, find in the Amarna tablets
the historical background for Joseph's high position at the Egyptian
court (see Cheyne, Ency. Bib. art. " Joseph ").
» For the varying traditions regarding the number of the people
and their residence (whether settled apart, cf., €-g.. Gen. xlvi. 34,
Ex. vtii. 22, ix. 26, x. 23, or in the midst of the Egyptians) see the
recent commentaries.
* See further J. Wellhausen, Prolegomena, pp. 34a sqq.; C. F.
Moore, Ency. Bib. col. 1443; S. A. Cook, Jew. Quart. Rev. (1906).
pp. 74I sqq. (1907!, p. 122, and art. MOSES. Ex. xiii. 17*19 forbids
the compromise which would place Sinai-Horeb in the neighbour-
hood of Kadesh (A. E. Havnes. Pal. Explar. Fund, Quart. Stassss.
(1896), pp. 175 sqq. ; C. F. Kent (see LU. below), p. 3I1).
EXOGAMY
79
(Horn. zSL seq.). OriginaHy Caleb alone was exempt and for '
Us faith received a biasing; later Uadition adds Joshua and
in Deut. L 37 seq. alludes to some unknown offence of Moses.
According to Num. xxL t-j the Israelites (a generalizing ampli-
fication) captured Hormah, on the way to Eeersheba, and
subsequently the dan Caleb and the Kenites (the clan of Moses'
fuher-in-law) are found in Jud&h (Judg, L 16). Although the
traditions regard their efforts as part of a common movement
(from Gflgal, see-below), it is more probable that these (notably
Caleb) escaped the punishment which befell the rest of the
Israelites, and made their way direct from Kadesh into the
south of Palestine. 1 On the other hand, according to the pre-
vailing tradition, the attempt to break northwards was frustrated
by a defeat at Hormah (Num. xiv. 40-45), an endeavour to pass
Edom failed, and the people turned back to the Yam Suph (here
at the head of the Gulf of Akabah) and proceeded up to the
east of Edom and Moab, Conflicting views are represented (on
which see Moab), but at length Shittim was reached and pre-
parations were made to cross the Jordan into the promised land.
This having been effected, Gilgal became the base for a series of
operations in which the united tribes took part. But again the
representations disagree, and to the overwhelming campaigns
depicted in the book of Joshua most critics prefer the account
of the more gradual process as related in the opening chapter of
the book of Judges (see Jews: History, §8).
Thus, whatever evidence may be supplied by archaeological
research, the problem of the Exodus must always be studied in
the light of the biblical narratives. That the religious life of
Israel as portrayed therein dates from this remote period cannot
be maintained against the results of excavation or against the
later history, nor can we picture a united people in the desert
when subsequent vicissitudes represent the union as the work of
many yearn, and show that it lasted for a short time only under
David and Solomon. During the centuries in which the narratives
were taking shape many profound changes occurred to affect
the traditions. Developments associated with the Deuteronomic
reform and the reorganisation of Judaism in post -exilic days
can be unmistakably recognised, and it would be unsafe to
assume that other vicissitudes have not also left their mark.
Allowance must be made for the shifting of boundaries or of
spheres of influence (Egypt, Edom, Moab), for the incorporation
ef tribes and of their own tribal traditions, and in particular
for other movements (e.g. from Arabia). 9 If certain dans
moved direct from Kadesh into Judah, it is improbable that
others made the lengthy detour from Kadesh by the Gulf of
ALabah, but this may well be an attempt to fuse the traditions
of two distinct migrations. Among the Joseph-tribes (Ephraim
and Manaaseh), the most important of Israelite divisions, the
traditions of an ancestor who had lived and died in Egypt
would be a cherished possession, but although most writers
agree that not all the tribes were in Egypt, it is impossible to
determine their number, with any certainty. At certain
periods, intercourse with Egypt was especially intimate, and
there is much in favour of the view that the name Mizraim
(Egypt) extended beyond the borders of Egypt proper. Refer-
ence has already been made to other cases of geographical
vagueness, and one must recognize that in a body of traditions
rich as this there was room for the inclusion of the most diverse
exmcnls which it is almost hopeless to separate, in view of the
scantiness of relevant evidence from other sources, and the
feerary intricacy of the extant narratives. That many different
beliefs have influenced the tradition is apparent from what has
been said above, and is especially noticeable from a study of the
general features. ' Thus, although the Israelites possessed cattle
(Ex. xviL 3, six. 13, xxiv. 5, xxxii. 6, xxxiv. 3; Num. xx. 10),
aBusien is made to their lack of meat in order to magnify the
wonders of the journey, and among divinely sent aids to guide
*So B. Stade, Steuernagd, Guthe, G. F. Moore, «. P. Smith,
C F. Kent, &c See Caleb: Jebahxebl; Judah; Kbmtks;
Lrrrrss; and Jews; History, H 5. *o <**!)• . «.,...
■An instructive parallel to the last-mentioned is afforded by
DUsard's account of the migration of Arab tribes into Palestine in
the i&tfc century a.d. (Revue bibligw, July 1905).
and direct the people upon the inarch not only does Moses
require the substance of a human helper (Jethro or Hobab),
but the angel, the ark, the pillar of cloud and of fire and the
mysterious hornet are also provided.
In addition to the references already given, see T. W. Coleaso,
PeHtaJouch and Booh of Joshua (on internal difficulties) ; A. Jereorias.
A lie Test, im LichU d. alt. Orients 9 (pp. 402 sqq., on later references
in Manetho, &c, with which cf. also R. H. Charles, Jubilees, p.
245 seq.); art. "Exodus" in Ency. Bib.; Ed. Meyer, Israiliten
(passim) 1 Bonbon", Theotog. Stud. a. KriL (1907), pp. 150-217;
the histories of Israel and commentaries on the book of Exodus.
Among the numerous special works, mention may be made of
G. Ebers, Dutch Gosen sum Sinai', E. H. Palmer, Desert of the
; O. A. Toffteen, The Historic Exodus; fuller information is
given ia L. B. Paten, HisU of Syria, and Palestine, p. 34 (also ch. viii,);
and C. F. Kent, Beftnslsgt of Hob. Hist. p. 335 aeq. (S. A. C.)
EXOGAMY (Gr. 2£w, outside; and 70/101, marriage), the term
proposed by J. F. McLennan for the custom compelling marriage
M out of the tribe M (or rather " out of the totem "); its converse
is endogamy (q.v.). McLennan would find an explanation of
exogamy in the prevalence of female infanticide, which, " render*
ing women scarce, led at once to polyandry within the tribe,
and the capturing of women from without. 1 ' Infanticide of
girls is, and no doubt ever has been, a very common practice
among savages, and for obvious reasons. Among tribes in a
primitive stage of social organization girl-children must always
have been a hindrance and a source of weakness. They had to be
fed and yet they could not take part in the hunt for food, and they
offered a temptation to neighbouring tribes. Infanticide, how-
ever, is not proved to have been so universal as McLennan
suggests, and it is more probable that the reason of exogamy is
really to be found in that primitive social system which made
the " captured " woman the only wife in the modern sense of
the term. In the beginnings of human society children were
related only to their mother; and the women of a tribe were
common property. Thus no man might appropriate any female
or attempt to maintain proprietary rights over her. With women
of other tribes it would be different, and a warrior who captured
a woman would doubtless pass unchallenged in his claim to
possess her absolutely. Infanticide, the evil physical effects of
" in-and-in " breeding, the natural strength of the impulse to .
possess on the man's part, and the greater feeling of security
and a tendency to family life and affections on the woman's,
would combine to make exogamy increase and marriages within
the tribe decrease. A natural impulse would in a few generations
tend to become a law or a custom, the violation of which would be
looked on with horror. Physical capture, too, as soon as in-
creasing civilization and tribal intercommunication removed the
necessity for violence, became symbolic of the more permanent
and individual relations of the sexes. An additional explanation
of the prevalence of exogamy may be found in the natural
tendency of exogamous tribes to increase in numbers and
strength at the expense of those communities which moved
towards decadence by fa-breeding. Thus tradition would
harden into a prejudice, strong as a principle of religion, and
exogamy would become the inviolable custom it is found to be
among many races. In Australia, Sir G. Grey writes: *' One
of the most remarkable facts connected with the natives is that
they are divided into certain great families, all the members of
which bear the same name . . . these family names are common
ever a great portion of the continent and a man cannot marry
s woman of his own family name." In eastern Africa, Sir R.
Burton says: " The Somal will not marry one of the same, or
even of a consanguineous family," and the Bakalahari have the.
same rule. Paul B . du Chaillu found exogamy the rule and blood
marriages regarded as an abomination throughout western
Equatorial Africa. In India the Khasfas, Juangs, Waralis,
Onions, Hos and other tribes are strictly exogamous. The
Kalmucks are divided into hordes, and no man may marry a
woman of the same horde. Circassians and Samoyedes have
similar rules. The Ostiaks regard endogamy (marriage within
the clan) as a crime, as do the Yakuts of Siberia. Among
the Indians of America severe rules prescribing exogamy prevail.
1 The Tsimahsean Indians of British Columbia are divided into
8o
EXORCISM— EXPERT
tribes and totems, or" cresUwhfch are common to all the tribes*"
says one writer. " The crests are the whale, the porpoise, the
eagle, the coon, the wolf and the frog. ... The relationship
existing between persons of the same crest is nearer than that
between members of the same tribe. . . . Members of the same
tribe may marry, but those of the same crest are not allowed to
under any circumstances; that is, a whale may not marry a
whale, but a whale may marry a frog, &c" The Thlinkeets,
the Mayas of Yucatan and the Indians of Guiana are ezogamous,
observing a custom which is thus seen to exist throughout Africa,
in Siberia, China, India, Polynesia and the Americas.
AuTHoarriEa.— J. F. McLennan, Primitive Marriage (186$), and
Studies in Anc. Hist, U896); Lord Avebury, Origin of Civilisation
(190s) ; Weatermarck, History of Human Marriage (1894) ; A. Lang,
Social Origins (1903); L. H. Morgan, Ancient Society (1877); J. G.
Fraser, Totemism and Exogamy (1910) ; see also Totem.
EXORCISM (Gr. itopidttw, to conjure out), the expulsion
oi evil spirits from persons or places' by incantations, magical
rites or other means. As a corollary of the animistic theory of
diseases and of belief in Possession (?.t.), we find widely spread
customs whose object is to get rid of the evil influences. These
customs may take the form of a general expulsion of evils,
either once a year or at irregular intervals; the evils, which are
often regarded as spirits, sometimes as the souls of the dead,
may be expelled, according to primitive philosophy, cither
immediately by spells, purifications or some form of coercion;
or they may be put on the back of a scapegoat or other material
vehicle. Among the means of compelling the evil spirits are
assaults with warlike weapons or sticks, the noise of musical
instruments or of the human voice, the use of masks, the invoca-
tion of more powerful good spirits, &c.; both fire and water are
used to drive them out, and the use of iron is a common means
of holding them at bay.
The term exorcism is applied more especially to the freeing
of an individual from a possessing or disease-causing spirit;
the means adopted are frequently the same as those mentioned
above; in the East Indies the sufferer sometimes dances round
a small ship, into which the spirit passes and is then set adrift.
The patient may be beaten or means may be employed whose
efficiency depends largely on their suggestive nature. Among
the Dakota Indians the medicine-man chants ki4e~li-lahl at the
bed of the sick man and accompanies his chant with the rattle;
he then sucks at the affected part till the possessing spirit is
supposed to come out and take its flight, when men fire guns at it
from the door of the tent. The Zulus believe that they can get rid
of the souls of the dead, which cause diseases, by sacrifices of
cattle, or by expostulating with the spirits; so too the shaman or
magician in other parts of the world offers the possessing spirit
object* or animals.
The professional exorcist was known among the Jews; in
Greece the art was practised by women, and it is recorded that
the mothers of Epicurus and Aeschines belonged to this class;
both were bitterly reproached, the one by the Stoics, the other
by Demosthenes, with having taken part in the practices in
question. The prominence of exorcism in the early ages of the
Christian church appears from its frequent mention in the
writings of the fathers, and by the 3rd century there was an order
of exorcists (see Exorcist). The ancient rite of exorcism in
connexion with baptism is still retained in the Roman ritual, as
is also a form of service for the exorcising of possessed persons.
The exorcist signs the possessed person with the figure of the
cross, desires him to kneel, and sprinkles him with holy water;
after which the exorcist asks the devil his name, and abjures him
by the holy mysteries of the Christian religion not to afflict the
person possessed any more. Then, laying his right hand on the
demoniac's head, he repeats the form of exorcism as follows:
" I exorcise thee, unclean spirit, in the name of Jesus Christ;
tremble, Satan, thou enemy of the faith, thou foe of mankind,
who bast brought death into the world, who hast deprived men
of life, and hast rebelled against justice, thou seducer of mankind,
thou root of evil, thou source of avarice, discord and envy."
Houses and other places supposed to be haunted by unclean
spirits are likewise to be exorcised with similar rites, and in genera
exorcism has a place in all the ceremonies fox consecrating ant
blessing persons or things (see Benediction).
See Tylor, Primitive Culture; Skeat, Malay Hope, p. 427 aeq.
Fraieer, Golden Bough, vol. iii. 189; Kiafft, AusfiihrUcho Historic vm
Exortismus; Koldeweg, Der Exorcismus im Henogtkmm Broun
sckweit ; Brecher, Das Transcendental*, Magie, etc. im Talmud, pp. 195
303: Zeitschr. fur Assyriohgie (Dec 1893, April 1804); Herxog
RealencyuL, s.v. "Exorcismus'; Waldmeier, Autobiography, p
64; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic; Maury, La Magie; ft. C
Thompson, Dams and Evil Spirits of Babylonia,
EXORCIST (Lat exorcista, Gr. 4(o/xump), in the Romai
Catholic church, the third grade in the minor orders of the clergy
between those of acolyte and reader. The office, which involve
the right of ceremonially exorcising devils (see Exosasif), a
actually no more than a preliminary stage of the priesthood
The earliest record of the special ordination of exorcists is th
7th canon of the council of Carthage (ajx 356).- " When thej
are ordained," it runs, " they receive from the hand of th<
bishop a little book in which the exorcisms are written, receiving
power to lay hands on the encrgumeni, whether baptised or cate
chumens." Whatever its present position, the office of exorcist
was, until comparatively recent times, by no means considers
a sinecure. "The exorcist a terror to demons" (Paulinus
Episi. 34) survived the Reformation among Protestants, witl
the belief, expressed by Firmilianus in his epistle to St Cyprian
that " through the exorcists, by the voice of man and the powei
of God, the devil may be whipped, and burnt and tortured."
EXOTIC (Gr. kfcruebs, foreign, from t&*> outside), oi
foreign origin, or belonging to another country. The term k
now used in the restricted sense of something not indigenous
or native, and is mostly applied to plants introduced from
foreign countries, which have not become acclimatized. Figura-
tively, " exotic " is used to convey the sense of something rare,
d elicate or extravagant.
EXPATRIATION (from Late Lat expatriate, to exile, and
patria, native land), a term used in a general sense for the banish-
ment of a person from his own country. In international
law expatriation is the renunciation or change of allegiance tc
one's native or adopted country. It may take place either by s
voluntary act or by operation of law. Some countries, as France
and England, disclaim their subjects if they become naturalized
in another country, others, again, passively permit expatriation
whether a new nationality has been acquired or not; others
as Germany, make expatriation the consequence of continue*
absence from their territory. (See Auen; Aucgiasce;
Naturalization.)
EXPERT (Lat. expert us, from experiri, to try), strictly
skilled, or one who has special knowledge; as used in law, ax
expert is a person, selected by a court, or adduced by a part}
to a cause, to give his opinion on some point in issue with whkl
he is peculiarly conversant. In Roman law questions of das
puted handwriting were referred to experts; and in France
whenever the court considers that a report by experts is necessary
it is ordered by a judgment clearly setting forth the objects oi
the expertise (Code Proc. Civ. art. 30s). Three experts are thex
to be appointed, unless the parties agree upon one only (art
303). The experts are required to take an oath (art. 305), but
in practice this requirement is frequently dispensed with. The]
may be challenged on the same grounds as witnesses (art. 3x0)
The necessary documentary and other evidence Is laid befon
them (art. 317), and they make a single report to the court, evci
if they express different opinions: in that case the grounds onl]
of the different opinions are to be stated, and not the persona
opinion of each of the experts (art 318). If the court is no
satisfied with the report, new experts may be appointed (art
312); the judges are not bound to adopt the opinion of th
experts (art. 323). "This procedure in regard to experts i
common to both the civil and commercial courts, but it is muci
more frequently resorted to in the commercial court than i
the civil court, and the investigation is usually conducted b
special experts officially attached to each of these courts
(Bodington, French Lav of Evidence, London, 1904, p. 102]
EXPLOSIVES
4»i
A similar system is to be found in force in many other European
countries; see e.g. Codes of Civil Procedure of Holland, arts.
112 et seq.; Belgium, arts. 30a et seq.; Italy, arts. 95a et seq.;
as veil aa in those colonies where French caw baa been followed
(Codes of Civil Procedure of Quebec, arts. 39a ct seq.; St Lucia,
arts. 286 et acq,). In Mauritius the articles of the French law,
summarised above, ate still nominally in force; but in practice
each side calls ita own expert evidence, as in England.
These is some evidence that in England the courts were in early
times in the habit of summoning to their assistance, apparently
as assessors, persons specially qualified to advise upon any
■dentine or technical question that required to be determined.
Thus " in an appeal of maihem (le, wounding) ... the court
did not know how to adjudge because the wound was new, and
then the defendant took issue and prayed the court that the
■*■»*»»«" might be examined, on which a writ was sent to the
sheriff to cause to come medicos ckiruwgfeos da mdioribus London,
ad infarmandumdominum regent et curiam de his quae eis ex parte
domtni regis injungerantmr (Year Book, at Hen. VII. pi. 30,
p. 33). The practice of calling in expert assistance In judicial
inquiries was not confined to medico-legal cases. ■ "If matters
arise," said Justice Saunders in Buckley v. Rice Thomas (1554,
Plowdea, 124 a), " which concern other faculties, we commonly
apply for the aid of that science or faculty which it concerns."
English procedure, however, being litigious, and not, like
continental European procedure, inquisitorial, in its character,
the expert soon became, and still Is, simply a witness to speak
to matters of opinion.
There is a considerable body of law in England as to expert
evidence. Only a few points can be touched upon here. (1)
An expert is permitted to refresh bis memory in regard to any
fact by referring to anything written by himself or under his
direction at the time when the fact occurred or at a time when
at was fresh in his memory. This is also law generally in the
United States (see €4. New York Civil Code, s. 1843). In
Scotland, medical and other scientific reports are lodged in
process before the trial, and the witness reads them as part of his
evidence and is liable to be examined or cross-examined on their
contents, (a) In strictness, an expert wfll not be allowed, in
cases of alleged insanity, to say that a litigating of incriminated
party is insane or the reverse, and so to usurp the prerogative
of the court or jury. But he may be asked whether certain facts
or symptoms, assuming them to be prated, are or are not indicative
of insanity. But in practice this rule is relaxed both in England
and in Scotland, and (where it exists) to a still greater extent in
America. (3) Foreign law can only be proved in English
courts — and the same rule applies in Scotland— (a) by obtaining
an opinion on the subject from a superior court of the country
whose laws are in dispute under the Foreign Law Ascertainment
Act 186 x or the British Law Ascertainment Act 1859, or (b) by
the evidence of a lawyer of the country whose law is in question,
or who has studied it in that country, or of an official whose
position requires, and therefore presumes, a sufficient knowledge
of that law. (4) The weight of authority both in England and in
America supports the view that an expert b not bound to give
evidence as to matters of opinion unless upon an undertaking
by the party calling htm to pay a reasonable remuneration for
ha evidence.
Statutory provision has been made in England for the summon-
ing of expert assistance by the legal tribunals in various cases.
In the county courts the judge may, If he thfnks fit, on the
application of either party, call In as assessor one or more persons
of skill and experience as to the matters in dispute (County
Courts Act 1888, s, 103), and special provision is" made for
calling in an assessor in employers* liability cases (act of 1880,
s 6) and admiralty matters (see County Courts Admiralty
Jurisdiction Acts of 1868 and 1869). In the High Court and
court of appeal one or more specially qualified assessors may be
called in to assist in the hearing of any cause or matter except a
criminal proceeding by the crown (Judicature Acts 1873, s. 56),
aad a like power is given to both these courts and the judicial
committee of the privy council in patent cases (Patents, &c, Aa
X. V
1883, s. 28). Maritime causes, whether original or on appeal from,
county courts, are usually taken in the presence of Elder Brethren
of the Trinity House, who advise the judge without having any.
right to control or any responsibility for his decision (sea the*
* Beryl," 1884, 9 P.D. x), and on appeal in maritime causes
nautical assessories are usually called in by the court of appeal,
and may be called in by the House of Lords (Judicature Act
1891, s. 3); a like provision is made as to maritime causes
in Scottish courts (Nautical Assessors [Scotlandl Act 1894).'
The judicial committee of the privy council, besides its power
to call in assessors in patent cases, ta authorized to call them
in in ecclesiastical causes (Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, s. 14).
In addition to the authorities cited in the text, see Taylor, Lou* of
Evidence (9th ed., London, 1695) ; J. D. Lawsoa, Law of Expert and
Opinion Evidence (1900),
EXPLOSIVES, a general term for substances which by certain
treatment "explode," i.e. decompose or change in a violent
manner so as to generate force. From the manner and degree of
violence of the decomposition they are classified into "pro-
peuants " and " detonators," but this classification is not capable
of sharp delimitation. In some cases the same substance may be
employed for either purpose under altered external conditions;
but there are some substances which could not possibly be em-
ployed as propellents, and others which can scarcely be induced
to explode in the manner known as " detonation." A propellant
may be considered as a substance that on explosion produces
such a disturbance that neighbouring substances are thrown
to some distance; a detonator or disruptor may produce an
extremely violent disturbance within a limited area without
projecting substances to any great distance. Time is an im-
portant, perhaps the most important, factor In this action. A
propellant generally acts by burning in a more or less rapid and
regular manner, producing from a comparatively small volume
a large volume of gases; during this action heat is also developed,
which, being expended mostly on the gaseous products, causes
a further expansion. The noise accompanying an explosion Is
due to an air wave, and is markedly different in the case of
a detonator from a real propellant. Some cases of ordinary
combustion can be accelerated into explosions by increasing the
area of contact between the combustible and the oxygen supplier,
for instance, ordinary gas or dust explosions. Neither tempera-
ture nor quantity of heat energy necessarily gives an explosive
action. Some metals, e.g. aluminium and magnesium, will,
in oxidizing, produce a great thermal effect, but unless there be
some gaseous products no real explosive action.
Explosives may be mechanical mixtures of substances capable
of chemical interaction with the production of large volumes of
gases, or definite chemical compounds of a peculiar class known
as " endothermic," the decomposition of which is also attended
with the evolution of gases in large quantity.
All chemical compounds are either "endothermic" or M exo-
thermic" In endothermic compounds energy* in some form, has
been taken up in the act of formation of the compound. Some of
this energy has become potential, or rather the compound formed
has been raised to a higher potential. This case occurs when two
elements can be united only under some compulsion such as a very
high temperature, by the aid of an electric current, or spark, or as a
secondary product whilst some other reactions are proceeding.
For example, oxygen and nitrogen combine only under the influence
of an electric spark, and carbon and calcium in the electric furnace.
The formation of chlorates by the action of chlorine on boiling potash
is a good' instance of a complex compound (potassium chlorate),
being formed in small quantity as a secondary product whilst a
large quantity of primary and simpler products (potassium chloride
and water) Is forming, f n chlorate formation the greater part of the
reaction represents a running down of energy and formation of
exothermic compounds, with, only a small yield of an endothermic
substance. Another idea of the moaning of endothermic is obtained
from acetylene. When 26 parts by weight of this substance are
burnt, the heat produced will warm up 310,450 parts of water 1 C.
Acetylene consists of 24 parts of carbon and * of hydrogen by weight.
The 24 parts of carbon will, if in the form of pure charcoal, heat
192.000 parts of water 1*, and the 2 parts of hydrogen will beat
C8.O00 parts of water 1*, the total heat production being 260,000
heat units. Thus 26 grams of acetylene give an excess of 50,450
units over the amount given by the constituents. This excess of
82
EXPLOSIVES
energy 1 it due to tome form of potential energy in the com
d which becomes actual heat energy at the moment of dis-
pound .
solution of the chemical union.
The manner in which a substance
•is eodothennk is of importance as regards the practical employment
of explosives. Some particular endothermtc state or form results
from the mode of formation and the consequent internal structure
of the molecule. Physical structure alone can be the cause of a
relative endothermtc state, as in the glass bulbs known as Rupert's
drops, Ac, or even in chilled steel. Rupert's drops fly in pieces
on oeinc scratched or cut to a certain depth. The cause is un-
doubtedly to be ascribed to the molecular state of the glass brought
about by chilling from the melted state. The molecules have not
had time to separate or arrange themselves in easy positions. In
steel when melted the carbide of iron is no doubt diffused equally
throughout the liquid. When cooled slowly some carbide separates
out more or less, and the steel is soft or annealed. When chilled
the carbides are retained in solid solution. The volume of chilled
glass or steel differs slightly from that in the annealed state.
Superfused substances are probably in a similar state of physical
potential or strain. Many metallic salts, and organic compounds
especially, will exhibit this state when completely melted and then
allowed to cool in a clean atmosphere. On touching with a Kttle
of the same substance in a solid state the liquids will begin to
crystallise, at the same time becoming heated almost up to their
melting-points. The metal gallium shows this excellently well,
keeping liquid for years until touched with the solid metal, when
there is a considerable rise or temperature as solidification takes
place.
All carbon compounds, excepting carbon dioxide, and many if
not all compounds of nitrogen, are endothermic. Most of the ex-
plosives in common use contain nitrogen in some form.
Exothermic compounds are in a certain sense the reverse of
endothermic; they are relatively inert and react but slowly or not
at all, unless energy be expended upon them from outside, Water,
carbon dioxide and most of the common minerals belong to this
class.
Tne explosives actually employed at the present time include
mixtures, such as gunpowders and some chlorate compositions,
the ingredients of which separately may be non-explosive;
compounds used singly, as guncotton, nitroglycerin (in the form
of dynamite), picric acid (as lyddite or melinite), trinitrotoluene,
nitrocresols, mercury fulminate, &c; combinations of some
explosive compounds, such as cordite and the smokeless pro-
pellants in general use for military purposes;, snd, finally,
blasting and detonating or igniting compositions, some of
which contain inert diluting materials as well as one or more
high explosives. Many igniting compositions are examples
of the last type, consisting of a high explosive diluted with a
neutral substance, and frequently containing in addition a
composition which is inflamed by the explosion of the diluted
high explosive, the flame in turn igniting the actual propellant.
Explosive Mixtures— The explosive mixture longest known
is undoubtedly gunpowder (?.».) in some form— that is, a mixture
of charcoal with sulphur and nitre, the last being the oxygen
provider. Besides the nitrates of metals and ammonium nitrate,
there is a limited number of other substances capable of serving
in a sufficiently energetic manner as oxygen providers. A few
chlorates, perchlorates, permanganates and chromates almost
complete the list. Of these the sodium, potassium and barium
chlorates are best known and have been actually tried, in
admixture with some combustible substances, as practical ex-
plosives. Most other metallic chlorates are barred from prac-
tical employment owing to instability, deliquescence or other
property.
Of the chlorates those of potassium and sodium are the most
Stable, and mixtures of either of these salts with sulphur or
sulphides, phosphorus, charcoal, sugar, starch, finely-ground
cellulose, -coal or almost any kind of organic, i.e. carbon, com*
pound, in certain proportions, yield an explosive mixture.
Id many cases these mixtures arc not only fired or exploded by
heating to a certain temperature, but also by quite moderate
friction or percussion. Consequently there is much danger in
manufacture and storage, and however these mixtures have
been made up, they are quite out of the question as propellants on
account of their great tendency to explode in the manner of a
detonator. In addition they are not smokeless, and leave a
• Not necessarily heat energy entirely. A number of substances
— acetylides and some nitrogen compounds, such as nitrogen chloride
—decompose with extreme violence, but tittle heal is produced.
considerable residne which in a gun would produce serious
fouling.
Mixtures of chlorates with aromatic compounds such as the
nitro- or dtaitro-benzenes or even naphthalene .snake very
powerful blasting agents. The violent action of a chlorate
mixture is due first to the rapid evolution of oxygen, and also
to the fact that a chlorate can be detonated when alone. A
drop of sulphuric acid will start the combustion of a chlorate
mixture. In admixture with sulphur, tulphidfs and especially
phosphorus, chlorates give extremely sensitive compositions,
some of which form the basis of friction tube and firing mixtures.
Potassium and sodium perchlorates and permanganates
make similar but slightly, less sensitive explosive mixtures with
the above-mentioned substances. Finely divided metals such as
aluminium or magnesium give also with permanganates, chlorates
or perchlorates sensitive and powerful explosives. Bichromates,
although containing much available oxygen, form but feeble
explosive mixtures, but some compounds of chromic acid with
diazo compounds and some acetylides are extremely powerful
as well as sensitive. Ammonium bichromate is a self-corn-
bustibse after the type of ammonium nitrate, but scarcely an
explosive.
Explosive Compounds.— Nearly all the explosive compounds
in actual use either for blasting purposes or as pcopellants are
nitrogen compounds, and are obtained more or less directly from
nitric add. Most of the propellants at present employed consist
essentially of nitrates of some organic compound, and may be
viewed theoretically as nitric add, the hydrogen of which has
been .replaced by a. carbon complex; such compounds are
expressed by M-O-NOi, which indicates that the carbon group
is in some manner united by means of oxygen to the nitrogen
group. Guncotton and nitroglycerin are of this class. Another
large class of explosives is formed by a more direct attachment
of nitrogen to the carbon. complex, as represented by M NO*.
A number of explosives of the detonating type are of this class.
They contain the same proportions of oxygen and nitrogen as
nitrites, but are not nitrites. They have been termed nttro-
derivatives fox distinction. One of the simplest and longest-
known members of this group is nitrobenzene, C tHiNO*, which
is employed to some extent as an explosive, being one ingredient
in rack-a-rock and other blasting compositions. The dinitro-
benxenes, C«H«(NOs)i, made from it are solids which are some*
what extensively employed as constituents of some sporting
powders, and in admixture with ammonium nitrate form a blast-
ing powder of a " flamdess " variety whkb is comparatively
safe in dusty or " gassy " coal seams.
Picric acid or trinitrophenol, C«H r OH(NO»)» is employed
as a high explosive for shell, &c It requires, however, either to
be enclosed and heated, or to be started by a powerful detonator
to develop its full effect. Its compounds with metals, such as
the potassium salt, CsH r pK(NOj)a, are when dry very easily
detonated by friction or percussion and always on heating,
whereas picric acid itself will burn very quietly when set fire
to under ordinary conditions. Trinitrotoluene, C»H| CH»(XO>)s,
is a high explosive resembling picric acid in the manner of its ex-
plosion (to which in fact it is a rival), but differs therefrom in not
forming sails with metals. The nitronaphthols, C 1% H« OH NO,,
and higher nitration products may be counted in the list. Their
salts with metals behave much like the picrates.
All these nitro compounds can be reduced by the action of
nascent hydrogen to substances called amines (a.*.), which are
not always explosive in themselves, but in some cases can form
nitrates of a self-combustible nature. Aminoacetic add, for
instance,, will form a nitrate which burns rapidly but quietly, and
might be employed as an explosive. By the action of nitrous acid
at low temperatures on aromatic amines, e.g. aniline, C«H k NHt,
diazo compounds are produced. These are all highly explosive,
and when in a dry state are for the most part also extremely
sensitive to friction, percussion or heat. As many of these diazo
compounds contain no oxygen their explosive nature must be
ascribed to the peculiar state of union of the nitrogen. This
stale is attempted to be shown by the formulae such as, for
EXPLOSIVES
»3
instance, C«H»-N:N*X, which maybe some compound or diazo-
benzene. Probably the most vigorous high explosive at present
known is the substance called hydrazoic acid or azoimide (q.v .).
* It forms salts with metals such as AgN>, which explode in a
peculiar manner. The ammonium compound, NH«Ni, may
become a practical explosive of great value.
Mercuric fulminate. HgC : NjOj, is one of the most useful
high explosives known. It is formed by the action of a solution
of mercurous nitrate, containing some nitrous acid, on alcohol.
It is a white crystalline substance almost insoluble in cold water
and requiring 130 times its weight of boiling water for solution.
It may be heated to 180° C. before exploding, and the explosion
so brought about is much milder than that produced by per-
cussion. It forms the principal ingredient in cap compositions,
in many fuses and in detonators. In many of these compositions
the fulminate is diluted by mixture with certain quantities of
inert powders so that its sensitiveness to friction or percussion
» just so much lowered, or slowed down, that it will fire another
mixture capable of burning with a hot flame. For detonating
dynamite, guncotton, Ac, it is generally employed without
admixture of a diluent.
Smokeless PrefeUants. —Gvapomdtn and all other explosive
mixtures or compounds containing metallic salts must form
smoke on combustion. The solids produced by the resolution
oi the compounds are in an extremely finely •divided state, and on
being ejected into the atmosphere become more of less attached
to water vapour, which is so precipitated, and consequently adds
to the smoke. The simplest examples of propellents of the smoke-
less class are compressed gases. Compressed air was the pro-
pellent for the Zalinski dynamite gun. Liquefled carbon dioxide
has also been proposed and used to a slight extent with the same
idea. It is scarcely practical, however, because when a quantity
of a gas liquefied by pressure passes back again into the gaseous
state, there is a great absorption of heat, and any remaining
Eqirid, and the containing vessel, are considerably cooled. Steam
guns were tried in the American Civil War in 1864; but a steam
pm is not smokeless, for the steam escaping from the long tube
or gun immediately condenses on expansion, forming white mist
or smoke.
At the earliest stage of the development of guncotton the
advantage of its smokeless combustion was fully appreciated
'see Guncotton). That it did not at once take its position
o ike smokeless propetlant, was simply due to its physical
state — a fibrous porous mass — which burnt too quickly or even
detonated under the pressure required in fire-arms of any kind.
In the early eighties of the 19th century it was found that several
substances would partly dissolve or at least gelatinize guncotton,
tad the moment when guncotton proper was obtained as a
colloid or jelly was the real start in the matter of smokeless
propellants.
Guncotton is converted fnto a gelatinous form by several
rsbstances, such as esters, e.g. ethyl acetate or behzoatc, acetone
and other ketones, and many benzene compounds, most of which
are volatile liquids. On contact with the guncotton a jelly is
formed which stiffens as the evaporation of the geJatinixing
agent proceeds, and finally hardens when the evaporation is
complete. Whilst in a stiff pasty slate it may be cut, moulded
or pressed into any desired shape without any danger of ignition.
In fact guncotton in the colloid state may be hammered on an
anvil, ami, as a rule, only the portion struck will detonate or fire.
Guncotton alone makes a yery hard and somewhat brittle mass
after treatment with the gelatinising agent and complete drying,
and small quantities of camphor, vaseline, castor oil and other
sshstances are incorporated with the gelatinous guncotton to
moderate this hard and brittle state.
All the smokeless powders, of which gelatinised guncottons
or nitrated celluloses are (he base, are moulded into some con-
veateatly shaped grain, e.g. tubes, cords, rods, disks or tablets,
so that the rate of burning may be controlled as desired. The
VleiBe powder, invented in 1887 and adopted in France for a
■agaxine rifle, consisted of gelatinized guncotton with a little
nkric acid. Later a mixture of* two varieties of guncotton
gelatinised together was used. In addition to guncottons other
explosive or non-explosive substances are contained in some of
these powders. Guncotton alone in the colloid state burns very
slowly if in moderate-sized pieces, and when subdivided or made
into thin rods or strips it is still very mild as an explosive, partly
from a chemical reason, viz. there is not sufficient oxygen in it
to burn the carbon to dioxide. Many mixtures are consequently
in use, and many more have been proposed, which contain some
metallic salt capable of supplying oxygen, such as barium or
ammonium nitrate, Ac, the idea being to accelerate the rate of
burning of the guncotton and if possible avoid the production
of smoke.
The discovery by A» Nobel that nitroglycerin could be incor-
porated with collodion cotton to form blasting gelatin (see
Dynamite) led more or less directly to the invention of ballistite,
which differs from blasting gelatin only in the relative amounts of
collodion, or soluble nitrated cotton, and nitroglycerin. Ballis-
tite was adopted by the Italian government in 1890 as a military
powder. Very many substances and mixtures have been
proposed for smokeless powder, but the two substances, gun-
cotton and nitroglycerin, have for the most part kept toe field
against all other combinations* and for several reasons. Nitro-
glycerin contains a slight excess of oxygen over that necessary to
convert the whole of the carbon into carbon dioxide; it burns
in a more energetic manner than guncotton; the two can he
incorporated together in any proportion whilst the guncotton
is in the gelatinoui state; also all the liquids which gelatinize
guncotton -dissofvj nitroglycerin, and, as these gelatinizing
liquids evaporate, the nitroglycerin is left entangled in the gun-
cotton jelly, and then shares more or less its colloidal character.
In burning the nitroglycerin is protected from detonation by the
gelatinous state of the guncotton, but still adds to the rate of
burning and produces a higher temperature.
Desirable Otta/ift*r.»--Smokelessneas b one only of the desirable
properties of a propeilant. All the present so-called smokeless
powders produce a llttje fume or haze, mainly due to the conden-
sation of the steam which forms one of the combustion products.
There is often also a little vapour from the substances, such as oils,
mineral jelly, vaseline or other hydrocarbon added for lubrication or
to fender the finished material pliable, Ac. The gases produced
should neither be very poisonous nor exert a corrosive action on
metals, Ac. The powder itself should have good keeping qualities,
that is, not be liable to chemical changes within ordinary ranges of
temperature or in different climates when stored for a few years.
In these powders slight chemical changes are generally followed by
noticeable ballistic changes. All the smokeless powders of the
present day produce some oxide of nitrogen, traces of which bang
about the gun after firing and change rapidly into nitrous and nitric
acids. Nitrous acid is particularly objectionable in connexion with
metals, as it acts as a carrier of oxygen. The fouling from modem
smokeless powders is a slight deposit of add grease, and the remedy
consists in washing out the bore of the piece with an alkaline liquid.
The castor oil, mineral icily or camphor, and similar substances
added to smokeless powders are supposed to act as lubricants to
some extent. They are not as effective in this respect as mineral
salts, and the rifling of both small- arms and ordnance using smokeless
p o wders is severely gripped by the metal of the projectile. The
alkaline fouling Droduced by the black and brown powders acted
as a preventive of rusting to some extent, as well as a lubricant in
the bore.
Danger is Mou*fadUT*.--ln the case of the old gunpowders,
the most dangerous manufacturing operation was incorporation.
With the modern colloid propellants the most dangerous operations
are the chemical processes in the preparation of nitroglycerin, the
drying of guncotton, Ac. After once the gelatinising solvent has
been added, all the mechanical operations can be conducted, practi-
cally, with perfect safety. This statement appears to be correct for
all kinds of nitrated cellulose powders, whether rqjxed with nitro-
glycerin or other substances. Should they become ignited, which is
possible by a rise of temperature (to say 180*) or contact with a
flame, the mixture burns quickly, but does not detonate.
As. a rule naval and military smokeless powders are shaped into
flakes* cubes, cords or cylinders, with or without longitudinal perfora-
tions. All the modifications in shape and size are intended to regulate
the rate of burning. Sporting powders are often coloured for trade
distinction. Some powdcra are blackleaded by glazing with pure
graphite, as is done with black powders. One object of this glazing
is to prevent the grains or pieces becoming joined by pressure;
for rods or pieces of some smokeless powders might possibly unite
under considerable pressure, producing larger pieces and thus
altering the rate of burning. Most smokeless powders are fairly
«+
EXPRESS
butnmxivt to abode. AH these gelatiiuM nowofea aic a little less
easily ignited than black powders. A slightly different cap com-
position U required for small-arm cartridges, and cannon cartridges
generally require a small primer or starter of powdered black gun-
powder.
It is desired that a propellant shall produce the maximum velocity
with the minimum pressure. The pressure should start gently so
that the inertia of the projectile is overcome without any "undue
local strain on the breech near the powder chamber, and more
. . iity c
pr slightly increasing along the bore. The leading idea for im-
provements m relation to propellant* is to obtain the greatest possible
pressure regularly developed, and at the same time the lowest
temperatures. (W. R. £. U.)
Law. — la i860 an act was passed in England " to amend the
law concerning the making, keeping and carriage of gunpowder
and compositions of an explosive nature, and concerning the
manufacture and use of fireworks" (33 & 24 VicL c. 139),
whereby previous acts on the same subject were repealed, and
minute and stringent regulations introduced. Amending acts
were passed in i86r and 1862. In 187s was passed the Ex-
plosives Act (38 & 39 Vict. c 17), which repealed the former
acts, and dealt with the whole subject in a more comprehensive
manner. This act, containing iaa sections, and applying to
Scotland and Ireland, as well as to England, constitutes, with
various orders in council and home office orders, a complete code.
The act of 1875 was based on the report of a committee of the
House of Commons, public opinion having been greatly excited
on the subject by a terrible explosion on the Regent's Canal in
1874. Explosives are thus defined: (1) Gunpowder, nitro-
glycerin, dynamite, gun-cotton, blasting powders, fulminate of
mercury or of other metals, coloured fires, and every other
substance, whether similar to those above-mentioned or not,
used or manufactured with a view to produce a practical effect
by explosion or a pyrotechnic effect, and including (a) fog-signals,
fireworks, fuses, rockets,. percussion caps, detonators, cartridges,
ammunition of all descriptions, and every adaptation or prepara-
tion of an explosive as above defined. Part i. deals with gun-
powder, providing that it shall be manufactured only at factories
lawfully existing or licensed under the act; that it shall be kept \
(except for private use) only in existing or new magazines or
stores, or in registered premises, licensed under the act. Private
persons may keep gunpowder for their own use to the amount of
thirty pounds. The act also prescribes rules for the proper keep-
ing of gunpowder on registered premises. Part ii. deals with
nitro-glyccrin and other explosives; part Hi. with inspection,
accidents, search, &c; part iv. contains various supplementary
provisions. By order in council the term " explosive " may be
extended to any substance which appears (o be specially dangerous
to life or property by reason of its explosive properties, or to
any process liable to explosion in the manufacture thereof, ?nd
the provisions of the act then extend to such substance just as
if it were included in the term " explosive " in the act. The act
lays down minute and stringent regulations for the sale of gun-
powder, restricting the sale thereof in public thoroughfares or
places, or to any child apparently under the age of thirteen;
requiring the sale of gunpowder to be m closed package* labelled ;
it also lays down general rules for conveyance, ftc. The act also
gives power by order in council to define, from lime to time, tbc
composition, quality and character of any explosive, and to
classify explosives, and such orders in council are frequently
made including new substances; those in force will be found in
the Statutory Rules and Orders, tit. " explosive substance." The
Merchant Shipping Act 1804 imposes restrictions on the carriage
of dangerous goods in a British or foreign vessel, " dangerous
goods" meaning aquafortis, vitriol, naphtha, benzine, gunpowder,
lucUcr matches, nitro-glyccrin, petroleum and any explosive
within the meaning of the Explosives Act 1875. The act is
administered by the home office, and an annual report is pub-
lished containing the proceedings of the inspectors of explosives
and an account of the working of the act. Each annual report
gives a list of explosives ai .the time authorized for manufacture
or importation, and appendices containing information as to
accidents, experiments, &c.
Practically every European country has legislated on the lines
of the English act of 1875, Austria taking the lead, in 187 7, with
an explosives ordinance almost identical with the English act.
The United States and the various English colonies also have
explosives acts regulating the manufacture, storage and importa-
tion of explosives. (Sec also Petxoleum.) (T. A. I.)
Bibliography.— M. Berthelot, Sur la force da matihrs explain:
(Paris, 1883): P, F. Chalon, Les Exptosifs modernes (Paris, 1*86)
W. H. Wardcll, Handbook of Gunpowder and GuntnUon (London
1888); I. P. Cundill, A Dictionary >tf Explosives (London, 1889 ***«■
1897); M. Eisslcr. A Handbook of Modern Explostves (London, 1896
new cd. 1903); J. A. Longridgc, Smokeless Powder and its Influent \
on Gun Construction (London, 1890); C. Napier Hake and W
Macnab, Explosives and their Power (London, 1892); C. Coralyr
Les Exptosifs (Paris, 1893)." A. Ponteaux, La Poudre sans funut
et les poudres .anciennts (Paris, -"— x - ** e - 1 — ! »*■—•--» — •- *>
1893): F. Salvati, Vocabolano d\
l): C. Cuttmann, The Manufactun
poheri ed exptosivi (Rome, 1893); _
of Explosives (London, 1895 and later); S. J. von Romocki. Gestkicku
der Sprengstoffckemie, der Sprentfeeanik und das Terpedowesens bu
eum Bepnn der neusten Zeti (Berlin, 1805); Gesckickle der Explcn*
staff e % die raucksckwacken Pulver (Berlin, 1896); P. G. Sanford,
mtro-explosives (London, 1696); L. Gody, TraiiS tbhriqne e\
pratique des matierts explosives (Namur, 1896); R. Wilte, Da
Ptastomeriu (Berlin,. 1898); E. Sarrau. Introduction d la laSoru
des exptosifs (1893): Tkione des exptosifs (1896); O. Guttnunn,
Manufacture of Explosives (London, 1895J; E. M. Weaver, Notes on
Military Explosives (New York, 1906) ; M. Etssler. The Modem Higk
Explosives (New York, 1 906); Treatise on Service Exptathes,
Sublished by order of the secretary of state for war (London. 1907}
lost of the literature on modern explosives, e.g. dynamite. &c.
is to be found in papers contributed to scientific journals and societies
An index to those which have appeared in the Journal of the Sonet:
of Chemical Industry is to be found in the drcmnial index (190b;
compiled by F. W. Renant.
EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of tb<
Lat. cxprimcre, to press out, by transference used of representing
objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c in words), 4
word signifying that which is clearly and definitely set forth 01
represented, explicit, and thus used of a meaning, a law, a con-
tract and the like, being specially contrasted with " implied.'
Thus in law, malice, for which there is actual evidence, as apart
from that which may be inferred from the acts of the persoc
charged, is known as " express." The word is most frequently
used with the idea of something done. with a definite purpose
the term " express train," now meaning one that travels at a
high speed over long distances with few intermediate stoppages
was, in the early days of railways, applied to what is now usuall j
called a " special," *.*. a train not running according to tb<
ordinary time-tables of the railway company, but for son»
specific purpose, or engaged by a private person- About 184 <
this term became used for a train running to a particular plac.
without stopping. Similarly in the British postal service
express delivery is a special and immediate delivery of a letter
parcel, &c, by an express messenger at a particular incrcascc
rate. Tbc system was adopted in 1801.
In the United Slates of America, express companies for ih<
rapid transmission of parcels and luggage and light goods gener
ally perform the function of the post office or .the railways ii
the United Kingdom and the continent of Europe. Not or.l;
do they deliver goods, but by the cash on delivery system (so
Cash) the express companies act as agents both for the purchase
and seller of goods. They also serve as a most efficient agenc
for the transmission of money, the express money order bein
much more easily convertible than the postal money orders, a
the latter can only be redeemed at offices in large and import an
towns. The system dates back to 1839, when one Will: a:
Frederick Karnden (i8i3-i845)» * conductor on the Boston an
Worcester railway, undertook on his own account the carryin
of small parcels and the performance of small commission
Obliged to leave the company's service or abandon his cnterpn^
he started mm "express" service between Boston and Nc
York, carrying parcels, executing commissions and collect ic
drafts and bills. Alvin Adams followed in 1840, also be twee
Boston and New York. From 1840 to 1845 the system wa
adopted by many others between the more important towi
EXPIWPJUftTIONi-EXTEtfSIQN
*5
throughout the States. The attempt to cany letter* also was
stopped by the government as interfering with the post office.
In 1854 began the amalgamation of many of the companies.
Thus under the name of the Adams Express Company the
services started by Harnden and Adams were consolidated. The
lines connecting the west and east by Albany, Buffalo and the
lakes were consolidated in the American Express Company,
ander the direction of William 0. Fargo (9,*.), Henry Wells and
Johnston Livingston, while another company, Wells, Fargo &
Co., operated on the Pacific coast. The celebrated "Pony
Express " was started in i860 between San Francisco and St
Joseph, Missouri, the time scheduled being eight days. The
service was carried on by relays of horses, with stations
2$ m. apart. The charge made for the service was $2.50 per
J o*. The completion of the Pacific Telegraph Company line
in 1 86 1 was followed by the discontinuance of the regular
service.
The name " express" is applied to a rifle having high velocity,
flat trajectory and long fixed-sight ranges; and an " express-
ballet ** is a light bullet with a heavy change of powder used in
such a> rifle (see RliLt).
EXPROPRIATION, the taking away or depriving of property
(Late Lat. expropriate, to take away* prcfrium, i. e. that which
is one'aown). The term is particularly applied to the compulsory
acquisition of private property by the state or other public
&uthotity.
BXPULHON (Lat. expulsio* from expeUerel, the aot of driving
out, or of removing a person from the membership of a body
or the holding of an office, or of depriving him of the right of
Attending * meeting, &c In the United Kingdom the House
ef Commons can by resolution expel a member. Such resolution
cannot be questioned by any court of law, But expulsion is
only resorted to in cases where members are guilty of offences
rendering them unfit for a seat in the House, such as being in
open rebellion, being guilty of forgery, perjury, fraud or breach
of trust, misappropriation of public money, corruption, conduct
unbecoming the character of an officer and a gentleman, Ac. It
a customary to order the member, if absent, to attend in his
place, before an order is made for his expulsion (see May, Parlia-
mattery Prartice, 1906, p. 56 seq.). Municipal corporations or
cher local government bodies have no express power to expel
a member, except in such cases where the law declares the
member to have vacated his scat, or where power is given by
sutate to declare the member's scat vacant. In the cases of
officers and servants of the crown, tenure varies with the nature
of the office. Some officials hold their office* ad vitam out
adpam or dum bene se getserunt, others can be dismissed at any
lime and without reason assigned and without compensation.
In the case of membership of a voluntary association (club, &c.)
the right of expulsion depends upon the rules, and must be
exercised in good faith. Courts of justice have jurisdiction to
prevent the improper expulsion of the member of a voluntary
association where that member has a right of property in the
a^ociatioa. In the case of meetings, where the meeting is one
tf a public body, any person not a member of the body is
entitled to be present only on sufferance, and may be expelled
ca a resolution of the body. In the case of ordinary public
meetings those who convene the meeting stand in the position
oi KrtTmy to those attending and may revoke the licence and
expel any person, who creates disorder or makes himself otherwise
objec t io n a b le.
Expulsion of Aliins.—Vnder the Naturalization Act of 1870,
the last of the civil disqualifications affecting aliens in England
was removed. The political disqualifications which remained
cnJy applied to electoral rights. In the very exceptional cases
a which it was retained in the statute book, expulsion was
considered to have fallen into desuetude, but it has been revived
by the Aliens Act of 1005 (5 Edw. VII. c. 13). Under this
act powers are given to the secretary of state to make an order
requiring an alien to leave the United Kingdom within a time
£zed by the order and thereafter to remain outside the United
kngdom, subject to certain conditions, provided it » certified
to him that the alien has been convicted of any felony or mis-
demeanour or other offence for which the court has power to
impose imprisonment without the option of a fine, &c, or that
be has been sentenced in a foreign country with which there ia
an extradition treaty, for a crime not being an offence of a
political character. There are also provisions applicable within
one year after the alien has entered the United Kingdom in the
case of pauper aliens. Precautions are taken to prevent, as
far as possible* any abuse of the power of expulsion. Under the
French law, of expulsion (December j, 1849) there are no such
precautions, the minister of the interior having an absolute
discretion to order any foreigner as a measure of public policy
to leave French territory and in fact to have him taken immedV
at ely to the frontier.
EXTENSION (Lat e*, <mt; tendere, to stretch), in general,
the action of straining or stretching out. It is usually employed
metaphorically (cf. the phrase an "extension of time," a period
allowed in excess of what has been agreed upon). It is used
as a technical term in logic to describe the total number of
objects to which a given term may be applied; thus the meaning
of the term " King " in " extension " means the kings of England,
Italy, Spain, &c. (cf. Denotation), while in " intension " it
means the attributes which taken together make up the idea of
kjnghood (see Connotation). In psychology the literal sense
of extension is retained, it. " spread-outness." The perception
of space by the senses of sight and touch, as opposed to semi-
spatial perceptions by smeU and hearing, is that of " continuous
expanse composed of positions separated and connected by
distances " (Stout); to this the term "extension" is applied,
The perception of separate objects involves position and distance,
but these taken together are not extension, which necessarily
implies continuity. To move one's finger along the keys of a
piano gives both the position and the distance of the keys;
to move it along the frame gives the idea of extension.* By
expanding this idea we obtain the conception of all space as
an extended whole. To this perception are necessary both form
and material. It should be observed the actual quality of a
stimulus (rough, smooth, dry, &c) has nothing to do with the
spatial perception as such, which is concerned purely with what
is known as " local signature." The elementary undifferentiated
sensation excited by the stimuli exerted by a continuous whole
is known as its " extensive quantity " or " extensity." The
term has to do not with the kind of object which excites the
sensation, but simply with the vague massiveness of the latter*
As such it is distinguishable in thought from extension, though
it is not easy to say whether and if so how far the quantitative
aspect of space can exist apart from spatial order. , Extensity
as an element in the complex of extension must be carefully
distinguished from intensity. Mere increase of pressure implies
increase of intensity of sensation; to increase the extensity
the area, so to speak, of the exciting stimulus must be increased.'
Thus the extensity (also called " voluminousness," or "massive-
ness ") of the sensation produced by a roll of thunder is greater
than that produced by a whistle or the bark of a dog. It should
be observed that this application of the idea of extensity to
sensation in general, rather than to the matter which is the
exciting stimulus, is only an analogy, an attempt to explain
a common psychic phenomenon by terminology which is in-
trinsically suitable to the physical. As a natural consequence
the term represents different shades of meaning in different
treatises, verging sometimes towards the physical, sometimes
towards the psychic, meaning.
In connexion with extension elaborate ' psycho-physical
experiments have been devised, e.g. with the object of comparing
the accuracy of tactual and visual perception and discovering
what are the least differences which each can observe. At a
distance two lights appear as one, just as two stars distinguishable
through a telescope are one to the naked eye (see Vision):
again if the points of a compass are brought dose together
and pressed lightly on the skin the sensation, though vague and
diffused, is a single one.
See Psychology and works there quoted ; also Sraca and Turn.
86 EXTENUATING CmCUMSTANCES— EXTERRITORIALITY
KXTKHUATIHG CIRCUMSTANCES. This expression is used
fa law with reference to crimes, to describe cases in which,
though an offence has been committed without legal justification
or excuse, its gravity, from the point of view of punishment or
mora! opprobrium, is mitigated or reduced by reason of the facts
leading up to or attending the commission of the offence. Ac-
cording to English procedure, the jury has no power to determine
Che punishment to be awarded for an offence. The sentence,
with certain exceptions in capital cases, is within the sole discre-
tion of the judge, subject to the statutory prescriptions as to the
kind and maximum of punishment. It is common practice for
juries to add to their verdict, guilty or not guilty, a rider recom-
mending the accused to mercy on the ground of grave provocation
received, or other circumstances which in their view should
mitigate the penalty. This form of rider is often added on a
verdict of guilty of wilful murder, a crime as to which the judge
has no discretion as to punishment, but the recommendation
is sent to the Home Office for consideration in advising as to
exercise of the prerogative of mercy. Quite independently of
any recommendation by the jury, the judge is entitled to take
into account matters proved during the trial, or laid before him
after verdict, as a guide to him in determining the quantum
of punishment.
Under the French law {Code ^instruction crimndle, art. 545),
ft is the sole right and the duty of a jury in a criminal case to
pronounce whether or not the commission of the offence was
attended by extenuatfngdrcumstanccs {eirconslanca alttnuantes).
They are not bound to say anything about the matter, but
the whole or the majority may qualify the verdict by finding
extenuation, and if they do, the powers of the court to impose
the maximum punishment are taken away and the sentence to be
pronounced 'is red u c e d in accordance with the scale laid down
in art. 463 of the Code phial. The most important result of this
rule is to enable a jury to prevent the infliction of capital punish-
ment for murder. In cases of what is termed " crime passionel,"
French juries, when they do not acquit, almost invariably find
extenuation; and a like verdict has become common even in the
case of cold-blooded and sordid murders, owing to objections
to capital punishment.
EXTERRITORIALITY, a term of international law, used to
denominate certain immunities from the application of the rule
that every person is subject for all acts done within the boundaries
of a state to its local laws. It is also employed to describe the
quasi-extraterritorial position, to borrow the phrase of Grotius,
of the dwelling-place of an accredited diplomatic agent, and of
the public ships of one state while in the waters of another.
Latterly its sense has been extended to all cases in which states
refrain from enforcing their laws within their territorial juris-
diction. The cases recognized by the law of nations relate to:
(1) the persons and belongings of foreign sovereigns, whether
incognito or not; (2) the persons and belongings of ambassadors,
ministers plenipotentiary, and other accredited diplomatic
agents and their suites (but not consuls, except in some non-
Christian countries, in which they sometimes have a diplomatic
character); (3) public ships in foreign waters. Exterritoriality
has also been granted by treaty to the subjects and citizens
of contracting Christian states resident within the territory
of certain non-Christian states. Lastly, it is held that when
armies or regiments are allowed by a foreign state to cross
its territory, they necessarily have exterritorial rights. " The
ground upon which the immunity of sovereign rulers from
process in our courts," said Mr Justice Wills in the case of
Mighdl v. Sultan of Johore, 1S04, "is recognised by our law, is
that it would be absolutely inconsistent with the status of an
independent sovereign that he should be subject to the process of
a foreign tribunal," unless he deliberately submits to its juris-
diction. It has, however, been held where the foreign sovereign
was also a British subject {Duke of Brunswick v. King of Hanover t
1844), that he is amenable to the jurisdiction of the English
Courts in respect of transactions done by him in his capacity
as a subject. A " foreign sovereign " may be taken to include
the president of a republic, and even a potentate whose inde-
pendence is not complete. Thus in the case, cited above, of
Higketl y. Sultan of Jokore, the sultan was ascertained to have,
abandoned all right to contract with foreign states, and to
have placed his territory under British protection. The court
held that he was, nevertheless, a foreign sovereign in so far as
immunity from British jurisdiction waa concerned. The im-
munity of a foreign diplomatic agent, as the direct representative
of a foreign sovereign (or state), Is based on the same grounds
as that of. the sovereign authority itself. The international
practice in the case of Great Britain was confirmed by an act
of parliament of the reign of Queen Anne, which is still in force.
The preamble to this act states that " turbulent and disorder!]!
persons in a most outrageous manner had insulted the person
of the then ambassador of his Caarish Majesty, emperor of Great
Russia," by arresting and detaining him in custody for several
hours, " in contempt to the protection granted by Her Majesty,
contrary to the law of nations, and in prejudice of the rights
and privileges which ambassadors and other public ministers,
authorized and received as such, have at all times been thereby
possessed of, and ought to be kept sacred and inviolable." This
preamble has been repeatedly held by our courts to be declaratory
of the English common law. The act provides that all suits,
writs, processes, against any accredited ambassador or public
minister or his domestic servant, and all proceedings and judg-
ments had thereupon; are " utterly null and void," and that
any person violating these provisions shall be punished for a
breach of the puWk peace. Thus a foreign diplomatic agent
cannot, like the sovereign he represents,, waive his immunity
by submitting to .the British jurisdiction. The diplomatic im-
munity necessarily covers the residence of the diplomatic agent,
which some writers describe as assimilated to territory of the
state represented by the agent; but there is no consideration
which can justify any extension of the immunity beyond the
needs of the diplomatic mission resident within it. It is different
with public ships in foreign waters. In their case the ex-
territoriality attaches to the vessel Beyond its bulwarks
captain and crew are subject to the ordinary jurisdiction of the
stateupon whose territory they happen to be. By a foreign public
ship is now understood any snip in the service of a foreign state.
It was even held in the case of the " Farlement Beige " (18S0),
a packet belonging to the Belgian government, that the character
of the vessel as a public ship was not affected by its carrying
passengers and merchandise for hire. In a more recent case an
action brought by the owners of a Greek vessel against a vessel
belonging to the state of Rumania was dismissed, though the
agents of the Rumanian government had entered an appearance
unconditionally and had obtained the release of the vessel on
bail, on the ground that the Rumanian government had not
authorized acceptance of the British jurisdiction (The ** Jassy,"
1906, 75 LJ.P. 03).
Writers frequently describe the exterritoriality of both em-
bassies and ships as absolute. There is, however, this differ-
ence, that the exterritoriality of the latter not being, like that
of embassies, a derived one, there seems to be no ground for
limitation of it. It was, nevertheless, laid down by the arbitrators
in the ** Alabama " case (Cockburn dissenting), that the privilege
of exterritoriality accorded to vessels had not been admitted
into the law. of nations as an absolute right, but solely as a.
proceeding founded on the principle of courtesy and mutual
deference between different nations, and that it could therefore
"never be appealed to for the protection of acts done in violation
of neutrality."
The exterritorial settlements in the Far East, the privileges
of Christians under the arrangements made with the Ottoman
Porte, and other exceptions from local jurisdictions, are subject
to the conditions laid down in the treaties by which they have
been created. There are also cases in which British communit ?cs
have grown up in barbarous countries without the consent
of any local authority. All these are -regulated by orders in
council, issued now in virtue of the Foreign Jurisdiction Act
1800, an act enabling the crown to exercise any jurisdiction it
may have " within & foreign country " in as ample a manner
EXTORTION— EXTRADITION
67
u if it bad been acquired " by cession or conquest of territory."
A very exceptional case of exterritoriality is that granted to the
pope under a special Italian enactment. (T. Ba.)
EXTORTION (Lat. extorsio, from extorquere, to twist out, to
take away by force), in English law the term applied to the
exaction by public officers of money or money's worth not due
at all, or in excess of what is due, or before it is due. Such
exaction, unless made in good faith (t\«. in honest mistake as
to the son properly payable), b a misdemeanour by the common
Uw and is punishable by fine and (or) imprisonment. Besides
the punishment above stated, an action for twice the value of
the thing extorted lies against officers of the king (1375, 3 Edw. I.
c 26). There are numerous provisions for the punishment of
particular officers who make illegal exactions or take illegal
fees: e.g. sheriffs and their officers (Sheriffs Act 1887), county
court bailiffs (County Courts Act 1888), clerks of courts of
justice, and gaolers who exact fees from prisoners. A gaoler
a also punishable for detaining toe corpse of a prisoner as
security for debt. The term " public officer " is not limited to
offices under the crown; and there are old precedents of criminal
proceedings for extortion against churchwardens, and against
auBers and ferrymen who demand tolls in excess of what is
customary under their franchise.
The term extortion is also applied to the exaction of money
er money's worth by menaces of personal violence or by
•Jurats to accuse of crime or to publish defamatory matter
about another person. These offences fall partly under the head
of robbery and partly under blackmail, or what in French is
tensed chantage
See RnsseU on Crimes (6th ed, vol. i. p. 423; vol. iii. p. 318).
EXTRACT (from Lat. extrakcrc, to draw out), in pharmacy,
Ute name given to preparations formed by evaporating or con-
centrating solutions of active principles; tinctures are solutions
■itch have not been subjected to any evaporation. " Liquid
extracts " are those of a syrupy consistency, and are generally
prepared by treating the drug with the solvent (water, alcohol,
fa.) and concentrating the solution until it attains the desired
aaristency. "Ordinary extracts'* are thick, tenacious and
sometimes even dry preparations; they are obtained by evaporat-
■f solutions as obtained above, or the juices expressed from
tat plants.
Extraction, in chemical technology, is a process for separating
cac substance from another by taking advantage of the varying
joJubOity of tne.components in some chosen solvent. The term
* Eriviation " is used when water is the solvent. In laboratory
practice all the common solvents are employed. With small quan-
tises it may suffice to shake the substance with the solvent, the
suture being; heated if necessary, filter and distil or otherwise
Rcove the solvent from the distillate. For larger quantities
caatinuons extraction is advisable. This may be carried out
a many forms of apparatus; one of the most convenient is
±t Soxhlet extractor, in which the extract siphons into the
fcsk containing the solvent, and so maintains the quantity of
rnulabie solvent practically constant. Continuous extraction
» generally the practice in technology. One of the most im-
portant applications is in the fat and gelatine industries.
EXTRADITION (Lat. ex, out, and traditio, handing over),
'J* rarrender of an alleged criminal for trial by a foreign state
*Wre he has taken refuge, to the state against which the alleged
aSesee has been committed. When a person who has committed
a offence in one country escapes to another, what is the duty
sf rhe latter frith regard to him? Should the country of refuge
"y him in its own courts according to its own laws, or deliver
La up to the country whose laws he has broken? To the
pseral question international law gives no certain answer.
sjeoe jurists, Grotius among them,- incline 10 hold that a state
i bound to give up fugitive criminals, but the majority appear
a deny the obligation as a matter of right, and prefer to put
ion the ground of comity. And the universal practice of nations
1 io surrender criminals only in consequence of some special
treaty with the country which demands them.
There axe two practical difficulties about extradition which
have probably prevented the growth of any uniform rule on the
subject. One is the variation in the definitions of crime adopted
by different countries. The second is the possibility of* the
process of extradition being employed to get hold of a person
who is wanted by his country, not really for a criminal, but for
a political offence. In modern states, and more particularly
in England, offences of a political character have always been
carefully excluded from the operation of the law of extradition.
x. United Kingdom.— The Extradition Acts 1870-1873
(33 & 34 Vict, cc 6s, and 56 & 37 Vict. c. 60) and the Fugitive
Offenders Act 1881 (44 & 45 Vict. c. 60) deal with different
branches of the same subject, the recovery and surrender of
fugitive criminals. The Extradition Acts apply in the case of
countries with which Great Britain has extradition treaties.
The Fugitive Offenders Act applies— (1) as between the United
Kingdom and any British possession, (*) as between any two
British possessions, and (3) as between the United Kingdom
or a British possession and certain foreign countries, such as
Turkey and China, in which the crown exercises foreign juris-
diction.
Conditions of Surrender.— In spite of some earlier authorities
it has long been settled that in English law there is" no power to
surrender fugitive criminals to a foreign country without express
statutory authority. Such authority is now given by the
Extradition Acts 2870-1873, but only in the case of the offences
therein specified, and with regard to countries with which an
arrangement has been entered into, and to which the acts- have
been applied by order in council. The acts are further to be
applied, subject to such " conditions, exceptions and qualifica-
tions as may be deemed expedient " (s. 9); and these conditions,
&c, are invariably to be found in the* extradition treaty which
is set out in the order in council applying the Extradition Acts
to a particular country. To Support a demand for extradition
from Great Britain it is therefore necessary to show that the
offence is one of those enumerated in the Extradition Acts, and
also in the particular treaty, and that the acts charged amount
to the offence according to the laws both of Great Britain and of
the state demanding the surrender.
Surrender of Subjeetsr—k further question arises where a state
is called on to surrender one of its own subjects. Some of the
treaties, such as those with France and Germany, stipulate
that neither contracting party shall surrender its own subjects,
and in such cases a British subject cannot be surrendered by
his own country. The treaties with Spain, Switzerland and
Luxemburg provide for the surrender by Great Britain of her
own subjects, but there is no reciprocity. Other treaties, such
as those with Austria, Belgium, Russia and the Netherlands,
give each party the option of surrendering or refusing to surrender
its own subjects in each particular case. Under such treaties
British subjects are surrendered unless the secretary of state
intervenes to forbid it. Lastly, some treaties, such as that with
the United States, contain no restriction of this kind, and the
subjects of each power are freely surrendered to the other.
Surrender by Great Britain is also subject to the following
restrictions contained in s. 3 of the Extradition Act 1870: —
(1) that the offence U not of a political character, and the requisi-
tion has not been made with a view to try and punish for an
offence of a political character; (2) that the prisoner shall not
be liable to be tried for any but the specified extradition offences;
(3) that he shall not be surrendered until he has been tried and
served his sentence for offences committed in Great Britain;
and (4) that he shaH not be actually given up until fifteen days
after his committal for extradition, so as to allow of an applica-
tion to the courts.
• Political OJences.— The question as to what constitutes a
political offence is one of some nicety. It was discussed in In
re Caitimi (1800, 1 Q.B. 149), where it was held, following the
opinion of Mr Justice Stephen in his History of the Criminal Law*
that to give an offence a political character it must be " incidental
to and form part of political disturbances." Extradition was
accordingly refused for homicide committed in the course of an
I armed rising against the constituted authorities.- In the more
88
EXTRADITION
recent case of In re UeunUr (1894* * Q.B. 4*5)1 *n Anarchist
was charged with causing two explosions in Paris— one at the
Cafe Veryresulting- in the death of two persons, and the other
at certain barracks. It was not contended that the outrage
at the caf6 was a political crime, but it was argued that the
explosion at the barracks came within the description. The
court, however, held that to constitute a political offence there
must be two or more parties in the state, each seeking to impose
a government of its own choice on the other, which was not the
case with regard to Anarchist crimes. The party of anarchy
was the enemy of all governments, and its effects were directed
primarily against the general body of citizens. The test applied
in the earlier case is perhaps the more satisfactory of the two.
With regard to the provision that surrender shall not be
granted if the requisition has in fact been made with a view to
try and punish for an offence of a political character, it was
decided in the case of Arton (1896, 1 Q.B. 108) that a mere sug-
gestion, that after his surrender for a non-political crime, the
prisoner would be interrogated on political matters (his alleged
complicity in the Panama scandal), and punished for his refusal
to answer, was not enough to bring him within the provision.
The court also held that it had no jurisdiction to entertain a
suggestion that the request of the French government for his
extradition was not made in good faith and in the interests of
justice.
Extradition Ojfences.— -The following is a list of crimes in
respect of which extradition may be provided for under the
Extradition Acts 1870-1873, and the Slave Trade Act 18734
Extradition Act 1870:— (1) Murder; (a) Attempt to murder;
(3) Conspiracy to murder; (4) Manslaughter; (5) Counter-
feiting and altering money, uttering counterfeit or altered money;
(6) Forgery, counterfeiting, and altering and uttering what is
forged or counterfeited or altered; (7) Embezzlement and
larceny; (8) Obtaining money or goods by false pretences;
(9) Crimes by bankrupts against bankruptcy law; (10) Fraud
by a bailee, banker, agent, factor, trustee or director, or member
or public officer of any company made criminal by any law for the
time being in force; (11) Rape; (xa) Abduction; (13) Child-
stealing; (14). Burglary and housebreaking; (15) Arson; (16)
Robbery with violence; (17) Threats by letter or otherwise with
intent to extort; (18) Crimes committed at sea: (a) Piracy by
the law of nations; (b) Sinking or destroying a vessel at sea, or
attempting or conspiring to do so; (c) Assault on a ship on the
high seas, with intent to destroy life or to do grievous bodily harm ;
(d) Revolt, or conspiring to revolt, by two or more persons on board
a ship on the high seas against the authority of the master;
(10) Bribery. Expedition Act 1873 '.—(20) Kidnapping and false
imprisonment; (ax) Perjury and subornation of perjury. This
act also extends to indictable offences under 24 & 25 Vict,
cc 06, 97, 08, 00, 100,. and amending and substituted acts.
Among such offences included in various extradition treaties
are the following:— (a 2) Obtaining valuable securities by false
pretences; (33) Receiving any money, valuable security or
other property, knowing the same to have been stolen or unlaw-
fully obtained; (24) Falsification of accounts (see In re Arton,
1896, 1 Q.B. 509); (25) Malicious injury to property, if such
offence be indictable; (26) Knowingly making, without lawful
authority, any instrument, tool or engine adapted and intended
for the counterfeiting of coin of the realm; (27) Abandoning
children; exposing or unlawfully detaining them; (28) Any
malicious act done with intent to endanger the safety of any
person in a. railway train; (29) Wounding or inflicting grievous
bodily harm; (30) Assault occasioning actual bodily harm;
(31) Assaulting a magistrate or peace or public officer; (32)
Indecent assault; (33) Unlawful carnal knowledge, or any
attempt to have unlawful carnal knowledge, of a girl under age;
(34) Bigamy; (35) Administering drugs or using instruments
with intent to procure the miscarriage of women; (36) Any
indictable offence under the laws for the time being in force in
relation to bankruptcy. Slave Trade Act 1873 (36 & 37 Vict.
c. 88, s. 27):— (37) Dealing in slaves in such manner as to
constitute a criminal offence against the laws of both states.
The United Kingdom has extradition treaties with practically
all civilised foreign countries; ami though it is not practicable
to state which of the statutory extradition offences are included
in each, it may be said generally that crimes 1 to 17 indasive
are covered in all, though Rumania has reserved the right to
refuse, and Portugal does refuse, to surrender for a crime punish-
able with death.
The act of 1873 provides for the surrender of accessories
before and after the fact to extradition crimes, and most of the
treaties contain a clause by which extradition is to be granted
for participation in any of the crimes specified in the treaty,
provided that such participation is punishable by the laws of
both countries. Several of the treaties also contain clauses
providing for optional surrender in respect of any crime not
expressly mentioned for which extradition can be granted by
the laws of both countries.
It is further to be noted that the restrictions an surrender
in the Extradition Acts apply only to surrenders by Great Britain.
Foreign countries may surrender fugitives to Great Britain
without any treaty, if they are willing to do so and their law
allows of it, and such surrenders have not infrequently been
made. But when surrendered for an extradition crime, the
prisoner cannot be tried in England for any other crime com-
mitted before such surrender, until he has been restored, or has
hod an opportunity of returning, to the foreign state from which
he was extradited.
Procedure.— To obtain from a foreign country the extradition ol
a fugitive from the United Kingdom, it is necessary to procure
a warrant for his arrest, and to send it, or a certified copy, to the
home secretary together with such further evidence as is required
by the treaty with the country in question. In most cases
an information or deposition containing evidence which would
justify a committal for trial in Great Britain will be required
The home secretary will then communicate through the foreign
secretary and the proper diplomatic channels with the foreign
authorities, and in case of urgency will ask them by telegraph f 04
a provisional arrest. For the arrest in the United Kingdom ol
fugitive criminals whose extradition is requested by a foreign
state, two procedures are provided in ss. 7 and 8 of the act ol
1870: — (x) On a diplomatic requisition supported by the warrant
of arrest and documentary evidence, the home secretary, if b*
thinks the crime is not of a political character, wfll order tb<
chief magistrate at Bow Street to proceed; and such magistral!
will then issue a warrant of arrest on such evidence as would hi
required if the offence had been committed in the United King'
dom. (2) More summarily, any magistrate or justice of the peao
may issue a provisional warrant of arrest on evidence ^rhicl
would support such a warrant if the crime had been committee
within his jurisdiction. In practice a sworn information is re
quired, but this may be based on a telegram from the foreigi
authorities. The magistrate or justice must then report th<
issue of the warrant to the home secretary, who may cancel ii
and discharge the prisoner. When arrested on the provisiona
warrant, the prisoner will be brought up before a magistrate
and remanded to Bow Street, and will then be further remandci
until the magistrate at Bow Street is notified that a forma
requisition for surrender has been made; and unless sucl
requisition is made in reasonable time the prisoner is entitle*
to be discharged. The examination of the prisoner prior to hi
committal for extradition ordinarily takes place at Bow Street
The magistrate is required to hear evidence that the alleges
offence is of a political character or. is not an extradition crinu
If satisfied in these respects, and if the foreign warrant of arrw
is duly authenticated, and evidence is given which accord in
to English law would justify a committal for trial, if the prisone
has not yet been tried, or would prove a conviction if he ha
already been convicted, the magistrate will commit him fc
extradition. Under the Extradition Act 1895 the home secretary
if of opinion that removal to Bow Street would be dangerous l
the prisoner's life, or prejudicial to his health, may order the cas
to be taken by a magistrate at the place where the prisoner ws
apprehended, cc then is., and the magistrate -may order tl
EXTRADOS— EXTREME UNCTION
89
prisooj* to tje detained tasiich place. After committal for extra-
diiion, every prisoner has fifteen days in which to apply for
habeas corpm, and after such period, or at the dote of the habeas
corpus proc e ed in gs if they are unsuccessful, the home aecretary
issues bis warrant for surrender, and the prisoner Is handed over
to the officers of the foreign government.
The Extradition Acts apply to the British colonies, the
governor being substituted for the secretary of state. Their
operation may, however, be suspended by order in council, as
in the case of Canada, where the colony has passed an Extradition
Act of its own (see Statutory Rules and Orders).
Fugiihe Offenders i4eJ.— There are no extradition treaties
with certain countries In which the crown exercises foreign juris*
diction, such as Cyprus, Turkey, Egypt, China, Japan, Cores,
Zanzibar, Morocco, Siam, Persia, Somali, ftc. In these countries
the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 (44 & 45 Vict. c. 60) has been
applied, pursuant to s. 36 of that statute, and the measures for
obtaining surrender of a fugitive criminal are the same as in a
British colony. The act, however, only applies to persons over
whom the crown has jurisdiction in these territories, and generally
b expressly restricted to British subjects.
Under this act a fugitive from one part of the king's dominions
to another, or to a country where the crown exercises foreign
jurisdiction, may be brought back by a procedure analogous to
extradition, but applicable only to treason, piracy and offences
pantshable with twelve months' imprisonment with hard labour
or more. The original warrant of arrest must be endorsed by one
of several authorities where the offenders happen to be,-— in
practice by the home secretary in the United Kingdom and by
the governor in- a colony. Pending the arrival of the original
warrant a provi s ional arrest may be made, as under the Ex-
tradition Acts. The fugitive must then be brought up for
examination before a local magistrate, who, if the endorsed
warrant is duly authenticated, and evidence is produced" which,
according to the law administered by the magistrate, raises a
strong or probable presumption that the offender committed the
offence, and that the act applies to it," may commit him for re-
turn. An interval of fifteen days is allowed for habeas corpus pro-
ceedings, and (s. to) the court has a large discretion to discharge
tbe prisoner, or impose terms, if it thinks the case frivolous, or
thai the return would be unjust or oppressive, or too severe
a punishment. The next step is for the home secretary m the
Urured Kingdom, and the governor in a colony, 16 issue a
warrant for the return of the prisoner. He must be removed
within a month, in the absence of reasonable cause to the con-
trary. If not prosecuted within six months after arrival, or if
acquitted, be is entitled to be sent back free of cost.
In tbe case of fugitive offenders from one part of the United
Kingdom to another, it is enough to get the warrant of arrest
backed by a magistrate having jurisdiction in that part of
rise United Kingdom where tbe offender happens to be. A
warrant issued by a metropolitan polios magistrate may be
executed, without backing, by a metropolitan police officer any-
where, and there are certain other exceptions, but as a rule a
warrant cannot be executed without befog backed by a local
saturate. <J. E. P. W.)
3. Unttb) States.— Foreign extradition is purely an affair of
the United States, and not for the individual states themselves.
Upon a demand upon the United States for extradition, there is
x preliminary examination before a commissioner or judge before
there can be a surrender to- the foreign government (Revised
Statutes, Title LXVI.; as Statutes at Large, 21 5). It Is enough
to show probable guilt (Qmelos v. Ruts, 161 United States
Reports, 50s). An extradition treaty covers crimes previously
committed- If a Power, with which tbe United States have
sacn a treaty, surrenders a fugitive charged with a crime not
nefuded in the treaty, he may be tried in the United States for
sen crime. Interstate extradition is regulated by act of Con-
gress msder the Constitution of the United States (Article IV. a.
K United States Revised Statutes, s. 5*7 &)- A. surrender may
be demanded of one properly charged with an act which oan-
i crime under the iaws.of the demanding state, although
it be no crime in the other stale. A party fosproperly surrendered
may be released by writ of habeas corpus, either fromaatate or
United States court (Robbr. Conotty, 1 1 x U.S. Reports, 634). On
his return to the state from which he fled, he is subject to prosecu-
tion for any crime, though on a foreign extradition the law is other*
wise (LascdUsv. Georgia, 148 U.S. Reports, 537). (S. E. B.).
See Sir E. Clarke, Treatise upon the Lam of Extradition (4th ed.,
1904) ; Bironand Chalmers, Lawtand Practice of Extradition (1903).
BXtRADOS (extra, outside, Fr. dos, back), the architectural
te rm for the outer boundary of the voussous of an arch (?.».).
EXTREME UNCTION, a sacrament of the Roman Catholic
Church. In James v. 14 it is ordained that, if any believer is
sick, he shall call for the elders of the church; and they shall
pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord;
and the prayer of faith shall save him that is sick, and the Lord
shall raise him up; and if he have committed sins, it shall be
forgiven him. .
Origen reprobated medical art on the ground that the pre-
scription here cited is enough; modern faith-healers and Peculiar
People have followed in his wake. The Catholic Church has more
wisely left physicians In possession, and elevated the anointing
of the sick into a sacrament to be used only in cases of mortal
sickness, and even then not to the exclusion of the healing art.
It has been general since the oth century. The council of
Florence a.d. 1439 thus denned It :— '
44 The fifth sacrament is extreme unction. Its matter is olive
oil, bleaeed by a bishop. It shall not be given except to a sick person
whose death u apprehended. He shall be anointed in the following
R laces: the eyes, ears, nostrils, mouth, hands, feet, reins. The
>rm of the sacrament is this: Through this anointing of thee and
through its most pious mercy, be forgiven all thy sins of sight, Ac
. . . sad so in respect of the other organs. A priest can administer
this sacrament. But its effect is to make whole the mind, and.
so far as it is expedient, the body as well."
This sacrament supplements that of penance (viz. remission
of post-baptismal sin) in the sense that any guilt uncontested or
left over after normal penances imposed by confessors is purged
thereby. It was discussed in the 12th century whether this
sacrament is indelible like baptism, or whether it can be repeated;
and the latter view, that of Peter Lombard, prevailed.
It was a popular opinion in tbe middle ages that extreme
unction extinguishes all tics and links with this world, so that he
who has received it must, if he recovers, renounce the eating of
flesh and matrimonial relations. A few peasants of Lombard/
still believe that one who has received extreme unction ought to
be left to die, and that sick people may be starved to death
through the withholding of food on superstitious grounds. Such
opinions, combated by bishops and councils, were due to the
influence of the consolomentum of the Cathars (q.v.). In both
sacraments the death-bed baptism of an earlier age seems to
survive, and they both fulfil a deep-seated need of the human
spirit.
Some Gnostics sprinkled the beads of the dying with oO and
water to render them invisible to the powers of darkness; but in
the East generally, whece the need to compete with the Cathar
sacrament of Comolalio was less acutely felt, extreme unction
is unknown. The Latinizing Armenians adopted it from Rome
ia the crusading epoch. At an earlier date, however, it was usual
to anoint the dead.
In the Roman Church the bishop blesses the oil of the sick
used in extreme unctions on Holy Thursday at the Chrismal
Mass, 1 using the following prayer of the sacramentaries of
Gelasius and Hadrian: —
" S
from
prod 1 „
and through Thy holy benediction may it be for all that anoint, taste,
touch, a protection of mind and body, of soul and soirit, unto the
' " " —-•--- " sickness of mind and body;
sand prophets and martyrs
easing away of all pain, all weakness, all sickness of mind and body;
wherefore Thou hast anointed priest, kings and prophets and martyrs
with thy chrism, perfected by Thee, O Lord, blessed and abiding m
bowels in the 1
of our Lord Jesus Christ.'
L, Duchesne, Origines du CulU Chrtiien (Paris, 180B).
r:
CO
1 The oil kit over from the year before is burnt.
9©
EYBESCHUTZ— EYCK, VAN
BYBB8CH0TZ, JOMATHAM (1690-1764), German rabbi,
was from 1750 rabbi in Altona. He was a nan of erudition,
but he owed bis fame chiefly to his personality. Few men of the
period so profoundly impressed their mark on Jewish life. He
became specially notorious because of a curious controversy
that arose concerning the amulets which Eybeschtttz was sus-
pected of issuing. These amulets recognized the Messianic
claims of Sabbatai Sebi (9.*.), and a famous rabbinic con-
temporary of EybcschflU, Jacob Emdea, boldly accused him
of heresy. The controversy was a momentous incident in the
Jewish life of the period, and though there is insufficient evidence
against Eybeschiltz, Emden may be credited with having
crushed the lingering belief in Sabbatai current even in some
orthodox circles. (I. A.)
EYCK, VAN, the name of a family of Flemish painters in whose
works the rise and mature development of art in western Flanders
are represented. Though bred in the valley of the Meuse, they
finally established their professional domicile in Ghent and in
Bruges; and there, by skill and inventive genius, they changed
the traditional habits of the earlier schools, remodelled the
primitive forms of Flemish design, and introduced a complete
revolution into the technical methods of execution familiar to
their countrymen.
x. Hubert (Huybrecht) van Eyck (? 1366-1436) was the
oldest and most remarkable of this race of artists. The date
of his birth and the records of his progress are lost amidst the
rains of the earlier civilization of the valley of the Meuse. He
was born about 1366, at Maeseyck, under the shelter or protection
of a Benedictine convent, in which art and letters had been
cultivated from the beginning of the 8th century. But after a
long series of wars— when the country became insecure, and the
schools which had flourished in the towns decayed — he wandered
to Flanders, and there for the first time gained a name. As court
painter to the hereditary prince of Burgundy, and as client to
one of the richest of the Ghent patricians, Hubert is celebrated.
Here, in middle age, between 1410 and 1420, he signalized
himself as the inventor of a new method of painting. Here he
lived in the pay of Philip of Charolais till 1421. Here he painted
pictures for the corporation, whose chief magistrates honoured
Mm with a state visit in 1424. His principal masterpiece,
the " Worship of the Lamb," commissioned by Jodocus Vijdts,
lord of Parade, is the noblest creation of the Flemish school, a
piece of which we possess all the parts dispersed from St Bavon
in Ghent to the galleries of Brussels and Berlin, — one upon which
Hubert laboured till he died, leaving it to be completed by his
brother. Almost unique as -an, illustration of contemporary
feeling for Christian art, this great composition can only be
matched by the " Fount of Salvation," in the museum of Madrid.
It represents, on numerous panels, Christ on the judgment seat,
with the Virgin and St John the Baptist at His sides, hearing
the songs of the angels, and contemplated by Adam and Eve,
and, beneath him, the Lamb shedding His blood in the presence
of angels, apostles, prophets, martyrs, knights and hermits.
On the outer sides of the panels are the Virgin and the angel
annunciate, the sibyls and prophets who foretold the coming
of the Lord, and the donors in prayer at the feet of the Baptist and
Evangelist. After this great work was finished it was placed,
in 1432, on an altar in St Bavon of Ghent, with an inscription
on the framework describing Hubert as "maior quo nemo
repcrtus," and setting forth, in colours as imperishable .is the
picture itself, that Hubert began and John afterwards brought
it to perfection. John van Eyck certainly wished to guard
against an error which ill-informed posterity showed itself
but too prone to foster, the error that he alone had composed
and carried out an altarpiece executed jointly by Hubert and
himself. His contemporaries may be credited with full know-
ledge of the truth in' this respect, and the facts were equally
well known to the duke of Burgundy or the chiefs of the corpora-
tion of Bruges, who visited the painter's house in state in 143a,
and the members of the chamber of rhetoric at Ghent, who
reproduced the Agnus Dei as a tableau wwjh/ in 1456. Yet
a later generation of Flemings forgot the claims of Hubert,
and gave the honours that were his due to his brother John
exclusively.
The solemn grandeur of church art in the 15th century never
found, out of Italy, a nobler exponent than Hubert van Eyck.
His representation of Christ as the judge, between the Virgin and
St John, affords a fine display of realistic truth, combined with
pure drawing and gorgeous colour, and a happy union of earnest-
ness and simplicity with the deepest religious feeling. In contrast
with earlier productions of the Flemish school, it showsa singular
depth of tone and great richness of detail Finished with sur-
prising skill, it is executed with the new ofl medium, of which
Hubert shared the invention with his brother, but of which nc
rival artists at the time possessed the secret,— a medium which
consists of subtle mixtures, of oil and varnish applied to th<
moistening of pigments after a fashion, only kept secret for 1
time from gildsmen of neighbouring cities, but unrevealed t<
the Italians till near the dose of the 1 5th century. When Hubert
died on the x8th of September 1426 he was buried in the chape
on the altar of which his masterpiece was placed. According
to a tradition as old as the 16th century, his arm was preserve*
as a relic in a casket above the portal of St Bavon of Ghent
.During a life of much apparent activity and surprising successe
he taught the elements of his art to his brother John, who sur
vived him.
2. John (Jan) van Eyck (? 1385-1440). The date of b|
birth is not more accurately known than that of his elder brother
but he was born much later than Hubert, who took charge o
him and made him his " disciple." Under this tuition Joh
learnt to draw and paint, and mastered the properties of colour
from Pliny. Later on, Hubert admitted him into partnership
and both were made court painters to Philip of Charolais. Af t«
the breaking up of the prince's household in 1421, John becam
his own master, left the workshop of Hubert, and took a
engagement as painter to John of Bavaria, at that time render
at the Hague as count of Holland. From the Hague he returac
in 1424 to take service with Philip, now duke of Burgundy, at
salary of zoo livres per annum, and from that time till his deat
John van Eyck .remained the faithful servant of his princ
who never treated him otherwise than graciously. He wa
frequently employed in missions of trust; and following tl
fortunes of a chief who was always in the saddle, he appears f«
a time to have been in ceaseless motion, receiving extra pay f «
secret services at Leiden, drawing his •salary at Bruges, y
settled in a fixed abode at Lille. In 1428 he joined the embasi
sent by Philip the Good to Lisbon to beg the hand of Isabel
of Portugal. His portrait of the bride fixed the duke's choic
After his return he settled finally at Bruges, where he marrie
and his wife bore him a daughter, known in after years as a m
in the convent of Maeseyck. At the christening of this chi
the duke was sponsor, and this was but one of many distinctio
by which Philip the Good rewarded his painter's merits. Num.
ous alurpieces and portraits now give proof of van Eye!
extensive- practice. As finished works of art and models
conscientious labour they are all worthy of the name th
bear, though not of equal excellence, none being better th
those which were completed about 143 2. Of an earlier peri<
a " Consecration of Thomas a Becket " has been preserved, a
may now be seen at Chatsworth, bearing the date of 1421 ;
doubt this picture would give a fair representation of van Eye
talents at the moment when he started as an independ<
master, but that time and accidents of omission and commiss
have altered its state to such an extent that no conclusive opin
can be formed respecting it The panels of Che " Worship
the Lamb " were completed nine years later. They show t
John van Eyck was quite able to work in the spirit of his broil
He had not only the Knes of Hubert's compositions to gv
htm, he had also those parts to look at and to study wt
Hubert had finished. He continued the work with aln
as much vigour as his master. . His own experience had t
increased by travel, and he had seen the finest varieties
landscape in Portugal and the Spanish provinces. This estaJ
him to transfer to his pictures the charming scenery of la
EYB
9»
■c«iwuiytlianthoeeo£Flandtis,MrfthblrtdW«rith«ccMtacy
and not without poetic feeling. We may ascribe much of the
sjccess which attended his efforts to complete the altarpiece
of Ghent to the cleverness with which he reproduced the varied
aspect of changing scenery, reminiscent here of the orange
groves of Cmtra, there of the bluffs and crags of his native
valley. In all these backgrounds, though, we miss the scientific
rules of perspective with which the van Eycks were not familiar,
we find such delicate perceptions of gradations in tone, such
atmosphere, yet such minuteness and perfection of finish, that our
admiration never Bags. Nor is the colour less brilliant or the
touch less firm than in Hubert's panels. John only differs from
his brother in being less masculine and less sternly religious.
He excels in two splendid likenesses of Jodocus Vijdts and his
wife Catherine Burluuts. The same vigorous style and coloured
key of harmony characterizes the small " Virgin and Child " of
143 a at Ince, and the " Madonna," probably of the same date,
at the Louvre, executed for Rollin, chancellor of- Burgundy.
Contemporary with these, the male portraits in the National
Gallery, and the " Man with the Pinks/' in the Berlin Muse urn
(1452-1434), show no relaxation of power; but later creations
display no further progress, unless we accept as progress a more
searching delicacy of finish, counterbalanced by an excessive
softness of rounding in flesh contours. An unfaltering minute-
ness of hand and great tenderness of treatment may be found,
combined with angularity of drapery and some awkwardness
of attitude in the full length portrait couple (John ArnoHira and
his wife) at the National Gallery (1434), in which a rare insight
into the detail of animal nature is revealed in a study of a terrier
dog. A " Madonna with Saints," at Dresden, equally soft and
minute, charms us by the mastery with which an architectural
background is put in. • The bold and energetic striving of earlier
days, the strong bright tone, are not equalled by the soft blending
and tender tints of the later ones. Sometimes a crude ruddi-
ness in flesh strikes us as a growing defect, ah instance of which
is the picture in the museum of Bruges, in which Canon van der
Paelen is* represented kneeling before the Virgin under the
protection of St George (1434). From first to last van Eyck
retains his ability in portraiture. Fine specimens are the two
male likenesses in the gallery of Vienna (1436), and a female, the
ouster's wife, in the gallery of Bruges (i439)< His death in
1440/41 at Bruges is authentically recorded. He was buried
ia St Danat. like many great artists he formed but few pupils.
Hubert's disciple, Jodocus of Ghent, hardly does honour to his
Hosier's teaching, and only acquires importance after he has
thrown, off some of the peculiarities of Flemish teaching. Petrus
Crist us, who was taught by John, remains immeasurably behind
bim in everything that relates to art. But if the personal
influence of the van Eycks was small, that of their works was
immense, and it is not too much to say that their example,
taken in conjunction with that of van der Weyden, determined
the current and practice of painting throughout the whole of
Europe north of the Alps for nearly a century.
See also Waagen, Hubert and Jokonn boh Eye* (1***); Voll»
Werks des Jam nan Eyck (1900) ; L. K&mmerer 00 the.two families in
KWkfu«'s KOnstlcr-Monographun (1898). (J. A. C)
ETB, a market-town and municipal borough in the Eye
parliamentary division of Suffolk; England; 94} m. N.E. from
London by the Great Eastern railway, the terminus of a branch
bom the Ipswich-Norwich line. Pop. (zooi) 9004. The church
of St Peter and St Paul is mainly of Perpendicular flint work,
with Early English portions and a fine Perpendicular rood
screen. It was formerly attached to a. Benedictine priory.
Slight fragments of a Norman castle crown a mound of probably
earlier construction. There are a town hall, corn exchange,
sod grammar school founded in 1566. Brewing is the chief
industry. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and
12 councillors. Area, 44x0 acres.
Eye (Beyn, Aye) was once surrounded by a stream, from
%kkh it m said to have derived its name. Leland says it was
ittuated in a marsh and had formerly been accessible by river
vessels from Cramer* though the river was then only, navigable
to Bunion, xa a. from Eye, Ffam the discovery of numerous
bones and Roman urns and coins it has been thought that the
place was once the cemetery of a Roman camp. William h
gave the lordship of Eye to Robert Malet, a Norman, who built a
castle and a Benedictine monastery which was at first subordinate
to the abbey of Bernay in Normandy. Eye is a borough by
prescription. In 1205 King John granted to the townsmen a
charter freeing them from various tolls and customs and from
the jurisdiction of the shire and hundred courts. later charters
were granted by Elisabeth in 1558 and 1574, by James I. in
1604, and by William III. in 1697. In 1574 the borough was
newly incorporated under two bailiffs, ten chief and twenty-four
inferior burgesses, and an annual fair on Whit-Monday and a
market on Saturday were granted. Two members were returned
to each parliament from 1571 till 1832,. when the Reform Act
reduced the membership to one. By the Redistribution Act of
1885 the representation was merged in the Eye division of the
county. The making of pillow-lace was formerly carried on
extensively, but, practically ceased with the introduction of
machinery.
ETB (0. Eng. edge, Ger. Anger, derived from an Indo-European
root also seen in Lai. oc-ulue, the organ of vision fa.v.).
Anatomy.— The eye consists of the eyeball, which is the true
organ of sight, as well as of certain muscles which move it, and
of the lachrymal apparatus which keeps the front of it in a
moist condition. The eyeball is contained in the front of the
orbit and is a sphere of about an inch (34 mm.) in diameter.
From the front of this a segment of a lesser sphere projects
slightly and forms th&cvnua (fig. 1, co). There am three coats
Fig. t. — Diagrammatic Section through the Eyeball
ej. Conjunctiva.
co t Cornea. •
Sc. Sclerotic
ch, Choroid.
pc, Ciliary processes.
me, Ciliary muscle.
0, Optic nerve.
R, Retina.
/. Iris. Jl
of. Anterior chamber of aqueous
L, l*ns.
V, Vitreous body.
Z, Zonule of Zmn, the ciliary
process being removed 10
•how it.
p, Canal of Petk.
m, Yellow spot.
The dotted line behind the
cornea represents its pos-
terior epithelium.
to the eyeball, an external (protective), a middle (vascular), and
an internal (sensory). There are also ibne refracting media, the
aqueous humour, the lens and the vitreous humour or body.
The protective coat consists of the sclerotic in the posterior
five-sixths and the cornea in the anterior sixth. The sclerotic
(fig. i, Se) is a firm fibrous coat, forming the " white of the eye, 7 '
which posteriorly is pierced by the optic nerve and blends with
the sheath of that nerve, while anteriorly it is continued into the
cornea at the corneoscleral junction. At this point a small canal,
known as the canal of Schlemm, runs round the margin of the
cornea in the substance of the sclerotic (see fig. 1). Between
the sclerotic and the subjacent choroid coat is a lymph spaee
traversed by some loose pigmented connective tissue,— the
9*
lamina fusca. The cornea' is qnfte continuous with the sclerotic
but has a greater convexity. Under the microscope it is seen to
consist of five layers. Most anteriorly there is a layer of stratified
epithelium, then an anterior elastic layer, then the substantia
propria of the cornea which is fibrous with spaces in which the
stellate corneal corpuscles lie, while behind this is the posterior
elastic layer .and then a delicate layer of endothelium. The
transparency of the cornea is due to the fact that all these
structures have the same refractive index.
The middle or vascular coat of the eye consists of the choroid,
the ciliary processes and the iris. The choroid (fig. i , ck) does not
come quite as far forward as the corneo-scleral junction; it is
composed of numerous blood-vessels and pigment cells bound
together by connective tissue and, superficially, is lined by a
delicate layer of pigmented connective tissue called the lamina
suprackoroidea in contact with the already-mentioned peri-
choroidal lymph space. On the deep surface of the choroid is
a structureless basal lamina.
The ciliary processes are some seventy triangular ridges,
radially arranged, with their apices pointing backward (fig. i, pc} t
while their bases are level with the corneo-scleral junction.
They are as vascular as the rest of the choroid, and contain in their
interior the ciliary muscle, which consists of radiating and circular
fibres. The radiating fibres (fig. i, mc) rise, close to the canal of
Schlemm, from the margin of the posterior elastic lamina of the
cornea, and pass backward and outward Into the ciliary processes
and anterior part of the choroid, which they pull forward when
they contract. The circular fibres He just internal to these and
are few or wanting in short-sighted people.
The iris (fig. i, /) is the coloured diaphragm of the eye, the
centre of which is pierced to form the pupil; it is composed of a
connective tissue stroma containing blood-vessels, pigment cells
and muscle fibres. In front of it is a reflection of the same layer
of endothelium which lines the back of the cornea, while behind
both it and the ciliary processes is a double layer of epithelium,
deeply pigmented, which really belongs to the retina. The pig-
ment in the substance of the iris is variously coloured in different
individuals, and is often deposited after birth, so that, in newly-
born European children, the colour of the eyes is often slate-blue
owing to the black pigment at the back of the iris showing
through. White, yellow or reddish-brown pigment is deposited
later in the substance of the iris, causing the appearance, with
the black pigment behind, of grey, hazel or brown eye&. In
blue-eyed people very little interstitial pigment is formed, while
in Albinos the posterior pigment is also absent and the blood-
vessels give the pink coloration. The muscle fibres of the iris
are described as circular and radiating, though it is still uncertain
whether the latter are really muscular rather than elastic. On
to the front of the iris, at its margin, the posterior layer of the
posterior elastic lamina is continued as a series of ridges called
the ligamenlum pcclinatum iridis, while between these ridges are
depressions known as the spaces of Fonlana.
•The inner or sensory layer of the wall of the eyeball is the
retina; it is a delicate transparent membrane which becomes
thinner as the front of the eye is approached. A short distance
behind the ciliary processes the nervous part of it stops and
forms a scalloped border called the of a sonata, but the pigmented
layer is continued on behind the ciliary processes and iris, as
has been mentioned, and is known as the pars cUiaris retinae
and pars iridica retinae. Under the microscope the posterior
part of the retina is seen to consist of eight layers. In its passage
from the lens and vitreous the light reaches these layers in the
following order:— (t) Layer of nerve fibres; (z) Layer of ganglion
cells; (3) Inner molecular layer; (4) Inner nuclear layer; (5)
Outer molecular layer; (6) Outer nuclear layer; (7) Layer of
rods and cones; (S) Pigmented layer.
The layer of nerve fibres (fig. 2, 2) is composed of the axis-cylinders
only of the fibres of the optic nerve which pierce the sclerotic, choroid
and all the succeeding layers of the retina to radiate over its surface.
The ganglionic layer <ta. 2, 3) consists of a single stratum of large
ganglion cells, each of which is continuous with a fibre of the preced-
ing layer which forms its axon. Each also gives off a number of finer
processes (dendrites) which arborize in the next layer.
EYE tANATOM 1
The inner molecular layer (fig. 2,4) k formed by theintwtacenici
of the dendrites of the last layer with those of the cells of the inn
nuclear layer which comes next.
The inner nuclear layer (fig. 7, $) contains three different kin<
of cells, bat the most important and numerous are large btpoi
cells, which send one process into the inner molecular layer, as ha
just been mentioned, and the other into the outer molecular lay*
where they arborize with the ends of the rod and cone fibres.
The outer molecular layer (fig* a. 6) is very narrow and Is forme
by the arborizations just described. The outer nuclear layer (fi|
2, 7), like the inner, consists of oval cells, which are of two kind
The rod granules are transversely striped, and are connected e
temally with the rods, while internally processes pass into the out
molecular layer to end in a knob around which the arborizatioi
of the inner nuclear cells lie. The cone granules are situated mo
externally, and are in close contact with the cones; internally the
processes form a foot-plate in the outer molecular layer frotn whk
arborizations extend.
The layer of rods and cones (fig. 2, q) contains these structure
the rods being more numerous than the cones. The rods arc spindl
shaped bodies, of which the inner segment is thicker than the outc
The cooes are thicker and shorter than the rods, and resemble India
clubs, the handles of which are directed outward and ace transverse
striped. In the outer part of the rods the visual purple or rhodopai
is found.
The pigmented layer consists of a single layer of hexagonal eel
containing pigment, which is capable of moving towards the rw
and cones when the eye is exposed to light and away from' them i
the dark
Supporting the delicate nervous structures of the retina aj
a series of connective tissue rods known as the fibres of Mull*
(fig. a, Ct)i these run through the thickness of the retina z
Fio. a.—- Diagrammatic section through the retina to show tl
several layers, which are numbered as in the text. &, The radi
fibres of the supporting connective tissue.
right angles to its surface, and are joined together on the inn<
side of the layer of nerve fibres to form the inner limiting men
brane. More externally, at the bases of the rods and cones, the
unite again to form the outer limiting membrane.
When the retina is looked at with the naked eye from in froi
two small marks are seen on it. Oneof these is an oval depressid
about 3 mm. across, which, owing to the presence of pigment,
of a yellow colour and is known as the yellow spot (macu\
lutea); it is situated directly in the antero-posterior axis of tl
eyeball, and at its margin the nerve fibre layer is thinned and tl
ganglionic layer thickened. At its centre, however, both thci
layers are wanting, and in the layer of rods and cones only tt
cones are present. This central part is caHed the fovea centra h
and is the point of acutest vision. The second mark is situate
a little below and to the inner side of the yellow* spot; it is
circular disk with raised margins and a depressed centre and i
called the optic disk; in structure it is a complete contrast to th
yellow spot, for all the layers except that of the nerve fibres a]
wanting, and consequently, as light cannot be appreciated hen
it is known as the " blind spot." It marks the point of ent ry 4
the optic nerve, and at its centre the retinal artery appears an
divides into branches. An appreciation of the condition of tt
optic disk is one of the chief objects of the ophthalmoscope.
The crystalline lens (fig. t, I.) with its ligament separates tl
aqueous from the vitreous chamber of the eye; it is a biconv<
lens the posterior surface of which is more curved than the ai
tcrior. Radiating from the anterior and posteriorpoles are t hn
faint lines forming a Y, the posterior Y being erect and t|
anterior inverted. Running from these figures are a series <
lamellae, like the layers of an onion, each of which is made up <
a number of fibrils called the lens fibres. On the anterior surf at
of the lens is a layer of epithelial cells, which, towards the margi
or equator, gradually elongate into lens fibres. The whole lei
is enclosed in an elastic structureless membrane, and. lit© u
EMBRYOLOGY!
BYB
93
, its transparency it doc to the fact that all its constituent*
love the same refractive index.
The ligament of the lens if the thickened anterior part of the
byiioid membrane which surrounds the vitreous body; it is
dosdy connected to the his at the ora serrata, and then splits
iato two layers, of which the anterior is the thicker and blends
with the anterior part of the elastic capsule of the lens, so that,
vben its attachment to the ora serrata is drawn forward by the
dairy muscle, the tens, by its own elasticity, increases its con-
vexity. Between the anterior and posterior splitting of the
hyaloid membrane is a circular lymph space surrounding the
sargia of the lens known as the canal of Petit (fig. i, p).
The aqueous htr mow (rig. i, ao) is contained between the lens
ud its Kgaan ent posteriorly and the cornea anteriorly. It is
poetically a very weak solution of common salt (chloride of
odium i*4%). The space containing it is imperfectly divided
iato a large anterior and a small posterior chamber by a per-
forated diaphragm — the iris.
The vitreous body or humour is a jelly which fills all the
contents off the eyeball behind the lens. It is surrounded by the
hyaloid membrane, already noticed, and anteriorly is concave
jot the reception of the lens.
From the centre of the optic disk to the posterior pole of the
bas a lymph canal formed by a tube of the hyaloid membrane
saaches through the centre of the vitreous body; this is the
cotd $f Stiiling, which in the embryo transmitted the hyaloid
may to the lens. The composition of the vitreous is practically
tbe same as that of the aqueous humour.
The arteries of the eyeball are all derived from the ophthalmic
branch of the internal carotid, and consist of the retinal which
esters the optic nerve far back in the orbit, the two long dliarics,
winch run forward in the choroid and join the anterior ciliaries,
ima muscular branches of the ophthalmic, in the drculus iridis
aajor round the margin of the iris, and the six to twelve short
aSaries which pierce the sclerotic round the optic nerve and
sappry the choroid and ciliary processes.
The veins of the eyeball emerge as four or five trunks rather
behind the equator; these are called from their appearance
leas* torUcosoe, and open into the superior ophthalmic vein. In
Edition to these there is a retinal vein which accompanies its
aery.
Accessory Structures of the Eye. — The eyelids are composed of
tst following structures from in front backward: (i) Skin; (a)
Superficial fascia; (3) Orbicularis palpebrarum muscle; (4)
Tend plaUs_ el fibrous tissue attached to the orbital margin by
tk superior and inferior palpebral ligaments, and, at the junction
«" the eyelids, by the external and internal tarsal ligaments of
which the latter is also known as the Undo oculi; (5) Meibomian
tfsvds, which are large modified sebaceous glands lubricating the
disss of the lids and preventing them adhering, and Glands of
MeQ, large sweat glands which, when inflamed, cause a " sty ";
!6> the couyvsstcUoa, a layer of mucous. membrane which lines the
bid of the eyelids and is reflected on to the front of the globe,
ukt reflection forming the fornix: on the front of the cornea the
arajonctiva is continuous with the layer of epithelial cells already
sectioned.
The lachrymal gland is found in the upper and outer part of
&e front of the orbit. It is about the size of an almond and
bi an upper (orbital) and a lower (palpebral) part. Its six to
tvdve ducts open on to the superior fornix of the conjunctiva.
The lachrymal canals (canaliculi) (see fig. 3, ft and 3) are
Rperior and inferior, and open by minute orifices (puncta) on to
the free margins of the two eyelids near their inner point of
--action. They collect the tears, secreted by the Ischrymsl
rand, which thus pass right across the front of the eyeball, con-
Lseally moistening the conjunctiva. The two ducts are bent
aund a small pink tubercle called the caruncula lachrymalis
(fig. 3, 4) a* the inner angle of the eyelids, and open into the
■vkrymal sac (fig. 3, 6), whkh Ues in a groove in the lachrymal
bone. The sac is continued down Into the nasal duct (fig. 3, 6*),
»Uch is about \ inch long and opens into the inferior meatus of
the nose, its opening being guarded by a valve.
The orbit contains seven muscles, six of which rise close to the
optic foramen. The levator palpebrae supcrioris is the highest,
and passes forward to the superior tarsal plate and fornix of the
conjunctiva. The superior and inferior recti are inserted into the
upper and lower sur-
faces of the eyeball re*
spectivdy; they make
the eye look inward as
well as up or down.
The external and in-
ternal recti are inserted '
into the sides of the
eyeball and make it
look outward or in-
ward. The superior
oblique runs forward
to a pulley in the inner
and front part of the
roof of the orbit, round
which it turns to be
inserted into the outer
and back part of the /, Orbicular muscle.
cyebalL It turns the t. Lachrymal canal,
glance downward and 8, Punctum.
outward. The inferior *' Canmcwa-
oblique rises from the inner and front part of the floor of the
orbk, and is also inserted into the outer and back part of the
eyeball. It directs the glance upward and outward. Of all
these muscles the superior oblique is supplied by the fourth
cranial nerve, the external rectus by the sixth and the rest by the
third.
The posterior part of the eyeball and the anterior parts of the
muscles are enveloped in a lymph space, known as the capsule,
of Tenon, which assists their movements.
Embxyology.—As is pointed out in the article Brain, the
optic vesicles grow out from the tore-brain, and the part nearest
the brain becomes constricted and elongated tc form the optic
stalk (see figs. 4 and 5, &). At the same time the ectoderm
covering the side of the bead thickens and becomes invaginated
to form the lens vesicle (see figs. 4 and 5, &), which later loses its
connexion with the surface and approaches the optic vesicle,
causing that structure to become cupped for its reception, so
that what was the optic vesicle becomes the optic cup and consists
of an external and an internal layer of cells (fig. 6 jS and 5). Of
these the outer cells become the retinal pigment, while the
inner form the other layers of the retina. The invagination of
the optic cup extends, as the choroidal fissure (not shown in the
Flo. 3.— Lachrymal Canals and Duct.
5, Lachrymal sac
0, Lachrymal duct.
7, Angular artery.
Ftc. 4.
Diagram of Developing
Eye (1st stage).
«, Forebrain.
fi, Optic vesicle.
>, Superficial ectoderm.
I, Thickening for lens.
FlC. 5.
Diagram of Developing
Eye (2nd stage).
0, Optic cup.
S, Invagioatioh of lens.
Other letters as in
fig- 4-
diagrams), along the lower and back part of the optic stalk, and
into this slit sinks some of the surrounding mesoderm to form
the vitreous body and the byaloid arteries, one of which persists. 1
When this has happened the fissure closes up. The anterior
epithelium of the lens vesicle remains, but from the posterior
toe lens fibres are developed and these gradually fill up the
cavity. The superficial layer of head ectoderm, from which the
lens has been invaginated and separated, becomes the anterior
1 Some embryologies regard the vitreous body as formed from
the ectoderm (sea Queia's Anatomy, yoL L. 1908).
9*
EYE
[COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
epithelium of the cornea (fig. 6, t), and between it and the lens
the mesoderm sinks in to form the cornea, iris and anterior
chamber of the eye, while surrounding the optic cup the meso-
derm forms the scltrotk and choroid
coats (fig. 7, » and f ). Up to the seventh
month the pupil is dosed by the mem-
brana pupUlaris, derived from the cap*
side of the lens which is part of the
mesodermal ingrowth through the
choroidal fissure already mentioned.
The hyaloid artery remains, as a pro-
longation of the retinal artery to the
Fie. 6. * ens ' unt ^ J"** before birth, but after
Diagram of Developing lhat il> shcatn f orma thc can* 1 °*
Eye (3rd stage). , Stilling. Most of the fibres of the
A, Solid lens. ' optic nerve are centripetal and begin
«, Cornea| I epithelium. & thc axons of the ganglionic cells of
Utner letters as in - - "^ ^*
figs. 4 and 5.
the retina; a few, however, are centri-
fugal and come from the nerve cells in
the bn.in.
The eyelids are developed as ecto-
dermal folds, which blend with one
another about the third month and
separate again before birth m Man
(fig. 7, *). The lachrymal sac and
duct are formed from solid ectoder-
er . . mal thickenings which later become
"5? tolTttee? canals-
The mesodermal It will thus be seen that the optic
tissues axe dotted, nerve and retina are formed from the
f, Choroid and Iris. brain ectoderm; the lens, anterior cpi-
J* \fflm£ua! * ndCornea * thehumof the cornea, skin of the eyelids,
«' Aqueous. conjunctiva and lachrymal apparatus
c, Eyelids. from the superficial ectoderm; while the
sderotic, choroid, vitreous and aqueous
humours as well as the iris and cornea are derived from the
mesoderm.
See Human Embryology, by C. S. Minot (New York); Quain's
Anatomy, vol. i. (1908); " Entwickelang des Auges der Wirbel-
tiere," by A. Froriep, in Handbutk der vtrgUkheruUn und exjxri-
menUlUn Entwickelungslehre der Wirbeltiere (Q. Hertwig, Jena,
1905).
Comparative Anatomy.— The Acrania, as represented by
Amphioxus (the lancelet), have a patch of pigment in the fore
part of thc brain which is regarded as the remains of a degenerated
eye. In the Cydostomata the hag (Myxine) and larval lamprey
(Ammocoetes) have ill-developed eyes lying beneaththe skin and
devoid of lens, iris, cornea and sclerotic as well as eye muscles.
In the adult lamprey (Petromyzon) these structures are developed
at the metamorphosis, and the skin becomes transparent, render-
ing sight possible. Ocular muscles are developed, but, unlike
most vertebrates, the inferior rectus is supplied by the sixth
nerve while all the others are supplied by, the third. In all
vertebrates the retina consists of a layer of scnso-neural cells,
the rods and cones, separated from the light by the other layers
which together represent the optic ganglia of the invertebrates;
in the latter animals, however, the scnso-neural cells are nearer
the light than the ganglia.
In fishes the eyeball is flattened in front, but the flat cornea
is compensated by a spherical lens, which, unlike that of other
vertebrates, is adapted for near vision when at rest. The iris
in some bony fishes (Teleostei) is not contractile. In the
Tclcostel, too, there is a process of the choroid which projects
into the vitreous chamber and runs forward to the lens; it is
known as thc processus fakifermis, and, besides nourishing the
lens, is concerned in accommodation. This specialized group
of fishes is also remarkable for the possession of a so-called
choroid gland, which is really a reic mirabite (see Abteribs)
between the choroid and sclerotic. The sclerotic in fishes is
usually chondrified and sometimes calcified or ossified. In the
retina the rods and cones arc about equal in number, and the
cones are very large. In the cartilaginous fishes (Elasmobranchs)
there is a silvery layer, calkd tbctopetim huid*m> on the retinal
surface of the choroid.
In the Amphibia the cornea is more convex than in the fish,
but the lens is circular and the sclerotic often chondrified. There
is no processus falciformis or tapetura luddura, but the class
is interesting in that it shows the first rudiments of the ci)iar>
muscle, although accommodation is brought about by shiftimi
the lens. In the retina the rods outnumber the cones and these
latter arc smaller than in any other animals. In some Amphibian:
coloured oil globules are found in connexion with the cones
and sometimes two ctnes are joined, forming double or twu
cones.
In Reptilia the eye is spherical and its anterior part is oftei
protected by bony plates in the sclerotic (Lacertilia and Chelonia)
The ciliary musdeisstriated, and in roost reptiles accommodattot
is effected by relaxing the dliary ligament as in higher vertebrates
though in the snakes (Ophidia) the lens is shifted as it is in th
lower forms. Many lizards have a vascular projection of th
choroid into the vitreous, foreshadowing the pecten of bird
and homologous with the processus falciformis of fishes. Ii
the retina the rods are scarce or absent.
In birds thc eye is tubular, especially in nocturnal and raptoria
forms: this is due to a lengthening of the dliary region, which i
always protected by bony plates in the sderotic The pecten
already mentioned in lizards, is a pleated vascular projectio
from t he optic disk towards the lens which in some cases it reaches
In Apteryx this structure disappears. In the retina the cone
outnumber the rods, but are not as numerous as in the reptile
The ciliary muscle is of the striped variety.
In the Mammalia the eye is largely endosed in the orbit, an
bony plates in the sderotic are only found in the monotremc
The cornea is convex except in aquatic mammals, in which it
flattened. The lens is biconvex in diurnal mammals, but i
nocturnal and aquatic it is spherical There b no pecten, bt
the numerous hyaloid arteries which are found in thc embr>
represent it. Thc iris usually has a circular pupil, but in son
ungulates and kangaroos it is a transverse slit. In the Cetact
this transverse opening is kidney-shaped, the hilum of the kidnc
bdng above. In many carnivores, especially nocturnal one
the slit is vertical, and this form of opening seems adapted to
feeble light, for it is found in the owl, among birds. The tapetu
lucidum is found in Ungulata, Cetacea and Carnivore. Tl
ciliary musde is unstriped. In the retina the rods are mo
numerous than the cones, while the macula, lutea only appea
in the Primates in connexion with binocular vision.
Among the accessory structures of the eye the retractor bid
muscle is found in amphibians, reptiles, birds and many xnai
mals; its nerve supply shows that it is probably a derive' ivc
the external or posterior rectus. The nictitating membra
or third eyelid is well-developed in amphibians, reptiles, bir
arid some few sharks; it is less marked in mammals, and
Man is only represented by the Hide plica semilunaris. W h
functional it is drawn across the eye by spedal muscles deriv
from the retractor bulbi, called the bursalis and p^. amidol
In connexion with the nictitating membrane the Harder!
gland is developed, while the lachrymal gland secretes fli
for the other eyelids to spread over the conjunctiva. Th<
two glands are specialized parts of a row of glands which in t
Urodela (tailed amphibians) are situated along the lower eyel
the outer or posterior part of this row becomes the lachryn
gland, which in higher vertebrates shifts from the lower to 1
upper eyelid, while the inner or anterior part becomes 1
Harderian gland. Bdow the amphibians glands ace not neccasa
as the water keeps the eye moist.
The lachrymal duct first appears in the tailed amphibia
in snakes and gecko lizards, however, it opens into the moutl
For Hteraturc up to toco see R. Wfedersheun's VerMche
Anatomic der Wirbeltiere (Jena, 1002). Later literature is not I
in the catalogue of the Physiological Series of the R. Collcfe
Surgeons of England M useum, vol. lii. (London, 1906). (F. G. P.
Eye Diseases.— The specially important diseases of the <
are those which temporarily or permanently interfere w
DISEASES)
EYE
95
In con vdr ring the pathology of the eye it may here*
s s tni h ct B d that (i) it is a double organ, while (a) either eye
may have its own trouble.
x. The two eyes act together, tinder normal conditions, for
all practical purposes exactly as if there were but one eye-placed
a the middle of the face. All impressions made upon either
retina, to the one side of a vertical line through the centre, the
/ess* centralis, before giving rise to conscious perception cause
a stimulation of the same area in the brain. Impulsions
formed simultaneously, for instance, on the right side of the
right retina and on corresponding areas of the right side of the
left retina, axe c onv eye d to the same spots in the right occipital
lobe of (he brain. Pathological processes, therefore, which are
localised in the right or left occipital lobes, or along any part of
the course of the fibres which pass from the right or left optic
tracts to these " visual centres," cause defects in function of
the right or left halves of the two retinae. Hemianopia, or half-
btindness, arising from these pathological changes, is of very
varying degrees of severity, according to the nature and extent of
the particular lesion. The blind areas in the two fields of vision,
corresponding to the outward projection of the paralysed retinal
areas, are always symmetrical both in shape and degree. The
central lesion may for instance be very small, but at the same
time destructive to the nerve tissue. This will be revealed as
a sector-shaped or insular symmetrical complete blindness in
the fields of vision to the opposite side. Or a large central area,
or an area comprising many or all of the nerve fibres which pass
to the visual centre on one side, may be involved in a lesion
which causes impairment of function, but no actual destruction
of the nerve tissue. There is thus caused a symmetrical weaken*
ing of vision {amblyopia) in the opposite fields. Tn such cases
the colour vision is so much more evidently affected than the
sense of form that the condition has* been called kemiochrouta-
tefsia or half-colour blindness. Hemianopia may be caused
by haemorrhage, by embolism, by tumour growth which either
directly Involves the visual nerve elements or affects them by
compression and by inflammation. Transitory hemianopia
is rare and is no doubt most frequently of toxic origin.
The two eyes also act as If they were one in accommodating.
It impossible for the two eyes to accommodate simultaneously
to different extents, so that where there is, as occasionally
happens, a difference in focus between them, this difference
remains the same for all distances for which they are adapted.
In snch cases, therefore, both eyes cannot ever be accurately
adapted at the same time, though either may be alone. It
eften happens as a consequence that the one eye is used to receive
the sharpest images of distant, and the other of near objects.
Any pathological change which leads to an interference in the
accommodating power of one eye alone must have its origin in a
lesion which lies peripherally to the nucleus of the third cranial
serve. Such a lesion is usually one of the third nerve itself.
Consequently, a unilateral accommodation paresis is almost
invariably associated with paresea of some of the oculo-motor
noscles. A bilateral accommodation paresis is not uncommon.
l! is doe to a nuclear or more central cerebral disturbance,
t'olifce a hemianopia, which is mostly permanent, a double
accommodation paresis is frequently transitory. It is often a
post -diphtheritic condition, appearing alone or associated with
other paresis.
Both eyes are also normally intimately associated in their
movements. They move in response to a stimulus or a com-
bination of stimuli, emanating from different centres of the
brain, but one which is always equally distributed to the corre-
tpcoding muscles in both eyes, so that the two lines' of fixation
ireet at the succession of points on which attention is directed.
The movements are thus associated in the same direction, to
tfe right or left, upwards or downwards, &c. In addition,
wing to the space which separates the two eyes, convergent
novements, caused by stimuli equally distributed between the
!«o internal recti, are required for the fixation of nearer and
nearer-lying objects. These movements would not be necessary
in the case of a single eye. It would merely have to accommodate.
The converging movements of the double eye occur in association
with accommodation, and thus a close connexion becomes
established between the stimuli to accommodation and con-
vergence. All combinations of convergent and associated
movements are constantly taking place normally, just as if a
single centrally-placed eye were moved in all directions and
altered its accommodation according to the distance, in any
direction, of the object which is fixed.
Associated and convergent movements may be interfered
with pathologically In different ways. Cerebral lesions nay
lead to their impairment or complete abolition, or they may
give rise to involuntary spasmodic action, as the result of
paralysing or irritating the centres from which the various
co-ordinated impulses are controlled or emanate. Lesions which
do not involve the centres may prevent the response to associated
impulses in one eye alone by interfering with the functional
activity of one or more of the nerves along which the stimuli
are conveyed. Paralysis of oculo-motor nerves is thus a common
cause of defects of association in the movements of the double
eye. The great advantage of simultaneous binocular vision —
viz. the appreciation of depth, or stereoscopic vision— is thus
lost for some, or it may be all directions of fixation. Instead
of seeing singly with two eyes, there is then double-vision
{diplopia). This persists so long as the defect of association
continues, or so long as the habit of mentally suppressing the
image of the faultily-directed eye is not acquired.
In the absence of any nerve lesions, central or other, interfering
with their associated movements, the eyes continue throughout
life to respond equally to the stimuli which cause these move-
ments, even when, owing to a visual defect of the one eye,
binocular vision has become impossible. It is otherwise, however,
with the proper co-ordination of convergent movements. These
are primarily regulated by the unconscious desire for binocular
vision, and more or less firmly associated with accommodation.
When one eye becomes blind, or when binocular vision for other
reasons is lost, the impulse is gradually, as ir were, unlearnt.
This is the cause of divergent concomitant squint. Under some-
what similar conditions a degree of convergence, which is in
excess of the requirements of fixation, may be acquired from
different causes. This gives rise to convergent concomitant
Squint.
For Astigmatism, Ac, see the article Vision;
7. Taking each eye as a single organ, we find it to be subject
to many diseases. In some cases both eyes may be affected in
the same way, e.g. where the local disease is a manifestation of
some general disturbance. Apart from the fibrous coat of the
eye, the sclera, which is little prone to disease, and the external
muscles and other adnexa, the eye may be looked upon as
composed of two elements, (a) the dioptric media, and (b) the
parts more or less directly connected with perception. Patho-
logical conditions affecting either of these elements may interfere
with sight.
The dioptric media, or the transparent portions which are con*
cerned in the transmission of light to, and the formation of images
upon, the retina, are the following: the cornea, the aqueous
humour, the crystalline kns and the tUreous humour. Loss of
transparency in any of these media leads to blurring of the retinal
images of external objects. In addition to loss of transparency
the cornea may have its curvature altered by pathological pro-
cesses. This necessarily causes imperfection of sight. The
crystalline lens, on the other hand, may be dislocated, and thus
cause image distortion.
The Cornea.— The transparency of the cornea is mainly lost
by {inflammation (keratitis), which causes either an infiltration of
its tissues with leucocytes, or a more focal, more destructive
ulcerative process.
Inflammation of the cornea may be primary or secondary,
i.e. the inflammatory changes met with in the corneal tissue
may be directly connected with one or more foci of inflammation
in the cornea itself or the focus or fori may be in some other part
of the eye. Only the very superficial forms of primary keratitis,
those confined to the epithelial layer, leave no permanent change;
<j6
EYE
(DISEASE
there is- otherwise always a loss of tissue resulting from the
inflemmation and this loss is made up for by more or less densely
intransparcnt connective tissue (nebula, leucoma). These accord-
ing to their site and extent cause greater or less visual disturb-
ance. Primary keratitis may be ulcerative or non-ulceraiive,
superficial or deep, diffuse or circumscribed, vascularized or
non-vascularized. It may be complicated by deeper inflamma-
tions of the eye such as iritis and cyditis. In some cases the
anterior chamber is invaded by pus {hypopyon). The healing
of a corneal ulcer is characterized by the disappearance of pain
where this has been a symptom and by the rounding off of its
sharp margins as epithelium spreads over them from the surround-
ing healthy parts. Ulcers tend to extend either in depth or
superficially, rarely in both manners at the same time. A deep
ulcer leads to perforation with more or less serious consequences
according to the extent of the perforation. Often an eye bears
permanent traces of a perforation in adhesion of the Iris to the
back of a corneal scar or in changes in the tens capsule (cap-
sular cataract). In other cases the ulcerated cornea may yield
to pressure from within, which causes it to bulge forwards
(staphyloma).
The principal causes of primary keratitis are traumata and
infection from the conjunctiva. Traumata are most serious when
the body causing the wound is not aseptic or when micro-
organisms from some other source, often the conjunctiva and
tear-sac, effect a lodgment before healing of the wound has
sufficiently advanced. In infected cases a complication with
iritis is not uncommon owing to the penetration of toxines into
the anterior chamber.
Inflammations of the cornea are the most important diseases
of the eye, because they are among the most frequent, because
of the value of the cornea to vision and because much good can
often be done by judicious treatment and much harm result
from wrong interference and neglect. The treatment of primary
keratitis must vary according to the cause. Generally speaking
the aim should be to render the ulcerated portions as aseptic
as possible without using applications which are apt to cause
a great deal of irritation and thus interfere with healing. On
this account it is important to be able to recognize when healing
is taking place, for as soon as this is the case, rest, along with
frequent irrigation of the conjunctiva with sterilized water at
the body temperature, and occasionally mild antiseptic irrigation
of the nasal .mucous membrane is all that is required. It is a
common and dangerous mistake to over treat.
Of local antiseptics which are of use may be mentioned the
actual cautery, chlorine water, freshly prepared silver nitrate or
protargol, and the yellow oxide of mercury. These different
agents are of oourse not all equally applicable in any given
case; it depends upon the severity as well as upon the
nature of the inflammation which is the most suitable. For
instance, the actual cautery is employed only in the case of the
deeper septic or malignant ulcers, in which, the destruction of
tissue is already considerable and tending to spread further.
Again the yellow oxide of mercury should only be used in the
more super6cial, strumous forms of inflammation. Many other
substances are also in use, but need not here be referred to.
Secondary keratitis takes the form of an interstitial deposit of
leucocytes between the layers of the cornea as well as often of
vascularization, sometimes intense) from the deeper network
o| vessels (anterior ciliary) surrounding the cornea. The duration
of a secondary keratitis is usually prolonged, often lasting many
months. More or less complete restoration of transparency is the
rule, however, eventually.
No local treatment is called for except the shading of the eyes
and in most cases the use of a mydriatic to prevent synechiae
when the iris is involved. Often it is advisable to do something
for the general health. In young people there is probably nothing
better than cod-liver pil and syrup of the iodide of iron. In-
herited syphilis, tuberculous and other inflammations are the
causes of secondary keratitis.
Neuro-paralylU Keratitis. — When the fifth nerve is paralysed
there is a tendency for the cornea to become inflamed. Different
forms of inflammation may then occur which aD, besides aoae
thesia, show a marked slowness in healing. The main cause
neuro-paralytic keratitis lies in the greater 'vulnerability
the cornea. The prognosis is necessarily bad. The treaimei
consists in as far as possible protecting the eye from extern
influences, by keeping it tied up, and by frequently irrigatii
with antiseptic lotions.
Certain non-inflammatory and degenerative changes are m
with in the cornea. Of these may be mentioned keralocm
or conical cornea, in which, owing to some disturbance of vitalit
the nature of which has not been discovered, the normal curvatu
of the cornea becomes altered to something more of a hyberbolo
of revolution, with consequent impairment of vision: arc
senilis, a whitish opacity due to fatty degeneration, extendi)
round the corneal margin, varying in thickness in diflere
subjects and usually only met with in old people: tr.xnsta
calcareous film, consisting of a finely punctifocm opacity exten
ing, in a tolerably uniformly wide band, occupying the zone
the cornea which is left uncovered when the lids are half closed
Tumours of the cornea are not common. Those chiefly no
with are dermoids, fibromata, sarcomata and epitheliomata.
Scleritis.— -Inflammation of the sclera is confined to its anteri
part which is covered by conjunctiva. Sderiiis may occur
circumscribed patches or may be diffused in the shape of a b<
round the cornea. The former is usually more superficial ai
uncomplicated, the latter deeper and complicated with come
infiltration, iridocyclitis and anterior choroiditis. Superfici
scleritis or, as it is often called, episcleritis, is a long-conttow
disease which is associated with very varying degrees of di
comfort. The chronic nature of the affection depends main
upon the tendency that the inflammation has to recur in success
patches at different parts of the sclera. Often only one eye at
time is affected. Each patch lasts for a month or two and
Succeeded by another after an interval of varying duratra
Months or years may elapse between the attacks. The dcatrici
site of a previous patch is rarely again attacked. The sdei
infiltration causes a firm swelling, often sensitive to touch, ov
which the conjunctiva is freely movable. The overlying co
juncliva is always injected. The infiltration itself at the hetg
of the process is densely vascularized. Seen through the co
juncliva its vessels have a darker, more purplish hue than t
superficial ones. The swelling caused by the infiltration grad
ally subsides, leaving a cicatrix to which the overlying conjunct i
becomes adherent. The cicatrix has a slaty porcellawH
looking colour. Superficial scleritis occurs in both sexes wi
about equal frequency. No definite cause for the inflaramal«
is known. The treatment on the whole is unsatisfactoi
Burning down the nodules with the actual cautery, and su
sequently a visit to such baths as Harrogate, Buxton, Hombu
and Wiesbaden, may be recommended.
Deep scleritis with its attendant complications is sltogeti
a more serious disease. Etiologically it is equally obscui
Both eyes are almost always attacked. It more generally oca
in young people, mostly in young women. Deep sckriiis
more persistent and less subject to periods of intermission th
episcleritis. The deeper and more wide-spread inflammato
infiltrations of the sclera lead eventually to weakening of th
coat, and cause it to yield to the intra-ocular pressure. Yisil
suffers from extension of the infiltration to the cornea, or frc
iritis with its attendant synechiae, or from anterior choroidit
and sometimes also from secondary glaucoma. The treatiw
is on the whole unsatisfactory. Iridectomy, especially if do
early in the process, may be of use.
The A gueous Humour. — Int ransparencyof the aqueous huxnc
is always due to some exudation. This comes either from t
iris or the ciliary processes, and may be blood, pus or fibr
An exudation in this situation lends naturally to gravitate
the most dependent part, and, in the case of blood or pus,
known as hyphaemo or hypopyon.
The Crystalline Lens Catarac/.— Intrensparency of the cr;
tallinc lens is technically known as cataract. Cataract may
idiopathic and uncomplicated, or traumatic, or secondary
DISEASES) EYE
disease in the deeper parts of the eye. The modified epithelial
structure of which the lens is composed is always being added to
throughout life. The older portions of the lens are consequently
the more central. They are harder and less elastic This
arrangement seems to predispose to difficulties of nutrition,
la many people, in the absence altogether of general or local
disease, the transparency of the lens is lost owing to degeneration
of the incompletely-nourished fibres. This idiopathic cataract
mostly occurs in old people; hence the term senile cataract.
So-called senile cataract is not, however, necessarily associated
with any general senile changes. An idiopathic uncomplicated
cataract is aho met with as a congenital defect due to faulty
development of the 'crystalline lens. A particular and not
BBcommon form of this kind of cataract, which may also develop
during infancy, is lamellar or zonular cataract. This is a partial
2nd stationary 4orm of cataract in which, while the greater part
of the lens retains its transparency, some of the lamenae are
ifitransparent. Traumatic cataract occurs in two ways: by
laceration or rupture of the lens capsule, or by nutritional changes
consequent upon injuries to the deeper structures of the eye.
The transparency of the Iras is dependent upon the integrity
of its capsule. Penetrating wounds of the eye involving the
capsule, or rupture of the capsule from severe blows on the eye
without perforation of its coats, are followed by rapidly develop-
ing cataract. Severe non-penetrating injuries, which do not
cause rupture of the capsule, are sometimes followed, after a
time, by slowly-progressing cataract. Secondary cataract is
d«e to abnormalities in the nutrient matter supplied to the lens
owing to disease of the ciliary body, choroid or retina. In some
diseases, as diabetes, the altered general nutrition tells in the
same way on the crystalline lens. Cataract is then rapidly
formed. All cases of cataract in diabetes are not, however,
necessarily true diabetic cataracts in the above sense. Dislota-
h*u of the lens are traumatic or congenital. In old-standing
disease of the eye the suspensory ligament may yield in part,
and thus lead to lens dislocation. The lens is practically always
cztaractous before this takes place.
The Vitreous Humour. — The vitreous humour loses its trans-
parency owing to exudation from the inflamed ciliary body or
choroid. The exudation may be fibrinous or purulent; the
fetter only as a result of injuries by which foreign bodies or
septic matter are introduced into the eye or in metastatic
choroiditis. Blood may also be effused into the vitreous from
rapture of retinal, ciliary or choroidal vessels. The pathological
significance of the various effusions into the vitreous depends
greatly upon the cause. In many cases effusion and absorption
vt constantly taking place simultaneously. The extent of
possible clearing depends greatly upon the preponderance of
tie latter process.
Diseases of the Iris and Ciliary Body. — Inflammation of the
ins. iritis, arises from different causes. The various idiopathic
tonus have relations to constitutional disturbances such as
rheumatism, gout, albuminuria, tuberculosis, fevers, syphilis,
p>Dorrhoea and others, or they may come from cold alone.
Traumatic and infected cases are attributable to accidents,
(be presence of foreign bodies, operations, &c. Is addition,
intis may be secondary to keratitis, scleritis or choroiditis.
The beginning of an attack of inflammation of the iris is char-
acterized by alterations in its colour due to hyperaemia and by
nrcnmcorneal injection. Later on, exudation takes place into
'h* substance of the iris, causing thickening and also a loss of
fk» of its surface. According to the nature and severity of
ibe exudation there may be deposits formed on the back of the
cornea, attachments between the iris and lens capsule (synechiae),
sr even gelatinous-looking coagulations or pus in the anterior
chamber.
The subjective symptoms to which the inflammation may
rrte rise are dread of light {photophobia), pain, generally most
sr.ere at night and often very great, also more or less impairment
tt sight. Along with the pam and photophobia there is lecryma-
1km. An acute attack of iritis usually lasts about six weeks.
Saae cases become chronic and last much longer. Others are
97
chronic from' the first, and m one clinical type of Iritis, in which
the ciliary body is also at the same time affected, vis. iritis
serosa, there is usually comparatively little injection of the eye
or pafn, so that the patient's attention may only be directed to
the eye owing to the gradual impairment of sight which results.
In some cases, and more particularly in men, there is a tendency
to the recurrence at longer or shorter intervals of attacks of
iritis (recurrent iritis). In these cases, as well as in all cases of
plastic iritis which have not been properly treated, serious
consequences to sight are apt to follow from the binding down
of the iris to the lens capsule and the occlusion of the pupil by
exudation.
Inflammation of the ciliary body, cyctitis, hi frequently asso*
dated with iritis. This association is probable in all cases where
there -are deposits on the posterior surface of the cornea. It is
certain where there are changes in the rntra-ocular tension.
Often in cyclitis there is a very marked diminution in tension*
Cyclitis is also present when the degree of visual disturbance
is greater than can be accounted for by the visible changes in
the pupil and anterior chamber. The exudation may, as in
frit is, be serous, plastic or purulent. It passes from the two
free surfaces of the ciliary body into the posterior aqueous, and
into the vitreous, chambers. This produces, what it a constant
sign of cyclitis, more or less ^transparency of the vitreous
humour. Where there has been excessive exudation into the
vitreous, subsequent shrinking and Hquefaction take place,
leading to detachment of the retina and consequent blindness.
The treatment of iritis necessarily differs to some extent
according to the cause. The general treatment applicable to
all cases need only be here considered. What should be aimed
at, at the time of the inflammation, is to put the- eye as far as
possible at rest, to prevent the formation of synechiae and
alleviate the pain. An attempt should be made to get the pupil
thoroughly dilated with atropine. The dilatation should be kept
up as long as any drcumcorneal injection lasts. If a case of
iritis be left to itself or treated without the use of a mydriatic*
posterior synechiae almost invariably form. Some fibrinous
exudation may even organize into a 'membrane stretching
across, and more or less completely occluding, the pupil.
Synechiae, though not of themselves causing impairment of
vision, increase the risk that the eye runs from subsequent
attacks of iritis. It should however be remembered that as
the main call for a mydriatic is to prevent synechiae, the raison
d'Hre for its use no longer exists when, having been begun too
late, the pupil cannot properly be dilated by it. Under these
conditions it may even do harm. The eyes should also be kept
shaded from the light by the use of a shade or neutral-tinted
glasses. During an attack any use of the eyes for reading or
sewing or work of any kind calling for accommodation mast be
prohibited. This applies equally to the case of inflammation
in one eye alone and in both.
Pain is best relieved by hot fomentations, cocain, and in
many cases the internal use of salicin or phenacetia. The
treatment sometimes required for cases of old iritis is iridectomy.
The operation is called for in two different classes of cases.
In the first place, to improve vision where the pupil is small, and
to a great extent occluded, though the condition has not so far
led to serious nutritive changes; and in the second place, with
the object as well of preventing the complete destruction of
vision which either the existing condition or the danger of
recurrence of the irmnmmation has threatened. Iridectomy
for iritis should be performed when the inflsmmation has
entirely subsided. The portion of iris excised should be large.
The operation is urgently called for where the condition of wis
bembans exists.
Iris tumours, either simple or malignant, areof rare occurrence.
A frequent result of a severe blow on the eye is a separation
of a portion of the iris from its peripheral attachment (iridodi-
alysis). Of congenital anomah'es the most commonly met with
are coloboma and more or less persistence of the foetal pupillary
membrane. The most serious form of irido-cyclitis is that which
may follow penetrating wounds of the eye. Under certain
9»
conditions this leads to a similar inflammation in the other eye.
This so-called sympathetic ophthalmitis is of a malignant type,
causing destruction of the sympathizing eye
The Retina. — Choroidal inflammations are generally patchy,
various foci of inflammation being scattered over the choroid.
These patches may in course of time become more or less con*
fluent. The effect upon vision depends upon the extent to which
the external or percipient elements of the retina become involved.
It is especially serious when the more central portions of the
retina are thus affected (choroido-retinitis centralis).
A peculiar and grave pathological condition of the eye is what
is known as glaucoma. A characteristic of this condition is
increase of the intra-ocular tension, which has a deleterious
effect on the optic nerve end and its ramifications in the retina.
The cause of the rise of tension is partly congestive, partly
mechanical. The effect of glaucoma, when untreated, is to cause
ever-increasing loss of sight, although the time occupied by the
process before it leads to complete blindness varies within such
extraordinary wide limits as from a few hours to. many years.
The uveal tract may be the site of sarcoma.
The retina is subject to inflammation, to detachment from the
choroid, to haemorrhages from the blood-vessels and to tumour.
Retinal inflammation may primarily affect either the nerve
elements or the connective tissue framework. The former is
usually associated with some general disease such as albuminuria
or diabetes and is bilateral. The tissue changes are oedema, the
formation of exudative patches, and haemorrhage. Where the"
connective tissue elements are primarily affected, the condition
is a slow one, similar to sclerosis of the central nervous system.
The gradual blindness which this causes is due to compression
of the retinal nerve elements by the connective tissue hyperplasia,
which is always associated with characteristic changes in the
disposition of the retinal pigment. This retinal sclerosis is
consequently generally known as retinitis pigmentosa, a disease
to which there is a hereditary predisposition. Besides occurring
during inflammation, haemorrhages into the retina are met with
in phlebitis of the central retinal vein, which is almost invariably
unilateral, and in certain conditions of the blood, as pernicious
anaemia, when they are always bilateral.
The optic nerve is subject to inflammation (optic neuritis)
and atrophy. Double optic neuritis, affecting, however, only
the intraocular ends of the nerves, is an almost constant
accompaniment of brain tumour. Unilateral neuritis has a
different causation, depending upon an inflammation, mainly
perineuritic, of the nerve in the orbit. It is analogous to
peripheral inflammation of other nerves, such as the third,
fourth, sixth and seventh cranial nerves.
Diseases of the Conjunctiva. -r-Thesc are the most frequent
diseases of the eye with which the surgeon has to deal. They
generally lead to more or less interference with the functional
activity of the eye and often indeed to great impairment of vision
owing to the tendency which there is for the cornea to become
implicated.
Many different micro-organisms are of pathogeneticimportance
in connexion with the conjunctiva. Microbes exist in the normal
conjunctival sac. These are mostly harmless, though it is usual
to find at any rate a small proportion of others which are known
to be pyogenetic. This fact is of great importance in connexion
both with problems of etiology and the practical question of
operations on the eye.
Hypcraemia.—Vlbxn the conjunctiva becomes hyperaemic
its colour is heightened and its transparency lessened. Some-
times too it becomes thickened and its surface altered in appear-
ance. The often marked heightening of colour is due to the very
superficial position of the dilated vessels. This is specially the
case with that part of the membrane which forms the transition
fold between the palpebral and the ocular conjunctiva. Con-
sequently it is there that the redness is most marked, while it is
seen to diminish towards the cornea. An important diagnostic
mark is thus furnished between purely conjunctival hyperaemia
and what is called circumcorncal congestion, which is always
an indication of more deep-seated vascular dilatation. It also
EYE (DISEASES
differs materially from a scleral injection, in which there is a
visible dilatation of the superficial scleral vessels.
When a conjunctival hyperaemia has existed for some time
the papillae become swollen, and small blebs form on the surface
of the membrane: sometimes too, lymph follicles begin to show.
The enlargement and compression of adjacent papulae give
rise to a velvety appearance of the surface.
Hyperaemia of the conjunctiva where not followed by in-
flammation causes more or less lacrymation but no alteration
in the character of its secretion. The hyperaemia may be acuu
and transitory or chronic. Much depends upon the cause as we]
as upon the persistence of the irritation which sets it up.
Traumata, the presence of foreign bodies in the conjunctiva
sac, or the irritations of superficial chalky infarcts in tb-
Meibomian ducts, cause more or less severe transitory congestion
Continued subjection to irritating particles such as flour, stone
dust, &c, causes a more continued hyperaemia which is oftei
circumscribed and less pronounced. Bad air in schools, barracks
workhouses, &c, also causes a chronic hyperaemia in which it i
common to find a follicular hyperplasia. Long exposure to to
intense light, astigmatism and other ocular defects which caus
asthenopia lead also to chronic hyperaemia. Anaemic individual
are often subject to discomfort from hyperaemia of this nature
The treatment of conjunctival hyperaemia consists first i
the removal of the cause when it can be discovered. Ofte
this is difficult. In addition the application of hot sterilize
water is useful and soothing.
Conjunctivitis.— VJhtn the conjunctiva is actually inflame
the congested membrane is brought into a condition of heightene
secreting action. The secretions become more copious and moi
or less altered in character. A sufficiently practical though b
no means sharply defined clinical division of cases of conjunct
vitis is arrived at by taking into consideration the character <
the secretion from the inflamed membrane and the visible tissj
alterations which the membrane -undergoes. The comnw
varieties of conjunctivitis which may thus be distinguished are t]
following: (a) Catarrhal conjunctivitis, 03) Purulent conjund
vitis, (7) Phlyctenular conjunctivitis, (5) Granular coujunctivit
and (e) Diphtheritic conjunctivitis.
However desirable a truly etiological classification migj
appear to be, it is doubtful whether such could sati&factori
be made. So much is certain at all events, that not only o
identically the same clinical appearance result from the actio
of quite different pathogenetic organisms, but that vario
concomitant circumstances may lead to very different dini<
signs being set up by one and the same microbe. As regar
contagion there is no doubt that the secretion in the case of
true conjunctivitis (i.e. not merely a hyperaemia) is always rrw
or less contagious. The degree of virulence varies not only
different cases, but the effect of contagion from the same soul
. may be different in different individuals. Healthy conjunctiv
may thus react differently, not only as regards the degree
severity, but even according to different clinical types, wh
infected by secretion from the same source. There arc no dot
different reasons for this, such as the stage at which the inffamn
tion has arrived in the eye from which the secretion is derive
differences in the surroundings and in the susceptibility of 1
infected individuals, the presence of dormant microbes oi
virulent type in the healthy conjunctiva which has been infect
&c. Many points in this connexion are very difficult to invc:
gate and much remains to be elucidated. Contagion usua
takes place directly and not through the air. Often in 1
way one eye is first affected and may in some cases, wr|
sufficient care is afterwards taken, be the only one to suffer.
The treatment in all severer forms of conjunctivitis should
undertaken with the primary object in view of preventing 4
implication of the cornea.
Catarrhal conjunctivitis, which is characterized by an iocrea
mucoid secretion accompanying the hyperaemia, is usuj
bilateral and may be either acute or chronic. Acute conjun
vitis lasts as a rule only for a week or two; the chronic t
may persist, with or without occasional exacerbations.
DISEASES! EYE
pais. The subjective symptoms vaiy in intensity «iMi the
severity of the inflammation. There is always mow or less
troublesome " burning " in the eyes with a tired heavy feeling
a the lids. This is aggravated by reading, which is most dis-
ua&ing in a dose or smoky atmosphere and by artificial light.
Is acute cases, indeed, reading is altogether impossible. In aU
a*es of catarrhal conjunctivitis the symptoms are also more
Bixfced if the eyes have been tied up, even though this may
pfoduce a temporary relief.
A curious variety of acute catarrhal conjunctivitis, in which
ti* hyperaemia and lacrymation arc the predominant features,
is the so-called hay-fever. In this condition the mucous mem-
base of the nose and throat are similarly affected, and there
is at the same time more or less constitutional disturbance.
Hay-fever is due to irritation from the pollen of many plants, hut
paacipaily from that of the different grasses. Some people are
* susceptible to it that they invariably suffer every year during
ibe early summer months. Here it is difficult to remove the
cause, but many cases can be cured and almost all are alleviated
5c means of a special antitoxin applied locally.
Other cytogenetic causes of catarrhal conjunctivitis which
rave been studied are^ mostly microbic Of these the most
common are the Morax-Axenfeld and the Koch-Weeks con-
ja&ctivitis.
The Morax-Axenfeld bacillus sets up a conjunctivitis which
lieds individuals of all ages and conditions and which is con-
upoas. The inflammation is usually chronic, at most subacute.
I: is often sufficiently characteristic to be recognised without a
Microscopical examination of the secretions. In typical cases
'Jjt lid margin, palpebral conjunctiva, and it may be a patch
4 ocular conjunctiva at the outer or inner angle ant alone
iTperaemic: the secretion is not copious and is mostly found
« a greyish coagulum lying at the inner lid-margin.. The
^.-jective symptoms are usually slight. Complications with
rxer varieties of catarrhal conjunctivitis are not uncommon.
Tha mild form of conjunctivitis generally lasts for many months,
subject to more or less complete disappearance followed by
^-rrences. It can be rapidly cured by the use of an oxide of
r-,: ointment, which should be continued for some time after
U£ appearances have altogether passed off.
The conjunctivitis caused by the Koch-Weeks microbe is
<:X more common. It is a more acute type, affects mostly
lildrcn, and is very contagious and often epidemic Here the
= veraemia. involves both the ocular and the palpebral con-
;.sctiva, and usually there i& considerable swelling of the lids
e-d a copious secretion. Bosh eyes are always affected.
Ctcasionally the engorged conjunctival vessels give way, caus*
22 asunerous small extravasations (ccchymoses). Complications
nLh phlyctenular (vide infra) are common in children. The
X2ie symptoms last for a week or ten days, after which the
<s±nc is more chronic Treatment with nitrate of silver in
iAktion is generally satisfactory. Other less frequent microbic
ueses of catarrhal conjunctivitis yield to the same treatment.
A form of epidemic muco-purulent conjunctivUis is not un-
ucejoxx, in which the swelling of the conjunctival folds and lids
z. aoch more marked and the secretions copious. It is less
.sreable to treatment and also apt to be complicated by
sr&eal ulceration. The microbe which gives rise to thjs con-
.iuon has not been definitely established. This inflammation is
-£o known as school ophthalmia. This is extremely contagious,
•o that isolation of cases becomes necessary. The treatment
*~h weak solutions of sub-acetate of lead during the acute
■U&, provided there be no corneal complication, and sub-
Kqaeoxly with a weak solution of tannic acid, may be recom-
acadecL
Pmieat Conjunctivitis.— Somo of the severer forms of
tKarrhal conjunctivitis are accompanied not only by a good
£al of swelling of both conjunctiva and lids but also by a
io4tdly znuco-purulent secretion. Nevertheless there is a
*£5cieatly sharply-defined clinical difference between the
I'^rrhal and purulent types of inflammation. In purulent
aajunctivitis the oedema of the lids is always marked, often
99
excessive, the hyperaemia of the whole, conjunctiva is interna:
the membrane is also infiltrated and swollen (chemosis), the
papillae enlarged and the secretion almost wholly purutenL
Although this variety of conjunctivitis is principally due to
infection by gonococci, other microbes, which more frequently
set up a catarrhal type, may lead to the purulent form.
AU forms axe contagious, and transference of the secretion
to other eyes usually sets up she same type of severe inflamma-
tion. The way in which infection mostly takes place is by
direct transference by means of the hands, towels, &c, of
secretions containing gonococci either from the eye or from
some other mucous membrane. The poison may also sometimes
be carried by flies. The dried secretion loses its virulence.
In new-born children (ophthalmia neonatorum) infection
takes place from the maternal passages during birth. Not-
withstanding the great changes which occur during the progress
of a purulent conjunctivitis, there is on recovery a complete
restitutio ad integrum so far as the conjunctiva is concerned.
Owing to the tendency to severe ulceration of the cornea, more
or less serious destructions of that membrane, and consequently
more or kss interference with sight, may result before the
i nfl a m mation has passed off. This is a special danger in the
case of adults. For this reason when only one eye is affected
the first point to -be attended to in the treatment iz to secure the
second eye from contagion by efficient occlusion. The appliance
known as Bullets shield, a watch-glass strapped down by plaster,
is the best for this purpose. It not only admits of the patient
seeing with the sound eye, hut allows the other to remain under
direct observation. The treatment otherwise consists in frequent
removal of the secretions from the affected eye, and the use
of nitrate of silver solution as a bactericide applied directly
to the conjunctival surface; sometimes it is necessary to cut
away the chemotk conjunctiva immediately surrounding the
r tinea. When the cornea has become affected efforts may be
made wkh the thermo-cautery or otherwise to limit the area of
destruction and thus admit of something being done to improve
the vision after all inflammation has subsided. The greatest
cleanliness as well as proper antiseptic precautions should of
course be observed by tvtry one in any way connected with the
treatment of such cases.
Phlyctenular conjunctivitis is an acute inflammation of the
ocular conjunctiva, in which little blebs or phlyctenules form,
more particularly in the vidnily of the corneal margin, as well as
on the epithelial continuation of the conjunctiva which covers
the cornea. The inflammation is characterized by being dis*
tributed in little circumscribed foci and not diffused as in all
other forms of conjunctivitis. In it the conjunctival secretion
is not altered, unless there should exist at the same time a com*
plication with some other form of conjunctivitis. This condition
is most frequent in children, particularly such as are ill-nourished
or are recovering from some illness, ej. measles. The suscepti-
bility occurs in fact mainly where there exists what used to be
called a " strumous " diathesis. In many cases, therefore, there
is some kind of tubercular basis for the manifestations. This
basis has to do with the susceptibility only, at all events to begin
with. The local changes are not tuberculous; their exact origin
has not been clearly established. They are hi 1 all probability
produced by staphylococci
Many children suffering from phlyctenular conjunctivitis get
after a short time an edematous excoriation of the skin of the
nostrils. This excoriated, scabby area contains crowds of
staphylococci which find a nidus here, where the copious tear*
flow down the nostrils has excoriated and irritated the skin.
Lacrymation is indeed a very common concomitant of phlye:
tcnular conjunctivitis. Another frequently distressing symptom
is a pronounced dread of light (photophobia), which often leads
to. convulsive and very persistent closing of the lids (blepharo-
spasm). Indeed the rejief of the photophobia is often the moat
important point to be considered in the treatment of phlye*
tcnular conjunctivitis. The photophobia may be very severe
when the local changes are slight. The eyes should be shaded
but not bandaged. Cocain stay be freely used. The best
IOO
EYEMOUTH— EYLAU
local application is the. yellow oxide of mercury used as an
ointment.
Phlyctenular conjunctivitis, and the corneal complications
with which it is so often associated, constitute a large proportion
(from i to J) of all eye affections with which the surgeon has to
deal.
Granular Conjunction £».— This, disease, which also goes by the
name of trachoma, is characterized by an inflammatory infiltra-
tion of the adenoid tissue of the conjunctiva. The inflammation
Is accompanied by the formation of so-called granules, and at the
same time by a hyperplasia of the papulae. The changes further
lead in the course of time to cicatricial transformations, so that
a gradual and progressive atrophy of the conjunctiva results.
The disease takes its origin most frequently in the conjunc-
tival fold of the upper lid, but eventually as a rule involves
the cornea and the deeper tissues of the lid, particularly the
tarsus
The etiology of trachoma is unknown. Though a perfectly
distinctive affection when fully established, the differential
diagnosis from other forms of conjunctivitis, particularly those
associated with much follicular enlargement or which have begun
as purulent inflammation, may be difficult. Trachoma is mostly
chronic. When occurring in an acute form it is more amenable
to treatment and less likely to end in cicatricial changes. Fully
half the cases of trachoma which occur are complicated- by
pannus, which is the name given to the affection when it has
spread to the cornea. Pannus is a superficial vascularized in-
filtration of the cornea. The veiling which it produces causes
more or less defect of sight.
Various methods of treatment are in use for trachoma. Ex-
pression by means of roller-forceps or repeated grattag* are
amongst the more- effective means of surgical treatment, while
local applications of copper sulphate or of alum are certainly
useful in suitable cases.
Diphtheritic conjunctivitis is characterized by an infiltration
into the conjunctival tissues which, owing to great coagulability,
rapidly interferes with the nutrition of the invaded area and
thus leads to necrosis of the diphtheritic membrane. Con-
junctival diphtheria may or may not be associated with
diphtheria of the throat. It is essentially a disease of early
childhood, not more than 10% of all cases occurring after
the age of four. The cornea is exposed to great risk, more
particularly during the first few days, and may be lost by
necrosis. Subsequent ulceration is not uncommon, but may
often be arrested before complete destruction has taken place.
The disease is generally confined to one eye, and complicated by
swelling of the preauricular glands of that side. It may prove
fatal. In true conjunctival diphtheria the exciting cause is the
Klebs-Lofner bacillus. The inflammation occurs in vtry varying
degrees of severity. The secretion is at first thin and scant,
afterwards purulent and more copious. In severe cases there is
great chemosis with much tense swelling of the lids, which are
often of an ashy-grey colour. A streptococcus Infection pro-
duces somewhat similar and often quite as disastrous results.
The treatment must be both general with antitoxin and local
with antiseptics. Of rarer forms of conjunctivitis may be
mentioned Parinaud's conjunctivitis and the so-called spring
catarrh.
Noninflammatory Conjunctival Affections* — These are of less
importance than conjunctivitis, either on account of their com-
parative infrequency or because of their harmlessness. The
following conditions may be shortly referred to.
Amyloid degeneration, in which waxy-looking masses grow
from the palpebral conjunctiva of both lids, often attaining very
considerable dimensions. The condition is not uncommon in
China and elsewhere in the East.
Essential Shrinking of the ConjuncHea.—This is the result of
pemphigus, in which the disease has attacked the conjunctiva
and led to its atrophy.
Pterygium is a hypertrophic thickening of the conjunctiva of
triangular shape firmly attached by its apex to the superficial
layers of the cornea. It is acommon condition in warm climates
owing to exposure to sun and dust, and often calls foroperatta
interference.
Tumours of the Conjunctiva.— These may be malignant a
benign, also syphilitic and tubercular. (G. A. Be.)
EYEMOUTH, a police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland. Fop
(toot) 9436. It is situated at the mouth of the Eye, 7) ri
N.N.W. of Berwick-on-Tweed by the North British railway vi
Burnmouth lis public buildings are the town hall, hbrar
and masonic hall. The main industry is the fishing and allie
trades. The harbour was enlarged in 1887, and the bay is easil
accessible and affords good anchorage. Owing to the rugge
character of the coast and its numerous ravines and caves tl
whole district was once infested with smugglers. The promoj
tory of St Abb's Head is 3 m. to the N.W.
EYLAO (Prcussisch- Eylau), a town of Germany, in eai
Prussia, on the Pasmar, 23 m. S. by E. of Kdnigsberg by nil c
the line Pillau-Prostken. It has an Evangelical church, a teacher
seminary, a hospital, foundries and saw mills. Pop. 320!
Eylau was founded in 1336 by Arnolf von Eilenstcin, a knigj
of the Teutonic Order. It is famous as the scene of a bait
between the army of Napoleon and the Russians and Prussiu
commanded by General Bennigsen, fought onthe8thoiFebruai
1807.
The battle was preceded by a severe general engagement c
the 7th. The head of Napoleon 's column (cavalry and infantry
advancing from the south-west, found itself opposed at the outl
of the GrunhOfchen defile by a strong Russian rearguard whi<
held the (frozen) lakes on either side of the Eylau road, u
attacked at once, dislodging the enemy after a sharp conflk
The French turned both wings of the enemy, and Bagraiia
who commanded the Russian rearguard, retired through Eyb
to the main army, which was now arrayed for battle east \
Eylau. Barclay de Tolly made a strenuous resistance in Eyh
itself, and in the churchyard, and these localities changed ban
several times before remaining finally in possession of the Fren^
It is very doubtful whether Napoleon actually ordered tl
attack upon Eylau, and it is suggested that the French soldfc
were encouraged to a premature assault by the hope of obtaioij
quarters in the village. There is, however, no reason to suppc
that this attack was prejudicial to Napoleon's chance
success, for his own army was intended to pin the enemy in f «w
while the outlying " masses of manoeuvre " closed upon 1
flanks and rear (see Napoleonic Campaigns). In this case t
vigour of the " general advanced guard " was superfluous, j
Bennigsen stood to fight of bis own free wuT.
The foremost line of the French bivouacs extended fn
Rothenen to Freiheit, but a large proportion of the army sp
the night in quarters farther back. The Russian army on l
other hand spent the night bivouacked in order of battle, (
right at Schloditten and the left at Serpallen. The cold 1
extreme, a* F. being registered in the early morning, and fc
was scarce in both armies. The ground was covered at the til
of battle with deep snow, and all the lakes 'and marshes wj
frozen, so that troops of all arms could pass everywhere, so
as the snow permitted. Two of Napoleon's corps (Devout a
Ney) were still absent, and Ney did not receive his orders id
the morning of the 8th. His task was to descend upon I
Russian right, and also to prevent a Prussian corps onj
Lestocq from coming on to the battlefield. Davout's co!
advancing from the south-east on Mollwitten was destined!
the attack of Bennigsen's left wing about Serpallen and KJ
Sausgarten. In the meantime Napoleon with his forces at i
about Eylau made the preparations for the frontal atu
His infantry extended from the windmill, through Eylau,
Rothenen, and the artillery was deployed along the whole fit]
behind each infantry corps and on the wings stood the caval
The Guard was in second line south of Eylau, and an ai
reserve stood near the Waschheiten lake. Bennigsen's ar
was drawn up in line from Schloditten to Khan Sausgarten,
front likewise covered by guns, in which arm he was numeric!
much superior. A detachment occupied Serpallea.
The battle opened in a dense snowstorm. About 8 4
r
BTKAi-EYRE, E. J.
101
fcsaigsea's gm opened fire on Eylau, and after a fierce but
ntderidcd artillery fight the French delivered an infantry
mack from Eylau. Ttau was repulsed with heavy losses, and the
Russians advanced toward* the windmill in force. Thereupon
fopotaa ordered his centre, the VILoorpa of Augereau,to move
forward from the church against the Russian front, the division
of St Hilaire on Augereau's right participating hi the attack.
If w conceive of this first stage of the battle as the action of
lie " general advanced guard," Augereau must be held to have
*<idose bis part. The VIL corps advanced in dense masses,
to in the fierce snowstorm lost Itsdirection. St Hilaire attacked
directly and unsupported; Augereau's corps was still less
ferwoate. Crossing obliquely the front of the Russian line, as
i making for Schloditten, it came under a /<** d'emfcr and was
pnetkatiy annihilated. In the confusion the Russian cavalry
cbfged with the utmost fury downhill and with the wind behind
tkm. Three thousand men only out of about fourteen thousand
appeared at the evening parade of the corps. The rest were
WW, wounded, prisoners or dispersed. The marshal and every
KBNr officer was amongst the killed and wounded, and one
Rpmenuhe rathof the Lirte.cut off in the midst of the Russians
lad refusing to surrender, Cell almost to a man. The Russian
ftfetcntroke penetrated into Eylau itself and Napoleon himself
*» to serious danger. With the utmost coolness, however, be
£fed the pace of the Russian advance and ordered up a
toulkm of the Guard at the exact moment required. In the
taos of Eylau the Guard had the Russians at their mercy,
"^ew escaped. Still the situation for the French was desperate
cdihe battle bad to be maintained at all cost*. Napoleon now
*z forward the cavalry along the whole line. In the centre
** charge was led by Murat and Bessieres, and the Russian
taeaea were swept off the field. The Cuirassiers under
vBimpoult charged through the Russian guns, broke through
fefct line of infantry and then through the second, penetrating
»iat woods of Anklappen.
% shock of a second wave of cavalry broke the lines again,
U though in the final retirement the exhausted troopers lost
fcnbly, they had achieved theirobject. Thewreckof Augereau's
&d other divisions had been reformed, the Guard brought up
■^ first line* and, above all, Davout's leading troops had oc*
~M SerpaUen. Thence, with his left in touch with Napoleon's
Jdt (St Hilaire), and bis right extending gradually towards
«ffl Sausgarten, the marshal pressed steadily upon the Russian
K2. rotting it up before him, until his right had reached
lojcbitten and his centre Anklappen. By that time the
^ps under Napoleon's immediate command, pivoting their left
'•cfylau church, had wheeled gradually inward until the general
Hne extended from the church to Kutschitten. The J
army was being driven westward, when the advance of Lestocq
gave them fresh steadiness. The Prussian corps had been
fighting a continuous flank>guard action against Marshal Ney
to the oorth*west of Althof, and Lestocq had finally succeeded
in disengaging his main body, Ney being held up at Althof by
a small rearguard, while the Prussians, gathering as they went the
fugitives of the Russian army, hastened to oppose Davout.
The impetus of these fresh troops led by Lestocq and his staff-
ofneer Scharnhorst was such as to check even the famous
divisions of Davout's corps which had won thebattle of Auerstadt
single-handed. The French were now gradually forced back
until their right was again at Sausgarten and their centre on
the Kreege Berg.
Both sides were how utterly exhausted, for the Prussians
also had been marching and fighting aU day against Ney. The
battle died away at nightfall, Ne/s corns being unable effectively
to intervene owing to the steadiness of the Prussian detachment
left to oppose him, and the extreme difficulty of the roads,
A severe conflict between the Russian extreme right and Ney*s
corps which at last appeared on the field at Schloditten ended
the battle. Bennigsen retreated during the night through Schmo-
ditten, Lestocq through Kutschitten. The numbers engaged
in the first stage of the battle may be taken as — Napoleon, 50,000,
Bennigsen, 67,00% to which Inter were added on the one side
Ney and Davout, sOjOoo, on the other Lestocq,* 7000. The losses
were roughly, 15,000 men to the French, 16,000 to the Allies, or
at and a;% respectively of the troops actually engaged. The
French lost 5 eagles, and 7 other colours) the Russians 16 colours
and 14 guns.
EYRA (Felir ryro), a South American wild cat, of weaseMike
build, and uniform coloration, varying in different individuals
from reddish-yellow to chestnut. It is found in Brazil, Guiana
and Paraguay, and extends its range to the Rio del None, tmt
is rare north of the isthmus of Panama. Little is known of its
habits in a wild state, beyond the fact that it is a forest-dweller,
active in movement and fierce in disposition. Several have
been exhibited in the London Zoological Gardens, and some have
grown gentle in captivity,. Don Folk de Asara wrote of one
which he kept on a chain that it was " as gentle and playful as
any kitten could be." The name is sornetime* applied to the
jaguarondL
EYRE, EDWARD JOHH ( 18 15-1001), British cdonial governor,
the son of a Yorkshire clergyman, was bom on the 5th of August
181 5. He was intended for the army, but delays having arisen
in producing a commission, he went out to New South Wales,
where he engaged in the difficult but very necessary undertaking
of transporting stock westward to the new colony of South
Australia, then in great distress, and where he became magistrate
and protector of the aborigines, whose interests he warmly
advocated. Already experienced as en Australian traveller,
he undertook, the most extensive and difficult Journeys in the
desert country north and west of Adelaide, and after encountering
the greatest hardships, proved the possibility of landcommunicsr
Uon between South and West Australia. In 1845 he returned
to England and published the narrative of his travels. In 1846
he was appointed lieutenant-governor of New Zealand, where be
served under Sir George Grey. After successively governing St
Vincent and Antigua, be was in 1663 appointed acting-governor
of Jamaica and in 1864 governor. In October 1865 'a negro
insurrection broke out and was repressed with laudable vigour,
but the. unquestionable severity and alleged illegality of Eyre's
subsequent proceedings raised a storm at home which induced
the government to suspend him and to despatch a special
commission of investigation, the effect of whose inquiries,
declared by his successor, Sir John Peter Grant, to have been
"admirably conducted," was that he should not be reinstated
in his office. The government, nevertheless, saw nothing in
Eyre's conduct to justify legal proceedings; indictments pre-
ferred by amateur prosecutors at home against him and military
officers who had acted under his direction, resulted in failure,
and he retired upon the pension of a colonial governor. As an
X02
EYRE, SIR J.--BZEKIEL
explorer Eyre mast be classed in the highest rank, but opinions
are always likely to differ as to his action in the Jamaica rebellion.
He died on the 30th of November 1001.
EYRB, SIR JAMBS (1734-1700), English judge, was the son of
the Rev. Thomas Eyre, of Wells, Somerset. He was educated at
Winchester College and at St John's College, Oxford, which,
however, he left without taking a degree. He was called to the
bar at Gray's Inn in 1755, and commenced practice in the lord
mayor's and sheriffs' courts, having become by purchase One of
the four counsel to the corporation of London. He was appointed
recorder of London in 1763. He was counsel for the plaintiff in
the case of Wilkes v. Wood, and made a brilliant speech in condem-
nation of the execution of general search warrants, His refusal to
voice the remonstrances of the corporation against the exclusion
of Wilkes from parliament earned him the recognition of the
ministry, and he was appointed a judge of the exchequer in 1772.
Prom June 179a to January 1793 he was chief commissioner of
the great seal. In x 793 he was made chief justice of the common
pleas, and presided over the trials of Home Tooke, Thomas
Crosfield and others, with great ability and impartiality. He
died on the xst of July 1799 and was buried at Ruscombe,
Berkshire.
See Howell, Stale Trials, xix. (n 54-1 155); Fobs, Lives of 4ke
Judges.
EYRIE, the alternative English form of the words Aerie or
Aery, the lofty nest of a bird of prey, especially of an eagle,
hence any lofty place of abode; the term is also used of the
brood of the bird. The word derives from the Fr. aire, of the
same meaning, which comes from the Lat. area, an open space,
but was early connected with airius, high in the air, airy, a
confusion that has affected the spelling of the word. The
forms " eyrie " or " eyry " date. from a 17th century attempt
to derive the word from the Teutonic ey, an egg.
EZBKIEL (mpae' t "God strengthens" or "God is strong";
Sept. 'Ieffcn^X; Vulg. Ezechiel), son of Bud, one of the most
vigorous and impressive of the older Israelite thinkers. He
was a priest of the Jerusalem temple, probably a member of
the dominant house of Zadok, and doubtless had the literary
training of the cultivated priesthood of the time, including
acquaintance with the national historical, legal and ritual
traditions and with the contemporary history and customs
of neighbouring peoples. In the year 597 (being then, prob-
ably, not far from thirty-years of age) he was carried off
to Babylonia by Nebuchadrezzar with King Jehoiachin and
a- large body of nobles, military men and artisans, and there, it
would seem, he spent the rest of his life. His prophecies are
dated from this year (" our captivity/' xl. 1), except in i. 1,
where the. meaning of the date " thirtieth year " is obscure;
it cannot refer to his age (which would be otherwise expressed
in Hebrew), or to the reform of Josiah, 621 (which is not else-
where employed as an epoch); possibly the reference is to the
era of Nabopolassar (626 according to the Canon of Ptolemy),
Jf chronological inexactness be supposed (34 or 33 years instead
of 30), a supposition not at all improbable. That the word
" thirtieth " is old, appears from the fact that a scribe has added
& gloss (w. >, 3) to bring this statement into accord with the
usual way of reckoning in the book: the "thirtieth" year,
he explains, is the fifth year of the captivity of Jehoiachin. The
exiles dwelt at TelUabib (" Hffl of the flood "), one of the mounds
or ruins made by the great floods that devastated the country, 1
near the " river " Chebar (Kebar), probably a large canal not
far south of the city of Babylon. Here they had their own
lands, and some form of local government by elders, and appear
to have been prosperous and contented; probably the only
demand made on them by the Babylonian government was the
payment of taxes.
Exekiel was married (xxfv. iS), had his own house, and com-
ported himself quietly as a Babylonian subject. But he was a
profoundly interested observer of affairs at home and among
1 The Assyrian term abubu is used of the great primeval deluge
(in the Gilgamesh epic), and also of the local floods common in the
country.
the exiles: as patriot and ethical teacher he deplored alike tfc
political blindness of the Jerusalem government (King Zedekial
revolted in j88) and the immorality and religious superfciaat]
and apostasy of the people. He, like Jeremiah, was friendly u
Nebuchadreeaar, regarding him as Yahweh's instrument (or in
chastisement of the nation. Convinced that opposition \
Babylonian rule was suicidal, and interpreting historical event
in the manner of the times, as indications of the temper of th
deity, he held that the imminent political destruction of th
nation was proof of Yahweh's anger with the people on tccooi
of their moral and religious depravity; Jerusalem was hop
lessly corrupt and must be destroyed (xxiv.). On the othi
hand, he was equally convinced that, as his predecessors hi
taught (Has. xL 8, 9; Isa. vii. 3 a/.), Yahweh's love for his peop
would not suffer them to perish utterly— a remnant would I
saved, and this remnant he naturally found in the exiles i
Babylonia, a little band plucked from the burning and kept sal
in a foreign land till the wrath should have passed (». 14 ff.
This conception of the exiles as the kernel of the restored biih
he further set forth in the great vision of ch. i., in which Yahw
is represented as leaving Jerusalem and coming to take up h
abode among them in Babylonia, for a time, intending, howew
to return to his own city (xliii. 7).
This, then, was Ezekiel's political creed— destruction of Jen
salem and its inhabitants, restoration of the exiles, and men
time submission to Babylon. His arraignment of the Judeans
violent,almostmalignant(vi.xvi.af.). Thewell-meaningbutwej
king Zedekiah he denounces with bitter scorn as a perjured trait
(xvii). He does not discuss the possibility of successful resist an
to the Chaldeans; he simply assumes that the attempt is footi
and wicked, and, like other prophets, he identifies his politic
programme with the will of God. Probably his judgment of ti
situation was correct; yet, in view of Sennacherib's failure
Jerusalem in 701 and of the admitted strength of the city, ti
hope of the Jewish nobles could not be considered wholly «
founded, and in any case their patriotism (like that of the natioi
party in the Roman siege) was not unworthy of admiration. T
prophet's predictions of disaster continued, according to t
record, up to the investment of the city by the Chaldean army
588 (i.-xxiv.); after the fall of the dty (586) his tone changed
one of consolation (xxxiii.-xxxix.)— the destruction of the wick
mass accomplished, he turned to the task of reconstruction. 1
describes the safe and happy establishment of the people in th
own land, and gives a sketch of a new constitution, of which 1
main point is the absolute control of public religion by the prie
hood (xL-xrviii.).
The discourses of the first period (i.-xxiv.) do not confine the
selves to political affairs, but contain much interesting ethical j
religious material. The picture given of Jerosalemite morals
an appalling one. Society is described as honeycombed wj
crimes and vices; prophets, priests, princes and the peoj
generally are said to practise unbhishingiy extortion, oppress
murder, falsehood, adultery (xxii.). This description is doublli
exaggerated. It may be assumed that the social corruption
Jerusalem was such as is usually found in wealthy communitj
made bolder in this case, perhaps, by the political unrest and i
weakness of the royal government under Zedekiah. No s\
charges are brought by the prophet against the exiles, in whj
simple life, indeed, there was little or no opportunity for flagri
violation of law. Ezekiel's own moral code is that of the proph<
which insists on the practice of the fundamental civic virti
He puts ritual offences, however, in the same category *
offences against the moral law, and he does not dktingt
between immorality and practices that are survivals of I
recognized customs: in eh. xxii, he mentions "eating with
blood" 1 along with murder, and failure to observe ritual regj
tions along with oppression of the fatherless and the widow;!
old customary law permitted marriage with a half-sister (fath
daughter), with a daughter-in-law, and with a father's wife OG
xx. is, xxxviH. 26; 1 Sam. xvi. *i, 22), but the more refi
• So we must read (as Robertson Smith has pointed out) in xx
and xviii. 6, instead of " eating on the mountains.**
EZEKIEL
X03
fetEnf of the later time frowned on the custom, and Exekiel
mis it as adultery. 1 However, notwithstanding the insistence
« ritual, natural in a priest, his moral standard is high; follow-
ed* prescription of Ex. xxii. 21 (20] he regards oppression of
rodent aliens (a class that had not then received full civil rights)
u 1 crime (xxii. 7), and in his new constitution (xlvii. a a, 33)
cvts them equal rights with the homeborn. His strongest
inundation is directed against the religions practices of the
:.ic in Judea— the worship of the Canaanite local deities (the
kiii), the Phoenician Tammux, and the sun and other Baby-
kaun aad Assyrian gods (vi., viii., xvi., xxiiLh he maintained
timorously the propheticstruggle for the sole worship of Yahwch.
Probably he believed in the existence of other gods, though he
:^q not express himself clearly on this point; in any case he
Wd that the worship of other deities was destructive to Israel.
Ha conception of Yahweh shows a mingling of the high and the
'<**. On the one hand, he regards him as supreme in power,
ouiroDing the destinies of Babylonia and Egypt as well as those
d had, and as inflexibly just in dealing with ordinary offences
aniast morality. But he conceives of him, on the other hand,
i» limited locally and morally— as having his special abode in
'ic Jerusalem temple, or elsewhere in the midst of the Israelite
pwple. and as dealing with other nations solely in the interests
4 Israel The bitter invectives against Ammon, Moab, Edora,
ft&tia, Tyre, Sidon and Egypt, put into Yahweh's mouth, are
fe*d wholly on the fact that these peoples are regarded as
k«uk and hurtful to Israel, Babylonia, though nowise superior
b Egypt morally, is favoured and applauded because it is
Utvrd to be the Instrument for securing ultimately the pros*
ferity of Yahweh's people. The administration of the affairs of
* lorld by the God of Israel is represented, in a word, as
facraiaed not by ethical considerations but by personal prefer*
eai There is no hint in Ezekid's writings of the grandiose
caption of Isa. xl.-lv., that Israel's mission is to give the
U/iiedgt of religious truth to the other nations of the world;
* p*s so far as to say that Yahweh's object in restoring the
bttina of Israel is to establish his reputation among the nations
*» powerful deity (xxxvi. 20-23, nocvii. 28, xxxix. 23). The
fftpfcet regards Yahweh's administrative control as immediate:
* ©traduces no angels or other subordinate supernatural
matj-the cherubs and the " men " of ix. s and xl. 3 are merely
"uiutive symbols or representations of divine activity. His
*¥> conception of God's transcendence, it may be supposed, led
ha to jgnof-* intermediary agencies, which are common in the
tt*lu literature, tad later, under the influence of this same
<uaptioa of transcendence, are freely employed.
Tk relations between the writings of Ezekiel and those of
™*h is not dear. They have so much in common that they
«w have drawn from the same current bodies of thought, or
•jar nut have been borrowing in one direction or the other.
fc «e point, however,— the attitude toward the ritual-Hue two
*a &fa radically. The finer mind of the nation, represented
**% by the prophets from Amos onward, had denounced
*Nflgly the superficial non-moral popular cult. The
"fcgie between ethical religion and the current worship became
*ue toward the end of the 7th century. There were two
Wt solutions of the difficulty. The ritual books of out
bleach were not then in existence, and the sacrificial cult
^ be treated with contempt as not authoritative. This is
^course taken by Jeremiah, who says boldly that God requires
^obedience (Jer- vii. 21 fl\). On the oCher hand the better
>*J among the priests, believing the ritual to be necessary,
3ft andante to moraHae it; of such a movement, begun
Jfrwerenomy, Exekiel is the most eminent representative.
J** and prophet, he sought to unify the national religious
"'xxnisness by preserving the sacrificial cult, discarding its
*#* and vitalising it ethically. The event showed that he
*H the situation rightly — the religious scheme announced
**"», though not accepted in all its details, became the
**ziai policy of the later time, and he has been justly called
% 'Jj* «tncter marriage law is formulated in Lev. xviH. 8-15,
" the father of Judaism." He speaks as a legislator, citing
no authority; but he formulates, doubtless, the ideas aad
perhaps the practices of the Jerusalem priesthood. His ritual
code (xliii.-xlvi), which in elaborateness stands midway between
that of Deuteronomy and that of the middle books of the Penta-
teuch (resembling most nearly the code of Lev. xvii.-xxvi.)
shows good Judgment. Its most noteworthy features are two.
Certain priests of idolatrous Judean shrines (distinguished by
him as " Levites ") he deprives of priestly functions, degrading
them to the rank of temple menials; and he takes from the
civil ruler all authority over public religion, permitting him
merely to furnish material for sacrifices, xle is, however, much
more than a ritual reformer. He is the first to express dearly the
conception of a sacred nation, isolated by its religion from all
others, the guardian of divine law and the abode of divine
majesty. - This kingdom of God he conceives of as moral:
Yahweh is to put his own spirit into the people,' creating in
them -a disposition to obey his commandments, which are moral
as well as ritual (xxxvi. 26, 27). The conception of a sacred
nation controlled the whole succeeding Jewish devdopment;
if it was narrow in its exclusive regard for Israel, its intensity
saved the Jewish religion to the world.
Test and Authorski >.— The Hebrew text of the book of Ezekiel
is not in good condition— it is full of scribal inaccuracies and
additions. Many of the errors may be corrected with the aid
of the Septuagint (e.g. the 430-<-jQO+40-of iv. 5, 6 is to be
changed to 100), and none of them affect the general thought.
The substantial genuineness of the discourses is now accepted by
the great body of critics. The Talmudic tradition (Baba Baikra
146) that the men of the Great Synagogue " wrote " Eaekid,
may refer to editorial work by later scholars.' There is no
validity in the objections of Zunz (Gottesdicnstl. Verb.) that
the specific prediction concerning Zedekiah (xiL xa f.) is non-
Prophetic, and that the drawingmp of a new constitution soon
after the destruction of the dty and the mention of Noah,
Daniel, Job and Persia are improbable. The prediction in
question was doubtless added by Exekid after the event; the
code bdongs precisely in his time, and the constitution was natural
for a priest; Noah, Daniel and Job are old legendary Hebrew
figures; and it is not probable that the prophet's " Paras " is
our " Persia." Havct's contention (in La Aloderniti (Us pr+
ph>Us) that Gog represents the Parthiana (40 b.c.) has little or
nothing in its support. There are additions made post nenhm,
as in the case mentioned above and in xxix. 17-20, and the
description of the commerce of Tyre (xxvii. 06-250), which
interrupts the comparison of the dty to a ship, looks like an
insertion whether by the prophet or by some other; but there is
no good reason to doubt that the book is substantially the work
of Ezekiel. Exekid's style is generally impetuous and vigorous,
somewhat smoother in the consolatory discourses (xxxiv.,
xxxvi., xxxvii.); he produces a great effect by the cumulation
of details, and is a master of invective; he is fond of symbolic
pictures, proverbs and allegories; his " visions " are elaborate
literary productions, his prophecies show less spontaneity than
those of any preceding prophet (he receives his revelations in
the form of a book, ii. o), and in their present shape were hardly
pronounced in public— a fact that seems to be hinted at in the
statement that he was " dumb " till the fall of Jerusalem (iii.26,
xxxiii. 22); in private interviews the people did not take him
seriously (xxxiii. 30-33), His book was accepted early as part
of the sacred literature: Ben-Sira (c. 180 B.C.) mentions him
along with Isaiah and Jeremiah (Ecclus. xiix. 8); he is not
quoted directly in the New Testament, but his imagery is
employed largely in the Apocalypse and elsewhere. His diver-
gencies from the Pentateuchal code gave rise to serious doubts,
but, after prolonged study, the discrepancies were explained,
and the book was finally canonized (Shab. 13b). According to-
9 Yahweh's spirit, thought of as Yahweh* vital principle, a*
man's spirit is man's vital principle, is to be breathed into them, aa>
in Gen. ii. 7, Yahweh breathes his own breath into the lifeless body.
The spirit in the Old Testament is a refined material thing that may
come or be poured out on men.
•The " Great Synagogue " is aemi-inythical.
104
Jerome (Preface to Comm. on Euk.) the Jewish youth were
forbidden to read the mysterious first chapter (called the markaba,
the " chariot ") and the concluding section (xl.-xlviH.) till they
reached the age of thirty years.
The book di vide* it self natural \y in to t hree parti : the arraignment
of Jerusalem (i.otiiv.); denunciation of foreign enemies (xxy>
xxkii,); consolatory construction of tbt future (wxiii.-xlviii.).
The opening p+ vision + " (L), an elaborate symbolic picture, is of the
nature of a general preface, and was composed probably late in the
pn.plnt'5 life. Out of the north (the Babylonian sacred mountain)
comes a bright cloud, wherein appear Jour Creatures (formed on the
mode! of Babylonian oornposite figure*), each with four facet (man.
lion* bull eagle) and attended by a wheel: the wheels are full of
eye*, and move straight forward, impelled by the apirit dwelling
in the Creatures (the spirit of Yah web.}. Supported on their heads
is something like a crystalline firmament, above which is a form like
a sapphire throne (cfT Ex, x*iv t jo) t and on the throne a man-like
form (YahuTh) surrounded by a rainbow brightness. The wheels
symbolize divine omniscience and control, and the whole vision
represents the coming of Yafaweh to take up his abode among the
exiles. The prophet then receives his call {h., iiL) in the shape of a
roll of a book, which he is required to eat (an indication of the
literary form now takun by prophecy). He is informed that the
people to whom he is sent are rebellious and stiff-necked (this indi-
cates his opinion of the people, and gives the keynote of the following
discourses) ; he is appointed watchman to warn men when they
sin, and is to be held responsible for the consequences if he fail in
this duly. To this high conception of a preacher's function the
prophet was faithful throughout his career. Next follow minatory
discourses (ivwii.) predicting the siege and capture of Jerusalem—
perhaps revised after the event. There arc several symbolic acts
descriptive of the siege, One of these (iv. 4 ft.) gives the duration
of the national punishment in loose chronological reckoning: 40
years (a round number) for Tudah, and 150 more {according to the
corrected text) for Israel, the starting-point, probably , being the
year 7 12, the date of the capture of Samaria ; the procedure described
in p. tt U not to be understood literally. In vi. the idolatry of the
notion is pictured in darkest colours. Next follows (iiji.-xi.) a
detailed description, in the form of a vision, of the sin of Jerusalem:
within the temple-area elders and others are Worshipping beast-
forms, Tarn mux and the sun (probably actual cults of the time); 1
men approach to defile the temple and slay the inhabitants of the
city [hcj. Inch. x. the imagery of ch. r. reappears, and the Creatures
lit iuwiiUutJ with ihc chexuba «I i*ji*ji.nsu * iui,^»t. *Hi± appears
to be an independent form of the vision, which has been brought
into connexion with that of i. by a harmonizing editor. There
follow a symbolic prediction of the exile (xii.) and a denunciation
of non-moral prophets and prophetesses (xhi.)— though Yahwch
deceive a prophet, yet he and those who consult him will be punished ;
and so corrupt is the nation that the presence of a few eminently
good men will not save it (xiv.). 1 After a comparison of Israel
to a worthless wild vine (xv.) come two allegories, one portraying
idolatrous Jerusalem as the unfaithful spouse of Yahweh (xvi.),
the other describing the fate of Zedekiah (xvii.). The fine insistence
on individual moral responsibility in xviii. (cf. Dent. xxiv. 16, ler.
xxxi. 39 f.) t while it is a protest against a superficial current view,
is not to be understood as a dental of all moral relations between
successive generations. This latter question had not presented
itself to the prophet's mind ; his object was simply to correct the
opinion of the people that their present misfortunes were due not
to their own faults but to those of their predecessors. A more
sympathetic attitude appears in two elegies 6ux.)» one on the kings
Jehoahaz and Jehoiacnin, the other on the nation. These are
followed by a scathing sketch of Israel's religious career (xx. 1-26),
in which, contrary to the view of earlier prophets, it is declared that
the nation had always been disobedient. Prom this point to the
end of xxiv. there is a mingling of threat and promise.' The allegory
of xxiii. is similar to that of xvi., except that in the latter Samaria
is relatively treated with favour, while in the former it (Aholah) is
involved in the same condemnation as that of Jerusalem. At this
point is introduced (xxv.-xxxii.) the series of discourses directed
against foreign nations. The description of the king of Tyre (xxviii.
lt-19) as dwelling in Eden, the garden of God, the sacred mountain,
under the protection of the cherub, bears a curious resemblance to
the narrative in Gen. it., Hi., of which, however,-it seems to be in-
dependent, using different Babylonian material; the text is corrupt.
The section dealing with Egypt is one of remarkable imaginative
power and rhetorical vigour? the king of Egypt is compared to a
magnificent cedar of Lebanon On xxxi. % read: " there was a cedar
in Lebanon ") and to the dragon of the Nile, and the picture of his
EZRA^EZRA, 3M> BOOK OF
1 In viti. 17 the unintelligible expression " they put the branch
to their nose " is the rendering of a corrupt Hebrew text; a probable
emendation is: " they are sending a stench to my nostrils/'
•The legendary figure ot Daniel (xiv. 14) is later taken by the
author of the book of Daniel as his hero.
3 For a reconstruction of the poem in xxi. 10, II, see the English
Exeluel in Haupt's Sacred Books,
descent into Sheol is intensely tragic- TVhethcr iheK discoun
were all uttered between the investment of Jerusalem and its fa
or were here inserted by Eiekiel or by a scribe, it a not possible
say- In xxxiii. the function of the prophet as watchman is dascrib
at length (expansion of the description in iiL) and the news of ti
capture of the city is received. The following chapters (xxxr
xxxbL) are devoted to reconstruction: Edom, the detested encii
of UraeL is to be crushed; the nation, politically raised from t
dead, with North and South united (xxxviL)* is to be establish
under a David ide king; a final assault, made by Gog, is to be «
cessfully nu-t,* and then the people arc to dwell tn their own land
peace for ever ; this Gog section ut regarded by tome as t he beginni
of Jewish apocalyptic writing. In the last section (xh-xlvui.), j
as a vision, the temple U 10 be rebuilt, in dimension* and arranj
ments a reproduction of the temple of Solomon (d. I Kings vi., vi
the sacrifices and festivals and the functions of priests and pcii
are prescribed, a stream issuing from under the temple is to viv
the Dead Sea and fertilize the land (this is meant literally), the la
is divided into parallel strips and assigned to [he tribes. 1
prophet s thought is summed up in the name of the city: YoM
Shammah, " Yahwch is there," God dwelling lor ever in the mil
of his people.
LiTEkATURE.— For the older works see the Introductions of J.
Carpiov (its?) and C. H. H. Wright (i&oo). For trends: Psea
EpTphan., be vit. prophet. : Benjamin of Tudela, Itia.; Hamburg
Re aleuc^'cL ; lew. Encyd. On the Hebrew text; C. H. Corn
Ezcchiel (t &86) (very valuable for text and ancient versiori
H. Graeti, Emendation** fiSoj): C H. Toy. "Text of E*d
ft Bo?) in Haupt's Sacred Books cj the Did Test. Commeatsri
F. iliuig (1S47): H. Ewald (iSoS); E, Rcuss (French ecL, 183
Germ, ed., l&Qi); Currey (l&?6) in Speaker's Comm.; R. Sme;
f revision of HitxigJ (1BS07 in kunzefasst, rxrfrf. HsntHmth; A.
Davidson (t&S2) in Cambr. Bible for Schools; J. Skinner (1895)
Expos. BibU; A. Bertholet (1&97) in Marti 'a Kurz. Hand-Corn*
C. H. Toy (tSw) in Haupt's Star. Bki. (Eng, ed.) : R. Kractzschu
ft goo) in W. Nowack's Handkammtntar. Sec also Duhm, Theol^
Prophiten (1875): A. Kuerten. Prophets and Prophecy (187!
Gauticr, La Mission du prophete felchiei ( 1 891 ) ; Montehore, Him
Lectures {1892): A. Bertholet, Dtr Vtrfassuttisndwvrf its Hesel
ft 896); articles in Hericg-Hauck, ReaUmcykt., Hastings, B\
PicLi Cheyne, Encycl. Bibt.. Jew. Esvydr, F, Bleck, lutnd. (E|
tr, 1873), and Bleek-Wellhausen (Germ.) (1*78); Wildebd
Letierkunde d. Oud. Verhonds (tSo.j). and Germ, trans)., LiiL d.d
TtsL ; Perror. and Chipicz, HiiL de fart. &c** in whirl!, however. I
restoration of Ezc.kic.la temple (by Chjpiez) U probably untrtl
worthy. tC. H. T.*)
EZRA (from a Hebrew word meaning " help "), in the Bil
the famous scribe and priest at the Lime of the return of I
Jews in the reign of the Persian king Artutcnccs I. (458 B.^
Jfis book and that of Nehemiah. form one work (see EatA I
Km!Mj[.mi. Books of}, apart from which we have h'ttk UB
worthy evidence as lo his life* Even in the beginning of I
and century B.C., when Ben Sim praise* notable figures of I
exilic and post-exib'c age (Zcrubbabel, Jcshua and Nehenaia
Ezra i5 passed over (Ecclcsiasticus xli*. ii-t jj, and he is I
mentioned in a still later aad somewhat fanciful description
Nehemiah's work (* Mace. i. 18-56). Already well known ai
scribe, Ezra's labours were magnified by subsequent tradirj|
He was regarded as the father of the scribes and the founder
the Great Synagogue. According to the apocryphal fouj
book of Ezra (or 2 Esdras xiv.) he restored the law which h
been lost, and fcwrole ail the sacred records (which bad U
destroyed) in addition to do fewer than seventy apocrypj
works. The former theory recurs elsewhere in Jewish traditil
and may be associated with the representation in Exra-Nehem!
which connects him with the Uw, But the story of his nrt
literary efforts, like the more modem conjecture that be doi
the canon of the Old Testament, rests upon no ancient basis
See Bible, sect. Old Testament (Canon and Criticism); jt
(history, $ 31 *eq>). The apocryphal books, called 1 and 2 Esc
(the Greek form of the name) in the English Bible, are dealt s|
below ai Ez&a, Tiuao Book of, and EittA. Fchjhth Boos
while the canonical book of Eara is dealt with under Ezas i
Nlkl^iafe.
EZRA, THIRD BOOK OP (t Esd>as\. The titles of the vap
books of the Emo. literature ate very confusing. The Gri
the Old Latin^ the Syriac, and the Englbh Bible fronai
'Cog probabTy represents a Scyihan horde (though such
invasion never took place) -— certainK 1 not Alexander the Great, 1
would have been called "king of Greece," and] would have I
regarded not as an enemy but as a friend.
EZRA, 3RD BOOK OP
105
muds designate tab book as I Esdras, the canonical boohs
EnandNehcanah beings Esdras in the Greek* la the Vulgate,
form, our author was, through the action of Jerome, degraded
jko the third place and catted 3- Extras, whereas the canonical
boob &re and Ntkemiok (see Ezxa and Nehmoah, Books or.
Mow) were called t and a Esdras, and the Apocalypse of Ezra
(Ejdras. Thus the nomenc l ature of our book follows, and
potibljr wrongly, the usage of the Vulgate. 1 In the Ethiopic
ia»o a different usage prevails. The Apocalyspe is called
1 Eidras, our author 2 Esdras, and Ezra and Nehemiah 3 Esdras,
at j ad 4 Esdras. Throughout this article we shall use the best
fitted designation of this book, t* 1 Esdras.
(amis.— With'the exception of one original section, namely,
tht of Darius and the three young men, our author contains
eaeatially the same materials as the canonical Ezra and some
tticnsof a Chronicles and Nehemiah. To the various explana-
taos of this phenomenon we shall recur later. The book may
brdivided as follows (the verse division is that of the Cambridge
LU):-
Ckp. i-2 Chroiu moxv. t-xxxvL 21.— Great passover of Joeiah}
to death at Metiddo. His successors down to the destruction of
Jswaiem and the Captivity. (Verses i. 31-33 are not found ebe-
feit, though the OCX of a Chron. xxxv. 20 exhibits a very
feint parallel.)
Qua ii. i-u -E*ra. i.— The edict of Cyrus. Restoration of the
and vessels through Sanabassar to Jerusalem.
Cbp. ii. 15-35 «Eara iv. 6-24.— First attempt to rebuild the
fop*: opposition of the Samaritans, Decree of Artaxerxes:
wkitaadooed till the second year of Darius.
Cfcip. hi. t-r. 6.— Thb section is peculiar to our author. The
wea between the three pages waiting at the court of Darius and
fevKtory of the Jewish youth " Zerubbabel," to whom as a reward
urn deuces the return of the Jews and the restoration of the
fopfe and worship. Partial list of those who returned with
.Whim, son of ZerubbabeL"
,Cbp> v. 7-70 -Ezra ii.-iv. 5.— -List of exiles who returned with
«&febeL Work 00 the Temple begun. Offer of the Samaritans'
*pntioa rejected. Suspension of the work through their
erottion till the reign of Darius.
Chap- vi. i-vii. 9 - Ezra v. i-vi. 18. — Work resumed in the second
w« Darius. Correspondence between Sisinnes and Darius with
fnoce to the building of the Temple. Darius' favourable decree.
<-3*tkm of the work by Zerubbabel.
Cap. «L 10-15* Ears **» 19-aa.— Celebration of the completion
Ckp. vol Hx. 36— Ezra vii.-x.~Ret urn of the exiles under
™- Mixed marriage* forbidden.
I**- "- 37*55 -Nehemiah vii. 73-viiL 12.— The reading of the
Tta, apart from iii. i-v. 3, which gives an account of the
fes' contest, the contents of the book are doublets of the
j^aul Ezra and portions of 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah.
3< beginning of the book 6eems imperfect, with its abrupt
■^ "And Josiah held the passover": its conclusion is
te &ed, as it breaks off in the middle of a sentence. As
^'ttny suggests, it probably continued the history of the
483 of Tabernacles described in Neh. viii.— a view that is
tfctod by Joseph. Ant. xi. 5. 5, " who describes that feast
*ff u Esdras word fcraJopoWtt and . . . having hitherto
^*td Esdras as his authority passes on to the Book of
*&3>iah."
wjsi 10 Canoniciiy — It would seem that even greater value
* "lacked to 1 Esdras than to the Hebrew Ezra. (1) For
v -^ best MSS. (BA) it stands before 2 Esdras —the verbal
,-''-&tioa of the Hebrew Ezra and Nehemiah. (2) It is used by
**^us, who in fact does not seem aware of the existence
' ! Eidras. (3) 1 Esdras is frequently quoted by the Greek
r**-Clem. Alex., Origen, Eusebius,* and by the Latin—
' r «2an, Cyprian, Augustine. The adverse judgment of the
£jV » due to Jerome, who, from his firm attachment to the
7*** Old Testament, declined to translate the "dreams "
- J iad 4 Esdras. This judgment influenced alike the Council
' £ the Council of Treat (when the Septuagint Canon was
£*ty accepted as authoritative), by a most curious aberration.
!**». aid iv. and the Epistle of tfana&seh were alone excluded
■J *e canon and remitted to our appendix." — Howorth, " Un-
■"Jtiotuj! Views on the Text of the Bible," in the P.S,P.A. t
of Trent and the Lutheran church in Germany; for Lather
also refused to translate Esdras and the Apocalypse of Ezra.
Origm and Ralutum to Ike Canonical Ezra. — Various theories
have been given as to the relation of the book and the canonical
Ezra, .
1. Some scholars, as Keil,BisseUand formerly SchOrer, regarded
1 Esdras as a free compilation from the Greek of a Esdras( a Chron.
and'Esra-Neheiaiah). This theory has now given place to others
more accordant with the facts of the case.
a. Others, as Ewald, Hist. «/ Iv. v. 126-128, and Thackeray
in Hastings' BibU Dictionary, assume a lost Greek version of
Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah, from which were derived
1 Esdras— a free redaction of the former and 2 Esdras.
Thackeray claims that we have "a satisfactory explanation
of the coincidences in translation and deviation from the Hebrew
in 1 Esdras and a Esdras, if we suppose both are to some extent
dependent on a lost Greek original." But later in the same
article Thackeray is compelled to modify this view and admit
that 1 Esdras is not a mere redaction of a no longer extant
version of the canonical books, but shows not only an independent
knowledge of the Hebrew text but also of a Hebrew text superior
in not a few passages to the Massoretic text, where a Esdras
gives either an inaccurate version or a version reproducing the
secondary Massoretic text.
3. Others like Michaelis, Trendelenburg, Pohlmann, Herzfeld,
Fritzsche hold ft to be a direct and independent translation of
the Hebrew. There is much to be said in favour of this view.
It presupposes in reality two independent recensions of tbo
Hebrew text, such as we cannot reasonably doubt existed at
one time of the Book of Daniel Against this it has been urged
that the story of the three pages was written originally in Greek
(Ewald, Scourer, Thackeray). The only grounds for Uus theory
are the easiness of the Greek style and the paronomasia in
iv. 62 «vt*u> xnl aeWu*. But the former is no real objection,
and the latter may be purely accidental. On the other hand
there are several undoubted Semitictsms. Thus we have two
instances of the split relative 00 . . . avrov iii. 5; ou , . . kr* *tn$
iv. 63 and the phrase pointed out by Fritzsche ra otaua vojsi
asro T&rrw-poemow. It must, however, be admitted that
there are fewer Hebraisms in this section of the book than in tbo
rest.
4. Sir H. H. Howorth in the treatises referred to at the close
of this article has shown cogent grounds for regarding 1 Esdras
as the original and genuine Septuagint translation, and a Esdras
as probably that of Theodotion. For this view he adduces
among others the following grounds: (L) Its use by Josephus,
who apparently was not acquainted with 2 Esdras. (ii.) Its
precedence of a Esdras in the great uncials, (iii.) Its origin at a
time when Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah formed a single worki
(iv.) Its preservatioo of a better Hebrew text in many instances
than 2 Esdras. (v.) The fact that 1 Esdras and the Septuagint
of Daniel go back to one and the same translator, as Pr Gwynn
(Did. Christ. Biog. iv. 977) has pointed out (cf. 1 Esdr. vi ii,
and Dan. ii. 5).
This contention of Howorth has been accepted by Nestle,
Cheyne, Bertbolet, Ginsburg and other scholars, though they
regard the question of an Aramaic original of chapters iii. i-v. 6
as doubtful. Howorth's further claim that he has established
the historical credibility of the book as a whole and its chrono-
logical accuracy as against the canonical Ezra has not as yet
met with acceptance; but his arguments have not been fairly
met and answered.
5. Voiz (Emcyc. Bibl. ii. 1400) thinks that the solution of the
problem is to be found in a different direction. The text is of
unequal value, and the inequalities are so great as to exclude
the supposition that the Greek version was produced ous dnm
Gust. in. r-v. 3 is an independent narrative written originally in
Greek and itself a composite production, the praise of truth
being an addition, vi. i-vii. 15, ii. 15-250 is a fragment of an
Aramaic narrative. Some in Josephus (A nU xi. 4* 9) an account
of Samaritan intrigues is introduced immediately after 1 Esdras
vii, 15, it is natural to infer that something of the same kind
ro6
EZRA, 4 th BOOK OF
has fallen out between vi. and ii. 15-2 5. The Aramaic text
behind 1 Esdras here is better than that behind the canonical
Ezra. Next, viii.-ix. is from the Ezra document ( » Ezra vii.-x. ;
Neh. vii. 73, viii. r sqq.), though implying a different Hebrew text,
ii. x-15; v. 7-73; vii. 2-4, 6-15 are from the Chronicles: likewise
i. is from 2 Chron. xxxv.-vi., 2 Esdras being at the same time
before the translator.
Dale. — The book must be placed between 300 B.C. and a.d. 100,
when it was used by Josephus. It is idle to attempt any nearer
limits until definite conclusions have been reached on the chief
problems of the book.
MSS. and Versions.— The book is found in B and A. The
latter seems to have preserved the more ancient form of the
text, as it is generally that followed by Josephus. The Old
Latin in two recensions is published by Sabatier, Bibtiorum
sacrorum Latinac version** antiquac, iii. Another Latin transla-
tion is given in Lagarde (Scptuag. Sludien, ii., 1892). In Syriac
the text is found only in the Syro-Hexaplar of Paul of Telia
(a.d. 616). See Walton's Polyglott. There is also an Ethiopic
version edited by Dillmann (Bibl. Vet. Test. Aeth. v., 1894)
and an Armenian.
Literature. — Exegesis: Frftzsche, Exeget. Handb. tu den Apokr.
(1851); Z&ckler, Die Apohryphen, 155*161 (1891); Bissell in Lange-
Schaff's Comm. (1880); Lupton in Speakers Comm. (1888); Ball,
notes to 1 Eadr. in the Variorum Apocrypha. Introduction and
critical Inquiries: Trendelenburg, " Apocr. Esra," in Eichhorn's
AUgem. Bibl. der bibl. Lilt. i. 178-232 (1787): Pohlmann, "Cbcr
das Ansehcn des apokr. dritten Bucns Esras," in Tubingen Theol.
I7>. »,--. ^ .. _.
Views on the Text of the Bible," in the Proceedings of the Society of
Biblical Archaeology, 1901, pp. 147-159; 306-330, 1902, June and
November. (R. H. C.)
EZRA, FOURTH BOOK (or Apocalypse) OP This is the
most profound and touching of the Jewish Apocalypses. It
stands in the relation of a sister work to the Apocalypse of
Baruch, but though the relation is so dose, they have many
points of divergence. Thus, whereas the former represents the
ordinary Judaism of the xst century of the Christian era, the
teaching of 4 Ezra on the Law, Works, Justification, Original
Sin and Free Will approximates to the school of Shammai and
serves to explain the Pauline doctrines on those subjects; but
to this subject we shall return.
Original Language and Versions. — In the Latin version our
book consists, of sixteen chapters, of which, however, only
iii.-xiv. are found in the other versions. To iii.-xiv., accordingly,
the present notice is confined. After the example of most of the
Latin MSS. we designate the book 4 Ezra (see Bensly-James,
Fourth Book of Ezra, pp. xxiv-xxvii). In the First Arabic and
Ethiopic versions it is called x Ezra; in some Latin MSS. and in
the English Authorized Version it is 2 Ezra, and in the Armenian
3 Ezra. Chapters i.-ii. are sometimes called 3 Ezra, and xv.-xvi.
5 Ezra. All the versions 90 back to a Greek text. This is shown
by the late Greek apocalypse of Ezra (Tischendorf, Apocalypses
Apocryphae, 1866, pp. 24-33) , the author of which was acquainted
with the Greek of 4 Ezra; also by quotations from it in Barn,
iv. 4; xii. 1=4 Esra xii. xo sqq., v. 5; Clem. Alex. Strom, iii. 16
(here first expressly cited) « 4 Ezra v. 35, Ac. (see Bensly-James,
op. cit. pp. xxvii-xxxviii. The derivation of the Latin version
from the Greek is obvious when we consider its very numerous
Graecisms. Thus the genitive is found after the comparative
(v. 13) horum majora; xi. 29 duorum copitum ma jus, even the
genitive absolute as in x. 9, the double negative, dt and ex with
the genitive. Peculiar genders can only be accounted for by the
influence of the original forms in Greek, as x. 23 signacnlum
(o+paylt) . . . tradita est; xi. 4 caput («*4*X^) . . . sedet ipsa.
In vi. 25 wc have the Greek attraction of the relative— omnibus
istis ouibus praedixi tibi. In his Messias Judaeorum (1869),
pp. 36-110, Hilgenfeld has given a reconstruction of the Greek
text. Till 1896 only Ewald believed that 4 Ezra was written
originally in Hebrew. In that year Wellhausen (GdtL Gel. Ant.
pp. 12-13) and Charles {Apoc Bar. p. lxxii) pointed out that
a Hebrew original must be assumed on various grounds; and
this view the former established in his Shine* u. Vsmkka
vi. 234- 240 ( 1 899) . Of the numerous grounds for this assumplio
it will be necessary only to adduce such constructions as "de qu
me interrogas de eo," iv. 28, and xiii. 26, " qui per semet ipsu
liberabit " (-uhs/bJ- " through whom he will deliver," or 1
point to such a mistranslation as vii. 33, " longanimitas coi
gregabitur," where for " congregabitur " (***pr) we requii
" evanescet," which is another and the actual meaning of tl
Hebrew verb in this passage. The same mistranslation is four
in the Vulgate in Hosea iv. 3. Gunkel has adopted this vk
in his German translation of the book in Kautzsch's Apok. w
Pseud, des A. Testaments, ii. 332-333, and brought forward
confirmation the following remarkable instance in viii. 1
where though the Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic and Armenu
Versions read tcslifleatur, the Second Arabic version and tl
Apostolic Constitutions have pkrtt eft top aluma, which are to!
explained as translations of (sV) yft mop. Another intercstii
case is found in xiv. 3, where the Latin and all other versio
but Arabic* read super rubum and the Arabic* in monk Situ
Here there is a corruption of «o " bush " into to " Sinai."
Latin Version. — AH the older editions of this version, as the
of Fabricius, Sabatier, Volkmar, Hilgenfeld, Fritzscbe. as welt
in the older editions of the Bible, are based ultimately on of
one MS., the Codex Sangcrmanensis (written a.d. 822), as Gilt
meister proved in 1865 from the fact that the large fragment betwr
verse* \6 and 37 in chapter vii., which is omitted in all the abo
ed , originated through the excision of a leaf in this MS.
sp! 1 1 edition of this version based on MSS containing the raisa
fragment, which have been subsequently discovered, has been pu
Hshcd by Bensly-James, op. cit. This edition has taken accou
of all the important MSS. known, save one at Leon in Spain.
Syriac Version. — This version, found in the Ambrosun Libra
in Milan, was translated into Latin by Ccriani, Mouumenla set
et profana, II. ii. pp. 99-124 (1866). Two years later this sebd
edited the Syriac text, op. cU. V. i. pp. 4-111, and in 1883 rep)
duced the MS. by photo-lithography (Translatio Syra Peshute V.
II. iv. pp. 553*572). Hilgenfeld incorporated Ceriani's Latin trai
lation in his Messias Judaeorum. This translation needs revisi
and correction.
Ethiopic Version. — First edited and translated by Lauren
Primi Esrae libri versio Aethiopica (1820). Laurence's Lai
translation was corrected by Praetorius and reprinted in Hilgi
feld's Messias Judaeorum. In 1894 Dillrnann's text based oa 1
MSS. was published — V.T. Aeth. libri apocryphi, v. 153-193.
Arabic Versions. — The First Arabic version was translated froc
MS. in the Bodleian Library into English by OekSey (in Whisto
Primitive Chrislianityj vol. iv. 171 1). This was done into La
and corrected by Sterner for Hilgcnfeld's Mess. Jud. The Sect
Arabic version, which is independent of the first, has been edtj
from a Vatican MS. and translated into Latin by Gflderoeistcr, 18
Armenian Version. — First printed in the Armenian Bible (i&
Translated into Latin by Peterreann for Hilgenfeld's Mess. Jt
next with Armenian text and English translation by Issaverdens
the Uncanonical Writings of the Old Testament, pp. 488 sqq. (Ven
1901).
Georgian Version. -According to F. C. Conybeare an accw
Georgian version made from the Greek exists in an 1 iih -century I
at Jerusalem.
Relation of the above Versions. — These versions stand in the or
of worth as follows: Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic. The remain
versions are paraphrastic and less accurate! and are guilty of ac
tions and omissions. AU the versions, save the Second Arabic <
go back to the same Greek version. The Second Arabic ven
presupposes a second Greek version.
Modern Versions. — All the English versions are now antiqual
except those in the Variorum Apocrypha and the Revised Ven
of the Apocrypha, and even these are far from satisfactory. S
larly, all the German versions are behindhand, except the excel
version of Gunkel in Apok. u. Pseud, ii. 252-401, which, howt
needs occasional correction.
Contents.— The book (Iii.-xiv.) consists, of seven vision
parts, like the apocalypse of Baruch. They are : (1) iii. i-v
(2) v. 20-vi. 34; (3) vi. 35-«x. 25; (4) ix. 26-x. 60; (5) xi. v
51; (6) xiii.; (7) xiv. These deal with (1) religious probl
and speculations and (2) eschatological questions. The
three are devoted to the discussion of religious problems aftec
in the main the individual. The presuppositions underl
these are in many cases the same as those in the Pauline Epis
The next three visions are principally concerned with escli
logical problems which relate to the nation. The seventh vi
EZRA, 4TB BOOK OF
Bifrignentof the Ezra Saga recounting the rewriting of the
Scriptures, which had been destroyed. This has no organic
coaMDOQ with what precedes.
First Vision, iii.-v. to. — " In the thirtieth year after the ruin
tt the city I Salathiel Cthe same Is Ezra) was in Babylon and lay
troabted upon my bed.' 1 In a lone prayer Ezra asks how the deso-
bdoa of Swtt and the (prosperity of Babylon can be in keeping with
lit justice o( God. The angel Uriel answers that God's ways are
Ltxarchable and past mans understanding;. When Ezra asks
*fc?n the end will be and what are the signs out, the angel answers
cut the end is at hand and enumerates the signs of it.
Saved Visit*, v. 14-Ti. 34.— Phaltid, chief of the people,
njsftttcfaes Ezra for forsaking his flock. Ezra fasts, and in his
raetnduathand; its sspw are recounted,
Tkird Vision, vu 35-tx. a$A— Ezra recounts the works of creation.
vi asks why Israel does not possess the world since the world
*i5 mate for Israel. The answer is that the present state is a
aosary stage to the coming one. Then follows an account of
fe Messianic age and the resurrection: the punishment of the
*ded and the blessings of the righteous. There can be no intsr-
::<>ion for the departed. Few wul be saved — only as it were a
R* out of a duster or a plant out of a forest.
funk Vision, ix. a6-ac 60.— Ezra eats of herbs in the field of
««, and sees in a viskw a woman mourning for her only eon*
ua reminds her of the greater desolation of Sion. Suddenly she
t transfigured and vanishes, and in her place appears a city. The
*m»m, Uriel explains, represents Sion.
Ntk Vision. xi. i-xii. 39.— Vision of an eagle with three heads,
™* wings and eight wmglets, which is Kbtiked by a lion and
ftroyed. The eagle is the fourth kingdom seen by Daniel, and
* Ma U the Messiah.
&H Visum, xiii.— Vision of a man (i.e. the Messiah) arising
«a the tea, who destroys hie enemies who assemble against him,
» ptben to him another multitude, »'.«. the lost Tea Tribes.
,**■** Vision, xiv. — Ezra i« told of his approaching translation.
£ mo for the restoration of the Law, and is enabled by God to
Jute in forty days ninety-four books (the twenty-four canonical
wo of the Old Testament that were lost, and seventy secret books
■yk wise among the people).
bras translation is found in the Canon only in the Oriental
*b*b* In the Latin it was omitted when xv.-xvi. were added.
/*jru>.— According to Gonkel (Afok. «. Pseud. H. 335-352)
* *tofe book is the work of one writer. Thus down to vii.
*fe deals with the problem of the origin of suffering in the
*M, and from vii. 17 to ix. a 5 with the question who is worthy
*4are in the blessedness of the next world. As regards the
*s problem the writer shows, in the first vision, that suffering
*i death come from sin—no less truly on the part of Israel
fes of all men, for God created man to be immortal; that the
« is sigh, when wrongs will be righted; God's rule will then
kneofnized. In the second he emphasizes the consolation to
kbesd in the coming time, and in the third he speaks solely of
* bw world, and then addresses himself to the second problem.
« forth, fifth and sixth visions are escbatologicat In these
« niter turns aside from the religious problems of the first
*«Tisioos and concerns himself only with the future national
*fr<s*ey of Israel. Zion's glory will certainly be revealed
*»» four), Israel will destroy Rome (five) and the hostile
^« (six). Then the book is brought to a dose with the
Wof Ezra's restoration of the lost Old Testament Scriptures.
J* the course of the above work there are many inconsistencies
VcoBtradicUons. These Gunkel explains by admitting that
*"riter has drawn largely on tradition, both oral and written,
*« suteriaJs. Thus he concedes that eschatological materials
• v M3, vi. x8~a8, vii. 26 sqq:, also ix. 1 sqq., are from this
***. and apparently from an originally independent work, as
£**a urges, but that it is no longer possible to separate the
j^**td elements from the text- Again, in the four last visions
* a obliged to make the same concession on a very large scale.
J* faur is based on a current novel, which the author has
"ha «p and put into an allegorical form. Visions five and six
*jn*a from oral or written tradition, and relate only to the
*-**! expectations of Israel, and seven is a reproduction of a
?*j» for the independent existence of which evidence is
fcased by the quotations in Bensly-James pp. xxxvii-xxxviii.
IQ7
Thus the chief champion of the unity of the book makes so
many concessions as to its dependence on previously existing
sources thai, to the student of eschatology, there is little to
choose between his view and that of Kabisch. In fact, if the
true meaning of the borrowed materials js to be discovered, the
sources must be disentangled- Hence the need of some such
analysis as thai of Kabisch (Das vierte Buch Ezra, 1889); S-an
Apocalypse of Salathiel, c. a.d. ico, preserved in a fragmentary
condition, ail. 1-31, iv. 1-51, v. i3&-vi. 10, 30-vii. 25, vii. 45-viii.
62, ix. 13-z. 57, xii. 40-481 xiv. 28-35. E=an Ezra Apocalypse,
c. 31 B.C., iv. 52-v. 13a, vL 13-28, vii. 26-44, viii. 63-ix. 12.
A - an Eagle Vision, c. a.d. 90, x. 60-xii. 35. M - a Son-of-Man
Vision, xiii E*=an Ezra fragment, c. a.d. 100, xiv. 1-170,
18-27, 36-47. All these, according to Kabisch, were edited by a
Zealot, c. z2o, who supplied the connecting links and made
many small additions. In the main this analysis is excellent.
If we assume that the editor was also the author of S, and that
such a vigorous stylist, as he shows himself to be, recast to some
extent the materials he borrowed, there remains but slight
difference between the views of Kabisch and Gunkel. Neither
view, however, is quite satisfactory, and the problem still awaits
solution. Other attempts, such as Ewald's (Gesch. d. Volkes
Israel*, vii. 60-83) and De Faye's (Apocalypses juives, 155-165),
make no contribution.
School of the Author.— -The author or final redactor of the book
was a pessimist, and herein his book stands in strong contrast
with the Apocalypse of Baruch. Thus to the question pro-
pounded in the New Testament— "Are there few that be saved? "
he has no hesitation in answering, " There be many created, but
few that be saved " (viii. 3) : " An evil heart hath grown up in
us which hath led us astray . . . and that not a few only but
wcllnigh all that have been created " (vii. 48). In the Apocalypse
of Baruch on the other hand it is definitely maintained that not
a few shall be saved (xxi. 11). Moreover, the sufferings of the
wicked are so great in the next world it were better, according
to 4 Ezra (as also to the school of Shammai), that man had not
been born. *' It is much better (for the beasts of the field) than
for us; for they expect "not a judgment and know not of
torments " (vii. 66) : yet " it would have been best not to have
given a body to Adam, or that being done, to have restrained
him from sin; for what profit is there that man should in the
present life live in heaviness and after death look for punishment"
(vii. 116, X17). In iv. 12 the nexus of life, sin and suffering just
referred to, is put still more strongly: u It were better we had
not been at all than that we should be born 'and sin and suffer." 1
The different attitude of these two writers towards this question
springs from their respective views on the question of free will.
The author of Baruch declares (iv. 15, 19): M For though Adam
sinned and brought untimely death upon all, yet of those who
were born from him each one of them prepared for his own sou!
torment to come, and again each one of them has chosen for
himself glories to come . . . each one of us has been the Adam
of his own soul." Though the writer of Ezra would admit trre
possibility of a few Israelites attaining to salvation through the
most strenuous endeavour, yet he holds that man is all but
prcdoomed through his original evil disposition or through the
fall of Adam (vii. 118). M O Adam, what hast thou done: for
though it was thou that sinned, the evil is not fallen on thee
alone, but upon all of us that come of thee."
Another contrast between the two books is that while Baruch
shows some mercy to the Gentiles (lxxii. 4-6) in the Messianic
period, none according to 4 Ezra and the Shammaites (Toseph.
Sank. xiif. 2) will be extended to them, Hi. 30, ix. 2* sq., xii. 34,
xiii. 37 sq.).
On the above grounds it is not unreasonable to conclude that
whereas the Apocalypse of Baruch owes its leading character-
istics to a pupil of Hillel's school, 4 Ezra shows just as clearly
its derivation from that of Shammai. Kohler {Jewish Eneyc.
1 Tn the Apocalypse of Baruch, x. 6, we find a similar expression:
" Blessed is he who was not born, or being born has died." But
here death is said to be preferable to witnessing the present woes of
Jerusalem.
io8
EZRA AND NEHEMIAH
v. ttt) points out that the view of 4 Em that the Ten
Tribes wHJ return was held by the Shammaites, whereas it was
denied by Aqiba. The Apocalypse of Baruch is silent on this
^Time and Place.— The work was written towards the dose of
the 1st century (iii. 1, 20), and somewhere in the east.
Literature.— In addition to the authorities mentioned above,
see Dillmann, Herzog's RtaUEneyk* xii. 353 soq.; SchOrer, Cock.
des jud. Volkes*, iii. 246 sqq.; and the articles ; on 4 Wrai ui
Hastings* BtbU DicttonaryttrtibeEscydopo^iaBtUuabyTbackeny
and James respectively. (**• **• w
EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS 07, in the Old Testament.
The two canonical books entitled Ezra and Nehemjah in the
English Bible 1 correspond to the 1 and 2 Esdras of the Vulgate,
to the 2 Esdras of the Scptuagint, and to the Ezra and
Nehemiah of the Massorctic (Hebrew) text. Though for many
centuries they have thus been treated as separate compositions,
we have abundant evidence that they were anciently regarded as
forming but one book, and a careful examination proves that
together with the book of Chronicles they constitute one single
work. The two books may therefore be conveniently treated
together.
1. Position and Date.— Origen (Euseb, H.E.vl 25), expressly
enumerating the twenty-two books of the old covenant as
acknowledged by the Jews and accepted by the Christian church,
names " the First and Second Ezra in one book "; Melito of
Sardis (Euseb. H.E. iv. a6) in like raannei mentions the book
of Ezra only. So also the Talmud (in Bdbd bathra, 14. 2), nor
can it be supposed that Josephus in his enumeration (c. A p.
i. 8) reckoned Nehemiah as apart from Ezra. That the Jews
themselves recognized no real separation is shown by the fact
that no Massorctic notes arc found after Ezra x. t but at the end
of Nehemiah the contents of both arc reckoned together, and it
is slated that Neh. iii. 22 is the middle verse of the book. Their
position in the Hebrew Bible before the book of Chronicles
is, however, illogical. The introductory verses of Ezra i. arc
identical with the conclusion of 2 Chron. xxxvi., whilst in the
version of 1 Esdras no less than two chapters (2 Chron. xxxv. sq.)
overlap. The cause of the separation is probably to be found
in the late reception of Chronicles into the Jewish canon. Further
proof of the unity of the three is to be found in the general simi-
larity of style and treatment. The same linguistic criteria recur,
and the interest in lists and genealogies, in priests and Levites,
and in the temple service point unmistakably to the presence
of the same hand (the so-called " chronicler ") in Chronicles-
Ezra-Nchemiah. Sec Bible (sect. Canon)', CaaoNici.ES.
The period of history covered by the books of Ezra and
Nehemiah extends from the return of the exiles under Zcrubbabel
in 537-536 B.c. to Nehemiah's second visit to Jerusalem in 432
B.C. In their present form, however, the books are considerably
later, and allusions to Nehemiah in the past (Neh. xii. 26, 47)>
to the days of Jaddua (the grandson of Nehemiah's contem-
porary Joiada; ib. xii. n), to Darius (Nothus 423 *- c - or rather
Codomannus 336 B.C., ib. v. 22), and the use of the term " king
of Persia," as a distinctive title after the fall of that empire
(332 B.C.), arc enough to show that, as a whole, they belong to
the same age as the book of Chronicles.
2. Contents. — Their contents may be divided into four parts:—
(a) The events preceding the mission of Ezra (i.-vi.).— In the
first year of his reign Cyrus was inspired to grant a decree per-
mitting the Jews to return to build the temple in Jerusalem
(i.); a list of families is given (ii.). The altar of burnt-offering
was set up, and in the second year of the return the foundations
of the new temple were laid with great solemnity (iii.). The
" adversaries of Judah and Benjamin " offered to assist but
were repulsed, and they raised such opposition to the progress
of the work that it ceased until the second year of Darius (s2i-
520 B.C.). Aroused by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah the
building was then resumed, and despite fresh attempts to
hinder the work it was completed, consecrated -and dedicated
1 Reference* to 1 Esdras in this article are to the book discussed
above as Ezra, Third Book of.
in the sixth year of that king (vi). The event was aoJannno
by the celebration of the Passover (ct 2 Chron. xxx, HeaHal
xxxv. Josiah). '
(0) An interval of fifty-eight years is passed over in sflenol
and the rest of the book of Ezra comprises his account of fe$
mission to Jerusalem (vii. -x.). Ezra, a scribe of repute, *%
versed in the laws of Moses, returns with a band of exiles j
order to reorganize the religious community. A few montl
after his arrival (seventh year of Artaxerxes, 458 B.C.) he inst
tuted a great religious reform, viz. the prohibition of iau
marriage with the heathen of the hud (cf. already vi. at
In spite of some opposition (x. 15 obscurely worded) the rem
was accepted, and the foundations of a new community we-
laid. I
(c) Twelve years elapse before the return of Nehemiah, wbd
description of his work is one of the most interesting pieces |
Old Testament narrative (Neh. l-vi.). In the twentieth year |
Artaxerxes (445 B.C.), Nehemiah the royal cup-bearer at Shush*
(Susa, the royal winter palace) was visited by friends from Judi
and was overcome with grief at the tidings of the miserable col
dition of Jerusalem and the pitiful state of the Judaean remaaj
which had escaped the captivity. He obtained permission
return, and on reaching the city made a secret survey of the na
and called upon the nobles and rulers to assist in repairing thq
Much opposition was caused by Sanballat the Horonitc (ix.
the Moabite Horonaim or Beth-horon, about 15 m. N.W.
Jerusalem), Tobiah the Ammonite, Ccshem (or Gashxnu)
Arabian, and the Ashdodites, whose virulence increased as
rebuilding of the walls continued. But not withstanding attctsp
upon the city and upon the life of Nehemiah, and in spite |
intrigues among certain members of the Judaean section, 1
fifty-two days the city walls were complete (Neh. vi. 15). T
hostility, however, did not cease, and measures were taken {
ensure the safety of the city (vi. 16-viL 4). A valuable accou
is given of Nehemiah's economical reforms, illustrating t!
internal social conditions of the period and the general charaei
of the former governors who had been placed in charge (v., i
the laws codified in Lev. xxv. 35 sqq.).
(</) The remaining chapters carry on the story of the laboi
of both Ezra and Nehemiah. The list of those who return
under the decree of Cyrus is repealed (Neh. vii.), and leads up
the reading of the Law by Ezra, a great national confession
guilt, and a solemn undertaking to observe the new covenant, 1
provisions of which are detailed (x. 28-39). After sundry lists
the families dwelling in Jerusalem and its neighbourhood (xi
sqq., apparently a sequel to vii. 1-4),' and of various priests a
Levites, an account is given of the dedication of the walls (
27-43), the arrangements for the Lcvilical organization (rt.
47), and a fresh separation from the heathen (Moabites a
Ammonites, xiii. 1-3; cf. Deut. xxiii. 3 seq.). The book conclu
with another extract from Nehemiah's memoirs dealing »
the events of a second visit, twelve years later (xiii. 4-31).
this occasion he vindicated the sanctity of the tcxnpk
expelling Tobiah, reorganized the supplies for the Levites, l<
measures to uphold the observance of the Sabbath, and r.
tested energetically against the foreign marriages. In the cot
of his reforms he thrust out a son of Joiada (son of Eiiasi
the high-priest), who had married the daughter of Sanballat,
incident which had an important result (see Samaritans).
That these books are the result of compilation (like the b
of Chronicles itself) is evident from the many abrupt chanj
the inclusion of certain documents written in an Aramaic dia
(Ezr. iv. 8-vi. 18, vii. 12-26)*; the character of the name-li
the lengthy gaps in the history; the use made of two dist
sources, attributed to Ezra and Nehemiah respectively,
from the varying form in which the narratives are cast.
* With Neh. xi. 4-19 cf. 1 Chron. ix. 3-17; with the list xii. 1-
to. 12-21 and x 3-9; and with xii. 10 sq. cf. 1 Chron. vi. 3-1*
which it forms the sequel). See further Smend, Listen d. Est
Neh. (1881).
» Sometimes wrongly styled Ckaldee (§*0; see Sonne 1
GUAGES.
EZRA AND NEHEMIAH
109
(braider's hand can usuaVy be readily recognized. There
tr relatively few traces of it in Nehemiah's memoirs and In
tk Aramaic documents, but elsewhere the sources are largely
otaicd, if not written from the standpoint of his age. Ex*
i&pks of artificial arrangement appear notably in Ear. iL— all. 1
oepared with Neh. vii. 6-viH. 1 (first clause); in the present
pestkm of Ezr. iv. 6-23; and in the dislocation of certain
portions of the two memoirs in Neh. viil.-xiii. (see below). It
{badd be noticed that the present order of the narratives involves
& theory that some catastrophe ensued after Ezr. x. and before
X4. i.; that the walb had been destroyed and the gates burnt
**a; that some external opposition (with which, however, Ezra
* oot have to contend) had been successful; that the main
<kject of Ezra's mission was delayed for twelve years, and,
*ty, that only through Nehemiah's energy was the work of
rial and religious reorganization successful. These topics
aee serious historical problems (see Jews: History, J ai).
j. Criticism of Esra «.-«'.— The chronicler's account of the
terortkra of Jerusalem, the seventy years' interval (2 Chron.
oni »sq.;cf. J*r. xxv. it, xxix. 10, also Is. zziH. 17), and the
Kern of 42,360 of the exfles (Ezr. ii. 64 sqq.) represent a
**al view of the history of the period. The totals, as also t he
*aW figures, in Ezr., Neh. and 1 Esdr. v. vary considerably;
& number is extremely large (contrast Jer. lii. 30); it includes
& common people (contrast 2 Kings zxiv. 14, zxv. 12), and
tens the fact that Judah was not depopulated, that the Jews
*w carried off to other places besides Babylon and that many
saiaed behind in Babylon. According to this view, Judah
« Jerusalem were practically deserted until the return. The
Jta En. ii. fe that of families which returned M every man unto
■Ay" under twelve leaders (including Nehcmiah, Azariah
* &»l Zcrubbabel and Jcshua); It recurs with many varia-
^ia a different and apparently more original context in Neh.
* ud ia 1 Esdr. v. is ascribed to the time of Darius. The
*&* (to judge from the northwards extension of Judaean
*j«y) are probably those of the population in the later
«an period, hardly those who returned to the precise homes
•*» ancestors (see C. F. Kent, Israel's Hist, and Biogr.
T 4 * ' P- 379). The offerings which are for the temple-
™* a Neh. vii, 70-72 (cf. 1 Chron, xxix. 6-S) are for the
*>&« of the temple in Ezr. ii. 68-70; and since the walls are
*W built, the topographical details in Neh. viii 1 (sec 1 Esdr.
^ve adjusted, and the event of the seventh month is not the
^ of the Law amid the laments of the people (Neh. via.;
**• 9-n) but the erection of the altar by Jeshua and Zerub-
, uader inauspicious circumstances (cf. Ezr. iii 3 with 1
*».*>).
^chronologically misplaced account of the successful opposi-
r ii time of A 11 * 5116 " 1 * <"• x ««») »d Artaxerxes (the
■JJJPandson of Darius respectively) breaks, the account of
*"*jw under Cyrus and Darius, and is concerned with the
* ja» (iv. 6-23) »; there is some obscurity in m 7-9: Rehum
**nsaii evidently take the lead, Tabeel may be an Aram-
^qoivalent of Tobiah. A recent return is implied (iv. 12)
, «e record hints that a new decree may be made (p. 21).
6.??v UDt q{ ^ c un4UCCCS » fu ^ opposition to the UmpU in the
/•« Darius (v. sq.; for another account see Jos. Ant. xi. 4, 9)
^Pendent of iv. 7-25, and throws another light upon the
**« Cyrus (vi. 3-5, contrast i 2-4). It implies that Shcsh-
**. *ho had been sent with the temple vessels in the time of
g. M laid the foundations and that the work had continued
^cessation (v. 16, contrast iv. 5, 24). The beginning of
JW of Darius is wanting (vi. 6 sqq.), and the decree which
■*» sought in Babylon is found at Ecbatana. Chap. vi. 15
* wd position In the history of this period is not certain.
^ l «_wppo«ition that the names refer to Cambysea and
7£uierdu who refened after Cvrus and before Darius, see
t77™» *ho reigned after Cyrus and before Darius, see
i^ y \ Camb ' *#**« " E"*- «d Neh.," p. 65 sq. Against the
*f Danus is D. H. Nothus of 423-404 b.c, see G. A. Smith,
tt J^pkeh, ii. 191 sqq. The ignorance of the compiler regarding
rrrvpuu, n. ioi sqq. The ignorance of
Jjwct o( the kings finds aearallel in thi
If k«el («.».); see C C Torrey, Amor.
"*M7S,a. 1.
that of the author of the
Jotun, of Sent. Lang.
sqqt follow more naturally upon v. 1-2, but ». 14 with its difficult
reference to Artaxerxes now seems to presuppose the decree, is
iv. *i and looks forward to the time of Ezra or Nehcmiah. As
regards this section (Ear. i.-vi.) as a whole, there ia little doubt
lint i. iii i-iv. 5, vi. 15-22 are from the chronicler, whose free
treatment of his material is seen in the use he has made of ch. ii
Notwithstanding the unimpeachable evidence for the tolerant
attitude of Persian kings and governors towards the religion of
subject races,- it is probable that the various decrees incorporated
in the book (cf. also 1 Esdr. iv. 42 sqq.) have been reshaped from
a Jewish standpoint. A noteworthy example appears in the
account of the unique powers entrusted to Ezra (vii. 11-26), the '
introduction to whose memoirs, at all events, is quite in the style
of the chronicler.
4. Memoirs of Nshemia* and Ezra.— -The memoirs of Ezra,
and Nehcmiah do not appear to have been incorporated without
some adjustment. The lapse of time between Neh. i 1 and it. t
is noteworthy, and with the prayer in i 5-1 1 cf. Ear. ix. 6-15,
Dan. ix. 4 sqq. (also parallels in Deuteronomy); chap. L ia its
present form may be a compiler's introduction. The important
topographical list in ch. iii is probably from another sourest
the style is different, Nehcmiah ia absent, and the high-priest
is unusually prominent.* Chap, v., where Nehemiah reviews hit
past conduct as governor, turns aside to economic reforms and
scarcely falls within the fifty-two days of the building of the
walls. The chapter ia closely associated with the contents of
xiiL and breaks the account of the opposition. Anticipated
already in ii. 10,-the hostility partly arises from the repudiation
of Samaritan religious claims (iL 20; cf. Ezr. iv. 3) and ia partly
political. It is difficult to follow its pragrces dearly, and. the
account ceases abruptly ia vi 17*10 with the notice of the
conspiracy of Tobiah and the nobles of Judah. The chronicler's
style can be recognized in vii x»j (ia its present xonri), wheat
steps are taken to protect and to people Jerusalem; the older
sequel is now found in ch. xt. Whilst the account of the dedka*
tion of the walla is marked by the use of the pronoun " I "
(xfl. 31, 38, 40), it is probably now due as a whole to the chronicler,
and when the more trustworthy memonas of Nehemiah *n
resumed (xiii. 4 sqq.) the episodes, although placed twelve
years later (vex. 6), are intimately connected with the preceding
reforms (cf . xii 44-ariii 3 with xiii xo sqq., 33 sqq.).* Nehemiah's
attitude towards intermarriage is markedly moderate in contrast
to the drastic measures of Ezra, whose mission and work the
simpler and perhaps earlier narratives of Nehemiah originally
ignored, and the relation between the two as complicated further
by the literary character of the memoir of Ezra.
To the last mentioned are prefixed (a) the scribe's genealogy,
which traces him back to Aaron and names as his immediate
ancestor, Seraiah, who bad been slain 130 years previously
(Ezr. vii 1-5), and (a) an independent account of the return
(v». 6-10) with a reference to Ezra's renown, obviously not
from the hand of Ezra himself. Whatever the original prelude
to Ezra's thanksgiving may have been (vii. 97 acq.), we now
have the essent i ally Jewish account of the letter of Artaxerxes
with its unusual concessions.* The list of those who returned
amounts to the moderate total of 1406 males (viii., bet 1600 in
1 Esdr. viii 30 sqq.). Ezra's mission was obviously co n cer n ed
with the Law and Temple service (vu. 6, 10, 14 sqq., 25; viii. 17,
24-30, 33 sq.), but four months elapse between his return in the
fifth month (vii. o) and the preparations for the marriage reforms
in the ninth (x. 9), and there is a delay of twelve years before the
Law is read (Neh. viii). The Septuagint version (x Esdr. ix.; cf.
Joscpbus, Antiq. xi. 5. 5 and some modern scholars) would place
* See further H. G. Mitchell, Journ. of Bit*. LiL (1903), pp. 88 sqq.
* The chronological difficulties will be seen from xiu. 6 (" before
this "). which would imply that the dedication of the walls was on
the occasion of Nehemiah s later visit (see G. A. Smith, Expositor,
July 1906, p. 12). His previous departure is perhaps foreshadowed
in vu. a.
'See Bncy. Bib. col. 1480. Papyri from a Jewish colony in
Elephantine (407 ax.) clearly show the form which royal permits
could take, and what the Jews were prepared to give in return; the
points of resemblance are extremely interesting, bat compared with
the biblical document* the papyri reveal some striking dufetencra,
;lIO
EZZO— EZZOLIED
the Utter after Ear. x., but more probably this event (dated in
the seventh month) should precede the great undertaking in
Ezr. ix. 1 That the adjustment was attended with considerable
revision or the passages appears from a careful comparison of
Neh. vHi. sq. with Ear. ix. sq. With Ezra's confession (ix. 6 sqq.)
compare the prayer rn Neh. ix. 5 sqq., which the Septuagint
ascribes to him. In Ezr. x. (written in the third person) the
number of those that had intermarried with the heathen is
relatively small considering the general trend of the preliminaries,
and the list bears a marked resemblance to that in ch. ii. It
ends abruptly and obscurely (x. 44; cf. 1 Esdr. ix. 36), and whilst
' as a whole the memoirs of Ezra point to ideas later than those of
Nehemiah, the present close literary connexion between them
is seen in the isolated reference to Johanan the son of Eliashib
in Ezra x. 6, which seems to be connected with Neh. xiii. 7, and
(after W. R. Smith) in the suitability of id. xui. 1, 2 between
Ezr. x. o and 10. The list of signatories in Neh. x. 1-27 should
be compared with the names in xii. and z Chron. xxiv.; the true
connexion of ix. 38 is very obscure, and the relation to Ezr. ix.
seq. is complicated by the reference to the separation from the
heathen in Neh. ix. 2. The description of the covenant 'Neh. x.
s-8 sqq., marked by the use of " we ") a closely connected with
xii. 43-xiii. 3 (from the same or an allied source), ana* anticipates
the parallel though somewhat preliminary measures detailed
in the more genuine memoirs (Neh. xiii. 4 saq.). Finally, the
specific allusion in xiii. 1-3 to Ammon and Moab is possibly
Intended as an introduction to the references to Tobiah and
Sanballat respectively (sr. 4 seq., 2$).
5. Summary. — The literary and historical criticism of Ezra*
Nehemiah is closely bound up with that of Chronicles, whose
characteristic features it shares. Although the three formed
a unit at one stage it may seem doubtful whether two so closely
related chapters as 1 Chron. ix. and Neh. xi. would have appeared
in one single work, while the repetition of Neh. vii. 6-viii. 1 in
Ezr. hV-iti. 1 is less unnatural if they had originally appeared in
distinct- sources. Thus other hands apart from the compiler of
Chronicles may have helped to shape the narratives, either
before their union with that book or after their separation.'
The present intricacy is also due partly to specific historical
theories regarding the post-exilic period. Here the recension in
1 Esdras especially merits attention for its text, literary structure
and for its variant traditions. 9 Its account of a return in the
time of Darius scarcely arose after Ezr. i.-iii. (Cyrus); the reverse
seems more probable, and the possibility of some confusion or
of an intentional adjustment to the earlier date is emphasized
by the relation between the popular feeling in Ezr. iii. 12 (Cyrus)
and Hag. ii. 3 (Darius), and between the grant by Cyrus in iiL 7
(it is not certain that he held Phoenicia) and the permit of
Darius in x Esdr. iv. 47*57 (see v. 48). To the latter context
belongs the list of names which reappears in Ezr, ii. (Cyrus).
But from the independent testimony of Haggai and Zechariah it
is doubtful whether the chronicler's account of the return under
Cyrus is at all trustworthy. The list in 1 Esdr. v., Ezr. ii,
as already observed, appears to be in its more original context
in Neh. vii., i.e. in the lime of Artaxerxes, and it is questionable
whether the earliest of the surviving detailed traditions in
Ezra-Nehemiah went back before this reign. It is precisely at
this age that there is evidence tor a return, apparently other
than that of Ezra or Nehemiah (see Ezr. iv. 12), yet no account
seems to be preserved unless the records were used for the
history of easier periods (cf. generally Ezr. iii. 12 sq. with Neh.
1 C. C. Torrey, Comp. and Hist. Value of Exro-Neh. (Beihcfte of
Zeit.f. alttest. Wis sens., 1896), pp. 30-34; C. F. Kent, Israels Hist,
and Biog. Narratives, pp. 32, 360. Since Neh. vii. 70-73 is closely
joined to viiL, the suggested transposition would puce its account
of the contributions to the temple in a more appropriate context
(cf. Ezr. viii. 24-30, 33 sq.).
* For linguistic evidence reference should be made to J. Geissler,
Die Litlerartscken Beaehungen d. Esramcmoiren (Chemnitz, 1899).
* See especially Sir Henry Howorth, Proc. of Society of Bibi. Arck
i 1901-1904), passim; C. C. Torrey, Ezra Studies (Chicago, 1910).
'or the .... - . *- ......
and S. A. Cook i* R. tf. Charles, Apoerypha ami Pseudepiirapiuu
or the text, see A. Klostermann, Real^Eney.J. proL Thiol, v.' 501
"" " ~ " " * of Old Testament (1899);
H. Guthe in Haunt's Sacred Books <
viii. 0-11; Ezr. iii. 7 with the special favour enlisted on bek
of the Jews in vi. 7 sq., 13, vii. 21; Neh. ii. 7 sq.). But 1
account of the events in the reign of Artaxerxes is extreme
perplexing. Since the building of the walls of Jerusak
must have begun early in the fifth month (Neh. vi 15}, ;
allowance of three days (ii. 11) makes the date of Nehemul
arrival practically the anniversary of Ezra's return (Ezr. vii.
viii. 32). Considering the dose connexion between the wo
of the two men this can hardly be accidental The compil
however, clearly intends Neh. vi. 15 (25th of sixth month) to
the prelude to the events in Neh. vii. 73, viii. (seventh mom!
but the true sequence of Neh. vi. sqq. is uncertain, and t
possibility of artificiality is suggested by the unembeUisi
statement of Josephus that the building of the walk occupi<
not fifty-two days, but two years four months (Ant. xi. 5.
The present chronological order of Nehemiah's work is confus
(cf. § 4, n. 3), and the obscure interval of twelve years in his wc
corresponds very closely to that which now separates the recoi
of Ezra's labours. However, both the recovery of the compile
aims and attempted reconstructions are precluded from final
by the scantiness of independent historical evidence. (S
further Jews: History, (21 seq.)
Bibliography. — S. R. Driver, Lit. of the O. T. (1909), pp. 540*
and the commentaries of H. E. Rylc (Camb. Bible, 1893), i- Siegto
(1901), A. Bertholet (1902), and T. W. Davies {Cent. Bibti. 190
Impetus to recent criticism of these books starts with Van Hoourl
The lattcr's important conclusions (for which see his article «i
Cheyne's additions in Ency. Bib. col. 1473 sqq-. 3380 sqq.) have be
ticized, especially by I. Wcllhausen (Nadtrickun of I
ttingen, 189$. pp. 106-186), E. Meyer (Enislekung
Judentums, 1896), J. Nikcl (WiederkersteUung d. jud. Gt*ti
rm*m*. toyu/| j. iiim;i yrrw«»rmr«tHHn( a. jam. vv~»>
1900), ana S. Jampel in Monatssckrift f. Gesck. u. Wissnss.
Judentums, vols, xlvi.-xlvii. (1902-1903). The negative critieUi
of Kostcrs have, however, been strengthened by his replies (in t
Dutch Theolog. Tijdschrift), and by the discussions of C. C. Tort
and C. F. Kent (op. cit) and of C. Jahn (Esra u. Nek. pp. i-Usvi
1909), and his general position appears to do more justice to l
biblical evidence as a whole. (S. A. C-l
EZZO, or Ehrenfried (c. 954-1024), count palatine in U
raine, was the son of a certain Hermann (d. c. 1000), also a cot'
palatine in Lorraine who had possessions In the neighbourho
of Bonn. Having married Matilda (d. 1025), a daughter of t
emperor Otto II., Eazo came to the front during the reign of I
brother-in-law, the emperor Otto III. (983-1002); his power i
increased owing to the liberal grant of lands in Thuringia a
Franconia which he received with his wife, and some time lal
his position as count palatine was recognized as an heredita
dignity. Otto's successor, the emperor Henry II., was I'
friendly towards the powerful count palatine, though there «
no serious trouble between them until ion; but some distut
ances in Lorraine quickly compelled the emperor to come to ted
and the assistance of E220 was purchased by a gift of Uni
Henceforward the relations between Henry and his vassal app<
to have been satisfactory. Very little is known about E«
later life, but we are told that he died at a great age at Saalfj
on the 2 1st of March 1024. He left three sons, among them bci
Hermann, who was archbishop of Cologne from 1036 to 10
and Otto, who was for a short time duke of Swabia; and se\
daughters, six of whom became abbesses. Ezzo founded
monastery at Brauweiler near Cologne, the place where !
marriage had been celebrated. This was dedicated in 1028
Piligrim, archbishop of Cologne, and here both Euo and his «
w ere b uried.
EZZOLIED, or Anegenge, an old German poem, written
Eazo, a scholar of Bamberg. It was written about iooo, but r
as one authority asserts, composed while the author was mak
a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The subject of the poem is the lift
Christ. Very popular during the later middle ages, the Ea4
had a great influence on the poetry of south Germany, aoc
valuable as a monument of the poetical literature of the tine
The text is printed in the Denkm&ler deutseher Poesie und ft
aus dent 8-U. Jakrhundert (Berlin. 1892) of C V. Mulknhofl aodl
Scherer.
tf— FABEfc, P. W*
in
F Ufa Is the sixth letter of the English alphabet as ft was
of the Latin. In the ordinary Greek alphabet the symbol
bas disappeared, although it survived far into historical
times in many Greek dialects as F, the digamma, the
seel which in early times was inductively proved by Benttey,
«ta comparatively little was known of the local alphabets
■d dialects of Greece. The so-called stigma r, which serves
far the numeral 6, is all that remains to represent h. This
jyraboJ derives its name from its resemblance in medieval MSS.
t« ^abbreviation for or. The symbol occupying the same posi-
*n in the Phoenician alphabet was Van (fj- yO, which seems
:?be represented by the Greek T, the Latin V, at the end of
& early alphabet. Many authorities therefore contend that
F a only a modification of the preceding symbol E and has
stHnj to do with the symbol Yau. In some early Latin
acriptkos F is represented by P, as E is by 1 1. It must be
teed that the resemblance between the sixth symbol of
at Phoenician alphabet and the corresponding symbol of the
lanpean alphabet is not striking. But the position of the
fak of symbols in early alphabets often varies surprisingly.
h Greek, besides F we find for/ in Pamphylia (the only Greek
faoct in Asia which possesses the symbol) ft, and m Boeotia,
^ssaJy, Tarentum, Cumae and on Chalcklian vases of Italy the
fan E, though except at Cumae and on the vases the form F
on cooteinporaneously with E or even earlier. At the little
*n<rf Falerii (Civita Castellan*), whose alphabet isaadoufatedly
<tbe auae origin as. the Latin, F takes the formf'. Though
wmain, therefore, it seems not impossible that the original
4&bol of the Phoenician alphabet, which was a consonant like
at English v, may have been differentiated in Greek into two
fl^Ws, one indicating the consonant value v and retaining
fepcsitioa of the Phoenician consonant Vau, the other having
4 vovd value «, which ultimately most dialects changed to
»aodified sound like French u or German U. Be this as it may,
* vjloe of the symbol F in Greek was », a bilabial voiced
«»d, not the labio-dental unvoiced sound which we call /.
•to the Romans adopted the, Greek alphabet they took over
* lymbols with their Greek values. But Greek had no sound
Japoading to the Latin/, for d> was pronounced *-A, like the
«»ond of /*> in ordinary English or the initial sound of fig
* Irish English. Consequently in the very old inscription
* a fold fibula found at Praeneste and published in 1887 (see
Attain) the Latin/ is represented by FB. Later, as Latin
«»t use F for the consonant written as » in fir, &c, H was
*??d and F received a new special value in Latin as repre-
cutjvt of the unvoiced labio-dental spirant. In the Oscan
*1 Cmhrian dialects, whose alphabet was borrowed from
: ^3on, a special form appears for /, via. 8, the old form E
JJI kept for the other consonant v {i.e. English w). The
'*» generally been asserted to be developed out of the second
4scu in the combination FB, lu upper and lower halves
J^l first converted into lozenges, $, which naturally changed
*8 *hen inscribed without lifting the writing or incising im-
^3t. Recent discoveries, however, make this doubtful
*AlbubitJ: (P.Gi.)
JJWROII, AKGELO (1732-1803), Italian biographer, was
Jj» tt Marradi in Tuscany on the 25th of September 173a.
% studying at Faenza he entered the Roman college founded
Jae education of young Tuscans. On the conclusion of his
-1? ** cont " lucd his stay in Rome, and having been introduced
•'•** celebrated Jansenist Bottari, received from him the canonry
!-*** Teresa in Trastevere. Some time after this he was
J*& to preach a discourse in the pontifical chapel before
^°ct XJV. and made such a favourable impression that the
^Bfcttled on htm an annuity, with the possession of which
*tani was able to devote his whole time to study. He was
intimate wfth Leopold I., grand-crake of Tuscany, btrt the Jesuits
disliked him on account of his Jansenist views. Besides his
other literary labours he began at Pisa in 1771 a literary journal,
which he continued tin 1706. About 277a he made a journey to
Paris, where he formed the acquaintance of Condorcet, Diderot,
d'Alembert, Rousseau and most of the other eminent Frenchmen
of the day. He also spent four months in London. He died at
Pisa on the 22nd of September 1803.
The following are his principal works: — Vitae Italorunt doctrbia
excelltnUum q%% satculis XVtl. et XVI J I. florutrmt (20 vols.,
Pisa, I77&-I790. 1804-1805), the last two vols., published post-
humously, contain a life of the author; Lauwtniii Medicei Marnifici
Vila (a vols., Pisa, 1784), a work which served as a basis for H.
Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo dei Medici; Lconis X. pontiAcis maximi
Vita (Pisa, 1797) ; and Blogi di DanU Aiigkieri, di AngOo Pdmauo,
di Lodom Artosto, 4 di Tare.. Tasso (Parma, 1800):
FABER, the name of a family of German lead-pencil manu-
facturers. Their business was founded in 1760 at Stein, -near
Nuremberg, by Kaspar Faber (d. x 784). It was then inherited by
bis son Anton Wilhelm (d. 18x9). Georg Leonhard Faber suc-
ceeded in 18 to (d. 1830), and the business passed to JohannLothar
von Faber (18x7-1806), the great-grandson of the founder. At
the time of his assuming control about twenty hands were em-
ployed, under old-fashioned conditions, and owing to the inven-
tion of the French crayons Control Nicolas Jacques Conte (*;.».)
competition had reduced the entire Nuremberg industry to a low
ebb(seePincrL). Joliann introduced improvements in machinery
and methods, brought his factory to the highest state of efficiency,
and it became a moddforall the other German and Austrian manu-
facturers. He established branches in New York, Paris, London
and Berlin, and agencies in Vienna, St Petersburg and Hamburg,
and made his greatest coup in 1856, when he contracted for the'
exclusive control of the graphite obtained from the East Siberian
mines. Faber had also branched out into the manufacture of
water-colour and oil paints, inks, slates and slate-pencils, and
engineers' and architects' drawing instruments, and built
additional factories to house his various industries at New York
and at Noisy-le-Sec, near Paris, and had his own cedar mitts
in Florida. For his services to German industry he received a
patent of nobility and an appointment as councillor of state.
After the death of his widow (1003) the business was inherited
by his grand-daughter Countess Otilie von Faber-Caateli and her
husband. Count Alexander.
FABEft, BASIL (1520-c. 1576), Lutheran schoolmaster and
theologian, was born at Sorau, in lower Lusatia; in 1520. In
IS3& he entered the university of Wittenberg, studying as
paupar gratis under Melanchthon.. CbxnsingthesdMoknaater's
profession, he became successively rector of the schools at
Nordhausen, Tennstadt (i555)» Magdeburg (15s?) and Quedlin*
burg (1560). From this last post he was removed in December
1570 as a Crypto-Calvinist. In 157 s he was appointed to the
Raths-gymnasium at Erfurt, not as rector, but as director
( Vorsttker). In this situation he remained tul his death in x 57 5
or X576. His translation of the first twenty-fife chapters of
Luther's commentary on Genesis was published in 1 557 ; in other
ways he promoted the spread of Lutheran views. He wis a
contributor to the first four of the Maadabmg Centuries. He is
best known by his Thesaurus eruditionis acheiatHeae (1571;
last edition, improved by J. H. Lekh, 1740, folio, % vols.); this
was followed by his LibeUus de disciptina sckohstica (1572)-
See Watfenmann and G.MOJlerin Heoog-Hauck's FsaltucykhpQdU
(X898). (A.Go>)
FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-1*65), British hymn
writer and theologian, was born -on the s&h of June 2814 at
Calverley, Yorkshire, of which place his grandfather, Thomas
Faber, was vicar. He attended the grammar school of Bishop
Auckland for a short time, but a large portion of his boyhood
was spent in Westmorland. He afterwards wenj to Harrow
113
and to Balliol College, Oxford. In 1835 he obtained a scholar-
ship at University College; and in 1636 he gained the Newdigate
prize for a poem on " The Knights of St John/' which elicited
special praise from Keble. Among his college friends were Dean
Stanley and Roundell Palmer, isl earl of Selborne. In January
1837 he was elected fellow of University College. Meanwhile he
had given up the Calvinislic views of his youth, and had become
an enthusiastic follower of John Henry Newman. In 1841 a
travelling tutorship took him to the continent; and on his
return a book appeared called Sights and Thoughts in Foreign
Churches and among Foreign Peoples (London, 1842), with a
dedication to his friend the poet Wordsworth. He accepted the
rectory of Elton in Huntingdonshire, but soon after went again
to the continent, in order to study the methods of the Roman
Catholic Church; and after a prolonged menial struggle he
joined the Roman Catholic communion in November 1845. He
founded a religious community at Birmingham, called Witfridians,
which was ultimately merged in the oratory of St Philip Ntri,
with John Henry Newman as Superior. In 1840 a branch of the
oratory— subsequently independent — was established in London,
fiat in King William Street, and afterwards at Brompton, over
which Faber presided till his death on the 26th of September
1863. In spite of his weak health, an almost incredible amount of
work was crowded into those years. He published a number of
theological works, and edited the Oratorian liter of Ike Saints.
He was an eloquent preacher, and a man of great charm of
character. It is mainly as a hymn-writer, however, that Faber
is remembered. Among his best-known hymns are: — "The
Greatness of Cod," " The Will of God," " The Eternal Father,"
" The God of my Childhood, " " Jesus is God," " The Pilgrims
of the Night," " The land beyond the Sea," " Sweet Saviour,
bless us ere we go," " I was wandering and weary," and *' The
Shadow of the Rock." The hymns are largely used in Protestant
collections. In addition to many pamphlets and translations,
Faber published the following works: All for Jesus; The
Precious Blood; Bethlehem; The Blessed Sacrament; The
Creator and the Creature; Growth of Holiness; Spiritual Con-
ferences; The Foot of the Cross (8 vols., London, 2853-1860).
See his Life and Letters, by Father J. E. Bowden (London, i860),
and A Brief Shetchvf the Early Life of the late P. W. Faber. DJ).,by
his brother the Rev. F. A. Faber (London, 1869).
FABER, Fabki or Fabry (surnamed Stapulensts), JAODBUS
[Jacques LefeVre d'£taples) (e. 1455-c. 1536), a pioneer of the
Protestant movement in France, was born of humble parents at
Staples, in Pas de Calais, Picardy, about 1455. He appears to
have been possessed of considerable means. He had already been
ordained priest when he entered the university of Paris for higher
education. Hermoaymus of Sparta was his master in Greek.
He visited Italy before i486, for he heard the lectures of Argyro-
polus, who died in that year; he formed a friendship with
Panltts Aemilius of Verona. In 149a he again travelled in Italy,
studying in Florence, Rome and Venice, making himself familiar
with the writings of Aristotle, though greatly influenced by the
Platonic philosophy. Returning to Paris, he became professor in
the college of Cardinal Lemofne. Among his famous pupils were
F. W. Vatable and Fare!; his connexion with the latter drew him
to the Calvinistic side of the movement of reform. At this time be
began the publication, with critical apparatus, of Boetras (De
Arilhmelico), and Aristotle's Physics (140a), Ethics (1407), Meta-
physics (1501) wd Poliiics (1506). In 1507 he took up his
residence in the Benedictine Abbey of St Germain des Pres, near
Paris; this was due to his connexion with the family of Briconnet
(one of whom was the superior), especially with William Bri-
connet, cardinal bishop of St Malp (Meaux). He now began to
give himself to Biblical studies, the first-fruit of which was his
Quintuple* Psalterium: Gallicum, Rpmanum t Ecbraicum, Vetus t
Conciliatum (1509); the Conciliation was his own version. This
was followed by S. Pauli Epistolae xiv. ex vulgata editione, adjecla
intetligentia ex Graeco cum commentariis (15)2), a work of great
independence and judgment. His De Maria Magdalena et
triduo Christi disceptatio (1517) provoked violent controversy
and was condemned by the Sorbonne (1521). He had left Paris
FABER, JACOBUS— EABERT
during the whole of 1 5 20, and, removing to Meaux, wis appointe
(May 1, 1523) vicar-general to Bishop Briconnet, and publish©
his French version of the New Testament (1523). This (cod
temporary with Luther's German version) has been the basis c
all subsequent translations into French. From this, in the sam
year, he extracted the versions of the Gospels and Epistles "
1'usage du diocese de Meaux." The prefaces and notes to hot
these expressed the view that Holy Scripture is the only rule <
doctrine, and that justification is by faith alone. He incum
much hostility, but was protected by Francis I. and the prince
Margaret. Francis being in captivity after the battle of Pav
(February 25, 1525), Faber was condemned and his works su;
pressed by commission* of the parlement; these measures w
quashed on the return of Francis some months later. He issui
Le Psautier de David (1525), and was appointed royallibrarian
Blois (1526); his version of the Pentateuch appeared two yea
later. HSs complete version of the Bible (1530), on the basis
Jerome, took the same place as his version of the New Testamei
Margaret (now queen of Navarre) led him to take refuge (: 531)
Nerac from persecution. He is said to have been visited (153
by Calvin on his flight from France. He died in 1 536 or 1 537.
See C. H. Graf, Essai sur ta vie et Us icrits (1842); G. Bom
Maury, in A. Hereog-Hauck's Reateneyhlopadie (1898). (A. Go.')
FABER (or LirftvRE), JOHANN (1478-1541), German ih<
logian, styled from the title of one of his works M Malic
Haereticorum," son of one Heigerlin, a smith (faber), was bo
at Leutkirch, in Swabia, in 1478. His early life is obscure; t
tradition that he joined the Dominicans is untenable. He stodi
theology and canon law at Tubingen and at Freiburg im Birisgs
where he matriculated on the 36th of July 1509, and gradual
M.A. and doctor of canon law. He was soon appointed vi<
of Lindau and Leutkirch, and shortly afterwards canon of Bas
In 1518 Hugo von Landenberg, bishop oi Constance, made fa
one of his vicars-general, and Pope Leo X. appointed him pa]
protonotary. He was an advocate of reforms, in sympathy w
Erasmus, and corresponded (1 519-1520) with Zwingli. wl
he defended Luther against Eck, he was as little inclined to ad<
the position of Luther as of Carbtadt. Has journey to Ro
in the autumn of 1521 had' the result of estranging him from I
views of the Protestant leaders. He published Opus od&\
nova quaedam dogmata Lutheri (1522), and appeared as adispuL
against Zwingli at Zurich (1523). Then followed his Mdlm
haeresin butheronam (1524). Among his efforts to stem the t
of Protestant innovation was the establishment of a traini
house for the maintenance and Instruction of popular preacW
drawn from the lower ranks, to compete with the orators of refoi
In 1526 he became court preacher to the emperor Ferdinand, ;
In 1527 and 1 528 was sent by him as envoy to Spain and Engla
He approved the death by burning of Ballhasar Hubmeicr,
Baptist, at Vienna on the 10th of March 1528. In 153 1 he <
consecrated bishop of Vienna, and combined with this (till 15
the administration of the diocese of Neustadt. He died at Vic:
on the 21st of May 1541. His works were collected in Ui
volumes, 1*37, 1530 and 1541.
See C. E. Kcttner, Diss, do /. Fabri Vita ScriptisoM (17.
Wagenmann and Egli ia Herzog-Hauck's JUalancyhlopodie (189s
(A. Go.'
FABERT, ABRAHAM DB (1500-1660), marshal of Frai
was the son of Abraham Fabert, seigneur de Moulins (d. 16
a famous printer who rendered great services, civil and milit.
to Henry IV. At the age of fourteen he entered the C*
franqaiscs, and in 161 8 received a commission in the Picdrr
regiment, becoming major in 1627. He distinguished bin:
repeatedly in the constant wars of the period, notably in
Rochellc and at the siege of Exillcs in 1630. His bravery
engineering skill were again displayed in the sieges of Avesncs
Maubeuge in 1637, and in 1642 Louis XIII. made him govc
of the recently-acquired fortress of Sedan. In 1651 he bee
lieutenant-general, and in 1654 at the siege of Stenay he v
duccd new methods of sicgecrafl which anticipated in a mca
the great improvements of Vauban. In 1658 Fabert was n
a marshal of France, being the first commoner to attain that r
He died at Sedan on the 17th of May 1660,
FABIAN— FAMtfS
"3
<* tijsbire in markka de Faberi (Amsterdam, 1 697) : P. Bane.
hitfaberl (Paris, 1753); A. Feillet, U Prtmitr Uarttkal 4$
ftMc»00t«i (Paris, 1869): Bourtlly, U MarSckal Ftbvt (Pari*,
nao).
FABIAN [Fabunus], SAINT (d. 250), pope and martyr, was
torn pope, or bishop of Rome,, in January 236 in succession to
Aaaa. Eusebius {Hist. Ecd. vi 29) relates bow the Christians,
saving assembled in Rome to elect a new bishop, saw a dovt
t£|hi upon the bead of Fabian, a stranger to the city, who was
tits muked out for this dignity, and was at once proclaimed
oofaoiS although there were several famous men among the
cudidittt for the vacant position. Fabian was martyred during
uk persecution under the emperor Dccius, his death taking place
» the 3oth of January 350, and was buried in the catacomb of
Calixtos, where a memorial has been found. He is said to have
baptised the emperor Philip and his son, to have done some build-
in* in the catacombs, to have improved the organisation of the
Mi io Rome, to have appointed officials to register the deeds
*f the martyrs, and to have founded several churches in France.
Us deeds are thus described in the Liber Pontificalis: " Hie
rcpoMs dividit diaconibus et fecit vti subdiacones, qui vii
ttirus imminerent, ut gestas martyrum integro fideliter col-
Wt, et multas fabricas per cymiteria fieri praecepit."
Aluongh there is very little authentic information about Fabian,
^ is evidence that his episcopate was one of great importance
a the history of the early church. He was highly esteemed by
Cyprua, bishop of Carthage; Novatian refers to his nobilusimac
***iu, and be corresponded with Qrigen. One authority
kta to him as Flavian.
See the article on " Fabian n by A. Harnack In Henog-Hsuck's
^vyiUpidie, Band v. (Leipzig, 1898).
FABIUS, the name of a number of Roman soldiers and
S'-'omen. The Fabian gens was one of the oldest and most
Qftoguished patrician families of Rome. Its members claimed
fcant from Hercules and a daughter of the Arcadian Evander.
fas the earliest times it played a prominent part in Roman
jfny, and was one of the two gentes exclusively charged with
j* management of the most ancient festival in Rome*— the
Italia (Ovid, Fasti, ii. 37 $)• The chief family names of the
nana gens or dan, in republican times, were Vibnlanns, Am-
bstu, Mirimus, Buteo, Pictor, Dorso, Labeo; with surnames
ferocosos, RuQianus, Gurges. Aemflianus, Allobrogicus (all
Jtbe Maximus branch). The most important members of the
n£jr are the following?—
i- Maicus Fabtus Ambustus, pontifez maximus in the year
*& capture of Rome by the Gauls (390). His three sons,
fcptns, Numerius and Caeso, although they had been sent as
**aadors to the Gauls when they were besieging Clushim,
gently took part in hostilities (Livy v. 35). The Gauls
J^pon demanded their surrender, on the ground that they
W vioUted the law of nations; the .Romans, by way of reply,
^ them consular tribunes in the following year. The result
*» the march of the Gauls upon Rome, the battle of the AUia,
12(1 the capture of the city (Livy vf. x).
1 Q. Fabtus Maximus, surnamed RuUianus or Ruttus,
^r of the horse in the second Samnite War to L. Papirius
tn *>r, by whom he was degraded for having fought the Samnites
*to*F to orders (Livy viiL 30), in spite of the fact that he
J°*j 1 victory. In 31 5, when dictator, he was defeated by the
*JJJ«« at. Lautulae- (Livy ix. 23). In 310 he defeated the
J^wa at the Vadimonian Lake. In 295, consul for the fifth
J*. « defeated, at the great battle of Sentinum; the combined
5* of the Etrurians, Umbrians, Samnites and Gauls (see
J** History, H. " The Republic ")• As censor (304) he
£*j the arrangement of Appius Claudius Caecus, whereby the
***>« were taken into all the tribes, and limited them to the
J* Qty tribes. For this he is said to have received the title of
!"*««, *s the deliverer of the comitia from the rule of the mob
r^* 46), but there is reason to think that this title was first
T 91 ^ on his grandson. It is probable that his achievements
r£*tly exaggerated by historians favourable to the Fabian
* Qcnrrro Fabius Maxdcus, surnamed Vemtcosw (from a
* s
wart on Ins lip), Ovtcula (" the lamb," from his mild disposition),
and Cunctator (" the delayer," from his cautious tactics in the
war against Hannibal) , grandson of the preceding. He served his
first consulship in Liguria (233 B.C.), was censor (230) and consul
for the second time (228). In 218 he was sent to Carthage to
demand satisfaction for the attack on Saguntum (Livy xxi. 18).
According to the well-known story, he held up a fold of his toga
and offered the Carthaginians the choice between peace and war.
When they declared, themselves indifferent, he let fall his toga
with the words, " Then take war." After the disastrous cam-
paign on the Trebia, and the defeat on the banks of the Trasimene
Lake, Fablus was named dictator (Livy calls him pro-dictator,
since he was nominated, not by the consul, but by the people)
in 2x7, and began hit tactics of " masterly inactivity ." Manoeuv-
ring among the hills, where Hannibal's cavalry were useless, he
cut off his supplies, harassed him incessantly, and did everything
except fight. His steady adherence to his plan caused dissatisfac-
tion at Rome and in his own camp, and aroused the suspicion that
he was merely endeavouring to prolong his command. Minucius
Rufus, his master of the horse, seised the opportunity, during the
absence of Fabius at Rome, to make an attack upon the enemy
which proved successful. The people, more than ever convinced
that a forward movement was necessary, divided the command
between Minucius and Fabius (Livy xxii 15. 24; Folybius iii. 88).
Minucius was led into an ambuscade by Hannibal, and his army
was only saved by the opportune arrival of Fabhis. Minucius
confessed his mistake and henceforth submitted to the orders of
Fabius (Livy xxiii. 32). At the end of the legal time of six months
Fabius resigned the dictatorship and the war was carried on by
the consuls. The result of the abandonment of Fabian tactics
was the disaster of Cannae (2x6). In 2x5 and 2x4 (as consul for
the third and fourth times) he was in charge of the operations
against Hannibal together with Claudius Marcellus (Livy xxiii.
39). He laid siege to Capua, which had gone over to Hannibal
after ^»t">^, and captured the important position of Casilinum;
in his fifth consulship (209) he retook Tarcntum, which had been
occupied by Hannibal for three years (livy xxvS. 15; Polybius
xiii. 4; Plutarch, Fabius). He died in 203. Fabius was a
strenuous opponent of the new aggressive policy, and did all he
could to prevent the invasion of Africa by Sdpio. He was
distinguished for calmness and prudence, while by no means
lacking in courage when it was required. In his later years,
however, he became morose, and showed jealousy of rising young
men, especially Sdpio (Life by Plutarch; Livy xr.-xxx.j Poly*
bius hi; 87-106).
4. Q. Fabius Maxtmus Aemhianus, detest son of L. Aemilius
Pau&us, adopted by Fabius Cunctator. He served in the last
Macedonian War (168), and, as consul, defeated Viriathus in
Spain (Livy, Epit. 52). He was the pupa and patron of Polybius
(Polybius xviii., xxtx. 6, xxxii. 8-10; Livy xliv. 35).
5. Q. Fabius Maxtmus Axlobxocicub, son of the above,
consul 121 In Gaul. He obtained his surname from his victory
over the AHobroges and Arverni in that year (VeU. Pat ii. 10;
Eutropius xv. 22). As censor (xo8) be erected the first triumphal
6. Q. Fabius Vibulakub, with his brothers Caeso and Marcus,
filled the consulship for seven years in succession (485-479 B.c).
In the last year there was a reaction against the family, in con-
sequence of Caeso espousing the cause of the plebeians. Thereupon
the Fabii— to the number, it is said, of 306 patricians, with some
5000 dependents— emigrated from Rome under the leadership of
Caeso, and settled on the banks of the Cremera, a few miles above
Rome. For two years the exiles continued to be the city's chief
defence against the Vdenles, until at last they were surprised and
cut off. The only survivor of the gens, was Quintus, the son of
Marcus, who apparently took no part in the battle. The story
that he had been left behind at Rome on account of hisyouth ^can-
not be trae, as he was consul ten years afterwards. This Quintus
was consul in 467, 465 and 459, and a member of the second
decemvirate in 450, on the fall of which he went into voluntary
I exile (Lfvy ii. 42, 48-30, iii. r, 9, 41. S*i **• *J Dfa>n - HtKc -
I viii. 82-86, ix. 14-22; Ovid, Fasti, ii. 10$)*
2a
H4
FABIUS PICTOR— FABLE
The Fabfcn name is met with as late as the and century a.d. A
complete list of the Fabu will be found in de Yit't Onomasttcon;
see also W. N. du Rieu, DispukUio de Gente Pabta (1856), containing
an account of 57 members of the family.
FABIUS PICTOR. QUINTUS, the father of Roman history,
was born about 254 B.C. He was the grandson of Gaius Fabius,
who received the surname Pictor for his painting of the temple
of Salus (302). He took an active part in the subjugation of the
Gauls in the north of Italy (135), and after the battle of Cannae
(316) was employed by the Romans to proceed to Delphi in order
to consult the oracle of Apollo. He was the earliest prose writer
of Roman history. His materials consisted of the Annates
Uaximi, Commentarii Consulates, and similar records; the
chronicles of the great Roman families; and his own experiences
in the Second Punic War. He is also said to have made much use
of the Greek historian Diodes of Peparethus. His work, which
was written in Greek, began with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy,
and ended with the Hannibalic war. Although Polybius and
Dionysius of Halicarnassus frequently find fault with him, the
first uses him as his chief authority for the Second Punic War.
A Latin version of the work was in existence in the time of Cicero,
but it is doubtful whether it was by Fabius Pictor or by a later
writer with whom he was confused— Q. Fabius Maximus Ser-
vuianus (consul 142); or there may have been two annalists of
the name of Fabius Pictor.
Fragments in H. Peter, Hiskmcerum Remanorum Fragment*
(1 883) ; see also Annalists and Lxvy, and Teuffel-Schwabe, History
of Roman Literature, % 116.
FABLE (Fr. fable, Lat. fabula). With certain restrictions,
the necessity of which will be shown in the course of the article,
we may accept the definition of " fable " which Dr Johnson pro-
poses in his Life of Gay: " A fable or apologue seems to be, in its
genuine state, a narrative in which beings irrational, and some-
times inanimate (arbores loquuntur, non tantum ferae), are, for the
purpose of moral instruction, feigned to act and speak with human
interests and passions."' The description of La Fontaine, the
greatest of fabulists, is a poetic rendering of Johnson's definition:
" Fables in sooth are not what they appear; *
Our moralists are mice, and such small deer.
We yawn at sermons, but we abdly turn
To moral tales, and so amused we learn."
The fable is distinguished from the myth, which grows and is not
made, the spontaneous and unconscious product of primitive
fancy as it plays round some phenomenon of natural or historical
fact. The Hterary myth, such as, for instance, the legend of
Pandora in Hesiod or the tale of Er in the Republic of Plato, is
really an allegory, and differs from the fable in so far as it is
self-interpreting; the story and the moral are intermingled
throughout. Between the parable and the fable there is no clear
line of demarcation, and theologians like Trench have unwarrant-
ably narrowed their definition of a parable to fit those of the
New Testament. The soundest distinction is drawn by Neander.
In the fable human passions and actions are attributed to beasts;
in the parable the lower creation is employed only to illustrate
the higher life and never transgresses the laws of its kind. But
whether Jotham's apologue of the trees choosing a king, perhaps
the first recorded in literature, should be classed as a fable or a
parable is hardly worth disputing. Lastly, we may point out
the close affinity between the fable and the proverb. A proverb .
is often a condensed or fossilised fable, and not a few fables are
amplified or elaborated proverbs.
The history of the fable goes bock to the remotest antiquity,
and Aesop has even less claim to be reckoned the father of the
fable than has Homer to be entitled the father of poetry. The
fable has its origin in the universal impulse of men to express their
thoughts in concrete images, and is strictly parallel to the use of
metaphor in language. It is the most widely diffused if not the
most primitive form of literature. Though it has fallen from its
high place it still survives, as in J. Chandler Harris's Uncle Remus
and Rudyard Kipling's Jungle Book. The Arab of to-day will
invent a fable at every turn of the conversation as the readiest
form of argument, and in the Life of Coventry Patmore it is
told how an impromptu fable of his about the pious dormouse
found its way into Catholic books of devotion.
With the fable, as we know it, the moral is indispensib
As La Fontaine puts it, an apologue is composed of two par
body and soul The body is the story, the soul the moralit
But if we revert to the earliest type we shall find that this is
longer the case. In the primitive beast-fabie, which is the din
progenitor of the Aesopian fable, the story is told simply for
own sake, and is as innocent of any moral as the fairy tales
Little Red Riding-Hood and Jack and the Beanstalk. Thi
in a legend of the Flathead Indians, the Little Wolf found
cloud-land his grandsires the Spiders with their grbried hair a
long crooked nails, and they spun balls of thread to let him do*
to earth; when he came down and found his wife the Speck]
Duck, whom the Old Wolf had taken from him, she fled in cc
fusion, and this is why she lives and dives alone to this very d;
Such animal myths are as common in the New World as in the
and abound from Finland and Kamtchatka to the Hottentots a
Australasians. From the story invented, as the one abo
quoted, to account for some peculiarity of the animal wor
or told as a pure exercise of the imagination, just as a sailor spi
a yarn about the sea-serpent, to the moral apologue the transit!
is easy; and that it has been effected by savages unaided
the example of higher races seems sufficiently proved by the ta
quoted by E. B. T>lor {PritnUHe Culture, voL L p. 411). Frt
the beast-fables of savages we come next to the Oriental apotogu
which we still possess in their original form. The East, the lai
of myth and legend, is the natural home of the fable, and Hind
stan was the birthplace, if not of the original of these tales,
least of the oldest shape in which they still exist. The Pom
Tantra (and century B.C.), or fables of the Brahma Vista
Sarman, have been translated from Sanskrit into almost evt
language and adapted by most modern fabulists. The KM
and Dimna (names of two jackals) , or fables of Bidpai (or Pilpai
passed from India to western Europe through the successii
stages of Pahlavi (ancient Persian), Arabic, Greek, Latin. 1
the end of the 16th century there were Italian, French and Engli
versions. There is an excellent Arabic edition (Paris, 1816) vii
an introduction by Sylvestre de Sacy. The HiUpadua,
" friendly instruction/' is a modernized form of the same wor
and of it there are three translations into English by Dr Chad
Wilkins, Sir William Jones and Professor F. Johnson. Tl
Hitopadesau a complete chaplet of fables loosely strung togethe
but connected so as to form something of a continuous stcr
with moral reflections freely interspersed, purporting to be wntt<
for the instruction of some dissolute young princes. Thus, in tl
first fable a flock of pigeons see the grains of rice which a fowl
has scattered, and are about to descend on them, when the kii
of the pigeons warns them by telling the fable of a traveller wl
being greedy of a bracelet was devoured by a tiger. They negfc
his warning and are caught in the net, but are afterwards deliver*
by the king of the mice, who tells the story of the Deer, the Jack)
and the Crow, to show that no real friendship can exist betwec
the strong and the weak, the beast of prey and his quarry, and j
on to the end of the volume. Another book of Eastern fables
well worthy of notice, Buddhaghosha's Parables, a commenur
on the Dhammapada or Buddha's Paths of Virtue, The origin.'
is in Pali, but an English translation of the Burmese versa
was made by Captain T. Rogers, R.E.
From Hindustan the Sanskrit fables passed to China, Tito
and Persia; and they must have reached Greece at an early a0
for many of the fables which passed under the name of Acsfl
are identical with those of the East. Aesop to us is little moi
than a name, though, if we may trust a passing notice in Herodott
(ii. 134), he must have lived in the 6th century B.C. Probtbi
his fables were never written down, though several are ascribe
to him by Xenophon, Aristotle, Plutarch and other Greek wriuj
and Plato represents Socrates as beguiling his last days 1
versifying such as he remembered. Aristophanes alludes I
them as merry tales, and Plato, while excluding the poets rid
his ideal republic, admits Aesop as a moral teacher. Of tl
various versions of Aesop's Fables, by far the most trustword
is that of Babrius or Babrias, a Greek probably of tbejj
century A.D., who rendered them in choliambic verse. The*
*A8Lfe
"5
wtieh were long known in fragments only, were recovered in a
MS. found by M. Mints in a monastery on Mount Athos in 1841,
dw in the British Museum. 1 An inferior version of the same in
Latin iambics was made by Phaedrus, a slave of Thradan origin,
brought to Rome in the time of Augustus and manumitted by him.
ftacdnu professes to polish in senarian verse the rough-hewn
^jocb from Aesop's quarry; but the numerous allusions to
contemporary events, as, for example, his hit at Sejanus in the
Frogs tad the Sun, which brought upon the author disgrace and
imprisonment, show that many of them are original or free adapta-
tions. For some time scholars doubted as to the genuineness of
foadms's fables, but their doubts have been lately dispelled
b? 1 ckter examination of the MSS. and by the discovery of two
versa of a fable on a tomb at Apulum in Dacia. Phaedra's
syie is simple, dear and brief, but dry and unpoetical; and,
a Losing has pointed out, he often falls into absurdities when
k desem his original For instance, in Aesop the dog with the
eeat in his mouth sees his reflection in the water as he passes
w 1 bridge; Phaedrus makes him see it as he swims across the
tw.
To sum op the characteristics of the Aesopian fable, it is
otes, simple and transparent. It affects no graces of style, and
thirdly need the text with which each condudes, 6 fMhs ftnXo?
hvrX The moral inculcated is that of Proverbial Philosophy
"d fotr Richard's Almanacks. Aesop is no maker of phrases, but
u orator who wishes to gain some point or induce some course of
w»8. It is the Aesopian type that Aristotle has in view when
» tints of the fable as a branch of rhetoric, not of poetry.
The Latin race was given to moralizing, and the language lent
**tfto crisp and pointed narrative, but they lacked the free
Wo* fancy, the childlike " make-believe," to produce a national
Wr of tanks. With the doubtful exception of Phaedrus, <we
Paess nothing but solitary examples, such as the famous
if"**!* of Menenius Agrippa to the Pleba and the exquisite
Iota Mouse and Country Mouse of Horace's Satires.
The fables of the rhetorician Aphthonius about a.d. 400 in
wok prose, and those in Latin elegiac verse by Avianus, used
# centuries as a text-book in schools, form in the history of
j* tydogue a link between classical and medieval times. In a
u*n dies, sometimes in prose, sometimes in regular verse,
^ wnetimes in rhymed stanzas, the fable contributed, wi\h
Jjh* kinds of narratives, to make up the huge mass of stories
**» has been bequeathed to us by the monastic libraries.
2j* *r»ed more uses than one. They were at once easier and
** fading than the classics. To the lazy monk they stood in
2*of novels; to the more industrious and gifted they fur-
**d U exercise on a par with Latin verse composition in our
P*lic schools; the more original transformed them into fabliaux,
*obodied them in edifying stories, as in the Cesta Romanorum.
J 1 a not in the Speculum DocirinaU of Vincent de Bcauvais, a
"v&oan of the 12th century, nor in the collection of his
j^wiporary Odo de Cerinton, an English Cistercian, nor in
Tj*^ °* the 14th century, whose &ne distinction is to have
j** 1 to the fables a life of Aesop, that the direct lineage of La
J*f«M must be traced. It is the fabliaux that Inspired some
"fbest tables— the Lion's Court, the Young Widow, the Coach
** the Fly.
t Jj^ropremacy of Latin declined and modern languages began
*j* ««med to literary uses, the fable took a new life. Not only
J* •that numerous adaptations of Aesop, known as Ysopets,
^*riede France in the 13th century composed many original
J* 1 . >ome rivalling La Fontaine's in simplicity and gracefulness.
J*^. abo, fables were not wanting, though not numerous, in
^English tongue. Chaucer has given us one, in his Nonne
JJfe'i Tale, which is an expansion of the fable Don Coc et ion
*fl of Marie de France; another is Lydgate's tale of The
tt * wd the Bird.
Several of Odo's tales, like Chaucer's story, can be ultimatdy
• *• *"«** profes se d to have discovered under the same rircura-
Z*7 "other coUectbii of ninety-four fable* by Babrius. This
IT* P*rt was accepted by Sir G. C. Lewis, but J. Conington
lively proved it spurious, and probably a forgery. See
traced to the History of Reynard the Fox. This great beast-epic
has been referred by Grimm as far back as the toth century, and
is known to us in three forms, each with independent episodes,
but all woven upon a common basis. The Latin form is probably
the earliest, and the poems Reinardus and Ysengrinus date from
the xoth or nth century. Next come the German versions.
The most ancient, that of a minnesinger Heinrich der Glichesaere
(probably a Swabian), was analysed and edited by Grimm in 184a
The French poem of more than 30,000 lines, the Roman dm
Rtnard, bdongs probably to the 1 3th century. In 1 408 appeared
Reynke de Voss f almost a literal version in Low Saxon of the
Flemish poem of the rath century, Reinaert de Vos. Hence
the well-known version of Goethe into modern German hexa-
meters was taken. The poem has been well named " an unholy
world Bible." In it the Aesopian fable received a development
which was in several respects quite original. We have here no
short and unconnected stories. Materials, partly borrowed from
older apologues, but in a much greater proportion new, are
worked up into one long and systematic tale. The moral, so
prominent in the fable proper, shrinks so far into the background,
that the epic might be considered a work of pure fiction, an animal
romance. The attempts to discover in it personal satire have
signally failed; some critics deny even the design to represent
human conduct at all; and we can scarcely get nearer to its
signification than by regarding it as being, in a general way, what
Carlyle has called " a parody of human life." It represents a
contest maintained successfully, by selfish craft and audacity,
against enemies of all sorts, in a half -barbarous and ill-organized
sodety. With his weakest foes, like Chauntedere the Cock,
Reynard uses brute-force; over the weak who are protected, like.
Kiward the Hare and Belin the Ram, he is victorious by uniting
violence with cunning; Bruin, the dull, strong, formidable Bear,
is humbled by having greater power than his own enlisted against
him; and the most dangerous of all the fox's enemies, Isengrim,
the obstinate, greedy and implacable Wolf, after being baffled
by repeated strokes of malidous ingenuity, forces Reynard to a
single combat, but even thus is not a match for his dexterous
adversary. The knavish fox has allies worthy of him in Grimbart
the watchful badger, and in his-oWu aunt Dame Rukenawe, the
learned She-ape; and he plays at his pleasure on the simple
credulity of the Lion-King, the image of an impotent feudal
sovereign. The characters of these and other brutes are kept
up with a rude kind of consistency, which gives them great
liveliness; many of the inddents are devised with much force
of humour; and the sly hits at the weak points of medieval
polity and manners and religion are incessant and palpable.
It is needless to trace the fable, or illustrations borrowed from
fables, that so frequently occur as inddental ornaments in the
older literature of England and other countries. It has appeared
in every modern nation of Europe, but has nowhere become very
important, and has hardly ever exhibited much originality other
of spin t or of manner. In English, Prior transplanted from France
some of La Fontaine's ease of narration and artful artlessness,
while Gay took as his modd the Conks rather than the Fables.
Gay's fables are often political satires, but some, like the Fox on
his Deathbed, have the true ring, and in the Hare with many
Friends there is genuine pathos. To Dryden's spirited remodel-
lings of old poems, romances and fabliaux, the name of fables,
which he was pleased to give them, is quite inapplicable. In
German, Hagedom and GeOert, both famous in thdr day and
the latter extolled by Goethe, are quite forgotten; and even
Lessing's fables are read by few but schoolboys. In Spanish,
Yriarte's fables on literary subjects are sprightly and graceful,
but the critic is more than the fabulist. A spirited version of the
best appeared in Blackwood's Magazine, 1839. Among Italians
Pignotti is famous for versatility and command of rhythm, as
amongst Russians is Kriloff for his keen satire on Russian sodety.
He has been translated into English by Ralston.
France alone in modern times has attained any pre-eminence in
the fable, and this distinction is almost entirely owing to one
author. Marie de France in the 13th century, Gilles Corrozet,
GuiUaume Haudent and Guiflaume Gueroult in the 16th, are now
ii6
FABLIAU
studied mainly as the precursors of La Fontaine, from whom
be may have borrowed a stray hint or the outline of a story.
The unique character of his work has given a new word to the
French language: other writers of fables are called fabulisUs,
La Fontaine is named It fattier. He is a true poet; his verse
is exquisitely modulated; his love of nature often reminds us of
Virgil, as do his tenderness and pathos (see, for instance, The
Two Pigeons and Death and the Woodcutter). He is full of sly
fun and delicate humour; like Horace he satirizes without
wounding, and " plays around the heart." Lastly, he is a keen
observer of men. The whole society of the 17th century, its
greatness and its foibles, its luxury and its squalor, from Le
grand monarque to the poor manant, from his majesty the lion
to the courtier of an ape, is painted to the life. To borrow his
own phrase, La Fontaine's fables are " une ample com&lie
& cent actes divers." Rousseau did his best to discredit the
Fables as immoral and corrupters of youth, but in spite of £milc
they are studied in every French school and are more familiar
to most Frenchmen than their breviary. Among the successors
of La Fontaine the most distinguished is Florian. He justly
estimates his own merits in the pretty apologue that he prefixed
to his Fables. He asks a sage whether a fabulist writing after
La Fontaine would not be wise to consign his work to the flames.
The sage replies by a question: " What would you say did some
sweet, ingenuous Maid of Athens refuse to let herself be seen
because there was once a Helen of Troy ? "
The fables of Lessing represent the reaction against the French
school of fabulists. " With La Fontaine himself," says Lessing,
" I have no quarrel, but against the imitators of La Fontaine I
enter my protest." His attention was first called to the fable
by Gellert's popular work published in 1 74& Gellert's fables were
closely modelled after La Fontaine's, and were a vehicle for lively
railings against the fair sex, and hits at contemporary follies.
Lessing's early essays were in the same style, but his subsequent
study of the history and theory of the fable led him to discard bis
former model as a perversion of later times, and the " Fabeln,"
published in 1759, are the outcome of his riper views. Lessing's
fables, like all that he wrote, display his vigorous common sense.
He has, it is true, little of La Fontaine's curiosa felictias, his sly
humour and lightness of touch; and Frenchmen would say that
his criticism of La Fontaine is an illustration of the fable of the
sour grapes. On the other hand, he has the rare power of looking
at both sides of a moral problem; he holds a brief for the stupid
and the feeble, the ass and the lamb; and in spite of his formal
protest against poetical ornament, there is in not a few of his
fables a vein of true poetry, as in the Sheep (ii. 13) and Jupiter
and the Sheep (ii. 1 8) . But the monograph which introduced the
Fabeln is of more inportance than the fables themselves.
According to Lessing the ideal fable is that of Aesop. All the
elaborations and refinements of later authors, from Phaedrus
to La Fontaine, are perversions of this original. The fable is
essentially a moral precept illustrated by a single example,
and It is the lesson thus enforced which gives to the fable its
unity and makes it a work of art. The illustration must be either
an actual occurrence or represented as such, because a fictitious
case invented ad hoc can appeal but feebly to the reader's
judgment. Lastly, the fable requires a story or connected chain
of events. A single fact will not make a fable, but is only an
emblem. We thus arrive at the following definition :— " A fable
is a relation of a series of changes which together form a whole.
The unity of the fable consists herein, that all the parts lead up to
an end, the end for which the fable was invented being the moral
precept."
We may notice in passing a problem in connexion with the
fable which had long been debated, but never satisfactorily
resolved till Lessing took it in hand— Why should animals
have been almost universally chosen as the chief dramatis
persona*? The reason, according to Lessing, is that animals
have distinct characters which are known and recognized by all.
The fabulist who writes of Britannicus and Nero appeals to the
few who know Roman history. The Wolf and the Lamb comes
home to every one whether learned or simple. But, besides this,
human sympathies obscure the moral judgment; hence it foDow
that the fable, unlike the drama and the epos, should aUuia
from all that is likely to arouse our prejudices or our passje-u.
In this respect the Wolf and the Lamb of Aesop is a more perfect
fable than the Rich Man and the Poor Man's Ewe Lamb of Nathan.
Lessing's analysis and definition of the fable, though he seem
himself unconscious of the scope of his argument, is in truth hs
death-warrant. The beast-fable arose in a primitive age vheo
men firmly believed that beasts could talk and reason, that any
wolf they met might be a were-wolf , that a peacock ought be a
Pythagoras in disguise, and an ox or even a cat a being worthy of
their worship. To this succeeded the second age of the fable,
which belongs to the same stage of culture as the Hebrew proverbs
and the gnomic poets of Greece. That honesty is the best policy,
that death is common to all, seemed to the men of that day
profound truths worthy to be embalmed in verse or set off by the
aid of story or anecdote. Last comes an age of high literary
culture which tolerates the trite morals and hackneyed tale* for
the sake of the exquisite setting, and is amused at the wit which
introduces topics and characters of the day under the transparent
veil of animal life. Such an artificial product can be nothing more
than the fashion of a day, and must, like pastoral poetry, die a
natural death. A serious moralist would hardly choose that form
to inculcate, like MandevDle in his Fable of the Bees, a ne«
doctrine in morals, for the moral of the fable must be such thai
he who runs may read. A true poet will not care to masquerade
as a moral teacher, or show his wit by refurbishing some old-worW
maxim. Yet Taine in France, Lowell in America, and J. A,
Froude in England have proved that the fable as one form d
literature is not yet extinct, and is capable of new and unexpected
developments.
Bibliography.— Pantschatontnm, ed. Kbsegarten (Bona, 1*48)
Hitopadesa, ed. Max Mailer (1864); Silvestre de Saty, CetiUk t
Dimna, ou Fables de Bidpai, en Arab*. prictdfes fun mtnoirt sm
Vorigine de ee litre (Paris, 1816), translated by the Rev. Wyadhan
Knatchbull (Oxford, 1819); Comparetti, Rieerche interne al Ubf
di Sindebtd (Milan, i860); Max Mailer, " Migration of Fables,"
Chips from a German Workshop, vol. iv. (1875); Keller, i'nkf
suchvngen uber die Gesekichte der griechischen Fabel (Leipzig, 1862)
Babrins, ed. W. G. Rutherford, with excursus on Greek fabta
(1883); L. Hervicux, Les Fabulisies hHns (1884); Jakob Grimm
ReinUrl Fucks (Berlin. 1834): A. C. M. Robert. Fables inUita de
XII; XIII* el XIV' sScles t &c (Pari*. 1835); Taine, Esn
sur les fables de La Fontaine (1853); Saint-Marc Girardin. L
Fontaine et les fabulistes (Paris, 1867): (F. S.)
FABLIAU. The entertaining tales in eight-syllable rhyme
verse which form a marked section of French medieval liien
ture are called fabliaux, the word being derived by Littre froa
fablel, a diminutive of fable. It is a mistake to suppose, as i
frequently done, that every legend of the middle ages is a fabiiw
In a poem of the 12th century a clear distinction is draw
between songs of chivalry, war or love, and fabliaux, which ai
recitals of laughter. A fabliau always related an event; it w
usually brief, containing not more than 400 lines; it was neith<
sentimental, religious nor supernatural, but comic and ga:
MM. de Montaiglon and Raynaud, who have closely investigate
this class of literature, consider that about 150 fabliaux ha>
come down to us more or less intact; a vast number hai
doubtless disappeared. It appears from a phrase in the writing
of the trouvere, Henri d' Andeli, that the fabliau was not thou£
worthy of being copied out on parchment. The wonder, the
is that so many of these ephemeral compositions have bo
preserved. Arguments brought forward by M. Joseph Bedu
however, tend to show that we need not regret the disappearan
of the majority of the fabliaux, as those which were copied in
MSS. were those which were felt to be of the greatest intria
value. As early as the 8th century fabliaux must have exist*
since the faithful are forbidden to take pleasure in these fab*
inanes by the Paenitentiale of Egbert. But it appears that all t
early examples are lost.
In the opinion of the best scholars, the earliest survivi
fabliau is that of Rscheut, which dates from 1x50. This h
rough and powerful study of the coarse life of the day, w
little plot, but engaged with a realistic picture of manr*
FABRE
U7
Soch poems, but of a mote strictly narrative nature, continued
id be produced, mainly in the north and north-east of France,
sntH themiddk of the 141 h century. Much speculation has been
upended on the probable sources of the tales which the trouveres
tofaL The Aryan theory, which saw in them the direct influence
d India upon Europe, has now been generally abandoned. It
docs not seem probable that any ancient or exotic influences were
taught to bear upon the French jongleurs, who simply invented
« adapted stories of that universal land which springs unsown
iron every untillcd field of human society. More remarkable
tka ihe narratives themselves is the spirit in which they are
told. This is full of the national humour and the national irony,
ti* true esprit goulois. A very large section of these popular
fotm deals satirically with the pretensions of the clergy. Such
itt ibe famous Prctrc aux mures, the Pritre qui dil la Passion
ol Us Perdrix. Some of these are innocently merry; others are
vAjdhrly depraved and obscene. Another class of fabliaux is
iiat which comprises jests against the professions; in this,
u most prominent example is Lc V Haiti Uirc % a satire on
toots, which curiously predicts the id idee in malgrt lui of
Moiiere. There are also tales whose purpose is rather voluptuous
:!un witty, and whose aim is to excuse libcrtinage and render
auriage ridiculous. Among these are prominent Court Mantel
oALt DU dc Baengcr, Yet another class repeated, with a
sain of irony or oddity, such familiar classical stories as those
«j Narcissus, and Pyramus and Thisbe. It is rarely that any
tmt»Q of tone raises these poems above a familiar and even
?Mul level, but there are some that are almost idealistic.
Aaong these the story of a sort of Sisyphus errant, Lc Chevalier
k Bviul, offers an ethical interest which lifts it in certain
aped* above all other surviving fabliaux. An instance of the
putaic fabliau is Houssc Partic, a kind of primitive version of
lie story of King Lear.
lc composing these pieces, of very varied character, the
f*&m have practised an art which was in many respects
n&atDtary, but sincere and simple. The student of language
&s the rich vocabulary of the fabliaux much more attractive
to turn than the conventionality of the serious religious and
aaiory poems of the same age. The object of the writers was
&e immediate amusement oi their audience; by reference to
feu&r things, they hoped to arouse a quick and genuine
fcmment. Hence their incorrectness and their negligence
ft balanced by a delightful ease and absence of pedantry, and
aibe fabliaux we get closer than elsewhere to the living diction
d medieval France. It is true that if we extend too severe a
Judgment to these pieces, we may find ourselves obliged to
cfcfcmn them altogether. An instructed French critic, vexed
•ah their faults, has gone so far as to say that " the subjects
t* these tales are degrading, their inspiration nothing better
fca fiat and cruel derision, their distinguishing features rascality,
>J|arityand platitude of style." From one point of view, this
""tauuiion of the fabliau is hardly too severe. But such
KUars as Gaston Paris and Paul Meyer have not failed to
totfwin other sides to the question. They have praised, in
^ general laxity of style and garrulity of the middle ages,
k terseness of the jongleurs; in the period of false ornament,
kit fidelity to nature; in a time of general vagueness, the
|fc<P and picturesque outlines of their art. One feature of the
U&ux, however, cannot be praised and yet must not be over-
"tod. In no other section of the world's literature is the scorn
^ Hatred of women so prominent. It is difficult to account
^ifcanU-fcmininc ra 8 c which pervades the fabliaux, and takes
-i*ous shapes in such examples as Lc Valet aux deux femmes,
uPUhturde Pont-sur-Seint and Chichejacc et Bigorne. Probably
li » wai a violent reaction against the extravagant cult of
*'^ua as expressed in the contemporary lais as well as in the
■tt&ds of saints. The exaggeration was not greater in the one
*** ^n in the other, and it is probable that the exaltation was
**k endurable to those who listened to the trouveres by the
^ponding degradation. We must remember, too, that
'** *ho listened were not nobles or clerks, they were the
c aw» people. The fabliaux were Jabcllae ignobilium, little
stories told to amuse persons of low degree, who were irritated
by the moral pretensions of their superiors.
The names of about twenty of the authors of fabliaux have
been preserved, although in most cases nothing is known of their
personal history. The most famous poet of this class of writing
is the man whose name, ox more probably pseudonym, was
Rutebeuf. He wrote Frcre Dcnyst and Lc Sacristain, while to
htmisnttributed the Diid'AristoU, in the course of which Aristotle
gives good advice to Alexander. Fabliaux, however, form but a
small part of the work of Rutebeuf, who was a satirical poet of
wide accomplishment and varied energy. Most of the jongleurs
who wrote these merry and indecent tales in octosyllabic verse
were persons of less distinction. Henri d'Andeli was an ecclesi-
astic, attached, it is supposed, to the cathedral of Rouen. Jean
de Condi, who flourished in the court of Hainaut from 13 to to
1540, and who is the latest of the genuine writers of fabliaux,
lived in comfort and security, but most of the professional
jongleurs seem to have spent their years in a Bohemian existence,
wandering among the clergy and the merchant class, alternately
begging for money and food and reciting their motfciiiF vtrsci,
The principal authorities lor the fablbu* arc MM* Aiutok do
Montaiglon and Gaston Ray^i *l. why iiublinhed tl*c tivt, in t Wi- r
between 1872 and 1890. Thia HUfckn mrrccteJ and *uuplt-i
f valuable labours of Mean (rBob-.Bjt} and Juhiiul
the very
1842). The works of .Henri _ d'Andeli were
Ux) ami Juhiml UBjo-
. . edited by M. A. Hci\.n
in 1880, and those of Rutebeuf were made the uabjeri o* an ck«
haustive monograph by M. liaM ClwUt in 1891* See al«o the
editions of separate fabliaux by Lumofi Pari*, Paul Meyer, Ebeling,
August Schelerand other modern Scholar*, ,\r Jrucpl. fa diet 1 * Let
Fabliaux (1895) is a useful »utnmary of critical opinion on the
entire subject. lEL GJ
FABRE, FERDINAND (1830-1808), French novehst, was born
at Bedarieux, in Herault, a very picturesque district of the
south of France, which he made completely his own in literature.
He was the son of a local architect, who failed in business, and
Ferdinand was brought up by his uncle, the Abbe Fulcran Fabre,
at Casiplong among the mulberry woods. Of his childhood and
early youth he has given a charming account in Ma Vocation
(1889). He was destined to the priesthood, and was sent for
that purpose to the seminary of St Pons dc Tbomfcres, where, in
1848, he had, as he believed, an ecstatic vision of Christ, who
warned him " It is not the will of God that thou shouklst be a
priest." He had now to look about for a profession, and, after
attempting medicine at Montpellicr, was articled as a lawyer's
clerk in Paris. In 1853. he published a volume of verses, FeuiUes
dc licrre, broke down in health, and crept back, humble and
apparently without ambition, to his old home at Bedarieux.
After some eight or nine years of country life be reappeared in
Paris, with the MS, of his earliest novel, Lcs Courbczon (1862), ,
in which he treated the subject which was to recur in almost all
his books, the daily business of country priests in the Cevennes.
This story enjoyed an immediate success with the literary class
of readers; George Sand praised it, Saintc-Beuve hailed in its
author " the strongest of the disciples of Balzac," and it was
crowned by the French Academy. From this time forth Fabre
settled down to the production of novels, of which at the time of
his death he had published about twenty. Among these the
most important were Lc Charier (1868), unique among bis
works as written in an experimental mixture of Ccvenol patois
and French of the roth century ; L'Abbi Tigranc, candidal a la
papauli (1873), by common consent the best of alt Fabre's
novels, a very powerful picture of unscrupulous priestly ambition;
Mon Onclc Cilcstin (1881), a study of the entirely single and
tender-hearted country abbe; and Lucifer (1884), a marvellous
gallery of serious clerical portraits. In 1 883 Fabre was appointed
curator of the Mazarin Library, with rooms in the Institute,
where, on nth February 1898, he died after a brief attack of
pneumonia. Ferdinand Fabre occupies in French literature a
position somewhat analogous to that of Mr Thomas Hardy
amongst English writers of fiction. He deals almost exclusively
with the population of the mountain villages of Herault, and
particularly with its priests. He loved most of all to treat of
the celibate virtues, the strictly ecclesiastical passions, the
enduring tension of the young soul drawn between the spiritual
it8
FABRE D'EGLANTINE— FABRICIUS, GAIUS
vocation and the physical demands of nature. Although never
a priest, he preserved a comprehension of and a sympathy with
the clerical character, and he always indignantly denied that he
was hostile to the Church, although he stood just outside her
borders. Fabre possessed a limited and a monotonous talent,
but within his own field he was as original as he was wholesome
and charming.
See also J. Lemattre, Les Contemporains, vol. iL; G. Pellissier,
ttudes de Mliroture contemporaine (1998); £. W. Goase, Frank
Profiles (1905). (E. C.)
FABRE DILANTINS, PHILIPPB FRANCOIS NAZAJRB
(1750-1704), French dramatist and revolutionist, was born at
Carcassonne on the 28th of July 1750. His real name was
simple Fabre, the " d'£glantine " being added in commemora-
tion of his receiving the golden eglantine of Clemence Isaure from
the academy of the floral games at Toulouse. After travelling
through the provinces as an actor, he came to Paris, and produced,
an unsuccessful comedy entitled Les Gens de leUres, ou le pro-
vincial & Paris (1787). A tragedy, Augusta, produced at the
Theatre Francois, was also a failure. One only of his plays,
PhilinU, ou la suite du Misanthrope (1790), still preserve* its
reputation. It professes to be a continuation of Molierc's
Misanthrope, but the hero of the piece is of a different character
from the nominal prototype — an impersonation, indeed/ of
pure and simple egotism. On its publication the play was
introduced by a preface, in which the author mercilessly satirises
the OptimUteoi his rival J. F. Collin d'Harleville, whose CMleaux
en Espagne had gained the applause which Fabre's Prisomptueux
(1789) had failed to win. The chaiacter of Philinte had much
political significance. Alceste received the highest praise, and
evidently represents the citizen patriot, while Philinte is a
dangerous aristocrat in disguise. Fabre was president and
secretary of the club of the Cordeliers, and belonged also to the
Jacobin club. He was chosen by Danton as his private secretary,
and sat in the National Convention. He voted for the king's
death, supporting the maximum and the law of the suspected,
and he was a bitter enemy of the Girondins. After tho death of
Marat he published a Portrait de FAmi du PeupU. On the
abolition of the Gregorian calendar he sat on the committee
entrusted with the formation of the republican substitute,
and to* him was due a large part of the new nomenclature, with
its poetic Prairial and Florid, its prosaic Primidi and Duodi.
The report which he made on the subject, on the 24th of October,
has some scientific value. On the 12th of January 1794 he was
arrested by order of the committee of public safety on a charge
of malversation and forgery in connexion with the affairs of the
Cotnpagnie des Indes. Documents still existing prove that the
charge was altogether groundless. During his trial Fabre showed
the greatest calmness and sang his own well-known song of
// pUul, U pleut, bergere, rentre Us Uancs momtons. He was
guillotined on the 5th of April 1794. On his way to the scaffold
he distributed his manuscript poems to the people.
A posthumous play, Les Pricepteurs, steeped with the doctrines
of Rousseau's tmile, was performed on the 17th of September
1794, and met with an enthusiastic reception. Among Fabre's
other plays are the gay and successful Convalescent de qualiU
(1791), and V Intrigue ipistolaire (1791). In the latter play
Fabre is supposed to have drawn a portrait of the painter Jean
Baptist e Greuze.
The author's (Enures mUles et postkumes were published at Paris
1802, a vols. See Albert Maurin, Calerie hist, de la involution
francaise, tome 11; Jules Jania, Hist, de la lilt, dram.; Chenier,
Tableau de la lilt. Jrancaise; F. A. Aulard in the NouveUe Revue
(July 1885).
FABRETTI, RAPHAEL (1618-1700), Italian antiquary, was
born in 1618 at Urbino in Umbria. He studied law at Cagli and
Urbino, where he took the degree of doctor at the age of eighteen.
While in Rome he attracted the notice of Cardinal Lorenzo
Imperiali, who employed him successively as treasurer and
auditor of the papal legation in Spain, where he remained
thirteen years. Meanwhile, his favourite classical and anti-
quarian studies were not neglected; and on his return journey
be made important observations of the relics and monuments of
Spain, France and Italy. At Rome he was appointed judge
appellation of the Capitol, which post he left to be auditor of t
legation at Urbino. After three years he returned to Rome, <
the invitation of Cardinal Carpegna, vicar of Innocent Xi
and devoted himself to antiquarian research, examining wi
minute care the monuments and inscriptions of the Campagi
He always rode a horse which his friends nicknamed " Mac
Polo," after the Venetian traveller. By Innocent XII. he w
made keeper of the archives of the castle St Angek>, a chat
which he retained till his death. He died at Rome on the 71k
January 1700. His collection of inscriptions and monumei
was purchased by Cardinal Stoppani, and placed in the di*
palace at Urbino, where they may still be seen.
His work De Aquis et Aquae-ductibus veteris Romae (16ft
three dissertations on the topography of ancient Latium,
inserted in Graevios's Thesaurus, iv. (1677). Hisinterpretati
of certain passages in Livy and other classical authors involv
him in a dispute with Gronovius, which bore a strong resemblan
to that between Milton and. Salmasras, Gronovius addressi
Fabretti as Faber Rusticus, and' the latter, in reply, speaking
Grunnovius and his tUivilUia. • In this controversy Fabre
used the pseudonym Iasitheus, which he afterwards took as 1
pastoral name in the Academy of the Arcadians. His oil
works, De Columna Trajani Syntagma (Rome, 1683), at
InscripHonum Antiquarum Expiicatio (Rome, 1609), throw mui
light on Roman antiquity. In the former is to be found 1
explication of a bas-relief, with inscriptions, now in the Capit
at Rome, representing the war and taking of Troy, known as t
Iliac table. Letters and other shorter works of Fabretti are
be found in publications of the time, as the Journal des Sevan
See Crescimbenl, Le Vite degU Arcadi iUustri-. Fabroni. Vii
Itahrum, vi. 174; Niceron, iv. 372; J. Lainius, MemeraH
Italorum eruditione praestantium (Florence, 1 749-1748).
FABRIANI, SEVERING (1 793-1849), Italian author at
teacher, was born at Spilamberto, Italy, on the 7th of Janus!
1792. Entering the Church, he took up educational work, b
in consequence of complete loss of voice he resolved to devc
himself to teaching deaf mutes, and founded a small sch<
specially for them. This school the duke of Modena made in
an institute, and by a special authority from the pope a teachii
staff of nuns was appointed. FabrianTs method of instruct*
is summed up in his Logical Letters on Italian Grammar (184J
He died on the 27th of April 1849.
FABR1AN0, a town of the Marches, Italy, in the provin
of Ancona, from which it is 44 m. S.W. by rail, 1066 ft. aboi
sea-level. Pop. (1001) town 9586, commune ?a,oo6. It h
been noted since the 13th century for its paper mills, which si
produce the best paper in Italy. A school of painting arose bci
one of the early masters of which is Allegretto Nazi (130*- 1385
and several of the churches contain works by him and other Joti
masters. His pupil, Gentile da Fabriano (1370-1428), was
painter of considerably greater skill and wider knowledge; bi
there are no important works of his at Fcbriano. The sacrisl
of S. Agostino also contains some good frescoes by Ottayial
Nelli of Gubbio. The municipal picture gallery contains
collection of pictures, and among them are some primitil
frescoes, attributable to the lath century, which still retal
traces of Byzantine influence. The Archivio Comunale conUii
documents on watermarked paper of local manufacture goit
back to the 13th century. The Ponte deD' Acra, a bridge of tl
15th century, is noticeable for the ingenuity and strength of i
construction. The hospital of S. Maria Buon Gesu is a fine wol
of 1456, attributed to Rossellino.
See A. Zonghi, Antic he Carte Fabrianesi. (T. As.)
FABRICIUS. GAIUS LUSCINUS (i.e. " the one-eyed "), Roma
general, was the first member of the Fabrician gens who settled i
Rome. He migrated to Rome from Aletrium (Livy U. 43
one of the Hernican towns which was allowed to retain i
independence as a reward for not having revolted. In 385 \
was one of the ambassadors sent to the Tarentines to dissu&<
them from making war on the Romans. In 28} (when consu
he defeated the Bruttians and Lucanians, who had besiege
FABRICIUS, G.-+FAB»IZI
119
Tfarii (Uvy, EpU. is). After the defeat of the Romans by
Pyrrbos at Heradea (280), Fabricius was sent to treat for the
nasom and exchange of toe prisoners. All attempts to bribe
Mm were unsuccessful, and Pyrrhus is said to have been so
impressed that be released the prisoners without ransom
(Ptaarch, Pyrrhus, 18). The story that Pyrrhus attempted to
frighten Fabricius by the sight 0/ an elephant is probably a
fctioa. In 278 Fabricius was elected consul for the second time,
ud vas successful in negotiating terms of peace with Pyrrhus,
tho sailed away to Sicily. Fabricius afterwards gained a series
of victories over the Samnites, the Lucaiuaas and the Bruttians,
tsd on his return to Rome received the honour of a triumph.
Notwithstanding the offices he had filled he died poor, and pro-
vision had to be made for his daughter out of the funds of the
Hue (Val Max. iv. 4, 10). Fabricius was regarded by the
Kcoau of later times as a model of ancient simplicity and
KorrupUble integrity.
FABRICIUS, GBORG (1516-1 $71), German poet, historian
t&d archaeologist, was born at Chemnit* in upper Saxony on
the 33rd of April 1516, and educated at Leipzig. Travelling in
Italy with one of his pupils, he made an exhaustive study of the
utiqu'uesof Rome. He published the results in his Roma (1 $50),
is which the correspondence between every discoverable relic
d the old dty and the references to them in ancient literature
ra traced in detail. In 2546 be was appointed rector of the
nOcge of Meissen, where he died on the 17th of July 1571. In
!» sacred poems he affected to avoid every word with the slightest
»vw of paganism; and he blamed the poets for their allusions
to pagan divinities.
§ Principal works: editions of Terence (1548) and Virgil (155O;
rmtaini saererum libri xxv. (1360); PoHorum ttlerum eectesia-
f**m apm Christiana (156a); De Re Poitica libri septem (1565);
{"« Misuicarum libri septem (1569); (posthumous) Originum
tutnsuma* slirpis Saxonkae libri sepUm (1597) : R*r*m Germaniae
*pet tt Saxomae unioersae memorabitium mirabitiumque vatumina
^ (1609). A life of Georg Fabricius was published in 1819 by
DC W. Baumgarten-Crusius, who in 184) also issued an edition of
"bridoi's Epiitelae ad W. Meurerum et atlos aequales, with a short
«W> De Vita Ge. FabricU et de geute Fabrictorum; see also F.
'riter in Erich and Gruber's AUtemeine Encyclopedic.
HBHICIU8, HIBRONYMTJ8 [Fabbizio, Geboniuo] (1537-
l H, Italian anatomist and embryologist, was surnamed
fapapendente from the episcopal city of that name, where he
*»born in 1537. At Padua, after a course of philosophy, he
**W medicine under G. Fallopius, whose successor as teacher
rfuatomy and surgery he became in 156a. From the senators
^ Vance he received numerous honours, and an anatomical
tatft was built by them for his accommodation. He died at
won the 31st of May tdio. His works include De risione,
** 4 eniitu (1600), De formate foetu (1600), De venarum
**» (1603), De formation* on et pulli (ifex). His coUected
*wks were published at Leipzig in 1687 as Opera omnia Ana-
***** tt Pkysiotcgica, but the Leiden edition, published by
****» in 1738, is preferred as containing a life of the author
*1 the prefaces of his treatises. (See Anatomy; Embryology.)
ftBRICrosjOHAinr ALBBRT (1668-1736), German classical
*bbrand bibliographer, was born at Leipzig on the nth of
Xwember 1668. His father, Werner Fabricius, director 6f musfc
"the church of St Paul at Leipzig, was the author of several
**b. the most important being Detkiae Harmonic at (1656).
P* »n received his early education from his father, who on his
Jabbed recommended him to the care of the theologian
'Jtotin Alberti. He studied under J. G. Herrichen, and after-
J?jto« Quedlinburg under Samuel Schmid. It was in Schmid's
**7i as be afterwards said, that he found the two books,
[. «nVs Adversaria and D. G. Morhof's Polyhistor Literati**,
*** suggested to him the idea of his Bibliotkecae, the works on
*■* ois great reputation was founded. Having returned to
£N| in 1686, he published anonymously (two years later)
* fast work, Scriptorum reemtwrum decas, an attack on ten
* nte * of the day. His Decas Decadum, sive piagiariorum et
toto*ymerum centuria (1680) is the only one of his works to
**d> be signs the name Faber. He then applied himself to the
a *ty of medicine, which, however, he relinquished for that
of theology; and having gone to Hamburg in 1603, he proposed
to travel abroad, when the unexpected tidings that the expense
of his education had absorbed his whole patrimony, and even left
him in debt to his trustee, forced him to abandon his project.
He therefore remained at Hamburg in the capacity of librarian
to J. F. Mayor. In 1696 be accompanied his patron to Sweden;
and on his return to Hamburg, not long afterwards, he became
a candidate for the chair of logic and philosophy. The suffrages
being equally divided between Fabricius and Sebastian Edzardus,
one of his opponents, the appointment was decided by lot in
favour of Edzardus; but in 1699 Fabricius succeeded Vincent
Placcius in the chair of rhetoric and ethics, a post which he held
till his death, refusing invitations to GreJfswald, Kiel, Giessen
and- Wittenberg. He died at Hamburg on the 30th of April 1 736.
Fabricius is credited with 128 books, but very many of them
were only books which he had edited. One of the most famed and
laborious of these is the Bibliolheca Latina (1607, republished in an
improved and ametded form by J. A. Ernesti, 1773)." The divisions
....... .. „ f T[
jfthel
a fourth gives fragments from old authors, and chapters on early
ti,l773>.
of the compilation are— -the writers to the age ol Tiberius; thence
to that of trie Antonines; and thirdly, to the decay of the language;
* luuiui give* na&niciiiB 1 1 mil uiu auuivii, cum liiuuici? uii cmiy
Christianliterature. A supplementary work was Bibliolheca Latina
media* et infmae AeUUis (1734-1736; supplementary volume by
C. Schottaen, 1746; ed. Mansv 1754). His chef-d'mwra, however,
is the Bibliolheca Graeca (1705-1728, revised and continued by
G. C. Harles, 1790-1812), a work which has justly been denominated
maxtmus antiquae eruditionis thesaurus. Its divisions are marked
off by Homer, Plato, Christ, Constantino, and the capuiw of Con*
stantinopk in 1453, while a sixth section is devoted to canon law*
jurisprudence and medicine. Of his remaining works we may
mention: — Bibtiotheta Antiauaria, an account of the writers whose
works illustrated Hebrew, Creek, Roman and Christian antiquities
(1713); CentilcUum Luther anum, a Lutheran bibliogr a phy (1728)$
BiHtotheca Ecdesiastico (1718). His Codex Apocrypkut (1703) is
still considered indispensable as an authority on apocryphal Christian
literature.
The details of the life of Fabricius are to be found in De Vila tt
Scriptis J, A. Fabritii Commentarius, by his son-in-law, H. S.
Reimarus, the well-known editor of Dio Caserns, published at
Hamburg, 1 737 ; see also C. F. Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's Attumeine
Encyclopedic, and J. E. Sandys, Hist. Class. Sckol. in. (1008).
FABRICIUS, J0HAN1T CHRISTIAN (1745-1808), Dapish
entomologist and economist, was born at Tondern in Schfeswig
on the 7th of January 1745. After studying at Altona and
Copenhagen, Ife was sent to Upsala, where he attended the
lectures of Linnaeus. He devoted his attention professionally
to political economy, and, after lecturing on that subject in 1769,
was appointed in 1775 professor of natural history, economy
and finance at Kiel, in which capacity he wrote various works,
chiefly referring to Denmark, and of no special interest. He
also published a few other works on general and natural history,
botany and travel (including Reise nock Norwegen, 1779), and,
although his professional stipend was small, he extended his
personal researches into every town in northern and central
Europe where a natural history museum was to be found.
It is as an entomologist that his memory survives, and for many
years his great scientific reputation rested upon the system of
classification which he founded upon the structure of the mouth-
organs instead of the wings. He had a keen eye for specific
differences, and possessed the art of terse and accurate description.
He died on the 3rd of March 1808.
A complete list of his entomological publications (31) will bo
found in Hagen's Bibtiolheca Bntomalogiae; the following are the
chief:— Systema Enlotfoloriae (1775); Genera Instctonm .(1776);
Philosophia Entomologies (1778); Species insectorum (1781); Man-
tissa Insectorum (1787); BMomeiogia Systemalita (1792-1704), with
a supplement (1798); Systema Eleufaenstorum (1801 ), Rkyngotorum
(i80j3). Piezatorum (1804), and A ntliatorum (1805). Full particulars
of his life will be found, with a portrait, in the Transactions of the
Entomological Society of London (1845), 4* PP« i-xvi, where his auto-
biography is translated from the Danish.
FABRIZI, NICpLA (1804-1885), Italian patriot, was born at
Modena on the 4th of April 1804. He took part in the Modena
insurrection of 1831, and attempted to succour Ancona, but was
arrested at sea and taken to Toulon, whence he proceeded to
Marseilles. Afterwards he organized with Mazzini the Ill-fated
Savoy expedition. Taking refuge in Spain, he fought against the
Carlists, and was decorated for valour on the battlefield (18th
July 1837). At the end of the Carlist War he established a
t20
centre of conspiracy at Malta, endeavoured to dissuade Mazzini
from the Bandiera enterprise, but aided Crispi in organizing the
Sicilian revolution of 1848. With a company of volunteers he
distinguished himself in the defence of Venice, afterwards
proceeding to Rome, where he took part in the defence of San
Pancrario. Upon the fall of Rome he returned to Malta, accumu-
lating arms and stores, which he conveyed to Sicily, after having,
in 1859, worked with Crispi to prepare the Sicilian revolution of
r86o. While Garibaldi was sailing from Genoa towards Marsala
Fabrizi landed at Pizzolo, and, after severe fighting, Joined
Garibaldi at Palermo. Under the Garibaldian Dictatorship he
was appointed governor of Messina and minister of war. Return-
ing to Malta after the Neapolitan plebiscite, which he had
vainly endeavoured to postpone, he was recalled to aid Cialdini
in suppressing brigandage, While on his way to Sicily in 1862,
to induce Garibaldi to give up the Aspromonte enterprise,
he was arrested at Naples by Lamarmora. During the war of
1866 he became Garibaldi's chief of staff, and in 1867 fought at
Mentana. In parliament he endeavoured to promote agreement
between the chiefs of the Left, and from 1878 onwards worked to
secure the return of Crispi to power, but died on the 31st of
March 188$, two years before the realization of his object. His
whole life was characterized by ardent patriotism and unim-
peachable integrity. (H. W. S.)
FABROT, CHARLES ANNIBAL (1580-1650), French juris,
consult, was born at Aix in Provence on the 15th of September
1580. At an early age he made great progress in the ancient
languages and in the civil and the canon law; and in 1602 he
received the degree of doctor of law, and was made avocat to
the parlement of Aix. In 1609 he obtained a professorship in
the university of his native town. He is best known by his
translation of the Basilica, which may be said to have formed
the code of the Eastern empire till its destruction. This work was
published at Paris in 1647 in 7 vols, fol., and obtained for its
author a considerable pension from the chancellor, Pierre Scguicr,
to whom it was dedicated. Fabrot likewise rendered great service
to the science of jurisprudence by his edition of Cujas, which
comprised several treatises of that great jurist previously un-
published. He also edited the works of several Byzantine
historians, and was besides the author of various antiquarian
and Jegal treatises. He died at Paris on the 1 6th of January 1 650.
FABYAN, ROBBRT (d. 15 13), English chronicler, belonged to
an Essex family, members of which had been connected with
trade in London. He was a member of the Drapers company,
alderman of Farringdon Without, and served as sheriff in 1403-
1494. In 1496 he was one of those appointed to make repre-
sentations to the king on the new impositions on English doth
in Flanders. Next year he was one of the aldermen employed
in keeping watch at the time of the Cornish rebellion. He
resigned his aldermanry in 1502, on the pretext of poverty,
apparently in order to avoid the expense of mayoralty. He
had, however, acquired considerable wealth with his wife
Elizabeth Pake, by whom he had a numerous family. He spent
his latter years on his estate of Halstedys at Theydon Garnon in
Essex. He died on the 28th of February 1513 (Inquisitionet
past mortem for London, p. 29, edited by G. S. Fry, 1896); his
will, dated the nth Of July 1511, was proved on the 12th of July
1 5 13. Fabyan's Chronicle was first published by Richard
Pynson in 1516 as The new chronicles of England and of .France,
In this edition it ends with the reign of Richard III., and this
probably represents the work as Fabyan left it, though with
the omission of an autobiographical note and some religious
verses, which form the Envoi of his history. The note and verses
ate first found in the second edition, printed by John Rastell in
1 533 with continuations down to 1 509. A third edition appeared
in 1542, and a fourth in 1559 with additions to that year. The
only modern edition is that of Sir Henry Ellis, x8n.
In the note above mentioned Fabyan himself says; "and
here I make an endc of the vis*, parte and hole werkc, the vii.
day of November in the yere of our Lord Jesu Christes In-
carnation M.vc. and iiij.'" This seems conclusive that In 1504
he did not contemplate any extension of his chronicles beyond
FABROT— FACClOLATf:
M85. The continuations printed by Rastel! -tie certainly not
Fabyan's work. But Stow in hi* Collections (ap. Surrey ef
London, ii. 305-306, ed. C. L. Kingsford) states that Fabyan wrote
" a Chronicle df London, England and of France, beginning at the
creation and endynge in the third year of Henry VIII., which
both I have in written hand." In his Survey of London (i. 191.
209. ii. 55, 1 16) Stow several times quotes Fabyan as his authority
for statements which arc not to be found in the printed continua-
tions of Rastell. Some further evidence may be found in other
notes of Stow's (ap. Suney of London, H. 280, 283, 3<*5-366>.
and in the citation by Hakluyt of an unprinted work of Fabyan
as the authority for his note of Cabot's voyages. That Fabyan
had continued his Chronicle to 1511 may be accepted as certain,
but no trace of the manuscript can now be found.
It is only the seventh part of Fabyan's Chronicle, from the
Norman Conquest onwards, that possesses any historical value.
For his French history he followed chiefly the Comptndtum svper
Francorum gestis of Robert Gaguin, printed at Paris in 1497.
For English history his best source was the old Chronicles of
London, from which he borrowed also the arrangement of his
work in civic form. From 1440 to 1483 he follows, as a role
with great fidelity, the original of the London Chronicle in
Cotton MS. Vitelllus A. XVI. (printed in Chronicles of London,
I9°$i PP- 153-264).
Fabyan's own merits are little more than those of an Industrious
compiler, who strung together the accounts of his different
authorities without any critical capacity. He says expressly
that his work was "gaderyd without understand ynge," and
speaks of himself as "of cunnynge full destitute." Nevertheless
he deserves the praise which he has received as an early worker.
and for having made public information which through Hall and
Holinshed has become the common property of later historians,
and has only recently been otherwise accessible. Bale alleges
that the first edition was burnt by order of Cardinal Wolsey
because it reflected on the wealth of the clergy; this probably
refers to his version of the Lollards Bill of 1410, which Fabyan
extracted from one of the London Chronicles.
Sec further Ellis' Introduction; W. Buacb, England mmder the
Tutors (trans. A. M. Todd, 1895). *• 405-410; and C. L. Kingsford,
Chronicles of London, pp. xxvi-xxxi! (1905). (C. L. K.)
FACADE, a French architectural term signifying the external
face of a building, but more generally applied to the principal
front.
FACCIOLATI. JACOPO (1682-1769), Italian philologist, was
born at Torriglia, in the province of Padua, in 1682. He owed
his admission to the seminary of Padua to Cardinal Barbcrigo,
who had formed a high opinion of the boy's talents. As prof ess© c
of logic, and regent of the schools, Facciolati was the oraame&i
of the Paduan university during a period, of forty-five year*.
He published improved editions of several philological works,
such as the Thesaurus Ciceronianusot Ni*olius,and the polyglot
vocabulary known under the name of Calepino. The latter work,
in which he was assisted by his pupil Egidio ForceUiirf, he
completed in four years— 171 5 to 1719. It was written in seven
Languages, and suggested to the editor the idea of his *>p*s
magnum, the Tortus Latinitatis Lexicon^ which was ultimately
published at Cardinal Priole's expense, 4 vols. foL, Padua, 1771
(revised ed. by de Vit, 185&-1887). In the compilation of this
work the chief burden seems to have been borne by FaocJoiati'j
pupil Forcellini, to whom, however, the lexicographer allows 1
very scanty measure of justice. Perhaps the best testimony ic
the learning and industry of the compiler is the well-known
observation that the whole body of Latinity, if it were to perish
might be restored from this lexicon, Faccioktfs mastery o
Latin style, as displayed in his epistles, has been very mucl
admired for its purity and grace. In or about 1739 Fuccioiat
undertook the continuation of Papadopoli's history of th<
university of Padua, carrying it on to his own day. Facciolai
was known over all Europe as one of the most enlightened an<
zealous teachers of the time; and among the many flattering
invitations which he received, but always declined, was one Xros
the king of Portugal, to accept the directorship of a college a
i 'TACE^FACTOJt
?*?
Usban for the young nobffity. He died ra 1769b His history of
the university was published in 1757, under the name Fash
Gymnast* Palatini. In 1808 a volume containing nine of hit
Epistles, never before published, was issued' at Padua.
See J. E. Saudy% HisL Class. Sthol. 11.(1906).
PACE (from Lat. foeies h derived either from facere, to make/
or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; ef. Gr. ^afmv), a word
viiose various meanings of surface, front, expression of coun-
tenance, look or appearance, are adaptations of the application
of the word to the external part of the front portion of the head,
usuDy taken to extend from the top of the forehead to the
poxt of the chin, and from ear to ear (see Anatomy; Superficial
atd Artistic, and PHYSIOGNOMY).
FACTION (through the French, from tat. /actio, a company
of persons combined for' action, facere, to do; from the other
French derivative fopn comes " fashion"), a term, used esped-
ifly with an opprobrious meaning, for a body of partisans who
pat their party aims and interests above those of the state or
public, and employ unscrupulous or questionable means; it is
tkus a common term of reciprocal abuse between parties. In the
history of the Roman and Later Roman empires the factions
(jactiines) of the chxus and hippodrome, at Rome and Constanti-
nople, played a prominent part m politics. The faction** were
properly the four companies into which the charioteers were
divided, and distinguished by the coldurs they wore. ' Originally
it Rome there were only two, white (albata) and red {russata),
than each race was open to two chariots only; on the mcrease
to four, the green (prasina) and blue (veneta) were added. At
Constantinople the last two absorbed the red and white factions.
For a brilliant description of the factions at Constantinople under
iystinian, and the part they played in the celebrated Nifta riot in
xaoary 53a, see Gibbon's Decline and Fall, cb, xi: and J. B.
tary's Appendix 10 in vol. iv. of his edition (1898), (or a discus-
soa of the relationship between die factiones and the demes of
Cea tfami nople.
FACTOR (from Lat facere, to make, or do), strictly " one who
sokes"; thus in ordinary parlance, anything, which goes to the
composition of anything else is termed one of its " factors,"
sad in mathematics the term is used of those quantities which,
vhen multiplied together, produce a given product. In a special
esse, however—and that to which this article is devoted—
" actor " i» the name given to a mercantile agent (of the class
kaown aa " general agents ") employed to buy or sell goods
is a commission. When employed to sell, the possession of the
pods is entrusted to him by his .principal, and when employed
to bay it is his duty to obtain possession of the goods and to
cecsign them to his principal In this he diffess from a broker
(#».), who has not such possession, and it is this distinguishing
characteristic which gave rise in England to the series of statutes
k&own as the Factors Acts. By these acts, consolidated and
encoded by the act of 1889, third patties buying or taking
ptedges from facte** are protected as if the factor were in reality
recer; but these enactments have m no way affected the
ceatractual relations between, the factor and his employer,
and it will be convenient to define them before discussing the
position of third parties as affected by the act;
L Factor am> Principal
A factor b appointed or dismissed In the same way as any
ether agent. He may be employed for a single transaction or to
szasact all bis principal's business of a certain class during a
Ssdted period or till such time as his authority may be deter-
abed. A factor's duty is to sell or buy as directed ; to carry out
■itb care, skill and good faith any instructions he may receive;
to receive or make payment; to keep accounts, and to hand over
so his principal the balance standing to his principal's credit,
v-liheot any deduction save for commission and expenses. All
express instructions he must carry out to the full, provided they
4s not involve fraud or illegality. On any point not covered by
his fcxp ies a instructions he must follow the usual practice of his
particular business, if not inconsistent with his instructions or
his position as factor. Many usages of businesses in which
factors are employed have been proved in court, and may now
be regarded aa legally established. For instance, he may, unless
otherwise directed, sell in his own name, give warranties as to
goods sold by him, sell by sample (Jn most businesses), give such
credit as is usual in his business, receive payment in cash or as
customary, and give receipts in full discharge, sell by indorsement
of bills of lading, and insure the goods. It is his duty to clear the
goods at the customs, take charge' of them and keep them
safety, give such notices to his principal and others as may be
required, and if necessary take legal proceedings for the protection
of the goods. On the other hand, he has not authority to delegate
his employment, or to barter; and as between himself and his
principal he has no right to pledge the goods, although as between
the principal and the pledgee, an unauthorized pledge made by
the factor may by virtue of the Factors Act 1889 be binding
upon the principal. It is, moreover, inconsistent with his
employment as agent that he should buy or sell on his owg
account from or to his principal. A factor has no right to follow
any usage which is inconsistent with the ordinary duties and
authority of a factor unless his principal has expressly or impliedly
given his consent.
On the due performance of his duties the factor is entitled to
his commission, which is usually a percentage on the value of the,
goods sold or bought by him on account of his principal, regulated
in amount by the usages of each business. Sometimes the factor
makes himself personally responsible for the solvency of the
persons with whom he' deals, in order that his principal may
avoid the risk entailed by the usual trade credit. In such a case,
the factor is said to be employed on del credere terms, and is
entitled to a higher rate of commission, usually a}% extra.
Such an arrangement is not a contract of guarantee within the
Statute of Frauds, and therefore need not be in writing. Besides^
his remuneration, the factor is entitled to be reimbursed by his
principal for any expenses, and to be indemnified against any
liabilities which he may have properly incurred in the execution
of his principal's instructions. For the purpose of enforcing his
rights a factor has, without legal proceedings, two remedies.
Firstly, by virtue of his general lien (q.v.) he may hold any of his
principal's goods which come to his hands as security for the
payment to him of any commission, out-of-pocket expenses,
or even general balance of account in his favour. Although he
cannot sell the goods, he may refuse to give them up until he is
paid. Secondly, where he has consigned goods to his principal
but not been paid, he may " stop in transit " subject to the same
rules of law as an ordinary vendor; that is to say, he must exer-
cise his right before the transit ends; and his right may be
defeated by his principal transferring the document of title to
the goods to some third person, who takes it in good faith and
for valuable consideration (Factors Act 1889, section 10) . If the
factor does not carry out his principal's instructions, or carries
them out so negligently or unskilfully that his principal gets no
benefit thereby, the factor loses his commission and his right
to reimbursement and indemnity. If by Such failure or negli-
gence the principal suffers any loss, the latter may recover it as
damages. So too if the factor fails to render proper accounts bis
principal may by proper legal' proceedings obtain an account
and payment of what is found due; and threatened breaches
of duty may be summarily stopped by an injunction. Criminal
acts by the factor in .relation to his principal's goods are dealt
with by section 78 of the Larceny Act 1800.
n. Puncual and Third Pasty
(a) At Common Lav.— -The actual authority of a factor is
denned by the same limits as his duty, the nature of which has
been just described; ix. firstly, by his principal's express,
instructions; secondly, by the rules of law and usages of trade,,
in view of which those instructions were expressed. But his.
power to bind his principal as regards third parties is often wider
than his actual authority; for it would not be reasonable that
third parties should be prejudiced by secret instructions, given
in derogation of the authority ordinarily conferred by the custom
of trade; and, as regards them, the factor is said to have
" apparent " or " ostensible " authority, or to be held &ut as having
122
authority to do what Is customary, even though he may in fact
have been expressly forbidden so to do by his principal. But
this rule is subject to the proviso that if the third party have
notice of the factor's actual instructions, the "apparent"
authority will not be greater than the actual. u The general
principle of law/' said Lord Blackburn in the case of Cole v.
North-Westem Bank, 1875, LR. 10, C.P. 363, " is that when the
true owner has clothed any one with apparent authority to act
as his agent, he is bound to those who deal with the agent on
the assumption that he really is an agent with that authority,
to the same extent as if the apparent authority were real."
Under such circumstances the principal is for reasons of common
fairness precluded, or, in legal phraseology, estopped, from
denying his agent's authority. On the same principle of estoppel,
but not by reason of any trade usages, a course of dealing which
has been followed between a factor and a third party with the
assent of the principal wul give the factor apparent authority
to continue dealing on the same terms even after the principal's
assent has been withdrawn; provided that the third party has no
notice of the withdrawal.
Such apparent authority binds the principal both as to acts
done in excess of the actual authority and also when the actual
authority has entirely ceased. For instance, A.B. receives goods
from C. D. with instructions not to sell below xs. per lb; A. B.
sells at ioJd, the market price; the buyer is entitled to the goods
at io|cL, because A. B. had apparent authority, although he
exceeded his actual authority. On the same principle the buyer
would get a good title by buying from A. B. goods entrusted to
him by C. D., even though at the time of the sale C. D. bad
revoked A. B.'s authority and instructed him not to sell at all.
In either case the factor is held out as having authority to sell,
and the principal cannot afterwards turn round and say that his
factor had no such authority. As in the course of his business
the factor must necessarily make representations preliminary
to the contracts into which he enters, so the principal will be
bound by any such representations as may be within the factor's
actual or apparent authority to the same degree as by the
factor's contracts.
(b) Under the Factors Ad 1889— The main object of the
Factors Acts, in so far as they relate to transactions carried
out by factors, has been to add to the number of cases in which
third parties honestly buying or lending money on the security
of goods may get a good title from persons in whose possession
the goods are with the consent, actual or apparent, of the real
owners, thus calling in aid the principle of French law that
" possession vaut litre " as against the doctrine of the English
common law that " nemo dot quod non kobet." The chief change
in the law relating specially to factors has been to put pledges
by factors on the same footing as sales, so as to bind a principal
to third parties by his factor's pledge as by his factor's sale.
Xhe Factors Act 1889 in part re-enacts and in part extends the
provisions of the earlier acts of 1823, 1825, 284a and 1877;
and is, so far as it relates to sales by factors, in large measure
merely declaratory of the law as it previously existed. Its most
important provisions concerning factors are as follows: —
Section I., 8.8. r. The expression mercantile agent shall mean a
mercantile agent having in the customary course of bis business
as such agent authority either to sett goods, or to consign goods
for the purpose of sale, or to buy goods, or to raise money on the
security of goods;
2. A person shall be deemed to be in possession of goods or of
the documents or title to goods when the goods or documents are
hi his actual custody or are held by any other person subject to bis
control or for him on his behalf.
4. The expression " document of title " shall include any bill of
lading, dock warrant, warehouse keeper's certificate, and warrant
or order for the delivery of goods, and any other document used in
the ordinary course of business as proof 01 the possession or control
of goods, or authorizing or purporting to authorise, either by in-
dorsement or by delivery, the possessor of the document to transfer
FACTORY ACT6-tfACULTY
or receive goods thereby represented.
Sectidn II., s.s. I. Where a mercantile agen
of the owner, in possession of goods or of the documents or title to
here a mercantile agent is, with the consent
goods, any sale, pledge or other disposition of the goods made by
him when acting in the ordinary course of business of a mercantile
agent shall, subject to the provisions of this act, be as valid as if
he wen expressly authorised by the owner of the food* to nal
the same; provided that the person taking under the dsspontM
acts in good faith, and has not at the time of the disposition noti
that the person making the disposition hat not authority to maJ
the same.
2. Where a mercantile agent has, with the consent of the otmc
been in possession of goods or of the documents of title to good
any sale, pledge or other disposition which would have been val
if the consent had continued shall be valid notwithstanding tl
determination of the consent; provided that the person taktt
under the disposition has not at the time thereof notice that tl
consent has been determined.
3. Where a mercantile agent has obtained po ssess ion of aj
documents of title to goods by reason of his being or having; bee
" the owner, \
with the consent of the owner, in possession of the goods rcpt
sented thereby, or of any other documents of title to the good*. I
possession of the first-mentioned documents shall, for the purpos
of the acti be deemed to be with the consent of the owner*
III. Est ORCgMENT Of CONTRACTS
1. Where a factor makes a contract in the name of h
principal and himself signs as agent only, he drops out a* sot
as the contract is made, and the principal and third party aloi
can sue or be sued upon it. As factors usually contract in the
own name this is not a common case. It is characteristic
brokers rather than of factors.-
a. Where a factor makes a contract for the principal withoi
disclosing his principal's name, the third party may, on di
covering the principal, elect whether he will treat the factor <
his principal as the party to the contract; provided that if U
factor contract expressly as factor, so as to exclude the idea xhi
he is personally responsible, he will not be liable. The pri ncip
may sue upon the contract, so also may the factor, unless U
principal first intervene.
3. Where a factor makes a contract In his own name withoi
disclosing the existence of his principal, the third party ma,
on discovering the existence of the principal, elect whether 1
will sue the factor or the principal. Either principal or fa en
may sue the third party upon the contract. But if the fact*
has been permitted by the principal to hold himself out a* tl
principal, and the person dealing with the factor has believt
that the factor was the principal and has acted on that bcli
before ascertaining his mistake, then in an action by thepri rM-ip
the third party may set up any defences he would have ha
against the factor if the facte* had brought the action 00 his ow
account as principal.
4. Where a factor has alien upon the goods and their pr o ceed
for ndvanm made to the principal it will be no defence to a
action by him for the third party to plead that he has paid tl
principal, unless the factor by his conduct led the third party 1
believe that he agreed to s settlement being made with h
principal.
5. The factor who acts for s foreign principal will always I
personally liable unless it is clear that the third party has agree
to look only to the principal
6. If s factor contract by deed under seal he alone can su
or be sued upon the contract; but mercantile practice mak<
contracts by deed uncommon.
Authorities. — Story, Commentaries on Ike taw of Ameni
(Boston, 168a); Boyd and Pearson, The Factors Acts 18*1
1877 (London, I $84); BlackweU, The Law relating, is Facto
(London. 1897). (L. F. SO
FACTORY ACTS, the name given generally, to a long scri<
of acts constituting one of the most important chapters in tl
history of English labour legislation (see Laboue Legislation
the term " factory " itself being short for manufactory, a buildic
or collection of buildings in which men or women are employe
in industry.
PACULA (diminutive of Jax, Lat. for " torch "), in astrononv
a minute shining spot on the sun's disk, markedly brighter tKa
the photosphere in general, usually appearing in groups. Facul;
are most frequent in the neighbourhood of spots. (See Sum.)
FACULTY (through' the French, from the Lat. facmlt*
ability to do anything, from facilis, easy , /Wr , to do; a\notb
form of the word in Lat. facilUas, facility, ease, keeps the origin
meaning), power or capacity of mind or body for particular kizu
FAED-^-PAEROE
«s
gf activity, feeling, Ac In the early history of psychology the
term was applied to various mental processes considered as
erases or conditions of the mind— a treatment of " class concepts
of mental phenomena as if they were real forces producing these
phenomena" (G. F. Stout, Analytic Psychology, vol. i. p. 17).
la medieval Latin facuUas was used to translate ifirajM in the
Aristotelian application of the word to a branch of learning or
knowledge, and thus it is particularly applied to the various
departments of knowledge as taught in a university and to the
body of teachers of the particular art or science taught. The
principal " faculties " in. the medieval universities were theology,
anon and civil law, medicine and arts (see Universities). A
further extension of this use is to the body of members of any
particular profession.
In Law, " faculty " is a dispensation or licence to do that
which is not permitted by the common law. The word in this
sense is used only in ecclesiastical law. A faculty may be granted
to be ordained deacon under twenty-three years of age; to
hold two livings at once (usually called a licence or dispensation,
bat granted under the seal of the office of faculties; see
Bcterce) ; to be married at any place or time (usually called a
special licence; see Maxiiage; Licence); to act as a notary
budKc (9.*.)* Any alteration in a church, such as an addition
er diminution in the fabric or the utensils or ornaments of the
church, cannot strictly be made without the legal sanction of the
ordinary, which can only be expressed by the issue of a faculty.
So a faculty would be required for a vault, for the removal of a
body, for the purpose of erecting monuments, for alterations
a a parsonage house, for brick graves, for the apportionment
of a seat, &c Cathedrals, however, are exempt from the necessity
Jar a faculty before making alterations in the fabric, utensils or
csBamentSw
The court of faculties is the court of the archbishop for granting
aguliiea. It is a court in which there is no litigation or holding
of pleas. Its chief officer is called the master of faculties, and
st is one and the same with the judge of the court of arches.
Attached to the court of faculties are a registrar and deputy
registrars, a chief clerk and record-keeper, and a seal keeper.
Id Scotland the society of advocates of the court of session, and
local bodies of legal practitioners, are described as faculties.
PAED, THOMAS (2826-1900), British painter, bom in Kirk*
eadbright&hire, was the brother of John Faed, R.SjV-, and
received his art education in the school of design, Edinburgh*
He was elected an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in
Z&4Q. came to London three years later, was elected an associate
of the Royal Academy in 1861, and academician in 1864, and
tttired in 2893. He had much success as a painter of domestic
fEsre, and had considerable executive capacity. Three of his
picture*, " The Silken Gown,"'" Faults on Both Sides," and " The
Highland Mother." are in the National Gallery of British Art.
SeeWiOlam D. McKay, The Scottish School o/Paintini (1006).
FAEHZA. (anc Faventia), a city and episcopal see of Emilia,
Italy, in the province of Ravenna, from which it is 31 m. S.W.
by rail, zxo ft. above sea-level. It is 31 m. S.E. of Bologna by
rail, on the line from Bologna to Rimini, and it is the junction
of a line to Florence through the Apennines. Pop. (iooi)
21,800 (town), 39,757 (commune). The town is surrounded by
vails which date from 1456* The cathedral of S. Costanao
stands in the spacious Piazza Vittorio Emanuele in the centre
ef the town. It was begun in 1474 by GiuUano da Maiano;
the facade is, however, incomplete. In the interior is the
beautiful early Renaissance tomb of S. Savinus with reliefs
shoving scenes from his life, of fine and fresh execution, by
Benedetto da Maiano; and later, tombs by P. Bariloto, a local
icalptor. Opposite the cathedral is a fountain with bronze
ornamentation of 1583-1621. ' The clock tower alongside the
cathedral belongs to the 17th century. Beyond it is the Palazzo
ComunaJc, formerly the residence of the Manfredi, but entirely
reconstructed. The other churches of the town have been mostly
restored, but S. Michele (and the Palazzo Manfredi opposite it)
are fine early Renaissance buildings in brickwork. The municipal
art gallery contains an altar-piece by Girolamo da Treviso (who
also painted a fresco in the Chiesa dells Commend*), a wooden
St Jerome by Donatello, and a bust of the young St John by
Antonio Rossellino (?), and some fine specimens of majolica,
a variety of which, faience, takes its name fpm the town. It
was largely manufactured in the 15th and 16th centuries, and
the industry has been revived in modern times with success.
The ancient Faventia, on the Via Aemilla, was obviously
from its name founded by the Romans and had the citizenship
before the Social War. It was the scene of the defeat of C.
Papirius Carbo and C. Norbanus by Q. Caecilius Mctellus Pius
in 82 b.c. In the census of Vespasian a woman of Faventia Is
said to have given her age as 135. Pliny speaks of the whiteness
of its linen, and the productiveness of its' vines is mentioned.
It is noticeable that some of the fields in the territory of the
ancient Faventia still preserve the exact size of the ancient
Roman CQtiuria of 200 tugeri (E. Bormann in Corp. Inset. Lai.
xi., Berlin, 1886, p. 121). When the exarchate was established,
the town became patt of it, and in 748 it was taken by Liutprand.
Desiderius gave it to the church with the duchy of Ferrara.
In the trth century it began to increase in importance. In the
wars of the 12th and 13th centuries it at first took the imperial
side, but in 1240 it stood a long siege from Frederick II. and
was only taken after eight months. After further struggles
between Guelphs and Ghibellmcs, the Manfredi made themselves
masters of the place early in the 14th century, and remained in
power until 1501, when the town was taken by Caesar Borgia
and the last legitimate members of the house of the Manfredi
were drowned in the Tiber; and, after falling for a few years
into the hands of the Venetians, it became a part of the states
of the church in 1500. (T. As.)
FAEROB (also written Faroe or The Faesoes, Danish
Faerdeme or F&rdemt, "the sheep islands"), * group of islands
in the North Sea belonging to Denmark. They are situated
between Iceland and the Shetland Islands, about 200 m. N.W.
of the latter, about the intersection of f E. with 62 N. The
total land area of the group is 5x1 sq. m., and there are twenty-
one islands (excluding smalt rocks and reefs), of which seventeen
are inhabited. The population in 1880 amounted to 11,220,
and in 1000 to 15,230. The principal islands are Strfmd, on
which is the chief town, Thorshavn, with a population of 1656;
Ost'erd, SttderO, Vaago, Sandd and Bordd. They consist through-
out of rocks and hills, separated from each other by narrow valleys
or ravines; but, though the hills rise abruptly, there are often
on their summits, or at different stages of their ascent, plains of
considerable magnitude. Almost everywhere they present to
the sea perpendicular cliffs, broken into fantastic forms, affording
at every turn, to those who sail along the coast, the most
picturesque and varied scenery. The highest hills are Sift ttarc-
tindur In Ostertt, and Kopende and Skellingfjeld in Stromo,
which rise respectively to 2894, 2592 and 2520 ft. The sea
pierces the islands in deep fjords, or separates them by narrow
inlets through which tidal currents set with great violence, at
speeds up to seven or eight knots an hour; and, as communica-
tions are maintained almost wholly by boat, the natives have
need of expert watermanship. There are several lakes in which
trout are abundant, and char also occur; the largest is Sorvaag
Lake m Vaagft, which is dose to the sea, and discharges into it
by a sheer' fall of about r6o ft. Trees are scarce, and there is
evidence that they formerly- flourished where they cannot do
so now
The fundamental formation is a series el great sheets of columnar
basalt, 70 to 100 ft. thick, iu which are intercalated this beds of tuff.
Upon the basalt rests the so-called Coal formation, 35 to 50 ft. thick;
tfic lower part of this is mainly fireclay and sandstone, the upper
part is weathered clay with thin layers of brown coal and shale.
The coal is found in SQderd and in some of the other islands in
sufficient quantity to make it a matter of exploitation. Above these
beds there are layers of dolerite, 15 to 20 ft, thick* with nodular
segregations and abundant cavities which are often lined with
xeolites. As the rocks lie in a horizontal position, on most of the
Islands of the group only the basalts or dolerite are visible. The
crater from which the volcanic rocks were outpoured probably lies
off the Faeroe Bank some distance to the south-west of Sudero.
The basalts are submarine flows which formed the basis of the land
124
FAESULAE
upon which grew the vegetation which gave rise to the cult ; the
effusion o( dolcrite which covered up the Coal formation was sub-
aeriaL. The existing land features, with the fjords, are due to ice
erosion in the glacial period.*
The climate is Oceanic; fogs are common, violent storms are
frequent at all seasons. July and August are the only true
summer months, but the winters are not very severe. It seldom
freezes for more than one month, and the harbours are rarely
ice-bound. The methods of agriculture are extremely primitive
and less than 3 % of the total area is under cultivation. As the
plough is ill-suited to the rugged surface of the land, the ground
is usually turned up with the spade, care being taken not to
destroy the roots of the grass, as hay Is the principal crop.
Horses and cowvare few, and the cows give little milk, in conse-
quence of the coarse hay upon which they are fed. The number
of sheep, however, justifies the name of the islands, some indi-
viduals having flocks of from three to five hundred, and the total
number in the islands considerably exceeds ten thousand.
The northern hare (Up** alfnnus) is pretty abundant in Strdmd
and Osterd, having been introduced into the islands about
1 840-1 850. The catching of the numerous sea-birds which build
their nests upon the face of the cliffs forms an important source
of subsistence to the inhabitants. Sometimes the fowler is let
down from the top of the cliff; at other times he climbs the
rocks, or, where possible, is pushed upwards by poles made for
the purpose. The birds and the contents of the nests are taken
in nets mounted on .poles; shooting is not practised, lest it
should permanently scare the birds away. Fowling has some-
what decreased in modern times, as the fisheries have risen in
importance. The puffin is most commonly taken for its feathers.
The cod fishery is especially important, dried fish being exported
in large quantity, and the' swim-bladders made into gelatine,
and also used anil exported for food. The whaling industry
came into importance towards the close of the 19th century,
and stations for the extraction of the oil and whalebone have
been established at several points, under careful regulations
designed to mitigate the pollution of water, the danger to live-
stock from eating the blubber, &c. The finntrwhaleis the aperies
most commonly taken.
The trade of the Faeroe Islands was for some time a monopoly
in the hands of a mercantile house at Copenhagen, and this
monopoly was afterwards assumed by the Danish government,
but by the law of the 21st of March 1855 all restrictions were
removed. The produce of the whaling and fishing industries,
woollen goods, lamb skins and feathers, are the chief exports,
while in Thorshavn the preserving of fish and the manufacture
of carpets are carried on to some extent. Thorshavn is situated
on the S.E. side of Stromo, upon a narrow tongue of land,
having creeks on each side, where ships may be safely moored.
It is the seat of the chief government and ecclesiastical officials,
and has a government house and a hospital. The houses are
generally built of wood and roofed with birch bark covered with
turf. The character of the people is marked by simplicity of
manners, kindness and hospitality. They are healthy, and the
population increases steadily. The Faeroes form an ami (county)
of Denmark. They have also a local parliament (lagtkmg),
consisting of the antmatm and nineteen other members. Among
other duties, this body elects a representative to the upper house
of parliament (landsikutg) in Denmark; the people choose by
vote a representative in the lower house (jolhething). The
islands are included In the Danish bishopric of Zealand.
History.— The early history of the Faeroes Is not dear. It
appears that about the beginning of the .oth century Grim
Karnban, a Norwegian emigrant who had left his country to
escape the tyranny of Harold Haarfager, settled in the islands.
It is said that a small colony of Irish and Scottish monks were
found in Suderd* and dispersed by him. The Faeroes then already
bore their name of Sheep Islands, as these animals had been
found to flourish here exceedingly. Early in the nth century
Sigmund or Sigismund Bresterson, whose family had flourished
in the southern islands but had been almost exterminated by
See Hans von Post, " Om Faroamea uppkomst," Go olog u ka
Foreningens • Stockholm Fdrhandlingar, vol. xxiv. (1902).
invaders from the northern, was sent from Norway, whither he
had escaped, to take possession of the islands for Olaf Trygvason,
king of Norway. He introduced Christianity, and, though he
was subsequently murdered, Norwegian supremacy was upheld,
and continued till 1386, when the islands were transferred to
Denmark. English adventurers gave great trouble to the in*
habitants in the x6th century, and the name of Magnus Heraeson,
a native of Strdmd', who was sent by Frederick IL to dear tbe
seas, is still celebrated in many songs and stories. There was
formerly a bishopric at Kirkebd, S. of Thorshavn, where remains
of the cathedral may be seen; but it was abolished at tbe
introduction of Protestantism by Christian HL Denmark re-
tained possession of the Faeroes at the peace of Kiel in 181 5.
The native literature of the islands consists of the Paereying*
Saga, dealing with the period of Sigmund Bresterson, and a
number of popular songs and legends of early origin.
Bibliography.— Lucas Tacobson Debes, Feroa JUserata (Copen-
hagen, X673*, Eng. transL London, 1675) ; Torfaeus. De reins testis
Faereyenstnm (Copenhagen, Z695); 1. Landt, Beskrisotlse aear
F&rderne (1800), and Descriptions of the Feroe Islands (London.
1810) ; A. J. Symington. Pen and Pencil Sketches of Faroe and Iceland
(1862); J. Russel-Jeaffreson, The Faroe Islands (1901); J. Fatk
Kdnne, Beskrnelse over Fdrderne (Copenhagen, toot); C. H. Osten*
feld, E. Wanning and others, Botany of the Faeroes (Copenhagen.
1901-1903); Annandale, The Faroes and Iceland (Oxford, 1905).
The Faereyinga Saga was translated by F. York Powell (London.
1896); for folk-songs and legends see S. Rraeth. Die fdr&iscken
Lieder von Sigurd (Paderborn, 1877); V. U. Hammerahairnb,
Faerouk Anthohgi (Copenhagen, 1886-1891).
FAESTJLAB (mod. FiesoU, q.v.), an ancient city of Etruria,
on the height 3 m. to the N.E. of Florentia, 970 ft. above sea-
levd. Remains of its walls are preserved on all sides, especially
ontheN.E., in one place to a height of 12 to 14 courses. The
blocks are often not quite rectangular, and the courses sometimes
change; but the general tendency is horizontal and the walls
are' not of remote antiquity, the irregularities in them being:
rather due to the hardness of the material employed, the rock of
the bill itself. The courses vary in height from x to 3 ft., and
some blocks are as long as it\ ft In this portion of the wall are
two drains, below one of which is a phallus. The site of an a ncten t
gate, and the road below it, can be traced; a little farther E.
was an archway, conjectured by Dennis to be a gate of the Roman
period, destroyed in 1848. The whole circuit of the walls ext ended
for about i| m. The Franciscan monastery (1x30 ft.) occupies
the site of the acropolis, once encirded by a triple wall, of which
no traces are now visible. Here was also the Capitcfium of
Roman times, as an inscription found here in x 879 records (Corpwu
Inscr, Lot. xi, Berlin, x888, No. 1545)- The Roman theatre
below the cathedral to the N.E., has 19 tiers of stone seats and h
37 yds. in diameter. Above it is an embanking wall of irregnlaj
masonry, and below it some remains of Roman baths, including
five parallel vaults of concrete. Just outside the town on the E
a reservoir, roofed by the convergence of its sides, which were oi
large regular blocks, was discovered in 1832, but filled in again
Over xooo silver denarii, all coined before 63 b.c, were found
at Faesulae in 1829. A small museum contains the objects founc
in the excavations of the theatre.
Though Faesulae was an Etruscan dty, we have no record o
it in history until 21.5 B.C., when the Gauls passed near it ii
their march on Rome. Twelve years later Hannibal stems t<
have taken this route in his march south after the victory of U*
Trebia. It appears to have suffered at the hands of Rome in tr*
Social War, and Sulla expelled some of the inhabitants froc
their lands to make room for his veterans, but some of the Lat te
were soon driven out In their turn by the former occupiers
Both the veterans, who soon wasted what they had acquired
and the dispossessed cultivators joined the partisans of Catiline
and Manlius, one of his supporters, made his headquarters a
Faesulae. Under the empire we hear practically nothing of it
in a.d. 405 Radagaisus was crushed in the neighbouring hill.
and Belisarius besieged and took it in A.D. 539.
See L. A. Milani, Rendieonti del Ltneei, ear. vL voL ix. (rooo
289 seq., on the discovery of an archaic altar of the Locus sac**- <
I Florence, belonging to Ancharia (Angeroaa), the goddess) of Fiesol
CT. Asv>
FAFNIR— FA-HIEN
125
FAPKIR, in Scandinavian mythology, the son of the giant
Hreidjnar.' He was the guardian of the hoard of the Nibelungs
ind was killed by Sigurd.
FAOGIHfl (from "fag," meaning "weary"; of uncertain
dymology), in English public schools, a system under which,
generally with the full approval of the authorities, a junior boy
performs certain duties for a senior. In detail this custom
nries slightly in the different schools, but its purpose— -the
maintenance of discipline among the boys themselves— is the
same. Dr Arnold of Rugby defined fagging as " the power
given by the supreme authorities of the school to the Sixth Form,
to be exercised by them over the lower boys, for the sake of
securing a regular government among the boys themselves,
and avoiding the evils of anarchy; in other words, of the lawless
tyranny of brute force." Fagging was a fully established system
it Eton and Winchester in the i6th century, and is probably a
pod deal older. That the advantages of thus granting the
boys a kind of autonomy have stood the test of time is obvious
few the fact that in almost all the great public schools founded
during the 10th century, fagging has been deliberately adopted
by the authorities. The right to fag carries with it certain
well-defined duties. The fag-master is the protector of his
lip, and responsible for their happiness and good conduct. In
uses of bullying or injustice their appeal is to him, not to the
form or house master, and, except in the gravest cases, all such
cases are dealt with by the fag-master on his own responsibility
»d without report to the master. Until recent years a lag's
duties included such humble tasks as blacking boots, brushing
dothes, and cooking breakfasts, and there was no limit as to
bus; almost all the fag's spare time being so monopolized.
This is now changed. Fagging is now restricted to such light
tels as running errands, bringing tea to the " master's " study,
"■4 lagging at cricket or football. At Eton there is no cricket
h$mg, and at most schools it is made lighter by all the fags
tikiog their turn in regular order for one hour, so that each boy
b» to M fag " but once in so many weeks. At Rugby there is
"study-tagging " — two fags being assigned to each Sixth Form
ty and nude responsible for the sweeping out and tidying up
<* lis study alternately each week,— and " night-fagging " —
n^fling errands for the Sixth between 8.30 and 9.30 every
fieaing,— and each boy can choose whether he will be a study-
a? or night-fag. The right to fag a usually restricted to the
&tb Form, but at Eton the privilege is also granted the Fifth,
^ at Marlborough and elsewhere the Eleven have a right to
bgat cricket, whether in the Sixth or not.
FAfiflOT, a bundle of sticks used for firewood. The word
it adapted from the Ft. fagot, and appears in Italian as jagotto,
tfe name given to the bassoon (?.».). '* Faggot " is frequently
*d with reference to the burning of heretics, and recanted
ttttics wore an embroidered faggot on the arm as a symbol
01 the punishment they had escaped. In the 18th century the
*Hd is used of a " dummy " soldier, appearing on the soils of a
tsuacni It is this use, coupled with the idea of a bundle of
sucks as being capable of subdivision, that appears in the
°P««on "faggot-vote," a vote artificially created by the
fj°ute splitting up of property so as to give a bare qualification
«* the franchise.
FAGMTEZ, QUSTAVE CHARLES (1842- ), French historian
"d economist, was born in Paris 00 the 6th of October 1842.
Traiaed at the £cole des Chartes and the £cole des Hautes
ttudea, he made his first appearance in the world of scholarship
s the author of an excellent book called Eludes sur Vindustrie
^cksseindustrieUedParisauXIII^etauXIV'siecle(i&7lh
*** vork, composed almost entirely from documents, many
^Published, opened a new field for historical study. Twenty
y&n later be supplemented this book by an interesting collection
^ocumenis relatifs A Vhisloire de I'industrie et du commerce en
"9*c< (2 vols., 1898-1900), and in 1897 he published L'&onemU
***fc de la France sous Henri IV, a volume containing the
j*ahs of very minute research. He did not, however, confine
taself to economic history. His Le Pert Joseph el Richelieu
(lj 94), though somewhat frigid and severe, is based on a mass
of unpublished information, and shows remarkable psychologic
grasp. In 1878 his Journal parisicn de Jean de Maupoint, prieur
de Ste Catherine-de-la-Couture was published in vol. iv. of the
Mtmoires de la sociiti de Vhistoire de Paris et de Vile de Prance.
He wrote numerous articles in the Revue historique (of which
he was co-director with Gabriel Monod for some years) and in
Other teamed reviews, such as the Revue des questions historiques
and the Journal des savants. In 1001 he was elected member oi
the Acadtmie des Sciences Morales ct Politique*.
FAQUBT, BM1LE (1847- ), French critic and man of
letters, was born at La Roche sur Yon on the 17th of December
1847. He was educated at the normal school in Paris, and after
teaching for some time in La Rochelle and Bordeaux he came to
Paris. After acting as assistant professor of poetry in the uni-
versity he became professor in 1897. He was elected to the
academy in 1900, and received the ribbon of the Legion of Honour
in the next year. He acted as dramatic critic to the Soldi;
from 1892 he was literary critic to the Revue bleue; and in 1896
took the place of M. Jules Lemaltre on the Journal des dibats,
Among his works are monographs on Flaubert (1899), Andri
Chinier (1002), Zola (1903); an admirably concise Histoire de la
littirature frangaise depuis le XVII' sticle jusqu'a nos jours',
series of literary studies on the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries;
Questions poltliques (1899); Propos UlUraires (3 series, 1002-
1905); Le Libiralisme (1902); and V Antidiricalisme (1906).
See A. Seche, Smile Faguet (1904).
FA-HIEN (fl. a.d. 300-414), Chinese Buddhist monk, pilgrim-
traveller, and writer, author of one of the earliest and most
valuable Chinese accounts of India. He started from Changgan
or Si-gan-fu, then the capital of the Tsui empire, and passing the
Great Wall, crossed the " River of Sand ' or Gobi Desert beyond,
that home of " evil demons and hot winds," which he vividly
describes, — where the only way-marks were the bones of the
dead, where no bird appeared in the air above, no animal on the
ground below. Arriving at Khotan, the traveller witnessed a
great Buddhist festival; here, as in Yarkand, Afghanistan and
other parts thoroughly Islamized before the close of the middle
ages, Fa-Hien shows us Buddhism still prevailing. India was
reached by a perilous descent of " ten thousand cubits " from the
" wall-like hills " of the Hindu Rush into the Indus valley (about
aj>. 402); and the pilgrim passed the next ten years in the
" central " Buddhist realm,— making journeys to Peshawur and
Afghanistan (especially the Kabul region) on one side, and to the
Ganges valley on another. His especial concern was the explora-
tion of the scenes of Buddha's life, the copying of Buddhist
texts, and converse with the Buddhist monks and sages whom
the Brahmin reaction had not yet driven out. Thus we find him
at Buddha's birthplace on the Kohana, north-west of Benares;
in Patna and on the Vulture Peak near Patna; at the Jetvana
monastery in Oudh; as well as at M ultra on the Jumna, at
Kanauj, and at Tamluk near the mouth of the Hugli. But now
the narrative, which in its earlier portions was primarily historical
and geographical, becomes mystical and theological; miracle-
stories and meditations upon Buddhist moralities and sacred
memories almost entirely replace matters of fact. From the
Ganges delta Fa-Hien sailed with a merchant ship, in fourteen
days, to Ceylon, where he transcribed all the sacred books, as yet
unknown in China, which he could find; witnessed the festival
of the exhibition of Buddha's tooth; and remarked the trade of
Arab merchants to the island, two centuries before Mahomet.
He returned by sea to the mouth of the Yangtse-Kiang, changing
vessels at Java, and narrowly escaping shipwreck or the fate
of Jonah.
Fa-Hien's work is valuable evidence to the strength, and in
many places to the dominance, of Buddhism in central. Asia
and in India at the time of the collapse of the Roman empire in
western Europe. His tone throughout is that of the devout,
learned, sensible, rarely hysterical pilgrim-traveller. His record
is careful and accurate, and most of his positions can be identi-
fied; his devotion is so strong that it leads him to depreciate
China as a " border-land," India the home of Buddha being the
true " middle kingdom " of his creed.
126
FAHLCRANTZ— FAIN
See James Legge, Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, being an account
by the Chinese Monk Fd-hien of his travels tn India and Ceylon ;
translated and edited, with map, &c. (Oxford, 1886); S. Beat,
Travels of Fah-Hian and Sung- run, Buddhist pilgrims from China
to India, 400 and 518 a.D^ translated, with map, &c. (1869);
C. R. Beaxley, Dawn of Modern Geography, vol i. (1897), pp. 47M&S-
FAHLCRANTZ, CHRISTIAN ERIK (1790-1866), Swedish
author, was born at Stora Tuna in Sweden on the 30th of August
1700. His brothers, Carl Johan (1774-1861), the landscape-
painter, and Axel Magnus (1780-1854), the sculptor, became
hardly less distinguished than himself. In 1804 he entered the
university of Upsala; in 1821 he became tutor ia Arabic, and
in 1825 professor of Oriental languages. In 1828 he entered the
church, but earlier than this, in 1825, he published his Noachs
Ark, a successful satire on the literary and social life of his time,
followed in 1826 by a second part. In 1835 Fahlcrantz brought
out the first part of his epic of Ansgarius, which was completed
in 1846, in 14 cantos. In 1842 he was made a member of the
Swedish Academy, and in 1849 he was made bishop of Vesteras,
his next literary work being an archaeological study on the
beautiful ancient cathedral of his diocese. In the course of the
years 1858-1861 appeared the five volumes of his Rom fort och
nu (Rome as it was and is), a theological polemic, mainly directed
against the Jesuits. He died on the 6th of August 1866. His
complete works (7 vols., Orebro, 1863-1866) were issued mainly
under his own superintendence.
FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL (1686-1736), German
physicist, was born at Danzig on the 14th of May 1686. For the
most part he lived in England and Holland, devoting himself
to the study of physics and making a living, apparently, by the
manufacture of meteorological instruments. He was the author
of important improvements in the construction of thermometers,
and he introduced the thcrmometric scale known by his name
and still extensively usf d in Great Britain and the United States
(see Thermometry). He also invented an improved form of
hygrometer, a description of which, together with accounts of
various observations and experiments made by him, was pub-
lished in the Phil. Trans, for 1724. He died in Holland on the
1 6th of September 1736.
FAIDHERBE, LOUIS LiON CtSAR (1818-1889), French
general and colonial administrator, was born on the 3rd of
June 1818, at Lille, received his military education at the £co!e
Polytechnique and at Metz, and entered the engineers in 1840.
From 1844 to 1847 h* served in Algeria, then two years in the
West Indies, and again in Algeria, taking part in many expedi-
tions against the Arabs. In 1852 he was transferred to Senegal
as sub-director of engineers, and in 1854 was promoted chef de
batailton and appointed governor of the icolony. He held this
post with one brief interval until July 1865. The work he
accomplished in West Africa constitutes his most enduring
monument. At that time France possessed in Senegal little else
than the town of St Louis and a strip of coast. Explorers had,
however, made known the riches and possibilities of the Niger
regions, and Faidherbe formed the design of adding those
countries to the French dominions. He even dreamed of creating
a French African empire stretching from Senegal to the Red Sea.
To accomplish even the first part of his design he had very
inadequate resources, especially in view of the aggressive action
of Omar Al- Hadji, the Moslem ruler of the countries of the
middle Niger. By boldly advancing the French outposts on the
upper Senegal Faidherbe stemmed the Moslem advance, and by
an advantageous treaty with Omar in i860 brought the French
possessions into touch with the Niger. He also brought into
subjection the country lying between the Senegal and Gambia.
When he resigned his post French rule had been firmly established
over a very considerable and fertile area and the foundation
laid upon which his successors built up the predominant position
occupied now by France in West Africa. In 1863 he became
general of brigade. From 1867 to the early part of 1870 he
commanded the subdivision of Bona in Algeria, and was com-
manding the Constantine division at the commencement of the
Franco-German War. Promoted general of division inNovetnber
1870, he was on the 3rd of December appointed by the Govern-
ment of National Defence to be commander-in-chief of the army
of the North. In this post he showed himself to be possessed
of the highest military talents, and the struggle between the I.
German army and that commanded by Faidherbe, in which were
included the hard-fought battles of Pont Noyelles, Bapaume and
St Quentin, was perhaps the most honourable to the French army
in the whole of the People's War. Even with the inadequate
force of which he disposed he was able to maintain a steady
resistance up to the end of the war. Elected to the National
Assembly for the department of the Nord, he resigned his seat
in consequence of its reactionary proceedings. For his services
he was decorated with the grand cross, and made chancellor
of the order of the Legion of Honour. In 1872 he went on a
scientific mission to Upper Egypt, where he studied the monu-
ments and inscriptions. An enthusiastic geographer, philologist
and archaeologist, he wrote numerous works, among which may
be mentioned Collection des inscriptions numidiques (1870),
£pigraphie pktnicienne (1873), Essai sur la tongue poui (1S75),
and Le Zinaga des tribes stnigalaises (1877), the last a study of
the Berber language. He also wrote on the geography and
history of Senegal and the Sahara, and La Campagnc de VarmU du
Nord (1872). He was elected^ senator in 1879, and, in spite of
failing health, continued to the last a close student of his favourite
subjects. He died on the 39th of September 1889, and -received
a public funeral. Statues and monuments to his memory were
erected at Lille, Bapaume, St Quentin and St Louis, Senegal.
FAIENCE, properly the French term for the ponellaM di
Faenta, a fine kind of glazed and painted earthenware made at
Faenza in Italy, hence a term applied generally to all kinds of
pottery other than unglazed pottery or porcelain. It is often
particularly applied to the translucent earthenware made in
Persia (see Ceramics).
FAILLY, PIERRE LOUIS CHARLES DB (18x0-1899), French
general, was born at Rozoy-sur-Serre (Aisne) on the 21 at of
January 18 10, and entered the army from St Cyr in 183ft. In
1851 he had risen to the rank of colonel, and Napoleon III..
with whom he was a favourite, made him general of brigade in
1854 and general of division in 1855, after which for a time De
Failly was his aide-de-camp. In the war of 1839 De Failly
commanded a division, and in 1867 be defeated Garibaldi at
Mentana, this action being the first in which the chassepot was
used. In 1870 De Failly commanded the V. corps. His in-
activity at Bitsch on the 6th of August while the I. corps on his
right and the II. corps on his left were crushed at Worth ami
Spicheren respectively, gave rise to the greatest indignation in
France, and his military career ended, after the V. corps had been
severely handled at Beaumont on the 30th of August, with the
catastrophe bf Sedan. The rest of his life was spent in retirement-
De Failly wrote Campaigns de 1870, Operations et marckc dm y*~
corps jusqu'au 30 aouh (Brussels, 1871).
FAIN, AOATHON JEAN FRANCOIS (1778-1837), Fiench
historian, was born in Paris on the 1 1 th of January x 778. Having
gained admittance to the offices of the Directory, be became
head of a department. Under the Consulate he entered th«
office of the secretary of state, in the department of the archives-.
In 1806 he was appointed secretary and archivist to the cabrr***
particular of the emperor, whom .he attended on his campaigns,
and journeys. He was created a baron of the empire in 1800.
and, on the fall of Napoleon, was first secretary of the cabinet
and confidential secretary. Compelled by the second Restorat ion
to retire into private life, he devoted his leisure to writing the
history of his times, an occupation for which his previous employ-
ments well fitted him. He published successively Manusrrit <f&
1814, contenant Vhistoire des six derniers mois du regne de Napolf****
(1823; new edition with illustrations, 1006); Manusrrit <f^
1813, contenant le precis des Mnements de cette anmte pour se^t^£r
& Vhistoire de Vempereur Napolion (1824); ManuscrU de iS't^
(1827); and Manuscrit de Van Hi. (1794-1795), contenant £*>^
premieres transactions de V Europe atec la rtpublique franchise ^
le tableau des derniers Mnements du rigime eontenlionnel (r8*S >
all of which are remarkable for accuracy and wide range of
knowledge, and are a very valuable source for the history ^j
PAIR
127
Kipoleoa I. Of still greater importance for the history of
Napoleon are Fain's Hi moires, which were published posthum-
ously in 1908; they relate more particularly to the last five
yeats of the empire, and give a detailed picture of the emperor at
work on his correspondence among his confidential secretaries.
Immediately after the overthrow of Charles X. r King Louis
Philippe appointed Fain first secretary of his cabinet (August
1830). Fain was a member of the council of state and deputy
from Moatargis from 1834 until his death, which occurred in
Puis oq the 1 6th of September 1837.
FAIR, a commercial institution, defined as a " greater species
of market recurring at more distant intervals ": both "fair"
isd u market " (q.v.) have been distinguished by Lord Coke
Irom "mart," which he considers as a greater species of fair;
lad all three may be defined as periodic gatherings of buyers and
sdkts in an appointed place, subject to special regulation by
lav or custom. Thus in England from a strictly legal point of
view there can be no fair or market without a franchise; and a
Inochise of fair or market can only be exercised by right of a
pant from the crown, or by the authority of parliament or by
Prescription presupposing a grant. In the earliest times periodical
trading in special localities was necessitated by the difficulties of
communication and the dangers of travel. Public gatherings,
whether religious, military or judicial, which brought together
veiely scattered populations, were utilized as opportunities for
commerce. At the festivals of Delos and at the Olympic games
tnde, it is said, found important outlets, whilo in Etruria the
usual general assembly at the temple of Voltumna served at
ue same time as a fair and was regularly attended by Roman
traders. Instances of a similar nature might be multiplied;
ta it was above all with religious festivals which recurred with
regularity and convoked large numbers of persons that fairs,
Bfetingmshed from markets, are most Intimately associated.
The most commonly accepted derivation of the word "fair"
a from the Latin feria, a name which the church borrowed from
taaan custom and applied to her own festivals. A fair was
graafly held during the period of a saint's feast and in the
Ptaacts of his church or abbey, but in England this desecration
of church or churchyard was first forbidden by the Statute of
Wioton (c. Edward I.). Most of the famous fairs of medieval
Eoghad and Europe, with their tolls or other revenues, and,
■tthin certain limits of time and place, their monopoly of trade,
*oe giants from the sovereign to abbots, bishops and other
Kdesujtkal dignitaries. Their "holy day" associations are
fnserved in the German word for fairs, Messen; as also in the
f*»oi, " church mass," of the people of Brittany. So very
intimate was the connexion between the fair and the feast of the
Bifit that the former has very commonly been regarded as an
tfchoot or development of the latter. But there is every reason
to suppose that fairs were already existing national institutions,
^ before the church turned or was privileged to turn them to
her own profit.
The first charter of the great fair of Stourbridge, near
Cambridge, was granted by King John for the maintenance of
» leper hospital; but the origin of the fair itself is ascribed
to Caraosius, the rebel emperor of Britain, a.d. 207. At all
"ftts, it may be seen from the data given in Herbert Spencer's
t^ipim Sociology that the country hud then arrived at the
tige of development where fairs might have been recognised as
1 necessity. The Romans also appear to have elaborated a
saricet-law similar to that m force throughout medieval Europe
-though it must be observed that the Roman nundinae, which
•* have regarded as fairs, were weekly markets. It has also
k* supposed that the ancient fairs of Lyons were a special
pHvikge granted by the Roman conquerors; and Sidonius
Apdhoaris, aj>. 4*7, alludes to the fairs of the district afterwards
fcwn as the county of Champagne, as if they were then familiarly
tawfi institutions. Fairs, in a word, would not only have arisen
Rurally, wherever the means of communication between indi-
vidual centres of production and consumption were felt to be
aadequate to the demand for an interchange of commodities;
K from their very nature, they might be expected to show
some essential resemblances, even in points of legislation, and
where no international transmission of custom could have been
possible. Thus, the fair courts of pre-Spanish Mexico corre-
sponded very closely to those of the Beaucaire fair. They
resembled the English courts of piepowder. The Spaniards,
when first they saw the Mexican fairs, were reminded of the like
institutions in Salamanca and Granada. The great fair or market
at the city of Mexico is said to have been attended by about
40,000 or 50,000 persons, and is thus described by Prescott:—
" Officers patrolled the square, whose business it was to keep the
peace, to collect the dues imposed on the various kinds of merchan-
dise, to see that no false measures or fraud of any kind were used,
and to bring offenders at once to justice. A «ourt of twelve judges
sat in one part of the tiangms clothed with those ample and
summary powers which, in despotic countries, are often delegated
even to petty tribunals. The extreme seventy with which they
exercised those powers, in more than one instance, proves that they
were not a dead letter."
But notwithstanding the great antiquity of fairs, their charters
are comparatively modern— the oldest known being that of St
Denys, Paris, which Dagobert, king of the Franks, granted)
(a.d. 642) to the monks of the place " for the glory of God, and
the honour of St Denys at his festival."
In England it was only after the Norman conquest that fairs
became of capital importance. Records exist of 2800 grants of
franchise markets and fairs between the years 1199 and 1483.
More than half of these were made during the reigns of John and
Henry III., when the power of the church was in ascendancy.
The first recorded grant, however, appears to be that of William
the Conqueror to the bishop of Winchester, for leave to hold
an annual " free fair " at St Giles's hilL The monk who had been
the Ling's jester received his charter of Bartholomew fair,
Smithficld, in the year 1133. And in 1248 Henry III. granted
a like privilege to the abbot of Westminster, in honour of the
" translation " of Edward the Confessor. Sometimes fairs were
granted to towns as a means for enabling them to recover from
the effects of war and other disasters. Thus, Edward III.
granted a " free fair " to the town of Burnley in Rutland, just
as, In subsequent times, Charles VIL favoured Bordeaux after
the English wars, and Louis XIV. gave fair charters to the
towns of Dieppe and Toulon. The importance attached to
these old fairs may be understood from the inducements which,
in the 14th century, Charles IV. held out to traders visiting the
great fair of Frankfort-on-Main. The charter declared that
both during the continuance of the fair, and for eighteen days
before and After it, merchants would be exempt from imperial
taxation, from arrest for debt, or civil process of any sort, except
such as might arise from the transactions of the market itself
and within its precincts. Philip of Valois's regulations for the
fairs of Troyes in Champagne might not only be accepted as
typical Of all subsequent fair-legislation of the kingdom, but
even of the English and German laws on the subject. The fair
had its staff of notaries for the attestation of bargains, its court
of justice, its police officers, its sergeants for the execution of the
market judges' decrees, and its visitors— of whom we may mention
the prud'hommes, — whose duty it was to examine the quality of
goods exposed for sale, and to confiscate those found unfit lot
consumption. The confiscation required the consent of five or
six representatives of the merchant community at the fair.
The effect of these great " free fairs " of England and the
continent on the development of society was indeed great.
They helped to familiarize the western and northern countries
with the banking and financial systems of the Lombards and
Florentines, who resorted to them under the protection of the
sovereign's " firm peace," and the ghostly terrors of the pope.
They usually became the seat of foreign agencies. In the names
of her streets Provins preserved the memory of her 12th-century
intercourse with the agents and merchants of Germany and the
Low Countries, and long before that time the Syrian traders at
St Denys had established their powerful association in Paris.
Like the church on the religious side, the free fairs on the com-
mercial side evoked and cherished the international spirit. And
during long ages, when commercial " protection " was regarded
128
FAIR
as indispensable to a nation's wealth, and the merchant was
compelled to " fight his way through a wilderness of taxes,"
they were the sole and, so far as they went, the complete sub-
stitute for the free trade of later days.
Their privileges, however, were, from their very nature,
destined to grow more oppressive and intolerable the more
l he towns were multiplied and the means of communication
increased. The people of London were compelled to close their
shops during the days when the abbot of Westminster's fair was
open. But a more curious and complete instance of such an
ecclesiastical monopoly was that of the St Giles's fair, at first
granted for the customary three days, which were increased by
Henry III. to sixteen. The bishop of Winchester was, as we
have seen, the lord of this fair. On the eve of St Giles's feast
the magistrates of Winchester surrendered the keys of the city
gates to the bishop, who then appointed his own mayor, bailiff
and coroner, to hold office until the close of the fair. During the
same period, Winchester and Southampton also — though it was
then a thriving trading town— were forbidden to transact their
ordinary commercial business, except within the bishop's fair,
or with his special permission. The bishop's officers were posted
along the highways, with power to forfeit to his lordship all goods
bought and sold within 7 m. of the fair — in whose centre stood
" the pavilion," or bishop's court. It is dear, from the curious
record of the Establishment and Expenses of the Household of
Percy, 5th earl of Northumberland, that fairs were the chief
centres o&country traffic even as late as the x6th century. They
began to decline rapidly after 1759, when good roads had been
constructed and canal communication established between Liver-
pool and the towns of Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lancashire. In
the great towns their extinction was hastened in consequence of
their evil effects on public morals. All the London fairs were
abolished as public nuisances before 1855— the last year of the
ever famous fair of St Bartholomew; and the fairs of Paris were
swept away in the storm of the Revolution.
English Pairs and Markrts.—Vor the general reasons apparent
from the preceding sketch, fairs in England, as in France and
Germany, have very largely given way to maikets for specialities.
Even the live-stock market of the metropolis is being superseded
by the dead-meat market, a change which has been encouraged
by modern legislation on cattle disease, the movements of home
stock and the importation of foreign animals. Agricultural
markets are also disappearing before the " agencies " and the
corn exchanges in the principal towns. Still there are some
considerable fairs yet remaining. Of the English fairs for live
stock, those of Weyhill in Hampshire (October 10), St Faith's,
near Norwich (October 17), as also several held at Devizes,
Wiltshire, are among the largest in the kingdom. The first named
stands next to none for its display of sheep. Horncastle, Lincoln-
shire, is the largest horse fair in the kingdom, and is regularly
visited by American and continental dealers. The other leading
horse fairs in England are Howden in Yorkshire (well known for
its hunters) , Wood bridge (on Lady Day) for Suffolk horses, Barnet
in Hertfordshire, and Lincoln. Exeter December fair has a
large display of cattle, horses and most kinds of commodities.
Large numbers of Scotch cattle are also brought to the fairs of
Carlisle and Ormskirk. Nottingham has a fair for geese. Ipswich
has a fair for lambs on the xst of August, and for butter and
cheese on the 1st of September. Gloucester fair is also famous
for the last-named commodity. * Falkirk fair, or tryst, for cattle
and sheep, is one of the largest in Scotland; and . Ballinasloe,
Galway, holds a like position among Irish fairs. The Ballinasloe
cattle are usually fed for a year in Leinster before they are
considered fit for the Dublin or Liverpool markets.
French Fairs. — In France fairs and markets are held under
the authority of the prefects, new fairs and markets being estab-
lished by order of the prefects at the instance of the commune
interested. Before the Revolution fairs and markets could only
be established by seigneurs jusliciers, but only two small markets
have survived the law of 1790 abolishing private ownership of
market rights, namely, the March* Ste Catherine and the Marchi
des enfants rouges, both in Paris Under the present system
markets and fairs are held in most of the towns and villagesin
France; and at all such gatherings entertainments foan is
important feature. The great fair of Beaucaire instituted in
1 1 68) has steadily declined since the opening of railway con*
mimical ion, and now ranks with the fairs of ordinary proviocul
towns. Situated at the junction of the Rhone and the Caul du
Midi, and less than 40 m. from the sea, it at one time attracted
merchants from Spain, from Switzerland and Germany, and
from the Levant and Mediterranean ports, and formed one of the
greatest temporary centres of commerce on the continent One
trade firm alone, it is said, rarely did less than 1,000,000 francs
worth of business during the fortnight that the fair lasted.
German Fairs. — In Germany the police authorities are con-
sidered the market authorities, and to them in most cases is
assigned the duty of establishing new fairs and markets, subject
to magisterial decision. The three great fairs of Germany are
those of Frankfort -on-Main, Frankfort-on-Oder and Leipzig,
but, like all the large fairs of Europe, they have declined rapidly
in importance. Those of Frankfort-on-Main begin on Easter
Tuesday and on the nearest Monday to September 8 respectively,
and their legal duration is three weeks, though the limit is regu-
larly extended. The fairs of the second-named city are Rcnini-
scere, February or March; St Margaret, July; St Martin,
November. Ordinarily they last fifteen days, which is double the
legal term. The greatest of the German fairs are those of Leipzig,
whose display of books is famous all over the world. Its three
fairs are dated January x , Easter, Michaelmas. The Easter one
is the book fair, which is attended by ail the principal booksellers
of Germany, and by many more from the adjoining countries.
Most German publishers have agents at Leipzig.- As many as
5000 new publications have been entered in a single Leipzig
catalogue. As in the other instances given, the Leipzig fairs last
for t hrce weeks, or nearly thrice their allotted duration. Here no
days of grace are allowed, and the holder of a bill must demand
payment when due, and protest, if necessary, on the same day.
otherwise be cannot proceed against either drawer or endorser.
Russian Fairs. — In Russia fairs are held by fecal authorities.
Landed proprietors may also hold fairs oq their estates subject
to the sanction of the local authorities; but no private tola
may be levied on commodities brought to such fairs. In Siberia
and the east of Russia, where more primitive conditions foster
such centres of trade, fairs are still of considerable importance.
Throughout Russia generally they axe very numerous. Ite
most important, that of Nijni Novgorod* held annually m July
and August at the confluence of the riven Volga and Kama,
was instituted in the 17th century by the tsar Mkhael Fedoro-
vitch. In 1881 it was calculated that trade to the value of
246,000,000 roubles was carried on within the limits of the fair.
It still continues to be of great commercial importance, and is
usually attended by upwards of 100,000 persons from all parts
of Asia and eastern Europe. Other fairs of consequence are
those of libit in Perm, Kharkoff (January and August), Poltava
.(August and February), Koreunais in Koursk, Ourioupinsknia
in the Don Cossack country, KroleveU in TcherniguS, and a
third fair held at Poltava on the ieast of the Ascension.
Indian Fairs.— The largest of these, and perhaps the largest
in Asia, is that of Hurdwar, on the upper course of the Ganges.
The visitors to this holy fair number from 100,000 to 300,000;
but every twelfth year there occurs a special pilgrimage to the
sacred river, when the numbers may amount to a million 01
upwards. Those who go solely for the purposes of trade are
Nepalese, Mongolians, Tibetans, central Asiatics and Mabora-
medan pedlars from the Punjab, Sind and the border states.
Persian shawls and carpets, Indian silks, Kashmir shawls, cottons
(Indian and English), preserved fruits, spices, drugs, tec., together
with immense numbers of cattle, horses, sheep and camels, are
brought to this famous fair.
American Fairs .—The word " fair," as now used in the United
States, appears to have completely lost its Old World meaning-
It seems to be exclusively applied to industrial exhibitions and
to what in England are called fancy bazaars. Thus, during the
Civil War, large sums were collected at the " sanitary rairs, p
PAtRBAlRN, A. M.^FAJRBAIRNT, W.
/ i
*3§
for the benefit of the sick and wounded. To the first-named class
belong the state and county fairs, aa they are called. Among the
first and best-known of these was the " New York World's Fair,"
opened in 1853 by a company formed in 1851. (Sec Exhibition.)
Lao of Fairs. — At no market or fair can be held in England
without a royal charter, or right of prescription, so any person
establishing a fair without such sanction is liable to be sued under
• writ of Quo warranto, by any one to whose property the said
market may be injurious. Nor can a (sir or market dc legally held
beyond the time specified in the grant; and by 5 Edward 111. c* 3
1 mi) a merchant selling goods after the legal expiry of the fair
forfeited doable their value. To be valid, a sale must take place in
" market -overt " (open market) ; " it will not be binding if it carries
*ith U a presumption of fraudujeace." These regulations satisfied,
the sale transfers a complete property in the thing sold to the
tfmke; so that however injurious or illegal the title of the vendor
fluy be, yet the vendee's a good against all men except the king."
(la Scottish taw. the claims of the real owner would still remain
valid.) However, by 21 Henry VIII. c, a (15*)) it was enacted that,
" i any felon rob or take away money, goods, or chattels, and be
iadkted and found guilty, or otherwise attainted upon evidence
given by the osmer or party robbed, or by any other by their pro-
csrement. the owner or party robbed shall be restored to his money,.
pods or chattels," but only those goods were restored which were
specified in the indictment, now could the owner recover from a
henajfdo purchaser in market •overt who had sold the goods before
amvtction. For obvious reasons the rules of market-overt were
sade particularly stringent in the case of horses. Thus, by a
Philip & Mary c. 7 (1555) and 31 Elia, c. 12 (1589) no sale of a
hone was legal which had not satisfied the following conditions:—
Pontic exposure of the animal for at least an hour between sunrise
iad sunset : identification of the vendor by the market officer, or
foarantee for his honesty by " one sufficient and credible person ";
oury of these particulars, together with a description of the animal,
tad a statement of the price paid for it, in the market officer's book.
Even if his rights should have been violated in spite^of all these
precautions, the lawful owner could recover, if he claimed within
«z months, produced witnesses, and tendered the price paid to the
fesdor. Tolls were not a " necessary incident " of a fair— 1 s* diey.
■ere illegal unless specially granted in the patent, or recognized by
ru.itom. As a rule, they were paid only by the vendee, and to the
sarket clerk, whose record of the payment was an attestation to
1st genuineness of the purchase. By 2 & 3 Philip ft Mary c ?
ctery lord of a fair entitled to exact tolls was bound to appoint a
cleric to collect and enter them. It was also this functionary's
besiaess to test measures and weights. Tolls, again, are sometimes
seid to include " stallage " and ** picage," which mean respectively
tse price for permission to erect stalls and to dig holes for posts in
u*e market grounds. But toll proper belongs to the lord, of the
surket, whereas the other two are usually regarded as the property
4 the lord of the soil. The taw also provided that stallage might
fee levied on any house situated in the vicinity of a market, end kept
open for business during the legal term of the said market. Among
Modern statutes, one of the chief is the Markets and Fairs Clauses
Act 1S47. the chief purpose of whkh was to consolidate previous
ceasures. By the act no proprietors of a new market were per*
ssitted to let stallages, take tons, or in any way open their ground
lor business, until two justices of tbepeace emitted to the compfctioa.
of the (air or market. After the opening of the/place for public use,
m person other than a licensed hawker may sell anywhere within
the borough, his own bouse or shop excepted, any articles in respect
of which tolls are legally exigible in the market. A breach of this
srcn-tHon entails a penalty of forty shillings. Vendors of unwhok*
atone meat am liable to a penalty of £a for each offence; and the
' inspectors of provisions have full liberty to seize the goods and
institute proceedings against the owners. They may also enter " at
ail times of the day, with or without assistance/' the slaughter-house
which the undertaker of the market may, by the special act, have
been esnpowered to construct. For general sanitary natoa*
persons are prohibited from lolling animals anywhere except in
tbese slaughter-houses. Again, by the Fairs Act 1873, times of
folding fairs are determined by the secretary of state: while the
Fairs Act 1 871 empowers him to abolish any fair on the represent*
as»o of the magistrate and with the consent of the owner. The
preamble of the act states that many fairs held ia England and Wales
an both unnecessary arid productive of " grievous immorality.**
71s Fair Court*.— The piepowder courts, the lowest but most
expeditkms courts c/ justice in the kingdom, as Chitty calls them
nm very ancient. The Conqueror's law D* Emforiis shows their
pre-existence in Normandy. Their name was derived from pm
fvdrvux. s. t. dusty-foot. » The lord of the fair or his representa-
tive «as the presiding judge, and usually he was assisted by a jury
of traders chosen on the spot. Their jurisdiction was limited by
the legal time and precincts of the fair, and to disputes about
ronrricii, "slander of u-arns/* attestations, the preservation of
order, &c
A uikortiuts.— See Herbert Spencer** Dtstnptue Socioloty (1 :873s.
especially the columns and paragraphs on ™ Distribution '*: Fire*'
colt's History of Mexico, for descriptions of Is Irs under the Artec*;
Giles Jacob's Lav Dictionary (London, liog); Joseph Chitty 's
TrAJits* on the Law of Comment and Afa*v/<WKHJ, vol. j). chap, o
(London. 1&24) ; Holiashed's and Grafton's ChonuJfs, for 11*1*, Ac,
of English faira; Meyer's Dot grosxc Conttrsaiioni-Ltxicnn (185a),
under " Measen **; ariicle " Foire " in Lardussv*! Diflionnnir*
unwersetk dn XIX' tild* [Paris* 1660-1874}, and its reference*
to past authorities; ami especially, the second volume, commercial
acnes,, of the Enrydoptdrt mithodiqat (Paris, 1783): M'Cu I loch's
Pktionary of Comment f 11*69-1871}; Wharton's History of English
Fa*lry t pp. 185. 186 of edition, of (870 (London , Murray ft Son), lor
a dc-vription of Lhe Winchester Fau%&c*; a note by Professor I
Until v in p. 408, vol. vii. jVsfei and Queries, second series; the same
aurhw's unique ffisloryoftht Fair afSt Bartholomew (London, tSS9) 1
WhannnV Lam LatkoM (will's edition, London, (876^; P. Muvcfin's
/vjifji kistartqttr tur ft droit des march* * ei drs foire t [ Paris, 1 807 J;
Jit pert of the Royal Commission on Market Riihti and Tolls, vols, u
(1884J], *iv, (itigO: Find SUport (1891}; WalfonJa Fairs, Fast
and Present OflSj); The Lata rslati*i% to Market* and Fairs, by
Pease and Chilly (London. 1S99I. (J. Ma.; Ev. C.»)
FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN (iSjS- J, British Non-
conformist divine,, was bom near Edinburgh on the 4th of
November jSjS. He was educated at the universities of Edin-
burgh and Berlin, and at the Evangelical Union Theological
Academy in Glasgow. lie entered the Congregational ministry
and held pastorales at Both gate. West Lothian and at Aberdeen,
From 1H77 to tBSohc was principal of Airedale College, Bradford,
a post which he gave up to become the first principal of Mansfield
College, Oxford. In the transference to Oxford under that name
of Spring Hill College, Birmingham, he took a considerable part,
and he has exercised influence not only over generation* of his
own students, but also over a large » umber of undergraduates
in the university generally. He was gran led the degree of MA,
by a decree of Convocation, and ia iooj received the honorary
degree of doctor of literature. He was also given the degrees of
doctor of divinity of Edinburgh and VaJe, and doctor of laws
or Aberdeen. His activities were not limited to his coUege work.
He delivered the Muir lectures at Edinburgh University {1S7&-
t SS2), the Gifford lectures at Aberdeen (1 So*- 1804), the Lyman
ReeehcT lectures at Yale (ifigi-tBoi), and the Haskell lectures
in India (1S9S-1809}, He was a member of the Royal Commis-
sion of Secondary Education In 1 804-1 S95, and of the Royal
Co m mission on t he Endo wmen t s of t he Welsh Church in 1 006. In
1SS3 he was chairman of the Congregational Union of England
and Wales. He is a prolific writer on theological subjects. He
resigned his position at Mansfield College In the spring of 1000-
Amonc hi* works are :— Studie s in ike Philosophy of Edition and
T1H76)* Stttdiei m the Life of Christ (tW\J; Hriieion in
and *n Mode** Life (1884; n?v, i&M): Ckriit in Modern
Theoi^y (1*93)1 Chnst in the Centuries (iSojh Cathotirijnt Reman
History I
1 la Med. Lst poi**pntmosns meant an kinemnt 'mcrcfiant o
. jdlar. 1 11 Scott borough law " marchand travtUand " and " dtnty
ate " are identical.
«d1
late
and Angiuntt (1S99): Philosophy of the Christian Refiriott (190.1);
Stud if i in Religion and Theolagy tlOQO).
FAIHBAIRM, SIB WILUAH Bart. {1780-1874% Scottish
engineer, was born on the tela of February 17^0 at Kebo,
Roxburghshire, where his father was a farm- bailiff* In iEqj
he obtained work at three shillings a week as a mason r s labourer
on the bridge then being built by John Rcrmie at Kelso; but
within a few days he was incapacitated by an accident* Later
in the same year, hii father having been appointed steward on •
farm conn cc led with Percy Main Colliery near North Shields,
he obtained employment as a carter in connexion with the
colliery. In March 1804 he was bound an apprentice to a will?
wnght at Percy Main, arid then found time to supplement th*
deficiencies of hii early education by systematic private study.
It was at Percy Main that he made the acquaintance of George
Stephenson, who then had charge or an engine at a neighbouring
colliery* For some years subsequent to the expiry of his appren-
ticeship in 1811, he lived a somewhat roving life, seldom remain,
ing long in one place and often reduced to very bard straits bef or*
he got employment* But in tBt? he entered into partnership
with a shopmate, James LilHe, with whose aid he hired an old
shed in High Street Manchester, where he set up a lathe and
befjm business. The Brm qukkly secured a good reputation,
FAIRBANKS, E.^-FAIRFAX OF CAMERON
13®
tmd the improvements in mill-work and water-wheels introduced
by Fairbairn caused its fame to extend beyond Manchester to
Scotland and even the continent o! Europe. The partnership
was dissolved in 183 a.
In 1830 Fairbairn had been employed by the Forth and Clyde
Canal Company to make experiments with the view of determin-
ing whether it were possible to construct steamers capable of
traversing the canal at a speed which would compete successfully
with that of the railway; and the results of his investigation
were published by him in 1831, under the title Remarks on Canal
Navigation. His. plan of using iron boats proved inadequate
to overcome the difficulties of this problem, but in the develop-
ment of the use of this material both in the case of merchant
vessels and men-of-war he took a leading part. In this way
also he was led to pursue extensive experiments in regard to
the strength of iron. In 1835 he established, in connexion with
his Manchester business, a shipbuilding yard at Millwall, London,
where he constructed several hundred vessels, including many
for the royal navy; but he ultimately found that other engage-
ments prevented him from paying adequate attention to the
management, and at the end of fourteen years he disposed of the
concern at a great loss. In 1837 he was consulted by the sultan
of Turkey in regard to machinery for the government workshops
at Constantinople. In 1845 he was employed, in conjunction
with Robert Stephenson, in constructing the tubular railway
bridges across the Conway and Mcnai Straits. The share he had
in the undertaking has been the subject of some dispute; his
own version is contained in a volume he published in 1849, An
Account of the Construction of Ike Britannia and Conway Tubular
Bridges. In 1 849 he was invited by the king of Prussia to submit
designs for the construction of a bridge across the Rhine, but
after various negotiations, another design, by a Prussian engineer,
which was a modification of Fairbairn's, was adopted. Another
matter which engaged much of Fairbairn's attention was steam
boilers, in the construction of which he effected many improve-
ments. Amid all the cares of business he found time for varied
scientific investigation. In 1851 his fertility and readiness of
invention greatly aided an inquiry carried out at his Manchester
works by Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and J. P. Joule,
at the instigation of William Hopkins, to determine the melting
points of substances under great pressure; and from x 861 to
186 s he was employed to guide the experiments of the govern-
ment committee appointed to inquire into the " application of
iron to defensive purposes." He died at Moor Park, Surrey,
on the 18th of August 1874. Fairbairn was a member of many
learned societies, both British and foreign, and in 186 1 served
as president of the British Association. He declined a knighthood
In 1 86 1, but accepted a baronetcy in 1869.
His youngest brother, Sir PfcTEK Faisbaxrn (1700-1861),
founded a large machine manufacturing business in Leeds.
Starting on a small scale with flax-spinning machinery, he
subsequently extended his operations to the manufacture of
textile machinery in general, and finally to that of engineering
tools. He was knighted in 1858.
See The Life of Sir William Fairbairn, partly written by himself
and edited and completed by Dr William Pole (1877).
FAIRBANKS, KRASTUS (1792-1864), American manufacturer,
was born in Brimfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th of October
1792. He studied law but abandoned it for mercantile pur-
suits, finally settling in St Johnsbury, Vermont, where in 1824 he
formed a partnership with his brother Thaddeus for the manu-
facture of stoves and ploughs. Subsequently the scales invented
by Thaddeus were manufactured extensively. Erastus was a
member of the state legislature in 1836-1838, and governor of
Vermont in 1852-1853 and 1 860-1 861, during his second term
rendering valuable aid in the equipment and despatch of troops
in the early days of the Civil War. His sop Horace ( 1 820- 1 888)
became president of E. & T. Fairbanks & Co. in 1874, and
was governor of Vermont from 1876 to 1878.
His brother, Thaddeus Fairbanks (1796-1886), inventor,
was born at Brimfield, Massachusetts, on the 17th of January
1 706. He early manifested a genius for mechanics and designed
the models from which he and his brother manufactured nova
and ploughs at St Johnsbury. In 2826 he patented a cut-iron
plough which was extensively used. The growing of heap wm
an important industry in the vicinity of St Johnsbury, and is
183 1 Fairbanks invented a hemp-dressing machine. By the oW
contrivances then in use, the weighing of loads of hemp-straw
was tedious and difficult, and in 1831 Fairbanks invented bis
famous compound-lever platform scale, which marked a great
advance in the construction of machines for weighing bulky
and heavy objects. He subsequently obtained more than fifty
patents for improvements or innovations in scales and is
machinery used in their manufacture, the last being granted
on his ninetieth birthday. His firm, eventually koowa as
E. & T. Fairbanks & Co., went into the manufacture of sales
of all sizes, in which these inventions were utilized. He, viihtis
brothers, Erastus and Joseph P., founded the St Johnsbury
Academy. He died at St Johnsbury on the x 2th of April 1886.
The latte^s son Henry, born in 1830 at St Johnsbury,
Vermont, graduated at Dartmouth College in 2853 and at
Andover Theological Seminary in 1857, and was professor of
natural philosophy at Dartmouth from 1859 to 1865 and oi
natural history from 1865 to 1868. In the following year be
patented a grain-scale and thenceforth devoted himself to the
scale manufacturing business of his family. Altogether he
obtained more than thirty patents for mechanical devices.
FAIRFAX. EDWARD (c. 1580-1635), English poet, translator
of Tasso, was born at Leeds, the second son of Sir Thomas
Fairfax of Denton (father of the xst Baron Fairfax of Cameron).
His legitimacy has been called in question, and the date of bis
birth has not been ascertained. He is said to have been only
about twenty years of age when he published his translation ol
the Cerusalemme Liberata, which would place his birth about tbf
year 1580. He preferred a life of study and retirement to the
military service in which his brothers were distinguished. Ht
married a sister of Walter Laycock, chief alnager of the nortben
counties, and lived on a small estate at Fewston, Yorkshire
There his time was spent in his literary pursuits, and in th<
education of his children and those of bis elder brother, Si
Thomas Fairfax, afterwards baron of Cameron. His translatioi
appeared in 1600,— Godfrey of Bulloigne, or the Rtce*rk c
Jerusalem, done into English heroicaU Verse by Edw. Fairtfai
Cent., and was dedicated to the queen. It was enthusiastically
received. In the same year in which it was published extract
from it were printed in England's Parnassus. Edward Phillip!
the nephew of Milton, in his Tkeatrum Poetarum, warm!
eulogized the translation. Edmund Waller said be was indebte
to it for the harmony of his numbers. It is said that it was Kin
James's favourite English poem, and that Charles I. entertainc
himself in prison with its pages. Fairfax employed the san
number of lines and stanzas as his original, but within the limi
of each stanza he allowed himself the greatest liberty. Othi
translators may give a more literal version, but Fairfax slot
seizes upon the poetical and chivalrous character of the peer
He presented, says Mr Courthope, "an idea of the chivalroi
past of Europe, as seen through the medium of Catholic ortbodoi
and classical humanism." The sweetness and melody of mai
passages are scarcely excelled even by Spenser. Fairfax nuv
no other appeal to the public. He wrote, however, a series
eclogues, twelve in number, the fourth of which was publish*
by permission of the family, in Mrs Cooper's Muses' Libre
(1737). Another of the eclogues and a Discourse on Witcktre
as it was acted in the Family of Mr Edward Fairfax of Fuystc
in the county of York in 1621, edited from the original copy
Lord Houghton, appeared in the MisceUamus of the Pfailobibl
Society (1858-1859). Fairfax was a firm believer in witchcra
He fancied that two of his children had been bewitched, a
he had the poor wretches whom' he accused brought to tri
but without obtaining a conviction. Fairfax died at Fewst
and was buried there on the 97th of January 1635.
FAIRFAX OF CAMERON, FBRDIHANDO FAIRFAX. 2
Bason (1584-1648), English parliamentary general, was a i
of Thomas Fairfax of Denton (1560-1640), who in 1627 1
FAIRFAX OF CAMERON
*3*
mated Baton Fairfax of Cameron in the peerage of Scotland.
Bon oo tbt sou of March 1 584, be obtained his military educa-
tion in the Netherlands, and was member of parliament for
Bcrwjbbcidfe daring the lit parliaments which met between
1614 and 1629 and also during the Short Parliament of 1640.
In May 1640 he succeeded his father as Baron Fairfax, but being
1 Scottish peer he sat in the Enghah House of Commons as one
of tbt representatives of Yorkshire during the Long Parliament
(100 1640 until his death; he took the side of the parliament,
bat held moderate views and desired to maintain the peace.
la the first Scottish war Fairfax had commanded a regiment in
(being's army; than on the outbreak of the Civil War In 164a
■t vu made commander of the parliamentary forces in York-
shire, with Newcastle aa his opponent. Hostilities began after
tie repudiation of a treaty of neutrality entered into by Fairfax
tits the Royalists At first he met with no success. He was
driven from York, where he was besieging the Royalists, to
Sdby; then in 1643 to Leeds; and after beating off an attack
it that place he was totally defeated on the 30th of June at
Mvaltoo Moor. He escaped to Hull, which he successfully
cdeaded against Newcastle from the and of September till the
nib of October, and by means of a brilliant sally caused the
K«e to be raised. Fairfax was victorious at Selby on the 1 1 th
tf April 1644, and joining the Scots besieged York, after which
k vas present at Marston Moor, where he commanded the
'chatxy and was routed. He was subsequently, in July, made
pvernor of York and charged with the further reduction of the
routy. In December he took the town of Pontefract, but failed
to secure the castle. He resigned his command on the passing of
& Self-denying Ordinance, but remained a member of the
ffisunittee for the government of Yorkshire, and was appointed,
a the 24th of July 1645, steward of the manor of Pontefract.
He died from an accident on the 14th of March 1648 and was
taricd at Bolton Percy. He was twice married, and by his first
■fc, Mary, daughter of Edmund Sheffield, 3rd Lord Sheffield
tfiervards xst earl of Mulgrave), he had six daughters and
bosons, Thomas, who succeeded him as 3rd baron, and Charles,
1 cokmd of horse, who was killed at Marston Moor. During his
aamand in Yorkshire, Fairfax engaged in a paper war with
Newcastle, and wrote The Answer of Perdinando, Lord Pair fax,
ft a Derivation of William, earl of Newcastle (1643; printed
aRushworth, pi. iii. vol. ii. p. 130) ; he also published A Letter
>»■... Lord Fairfax to . . . Robert, Earl of Essex (1643),
fceribtog the victorious sally at Hull.
FAIRFAX OF CAMBBON, THOMAS FAIRFAX. J*D Baion
1*613-1671), p a rl i ame ntary general and commander-in-chief
«rinr the English Civil War, the eldest son of the and lord,
Jb born at Denton, near Otley, Yorkshire, on the 17th of
teiary 2612. He studied at St John's College, Cambridge
litti-ibjg), and then proceeded to Holland to serve ss a
!^Qteer with the English army in the Low Countries under
& Horace (Lord) Vere. This connexion led to one still closer;
13 (be summer of 1637 Fairfax married Anne Vere, the daughter
■" $* gtneraL
The Fairfaxes, father and son, though serving at first under
^rks I. (Thomas commanded a* troop of horse, and was
^ted by the king in 1640), were opposed to the arbitrary
r^ogative of the crown, and Sir Thomas declared that
"sis judgment was for the parliament aa the king and king-
,J os great and safest council." When Charles endeavoured
■" nise a guard for his own person at York, intending
*. as the event afterwards proved, to form the nucleus of
» *nny, Fairfax was employed to present a petition to bis
**reign, entreating him to hearken to the voice of his parlia-
=«t, and 10 discontinue the raising of troops. This was at a
Pat meeting of the freeholders and fanners of Yorkshire
Evened by the king on Heworth Moor near York. Charles
J^ receiving the petition, pressing his horse forward, but
fcbx followed him and placed the petition on the pommel of
** aing's saddle. The incident is typical of the times and of
*** actors in the scene. War broke out. Lord Fairfax was
^tinted general of the Parliamentary forces in the north.
and Ins son, Sir Thomas, was made lieutenant-general of the
horse under him. Both father and son distinguished themselves
in the campaigns in Yorkshire (see Gxeat Rebellion). Some-
times severely defeated, more often successful, and always
energetic, prudent and resourceful, they contrived to keep up
the struggle unt0 the crisis of 1644, when York was held by the
marquess of Newcastle against the combined forces of the English
Parliamentarians and the Scots, and Prince Rupert hastened
with all available forces to its relief. A gathering of eager
national forces within a few square miles of ground naturally
led to a battle, and Marston Moor (q.v.) was decisive of the
struggle In the north. The younger Fairfax bore himself with
the greatest gallantry in the battle, and though severely wounded
managed to join Cromwell and the victorious cavalry on the other
wing. One of his brothers, Colonel Charles Fairfax, was killed
In the action. But the marquess of Newcastle fled the kingdom,
and the Royalists abandoned all hope of retrieving their affairs.
The city of York was taken, and nearly the whole north submitted
to the parliament.
In the south and west of England, however, the Royalist
cause was still active. The war had lasted two years, and the
nation began to complain of the contributions that were exacted,
and the excesses that were committed by the military. Dis-
satisfaction was expressed with the military commanders, and,
as a preliminary step to reform, the Self-denying Ordinance
was passed. This involved the removal of the earl of Essex
from the supreme command, and the reconstruction of the armed
forces of the parliament. Sir Thomas Fairfax was selected as
the new lord general with Cromwell as his lieutenant-general
and cavalry commander, and after a short preliminary campaign
the M New Model " justified its existence, and " the rebels' new
brutish general," as the king called him, his capacity as com*
mander-in-chief in the decisive victory of Naseby (q.v). The
king fled to Wales. Fairfax besieged Leicester, and was suc-
cessful at Taunton, Bridgwater and Bristol. The whole west
was soon reduced.
Fairfax arrived in London on the 12th of November 1645.
In his 'progress towards the capital be was accompanied by
applauding crowds. Complimentary speeches and thanks were
presented to him by both houses of parliament, along with a
jewel of great value set with diamonds, and a sum of money.
The king had returned from Wales and established himself at
Oxford, where there was a strong garrison, but, ever vacillating,
he withdrew secretly, and proceeded to Newark to throw himself
into the arms of the Scots. Oxford capitulated; and by the
end of September 1646 Charles had neither army nor garrison
in England. In January 1647 he was delivered up by the Scots
to the commissioners of parliament. Fairfax met the king
beyond Nottingham, and accompanied him during the journey
to Holmby, treating him with the utmost consideration in every
way. " The general," said Charles, " is a man of honour, and
keeps his word which he had pledged to me." With the collapse
of the Royalist cause came a confused period of negotiations
between the parliament and the king, between the king and the
Scots, and between the Presbyterians and the Independents in
and out of parliament. In these negotiations the New Model
Army soon began to take a most active part. The lord general
'. was placed in the unpleasant position of intermediary between
hb own officers and parliament. To the grievances, usual in
armies of that time, concerning arrears of pay and indemnity
for acts committed on duty, there was quickly added the political
propaganda of the Independents, and in Jury the person of the
king was seized by Joyce, a subaltern Of cavalry— an act which
sufficiently demonstrated the hopelessness of controlling the
army by its articles of war. It had, in fact, become the most
formidable political party in the realm, and pressed straight 00
to the overthrow of parliament and the punishment of Charles,
Fairfax was more at home in the field than at the head of a
political committee, and, finding events too strong for him, he
sought to resign his commission as commander-in-chief. He was.
however, persuaded to retain it. He thus remained the titular
chief of the army party, and with the greater part of its objects'
13?
FAIRMELD
b« was in complete, sometimes most active, sympathy. Shortly
before the outbreak of the second Civil War, Fairfax succeeded
his father in the barony and in the office of governor of Hull.
In the field against the English Royalists in 1648 he displayed
his former energy and skill, and his operations culminated in the
successful siege of Colchester, after the surrender of which place
be approved the execution of the Royalist leaders Sir Charles
Lucas and Sir George Lisle, holding that these officers had broken
their parole. At the same lime Cromwell's great victory of
Preston crushed the Scots, and the Independents became
practically all-powerful.
Milton, in a sonnet written during the siege of Colchester,
called upon the lord general to settle the kingdom, but the crisis
was now at hand. Fairfax was in agreement with Cromwell
and the army leaders in demanding the punishment of Charles,
and he was still the effective head of the army. He approved,
if he did not take an active part in. Pride's Purge (December
6th, 1648), but on the last and gravest of the questions at issue
he set himself in deliberate and open opposition to the policy
of the officers. He was placed at the head of the judges who
were to try the king, and attended the preliminary sitting of the
court. Then, convinced at last that the king's death was in-
tended, be refused to act. In calling over the court, when the
crier pronounced the name of Fairfax, a lady in the gallery called
out " that the Lord Fairfax was not there in person, that he
would never sit among them, and that they did him wrong to
name him as a commissioner." This was Lady Fairfax, who
could not forbear, as Whitclocke says, to exclaim aloud against
the proceedings of the High Court of Justice. His last service
a3 commander-in-chief was the suppression of the Leveller
mutiny at Burford In May 1640. He had given his adhesion to
the new order of things, and had been reappointed lord general.
But he merely administered the affairs of the army, and when in
1650 the Scots bad declared for Charles II., and the council of
state resolved to send an army to Scotland in order to prevent
an invasion of England, Fairfax resigned his commission.
Cromwell was appointed his successor, " captain-general and
commander-in-chief of all the forces raised or to be raised by
authority of parliament within the commonwealth of England."
Fairfax received a pension of £5000 a year, and lived in retirement
at his Yorkshire home of Nunapplcton till after the death of the
Protector. The troubles of the later Commonwealth recalled
Lord Fairfax to political activity, and for the last time his
appearance in arms helped to shape the future of the country,
when Monk invited him to assist in the operations about to
be undertaken against Lambert's army. In December 1659
be appeared at the head of a body of Yorkshire gentlemen,
and such was the influence of Fairfax's name and reputation
that 1200 horse quitted Lambert's colours and joined him.
This was speedily followed by the breaking up of all Lambert's
forces, and that day secured the restoration of the monarchy.
A " free " parliament was called; Fairfax was elected member
for Yorkshire, and was put at the head of the commission
appointed by the House of Commons to wait upon Charles II.
at the Hague and urge his speedy return. Of course the " merry
monarch, scandalous and poor," was glad to obey the summons,
and Fairfax provided the horse on which Charles rode at his
coronation. The remaining eleven years of the life of Lord
Fairfax were spent in retirement at his seat in Yorkshire. He
must, like Milton, have been sorely grieved and shocked by the
scenes that followed— the brutal indignities offered to the
remains of his companions in arms, Cromwell and Ireton, the
sacrifice of Sir Hairy Vane, the neglect or desecration of all
that was great, noble or graceful in England, and the flood of
immorality which, flowing from Whitehall, sapped the founda-
tions of the national strength and honour. Lord Fairfax died at
Nunappleton on the 12th of November 1671, and was buried at
Bilborough , near York. As a soldier he was exact and methodical
in planning, in the heat of battle "so highly transported that
scarce any one durst speak a word to him" (Whitelockc),
chivalrous and punctilious in his dealings with his own men
and the enemy. Honour and conscientiousness were equally the
characteristics of his private and public character. Bat be
modesty and distrust of his powers made him kts eflecuul is a
statesman than as a soldier, and above all he is placed at 1 dis-
advantage by being both in war and peace overshadow! by
his associate Cromwell.
Lord Fairfax had a taste for literature. He translated tow
of the Psalms, and wrote poems on solitude, the Christian war-
fare, the shortness of life, &c. During the last year or two 0/
his life he wrote two Memorials which have been published-w
on the northern actions in which he was engaged in 1641-16+4,
and the other on some events in his tenure of the chief command.
At York and at Oxford he endeavoured to save the libraries
from pillage, and he enriched the Bodleian with some valuable
MSS. His only daughter, Mary Fairfax, was married to George
Villicrs, the profligate duke of Buckingham of Charles U.'s mart.
His correspondence, edited by G. W. Johnson, was published is
1848-1849 in four volumes (see note thereon in Diet. Hot. Biop.,
s.v.), and a life of him by Clements R. Mark ham in 1870. See also
S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War (1893).
His descendant Thomas, 6th baron (r 60 2-178*), Inherited
from his mother, the heiress of Thomas, t nd Baron Culpepper,
large estates in Virginia, U.S.A., and having sold Denton Hall
and his Yorkshire estates he retired there about 1746, dying a
bachelor. He was a friend of George Washington. Thomas
found his cousin William Fairfax settled in Virginia, and made
him his agent, and Bryan (1737-1802), the son of William
Fairfax, eventually inherited the title, becoming 8th baron in
1703. His claim was admitted by the House of Lords in 1800.
But it was practically dropped by the American family, until,
shortly before the coronation of Edward VII., the successor in
title was discovered in Albert Kirby Fairfax, (b. 1870), a
descendant of the 8th baron, who was an American citizen.
In November 1008 Albert's claim to the title as x 2th baron was
allowed by the House of Lords.
FAIRF1EIA a township in Fairfield county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., near Long Island Sound, adjoining Bridgeport on the E.
and Westport on the W. Pop. (1800) 3868; (1000) 4489 (i°4t
being foreign-born) ; (iqio) 6134. It is served by the New York,
New Haven & Hartford railway. The principal villages of the
township are Fairfield, Southport, Greenfield Hill and Stratfidd
The beautiful scenery and fine sea air attract to the township a
considerable number of summer visitors. The township has tfct
well-equipped Pequot and Fairfield memorial libraries (tb<
former in the village of Southport, the latter in the village 01
Fairfield), the Fairfield fresh air home (which cares forbemci
one and two hundred poor children of New York during ead
summer season), and the Gould home for self -supporting women
The Fairfield Historical Society has a museum of antiquitie
and a collection of genealogical and historical works. Amon
Fairfield's manufactures are chemicals, wire and rubber good)
Truck-gardening is an important industry of the township. 1
the Pequot Swamp within the present Fairfield a force of Pequc
Indians was badly defeated in 1637 by some whites, among whot
was Roger Ludlow, who, attracted by the country, founded th
'Settlement in 1 639 and gave it its present name in 1645. Withi
its original limits were included what are now the townships <
Redding (separated, 1767), 'Weston (1787) and Easton (forme
from part of Weston in 1845), and parts of the present Westpo
and Bridgeport. During the colonial period Fairfield was
place of considerable importance, but subsequently it was great
outstripped by Bridgeport, to which, in 1870, a portion of
was annexed. On the 8th of July 1779 Fairfield was burned 1
the British and Hessians under Governor William Tryon. Amoi
the prominent men who have lived in Fairfield are Roger Sh<
man, the first President D wight of Yale (who described Fairfic
in his Travels and in his poem Greenfield Hill), Chancellor Jam
Kent, and Joseph Earle Sheffield.
See Frank S. Child, An Old New England T<mm, Sketches ef U
Scenery and Character (New York, 1895); and Mrs E. H. Scbem
History of Fairfield (9 vols.. New York, 1889-X905).
FAIRFIELD, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson couni
Iowa, U.S.A., about 51 m. W. by N. of Burlington. Pop. ( i8<
3391; (1900) 4680, of whom aoo were foreign-born and 54 w
FAIRHAVEN— PAIRUZABADI
133
_ a; (190$) $009; (19x0) 4970- Area, about 3*25 sg. m.
Faotfield a served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railways. The city is in a blue
pass country, in which much live stock is bred; and it 2s an
important market for draft horses. It is the seat of Parsons
College (Presbyterian! co-educational, 1875), endowed by Lewis
Baldwin Parsons, Sr. (i?o8-i855), a merchant of Buffalo, N.Y.
The college offers classical, philosophical and scientific courses,
aod has a school of music and -an academic department; in
1907-1908 it had 10 instructors and 357 students, of whom 93
sere in the college and 97 were in the school of music, ^airfield
bsa Carnegie library (ifya), and a museum with a collection of
lues. Immediately E. of the city is an attractive Chautauqua
Park, of 30 acres, with an auditorium capable of seating about
ton persons; and there is an annual Chautauqua assembly.
Tat principal manufactures of Fairfield are farm waggons,
farming implements, drain-tile, malleable iron, cotton gloves and
siuens and cotton garments. The municipality owns its water-
works and as electric-lighting plant. Fairfield was settled in
i was incorporated as a town in 1847; and was first
(bartered as a city m the same year.
„$c* Charles H. Fletcher, Jeferson
Bisiery (Fairfield, 1876).
See Charles H. Fletcher, Jeter ion County, Iowa: Centennial
FAIRHAVEN, a township in Bristol county, Massachusetts,
r.SA, on New Bedford Harbor, opposite New Bedford. Pop.
JtSoo) 3019; (rooo) 3567 (599 being foreign-born); (1905, state
ttasa| ) 4335; (1910) 5x22. Area, about 13 sq. m. Fairhaven is
fcrnsd by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by
dectrk railway to Mattapoisett and Marion, and is connected
«i'i New Bedford by two bridges, by electric railway, and by
•ic -New York, New Haven 8c Hartford ferry line. The principal
r3bge jj Fair haven; others are Oxford, Naskatuckct and
Wioit Neck. As a summer resort Fairhaven is widely known.
Aooag the principal buildings are the following, presented to
& township by Henry H. Rogers (1840-X909), a native of
Faiihaven and a large stockholder and long vice-president of the
Standard Oil Co., the town hall, a memorial of Mrs Rogers, the
filers public schools; the Millicent public library (i7i50o v°b.
a ■-/£), a memorial to his daughter; and a fine granite memorial
&rch (Unitarian) with parish house, a memorial to his mother;
iti tnere is also a public park, of 13 acres, the gift of Mr Rogers.
fraa 1830 to 1857 the inhabitants of Fairhavcn were chiefly
t^ged in whaling, and the fishing interests are still important.
fcrjog manufactures are tacks, nails, iron goods, loom-cranks,
fcs. yachts and boats, and shoes.
Fairhaven, originally a part of New Bedford, was incorporated
fc * separate township in 18 1 2. On the 5th of September 1778
* &rt and armed force under Earl Grey, sent to punish New
Btdford and what is now Fairhaven for their activity in privateer-
q. burned the shipping and destroyed much of New Bedford.
Ife troops then marched to the head of the Acushnet river, and
u** the east bank to Sconticut Neck, where they camped till
>l£ ;tb of September, when they rc-embarked, having meanwhile
-xii'ied a small fort, built during the early days of the war,
- the east side of the river at the entrance to the harbour.
( -~ 'J* evening' of the 8th of September a landing force from the
«< which had begun to set fire to Fairhaven, was driven off
; a body of about 1 50 minute-men commanded by Major Israel
1 virg; and on the following day the fleet departed. The fort
*a at once rebuilt and was named Fort Fearing, but as early
- -lit it had Decome known as Fort Phoenix; it was one of the
rr ^4ftt defences on the New England coast during the war of
i-h. The township of Acushnet was formed from the northern
t-i ot Fairhaven in x86o.
.« James L. GiUingham and others, A Brief History of the Town
?'*3crfc6at*, Massachusetts (Fairhaven, 1903%
FAOHOLT, FREDERICK WILLIAM (18x4-1860), English
**qoary and wood engraver, was bom in London in 18x4.
& taker, who was of a German family (the name was originally
torhob), was a tobacco manufacturer, and for some years
tanoh himself was employed in the business. For a time he
■a a drawing-master, afterwards a scene-painter, and in 1835
» became assistant to S. Sly, the wood engraver. Some pen
and ink copies made by bim of figures from Hogarth's plates led
to his being employed by Charles Knight on several of his
illustrated publications. His first published literary work was
a contribution to Hone's Year- Book in 1831. His life was one
of almost uninterrupted quiet labour, carried on until within a
few days of death. Several works on civic pageantry and some
collections of ancient unpublished songs and dialogues were
edited by him for the Percy Society in 1842. In 1844 he was
elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. He published an
edition of the dramatic works of Lyly in 1856. His principal
independent works are Tobacco, its History and Association
(1859); Gog and Magog (i860); Up the Nile and Home Again
(1862); many articles and serials contributed to the Art Journal,
some of which were afterwards separately published, as Costume
in England (1846); Dictionary of Terms in Art (1854). These
works are illustrated by numerous cuts, drawn on the wood by
his own hand. His pencil was also employed in illustrating
Evans's Coins of the Ancient Britons, Madden 'a Jewish Coinage,
HalliwclTs folio Shakespeare and his Sir John Maundeville,
Roach Smith's Rkhborough, the Miscellanea Gfaphica of Lord
Londesborough, and many other works. He died on the 3rd of
April i860. His books relating to Shakespeare were bequeathed
to the library at Strat ford-on- A von; those on civic pageantry
(between 200 and 300 volumes) to the Society of Antiquaries;
his old prints and works on costume to the British Museum;
his general library he desired to be sold and the proceeds devoted
to the Literary Fund.
FAIRMONT, a city and the county-seat of Marion county,
West Virginia, U.S.A., on both sides of the Monongahcla river,
about 75 m. S.E. of Wheeling. Pop. (1890) 1023; (1900) 5655,
of whom 2S3 were negroes and 182 foreign-born; (1910) 9711.,
It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio railway. Among its manu-
factures are glass, machinery, flour and furniture, and it is an
important shipping point for coal mined in the vicinity. The
city is the seat of one of the West Virginia state normal schools.
Fairmont was laid out as Middlctown in 18x9, became the county-
seat of the newly established Marion county in 1842, received its
present name about 1844, and was chartered as a city in 1899.
FAIR OAKS, a station on a branch of the Southern railway,
6 m. E. of Richmond, Virginia, U.S.A. It is noted as the site
of one of the battles of the Civil War, fought on the 31st of May
and the xst of June x86a, between the Union (Army of the
Potomac) under General G. B. McClellan and the Confederate
forces (Army of Northern Virginia) commanded by General J. E.
Johnston. The attack of the Confederates was made at a moment
when the river Chicluhominy divided the Federal army into
two unequal parts, and was, moreover, swollen to such a degree
as to endanger the bridges.- General Johnston stationed part
of his troops along the river to prevent the Federals sending
aid to the smaller force south of it, upon which the Con-
federate attack, commanded by General Longstreet, was directed.
Many accidents, due to the inexperience of the staff officers
and to the difficulty of the ground, hindered the development of
Longstrcet's attack, but the Federals were gradually driven
back with a loss of ten guns, though at the last moment reinforce-
ments managed to cross the river and re-establish the line of
defence At the close of the day Johnston was severely wounded,
and General G. W. Smith succeeded to the command. The
battle was renewed on the xst of June but not fought out. At
the close of the action General R. E. Lee took over the command
of the Confederates,, which he held till the final surrender in
April X865. So far as the victory lay with either side, it was
with the Union army, for the Confederates failed to achieve
their purpose of destroying the almost isolated left wing of
McClellan's army, and after the battle tbey withdrew into the
hnes of Richmond. The Union losses were 5031 in killed,
wounded and missing; those of the Confederates were 6134.
The battle is sometimes known as the battle of Seven Pines.
FAIROzAbADI [Abu-t-T&hir ibn Ibrahim Majd ud-Dln ul-
Fairus&bftdl] (1320-1414), Arabian lexicographer, was born at
garggyn near Shiras. His student days were spent in Shiraz,
Wasit* Bagdad and Damascus. He taught for ten years io
*34
FAIRY
Jerusalem, and afterwards travelled in western Asia and Egypt.
In 1368 he settled in Mecca, where he remained for fifteen years.
He next visited India and spent some time in Delhi then remained
in Mecca another ten years. The following three years were
spent in Bagdad, in Shirax (where he was received by Timur),
and in Ta'iz. In 1395 he was appointed chief cadi (qadi) of
Yemen, married a daughter of the sultan, and died at Zabld
in 14 14. During this last period of his life he converted bis
house at Mecca into a school of Milikite law and established
three teachers in it. He wrote a huge lexicographical work
of 60 or 100 volumes uniting the dictionaries of Iba Slda, a
Spanish philologist (d. 1066), and of SajanI (d. 1252). A digest
of or an extract from this last work is his famous diction-
ary at-Qdmits (" the Ocean "), which has been published in
Egypt, Constantinople and India, has been translated into
Turkish and Persian, and has itself been the basis of several later
dictionaries. (G. W. T.)
FAIRY (Fr. fit, faerie^ Prov. fada; Sp. koda; ItaL fata;
med. Lat. folate, to enchant, from Lat. fatum, fate, destiny),
the common term for a supposed race of supernatural beings*
who magically intermeddle in human affairs. Of all the minor
creatures of mythology the fairies are the most beautiful, the
most numerous, the most memorable in literature. Like all
organic growths) whether of nature or of the fancy, they are not
the immediate product of one country or of one time; they
have a pedigree, and the question of their ancestry and affiliation
is one of wide bearing. But mixture and connexion of races
have in this as in many other cases so changed the original
folk-product that it is difficult to disengage and separate the
different strains that have gone to the making or moulding of
the result as we have it.
It is not in literature, however ancient, that we must look for
the early forms of the fairy belief. Many of Homer's heroes
have fairy lemans, called nymphs, fairies taken up into a higher
region of poetry and religion; and the fairy leman is notable
in the story of Athamas and his cloud bride Nephele, but this
character is as familiar to the unpoetical Eskimo, and to the Red
Indians, with their bird-bride and beaver-bride (see A. Lang's
Custom and Myth, " The Story of Cupid and Psyche "). The
Candharvas of Sanskrit poetry are also fairies.
' One of the most interesting facts about fairies is the wide
distribution and long persistence of the belief in them. They
are the chief factor in surviving Irish superstition. Here they
dwell in the " raths," old earth-forts, or earthen bases of later
palisaded dwellings of the Norman period, and in the subter-
ranean houses, common also in Scotland. They are an organised
people, often called " the army," and their life corresponds to
human life in all particulars. They carry off children, leaving
changeling substitutes, transport men and women into fairyland,
and are generally the causes of all mysterious phenomena. Whirls
of dust are caused by the fairy marching army, as by the being
'called Kutchi in the Dieri tribe of Australia. In 1907, in northern
Ireland, a farmer's house was troubled with flying stones (see
Poltergeist). The neighbours said that the fairies caused the
phenomenon, as the man had swept his chimney with a bough
of holly, and the holly is " a gentle tree/' dear to the fairies.
The fairy changeling belief also exists in some districts of Argyll,
and a fairy boy 'dwelt long in a small farm-house in Glencoe,
now unoccupied.
. In Ireland and the west Highlands neolithic arrow-heads
and flint chips are still fairy weapons. They are dipped in water,
which is given to ailing cattle and human beings as a sovereign
remedy for diseases. The writer knows of " a little lassie in
green "who is a fairy and, according to the percipients, haunts
the banks of the Mukomar pool on the Locby. In Glencoe is a
fairy hill where the fairy music, vocal and instrumental, is heard
in still weather. In the Highlands, however, there is much more
interest in second sight than in fairies, while in Ireland the
reverse is the case. The best book on Celtic fairy lore is still
that of the minister of Aberfoyle, the Rev. Mr Kirk (ob. 1692).
His work on The Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns and
Fairies, left in MS. and incomplete (the remainder is in the Laing
MSS., Edinburgh University library), was published (a a
copies) in 1815 by Sir Walter Scott, and in the BibliotWque de
Carabas (Lang) there is a French translation. Mr "Kirk is aid
(though his tomb exists) to have, been carried away by fairies.
He appeared to a friend and said that ha would come again,
when the friend must throw a dirk over his ■boulder sod be
would return to this world. The friend, however, lost his nerve
and did not throw the dirk. In the same way a woman re*
appeared to her husband in Glencoe m the last generation,
but he was wooing another lass and did not make any effort to
recover his wife. His character was therefore lost in the glen.
It is clear that in many respects fairyland corresponds to the
pre-Christian abode of the dead. Like Persephone when carried
to Hades, or Wainaraomen in the Hades of the Finns (Manala),
a living human being must not eat in fairyland; if he does,
he dwells there for ever. Tambme in the ballad, however, was
" fat and fair of flesh," yet was rescued by Janet: probably
he had not abstained from fairy food. He was to be given as
the kane to Hell, which shows a distinction between the btlieh
in hell and in the place of fairies.
It is a not uncommon theory that the fairies survive in legend
from prehistoric memories of a pigmy people dwelling in the
subterranean earth-houses, but the contents of these do not
indicate an age prior to the dose of the Roman occupation oi
Britain; nor are pigmy bones common in neolithic sepulchres.
The " people of peace " {Daoine Shie) of Ireland and Scotland
are usually of ordinary stature, indeed not to be recognized as
varying from mankind except by their proceedings (see J. Curtin,
Irish Folk-tales).
The belief in a species of lady fairies, deathly to their human
lovers, was found by R. L. Stevenson to be as common in Samoa
(see Island Nights* Entertainments) as in Strathnnlas or on the
banks of Loch Awe. In New Caledonia a native friend of J. J.
Atkinson (author of Primal Law) told him that he had met
and caressed the girl of his heart in the forest, that she had
vanished and must have been a fairy. He therefore would die
in three days, which (Mr Atkinson informs the writer) he punctu-
ally did. The Greek sirens of Homer are dearly a form of these
deadly fairies, as the Nereids and Oreads and Naiads are fairies
of wells, mountains and the sea. The fairy women who come
to the births of children and foretell their fortunes {Fata, Moerx,
ancient Egyptian Hathors, Pies, Dominae Patalcs), with iheit
spindles, are refractions of the human " apae-women " (in the
Scots term) who attend at birth and derive omens of the child's
future from various signs. The custom is common amon|
several savage races, and these women, represented in ih<
spiritual world by Fata, bequeath to us the French fU, in th<
sense of fairy. Perrault also uses fee for anything that hat
magical quality; " the key was fie" had mono, or waken
savage words for the supposed " power," or ether, which worfc
magic or is the vehicle of magical influences.
Though the fairy belief is universally human, the nearesi
analogy to the shape which it takes in Scotland and Ireland-
the " pixies " of south-western England— is to be found in J&i
or Jinnis of the Arabs, Moors and people of Palestine. In storie
which have passed through a literary medium, like The Arabia)
Nights, the geni or Jin do not so much resemble our fairies a
they do in the popular superstitions of the East,, orally collected
The/An are now a subterranean commonwealth, now they resid
in ruinous places, like the fairies in the Irish raths. Like th
fairies they go about in whirls of dust, or the dust-whirls then
sdves are Jan. They carry off men and women " to their ow
herd," in the phrase of Mr Kirk, and are kind to mortals who a]
kind to them. They chiefly differ from our fairies in the
greater tendency to wear animal forms; though, like ti
fairies, when they choose to appear in human shape they a)
not to be distinguished from men and women of mortal monl
Like the fairies everywhere they have amours with mortal
such as that of the Queen of Faery with Thomas of Errildoun
The herb rue is potent against them, as in British folk-lore, ai
a man long captive among the Jdn escaped from 'them t
observing their avoidance of rue, and by plucking two handfij
FAIRY RING— FAITH HEALING
>35
thereof. They , like t he British brownies (a kind of domesticated
tiiry), are Lhe causes of strange disappearances of things. To
preserve bouses from their influences, rue, that " herb of grace.**
is kept in the apartments, and the name of Allah is constantly
invoked If this is omitted, things are stolen by the Jan.
They often bear animal names, and it is dangerous to call a
at or dog without pointing at the animal, for a Jinni of the
same name may be present and may take advantage of the
invocation. A man, in fun, called to a goat to escort his wife
ob a walk: he did not point at the goat, and the wife disappeared
A Jinni bad carried her off, and her husband bad to seek her at
ike court of the Jan* Euphemistically they are addressed as
nkdrakin, " UeSsed*ones f " as we say " the good folk " or " the
people of peace.** As oar fairies give gold which changes into
altered leaves, the Jdn give onion peels which turn into gold.
Uke our fairies the Jan can apply an ointment, kohl, to human
ryes, after which the person so favoured can see Jin, or fairies,
sfcics are invisible to other mortals, and can see treasure wherever
it may be concealed (see Folk-lore oj the Hofy Land, by J. E.
Hiaaucr, 1007).
It is plain that fairies and J An are practically identical,
1 curious proof of the uniformity of the working of imagination
ia peoples widely separated in race and religion. Fairies
uftirally won their way into the poetry of the middle ages.
They take lovers from among men, and are often described as
ef delicate, unearthly, ravishing beauty. The enjoyment of
tkeir charms is, however, generally qualified by some restriction
or compact, the breaking of which is the cause of calamity to
& bvtr and all his race, as in the notable tale of Melusine.
Tta fay by enchantment built the castle of Lusignan for her
feaband. It was ber nature to take every week the form of a
fcpent from the waist below. The hebdomadal transformation
ka« once, contrary to compact, witnessed by her husband,
& left him with much wailing, and was said to return and
Ft? warning by her appearance and great shrieks whenever one
<* ihe race of Lusignan was about to die. At the birth of Ogier
« Danois six. fairies attend, five of whom give good gifts', which
lie sixth overrides with a restriction. Gervaise of Tilbury,
*Wog early in the 13th century, has in his Otia I m per id w. a
^pter, De hmiis d nocturnis larvis, where he gives it out, as
proved by individuals beyond all exception, that men have been
k.tn of beings of this kind whom they call Fodas, and who
^iacase of infidelity or infringement of secrecy inflict terrible
foment— the loss of goods and even of life. There seems
fok is the characteristics of these fairies of romance to dis*
,J $mb them from human beings, except their supernatural
Pledge and power. They are not often represented as
Native in stature, and seem to be subject to such human
ptsiota as love, jealousy, envy and revenge. To this class
^5 the fairies of Boiardo, Ariosto and Spenser.
There is no good modern book on the fairy belief in general.
*+*-*•* Patty Mythology is full of interesting matter; Rhys's
ytkakfy is especially copious about Welsh fairies, which
x-tkatty identical with those of Ireland and Scotland. The
*<nof Mr Jeremiah Curtin and Or Douglas Hyde are useful for
•^aai; for Scotland, Kirk's Secret Commonwealth has already been
gkd. Scott's dissertation on fairies in The Border Minstrelsy is
"* m lore, though necessarily Scott had not the wide field of
^puaehre study opened by more recent researches. There b a
^description of French fairies of the 15th century in the evidence
sJaaaed'Arcatber trial (1431 ) in Qukh*nt'»Procesde Joanne d'Arc,
*■ «■ PP. 67, 68, 187, 209, 2 1 2, voL u. pp. 390, 404, 450. (A. L.)
PAffiT RTJiG, the popular name for the circular patches of a
^* trees colour that are to be seen occasionally on permanent
RfcWi, either lawn or meadow* on which the fairies were
apposed to bold their midnight revels. They mark the area of
9**ta of some fungus, starting from a centre of one or more
fan The mycelium produced from the spores dropped by
kfoagus or from the " spawn " in the soil, radiates outwards,
tad each year's successive crop of fungi rises from the new
ft^h round the circle. The rich colour of the grass is due
te the fertilizing quality of the decaying fungi, which are
*°&rry rich rn nitrogenous substances. The most complete
icd symmetrical crass rings are formed by M arcanum ereodct,
the fairy ring champignon, but the mushroom and many other
species occasionally form rings, both on grasslands and in woods.
Observations were made on a ring in a pine-wood for a period of
nine years, and it was calculated that it increased from centre
to circumference about 84 in. each year. The fungus was never
found growing within the circle during the time the. ring was
under observation, the decaying vegetation necessary for us
growth having become exhausted.
PAJTHFULL, EMILY (1835-1895), English philanthropist,
was the youngest daughter of the Rev. Ferdinand Faithful!,
and was born at Headley Rectory, Surrey, in 1835. She took a
great interest in the conditions of working-women, and with the
object of extending their sphere of labour, which was then
painfully limited, in i860 she set up in London a printing estab-
lishment for women. The " Victoria Press," as it was called,
soon obtained quite a reputation for its excellent work, and Miss
Faithfull was shortly afterwards appointed printer and publisher
inordinary to Queen Victoria, In 1863 she began the publication
of a monthly organ, The Victoria Magazine, in which for eighteen
years she continuously and earnestly advocated the claims of
women to remunerative employment. In 1868 she published a
novel. Change upon Change. She also appeared, as a lecturer,
and with the object of furthering the interests of her sex, lectured
widely and successfully both in England and the United States,
which latter she visited in 1872 and 1882. In 1888 she was
awarded a civil list pension of £50. She died in Manchester on
the 31st of May 1805.
FAITH HBAUNG, a form of "mind cure," characterized by the
doctrine that while pain and disease really exist, they may be
neutralized and dispelled by faith in Divine power; the doctrine
known as Christian Science (q.v.) holds, however, that pain is
only an illusion and seeks to cure the patient by instilling into
him this belief. In the Christian Church the tradition of faith
healing dates from the earliest days of Christianity; upon the
miracles of the New Testament follow cases of healing, first by
the Apostles, then by their successors; but faith healing proper
is* gradually, from the 3rd century onwards, transformed into
trust in relics, though faith cures still occur sporadically in later
times. Catherine of Siena is said to have saved Father Matthew
from dying of the plague, but in this case it is rather the healer
than the healed who was strong in faith. With the Reformation
faith healing proper reappears among the Moravians and
Waldenses, who, like the Peculiar People of our own day, put
their trust in prayer and anointing with oil. In the 16th century
we find faith cures recorded of Luther and other reformers,
in the next century of the Baptists, Quakers and other Puritan
sects, and in the 18th century the faith healing of the Methodists
in this country was paralleled by Pietism in Germany, which
drew into its ranks so distinguished a man of science as Stahl
(1660-1734). In the 19th century Prince Hohenlohe Waldcnburg-
Schlllingsfiirst, canon of Grosswardcin, was a famous healer on
the continent; the Mormons and Irvingites were prominent
among English-speaking peoples; in the last quarter of the
19th century faith healing became popular in London, and
Bcth&han homes were opened in 1881, and since then it has
found many adherents in England.
Under faith healing in a wider sense may be included (1) the
cures in the temples of Aesculapius and other deities in the
ancient world; (2) the practice of touching for the king's evil,
in vogue from the nth to the' x8th century; (3) the cures of
Valentine Greatrakes, the " Stroke* " (1629-1683); and (4)
the miracles of Lourdes, and other resorts of pilgrims, among
which may be mentioned St Winifred's Well in Flintshire,
Treves with its Holy Coat, the grave of the Jansenist F. de Paris
in the 18th century, the little town of Kevelaer from 1641 on-
wards, the tombs of St Louis, Francis of Assisi, Catherine of
Siena and others.
An animistic theory of disease was held by Pastor J. Ch.
Blumhardt, Dorothea Trudel, Boltzius and other European
faith healers. Used in this sense faith healing is Indistinguishable
from much of savage leech-craft, which seeks to cure disease
by expelling the evil spirit in some portion of the body. Although
136
FATTHORNE— FALAISE
it is usually present, faith in the medicine man is not essential
for the efficacy of the method. The same may be said of the
lineal descendant of savage medicine— the magical leech-craft
of European folk-lore; cures for toothache, warts, &c, act m
spite of the disbelief of the sufferer; bow far incredulity on the
part of the healer would result in failure is an open question.
From the psychological point of view all these different kinds
of faith healing, as indeed all kinds of mind cure, including
those of Christian Science and hypnotism, depend on suggestion
(g.v.). In faith healing proper not only are powerful direct
suggestions used, but die religious atmosphere and the auto-
suggestions of the patient cooperate, especially where the cures
take place during a period of religious revival or at other times
when large assemblies and strong emotions are found. The
suggestibility of large crowds is markedly greater than that of
individuals, and to this and the greater faith must be attributed
the greater success of the fashionable places of pilgrimage.
See A. T. Myers and F. W. H. Myers In Proc. Soe. Psychical Re-
starch, ix. 160-209, on the miracles of Lourdes, with bibliography;
A. Fetlding, Faith Healing and Christian Science; O. Stoll, Sug-
gestion una Hypnotism us in der Volhcrpsychohtie; article " Great-
lakes" in Diet. Nat. Biog. (N.W.T.)
FAITHORNE, WILLIAM (1626 or 1627-1691), English painter
and engraver, was born in London and was apprenticed to
Robert Peake, a painter and printseller, who received the honour
of knighthood from Charles I. On the outbreak of the Civil War
he accompanied his master into the king's service, and being
made prisoner at Basinghouse, he was confined for some time to
Aldersgate, where, however, he was permitted to follow his
profession of engraver, and among other portraits did a small
one of the first Villiers, duke of Buckingham. At the earnest
solicitation of his friends he very soon regained his liberty,
but only on condition of retiring to France. There he was so
fortunate as to receive instruction from Robert NanteuiL. He
was permitted to return to England about 1650, and took up a
shop near Temple Bar, where, besides his work as an engraver,
he carried on a large business as a printseller. In z68o he gave
up his shop and retired to a house in Blackfriars, occupying
himself chiefly in painting portraits from the life in crayons,
although still occasionally engaged in engraving. It is said that
his life was shortened by the misfortunes, dissipation, and early
death of his son William. Faithorne is especially famous as a
portrait engraver, and among those on whom he exercised his art
were a large number of eminent persons, including Sir Henry
Spclman, Oliver Cromwell, Henry Somerset, the marquis of
Worcester, John Milton, Queen Catherine, Prince Rupert,
Cardinal Richelieu, Sir Thomas Fairfax, Thomas Hobbes, Richard
Hooker, Robert second earl of Essex, and Charles I. All his works
are remarkable for their combination of freedom and strength
with softness and delicacy, and his crayon paintings unite to
these the additional quality of clear and brilliant colouring.
He is the author of a work on engraving (1622).
His son William (1656-1686), mezzotint engraver, at an early
age gave promise of attaining great excellence, but became idle
and dissipated, and involved his father in money difficulties.
Among persons of note Whose portraits be engraved are Charles
II., Mary princess of Orange, Queen Anne when princess of
Denmark, and Charles XII. of Sweden.
The best account of the Faithorncs b that contained in Walpole's
Anecdotes of Painting. A life of Faithorne the elder 2s preserved
in the British Museum among the papers of Mr Bayford, librarian
to Lord Oxford, and an intimate friend of Faithorne.
PAIZABADt a town of Afghanistan, capital of the province of
Badakahan, situated on the Kokcha river. In 1821 it was
destroyed by Murad Beg of Knnduz, and the inhabitants removed
to Kundux. But since Badakshan was annexed by Abdur
Rahman, the town has recovered its former importance, and is
now a considerable place of trade. It is the chief cantonment
for eastern Afghanistan and the Pamir region, and is protected
by a fort built in 1904.
FAJARDO, a district and town on the E. coast of Porto Rico,
belonging to the department of Humaeao. Pop. (1899) of the
district, 16,782; and of the town, 3414. The district is highly
fertile and is well watered, owing la great measure to its ahodant
rainfall. Sugar production is its principal industry, but tome
attention is also given to the growing of oranges and pineapples.
The town, which was founded in 1774, is a busy commercial
centre standing ij m. from a large and well-sheltered bay, at the
entrance to which is the cape called Cabeza de San Juan. It is
the market town for a number of small islands off the £. coast,
some of which produce cattle for export.
PAKHR UD-DlM RAZI (1 140-1209), Arabian historian and
theologian, was the son of a preacher, himself a writer, and ins
born at Rai (Rei, Rhagae), near Tehran, where he received his
earliest training. Here and at Marigha, whither he followed bis
teacher Majd ud-Dtn ul-Jill, he studied philosophy and theology.
He was a Shafilte in law and a follower of Ash'arf (?.?.) i&
theology, and became renowned as a defender of orthodoxy.
During a journey in Khwarizm and Mawaral-nahr he preached
both in Persian and Arabic against the sects of Islam. After
this tour he returned to his native city, but settled later in Bent,
where he died. His dogmatic positions may be seen from his
work KUdb ul-Mukassal, which is analysed by SchmSlders in Us
Essai snr Us tccies pkihsopkiqucs cha Its Arabcs (Paris, 1S42).
Extracts from his History of Ike Dynasties were published by
Jourdain in the Fundgruben des Orients (vol. v.), and by D. R.
Heinzlus (St Petersburg, 1828). His greatest work is the
Maf&tih ul-Chaib (" The Keys of Mystery "), an extensive
commentary on the Koran published at Cairo (8 vols., 1&90)
and elsewhere; it is specially full in its exposition of Ash'arite
theology and its use of early and late Mu'tazilite writing*.
For an account of his life see F. WtetenfeM's Ceschickk itr
arabischen Arete, No. 200 (GOCtlngen, 1840) ; for a list of aU wks
cf . C Brockdmann's Cesch. dor arabischen LUeratur, vol 1 (Weimar,
1898). pp. 506 ff. An account of his teaching is given by M. schreincr
in the ZeUschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen CeseUschaft (vol. M,
pp. 505*). (G.W.T.)
FAKIR (from Arabic foqtr, "poor "), a term equivalent to
Dervish (g.v.) or Mahommedan religious mendicant, but which
has come to be specially applied to the Hindu devotees and
ascetics of India. There are two classes of these Indian Falun,
(x) the religious orders, and (2) the nomad rogues who infest the
country. The ascetic orders resemble the Franciscans of Christi-
anity. The bulk lead really excellent lives in monasteries,
which are centres of education and poor-relief; while others ff>
out to visit the poor as Gurus or teachers. Strict celibacy is
not enforced among them. These orders arc of very ancient date,
owing their establishment to the ancient Hindu rule, followed
by the Buddhists, that each " twice-born " man should lead in
the woods the life of an ascetic. The second class of Fakirs are
simply disreputable beggars who wander round extorting, usdet
the guise of religion, alms from the charitable and practisinj
on the superstitions of the villagers. As a rule they make m
real pretence of leading a religious life. They are said to numbci
nearly a million. Many of them are known as " Jogi," and Is)
claim to miraculous powers which they declare have becootf
theirs by the practice of abstinence and extreme austerities
The tortures which some of these wretches will inflict upoi
themselves are almost incredible. They will hold their arms ovci
their heads until the muscles atrophy, will keep their fist
clenched till the nails grow through the palms, will lie on bed
of nails, cut and stab themselves, drag, week after week, enormoi)
chains loaded with masses of iron, or hang themselves before
fire near enough to scorch. Most of them are inexpre&sihj
filthy and verminous. Among the filthiest are the Agherl
who preserve the ancient cannibal ritual of the followers of Siv
eat filth, and use a human skull as a drinking-veacel. Formd
the fakirs were always nude and smeared with ashes; but rw
they are compelled to wear some pretence of clothing. T|
natives do not really respect these wandering friars, but tb
dread their curses.
See John Csrapbell Oman, The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints
India (1903)1 and Indian Census Reports.
FALAISE, a town of north-western France, capital of I
arrondissement in the department of Calvados, on the rJ|
bank of the Ante, 19 m. S. by E. of Caen by road. Fop. (io4
FALASHAS— FALCAO
*37
6115. The principal object of interest is tie castle* bow partly
in rains, bat formerly the seat of the dukes of Normandy and the
birthplace of William the Conqueror. It is situated on a lofty
of overlooking the town, and consists of * square mass defended
by towers and flanked by a small donjon and a lofty tower added
by the English in the 15th century; the rest of the .castle dates
chiefly from the lath century. Near the castle, in the Place de
Is Trinite, is an equestrian statue m bronze of William the
Conqueror, to whom the town owed its prosperity. The churches
of La Triait* and St Cervais combine the Gothic and Renaissance
styles of architecture, and St Gervais also includes Romanesque
rartaaosaip. A street passes by way of a tunnel beneath the
choir of La Trinite* Falaise has populous suburbs, one of which,
Guibray, is celebrated for its annual fair for horses, cattle and
voot, which has been held in August since the nth century.
The town is the seat of a subprefecture and has tribunals of
fat instance and commerce, a chamber of arts and manufacture,
1 board of trade-arbitrators and a communal college. Tanning
and important manufactures of hosiery are carried on.
From 141 7, when after a siege of forty-seven days it succumbed
to Henry V., king of England, till 1450, when it was retaken by
the French, Falaise was in the hands of the English.
FAU8HAS (U. exiles; Ethiopic falas, a stranger), or "Jews
tf Abyssinia," a tribe of Hamitic stock, akin to Galla, Somali
ud Beja, though they profess the Jewish religion. They claim
to be descended from the ten tribes banished from the Holy Land.
Another tradition assigns them as ancestor Menelek, Solomon's
dfeged son by the queen of Sheba. There is little or no physical
difference between them and the typical Abyssinians, except
perhaps that their eyes are a little more oblique; and they may
wtaioly be regarded as Hamitic. It is uncertain when they
tame Jews: one account suggests in Solomon's time; another,
tt the Babylonian captivity; a third, during the xst century
tf the Christian era. That one of the earlier dates is correct
ttos probable from the fact that the Falashas know nothing
a* either the Babylonian or Jerusalem Talmud, make no use of
Pyhderies (tejilUn), and observe neither the feast of Purim
ur the dedication of the temple. They possess— not in Hebrew,
Mich they are altogether ignorant, but In Ethiopic (or Gees)—
« canonical and apocryphal books of the Old Testament;
»*olame of extracts from the Pentateuch, with comments given
fcMoses by God on Mount Sinai; the Te-e-sa-sa Sanbat, or
fa of the Sabbath; the Ardit, a book of secrets revealed to
<*&* saints, which is used as a charm against disease; lives of
^Khazn, Moses, &c; and a translation of Josephus called Sana
«»d. A copy of the Orit or Mosaic law is kept in the holy of
■w in every synagogue. Various pagan observances are
■Btfed in their ritual: every newly-built house is considered
"abbitable till the blood of a sheep or fowl has been spilt in it;
"coin guilty of a breach of chastity has to undergo purification
*? loping into a flaming fire; the Sabbath has been deified, and,
■ the goddess Sanbat, receives adoration and sacrifice and is
£d to have ten thousand times ten thousand angels to wait
65 her commands. There is a monastic system, introduced
c s siid i n the 4th century a.d. by Aba Zebra, a pious man
■to retired from the world and lived in the cave of Hoharewa,
4 'he province of Armatshoho. The monks must prepare all
j*" food with their own hands, and no lay person, male or
'*&, nay enter their houses. Celibacy is not practised by the
^^ but they are not allowed to marry a second time, and no
% is admitted into the order who has eaten bread with a
^istian, or is the son or grandson of a man thus contaminated.
***** in the evil eye or shadow is universal, and spirit-raisers,
J^aayers and rain-doctors are in repute. Education is in the
7^ of the monks and priests, and is confined to boys. Fasts,
*%tory on all above seven years of age, are held on every
*®diy and Thursday, on every new moon, and at the passover
'•* "st or a and of April). The annual festivals are the passover,
2 ^est feast, the Baala Mazalat or feast of tabernacles
u *°ai which, however, no booths are built), the day of covenant
« c«mbly and Abraham's day. It is believed that after death
« Kfcl remains in a place of darkness till the third day, when the
first sacrifice for the dead is offered; prayers axe read in the
synagogue for the repose of the departed, and for seven days a
formal lament takes place every morning in his house. No
coffins are used, and a atone vault is built over the corpse so
that it may not come into direct contact with the earth.
The Falashas are an industrious people, living for the most part
in villages of their own, or, if they settle in a Christian or Mahonv
medan town, occupying a separate quarter. They had their own
kings, who, they pretend, were descended from David, from the
10th century until 1800, when the royal race became extinct,
and they then became subject to the Abyssinian kingdom of
Tigr£. They do not mix with the Abyssinians, and never marry
women of alien religions. They are even forbidden to enter the
houses of Christians, and from such a pollution have to be purified
before entering their own houses. Polygamy is not practised;
early marriages are rare, and their morals are generally better
than those of their Christian masters. Unlike most Jews, they
have no liking for trade, but are skilled in agriculture, in the
manufacture of pottery, ironware and doth, and are good
masons. Their numbers are variously estimated at from one
hundred to one hundred and fifty thousand.
Bibliography.— M. FLad, Zivdlf Jahre in Abyssinia (Basel, i860),
and his Falashas of Abyssinia, translated from the German by S. P.
Goodhart (London, 1869); H. A. Stern, Wanderings among the
Falashas in Abyssinia (London, 1862): Joseph Haleyy> Travels in
Abyssinia (trans. London, 1878) ; Morais, " The Falashas " in
Penn Monthly (Philadelphia, 1880); Cyrus Adler, "Bibliography
of the Falashas in American Hebrew (16th of March 1804) } Lewin,
44 Bin verlassener Bruderstainm," in Bloch's Wocktnschrift (7th
February 1903), p. 85; J. Faitlovitch, NoUt d'un voyage chat Us
Falachas (Paris, 1905).
FALCiO, CHRISTOVAO OB SOUSA (? 1512-1557), Portuguese
poet, came of a noble family settled at Portalegre in the Alemtejo,
which had originated with John Falcon or Falconet, one of the
En g li s hm en who went to Portugal in 1386 in the suite of Philippa
of Lancaster. His father, Joao Vaa de Almada Falcao, was an
upright public servant who had held the captaincy of Elmina on
the West African coast, but died, as he had lived, a poor man.
There is a tradition that in boyhood Christovio fell in love
with a beautiful child and rich heiress, D. Maria Brandao, and
in 1526 married her clandestinely, but parental opposition
prevented the ratification of the marriage. Family pride, it i»
said, drove the father of Christovao to keep his son under strict
surveillance in his own house for five years, while the lady's
parents, objecting to the youth's small means, put her into the
Cistercian convent of Lorvao, and there endeavoured to wean
her heart from him by the accusation that he coveted her fortune
more than her person. Their arguments and the promise of a
good match ultimately prevailed, and in 1534 D. Maria left the
convent to marry D. Luis de Silva, captain of Tangier, while the
broken-hearted Christovao told his sad story in some beautiful
lyrics and particularly in the eclogue Cluisfal. He bad been the.
disciple and friend of the poets Bernardim Ribeiro and Si de
Miranda, and when his great disappointment came, Falcao laid
aside poetry and entered on a diplomatic career. There is
documentary evidence that he was employed at the Portuguese,
embassy in Rome in 1542, but he soon returned to Portugal,'
and we find him at court again in 1548 and 1551. The date of
his death , as of his birth, is uncertain. Such is the story accepted
by Dr Theophilo Braga, the historian of Portuguese literature,
but Senhor Guimarfies shows that the first part is doubtful,
and, putting aside the testimony of a contemporary and grave
writer, Diogo do Couto, he even denies the title of poet to
Christovao Falcao, arguing from internal and other evidence
that Chrisjal is the work of Bernardim Ribeiro; his destructive
criticism is, however, stronger than his constructive work. The
eclogue, with its 104 verses, is the very poem of saadade, and its
simple, direct language and chaste and tender feeling, enshrined
in exquisitely sounding verses, has won for its author lasting
fame and a unique position in Portuguese literature., Its
influence on later poets has been very considerable, and Camoena
used several of the verses as proverbs.
The poetical works of Christovao Falcao were published anony-
mously, owing, It is supposed, to their personal nature and allusions,;
I3 8
FALCfc— FALCON
and, in part or in whole, they have been often reprinted. There
h a modern critical edition oi Chrisfai and a Carta (letter) by A.
Epiphank) da Silva Dia» under the title Obras de Ckristovao Falcao
(Oporto, 1893), and one of the Cantiias and Esparsas by the same
scholar appeared in the Revista Lusitana, vol. 4, pp. 142-179 (Lisbon,
1896), under the name Fratmento de urn Cancioneiro do Secuto X VI.
See Bernardim Ribeiro e Bucelismo, by Dr T. Braga (Oporto, 1897),
and Bernardim Ribeiro (0 Poeta Crufal), by Dclnm Guimaraes
(Lisbon. 1908). (E. Pa.)
FALCK, ANTON REINHARD (1777-1843), Dutch statesman,
was born at Utrecht on the 19th of March 1777. He studied
at the university of Leiden, and entered the Dutch diplomatic
service, being appointed to the legation at Madrid. Under King
Louis Napoleon he was secretary-general for foreign affairs, but
resigned office on the annexation of the Batavian republic to
France. He took a leading part in the revolt of 1813 against
French domination, and had a considerable share in the organiza-
tion of the new kingdom of the Netherlands. As minister of
education under William I. he reorganized the universities of
Ghent, Louvain and Liege and the Royal Academy of Brussels.
Side by side with his activities in education he directed the
departments of trade and the colonies. Falck was called in
Holland the king's good genius, but William I. presently tired
of his counsels and he was superseded by Van Maanen. He was
ambassador in London when the disturbances of 1830 convinced
him of the necessity of the separation of Belgium from Holland.
He consequently resigned his post and lived in close retirement
until 1839, when he became the first Dutch minister at the Belgian
court. He died at Brussels on the 16th of March 1843. Besides
some historical works he left a correspondence of considerable
political interest, printed in Brieven van A. R. Falck, 1795-1843
(2nd ed. The Hague, 186 1), and Ambtsbrieven van A. R. Falck
(ibid. 1878).
FALCON, the most northern state of Venezuela, with an
extensive coast line on the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Venezuela.
Pop. (1005 est.) X73»068. It lies between the Caribbean on the
N. and the state of Lara on the S., with Zulia and the Gulf of
Venezuela on the W. Its surface is much broken by irregular
ranges of low mountains, and extensive areas on the coast are
sandy plains and tropical swamps. The climate is hot, but,
being tempered by the trade winds, is not considered unhealthy
except in the swampy districts. The state is sparsely settled
and has no large towns, fls capital, Coro, being important
chiefly because of its history, and as the entrepot for an extensive
inland district. The only port in the state is La Vela de Coro,
on a small bay of the same name, 7 m. £. of the capital, with
which it is connected by railway.
FALCON (Lat. Falco t x Fr. Faucon; Teutonic, Folk or Valken),
a word now restricted to the high-couraged and long-winged
birds of prey which take their quarry as it moves; but formerly
it had a very different meaning, being by the naturalists of the
18th and even of the 19th century extended to a great number
of birds comprised in the genus Falco of Linnaeus and writers
of his day,* while, on the other hand, by falconers, it was,
and stiff is, technically limited to the female of the birds
employed by them in their vocation (see Falconiy), whether
" long-winged " and therefore " noble," or " short-winged " and
" ignoble."
According to modern usage, the majority of the falcons, in the
sense first given, may be separated into five very distinct groups:
(1) the falcons pure and simple {Falco proper); (2) the large
northern falcons (Hierofalco, Cuvier); (3) the " desert falcons "
(Cennaea, Kaup); (4) the merlins (Aesalon, Kaup),' and (5)
the hobbies (Hypotriorckis. Boie). A sixth group, the kestrels
1 Unknown to classical writers, the earliest use of this word is said
to be by Servius Honoratus (circa a.d. 3907480) in bis notes on Aen.
x. 145. It seems possibly to be the Latinized form of the Teutonic
Folk, though falx is commonly accounted its root.
The nomenclature of nearly all the older writers on this point is
extremely confused. What many of them, even so lately as Pen-
nant's time, termed the " gentle falcon " is certainly the bird we
now call the goshawk {i.e. goose-hawk), which name itself may
have been transferred to the Astuf palumbarius of modern ornitho-
logists, from one of the long-winged birds of prey.
( Tinnuneulus, VieiOot), is often added. This, however, appean
to have been justifiably reckoned a distinct genus.
The typical falcon is by common consent allowed to be that
almost cosmopolitan species to which unfortunately the English
epithet "peregrine" {i.e. strange or wandering) has been
attached. It is the Falco peregrinus of Tunstall (1771) and of
most recent ornithologists, though some prefer the specific name
communis applied by J. F. Gmelin a few years later (1788) to a
bird which, if his diagnosis be correct, could not have been a true
falcon at all, since it had yellow irides— a colour never met with
in the eyes of any bird now called by naturalists a " falcon. "
This species inhabits suitable localities throughout the greater
part of the globe, though examples from North America have by
some received specific recognition as F. anaittm (the "duck-
hawk "). and those from Australia have been described as distinct
under the name of F. metanogeuys. Here, as in so many other
cases, it is almost impossible to decide as to which forms should,
and which should not, be accounted merely local races. In sue
not surpassing a raven, this falcon (fig. 1) is perhaps the most
powerful bird of prey for its bulk that flies, and its courage is not
less than its power. It is the species, in Europe, most commonly
mot
FlO. t. — Peregrine Falcon.
trained for the sport of hawking (see Falconxy) . Volumes have
been written upon it, and to attempt a complete account of it is,
within the limits now available, impossible. The plumage of the
adult is generally blackish blue above, and white, with a more or
less deep cream-coloured tinge, beneath — the lower parts, except
the chin and throat, being barred transversely with black, wbiJe
a black patch extends from the bill to the ear-coverts, ami
descends on either side beneath the mandible. The young have
the upper parts deep blackish-brown, and the lower white, more!
or less strongly tinged with ochraceous-brown, and striped
longitudinally with blackish-brown. Prom Port Kennedy, the
most northern part of the American continent, to Tasmania
and from the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk to Mendoxa in tl
Argentine territory, there is scarcely a country in which tl
falcon has not been found. Specimens have been received fro
the Cape of Good Hope, and it is only a question of the technic.
differentiation of species whether it does not extend to CaJ
Horn. Fearless as it is, and adapting itself to almost cv<
circumstance, it will form its cyry equally on the sea-wash
cliffs, the craggy mountains, or (though more rarely) the dr
spots of a marsh in the northern hemisphere, as on trees (sa
H. Schlegel) in the forests of Java or the waterless ravines }
Australia. In the United Kingdom it was formerly very com rnc
and hardly a high rock from the Shctbnds to the Isle of Wi,
FALCON
»39
bat had & pair is its tenants. But the British gamekeeper hat
long held the mistaken faith that it is his worst foe, and the
number of pairs now allowed to rear their brood unmolested in
the British Islands is very small. Yet its utility to the game-
preserver, by destroying every one of his most precious wards
that shows any sign of infirmity, can hardly be questioned by
reason, and G. E. Freeman (Falconry) has earnestly urged its
claims to protection. 1 Nearly allied to this falcon are several
species, such as F. barbarus of Mauretania, F. minor of South
Africa, the Asiatic F. babylonkus, P. peregrinate* of India
(the shaheen), and perhaps F. cassini of South America! with
some others.
Next to the typical falcons comes a group known as the
* great northern " falcons (Hierofako). Of these the most re-
markable is the gyrfalcon (P. gyrfako), whose borne is in the
Scandinavian mountains, though the young are yearly visitants
to the plains of Holland and Germany. In plumage it very
much resembles F. peregrinus, Dut its flanks have generally a
bluer tinge, and its superiority in size is at once manifest. Nearly
allied to it is the Icelander (P. islondus), which externally differs
is its paler colouring and in almost entirely wanting the black
mandibular patch. Its proportions, however, differ a good deal,
its body being elongated. Its country is shown by its name,
hat it also inhabits south Greenland, and not unfrcquently
makes its way to the British Islands. Very close to this comes the
Greenland falcon (F. condkans), a native of north Greenland,
and perhaps of other countries within the Arctic Circle. Like
the last, the Greenland falcon from time to time occurs in the
United Kingdom, but it is always to be distinguished by wearing
i plumage in which at every age the prevailing colour is pure
while. In north-eastern America these birds are replaced by
i kindred form (F. lobradorus), first detected by Audubon and
subsequently recognized by Dresser (On. Miscell. i. 135). It
a at once distinguished by its very dark colouring, the lower parts
being o ccasi o n a ll y almost as deeply tinted at all ages as the
«Pper.
All the birds hitherto named possess one character in common.
The darker markings of their plumage are longitudinal before the
fast real moult takes place, and for ever afterwards are transverse.
In other words, when young the markings are in the form of
stripes, when old in the form of bars. The variation of tint is very
great, especially in F. peregrin us; but the experience of falconers,
vbose business it is to keep their birds in the very highest condi-
tion, shows that a falcon of either of these groups if light-coloured
in youth is fight-coloured when adult, and if dark when young
a also dark when old—age, after the first moult, making no
difference in the complexion of the bird. The next group is that
<& the so-called " desert falcons " (Ccnnaea), wherein the differ-
ence just indicated does not obtain, for long as the bird may live
iad often as it may moult, the original style of markings never
rives way to any other. Foremost among these are to be con-
sidered the lanner and the saker (commonly termed F. lanarius
tad P. sacer), both well known in the palmy days of falconry,
bst only since about 1845 readmitted to full recognition. Both
-4 these birds belong properly to south-eastern Europe, North
\frka and south-western Asia. They are, for their bulk, less
jowerfal than the members of the preceding group, and
though they may be trained to high flights are naturally
aptors of humbler game. The precise number of species is
eery doubtful, but among the many candidates for recognition
are especially to be named the lugger {P. jugger) of India, and
t^e prairie falcon (F. mexkanus) of the western plains of North
America.
The systematist finds it hard to decide in what group he
mould place two somewhat large Australian species (P. hypoUueus
1 It it not to be inferred, as many writers have done, that falcons
fc&toally jxcy upon birds in which disease has made any serious
;-^<rm. Such buds meet their fate from the less noble Auipitres
p re dat o r y animals of many kinds. But when a bird is first
if acted by any disorder, its power of taking care of itself is at once
tepaired. and hence in the majority of cases it may become an easy
*ierun under circumstances which would enable a perfectly sound
ted to escape from the attack even of a falcon.
and P. subniger), both of which are rare in collections— the latter
especially.
A small but very beautiful group comes next — the merlins'
(Aesalon of some writers, Litkofalco of others). The European
merlin (P. aesalon) is perhaps the boldest of the Accipitres,
not hesitating to stuck birds of twice its own size, and even on
Fig. 2.— Merlin.
occasion threatening human beings. Yet it readily becomes tame,
if not affectionate, when reclaimed, and its ordinary prey consists
of the smaller Passcres. Its " pinion of glossy blue " has become
almost proverbial, and a deep ruddy blush suffuses its lower
parts; but these are characteristic only of the male— the female
maintaining very nearly the sober brown plumage she wore
when as a nestling she left her lowly cradle in the heather. Very
close to this bird comes the pigeon-hawk (P. columbarius) of
North America— so close, indeed, that none but an expert
ornithologist can detect the difference. The turumti of Anglo-
Indians (P. chicqucra), and its representative from southern
Africa (P. ruficollis), also belong to this group, but they are
considerably larger than either of the former.
Lastly, the Hobbies (Hypotriorchis) comprise a greater
number of forms— though how many seems to be doubtful.
Fig. 3.— Hobby.
They are in life at once recognizable by their bold upstanding
position, and at any time by their long wings. The type of this
group is the English hobby (P. subbuteo), a bird of great power
of flight, chiefly shown in the capture of insects, which form its
'French, tmthllon; Icelandic. Smintt.
14©
FALCONE— FALCONER, W
ordinary food. It is a tummer visitant to most parts of Europe,
including the British Islands, and is most wantonly and need-
lessly destroyed by gamekeepers. A second European species
of the group is the beautiful P. eleonorae, which hardly comes
farther north than the countries bordering the Mediterranean,
and, though in some places abundant, is an extremely local bird.
The largest species of this section seems to be the Neotropical
P. femoraJis, for P. diroleucus though often ranked here, is now
supposed to belong to the group of typical falcons. (A. N.)
FALCONE, ANIELLO (1600-1665), Italian battle-painter, was
the son of a tradesman, and was born in Naples. He showed his
artistic tendency at an early age, received aome instruction from
a relative, and then studied under Ribera (Lo Spagnoletto), of
whom he ranks as the most eminent pupiL Besides battle-
pictures, large and small, taken from biblical as well as secular
history, he painted various religious subjects, which, however,
count for little in his general reputation. He became, as a battle-
painter, almost as celebrated as Borgognone (Courtois), and was
named " V Oracolo delle Battaglie." His workshave animation,
variety, truth to nature, and careful colour. Falcone was bold,
generous, used to arms, and an excellent fencer. In the insur-
rection of Masaniello (1647) be resolved to be bloodily avenged
for the death, at the hands of two Spaniards, of a nephew
and of a pupil in the school of art which he had established in
Naples. He and many of his scholars, including Salvator Rosa
and Carlo Coppola, formed an armed band named the Compagnia
della Merit (" Company of Death "; see Rosa, Salvator).
They scoured the streets by day, exulting in slaughter; at night
they were painters again, and handled the brush with impetuous
zeal. Peace being restored, they had to decamp. Falcone and
Rosa made off to Rome; here Borgognone noticed the works of
Falcone, and became his friend, and a French gentleman induced
him to go to France, where Louis XIV. became one of his patrons.
Ultimately Colbert obtained permission for the painter to return
to Naples, and there he died in 1665. Two of his battle-pieces
are to be seen in the Louvre and in the Naples museum; he
painted a portrait of Masaniello, and engraved a few plates.
Among his principal scholars, besides Rosa and Coppola (whose
works are sometimes ascribed to Falcone himself), were Domenico
Gargiuolo (named Micco Spadaro), Paolo Porpora and Andrea
di Lione.
FALCONER, HUGH (1808-1865), British palaeontologist and
botanist, descended from an old Scottish family, was born at
Forres on the 20th of February 1808. In 1826 he graduated at
Aberdeen, where he manifested a taste for the study of natural
history. He afterwards studied medicine in the university of
Edinburgh, taking the degree of M.D. in 2829; during this
period he zealously attended the botanical classes of Prof. R.
Graham (1786-1845), and those on geology by Prof. R. Jameson.
Proceeding lo India in 1830 as assistant-surgeon on the Bengal
establishment of the East India Company, he made on his
arrival an examination of the fossil bones from Ava in the
possession of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and his description
of the collection, published soon afterwards, gave him a recog-
nized position among the scientists of India. Early in 1831 he
was appointed to the army station at Meerut, in the North-
western Provinces, but in the same year he was asked to officiate
as superintendent of the botanic garden of Saharanpur, during
the ill-health and absence of Dr J. F. Royle; and in 1832 he
succeeded to this post. He was thus placed in a district that
proved to be rich in palaeontological remains; and he set to
work to investigate its natural history and geology. In 1834 he
published a geological description of the Siwalik hills, in the
Tertiary strata of which he had in 1831 discovered bones of
crocodiles, tortoises and other animals; and subsequently, with
conjoint labourers, he brought to light a sub-tropical fossil
fauna of unexampled extent and richness, including remains of
Mastodon, the colossal ruminant Sivatkerivm, and the enormous
tortoise Colossochdys Atlas. For these valuable discoveries he
and Captain (afterwards Sir Proby T.) Cautley (1802-1871)
received in 1837 the Wollaston medal in duplicate from the
Geological Society of London, lo 1834 Falconer was appointed
to inquire into the fitness of India for the growth of the tea-
plant, and it was on bis recommendation that it was introduced
into that country.
He was compelled by OIness to leave India in 1842, tod
during his stay in England he occupied himself with the dassifica-
tion and arrangement of the Indian fossils presented to the
British Museum and East India House, chiefly by himself and
Sir Proby T. Cautley. He then set to work to edit the great
memoir by Cautley and himself, entitled Fauna Antiqua Six-
lensis, of which Part I. text was issued in 1846, and a series of
107 plates during the years 1846-1849. Unfortunately the
work, owing partly to Dr Falconer's absence from England and
partly to ill-health, was never completed. He was electedF. R.S
in 1845. In 1847 he was appointed superintendent of the
Calcutta botanical garden, and professor of botany in the
medical college; and on entering on his duties in the following
year he was at once employed by the Indian government and the
Agricultural and Horticultural Society as their adviser on all
matters connected with the vegetable products of India. He
prepared an important report on the teak forests of Tenasserim,
and this was the means of saving them from destruction by
reckless felling; and through his recommendation the cultivation
of the cinchona bark was introduced into the Indian empire.
Being compelled by the state of his health to leave India in
1855, he spent the remainder of Us life chiefly in examining
fossil species in England and the Continent corresponding to
those which he had discovered in India, notably the species of
mastodon, elephant and rhinoceros; he also described some new
mammalia from the Purbcck strata, and he reported on the
bone-caves of Sicily, Gibraltar, Gower and Brixham. In the
course of his researches he became interested in the question oi
the antiquity of the human race, and actually commenced a work
on " Primeval Man," which, however, he did not live to finish.
He died on the 31st of January 1865. Shortly after his death a
committee was formed for the promotion of a u Falconer
Memorial" This took the shape of a marble bust, which was
placed in the rooms of the Royal Society of London, and oi a
Falconer scholarship of the annual value of £xoo, open for
competition to graduates in science or medicine of the university
of Edinburgh.
Dr Falconer's botanical notes, with 450 coloured drawings of
Kashmir and Indian plants, have been deposited in the library at
Kew Gardens, and his Palaeontotogical Memoirs and Notts, com-
prising all his papers read before learned societies, have been edited,
with a biographical sketch, by Charles Murchison, M.D. (London,
1868) Many reminiscences of Dr Falconer, and a portrait of him,
were published by his niece. Grace, Lady Preatwkh, in her Esnf.
descriptive and biographical (1901).
FALCONER, WILLIAM (1732-1769), British poet, was bon
in Edinburgh on the nth of February 1732. His father was ;
wig-maker, and carried on business in one of the small shop
with wooden fronts at the Netherbow Port, an antique castcllatc*
structure which remained till 1764, dividing High Street fron
the Canongate. The old man became bankrupt, then trie
business as a grocer, and finally died in extreme povwtj
William, the son, having received a scanty education, was pw
to sea. He served on board a Leith merchant vessel, and in h
eighteenth year obtained the appointment of second mate of it
" Britannia," a vessel employed in the Levant trade, an
sailed from Alexandria for Venice. The "Britannia" was ovc
taken by a dreadful storm off Cape Colonna and was wrecke
only three of the crew being saved. Falconer was happily 01
of the three, and the incidents of the voyage and its diastro
termination formed the subject of his poem of The Shipvre
(1762). Meanwhile, on his return to England, Falconer, in 1
nineteenth year, printed at Edinburgh an elegy on Frederic
prince of Wales, and afterwards contributed abort pieces to t
Gentleman's Magazine. Some of these descriptive and lyri
effusions possess merit. The fine naval song of " The Sloni
(" Cease, rude Boreas "). reputed to be by George Alexan>
Stevens, the dramatic writer and lecturer, baa been ascribed
Falconer, but apparently on no authority. The duke of Yc
to whom The Shipwreck had been dedicated, advised Fako
FALCONET— FALCONRY
141
to enter the royal navy, and before the end .of 1762 the poet-
sailor was rated as a midshipman on board the " Royal George/'
But as tins ship was paid off at the peace of 1763, Falconer
received an appointment as purser of the " Glory " frigate, a
situation which he held until that vessel was laid up on ordinary
at Chatham. In 1764 he published a new and enlarged edition
ef 7a* Shipwreck, and in the same year a rhymed political tirade
against John Wilkes and Charles Churchill, entitled The Dema-
fdfiK. ' In 1769 appeared his Universal Marine Dictionary, in
which rcsreat is denned as a French manoeuvre, " not properly
a term of the British marine.' 1 While engaged on this dictionary,
J. Murray, a bookseller in Fleet Street, father of Byron's munifi-
cent publisher and correspondent, wished him to join him as a
partner in business. The* poet declined the offer, and became
purser of the " Aurora " frigate, which had been commissioned to
carry out to India certain supervisors or superintendents of the
East India Company. Besides his nomination as purser, Falconer
was promised the post of private secretary to the commissioners.
Before sailing he published a third edition of his Shipwreck,
which had again undergone " correction," but not improvement.
Tbe poet sailed in the " Aurora " from Spithead on the 20th of
September 1769. 'The vessel arrived safely at the Cape of Good
Hope, and left on the 27th of December. She was never more
beard of, having, as is supposed, foundered at sea. The Ship-
iwere, the poem with which Falconer's name is connected, had
s great reputation at one time, but the fine passages which
pleased the earlier critka have not saved it from general oblivion.
See hie Poetical Works in the " Aldine Edition " (1836), with a life
by J. Mitford.
FALCONET, BT1KHNB < MAURICE (1716-T701), French
sculptor, was born In Paris. His parents were poor, and he was-
at first apprenticed to a carpenter, but some of his clay-figures,
with the making of which he occupied his leisure hours, attracted
the notice of the sculptor Lemoine, who made him his pupil.
He (band time to study Greek and Latin, and also wrote several
brochures cm art. His artistic productions are characterised by
the same defects as his writings, for though manifesting consider-
able cleverness and some power of imagination, they display in
suay cases a false and fantastic taste, the result, most probably,
«f an excessive striving after originality. One of his most
saccsssfal statues was one of Btilo of Crotona, which secured his
admission to the membership of the Academy of Fine Arts in
1754. At the invitation of the empress Catherine he went in
1766 to St Petersburg, where he executed a colossal statue of
Peter the Great in bronze. In 1788 he became director of the
French Academy of Painting* Many of Falconet's works, being
placed in churches, were destroyed at the time of the French
devolution. His " Nymphe descendant an bain " is in the Louvre.
Asmms; bb writings are Rtyexwns snr la sculpture (Paris, 1768),
tnd Obstructions sw la statue de Marc-Aurele (Paris, 1771). The
vfeofc were collected under the title of (Sums litUraires (6 Vols.,
''^..^ 1781-1782; 3 vols., Paris, 1787).
FALCOHBY (Fr. faucanncrie, from £ate~Lat./a&w, falcon),
the art of employing falcons and hawks in the chase, often termed
Bevkbtt* Falconry was for many ages one of the principal
spons of tbe richer classes, and, since many more efficacious
BMtboda and appliances for the capture of game undoubtedly
existed, it is probable that it has always been carried on as a
pore sport. ' The antiquity of falconry is very great. There
appears to be little doubt that it was practised in Asia at a very
sessote period, for which we have the concurrent testimony of
fsrioos Cfrif"-* and Japanese works, some of the latter being
suet quaintly and yet spiritedly illustrated. It appears to
have been known in China some 2000 years B.C., and the records
oi a king Wen Wang, who reigned over a province of that country
689 mxx, prove that the art was at that time in very high favour.
la Japan it appears to have been known at least 600 years B.C.,
sad probably at an equally early date in India, Arabia, Persia
and Syria. Sir A. H. Layard, in his Nineveh and Babylon,
considered that in a bas-relief found by htm in the ruins of
Khersabad " there appeared to be a falconer bearing a hawk
on fab wrist," from which it would appear to have been known
there some 1 700 years b.c. In all the above-mentioned countries
of Asia it is practised at the present day.
Little is known of the early history of falconry in Africa,
but from very ancient Egyptian carvings and drawings It seems
to have been known there many ages ago. It was probably also
in vogue in tbe countries of Morocco, Oran, Algiers, Tunis and
Egypt, at the same time as in Europe. The older writers on
falconry, English and continental, often mention Barbery and
Tunisian falcons. It is still practised in Egypt.
Perhaps the oldest records of falconry in Europe aire supplied
by the writings of Pliny, Aristotle and MartiaL Although their
notices of the sport are slight and somewhat vague, yet they are
quite sufficient to show clearly that it was practised in their
days— between the years 384 B.C. and a.d. 40. It was probably
introduced into England -from the continent about aa 86e>
and from that time down to the middle of the 17th century
falconry was followed with an ardour that perhaps no English
sport has ever called forth, not even fox-hunting. Stringent
laws and enactments, notably in the reigns of William the
Conqueror, Edward HI., Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, were
passed from time to time in its interest. Falcons and hawks
were allotted to degrees and orders of men according to rank and
station— for instance, to the emperor the eagle and vulture,
to royalty the jerfalcons, to an earl the peregrine, to a yeoman the
goshawk, to a priest the sparrow-hawk, and to a knave or servant
the useless kestrel. The writings of Shakespeare furnish ample
testimony to the high and universal estimation in which it was
held in his days. About the middle of tbe x 7th century falconry
began to decline in England, to revive somewhat at the Restore-
tion. It never, however, completely recovered its former favour,
a variety of causes operating against it, such as enclosure of
waste lands, agricultural improvements, and the introduction of
fire-arms into the sporting field, till it fell, as a national sport,
almost into oblivion. Yet it has never been even temporarily
extinct, and it is successfully practised even at the present day.
In Europe the game or " quarry " at which hawks arc flown
consists of grouse (confined to the British Isles), black-game,
pheasants, partridges, quails, landrails, ducks, teal, woodcocks,
snipes, herons, rooks, crows, gulls, magpies, jays, blackbirds,
thrushes, larks, hares and rabbits. In former days geese, cranes,
kites, ravens and bustards were also flown at. Old German
works make much mention of the use of the Iceland falcon for
taking the great bustard, a flight scarcely alluded to by English
writers. In Asia the list of quarry is longer, and, in addition
to all the foregoing, or their, Asiatic representatives, various
kinds of bustards, sand grouse, storks, ibises, spoonbills, pea-fowl,
jungle-fowl, kites, vultures and gazettes are captured by trained
hawks. In Mongolia and Chinese Tartary , and among the nomad
tribes of central Asia, the sport still flourishes; and though some
late accounts are not satisfactory either to the falconer or the
naturalist, yet they leave no doubt that a species of eagle is still
trained in those regions to take large game, as antelopes and
wolves. Mr Atkinson, in his account of his travels in the country
of tbe Amur, makes particular mention of the sport, as does also
Mr Shaw in his work on Yarkand; and in a letter from the
Yark&nd embassy, under Mr Forsyth, C.B., dated Camp near
Yarkand, Nov. 27, 1873, the following passage occurs:—
" Hawking appears also to be a favourite amusement, the golden
eagle taking the place of the falcon or hawk. This novel sport
seemed very successful." It is questionable whether the bird
here spoken of is the golden eagle., v In Africa gazelles are taken,
and also partridges and wildfowL
The hawks used in England are the three great northern
falcons, viz. the Greenland, Iceland and Norway falcons, the
peregrine falcon, the hobby, the merlin, the goshawk and the
sparrow-hawk. In former days the saker, the lanner and the
Barbary or Tunisian falcon were also employed. (See FaICOH.)
Of the foregoing the easiest to keep, most efficient in the field,
and most suitable for general use are the peregrine falcon and
the goshawk.
In all hawks, the female is larger and more powerful than the
«4*
FALCONRY
Hawks ate divided by falconers all over the world into two
great classes. The first class comprises " falcons," i*. " Jong-
winged hawks," or "hawks of the lure," distinguished by
Eastern falconers as " dark-eyed hawks." In these the wings
are pointed, the second feather in the wing is the longest, and the
iris is of a deep, dark-brown hue. Merlins must, however, be
excepted; and here it would seem that the Eastern distinction
b the better, for though merlins are much more falcons than they
are hawks, they differ from falcons in having the third feather
In the wing the longest, while they are certainly " dark-eyed
hawks."
The second class is that of "hawks," m. " short- winged
hawks," or "hawks of the fist," called by Eastern falconers
" yellow (or rose) eyed hawks." In these the wings are rounded,
the fourth feather is the longest in the wing, and the iris is
yellow, orange or deep-orange.
The following glossary of the principal terms used in falconry
may assist the reader in perusing this notice of the practice of
the art. Useless or obsolete terms are omitted: —
Austringan. — A falconer.
Bate.— A hawk is said to M bate " when she flutters off from the fist,
perch or block, whether from wildness, or for exercise, or in
the attempt to chase.
Bewits.— Straps of leather by which the bells are fastened to a
hawk's legs.
Bind.— A hawk b said to " bind " when abe seises a bird in the
air and clings to it.
Bkck.— The conical piece of wood, of the form of an Inverted flower-
pot, used for hawks to sit upon; for a peregrine it should be
about 10 to 12 in. high, 5 to 6 in diameter at top, and 8 to 9 in
diameter at base.
Brail.— A thong of soft leather used to secure, when desirable, the
wing of a hawk. It has a slit to admit the pinion joint, and the
ends are tied together.
Cadge.— Tht wooden frame on which hawks, when numerous, are
carried to the field.
Cadger. — The person who carries the cadge.
Coifing off. — Luring a hawk (see Lure) from the hand of an
assistant.
Carry. — A hawk Is said to " carry " when she flics away with the
quarry on the approach of the falconer.
Out— Two hawks which may be used for flying together are called
a " cast," not necessarily a pair.
Casting.— The oblong or egg-shaped ball, consisting of feathers,
bones, Ac., which alt hawks (and insectivorous birds) throw
up after the nutritious part of their food has been digested.
Also the fur or feathers given them to assist the process.
Cert, — The naked wax-like skin above the beak.
Chick.— A hawk is said to fly at " check " when she flics at a bird
other than the intended object of pursuit.
Clutching.— Taking the quarry in the feet as the short-winged hawks
do. Falcons occasionally " clutch."
Com* to.— A hawk is said to " come to " when she begins to get
tame.
Coping. — Cutting the beak or talons of a hawk.
Crab.— To fight.
Oconee.— A long line or string.
Crop, to tut away. — A hawk is said to " put away her crop " when
the food passes out of the crop into the stomach.
Deck feathers. — The two centre tail-feathers.
Eyas. — A hawk which has been brought up from the nest (nyas,
from Fr. niais).
Ryry.— -The nest of a hawk.
P00L— A hawk is said to " foot " well or to be a " good footer "
when she is successful in killing. Many hawks are very fine
fliers without being " good footers."
Frounce.— A disease in the mouth and throat of hawks.
Get in. — To go up to a hawk when she has killed her quarry.
Hack. — The state of partial liberty in which young hawks must
always at first be kept.
Haggard.— A wild-caught hawk in the adult plumage.
Hood.— (See fig.)
Hoodshy.—A hawk is said to be " hoodshy " when she is afraid of,
or resists, having her hood put on.
Hunger trace.— A mark, and a defect, in the tail feathers, denoting
a weak point; generally due to temporary starvation as a
nestling,
/st^tiig.— The process of mending broken feathers U called " imping."
. : .CSecfigj)'
ping needle. — j
3} in. long, rough filed so~as to be three-sided and tapering
Imping needle. — A piece of tough soft iron wire from about ij to
from the middle to the ends. (See fig.)
iMtermewed.—A hawk moulted in confinement is said to be " inter-
mewed.
/or*.— Mate of the merlin.
Jerkin.— Mate of the jerfakon.
Jesus.— Strips of light but very tough leather, some 6 to S in. keg,
which always remain on a hawk's legs— one on each kg. (Set
Jonk.— To sleep.
Leash. — A strong leathern thong, some 2} or 3 ft. long, with a knot
or button at one end, used to secure a hawk. (See fig.)
Laws.— The instrument used for calling long-winged lawks— s destl
pigeon, or an artificial lure made of leather and feathers or viofi
of birds, tied to a string, with meat attached to it.
Mail.— The breast feathers.
Make hawk.— A hawk is called a " make hawk *' when,- as a
thoroughly trained and steady hawk, she b flown with young
ones to teach them their work.
Uan a hawk. — To tame a hawk and accustom her to strangers.
Implements us
t. Hood.
3. Back view of hood, showing
braces a, a,b,b; by drawing
the braces 6, b, the hood,
now open, b dosed.
3. Rufterhood.
4. Imping-ncedle.
5. Jess; rf b the space for the
hawk's leg; the point and
slit a, « are brought round
the leg, and passed through
slit A. after which the point
c and slit c, and also the
whole remaining length of
jess, are pulled through slits
o and*; < b the slit to which
Mantle.— A hawk Is said to " mantle " when she stretches out a leg
and a wing simultaneously, a common action of hawks wa
at ease; also when she spreads out her wings and feathers
.hide any quarry or food she may have seised from aaoti
1 in Falconry.
attached?
6. Hawk's leg with bell «, bewit
6, jess t.
7- Jesses, swivel and leash.
.8. Portion of first wing-feather
of male peregrine falcon.
•' tiercel, , • half natural sue.
in process of imping: 0.
the living hawk's feather;
6, piece supplied from an-
other tiercel, with the imp-
ing needle c pushed half its
length into it and ready to
be pushed home into toe
living bird's feather.
any quarry or food she may 1
hawk, or from man. In the last case it b a fault.
Mew— A hawk b said to " mew " when she moults. The pbee
where a hawk was kept to moult was in olden times called
her " mew." Buildings where establishments of hawks were
kept were called " mews."
Musket.— Male of the sparrow-hawk.
Mutes (mutings). — Excrement of hawk.
Pannel.— The stomach of a hawk, corresponding wfth the gizzard
of a fowl, b called her pannel. In it the casting b formed.
Passage.— The line herons mice over a tract of country on their way
to and from the heronry when procuring food in the breeding
season.
Passage fame*.— Hawks captured when on their passage or
migration.
Pell.— The dead body of any quarry the hawk has killed.
Pitc*.— The height to which a hawk, when waiting for game to be
flushed, rises in the air.
FALCONRY
P i mm* . A lMwfchMidte^piu^^bbdwkBithapylbiffthe
leather*
P oimlr— A hawk ° nukes her point ** when the rises in the air over
the spot where quarry has saved itself from capture 1 by dashing
iatoa hedge, or has otherwise secreted itself.
Fomurji A hawk's ckuss*
Pull Hmoutk ike Am*.— A hawk is said to pull through the hood
when she eats with it on*
Put m.— -A bird is said to M put In M when It saves Itself from the
hawk by dashing Into covert or other place of security.
Osj siij. T he bird or beast flows at.
Rake imt— A hawk is said to " rake out " when she flies, while
" rating on " (see Wail on), too far and wide from her master.
Red *W»k— Hawks of die first year, la the young plumage, are
called " red bawkai"
Ri*fimf.~A bird it said to " ring " when it rises spirally la the air*
JUfler Mood,"- An easy fitting hood, not, however, convenient for
hooding and tmbooding— used only for hawks when first
e , a *8K? dL . ^'"fc^
Tasfr The wings qf a aawftv
5«*sfc- Closing the eyes by a fine thread diawa through the ltd
of each eye, the threads being then twisted together above the
«43
jcvstsg
head—a practice long disused in England,
tag a Jaswa>-Drtving oat quarry which has
2s "nut in." /
takea refuge, or
Stoop*— The hawk's rapid plunge upon the quarry.
Take Ike air.— A birdV said to ^take the air*' when it seeks, to
escape by trying to rise higher than the falcon.
Ti mxe i. T he mle of various foods*, particularly of the peregrine,
also tareetf, taaseU or tend; the term is also applied to the male
of die goshawk.
7V*u*»r.-— A hawk is said to " truss** a bird when she catches ft
'in the air, and comes to the ground with it in her talons: this
team ia not applied to large quarry. (Set Bind.)
VantU.Staaii rings, generally of silver, fastened to the end of the
jesses, and engraved with the owners name.
Wait on.— A hawk b said to " wait on " when she flies above her
Blaster waiting till game is sprung.
W iQ tkt r img* Hawks are " weathered " by being placed unhooded
ia the open air* Passage hawks which ave not sufficiently
reclaimed to be left out by themselves unhooded on blocks are
" w<at *'? re<t " ty **"¥ put out for an hour or two under the
ror*sv--Aa Eastern term, generally applied to short-winged
hawks. When a hawk is keen, and in hunting condition, she
«a sssd to be " in yank."
Tbe training of hawks affords much scope for Judgment,
experience and skill on the part of the falconer, who must care-
fully observe the temper and disposition as well as the constitu-
tion of each bird. It is through the appetite principally that
hawks, Uke most wild animals, are tamed ; but to fit them for use
in the field much patience, gentleness and care must be used.
Slovenly taming necessitates starving, and low condition and
weakness are the result. The aim of the falconer must be
to have bis hawks always keen, and the appetite when they are
brought into the field should be such as would Induce the bird
in a state of nature to put forth its full powers to obtain its food,
with, as near as possible, a corresponding condition as to flesh.
The following is an ootiiae of the process of training hawks,
beginning with the management of a wild-caught peregrine
fakon. When first taken, a rufter hood should be put on ber
head, and she must be furnished with jesses, swivel, leash and
beU. A thick; glove or rather gauntlet must be worn on the left
hand (Eastern falconers always carry a hawk on the tight),
and she must be carried about as much as possible, late into
the night, every day, being constantly stroked with a bird's
wins; or feather, very lightly at first. At night she should be
tied to a perch in a room with tbe window darkened, so that no
light can enter in the morning. The perch should be a padded
pose placed across the room, about 4) ft. from the ground,
with a canvas screen underneath. She wnl easily be induced
to feed in most cases by drawing a piece of heefsteak over her
feet, brushing her legs at the time with a wing, and now and
then, as she snaps* slipping a morsel into her mouth. Care must
be taken to make a peculiar sound with the lips or tongue, or to
use a low wmstle as she bin the act of swallowing; she will very
soon learn to associate this sound with feeding, and it will be
found that directly she hears it, she will gripe with her talons,
and bend down to feel for food. When tbe falconer perceives
this and other signs of her " coming to/' that she no longer
starts at the voice or touch, and steps quietly up from tire perch
when the hand is placed under her feet, it wfli be time to change
her rufter hood for the ordinary hood. This latter should be very
carefully chosen— an easy fitting one, in which the braces draw
closely and yet easily and without jerking. An old one previously
worn is to be recommended. The hawk should be taken into a
very dash room— one absolutely dark is best— and the change
should be made if possible in total darkness. After this she 1
most be brought to feed with her hood off; at first she must be
fed every day in a darkened room, a gleam of light being admitted.
The first day, the hawk having seised the food and begun to
pufl at it freely, the hood must be gently slipped off, and after
•he has eaten a moderate quantity, it must be replaced as slowly
end gently as possible, and she should be aOowed to finish her
meal through the hoed. Best day the hood may be twice re-
moved, and so on; day by day the practice should be continued,
and more light gradually admitted, until the hawk will feed
freely fa broad daylight, and suffer the hood to be taken off and
replaced without opposition. Next she must be accustomed to
see and feed in the presence of strangers and dogs, &c. A good
plan Is to carry her in the streets of a town at night, at first
where the gas-light Is not strong, and where persons passing by
toe few, unhooding and hooding her from time to time, but not
letting her get frightened. Up to this time she should be fed
eh lean beefsteak with no castings, but as soon as she is tolerably
tame and submits well to the hood, she must occasionally be
fed with pigeons and other birds. This should be done not later
than 5 or 4 *.*., and when she Is placed on her perch for the
night in the dark room, she must be unhooded and left so, of
course being carefully tied up. The falconer should enter the
room about 7 or 8 a.m. next day, admitting as little light as
possible, or using a candle. He should first observe if she hag
thrown her casting; if so, he will at once take her to the fist,
giving her a bite of food, and re-hood her. If her casting is not
thrown it is better for him to retire, leaving the room quite dark,
and come in again later. She must now be taught to know the
voice—the about that is used to call her in the field— and tq
jump to the fist for food, the voice being used every time she h)
fed. When she comes freely to the fist she must be made ac-
quainted with the lure. Kneeling down with the hawk on his
fist, and gentry unhooding her, the falconer casts out a luref
which may be either a dead pigeon or an artificial lure garnished
with beefsteak tied to a string, to a distance of a couple or three
feet in front of her. When she jumps down to ft, she should be
allowed to eat a httle on it— the voice bemg used— the while
receiving morsels from the falconer's hand; and before her meat
b finished she must be taken off to the hand, being induced to
forsake the lure for the hand by a tempting piece of meat'
This treatment will help to check her inclination hereafter to
carry her quarry. This lesson is to be continued till the falcon 1
feeds very boldly on the lure on the ground, in the falconer's
presence— till she will suffer him to walk round her while she is
feeding. All this time she will have been held by the leash only,
but in the next step a strong, but light crcance must be made
fast to the leash, and an assistant holding the hawk shonlj
unhood her, as the falconer, standing at a distance of 5 to xo yds'. .
calls her by shouting and casting out the lure. Gradually day
after day the distance is increased, till the hawk will come 30 yds. 1
or so without hesitation; then she may be trusted to fly to the
lure at liberty, and by degrees from any distance, say 1000 yds:
This accomplished, she should learn to stoop at the hire. Instead
of allowing the hawk to seise upon it as she comes up, the falconer
should snatch tbe lure away and let her pass by, and immediately
put it out that she may readily seise it when she turns round td
look for it. This should be done at first only once, and then,
progressively until she will stoop backwards and forwards at the
lure as often as desired. Next she should be entered at her 1
quarry. Should she be intended for rooks or herons, two or three
of these birds should be procured. One should be given het
from the hand, then one should be released close to her, and X
third at a considerable distance. If she take these keenly, she
may be flown at a wild bird. Care must, however, be taken td
*44
EALCQfcJRX
let her have every possible advantage in her first flints— wind
and weather, and the position of the quarry with regard.to the
surrounding country, must be considered.
Young hawks, on being received by the falconer before they
can fly, must be put into a sheltered place, such as an outhouse,
or shed. Their basket or hamper should be filled wkh straw.
A hamper is best, with the lid so placed as to form a platform
for the young hawk* to come out upon to feed This should
be fastened to a beam or prop a few feet from the ground.
The young hawks must be most plentifully fed on the best fresh
food obtainable— good beefsteak and fresh-killed birds; the
falconer when feeding them should use bis voice as in luring.
As they grow old enough they will come out, and perch about the
roof of their shed, by degrees extending their flights to neighbour-
ing buildings or trees, never failing to come at feeding time to
the place where they are fed. Soon they will be continually
on the wing, playing or fighting with one another, and later the
falconer. wUl observe them chasing other birds, as pigeons and
rooks, which may be passing by. As soon as one rails to come
for a meal, it must be at once caught with a bow net or a snare
the first time it comes back, or it will be lost. It must be borne
in mind that the longer hawks can be left at hack the better they
are likely to be for use in the field— those hawks being always
the best which have preyed a few times for themselves before
being caught. Of course there is great risk of losing hawks when
they begin to prey for themselves* When a hawk is so caught
she is said to be " taken up " from hack. She will not require a
rufter hood, but a good deal of the management described for
the passage falcon will be necessary. She must be carefully
tamed and broken to the hood in the same manner, and so
taught to know the lure; but, as might be expected, very much
less difficulty will be experienced. As soon as the eyas knows the
lure sufficiently well to come to it sharp and straight from a
distance, she must be taught to ." wait on." This is effected
by letting the hawk loose in an open place, such as a down.
It will be found that she will circle round the falconer looking
for the lure she has been accustomed to see— perhaps mount a
little in the air, and advantage must be taken of a favourable
moment when the hawk is at a little height, her head being turned
in towards the falconer, to let go a pigeon which she can easily
catch. When the hawk has taken two or three pigeons in this
way, and mounts immediately in expectation, in short, begins
to wait on, she should see no more pigeons, but be tried at game
as soon as possible. Young peregrines should be flown at
grouse' first in preference to partridges, not only because the
season commences earlier, but because, grouse being the heavier
birds, they are not so much . tempted toj^' carry" as with
partridges. ' "
' The training of the great northern' falcons, as well as that of
merlins and hobbies, is conducted much on the above principles,
but the . jeriakons (gerfalcons or gyrfalcqns) will seldom wait pa
.well, and merlins will not do it at aU. _ _ ■■ ' j
The training of short-winged hawks is a simpler process.
They must, like falcons, be provided with jesses, swivel, leash and
belt In these hawks a bell is sometimes fastened to the tail.
Sparrow-hawks can, however, scarcely carry a bell big enough to
be of any service. The hood is seldom used for short-winged
hawks— never in the field. They must be made as tame as
possible by carriage on the fist and the society of man, and taught
to come to the fist freely when required — at first to jump to it in a
room, and then out of doors. - When the goshawk comes freely
and without hesitation from short distances, she ought to be
called from long distances from the hand of an assistant, but not
oftener than twice in each meal, until she will come at least
1000 yds., on each occasion being well rewarded with some food
She likes very much, as a fresh-killed bird, warm. When she
does this freely, and endures the presence of strangers, dogs, &c. f
a few bagged rabbits should be given to her, and she will be ready
to take the field. Some accustom the goshawk to the use of the
lure, for the purpose of taking her if she will not come to the
fist in the field when she has taken stand in a tree after being
baulked of her quarry, but it ought not to be necessary to use it.
"Falcons or long-*ringed hawks are either "flown out of the
hood," i.e. unhooded and slipped when the quarry ft in sight,
or they are made to "wait on "till game is flushed Herons and
rooks are always taken by the former method. Passage hawks
are generally employed for flying at these birds, though some-
times good eyases are quite equal to the work, For heron-
hawking a well-stocked heronry is in the first place necessary.
Next an open country which can be ridden over o v er which
herons are in the constant habit of passing to and from their
heronry on their fishing excursions, or making their " passage."
A herdn found at his feeding-place at a brook or pond affords no
sport whatever. If there be little water any peregrine falcon
that will go straight at him wfll seize him soon after he rises.
It is sometimes advisable to fly a young falcon at a heron so
found, but it should not be repeated. If there be much water
the heron wfll neither show sport nor be captured. It is quite a
different affair when he is sighted winging his way at a height
in the air over an open tract of country free from water. Though
he has no chance whatever of competing with a falcon in straight-
forward flight, the heron has large concave wings, a very light
body proportionately, and air-cells in his bones, and can rise with
astonishing rapidity, more perpendicularly, or, in other words,
in smaller rings, than the falcon can, with very little effort.
As soon as he sees the approach of the falcon, which he usually
does almost directly she is cast off, he makes play for the upper
regions. Then the falcon commences to climb too to get above
him, but in a very different style. She makes very large drdes
or rings, travelling at a high rate of speed, due to her strength and
weight and power of flying, till she rises above the heron. Then
she makes her attack by stooping with great force at the quarry,
sometimes falling so far below it as the blow is evaded that she
cannot spring up to the proper pitch for the next stoop, and has
to make another ring to regain her lost command over the heron,
which is ever rising, and so on—the " field " meanwhile galloping
down wind In the direction the flight is taking till six seizes
the heron aloft, " binds " to him, and both come down together.
Absurd stories have been told and pictures drawn of the heron
receiving the falcon on its beak in the air. It fe, however,
well known to all practical falconers that the heron has no power
or inclination to fight with a falcon in the air; so long as he
is flying he seeks safety solely from his wings. When on the
ground, however, should the falcon be deficient in skill or
strength, or have been mutilated by the coping of her beak and
talons, as was sometimes formerly done in Holland with a view
to saving the heron's life, the heron may use his dagger-like bill
with dangerous effect, though it is very rare for a falcon to be
injured. It is never safe to fly the goshawk at a heron of any
description. Short-winged hawks do not immediately kill their
quarry as falcons do, nor do they seem to know where the life
lies, and seldom shift their hold once taken even to defend
themselves; and they are therefore easily subbed by a heron.
Rooks arc flown in the same manner as herons, but the flight
is generally inferior. Although rooks fly very well, they seek
shelter in trees or bushes as soon as possible. ^
For game-hawking eyases are generally used, though un-
doubtedly passage or wild-caught hawks, are to be preferred.
The best game hawks we have seen have been passage hawks,
but there are diihcuUies attending the use of them. It may
perhaps be fairly said that it is easy to make all passage hawks
" wait on " in grand style, but until tbey have got over a season
or two they are very liable to be lost. Among the advantages
attending the use of eyases are the following; they are easier
to obtain and to train and keep; they also moult far better
and quicker than passage hawks, while if lost in the field they
will often go home by themselves, or remain about the spot
where they were liberated. Experience, and, we must add,
some good fortune also, are requisite to make eyases good for
wailing on for game. Slight mistakes on the part of the falconer,
false points from dogs, or bad luck in serving, will cause a young
hawk to acquire bad habits, such as sitting down on the ground,
taking stand in a tree, raking out wide, skimmiog the ground,
or lazily flying about at no height. A good game hawk in proper
FALCONRY
HS
lying order goo up *i ence to a good pitch ia the sir— the
higher she flies the better— and follows her master from field to
add, always ready (or a stoop when the quarry is sprung.
Hawks that have been successfully broken and judiciously
worked become wonderfully cUver, and soon learn to regulate
their flight by the movements of their master. Eyases were not
held in esteem by the old falconers, and it is evident from their
writing* that these hawks have been very much better understood
sad managed in the 10th century than in the middle ages.
It is probable that the old falconers procured their passage
and wild-caught hawks with such facility, having at the same
time more scope for their use in days when quarry was more
abundant and there was more waste land than there now is,
that they did not find it necessary to trouble themselves about
eyases. Here' may be quoted a few lines from one of the best
of the old writers, which may be taken as giving a fair account
of the estimation in which eyases were generally held, and from
which it is evident that the old falcoqers did not understand
flying hawks at hack. Simon Latham, writing in 1033, says of
eyases :
They will be verie easily brought to familiaritie with the man,
not in the house only, but also abroad, hooded or unhooded; nay,
many of them will be more gentle and quiet when unhooded than
when hooded, for if a nan doe but stirre or speake in their bearing,
they will crfe and bate as though they did desire to see the man.
Likewise some of them being enhooded, when they see the man
will cowre and crie, shewing thereby their exceeding fondness and
fawning love towards him . . .
. . . These land of hawks be all (for the most part) taken out
of the nest while verie young, even in the downe, from whence
they are put into a close house, whereas they be alwaies fed and
familiarly brought up by the man, untill they bee able to flie, when
as the summer approaching verie suddenly they are continued
and trained up in the same, the weather being alwaies warm and
temperate; thus they are still inured to familiaritie with the man,
sot Knowing from whence besides to letch their relief or sustenance.
When the summer b ended they bee commonly put up into a house
again, or else kept in some warm place, for they cannot endure the
eotd wind to blow upon them, . . . But leaving to speak of these
kmd of scratching hawks that I never did love should come too
seere my angers, and to return unto the faire conditioned haggard
faukon. ...
The author here describes with accuracy the condition of
unbacked eyases, which no modern falconer would trouble
himself to keep. Many English falconers in modern times have
had eyases which have killed grouse, ducks and other quarry in a
style almost equalling that of passage hawks. Rooks also have
been moat successfully flown, and some herons on passage have
been taken by eyases. No sport is to be had at game without
hawks that wait on welL Moors, downs, open country where
the hedges are low and weak are best suited to game hawking.
Pointers or setters may be used to find game, or the hawk may be
let go on coming to the ground where game is known to lie,
and suffered, if an experienced one, to " wait on " till game is
noshed. However, the best plan with most hawks, young ones
especially, is to use a dog, and to let the hawk go when the dog
points, and to flush, the birds as soon as the hawk is at her pitch.
It is not by any means necessary that the hawk should be near
the birds when they rise, provided she is at a good height, and
that she is watching; she will come at once with a rush out of
the air at great speed, and either cut one down with the stoop,
or the bird will save itself by putting in, when every exertion
must be made, especially if the hawk be young and inexperienced,
to " serve " her as soon as possible by driving out the bird again
•hue she waits overhead. If this be successfully done she is
nearly certain to kill it at the second flight. Perhaps falcons
are best for grouse and tiercels for partridges.
Magpies afford much sport. Only tiercels should be used for
hunting magpies. A field is necessary— at the very least 4 or 5
runners to beat the magpie out, and perhaps the presence of a
horseman is an advantage. Of course in open flight a magpie
would be almost immediately caught by a tiercel peregrine,
and there would be no sport, but the magpie makes up for lus
*ant of power of wing by bis cunning and shiftiness; and he is,
moreover, never to be found except where he has shelter under
kis lee for security from a passing peregrine. Once in a hedge
X. 8*
or tree he is perfectly safe from the wild falcon, but the case is
otherwise when the falconer approaches with his trained tiercel,
perhaps a cast of tiercels, waiting on in the air, with some
active runners in his field. Then driven from hedge to hedge,
from one kind of shelter to another, stooped at every instant
when he shows himself ever so little away from cover by the
watchful tiercels overhead, his egg-stealing days are brought to
an end by a fatal stroke— sometimes not before the field is preiiy
well exhausted with running and shouting. The magpie always
manoeuvres towards some thick, wood, from which it is the aim
of the field to cut him off. At first hawks must be flown in
easy country, but when they understand their work well they
will kill magpies in wry enclosed country— with a smart active
field a magpie may even be pushed through a small wood.
Magpie hawking affords excellent exercise, not only for those who
run to serve the hawks, but for the hawks also; they get a great
deal of flying, and learn to hunt in company with men— any
number of people may be present. Blackbirds may be hunted
with tiercels in the same way. Woodcock afford capital sport
where the country is tolerably open. It will generally be found
that after a hawk has made one stoop at a woodcock, the cock
will at first try to escape by taking the air, and will show a very
fine flight. When beaten in the air it will try to get back to
covert again, but when once a hawk has outflows a woodcock,
he is pretty sure to kill it. Hawks seem to pursue woodcock
with great keenness; something in the flight of the cock tempts
them to exertion. The laziest and most useless hawks — hawks
that will scarcely follow a slow pigeon— will do their best at
woodcock, and will very soon, if the sport is continued, be im-
proved in their style of flying. Snipe may be killed by first-class
tiercels in favourable localities. Wild duck and teal are only to
be flown at when they can be found in small pools or brooks
at a distance from much water— where the fowl can be suddenly
flushed by men or dogs while the falcon is flying at her pitch
overhead. For duck, falcons should be used; tiercels will kill
teal welL
The merlin is used for flying at larks, and there does not seem
to be any other use to which this pretty little falcon may fairly,
be put. It is very active, but far from-being, as some authors
have stated, the swiftest of all hawks. Its flight is greatly
inferior in speed and power. to that of the peregrine. Perhaps
its diminutive size, causing it to be soon lost to view, and a
limited acquaintance with the flight of the wild peregrine falcon,
have led to the mistake.
The hobby is far swifter than the merlin, but cannot be said
to be efficient in the field; it may be trained to wait on beauti-
fully, and will sometimes take larks; it is very much given to
the fault of " carrying."
The three great northern falcons are not easy to procure in
proper condition for training. They are very difficult to break
to the hood and to manage in the field They are flown, like the
peregrine, at herons and rooks, and in former days were used
for kites and hares. Their style of flight is magnificent; they
are considerably swifter than the peregrine, and are a most deadly
" footers." They seem, however, to lack somewhat of the spirit,
and dash of the peregrine.
For the short- winged hawks an open country is not required;
Indeed they may be flown in a wood. Goshawks are flown at
hares, rabbits, pheasants, partridges and wild-fowl Only
very strong females are able to take bares; rabbits are easy
quarry for any female goshawk, and a little too strong for the
male, A good female goshawk may kill from xo to 15 rabbits
in a day, or more. For pheasants the male is to be preferred,
certainly for partridges; either sex will take duck and teal,
but the falconer must get dose to them before they arc flushed,
or the goshawk will stand a poor chance of killing Rabbit
hawking may be practised by ferreting, and flying the hawk
as the rabbits bolt, but care must be taken or the hawk will
kill the ferret Where rabbits sit out on grass or in turnip fields,
a goshawk may be used with success, even in a wood when the
holes are not too near. From various causes it is impossible, or
nearly so, tohaye goshawks in England in the perfection to which
I+6
FALCONRY
they are brought in the East. In India, for instance, there is a
far greater variety of quarry suited to them, and wild birds are
much more approachable; moreover, there are advantages for
training which do not exist in England. Unmolested— and
scarcely noticed except perhaps by others of his calling or tastes —
the Eastern falconer carries his hawk by day and night in the
crowded bazaars, till the bird becomes perfectly indifferent to
men, horses, dogs, carriages, and, in short, becomes as tame as
the domestic animals.
The management of sparrow-hawks is much the same as that
of goshawks, but they are far more delicate than the latter.
They are 'flown in England at blackbirds, thrushes and other
small birds; good ones will take partridges well till the birds
get too wild and strong with the advancing season. In the East
large numbers of quail are taken with sparrow-hawks.
It is of course important that hawks from which work in the
field is expected should be kept in the highest health, and they
must be carefully fed; no bad or tainted meat must on any
account be given to them— at any rate to hawks of the species
used in England. Peregrines and the great northern falcons
are best kept on beefsteak, with a frequent change in the shape
of fresh-killed pigeons and other birds. The smaller falcons,
the merlin and the hobby, require a great number of small birds
to keep them in good health for any length of time. Goshawks
should be fed like peregrines, but rats and rabbits are very good
as change of food for them. The sparrow-hawk, like the small
falcons, requires small birds. All hawks require castings fre-
quently. It is true that hawks will exist, and often appear to
thrive, on good food without castings, but the seeds of probable
injury to their health are being sown the whole time they are so
kept. If there is difficulty in procuring birds, and it is more con-
venient to feed the hawks on beefsteak, they should frequently
get the wings and heads and necks of game and poultry. In
addition to the castings which they swallow, tearing these is
good exercise for them, and biting the bones prevents the beaks
from overgrowing. Most hawks, peregrines especially, require
the bath. The end of a cask, sawn off to give a depth of about
6 in., makes a very good bath. Peregrines which are used for
waiting on require a bath at least twice a week. If this be
neglected, they will not wait long before going off in search,
of water to bathe, however hungry they may be.
The most agreeable and the best way, where practicable,
of keeping hawks is to have them on blocks on the lawn. Each
hawk's block should stand in a circular bed of sand— about 8 ft.
in diameter; this will be found very convenient for keeping
them dean. Goshawks are generally placed on bow perches,
which ought not to be more than 8 or 9 in. high at the highest
part of the arc. It will be several months before passage or wild-
caught falcons can be kept out of doors; they must be fastened
to a perch in a darkened room, hooded, but by degrees as they
get thoroughly tame may be brought to sit on the lawn. In
England (especially in the south) peregrines, the northern falcons
and goshawks may be kept out of doors aU day and night in a
sheltered situation. In very wild boisterous weather, or in snow
or sharp frost, it will be advisable to move them to the shelter
of a shed, the floor of which should be laid with sand to a depth of
3 or 4 in. Merlins and hobbies are too tender to be kept much
out of doors. An eastern aspect is to be preferred — all birds
enjoy the morning sun, and it is very beneficial to them. The
more hawks confined to blocks out of doors see of persons, dogs,
horses, &c, moving about the better, but of course only when
there is no danger of their being frightened or molested, or of
food being given to them by strangers. Those who have only
seen wretched ill-fed hawks in cages as in zoological gardens or
menageries, pining for exercise, with battered plumage, torn
shoulders and bleeding ceres, from dashing against their prison
bars, and overgrown beaks from never getting bones to break,
can have little idea of the beautiful and striking-looking birds
to be seen pluming their feathers and stretching their wings at
their ease at their blocks on the falconer's lawn, watching with
their large bright keen eyes everything that moves in the sky
and everywhere else within the limits of their view. Contrary
to the prevailing notion, hawks show a good deal af attatkmeat
when they have been properly handled* It is true thai by
hunger they are in a great measure tanked and controlled, and
the same may be said of all undomestioated and many done*!*
cated animals. And instinct prompts all wild creature* wbea
away from man's control to return to their former shyness,
but hawks certainly retain their lameness for a long time, and
their memory is remarkably retentive. Wild-caught hawks have
been retaken, either by their coming to the lure or upon quany,
from 2 to 7 days after they bad been lost, and eyases after 3
weeks. As one instance of retentfveness of memory displayed by
hawks we may mention the case of a wild-caught falcon whkb
was recaptured after being at liberty more than 3 years, still
bearing the jesses which were cut short dose to the leg at the lime
she was released; in five days she was flying at the hut again
at liberty, and was found to retain the peculiar ways and habits
she was observed to have in her former existence as a trained
hawk. It is usdess to bring a hawk into the field unless she bas
a keen appetite; if she has not, she will neither hunt effectually
nor follow her master. Even wild-caught falcons, however,
may sometimes be seen so attached to their owner that, when
sitting on their blocks on a lawn with food in their crops, they
will on his coming out of the house bate hard to get to him, uH
he either go up to them and allow them to jump up to his band
or. withdraw from their sight. Goshawks are also known to
evince attachment to thdr owner. Another prevailing error
regarding hawks is that they are supposed to be 4azy birds,
requiring the stimulus of hunger to stir them to action. The
reverse is the truth; they are birds of very active habits, and
exceedingly restless, and the notion of their being lazy has been
propagated by those who have seen little or nothing of hawks
in their wild state. The wild falcon requires an immense deal
of exercise, and to be in wind, in order to exert the speed and
power of flight necessary to capture her prey when hungry;
and to this end instinct prompts her to spend hours daily on the
wing, soaring and playing about in the air in all weathers,
often chasing birds merely for play or exercise. Sometimes she
takes a siesta when much gorged, but unless she fills her crop
late in the evening she is soon moving again— before half her
crop is put over. Goshawks and sparrow-hawks, too, habimaOy
soar in the air at about or to a.m., and remain aloft a consider-
able time, but these birds are not of such active habits as the
falcons. The frequent bating of thoroughly tame hawks from
thdr blocks, even when not hungry or frightened, proves theh
restlessness and impatience of repose.' So does the wretched
condition of the caged falcon (before alluded to), while the really
lazy buzzards and kites, which do not in a wild state depend on
activity or power of wing for their sustenance, maintain them-
selves for years, even during confinement if properly fed, in good
case and plumage. Such being the habits of the falcon in a
state of nature, the falconer should endeavour to give the hawks
under his care as much flying as possible, and he should avoid
the very common mistake of keeping too many hawks. • In this
case a favoured few are sure to get all the work, and the others,
possibly equally good if they had fair play, are spoiled for want
of exercise.
The larger hawks may be kept in health and working order
for several years— 1 5 or 20— barring accidents. The writer has
known peregrines, shaheens and goshawks to reach ages between
15 and 20 years. Goshawks, however, never-fly well after 4 or
S seasons, when they will no longer take difficult quarry; they
may be used at rabbits as long as they live. Shaheens may be
seen in the East at an advanced age, killing wild-fowl beautifully.
The shaheen h a falcon of the peregrine type, which does not
travel, like the peregrine, all over the world. It appears that
the jerfalcons also may be worked to a good age. Old Simon
Latham tells us of these birds— "I myself have known one
of them an excellent Hearnor (killer of herons), and to continue
her goodnesse very near twentie yeeres, or full out that time."
Authorities.— Schlegd't Traili d* Jaucotuurie contain* a very
large list of works on falconry in the languages of all the principal
countries of the Old World. BiMietheca accipitraria, by J. E»
FALDSTOOL— FALGUIERE
J+7
„ _j the badminton Library; and Tm Art and Practice of
Hamkmg, by E. B. Mlchett (1900), the beat modern book on the
Harting (1891). fives a complete bibliograpj
subject. Perhaps the most useful of the old works are The Boohs
of Famlcemrie or Hawking, by George TurberviU© (iS75)> and The
Fatdam*s Lure and Cure, by Simon Latham (1633). (£. D. R.)
FALDSTOOL (from the O.H. Ger. falden or fallen, to fold,
and sfsws*, Mod Ger. StiM t a stool; from the medieval Latin
feUisUlism is derived, through the old form faudesiatil, the
Mod. Fr.fauUuil}, properly * folding seat for the use of a bishop
when not occupying the throne in his own cathedral, or when
officiating in a cathedral or church other than his own; hence
any movable folding stool used for kneeling in divine service.
The small desk or stand from which' the Litany is read is some-
times called a faldstool, and a similar stool is provided for the
use of the sovereign at bis coronation.
FALERTI [mod. Cintd Castettana (q.v.)], one of the twelve
chief cities of Etruria, situated about x m. W. of the ancient
Via Flamtaia, 1 3* m. N. of Rome. According to the legend, it
was of Argive origin; and Strata's assertion that the population,
the Falisci (?.».), were of a different race from the Etruscans is
proved by the language of the earliest inscriptions which have
been found here. Wars b e t ween Rome and the Falisci appear
to have been frequent. To one of the first of them belongs the
story of the schoolmaster who wished to betray his boys to
C&mtUus; the latter refused his offer, and the inhabitants
thereupon surrendered the dty. At the end of the First Funic
War, the Falisci rose in rebellion, but were soon conquered
(241 B.C.) and lost half their territory. Zonaras (viii. 18) tells
us that the ancient dty, built upon a precipitous hill, was
destroyed and another built on a more accessible site on the plain.
The description of the two sites agrees well with the usual
theory that the original dty occupied the site of the present
Gvita Castellans, and that the ruins of FaHeri (as the place is
now called) are those of the Roman town which was thus trans-
ferred 3 m. to the north-west. After this time Falerii hardly
appears in history. It became a colony (Junonia Faliscorum)
perhaps under Augustus, though according to the inscriptions
apparently not until the time of Gallienua. There were bishops
of Falerii up till 1033, when the desertion of the place in favour
of the present site began, and the last mention of it dates from
AJ>. IO64.
The site of the original Falerii is 'a plateau, about nocTyde,
by 400, not higher than the surrounding country (475 ft.) but
separated from it by gorges over 200 ft. in depth, and only
connected with it on the western side, which was strongly
fortified with a mound and ditch; the rest of the dty was
defended by walls constructed of rectangular blocks of tufa, of
which some remains still exist. Remains of a temple were
found at Lo Scasato, at the highest point of the ancient town,
in 1888, and others have been excavated in the outskirts. The
attribution of one of these to Juno Quiritis is uncertain. These
buddings were of wood, with fine decorations of .coloured terra-
cotta {Notitu degli scan, 1887, p. 92; x888, p. 414). Numerous
tombs hewn in the rock are visible on all sides of the town,
aod» important discoveries have been made in them; many
objects, both from the temples and from the tombs, are in the
Museo ch* Villa Giulia at Rome. Similar finds have also been
made at Calcata, 6 m. S., and Corchiano, 5 m. N.W. The site
of the Roman Falerii is now entirely abandoned. It lay upon a
road which may have been (see H. Nisscn, Ilolischc Landeskundt,
a. 361) the Via Annia, a by-road of the Via Cassia; this road
approached it from the south passing through Nepet, while its
prolongation to the north certainly bore the name Via Amerina.
The circuit of the city is about 2250 yds., its shape roughly
triangular, and the walls are a remarkably fine and well-preserved
specimen of Roman military architecture. They arc constructed
« The Roman town lay 3 m. farther N.W. on the Via Annia. The
Via Flaxninia, which did not traverse the Etruscan- city, had two
poct-«Utions near it, Aquaviva, some 2} m. S.E., and Aequum
Faincum. 4} m. N.N.E.; the latter is very possibly identical with
the Etruscan site which G. Demits (Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria,
London, 1863, L 121) identified with Fescennium (q.v.). See
O. Cunts in Jahreshefk das dsterr. arch, Inst, ii (1899), 87.
of rectangular blocks of tufa two Roman ft in height; the
walls themselves reach in places a height of 56 ft. and are 7 to
o ft. thick. There were about 80 towers, some 50 of which are
still preserved. Two of the gates also, of which there were eight,
are noteworthy. Of the buildings within the walls hardly any-
thing is preserved above ground, though the forum and theatre
(as also the amphitheatre, the arena of which measured 180 by
108 ft. Outside the walls) were all excavated in the 19th century.
Almost the only edifice now standing is the 12th-century abbey
church of S. Maria. Recent excavations have shown that the
plan of the whole dty could easily be recovered, though the
buildings have suffered considerable- devastation {Not ate degli
See C. Dennuv Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883), i.
97; for philology and ethnology see Falisci. (t. As.)
FALERIO (rood. Faleronc), an andent town of Picenum, Italy,
about 10 m. S.E. of Urbs Salvia. We know almost nothing of
the place except from inscriptions, from which, and from the
remains of its buildings, it appears to have been of some import*
ance. It was probably founded as a colony by Augustus after
his victory at Actium. A question arose in the time of Domitian
between the inhabitants of Falerio and Firmum as to land
which had been taken out of the territory of the latter (which
was recolonized by the triumvirs), and, though not distributed
to the new settlers, had not been given back again to the people
of Firmum. The emperor, by a rescript, a copy^of which in
bronze was found at Falerio, decided in favour of the people of
Falerio, that the occupiers of this land should remain in possession
of it (Th. Mommsen in Corp. Inscr. Latin, ix., Berlin, 1883,
No. s, 420). Considerable remains of a theatre in concrete
faced with brickwork, erected, according to an inscription,
in 43 B-C, and 161 ft. in diameter, were excavated in 183ft
and are stul visible; and an amphitheatre, less well preserved,
also exists, the arena of which measures about 180 by 150 ft.
Between the two is a water reservoir (called Bagnodella Regina)
connected with remains of baths.
See G. de Minids in Giornale Arcadico, lv. (1832), 160 seq.s
Attnali deW IstUuh (1839), 5 <*q- (T. As.)
FALOUIBRB, JEAN ALEXANDRE JOSEPH (1831-1000),
French sculptor and painter, was born at Toulouse. A pupil of
the Ecole des Beaux Arts he won the Prix de Rome in 1859; he
was awarded the medal of honour at the Salon in 1868 and was
appointed officer of the Legion of Honour in 1878. His first
bronze statue of importance was the " Victor of the Cock-Fight "
(1864), and " Tarcisus the Christian Boy-Martyr " followed in
1867; both are now in the Luxembourg Museum. His more
important monuments are those to Admiral Courbct (1890) at
Abbeville and the famous " Joan of Arc." Among more ideal
work are " Eve " (1880), " Diana " (1882 and 1891), " Woman
and Peacock," and " The Poet," astride his Pegasus spreading
wings for flight. His " Triumph of the Republic " (1 881-1886),
a vast quadriga for the Arc de Triomphe, Paris, is perhaps more
amazingly full of life than others of his works, all of which
reveal this quality of vitality in superlative degree. To these
works should be added his monuments to " Cardinal Lavigerie "
and " General de La Fayette " (the latter in Washington),
and his statues of " Lamartine " (1876) and " St Vincent de
Paul " (1879), as well as the " Balzac," which he executed for the
SociSti des gens de lettres on the rejection of that by Rodin;
and the busts of " Carolus-Duran " and " CoqueEn cadet "
(1806).
Falguiere was a painter as well as a sculptor, but somewhat
inferior in merit. He displays a fine sense of colour and tone,
added to the qualities of life and vigour that he instils into his
plastic work, His " Wrestlers " (1875) and " Fan and Dagger n
(1882; a defiant Spanish woman) are in the Luxembourg, and
other pictures of importance are " The Beheading of St John
the Baptist u (1877), " The Sphinx " (1883), " Ads and Galatea °
(1885), " Old Woman and Child " (1886) and " In the Bull
Slaughtcr-House," He became a member of the Institute
(Academie des Beaux-Arts) in 1882. He died in 1000.
Sec Leonce Benedite, Alexandre Falguiere, Librairie de 1'art
(Paris).'
H$
FALIERO— FALK
FALIERO (or Faiier), MARINO (1270-13S5). do** of Venice,
belonged to one of the oldest and most illustrious Venetian
families and had served the republic with distinction in various
capacities. In 1346 he commanded the Venetian land forces
at the siege of Zara, where he was attacked by the Hungarians
under King Louis the Great and totally defeated them; this
victory led to the surrender of the city. In September 1354,
while absent on a mission to Pope Innocent IV. at Avignon,
Faliero was elected doge, an honour which apparently he had
not sought. His reign began, as it was to end, in disaster, for
very soon after his election the Venetian fleet was completely
destroyed by the Genoese off the island of Sapienxa, while plague
and a declining commerce aggravated the situation. Although a
capable commander and a good statesman, Faliero possessed a
violent temper, and after his election developed great ambition.
The constitutional restrictions of the ducal power, which had been
further curtailed just before his election, and the insolence of
the nobility aroused in him a desire to free himself from all
control, and the discontent of the arsenal hands at their treat-
ment by the nobles offered him his opportunity. In concert with
a sea-captain named Bertucdo Ixarclla (who had received a
blow from the noble Giovanni Dandolo), Filippo Calendario, a
stonemason, and others, a plot was laid to murder the chief
patricians on the 15th of April and proclaim Faliero prince of
Venice. But there was much ferment in the city and disorders
broke out before the appointed time; some of the conspirators
having made revelations, the Council of Ten proceeded to arrest
the ringleaders and to place armed guards all over the town.
Several of the conspirators were condemned to death and others
to various terms of imprisonment. The doge's complicity
having been discovered, he was himself arrested; at the trial
he confessed everything and was condemned and executed on
the 17th of April 1355.
The story of the insult written by Michelc Steno on the doge's
chair is a legend of which no record is found in any contemporary
authority. The motives of Faliero are not altogether clear, as
his past record, even in the judgment of the poet Petrarch,
showed him as a wise, clear-headed man of no unusual ambition.
But possibly the attitude of the aristocracy and the example
offered by the tyrants of neighbouring cities may have induced
him to attempt a similar policy. The only result of the plot
was lo consolidate die puwer of ihc Council of Ten.
BiRLiOGAAritif,— An account of Marino Filicro'i rei^fi U given
In S- KomaninY&pr/d dtKunrenfaUi di V f first 0, lib. in, cap- B. (Venice,
1855) ; M - Sj mn!i>, Le Vitt dri Dow in new edition of Mum tot f hac.,
3, 4, S (Citti di Cj.*tclk>, J 900}. J-or 4prri.1I *-<jrkn are V. Lmrrini's
GenutagU 6, M, Faliero " in the Arzkmo Vrwto of i&oaj " M.
Faliero avanti il Dogado." ifrii. (iSajh and hU exhaust ivr irudy
" M Fsltrro> Lt Cone turn, h ' ibid, (1 ?fcJ7) T The moat recent essay os the
subtle in contained in Horatio Brown's Studta in Vrneinift theory
(London, 1907), wherein all the authorities are set forth. (L. V;»)
FALtavi, a inoc of Sabine origin or connexions, but speaking
a dialect closely akin to Latin, who inhabited the town of Falerii
(q.v.), as well as a considerable tract of the surrounding country,
probably reaching as far south as to include the small town of
Capena. But at the beginning of the historical period, i.e. from
the beginning of the 5th century B.C., and no doubt earlier,
the dominant element in the town was Etruscan; and all through
the wars of the following centuries the town was counted a
member, and sometimes a leading member, of the Etruscan
league (cf. livy iv. 23, v. 17, vii. 17).
In spite of the Etruscan domination, the Faliscans preserved
many traces of their Italic origin, such as the worship of the
deities Juno Quiritis (Ovid, Fasti t vi. 49) and Feronia (Lhry
xxvi. 11), the cult of Dis Soranus. by the Hirfn or fire-leaping
priests on Mount Soracte (Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. 2, 19; Scrvius,
ad Aen. xi. 785, 787), above all the! r language. This is preserved
for us in some 36 short inscriptions, dating from the 3rd and and
centuries B.C., and is written in a peculiar alphabet derived
from the Etruscan, and written from right to left, but showing
some traces of the influence of the Latin alphabet. Its most
characteristic signs
As a specimen of the dialect may be quoted the words written
round the edge of a picture on a patera, the genuineness of which
is established by the fact that they were written before the glaze
was put on: " foied vino pipafo, era carefo," ue. in Latin " hodie
vinum bibam, eras carebo" (R. S. Conway, Italic DieiocU, p.
312, b). This shows some of the phonetic characteristics of the
Faliscan dialect, viz.: —
1. The retention of medial / which in Latin became 6;
2. The representation of an initial Ind.-Eur. gh by/ {Joitd, contrast
Latin hodie) ;
3. The palatalisation of rf-j-consonant i into some sound denoted
merely by *- the central sound of foied, from fo-dM ;
4. The loss of final s, at all events before certain following sounds
(era beside Latin cr&s);
Other characteristics, appearing elsewhere, are:
5. The retention of the velars (Fal. enaudo » Latin quanda ; contrast
Umbrian pan{n^u)\
6. The assimilation of some final consonants to the initial letter
of the next word : " pretod de senatuo sententiad (Conway, lib.
ciL 321), ue. " praetor de senatus sententia " (senatuo tor senaiuo*..
fl«. \:\i,7\r, y,
where reason is given for thinking that the change of initial/ (from
an original bh or dh) into an initial * was a genuine mark of Fall scan
dialect.
It seems probable that the dialect lasted on, though being
gradually permeated With Latin, till at least 150 b.c.
In addition to the remains found in the graves (see Falekxi> ,
which belong mainly to the period of Etruscan domination and
give ample evidence of material prosperity and refinement,
the earlier strata have yielded more primitive remains from the
Italic epoch. A large number of inscriptions consisting mainly
of proper names may be regarded as Etruscan rather than
Faliscan, and they have been disregarded in the account of the
dialect just given. It should perhaps be mentioned that there
was a town Feronia in Sardinia, named probably after their
native goddess by Faliscan settlers, from some of whom we have a
votive inscription found at S. Maria di Falleri(Conway, ib. p. 3*5}.
Further information may be sought from W. Deecke, Die FaJisk~r
(a useful but somewhat uncritical collection of the evidence access-
ible in 1 888); E. Bormann, in C./JL xi. pp. 465 ff. v and Conway,
FALK, JOHANN DANIEL (1 768-1826), German author and
philanthropist, was born at Danzig on the 28th of October x 768.
After attending the gymnasium of his native town, he entered the
university of Halle with the view of studying theology, but
preferring a non-professional life, gave up his theological studies
and went to live at Weimar. There he published a volume of
satires which procured him the notice and friendship of Wieland,
and admission into literary circles. After the battle of Jena,
Falk, on the recommendation of Wieland, was appointed to a
civil post under the French official authorities and rendered his
townsmen such good service that the duke of Weimar crested
him a counsellor of legation. In 1813 he established a society
for friends in necessity (Gssellschaft der Freunde in der A T rt),
and about the same time founded an institute for the care and
education of neglected and orphan children, which, in 1820, was
taken over by the state and still exists as the Falksckes Insiiimi.
The first literary efforts of Falk took the form chiefly of satirical
poetry, and gave promise of greater future excellence than was
ever completely fulfilled; his later pieces, directed more acnimt
individuals than the general vices and defects of society, gradu-
ally degenerated in quality. In 1806 Falk founded a critical
journal under the title of Elysium und Tartarus. He also
contributed largely to contemporary journals. He enjoyed the
acquaintance and intimate friendship of Goethe, and his account
of their intercourse was posthumously published under the
title Goethe aus ndherem persdnlichen Ungongt dargesttiU (1833)
(English by S. Austin). Falk died on the 14th of February 1 8a6_
Falk's Salirische Wtrke appeared in 7 vols. (1817 and 1826) ; f,^
Auserlesene Schrifi— '- —•- -•— v e — »-■■ *-"~ ■*--•-
bt&Uer aus Briefe
•Rosalie Folk (i8t.„ .......... . ^^*-
sckaft dtr Freunde •« der Not (1879); A. Stem, /. Folk (186 1) •
S. Schultee, Folk und Goethe (1900). '-»
FALK— FALKLAND
149
FALK, PAUL tUDWia ADALBERT (1827-1900), German
politician, was born at Matschkau, Silesia, on the 10th of August
1827. In 1847 he entered the Prussian state service, and in
1853 became public' prosecutor at Lyck. In 1858 h* was elected
a deputy, joining the Old Liberal party. In 1868 he became a
privy-councillor in the ministry of justice. In x 87 2 he was made
minister of education, and in connexion with Bismarck's policy
of the Kultur-kampf he was responsible for the famous May
Laws against the Catholics (see Germany: History)' In 1879
his position became untenable, owing to the death of Pius IX.
and the change of German policy with regard to the Vatican,
and he resigned his office, but retained his seat in the Reichstag
tOl 1882. He was then made president of the supreme court of
Justice at Hamm, where he died in 1900.
FALKS, JOHANM FRIEDRICH GOTTUBB (1823-1876),
German historian; was born at Ratzeburg on the soth of April
1823. Entering the university of Erlangen in 1843, he soon
began to devote his attention to the history of the German
language and literature, and in 1848 went to Munich, where he
remained five years, and 'diligently availed himself of the use
of the government library for the purpose of prosecuting his
historical studies. In 1856 he was appointed secretary of the
German museum at Nuremberg, and in 1859 keeper of the manu-
scripts. With the aid of the manuscript collections in the
museum he now turned his attention chiefly to political history,
and, with Johann H. Mailer, established an historical journal
under the name of ZeitschriflfUr deulsche Ktdiurgesekkkte (4 vols.,
Nuremberg, 1856-1859). To this journal be contributed a history
of German taxation and commerce. On the latter subject he
pubHsbed separately GeschUkle dee deuiseken Handdt h vols.,
Leipzig, 1850-1860) and Die Hansa ale deutscke Sce-und Handds-
madu (Berlin, 1862). In 1861 he was appointed secretary of the
state archives at Dresden, and, a little later, keeper. He there
began the study of Saxon history, still devoting his attention
chiefly to the history of commerce and economy, and published
Die Gtsckukte (Us KvrfUrtten August tern Sacksen in volks-
wMksthafdkkct Beriekung (Leipzig, 1868) and Gcscklchte dee
dadseken ZMweeent (Leipzig, 1 869). He died at Dresden on the
and of March 1876.
FALKIRK* a municipal and police burgh of Stirlingshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1891) 19,769; (1001) 29,280. It is situated
on high ground overlooking the fertile Cane of Falkirk, nm.
S.E. of Stirling, and about midway between Edinburgh and
Glasgow. Grangemouth, its port, lies 3 m. to the N.E., and the
Forth & Clyde Canal passes to the north, and the Union Canal
to the south of the town. Falkirk now comprises the suburbs
efLaurfeston (E.), Grahamston and Bainsford (N.), and Camdon
(W.). The principal structures include the burgh and county
buddings, town hall, the Dollar free library and Camdon fever
hospital. The present church, with a steeple 146 ft high, dates
only from 181 r. In the churchyard are buried Sir John Graham,
Sir John Stewart who fell in the battle of 1208, and Sir Robert
Munro and his brother, Dr Duncan Munro, killed in the battle
of 1746. The town is under the control of a council with provost
and baiEes, and combines with Airdrie, Hamilton, Lanark and
Linlithgow (the FaUrixk group of burghs) to return a member to
padhunent. The district is rich in coal and iron, which supply
the predominant industries, Falkirk being the chief seat of the
fight casting trade in Scotland; but tanning, flour-milling,
brewing, distilling and the manufacture of explosives (Nobel's)
and chemicals are also carried on. Trysts or sales of cattle,
sheep and horses are held thrice a year (August, September and
October) on Stenltousemuir, 3 m. N.W. They were transferred
hither from Crieff in x 770, and were formerly the most important
in the kingdom, but have to a great extent been replaced by
the local weekly auction marts. Carron, a m. N.N.W., is famous
for the iron-works established in 1760 by Dr John Roebuck
(1718-1794), whose advising engineers were successively John
Ssneaten and James Watt. The short iron guns of large calibre
designed by General Robert Mdviile, and first cast in 1779,
were called carronades from this their place of manufacture.
Falkirk is a town of considerable antiquity* Its original name
was the Gaefic Eaghis breac, " church of speckled or mottled
stone," which Simeon of Durham (II. xito) transliterated as
Egglesbreth. By the end of the 13th centfry appears the form
Faukirke (the present local pronunciation), which is merely a
translation of the Gaelk/s« or/ow, meaning " dun," " pale red."
The first church was built by Malcolm Canmore (d. 1093).
Falkirk was made a burgh of barony in 1600 and a burgh of
regality in 1646, but on the forfeiture of the earl of Linlithgow
in 1715, its superiority was vested in the crown. Callender
House, immediatdy to the S., was the seat of the earl and his
ancestors. The mansion was visited by Queen Mary, captured
by Cromwell, and occupied by Generals Monk and Hawley. The
wall of Antoninus ran through the grounds, and the district is
rich in Roman remains, Camdon, about a m. W., being the
site of a Roman settlement; Merchiston Hall, to the N.W.,
was the birthplace of Admiral Sir Charles Napier. The eastern
suburb of Laurieston was first called Langtoune, then Merchis-
town, and received its present name after Sir Lawrence Dundas
of Rerse, who had promoted its welfare. At Polmont, farther
east, which gives the title of baron to the duke of Hamilton,
is the" school of Blair Lodge, besides coal-mines and other
industries.
Battles of Falkirk.— The battle of the sand of July 1*98 was
fought between the forces of King Edward I. of England and
those of the Scottish national party under Sir William Wallace.
The latter, after long baffling the king's attempts to bring him to
battle, had taken up a strong position south of the town behind
a moras&i They were formed in four deep and dose masses
(" schtltrons ") of pikemen, the light troops screening the front
and flanks and a body of men-at-arms standing in reserve. It
was perhaps hoped that the English cavalry would plunge into
the morass, for no serious precautions were taken as to the
flanks, but in any case Wallace desired no more than to jecrive
an attack at the halt, trusting wholly to his massed pikes. The
English right wing first appeared, tried the morass in vain, and
then set out to turn it by a long detour; the main battle under the
king halted in front of it, while the left wing under Antony Bee,
bishop of Durham, was "able to reach the head of the marsh
without much delay. Once on the enemy's side of the obstacle
the bishop halted to wait for Edward, who was now following him,
but his undisciplined barons, shouting " Tis not for thee, bishop,
to teach us war. Go say mass 1 " drove off the Scottish archers
and men-at-arms and charged the nearest square of pikes,
which repulsed them with heavy losses* On the other flank the
right wing, its flank march completed, charged with the same
result. But Edward, who had now joined the bishop with the
centre or "main battle," peremptorily ordered the cavalry to
stand fast, and, taught by his experience in the Welsh wars,
brought up his archers. The longbow here scored its first victory
in a pitched battle. Before long gaps appeared in the close rank*
of pike heads, and after sufficient preparation Edward again
launched his men-at-arms to the charge. The shaken masses
then gave way one after the other, and the Scots fled in aU
directions.
The second battle of Falkirk, fought on the 17th of January
1746 between the Highlanders under Prince Charles and the
British forces under General Hawley, resulted in the defeat
of the latter. It is remarkable only for the bad conduct of the
British dragoons and the steadiness of the infantry. Hawley
retreated to Linlithgow, leaving all his baggage, 700 prisoners
and seven guns in the enemy's hands.
FALKLAND, LUCIUS GARY, and Viscount (*. 1610-1643),
son of Sir Henry Cary, afterwards ist Viscount Falkland (d.
1633)1 a member of an andent Devonshire family who was lord
deputy of Ireland from 162a to 1629, and of Elisabeth (1585-
1639), only daughter of Sir Lawrence Tanfidd, chief baxonof
the exchequer, was born either in 1609 or 1610, and was educated
at Trinity College, Dublin. In 1625 he inherited from his
grandfather the manors of Great Tew and Burford in Oxford-
shire, and, about the age of si, married Lettfce, daughter of
Sir Richard Morrison, of Tooley Park in Leicestershire. Involved
in a quarrd with his father, whom he failed to propitiate by
«5©
FALKLAND
offering to band over to him his estate, he left England to take
service in the Dutch army, but soon returned. In 1633, by the
death of his father, he became Viscount Falkland. His mother
had embraced the Roman Catholic faith, to which it was now
sought to attract Falkland himself, but his studies and reflections
led him, under the influence of Chillingworth, to the interpreta-
tion of religious problems rather by reason than by tradition
or authority. At Great Tew he enjoyed a short but happy
period of study, and he assembled round him many gifted and
learned men, whom the near neighbourhood of the university
and his own brilliant qualities attracted to his bouse. He was
the friend of Hales and Chillingworth, was celebrated by Jonson,
Suckling, Cowley and Waller in verse, and in prose by Clarendon,
who is eloquent in describing the virtues and genius of the
" incomparable "' Falkland, and draws a delightful picture of
his society and hospitality.
Falkland's intellectual pleasures, however, were soon inter-
rupted by war and politics. He felt it his duty to take part on
the king's side as a volunteer under Essex in the campaign of
1639 against the Scots. In 1640 he was returned for Newport
in the Isle of Wight to the Short and Long Parliaments, and took
an active part on the side of the opposition. He spoke against
the exaction of shipmoney on the 7th of December 1640, denoun-
cing the servile conduct of Lord Keeper Finch and the judges. 1
He supported the prosecution of Strafford, at the same time
endeavouring on more than one occasion to moderate the
measures of the Commons in the interests of justice, and voted
for the third reading of the attainder on the 21st of April 1641.
On the great question of the church he urged, in the debate of
the 8th of February 1641, that the interference of the clergy in
secular matters, the encroachments In jurisdiction of the spiritual
courts, and the imposition by authority of unnecessary cere-
monies, should be prohibited. On the other hand, though he
denied that episcopacy existed jure divino, he was opposed to its
abolition; fearing the establishment of the Presbyterian system,
which in Scotland had proved equally tyrannical. Triennial
parliaments would be sufficient to control the bishops, if they
meditated any further attacks upon the national liberties, and
he urged that " where it is not necessary to change, it is necessary
not to change." Even Hampden still believed that a compromise
with the episcopal principle was possible, and assured Falkland
that if the bill taken up to the Lords on the 1st of May 2641,
excluding the bishops from the Lords and the clergy from secular
offices, were passed, " there would be nothing more attempted
to the prejudice of the church." Accordingly the bill was
supported by Falkland. The times, however, were not favourable
to compromise. The bill was lost in the Lords, and on the 37th
of May the Root and Branch Bill, for the total abolition of
episcopacy, was introduced in the House of Commons. This
measure Falkland opposed, as well as the second bill for excluding
the bishops, introduced on the a 1st of October. In the discussion
on the Grand Remonstrance he took the part of the bishops and
the Arminians. He was now opposed to the whole policy of the
opposition, and, being reproached by Hampden with his change
of attiude, replied " that he had formerly been persuaded by
that worthy gentleman to believe many things which he had
since found to be untrue, and therefore he had changed his
opinion in many particulars as well as to things as to persons."*
On the 1st of January 1642, immediately before the attempted
arrest of the five members, of which, however, be was not
cognizant, he was offered by the king the secretaryship of state,
and was persuaded by Hyde to accept it, thus becoming involved
directly in the king's policy, though evidently possessing little
influence in his counsels. He was one of the peers who signed
the protestation against making war, at York on the 15th of June
1649. On the 5th of September he carried Charles's overtures
for peace to the parliament, when he informed the leaders of the
opposition that the king consented to a thorough reformation
of religion. The secret correspondence connected with the
Waller plot passed through his bands. He was present with the
1 His speeches are in the Thomason Tracts, E 196 (9), (26), (36).
• Clarendon's Hist, iv. 94, note.
king at EdgehiU and at the siege -of Gloucester. By this time
the hopelessness of the situation had completely overwhelmed
him. The aims and principles of neither party in the conflict
could satisfy a man of Falkland's high ideals and intellectual
vision. His royalism could not suffer the substitution, as the
controlling power in the state, of a parliament for the monarchy,
nor his conservatism the revolutionary changes in church and
state now insisted upon by the opposite faction. The fatal
character and policy of the king, the most incapable of mem
and yet the man upon whom all depended, must have been by
now thoroughly understood by Falkland. Compromise had long
been out of the question. The victory of either side could only
bring misery; and the prolongation of the war was a prospect
equally unhappy. Nor could Falkland find any support or
consolation in his own inward convictions or principle*. His
ideals and hopes were now destroyed, and he had no definite
political convictions such as inspired and strengthened Strafford
and Pym. In fact his sensitive nature shrank from contact
with the practical politics of the day and prevented his rise to
the place of a leader or a statesman. Clarendon has recorded
his final relapse into despair. " Sitting amongst his friends,
often, after a deep silence and frequent sighs (he) would with a
shrill and sad accent ingeminate the word Peace, Peace, and
would passionately profess that the very agony of the war,
and the view of the calamities and desolation the kingdom did
and must endure, took his sleep from him and would shortly
break his heart." At Gloucester be had in vain exposed himself
to risks. On the morning of the battle of Newbury, on the aoth
of September 1643, he declared to his friends, who would have
dissuaded him from taking part in the fight, that " he was weary
of the times and foresaw much misery to his own Country and
did believe he should be out of it ere night." 4 He served during
the engagement as a volunteer under Sir John Byron, and*
riding alone at a gap in a hedge commanded by the enemy's fire,
was immediately killed.
His death took place at the early age of 33, which should be
borne in mind in every estimate of his career and character.
He was succeeded in the title by his eldest son Lucius, ^rd
Viscount Falkland, his male descent becoming extinct in the
person of Anthony, 5th viscount, in 2604, when the viscounty
passed to Lucius Henry (1687-1730), a descendant of the first
viscount, and the* present peer is his direct descendant.
Falkland wrote a Discourse of Infaiiibilily, published in 1646
(Thomason Tracts, £ 361 [xl), reprinted in 1650, in 1651 (E 634
[1]) ed. by Triplet with replies, and in 1660 with the. addition
of two discourses on episcopacy by Falkland. This is a work
of some importance in theological controversy, the general argu-
ment being that " to those who follow their reason in the inter-
pretation of the Scriptures God will either give his grace for
assistance to find the truth or his pardon if they miss it. And
then this supposed necessity of an infallible guide (with the
supposed damnation for the want of it) fall together to the
ground." Also A Letter ... 30 Sept. 1642 concerning the UU
con/id before Worcester (164a); and Poems, in which he shows
himself a follower of Ben Jonson, edited by A. B. Grosart in
Miscellanies of the Fuller Worthies Library, vol iii. (1871).
The chief interest in Falkland does not lie in his writings or in
the incidents of his career, but in his character and the distinction
of his intellectual position, in his isolation from his contemporaries
seeking reformation in the inward and spiritual life of the church
and state and not in its outward and material form, and as the
leader and chief of rationalism in an age dominated by violent
intolerance and narrow dogmatism. His personal appearance,
according to Clarendon, was insignificant, " in no degree attrac-
tive or promising. His stature was low and smaller than most
men; his motion net graceful ... but that little person and
small stature was quickly found to contain a great heart. . .
all mankind could not but admire and love him." 4
Authorities.— There is a Life and IXmes by J. A. R. Marriott
(1907); see also & R. Gardiner's Hist, of England*, Hist, of the
Civil War; the same author's article in the Did. of NaL Biography
» Whitetocke, p, 73.
«£«/«. i.37i
FALKLAND— FALKLAND ISLANDS
15*
there given; Clarendon'* Ifist^ 0/ ike RrhctliM,
passim and e»p. viL 317-334; Clarendon's Li/* ; ftoJicmoJ Thrdogy
. . . in the jftk Century < by John Tulluch 11*74), L 76; Li/f of
Lady Falkland from a MS tn /A* irnjvtvLt iibrary at LiHe (iS6j);
L^r of the same by Lady Geargbna Fullcrton (i8th>; jonwn'* QflV
Pindaric to the mxmory and friendship of . . . Jfrr iKm* r Cory and
5*r ifrw/7 Matfiwn; \V. J. Court hope, History of Ertrlish Ftulry
(1903), iit. 291 ; Lift tf Falkland, by W. H. Trale in ihc Entftfk-
mams Library, vot 22 (18+2) i D. Lloyd, JflnwH (1&6BL 33 1 ;
and the L#iv of Falkland, by Lady M. T. Lewi* in Lint* 0} Ike
Friends . . . of Lord Ckantttlor Qortnden, voL L p. 3. John
Duncan's account of Lctriec. Lady Falkland, was edited in 190* by
M.F.Howan {P.CY.J
FALKLAND, a royal and poKce burgh of Frfeshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1001) 800. It is situated at the northern base of the
hill of East Lomond (1471 ft. high), 9} m. from Falkland
Road station (with which there is communication by "bus), on
the North British railway company's main line to Dundee,
11 m. N. of Edinburgh as the crow flies. It is an old-world-
looking place, many of the ancient houses still standing. Its
industries are chiefly concerned with the weaving of linen and
the brewing of ale, for which It was once specially noted; and
it has few public buildings save the town halL The palace of
the Stuarts, however— more beautiful than Holyrood and quite
as romantic — lends the spot its fame and charm. The older
edifice that occupied this site was a hunting-tower of the Mac-
duffs, carls of Fife, and was transferred with the earldom in 1371
to Robert Stewart, earl of Fife and Mcnteith, afterwards duke
of Albany, second son of Robert II. Because of his father's
long illness and the incapacity of Robert III., his brother Albany
was during many years virtual ruler of Scotland, and, in the hope
of securing the crown, caused the heir-apparent — David, duke
of Rothesay— to be conveyed to the castle by force and there
starved to death, in 1402. The conversion of the Thane's tower
into the existing palace was begun by James III. and completed
in 1538. The western part had two round towers, similar to
those at Holyrood, which were also built by James V., and the
southern elevation was ornamented with niches and statues,
giving it a close resemblance to the Perpendicular style of the
semi-ecclesiastical architecture of England. The palace soon
became the favourite summer residence of the Stuarts. From it
James V. when a boy fled to Stirling by night from the custody
of the earl of Angus, and in it he died in 1542.
Here, too, Queen Mary spent some of her happiest days,
playing the country girl in its parks and woods. When the court
was held at Falkland the Green was the daily scene of revelry
and dance, and " To be Falkland bred " wasa proverb that then
came into vogue to designate a courtier. James VL delighted
in the palace and especially in the deer. He upset the schemes
of the Gowrie. conspirators by escaping from Falkland to St
Andrews, and it was while His Majesty was residing in the
palace that the fifth earl of Bothwell, in 1592, attempted to
kidnap him. In September 1 506 an intensely dramatic interview
took puce in the palace between the king and Andrew Melville
and other Presbyterian ministers sent by the general assembly
at Cupar to remonstrate with him on allowing the Roman
Catholic lords to return to Scotland. In 1654 the eastern wing
was accidentally destroyed by fire, during its tenancy by the
soldiers of Cromwell, by whose orders the fine old oaks in -the
park were cut down for the building of a fort at Perth: Even
in its neglected state the mansion impressed Defoe, who declared
the Scottish kings owned more palaces than their English
brothers. In 1715 Rob Roy garrisoned the palace and failed
not to levy dues on the burgh and neighbourhood. Signs of
decay were more evident when Thomas Carlylt saw it, for he
likened it to "a black old bit of coffin or protrusive shin-bone
striking through the soil of tbe dead past." But a munificent
protector at length appeared in tbe person of the third marquess
of Bute, who acquired the estate and buildings in x££8, and forth-
with undertook the restoration of the palace*
Falkland became a royal burgh in 145ft and its charter was
renewed in 1595, and before the earlier date it had been a seat
of the Templars. It gives the title of viscount to the English family
06 Cary, the patent having been granted in 1620 by James VL
The town's most distinguished native was Richard Cameron,
the Covenanter. His house— a three-storeyed structure with
yellow harled front and thatched roof— still stands on the south
side of the square in the main street Tbe Hackstons of Ratbillet
also had a house in Falkland.
FALKLAKD ISLANDS (Fr. Miolouines; Span. Uohmmas), a
group of islands in the South Atlantic Ocean, belonging to /
Britain, and lying about 250 m. E. of tbe nearest point in the
mainland of South America, between 51° and 53 S., and ,57* 40'
and 61° sY W. With the uninhabited dependency of South
Georgia Island, to the E.S.E., they form the most southerly
colony of the British empire. The islands, inclusive of rocks and
reefs exceed joo in number and have a total area of 6500
sq. m. ; but only two are of considerable sixe; the largest of
these, East Falkland, is 9$ m. in extreme length, with an average
width of 40 m., and the smaller, West Falkland, is 80 m. long
and about 25 m. wide. The area of East Falkland is about 3000
sq. m., and that of West Falkland 2300. Most of the others
are mere islets, the largest x6 m. long by 8 m. wide. Tbe two
principal islands are separated by Falkland Sound, a narrow
strait from 18 to t\ m. in width, running nearly N.E. and S.W.
The general appearance of tbe islands is not unlike that of one
of the outer Hebrides. The general colouring, a faded brown,
is somewhat dreary, but the mountain heights and promontories
of the west display some grandeur of outline. The coast-fane
of both main islands is deeply indented and many of the bays
and inlets form secure and well-protected harbours, some of
which, however, are difficult Of access to sailing ships.
East Falkland is almost bisected by two deep fjords, Choiseul
and Brenton Sounds, which leave the northern and southern
portions connected only by an isthmus a mile and a half wide.
The northern portion is hilly, and is crossed by a rugged range,
the Wickham Heights, running east and west, and rising in some
places to a height of nearly 2000 ft. The remainder of the island
consists chiefly of low undulating ground, a mixture of pasture
and morass, with many shallow freshwater tarns, and small-
streams running in the valleys. Two fine inlets, Berkeley
Sound and Port William, run far into the land at the north*
eastern extremity of the island. Port Louis, formerly the neat
of government, is at the head of Berkeley Sound, but that
anchorage there having been found rather too exposed, about
the year 1844 a town was laid out, and the necessary public
buildings were erected on Stanley Harbour, a sheltered recess
withirr Port William. West Falkland is mare hilly near tbe
east island; the principal mountain range,, the Hornby Hulsy
runs north and south parallel with Falkland. Sound. Mount
Adam, the highest hill in the islands, ii 23x5 It* high.
The little town of Stanley is built along the south shore of
Stanley harbour and stretches & short way up the slope* it
has a population of little more than 900. The houses, mostly
white with coloured roofs, are generally built of wood and iron,
and have glased porches, gay with fuchsias and pelargoniums.
Government House, grey, stone-built and stated, calls to mind
a manse in Shetland or Orkney. The government barrack is n
rather imposing structure in the middk of tbe town, as is the
cathedral church to the east, built of stone and buttressed with
brick. Next to Stanley the most important place on East
Falkland is Darwin on Choiseul Sound— a village of Scottish
shepherds and a station of the Falkland Island Company.
The Falkland Islands consist entirely, so far as is known, of
the older Pa lae esotc rocks, Lower Devonian or Upper Silurian,
slightly metamorphosed and a good deal crumpled and distorted,
in the low grounds day slate and toft sandstone, and on the
ridges hardened sandstone passing into the conspicuous whits
quartsitea. There do not seem to be any minerals of value,
and the rocks are not such as to indicate any probability of their
discovery. GaknaisfoundmsnuUlquaaUly,sndinsomeplaces
it contains a large percentage of silver. Tbe dark bituminous
layers of clay slate, which occur intercalated among the qunrUites,
have led, here as elsewhere, to the hope of coming upon a seam
of coal, but it is contrary to experience that coal of any value
should be found in rocks of that age.
£5*
FALKLAND ISLANDS
Many of the valleys in the Falklaods are occupied by paie
e ««t»niVg masses which at a little distance much resemble small
glaciers. Examined more closely these are found to be vast
accumulations of blocks of quartzite, irregular in form, but having
a tendency to a rude diamond shape, from s to so ft. in length,
and half as much in width, and of a thickness corresponding
with that of the quartzite ridges on the hills above. The blocks
are angular, and rest irregularly one upon another, supported
in all positions by the angles and edges of those beneath. The
whole mass looks as if it were, as it is, slowly sliding down the
valley to the sea. These " stone runs " are looked upon with
great wonder by the shifting population of the Falkland*, and
they are shown to visitors with many strange speculations as
to their mode of formation. Their origin is attributed by some
to the moraine formation of former glaciers. Another out of
many theories * is that the hard beds of quartzite are denuded
by the disintegration of the softer layers. Their support being
removed they break away in the direction of natural joints, and
the fragments fall down the slope upon the vegetable soiL
This soil is spongy, and, undergoing alternate contraction and
expansion from being alternately comparatively dry and satur-
ated with moisture, allows the heavy blocks to slip down by their
own weight into the valley, where they become piled up, the
valley stream afterwards removing the soil from among and over
them.
The Falkland Islands correspond .very nearly in latitude in
the southern hemisphere with London in the northern, but
the climatic influences are very different. The temperature is
equable, the average of the two midsummer months being about
47° Fahr., and that of the two midwinter months 37 Fahr. The
extreme frosts and heats of the English climate are unknown,
but occasions! heavy snow-falls occur, and the sea in shallow
inlets ia covered with a thin coating of ice. The sky is almost
constantly overcast, and rain falls, mostly in a drizzle and in
frequent showers, on about a 50 days in the year. The rainfall is
not great, only about so in., but the mean humidity for the year
is 80, saturation being 100. November is considered the only
dry month. The prevalent winds from the west, south-west and
south blow continuously, at times approaching- the force of a
hurricane. " A region more exposed to storms both in summer
and winter it would be difficult to mention " (Fitzroy, Voyages
of " Adventure " and " Beagle* ii. 228). The fragments of many
wrecks emphasize the dangers of navigation, which are increased
by the absence of beacons, the only lighthouse being that
maintained by the Board of Trade on Cape Pembroke near the
principal settlement* Kelp is a natural danger-signal, and the
sunken rock, " U rank," is reputed to be the only one net buoyed
by the giant seaweed.
Of aboriginal human inhabitants there is no trace in the Falk*
lands, and the land fauna is very scanty. A small wolf, the
bup-rcnard of de Bougainville, is extinct, the last having been
seen about 1875 on the West Falkland. Some herds of cattle
and horses run wild; but these were, of course, introduced, as
were also the wild hogs, the numerous rabbits and the less
common hares. All these have greatly declined in numbers,
being profitably replaced by sheep. Land-birds are few In kind,
and are mostly strays from South America. They include,
however, the snipe and military starling, which on account of
its scarlet breast is locally known as the robin. Sea-birds are
abundant, and, probably from the islands having been com-
paratively lately peopled, they are singularly tame. Gulls and
amphibious birds abound in largo variety; three kinds of
penguin have their rookeries and breed here, migrating yearly
for some months to the South American mainland. Stray
specimens of the great king penguin have been observed, and
there are also moUymauks (a kind of albatross), Cape pigeons
and many carrion birds. Kelp and upland geese abound, the
latter being edible; and their shooting affords some sport.
The Falkland Islands form essentially a part of Patagonia,
with which they are connected by an elevated submarine plateau,
1 See B Stechele. in UUnckener geograpkische Shtdien, xx-(ioo6),
and Geographical Journal (December 1007)-
and their flora is much the same as that of Antarctic South
America.. The trees which form dense forest and scrub in
southern Patagonia and in Fuegia are absent, and one of the
largest plants on the islands is a gigantic woolly ragweed (Semcio
camdicans) which attains in some places a height of 3 to 4 ft.
A half-shrubby veronica (V. decussate) is found in some pans,
and has also received cultivation. The greater part of the
" camp " (the open country) is formed of peat, which in some
places is of great age and depth, and at the bottom of the bed
very dense and bituminous. The peat is different in character
from that of northern Europe: cellular plants enter but little
into Ha composition, and it is formed almost entirely of the roots
and stems of Empetrum rubrum, a variety of the common crow-
berry of the Scottish hills with red berries, called by the Falk-
landers the "diddle-dee" berry; of Myrtus nummulario, a
little creeping myrtle whose leaves are used by the shepherds
as a substitute for tea; of Callha appendiculato, a dwarf species
of marsh-marigold; and of some sedges and sedge-like plants,
such as Astelia pumila, Gaimardia auslralis and Bestketia
grandijhra. Peat is largely used as fuel, coal being obtained
only at a cost of £3 a ton.
Two vegetable products, the " balsam bog " (Bolar glcbaria)
and the " tussock grass " (DaciyJis caespilasa) have been objects
of curiosity and interest ever since the first accounts of the islands
were given. The first is a huge mass of a bright green colour,
living to a great age, and when dead becoming of a grey and
stony appearance. When cut open, it displays an infinity of tiny
leaf-buds and stems, and at intervals there exudes from it an
aromatic resin, which from its astringent properties is used by
the shepherds as a vulnerary, but has not been converted to any
commercial purpose. The " tussock grass " is a wonderful and
most valuable natural production, which, owing to the intro-
duction of stock, has become extinct in the two main islands, but
still flourishes elsewhere in the group. It is a reed-like grass,
which grows in dense tufts from 6 to 10 ft. high from stool-like
root-crowns. It forms excellent fodder for cattle, and ts regularly
gathered for that purpose. It is of beautiful appearance, and
the almost tropical profusion of its growth may have led to the
early erroneous reports of the densely-wooded nature of these
The population slightly exceeds 2000. The large majority of
the Inhabitants live in the East Island, and the predominating
element is Scottish— Scottish shepherds having superseded the
South American Gauchos. In 1867 there were no settlers on
the west island, and the government issued a proclamation
offering leases of grazing stations on very moderate terms. In
1 868 all the available land was occupied. These lands are fairly
healthy, the principal drawback being the virulent form assumed
by simple epidemic maladies. The occupation of the inhabitants
is almost entirely pastoral, and the principal industry is sheep-
farming. Wool forms by far the largest export, and taUow, hides*
bones and frozen mutton are also exported. Trade is carried on
almost entirely with the United Kingdom; the approximate
annual value of exports is £120,000, and of imports a Kttle more
than half that sum. The Falkland Islands Company, having its
headquarters at Stanley and an important station' in the camp
at Darwin, carries on an extensive business in sheep-farming
and the dependent industries, and in the general import trade.
The development of this undertaking necessitated the establish-
ment of stores and workshops at Stanley, and ships can be
repaired and provided in every way ; a matter of importance
since not a few vessels, after suffering injury during heavy
weather off Cape Horn, call on the Falklands in distress. The
maintenance of the requisite plant and the high wages current
render such repairs somewhat costly. A former trade in oil and
sealskin has decayed, owing to the smaller number of whale*
and seals remaining about the islands. Communications are
maintained on horseback and by water, and there are no roads
except at Stanley. There is a monthly mail to and from England,
the passage occupying about four weeks
The Falkland Islands are a crown colony, with a governor
and executive and legislative councils. The legislative council
FALLACY
153
consists of the governor tad tfute official and two unofficial
nominated members, and the executive of the same, with the
exception that there is only om unofficial member, lite colony
is self-supporting, the revenue being largely derived from the
drink duties, and there is no public debt. The Falklands are
the seat of a colonial bishop. Education is compulsory. The
government maintains schools and travelling teachers; the
Falkland Islands Company also maintains a school at Darwin,
and there is one for those of the Roman Catholic faith in Stanley.
There is also on Keppd Island a Protestant missionary settlement
for the training in agriculture of imported Fuegians. Stanley
was for some years a naval station, but ceased to be so in
1004.
The Falkland Islands were first seen by Davis in the year x 502,
and Sir Richard Hawkins sailed along their north shore in 1504.
The claims of Amerigo Vespucd to a previous discovery are
doubtful. In 1508 Sebald de Wert, a Dutchman, visited them,
and called them the Sebald Islands, a name which they bear on
some Dutch maps. Captain Strong sailed through between the
two principal islands in 1600, landed upon one of them, and
called the passage Falkland Sourxl, and from this the group
afterw a rds took its English name. In 1764 the French explorer
De Bougainville took possession of the islands on behalf of his
country, and established a colony at Port Louis on Berkeley
Sound. But in 1767 France ceded the islands to Spain, De
Bougainville being employed as intermediary. Meanwhile in
176s Commodore Byron had taken possession on the part of
England on the ground of prior discovery, and had formed a
settlement at Port Egmont on the small island of Saunders.
The Spanish and English settlers remained fai ignorance, real or
assumed, of each other's presence until 1760-1770, when 'Byron's
action was nearly the cause of a war between England and Spain,
both countries having armed fleets to contest the barren sover-
eignty. In 1 77 1, however Spain yielded the islands to Great
Britain by convention. As they had not been actually colonised
by England, the republic of Buenos Aires claimed the group in
1820, and subsequently entered into a dispute with the United
States of America concerning the rights to the products of these
islands. On the representations of Great Britain the Buenos
Aireans withdrew, and the British flag was once more hoisted
at Port Louis in 1833, and since that time the Falkland Islands
have been a regular British colony.
In 1845 Mr S> Lafone, a wealthy cattle and hide merchant
on the river Plate, obtained from government a grant of the
southern portion of the island, a peninsula 600,000 acres in
extent, and possession of all the wild cattle on the island for a
period of six years, for a payment of £10,000 down, and £20,000
in ten years from January 1, i8$a. In 1851 Mr Lafone's interest
in Lafonia, as the peninsula came to be called, was purchased
for £30,000 by the Falkland Islands Company, which had been
incorporated by charter in the same year.
See Pernety, Journal historique oTune voyage fails out flat Ifis-
ten 1763 et 1764 (Berlin, 1767); S. Johnson, Thoughts on the
late Transac ti ons respecting Falkland's Islands 0770; L. A. de
Bougainville. Voyage autour du monde (177O; T. Falkner, Des-
cription of Patagonia and the Falkland Islands (1 774); B. Penrose,
Account of the last Expedition to Port Egmont in the Falkland Islands
(177$); Observations on the Forcible Occupation of Mahinas by the
BriHsh Government in ifjj (Buenos Ay res, 1833;; Reclamation del
Cobiemo dt las provincial Unidas de la Plata contra el de S.M.
BrUanica sobre la soterania y possesion de las Islas Mahinas (Lon-
don. 1841)1 Fitzroy, Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of H.M.S.
" Adventure " and " Beagle " (i8io>; Darwin, Voyage of a Naturalist
round the World (1843); S. B. Sullivan, Description of the Falkland
Islands (1849); W- Hadficld, Brazil, the Falkland Islands, &*c
(1854) ; W. Parker Snow, Two Years' Cruise off the Tierra del Fuego,
ike Falkland Islands, 6*. (1857); Sir C. Wyvilte Thornton, Voyage
of the " Challenger " (1877U C P. Lucas, Historical Geography of
Ike British Colonies, vol. ii. " The West Indies" (Oxford, 1890);
Colonial Reports Annual; MS. Sloane, 3295.
FALLACY (Lat. faU-ax, apt to mislead), the term given
generally to any mistaken statement used in argument; in
Logic, technically, an argument which violates the laws of
correct demonstration. An argument may be fallacious in
mailer (U. misstatement of. facts), in wording (*»c wrong use of
words), or in the process of inference. Fallacies have, therefore,
been classified as: I. Material, II. Verbal, IIL Logical or
Formal; II. and III. are often included under the general
description Logical, and in scholastic phraseology, following
Aristotle, are called fallacies in dictione or in toco, as opposed
to material fallacies in re or extra dictionem.
I. Material.— Tht classification widely adopted by modern
logicians and based on that of Aristotle, Organen (SapkUtid
elenckt), is as follows:— (1) Fallacy of Accident, i.e. arguing
erroneously from a general rule to a particular case, without
proper regard to particular conditions which vitiate the applica-
tion of the general rule; e.g. if manhood suffrage be the law,
arguing that a criminal or a lunatic must, therefore, have a vote;
(a) Converse Fallacy of Accident, i.e. arguing from a special case
to a general rule; (3) Irrelevant Conclusion, or Ignoratio Elenckt,
wherein, instead of proving the fact in dispute, the arguer seeks
to gain his point by diverting attention to some extraneous
fact (as in the legal story of " No case. Abuse the plaintiff's
attorney "). Under this head come the so-called argumenlum
(a) ad hominem, (6) edpopulnm, (c) adbaculum, (d) adverecundiam,
common in platform oratory, in which the speaker obscures the
real issue by appealing to his audience on the grounds of (•)
purely personal considerations, (b) popular sentiment, (c) fear,
(d) conventional propriety. This fallacy has been illustrated
by ethical or ttieological arguments wherein the fear of punish-
ment is subtly substituted for abstract right as the sanction of
moral obligation. (4) Petitio principii (begging the question) or
Circulus in probanda (arguing in a circle), which consists in
demonstrating a conclusion by means of premises which pre-
suppose that conclusion. Jeremy Bentham points out that this
fallacy may lurk in a single word, especially in an epithet, e.#.
if a measure were condemned simply on the ground that ft is
alleged to be " un-English "; (5) Fallacy of the Consequent, really
a species of (3), wherein a conclusion is drawn from premises
which do not really support it; (6) Fallacy of False Cause, ox
Non SequUur (" it does not follow "), wherein one thing is in-
correctly assumed as the cause of another, as when the ancients
attributed a public calamity to a meteorological phenome-
non; (7) Fallacy of Many Questions (Plurium InterrogoJionnm),
wherein several questions are improperly grouped in the form of
one, and a direct categorical answer is demanded, 04. if a prosecut-
ing counsel asked the prisoner " What time was it when you met
this man? " with the intention of eliciting the tacit admission
that such a meeting had taken place.
II. Verbal Fallacies are those in which a false conclusion
is obtained by improper or ambiguous use of words. They
are generally classified as follows* (x) Equivocation consists in
employing the same word in twoor moiesenses, ** in a syllogism,
the middle term being used in one sense in the major and another
in. the minor premise, so that in fact there are four not three
terms (" All fair things are honourable; This woman is fair;
therefore this woman is honourable," the second " fair " being in
reference to complexion), (») Amphibology is the result of
ambiguity of grammatical structure, 04. of the position of the
adverb " only " in careless writers (" He only said that," in
which sentence, as experience shows, the adverb has been
intended to qualify any one of the other three words). ($} Com-
position, a species of (1), which results from the confused use of
collective terms (" The angles of a triangle are less than two right
angles " might refer to the angles separately or added together).
(4) Division, the converse of the preceding, which consists in
employing the middle term distributively in the minor and
collectively in the major premise. (5) Accent, which occurs only
in speaking and consists of emphisiitng the wrong word in a
sentence ( M He is a fairly good pianist,' 1 according to theemphaass
on the words, may imply praise of a beginner's progress, or an
expert's depreciation of a popular hero, or it may imply that
the person in question, is a deplorable violinist). (6) Figure of
Speech, the confusion between the metaphorical and ordinary
uses of a word or phrase.
Ilk The purely Logical or Formal fallacies consist in the
violation of the formal rules of the Syllogism fa?.). They are
^5+
FALLIERES— FALLMERAYER
(a) fallacy of Four Terms (Qualemio lermUtonm); (b) of Un-
distributed Middle; (c) of Illicit process of tbe major or the
minor term; (<f) of Negative Premises.
Of other classifications of Fallacies in general the most famous
are those of Francis Bacon and J. S. Mill. Bacon (Novum
organum, Aph. i. 33, 38 sqq.) divided fallacies into four Idola
(Idols, ix. False Appearances), which summarize the various
kinds of mistakes to which the human intellect is prone (see
Bacon, Francis). With these should be compared the OJendicula
of Roger Bacon, contained in the Opus maius, pt. i. (see Bacon,
Roger) . J. S. Mill discussed the subject in book v. of his Logic,
and Jeremy Bentham's Book of Fallacies (1824) contains valuable
remarks.
See Rd. Whateley's Logic, bit v. ; A. de Morgan, Formal Lope
(1847); A. Sidgwick, FaUacUs (1883) and other textbooks. See
also article Logic, and for fallacies of Induction, see Induction.
FALUbRBS. CLfiMENT ARMAND (1841- ), president of
the French republic, was born at Mezin in the department of
Lot-et-Garonne, where his father was clerk of the peace. He
studied law and became an advocate at Nine, beginning his
public career there as municipal councillor (1868), afterwards
mayor (1871), and as councillor-general of the department of
Lot-et-Garonne (1871). Being an ardent Republican, he lost
this position in May 1873 upon the fall of Thiers, but in February
1876 was elected deputy for Nerac. In the chamber he sat with
the Republican Left, signed the protestation of the 18th of May
1877, and was re-elected in October by his constituency. In x88o
he became under-secretary of state in the department of the
interior in the Jules Ferry ministry (May 1880 to November i88«).
From the 7th of August 1882 to the 20th of February 1883 he
was minister of the interior, and for a month (from the .29th
of January 1883) was premier. His ministry had to face tbe
question of the expulsion of tbe pretenders to the throne of
France, owing to the proclamation by Prince Jerome Napoleon
(January 1883), and M. Failures, who was ill at the time, was
not able to face the storm of opposition, and resigned when the
senate rejected his project. In tbe following November, how-
ever, he was chosen as minister of public instruction by Jules
Ferry, and carried out various reforms in the school system.
He re s ig n ed with the ministry in March 1885. Again becoming
minister of the interior in the Rouvier cabinet in May 1887,
he exchanged his portfolio in December for that of justice. He
returned to the ministry of the interior in February 1889, and
finally took the department of Justice from March 1890 to
February 1802. In June 1800 his department (Lot-et-Garonne)
elected him to tbe senate by 41 7 votes to 33. There M. Fallicres
remained somewhat apart from party struggles, although main-
taining his influence among the Republicans. In March 1899
he was elected president of the senate, and retained that position
until January 1006, when he was chosen by a union of the groups
of the Left in both chambers as candidate for the presidency of
the republic He was elected on the first ballot by 449 votes
againt 371 for his opponent, Paul Doumer.
FALL-LINB, in American geology, a line marking the junction
between the hard rocks of the Appalachian Mountains and
the softer deposits of tbe coastal plain. The pre-Cambrian and
metamorphic rocks of the mountain mass form a continuous
ledge parallel to the east coast, where they are subject to denuda-
tion and form a series of "falls" and rapids in the river courses
all along this line. The relief of the land below the falls is very
slight, and this low country rarely rises to a height of 200 ft.,
so that the rivers are navigable up to the falls, while the falls
themselves are a valuable source of power. A line of cities may
be traced upon the map whose position will thus be readily
understood in relation to the economic importance of the fall-line.
They are Trenton on the Delaware, Philadelphia on the Schuyl-
kill, Georgetown on the Potomac, Richmond on the James, and
Augusta on the Savannah. It will be readily understood that
the softer and more recent rocks of the coastal plain have been
more easily washed away, while the harder rocks of the moun-
tains, owing to differential denudation, are left standing high
above them, and that the trend of the edge of this great lenticular
mass of ancient rock is roughly parallel to that of the Appalachian
system.
FALLMERAYER, JAKOB PHILIPP (1790-1861), German
traveller and historical investigator, best known for his opinions
in regard to the ethnology of the modern Greeks, was bom,
the son of a podr peasant, at Tschotsch, near Brizen in Tirol,
on the 10th of December 1790. In 1809 he absconded from the
cathedral choir school at Brixen and made his way to SaUburg,
where he supported himself by private teaching while he studied
theology, the Semitic languages, and history. After a year's
study he sought to assure to himself the peace and quiet necessary
for a studeat's life by entering the abbey of Kremsmunster. but
difficulties put in his way by the Bavarian officials prevented
the accomplishment of this intention. At the university of
Landshut, to which he removed in 181 2, he first applied himself
to jurisprudence, but soon devoted his attention exclusively
to history and philology. His immediate necessities were pro-
vided for by a rich patron. During the Napoleonic wars he
joined the Bavarian infantry as a subaltern in 18 13, fought at
Hanau (30th October 1813), and served throughout the campaign
in France. He remained in the army of occupation on the banks
of the Rhine until Waterloo, when he spent six months at
Orleans as adjutant to General von Spreti. Two years of garrison
life at Lindau on Lake Constance after the peace were spent in
the study of modern Greek, Persian and Turkish.
Resigning his commission in 1818, be was successively engaged
as teacher in the gymnasium at Augsburg and in the pro-
gymnasium and lyceum at Landshut. In 1827 he won the gold
medal offered by the university of Copenhagen with his Getckickte
des Kaiserlums ton Tropaunt, based on patient investigation
of Greek and oriental MSS. at Venice and Vienna. The strictures
on priestcraft contained in the preface to this book gave offence
to the authorities, and his position was not improved by the
liberal views expressed in his CeschkkU dor Halbinsd Uorta
wdkrend das MiUclaltert (Stuttgart, 1830-1836, a pta.). The
three years from 183 1 to 1834 he spent in travel with the Russian
count Ostermann Tolstoy, visiting Egypt, Palestine, Syria,
Cyprus, Rhodes, Constantinople, Greece and Naples. On his
return he was elected in 1835 * member of the Royal Bavarian
Academy of Sciences, but he soon after left the country again on
account of political troubles, and spent the greater part of the
next four years in travel, spending the winter of 1 839-1840 with
Count Tolstoy at Geneva. Constantinople, Trebixond, Athos,
Macedonia, Thessaly and Greece were visited by him during
X840-1841; and after some years' residence in Munich he
returned in 1847 to the East, and travelled in Palestine, Syria
and Asia Minor. The authorities continued to regard him with
suspicion, and university students were forbidden to attend the
lectures he delivered at Munich. He entered, however, into
friendly relations with the crown prince Maximilian, but this
intimacy was destroyed by the events following on 1848. At
that period he was appointed professor of history in the Munich
University, and made a member of the national congress at
Frank! ort-on-Main. He there joined the left or opposition party,
and in the following year be accompanied the rump-parlia-
ment to Stuttgart, a course of action which led to his expulsion
from his professorate. During the winter of 1840-1850 he
was an exile in Switzerland, but the amnesty of April 1850
enabled him to return to Munich. He died on the 26th of
April 1 86 1.
His contributions to the medieval history of Greece axe of
great value, and though his theory that the Greeks of tbe present
day are of Albanian and Slav descent, with hardly a drop of true
Greek blood in their veins, has not been accepted in its entirety
by other investigators, it has served to modify the opinions of
even his greatest opponents. A criticism of his views will be
found in Hopf's Geschichle Griechentands (reprinted from Ersch
and Gruber's Encykl.) and in Finlay's History of Greece in
the Middle Ages. Another theory which he propounded and
defended with great vigour was that the capture of Constanti-
nople by Russia was inevitable, and would lead to the absorption
by the Russian empire of the whole of the Balkan and Grecian
FALLOPIUS— FALL RIVER
»55
peninsula; and that this extended empire wouM constitute a
standing menace to the western Germanic nations. These views
he expressed in a series of brilliant articles in German journals.
Bis most important contribution to learning remains his history
of the empire of Trebizond. Prior to his discovery of the chronicle
of Michael Panaretos, covering the dominion of Alexus Comnenus
and his successors from 1204 to 1426, the history of this medieval
empire was practically unknown.
His works are— Gesckichte des Kaisertkums Trapezu.nl (Munich,
1837-1848) ; Gesekichte der Halbinsel Morea im iiittelalter (Stuttgart,
1830-1856); Uber die EntsUhungder Neugriecke* (Stuttgart, 1835);
'* Origjnalf cagmente, Chronikea, u.a.w., zur Gcschichte des K.
Trapexunto ,r (Munich, 1843), in Abkandl. der hist. Classe der K.
Bayerisch. Akad. ». Wiss.\ Fragments aus dem Orient (Stuttgart,
1845); Deuksehnfl Uber Golgotha und das heilige Crab (Munich.
1852), and Das Todte Meer (1853)— both of which had appeared in
the Abkaudluumn of the Academy; Das albanesiscke Element in
Grieckenland, iu. parts, in the Abkandl. for 1860-1866. After his
death there appeared at Leipzig in 1861, under the editorship
of G. M. Thomas, three volumes of GesammetieWerke, containing
Seme Frag m ent* aus dam Orient, Kritiscke Versucke, and Studien
mid Erinnerungeu aus msinem Leben. A sketch of his life will also
be found in L. Steub, Herbskage iu Tyrol (Munich, 1867).
FALLOPIUS (or Fallopio), OABRIELLO (1523-1562), Italian
anatomist, was born about 1523 at Modena, where he became
a canon of the cathedraL He studied medicine at Ferrara, and,
after a European tour, became teacher of anatomy in that city.
He thence removed to Pisa, and from Pisa, at the instance of
Cosmo L, grand-duke of Tuscany, to Padua, where, besides the
chairs of anatomy and surgery and of botany, he held the office
of superintendent of the new botanical garden. He died at
Padua on the 9th of October 1562. Only one treatise by
Fallopius appeared during his lifetime, namely the Observations*
anatomical (Venice, 1561). His collected works, Opera genuine
omnia, were published at Venice in 1584. (See Anatomy.)
FALLOUT* FR*D*RIC ALFRED PIERRE, Coins de (i8xt-
zS86) f French politician and author, was born at Angers on
the xx til of May 1811. His father had been ennobled by
Charles X., and Falloux began his career as a Legitimist and
clerical journalist under the influence of Mme Swetchine. In
1846 he entered the legislature as deputy for Maine-et-Loire,
and with many other ultra-Catholics he gave real or pretended
support to the revolution of 1848. Louis Napoleon made him
minister of education in 1849, hut disagreements with the
president led to his resignation within a year. He had neverthe-
less secured the passage of the Loi Falloux (March 15, 1850)
for the organization of primary and secondary education. This
law provided that the clergy and members of ecclesiastical
orders, male and female, might exercise the profession of teaching
without producing any further qualification. This exemption
was extended even to priests who taught in secondary schools,
where a university degree was exacted from lay teachers. The
primary schools were put under the management of the cures.
Falloux was elected to the French Academy in 1856. His failure
to secure re-election to the legislature in 1866, 1869, 1870 and
187 1 was due to the opposition of the stricter Legitimists, who
viewed with suspicion his attempts to reconcile the Orleans
princes with Henri, comte de Chambord. In spite of his failure
to enter the National Assembly his influence was very great,
and was increased by the intimacy of his personal relations with
Thiers. But in 1872 he offended both sections of the monarchical
party at a conference arranged in the hope of effecting a fusion
between the partisans of the comte de Chambord and of the
Orleans princes, divided on the vexed question of the flag. He
suggested that the comte de Chambord might recede from his
position with dignity at the desire of the National Assembly,
and not content with this encroachment on royalist principles,
he insinuated the possibility of a transitional stage with the due
d*AumaIe as president of the republic. His disgrace was so
complete that he was excommunicated by the bishop of Angers
in 1876. He died on the 16th of January x886.
Of h» numerous works the best known are his Histoin is
louts XVJ (1840); Histoire de Saint Pie (1845); De la centre-
revolution (1876); and the posthumous Mumres (Tun royalists
tavds.. itfti). ■^
FALLOW, land ploughed and tilled, but left unsown, usually
for a year, in order, on the one hand, to disintegrate, aerate
and free it from weeds, and, on the other, to allow it to re*
cuperate. The word was probably early confused with "fallow n
(from O. Eng. fealu, probably cognate with Gr. iroXtor, grey),
of a pale.brown or yellow colour, often applied to soil left unfilled
and unsown, but chiefly seen in the name of the " fallow deer.*'
The true derivation is from the O. Eng. fealga, only found in the
plural, a harrow, and the ultimate origin is a Teutonic root
meaning •' to plough," cf. the German falgen. The recognition
that continuous growing of wheat on the same area of land robs
the soil of its fertility was universal among ancient peoples, and
the practice of n fallowing " or resting the soil is as old as
agriculture itself. The " Sabbath rest " ordered to be given
every seventh year to the land by the Mosaic law is a classical
instance of the " fallow." Improvements in crop rotations and
manuring have diminished the necessity of the u bare fallow,"
which is uneconomical because the land is left unproductive,
and because the nitrates in the soil unintercepted by the roots of
plants are washed away in the drainage waters. At the present
time bare fallowing is, in general, only advisable on stiff soils
and in dry climates. A ** green fallow " is land planted with
turnips, potatoes or some similar crop in rows, the space between
which may be cleared of weeds by hoeing. The "bastard
fallow " is a modification of the bare fallow, effected by the
growth of rye, vetches, or some other rapidly growing crop,
sown in autumn and fed off m spring, the land then undergoing
the processes of ploughing, grabbing and harrowing usual in the
bare fallow.
FALLOW-DEER (that is, Drm Deer, in contradistinction
to the red deer, Cervus [Dama] dama), a medium-sued repre-
sentative of the family Certidae, characterized by its expanded
or palmated antlers, which generally have no bez-tine, rather
kmg tail (black above and white below), and a coat spotted with
white in summer but uniformly coloured in winter. The shoulder
height is about 3 ft. The species is semi-domesticated in Brit ish
parks, and occurs wild in western Asia, North Africa, the south
of Europe and Sardinia. In prehistoric times it occurred
throughout northern and central Europe. One park-breed has
no spots. Bucks and does live apart except during the pairing-
season; and the doe produces one or two, and sometimes three
fawns at a birth. These deer are particularly fond of hone-
chestnuts, which the stags are said to endeavour to procure by
striking at the branches with their antlers. The Persian fallow-
deer (C. [D.) mesopotamicus), a native of the mountains of
Luristan, is larger than the typical species, and has a brighter
coat, differing in some details of Colouring. The antlers have
the tres-tine near the small brow-tine, and the palxnation
beginning near the former. Here may be mentioned the gigantic
fossil deer commonly known as the Irish elk, which is perhaps a
giant type of fallow-deer, and if so should be known as Cervus
(Dama) giganteus. If a distinct type, its title should be C,
(Megaceros) giganleus. This deer inhabited Ireland, Great Britain,
central and northern Europe, and western Asia in Pleistocene
and prehistoric times; and must have stood 6 ft. high at the
shoulder. The antlers are greatly palmated and of enormous
size, fine specimens measuring as much as x x ft. between the tips..
FALL RIVER* a dty of Bristol county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
situated on Mount Hope Bay, at the mouth of the Taunton river,
49m. S. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 74,308; (1900) 104,863 ; (estimated,
1906) 105,942 ;* (19x0 census) 1x9.295. It is the third city in
size of the commonwealth. Of the population in 1900, 50,042,
or 47*7%, wwa foreign-born, 90,244 were of foreign parentage
(i.e. either one or both parents were foreign), and of these 81,721
had both foreign father and foreign mother. Of the foreign-bom,
20,172 were French Canadians, 2329 were English Canadians,
12,268 were from England, 1045 were from Scotland, 73x7 were
from Ireland, 2805 were from Portugal, and 1005 were from
Russia, various other countries being represented by smaller
1 The small increase between 1900 and 1906 was due in large part
to the emigration of many of the inhabitants during the great strike
of 1904-1905.
i 5 6
FALMOUTH
numbers. Fall River is served by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway, and has good steamer connexions with Pro-
vidence, Newport and New York, notably by the " Fall River
Line/' which is much used, in connexion with the N.Y., N.H.&
H. railway, by travellers between New York and Boston. The
harbour is large, deep and easy of access. The city lies on a
plateau and on slopes that rise rather steeply from the river,
and is irregularly laid out. Granite underlying the city furnishes
excellent building material; among the principal buildings
are the state armoury, the county court house, the B.M.C.
Durfee high school, the custom house, Notre Dame College, the
church of Notre Dame, the church of St Anne, the Central
Congregational church and the public library. The common-
wealth aids in maintaining a textile school (the Bradford Durfee
textile school), opened in 2904. The city library contained in
&90& about 78,500 volumes. There is considerable commerce,
but it is as a manufacturing centre that Fall River is best known.
Above the city, on the plateau, about 2 m. from the bay, are the
Watuppa Lakes, 7 m.long and on an average three-fourths of a
mile wide, and from them runs the Fall (Quequechan) river,
with a constant Bow and descending near its mouth through
127 ft. in less than half a mile. The conjunction of water
transportation and water power is thus remarkable, and accounts
in great part for the city's rapid growth. The waters of the
North Watuppa Lake (which is fed by springs and drains out
a very small area) are also exceptionally pure and furnish an
excellent water-supply. The Fall river runs directly through the
city (passing beneath the city hall), and along its banks are long
rows of cotton mills; formerly many of these were run by water
power, and their wheels were placed directly in the stream bed,
but steam power is now used almost exclusively. According to
the special- census of manufactures of 1905, the value of aU
factory products for the calendar year 1004 was $43,473,105,
of which amount $35,442,581, or 81*5%, consisted of cotton
goods and dyeing and finishing, making Fall River the largest
producer of cotton goods among American cities. 1 A large hat
manufactory (the Marshall Brothers' factory) furnishes the
United States army with hats. Until forced by the competition
of mills in the Southern states to direct attention to finer pro-
ducts, the cotton manufacturers of Fall River devoted themselves
almost exclusively to the making of print doth, in which respect
the city was long distinguished from Lawrence and Lowell,
whose products were more varied and of higher grade.. The
number of spindles increased from 265,3*8 in 1865 to 1,2(9,043
in 1875, 3,000,000 in xooo, and to about 3,500,000 in 1906.
Excellent drainage and sewerage systems contribute to the city's
health. The birth-rate was in 1000 the highest (38*75) of any
city in the country of above 30,000 inhabitants (three of the four
next highest being Massachusetts towns). The social conditions
and labour problems of Fall River have long been exceptional.
The mills supplement the public schools in the mingling of races
and the work for Americanization, and labour disturbances,
for which Fall River was once conspicuous, have become less
frequent and less bitter, the great strike of 1004-1005— perhaps
the greatest in the history of the textile industry in the United
States— being marked by little or no violence.' Fall River has
become a " city of homes," and tenements are giving way to
dwellings for one or two families. The lists of the city's corpora-
tion stockholders show more than 10,000 names. The municipal
police is controlled (as nowhere else in the state save in Boston)
by a state board; this arrangement is generally regarded as
having worked for better order. Lowell was about three times
as large as Fall River in 1850, and Lawrence was larger until after
2870. Fall River was originally a part of Freetown; it was
incorporated as a township in 1803 (being, known as " Troy "
in 1804-1834), and was chartered as a city in 1854. In 1861
it was increased by certain territory secured from Rhode Island,
■The above 6guras do not show adequately the full importance
of Fall River as a cotton manufacturing centre, for during six
months of the census year the great strike was in progress: this
strike, caused by a reduction in wages, lasted from the 25th of July
1004 to the 18th of January 1905.
the city having spread across the state boundary and become
subject to a divided jurisdiction. In 1902 the city received a
new charter. Its manufactures amounted to little before the
War of 1812. A disastrous fire occurred in 1843 (loss above
$500,000). In 1904 Fall River became the see of the Roman
Catholic diocese of that name.
See H. H. Earl, Centennial History cf Fall Rh*r . . . 1696-1876
(New York, 1877); and the report of Carroll D. Wright on Fail
River, Lowell and Lawrence, in 13th annual report of the Massachusetts
Bureau of Statistics of Labor (1882), which, however, was regarded
as unjust and partial by the manufacturers of Fall River.
FALMOUTH, a municipal and contributary parliamentary
borough and seaport of Cornwall, England, 306 m. W.S.W. of
London, on a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (iyox)
11,789. It is finely situated on the west shore of the largest of
the many estuaries which open upon the south coast of the
county. This is entered by several streams, of which the largest
is the Fai. Falmouth harbour lies within Pendennis Point, which
shelters the estuary from the more open Falmouth Bay. The
Penryn river, coming in from the north-west, forms one of several
shallow, winding arms of the estuary, the main channel of which
is known as Carrick Roads. To the east Pendennis Castle stands
on its lofty promontory, while on the opposite side of the roads
the picturesque inlet of the Porthcuel river opens between Castle
Point on the north, with St Mawes' Castle, and St Anthony Head
and Zoze Point on the south. The shores of the estuary as a
rale slope sharply up to about 250 ft., and are beautifully wooded.
The entrance is x m. across, and the roads form one of the
best refuges for shipping on the south coast, being accessible at
all times by the largest vessels. Among the principal buildings
and institutions in Falmouth are the town hall, market-house,
hall of the Cornwall Polytechnic Society, a meteorological and
magnetic observatory, and a submarine mining establishment.
The Royal Cornwall Yacht Club has its headquarters here, and
hi the annual regatta the principal prize is a cup given by the
prince of Wales as duke of Cornwall. Engineering, shipbuilding,
brewing and the manufacture of manure are carried on, and
there are oyster and trawl fisheries, especially for pilchard. The
inner harbour, under the jurisdiction partly of commissioners and
partly of a dock company, is enclosed between two breakwaters,
of which the eastern has 23 ft. of water at lowest tides alongside.
The area of the harbour is 42 acres, with nearly 700 lineal yards
of quayage. There are two graving docks, and repairing yards.
Grain, timber, coal and guano and other manures are imported,
and granite, china clay, copper ore, ropes and fish exported.
Falmouth a also in favour as a watering-place. The parlia-
mentary borough of Penryn and Falmouth returns one member.
The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
councillors. Area, 700 acres.
Falmouth (Falemuth) as a haven and port has had a place
in the maritime history of Cornwall from very early Hmw The
site of the town, which is comparatively modern, was formerly
known as Smithick and Pennycomequick and formed part of
the manor of Arwenack held by the family of Killigrew. The
corporations of Penryn, Truro and Helston opposed the under-
taking, but the lords in council, to whom the matter was referred,
decided in Killigrew's favour. In 1652 the House of Cemmons
considered that it would be advantageous to the Commonwealth
to grant a Thursday market to Smithick. This market was
confirmed to Sir Peter Killigrew in 1660 together with two fairs,
on the 30th of October and the 27th of July, and also a ferry
between Smithick and Flushing. By the charter of incorporation
granted in the following year the name was changed to Falmouth,
and a mayor, recorder, 7 aldermen and 22 burgesses constituted
a common council with the usual rights and privileges. Three
years later an act creating the borough a separate ^-Wia stirs!
parish empowered the mayor and aldermen to assess all buildings
within the town at the rate of sixteen pence in the pound for
the support of the rector. This rector's rate occasioned much
i&feehag in modern times, and by act of parliament in 1896
was taken over by the corporation, and provision made for its
eventual extinction. The disfranchisement of Penryn, which
FALSE POINT— FALUN
157
had long been a subject of debate in toe House of Commons,
vis settled in 183a, by uniting Penryn with Falmouth for parlia-
■eBtary purposes and assigning two members to the united
boroughs. By the Redistribution of Seats Act 1B85, the number
of members was reduced to one. The fairs granted in 1660 are
ao longer held, and a Saturday market has superseded the
chartered market. In the 17th and 18th centuries Falmouth
grew in importance owing to its being a station of the Packet
Service for the conveyance of mails.
PAUB POIHT, a landlocked harbour in the Cuttack district
of Bengal, India. It was reported by the famine commissioners
in 1867 to be the best harbour on the coast of India from the
Hagli to Bombay. It derives Us name from the circumstance
that vessels proceeding up the Bay of Bengal frequently mistook
it for Point Palmyras, a degree farther north. The anchorage
is safe, roomy and completely landlocked, but large vessels are
obliged to lie out at some distance from its mouth in an exposed
roadstead. The capabilities of False Point as a harbour remained
long unknown, and it was only in i860 that the port was opened.
It was rapidly developed, owing to the construction of the Orissa
canals. Two navigable channels lead inland across the Maha-
aidi delta, and connect the port with Cuttack city. The
trade of False Point is chiefly with other Indian harbours, but
a large export trade in rice and oil-seeds has sprung up with
Mauritius, the French colonies and France. . Fake Point is now
a regular port of call for Anglo-Indian coasting steamers. Its
capabilities were first appreciated during the Orissa famine of
1866, when it afforded almost the only means by which supplies
of rice could be thrown into the province. A lighthouse is
situated a little to the south of the anchorage, on the point which
screens it fro m the southern monsoon.
FALSE PRETEVCBS, in English law, the obtaining from any
other person by any false pretence any chattel, money or valuable
security, with intent to defraud It is an indictable misde-
Beanour under the Larceny Act of 1861. The broad distinction
between this offence and larceny is that in the former the owner
intends to part with his property, in the latter he does not.
This offence dates as a statutory crime practically from, 1756.
At common law the only remedy originally available for an owner
who had been deprived of his goods by fraud was an indictment
for the crime of cheating, or a civil action for deceit. These
remedies were insufficient to cover all cases where money or other
properties bad been obtained by false pretences, and the offence
was first partially created by a statute of Henry VIII. (1541),
which enacted that if any person should falsely and deceitfully
obtain any money, goods, &c, by means of any false token or
counterfeit letter made in any other man's name, the offender
should suffer any punishment other than death, at the discretion
of the judge. The scope of the offence was enlarged to include
practically all fabe pretences by the act of 1756, the provisions
of which were embodied in the Larceny Act 1861.
The principal points to notice are that the pretence must
be a fabe pretence of some existing fact, made for the purpose
of inducing the prosecutor to part with his property (e.g. it was
held not to be a false pretence to promise to pay for goods on
delivery), and it may be by either words or conduct. The
property, too, must have been actually obtained by the false
pretence. The owner must be induced by the pretence to make
over the absolute and immediate ownership of the goods, other-
wise h is " larceny by means of a trick." If. is not always easy,
however, to draw a distinction between the various classes of
offences. In the case where a man goes into a restaurant and
orders a meal, and, after consuming it, says that he has no
mean* 0/ paying for it, it was usual to convict for obtaining food
by fabe pretences. But Jc. v. Jones; 1898, L.R. x O.B. 119
decided that it is neither larceny nor false pretences, but an
offence under the Debtors Act 1869, °* obtaining credit by
fraud. (See also Cheating; Fraud; Lakceny.)
United States.— American statutes on this subject are mainly
copied from the English statutes, and the courts there in a general
way follow the English interpretations. The statutes of each
state must be consulted. There is no Federal statute, though
there are Federal laws providing penalties for false personation
of the lawful owner of public stocks, &c., or of persons entitled
to pensions, prize money, &c. (U.S. Rev. Stajs. $ 5435), or the
false making of any order purporting to be a money order
(*. § S463).
In Arizona, obtaining money or property by falsely personating
another is punishable as for larceny (Penal Code, 1901, § 479).
Obtaining credit by false pretences as to wealth and mercantile
character is punishable by six months' imprisonment and a
fine not exceeding three times the value of the money or property
obtained (id. § 481).
In Illinois, whoever by any false representation or writing
signed by him, of his own respectability, wealth or mercantile
correspondence or connexions, obtains credit and thereby de-
frauds any person of money.goods, chattels or any valuable thing,
or who procures another to make a false report of his honesty,
wealth, &c, shall return the money, goods, &c, and be fined and
imprisoned for a term not exceeding one year (Crim. Code, 1903,
ch. xxxviii. $8 96, 97).- Obtaining money or property by bogus
cheques, the " confidence game " (Dorr v. People, 1907, $ 228,
III. 216), or " three card monte," sleight of hand, fortune-telling,
&c, is punishable by imprisonment for from one to ten years
(id. §§ 98, roo). Obtaining goods from warehouse, mill or wharf
by fraudulent receipt wrongly stating amount of goods de-
posited—by imprisonment for not less than one nor more than
ten years (id. ( 124). Fraudulent use of railroad passes is a
misdemeanour (id. 125a).
In Massachusetts it is simple larceny to obtain by false pre-
tences the money or personal chattel of another (Rev. Laws,
1002, cb. ccviii. § 26). Obtaining by a false pretence with intent
to defraud the signature of a person to a written instrument,
the false making whereof would be forgery, is punishable by
imprisonment in a state prison or by fine (id. § 27).
In New York, obtaining property by false pretences, felonious
breach of trust and embezzlement are included in the term
" larceny " (Penal Code, § 528; Paul v. Dumar, 106 N.Y. 508^
People v. Tattlekan % 1907, 104 N.Y. Suppl. 805), but the methods
of proof required to establish each crime remain aa before the
code. Obtaining lodging and food on credit at hotel or lodging
house with intent to defraud is a misdemeanour (Pen. Code,
5 382). Purchase of property by false pretences as to person's
means or ability to pay is not criminal when in writing signed by
the party to* be charged (Pen. Code, § 544).
FALTICHENI (FdtiqenQ* tbe capital of the department of
Suceava, Rumania, situated on a small right-hand tributary of
the Sereth, among the hills of north-west Moldavia, and 2 m.
S.E. of tbe frontier of Bukovina. Pop. (1000) 9643, about half
being Jews. A branch railway runs for 15 m. to join the main
line between CzcrnowiU in Bukovina, and Galatz. The Suceava
department (named after Suceava or Suciava, its former capital,
now Suczawa in Bukowina) is densely forested; its considerable
timber trade centres in Falticheni. For five weeks, from the
aoth July onwards, Russians and Austro-Hungarians, as well as
Rumans, attend the fair which is held at Falticheni, chiefly for
the sale of horses, carriages and cattle.
FALUN, a town of Sweden, capital of the district (Ian) of
Kopparberg, 153 m. N.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1000)
0606. It is situated in a bare and rocky country near the
western shore of lake Runn. Here are the oldest and most
celebrated copper mines in Europe. Their produce has gradually
decreased since the 17th century, and is now unimportant, but
sulphate of copper, iron pyrites, and some gold, silver, sulphur
and sulphuric acid, and red ochre are also produced. The mines
belong to the Kopparberg Mining Company (Stora Kopparberg*
Bergsiags Akliebolag, formerly Kopparbergslagen). This is the
oldest industrial corporation in Sweden, and perhaps the oldest
still existing in the world; it is known to have 'been established
before 1347. Since its reorganization as a joint-stock company
in 1890 many of the shares have been held by the crown, philan-
thropic institutions and other public bodies. The company also
owns iron mines, limestone and quartz quarries, large iron- works
I at Domnarfvet and elsewhere, a great extent of forests and
IS*
FAMA— FAMILY
sawmills, and besides the output of the copper mines it pro-
duces manufactured iron and steel, timber, wood-pulp, bricks
and charcoal. Falun has also railway rolling-stock factories.
There are museums of mineralogy and geology, a lower school
of mining, model room and scientific library. The so-called
" Gothenburg System " of municipal control over the sale of
spirits was actually devised at Falun as early as 1850.
FAMA (Gr. *iwdj, "Xhoa) h in classical mythology, the personi-
fication of Rumour. The Homeric equivalent Ossa {Iliad, ii. 93)
is represented as the messenger of Zeus, who spreads reports
with the rapidity of a conflagration. Homer does not personify
Pheme, which is merely a presage drawn from human utterances,
whereas Ossa (until later times) is associated with the idea of
divine origin. A more definite character is given to Pheme by
Hesiod {Works and Days, 764), who calls her a goddess; in
Sophocles (Oed. Tyr. 158) she is the immortal daughter of golden
Hope and is styled by the orator Aeschines {Contra Timer chum,
\ 1 28) one of the mightiest of goddesses. According to Fausanias
(i. 17. z) there was a temple of Pheme at Athens, and at Smyrna
{ib. iz. xx, 7), whose inhabitants were especially fond of seeking
the aid of divination, there was a sanctuary of Cledones (sounds
or rumours supposed to convey omens).
There does not seem to have been any cult of Fama among the
Romans, by whom she was regarded merely as "a figure of
poetical religion." The Temple of Fame and Omen (Pheme and
Cledon) mentioned by Plutarch {if or alia, p. 3x9) is due to a con-
fusion with Ajus Locutius, the divinity who warned the Romans
of the coming attack of the Gauls. There, are well-known
descriptions of Fame in Virgil {Aejttid, iv. 173) and Ovid {Hetam.
xii. 39); see also Valerius Flaccus (ii. 116), Statius {Thebaisiin.
425). An unfavourable idea gradually became attached to the
name; thus Ennius speaks of Fama as the personification of
" evil " reputation and the opposite of Gloria (cp. the adjective
famosus, which is not used in a good sense till the post-Augustan
age). Chaucer in his House of Fame is obviously imitating
Virgil and Ovid, although he is also indebted, to Dante's
Divino Commedia.
FAMAGUSTA (Gr. Ammochostos), a town and harbour on
the east cost of Cyprus, 2} m. S. of the ruins of Salamis. The
population in 1901 was 818, nearly all being Moslems who live
within the walls of the fortress; the Christian population has
migrated to a suburb called Varosia (pop. 2948). The foundation
of Salamis (q.i.) was ascribed to Teucer: it was probably the
most important town in early Cyprus. The revolt of the Jews
under Trajan, and earthquakes in the time of Const ami us and
Constant ine the Great helped in turn to destroy it. It was
restored by Fl. Constantius II. (a.d. 337-361) as Constantia.
Another town a* little to the south, built by Ptolemy Phila-
delphus in 274 B.C., and called Arsinoe in honour of his sister,
received the refugees driven from Constantia by the Arabs under
Mu'awiyah, became the seat of the orthodox archbishopric,
and was eventually known as Famagusta. It received a large
accession of population at the fall of Acre in 1291; was annexed
by the Genoese in 1376; reunited to the throne of Cyprus in
1464; and surrendered, after an investment of nearly a year,
to the Turks in 1571. The fortifications, remodelled by the
Venetians after 1489, the castle, the grand cathedral church of
St Nicolas, and the remains of the palace and many other
churches make Famagusta a place of unique interest. Acts ii.
and v. of Shakespeare's Othello pass there. In 1003 measures
were taken to develop the fine natural harbour of Famagusta.
Basins were dredged to give depths of 15 and 24 ft. respectively at
ordinary low tides, and commodious jetties and quays were
constructed.
FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris,
of or belonging to the familio, family), an adjective, properly
meaning belonging to the family or household, but in this sense
the word is rare. The more usual meanings are: friendly,
intimate, well known; and from its application to the easy
relations of intimate friends the term may be used in an invidious
sense of " free and easy " conduct on the part of any one not
justified by any close relationship, friendship or intimacy.
" Famifiar" is, however, abo used as a substantive, especially
of the spirit or demon which attended on a wizard or magician,
and was summoned to execute b» master's wishes. The idea
underlies the notion of the Christian guardian angel and of
the Roman genius naialis (see Demonoloc*; Witcbcsatt).
In the' Roman Church tht term is applied to persons attached to
the household of the pope or of bishops. These must actually
do some domestic service. They are supported by their patron,
and enjoy privileges which in the case of the papal familiars
are considerable. " Familiars of the Holy Office " were lay
officers of the Inquisition, whose functions were chiefly those ol
police, in making arrests, &c, of persons charged,
FAMIU5T3, a term of English origin (later adopted in othei
languages) to denote the members of the Familia Ceritotis {Hta
der Lieften; Huis der Liefde; Hans der Lube; " Family ol
Love "), founded by Hendrik Niclaes (born on the 9th or iotb
of January 1501 or 1502, probably at Munster; died after 1570,
not later than 1581, probably in 1580). His calling was that ol
a merchant, in which he and his son Franz prospered, becoming
ultimately wealthy. Not till 1540 did he appear in the charactei
of one divinely endowed with "the spirit of the true love ol
Jesus Christ." Foe twenty years (1540-1 560) Emden was the
headquarters at once of his merchandise and of his propaganda;
but he travelled in both interests to various countries, visiting
England in 1552 or 1553. To this period belong most of his
writings. His primary work was Den Spegel der GKerecktuheii
dorck den Geist der Liefden unde den vergodeden Mensch HJf,
uth de hentmeliscke Warheit betttgeL It appeared in an English
form with the author's revision/ as An Introduction to the holy
Understanding of the Glasse of Righteousness (1575?; reprinted
in. 1649). None of his works bear his name in full; his initials
were mystically interpreted as standing for Homo Novus. His
" glass of righteousness " is the spirit of Christ as interpreted
by him. The remarkable fact was brought out by G. Arnold
(and more fully by F. Nippold in 1862) that the printer of
Niclaes's works was Christopher Plantin, of Antwerp, a specially
privileged printer of Roman Catholic theology and liturgy, yet
secretly a steadfast adherent of .Niclaes. It is true that Niclaes
claimed to hold an impartial attitude towards all existing religious
parties, and his mysticism, derived from David Joris, was
undogmatic. Yet he admitted his followers by the rite of adult
baptism, and set up a hierarchy among them on the Roman
model (see his Evangelium Regni, in English A Joyful! Message
of the Kingdom, 1574?; reprinted, 1652). His pantheism had
an antinomian drift; for himself and his officials he claimed
impeccability; but, whatever truth there may be in the charge
that among his followers were those who interpreted " love "
as licence, no such charge can be sustained against the morals
of Krdaes and the other leaders of the sect. His chief apostle
in England was Christopher Vitel, a native of Delft, an " illumi-
nate elder," living at Colchester and Southwark, who ultimately
recanted. The society spread in the eastern counties, in spite
of repressive measures; it revived under the Commonwealth,
and lingered into the early years of the x8th century; the lead-
ing idea of its " service of love " was a reliance on sympathy
and tenderness for the moral and spiritual edification of its
members. Thus, in an age of strife and polemics, it seemed
to afford a refuge for quiet, gentle spirits, and meditative
temperaments.
See F. Nippold, " H. Niclaes u, das Haus der Liebe." in Ztitsckrtfl
fur die hiiior. Theol. (1862); article " H. Niclaes" in A. J. van
der Aa, Biog. Woordenboek der Nederlanden (1868): article " H.
Nicholas," by C Fell Smith, in Diet. Nat- Biog. (1894) ; article
" Familisten/' by Loofa, in Herzog-Hauck'a Roalencykhpadu
(1808). tA.Go.«)
FAMILY, a word of which the etymology but partially
illustrates the meaning. The Roman familio, derived from the
Oscan famel {servus), originally signified the servile property,
the thralls, of a master. Next, the term denoted other domestic
property, in things as well as in persons. Thus, in the fifth ol
the laws of the Twelve Tables, the rules are laid down: si-
INTESTATO • MOMTUR • CUI • SOUS • HE RES • NEC • SIT ' ADCNAT17S •
FAMILY
«S9
nOXXXUS • IAMXUAM • BABETO, and SI • ACNATUS • NEC • ESCIT •
gxxthjs-faioi-iam-nancitor; that is, if a man die intestate,
leaving no natural heir who had been under his potestas, the
nearest agnate, or relative tracing his connexion with the
deceased exclusively through males, is to inherit the Jamilia,
or family fortune of every sort. Failing an agnate, a member
of the gens of the dead man is to inherit. In a third sense,
fam&ia was applied to all the persons who could prove themselves
to be descended from the same ancestor, and thus the word
almost corresponded to our own use of it in the widest meaning,
ts when we say that a person is " of a good family " (Ulpian,
Dig. SO, 1 6, 195 ■/»•)-
1. Leaving for awhile the Roman terms, to which it will be
necessary to return, we may provisionally define Family, in the
tmm modem sense, as the small community formed by.
the union of one man with one woman, and by the
increase of children born to them. These in modern
times, and in most European countries, constitute the household,
and it has been almost universally supposed that little natural
associations of this sort are the germ-cell of early society. The
Bible presents the growth of the Jewish nation from the one
household of Abraham. His patriarchal family differed from the
modern family in being polygamous, but, as female chastity
was one of the conditions of. the patriarchal family, and as
descent through males was therefore recognized as certain,
the plurality of wives makes no real difference to the argument.
In the same way the earliest formal records of Indian, Greek and
Roman society present the family as firmly established, and
generally regarded as the most primitive of human associations.
Thus, Aristotle derives the first household (oucia Tpwnj) from
the combination of man's possession of property— in the slave
or in domesticated animals— with man's relation to woman,
and be quotes Hesiod: dUov y.b rpvruna ywaUare fiovr r'
iporrjp* (Politics, u s. 5). The village, again, with him is a
colony or offshoot of the household, and monarchical government
in states is derived from the monarchy of the eldest male member
of the family. Now, though certain ancient terms, introduced
by Aristotle in the chapters to which we refer, might have led
him to imagine a very different origin of society, his theory is, on
the face of It, natural and plausible, and it has been almost
universally accepted. The beginning of society, it has been said
a thousand times, is the family, a natural association of kindred
by blood, composed of father, mother and their descendants.
In this family, the father is absolute master of his wife, his
children and the goods of the little community; at his death
his eldest son succeeds him; and in-course of time this associa-
tion of kindred, by natural increase and by adoption, develops
into the clan, gens, or yirot. As generations multiply, the more
distant relations split off into other dans, and these dans, which
have not lost the sense of primitive kinship, unite once more
into tribes. The tribes, again, as dvTUzation advances, ac-
knowledge themselves to be subjects of a king, in whose veins
the blood of the original family runs purest. This, or something
like this, is the common theory of the growth of society.
2. It was. between 1866 and 1880 that the common opinion
began to be seriously opposed. John Ferguson McLennan, in his
Primitive Marriage and his essays on The Worship of
SSSL -Pknfc and Animals' (see his Studies in A ncient History,
second series), drew attention to the wide prevalence of
the custom of inheriting the kinship name through mothers,
not fathers; and to the law of " Exogamy " (q.v.). The former
usage he attributed to archaic uncertainty as to fatherhood;
the natural result of absolute sexual promiscuity, or of Polyandry
(q.p.). Either practice is incpnsistent, prima facie, with the
primitive existence of the Family, whether polygamous or
monogamous, whether patriarchal or modern. The custom of
Exogamy, again,— here taken to mean the unwritten law which
.makes it incest, and a capital offence, to marry within the real
or supposed kin denoted by the common name of the kinship —
pointed to an archaic condition of family affairs all unlike ^>ur
Table of prohibited degrees. This law of Exogamy was found,
among many savage races, associated with Totems, that is plants,
animals and other- natural objects which give names to the
various kinships, and are themselves, in various degrees, rever-
enced by members of the kinships. (See Totem and Toixiosm.)
Traces of such kinships, and of Totemism, also of alleged promis-
cuity in ancient times, were detected by McLennan in the legends,
folk-lore and institutions of Greece, Rome and India. Later,
Prof. Robertson Smith found similar survivals, or possible
survivals, among the Semitic races (Kinship in Early Arabia).
Others have followed the same trail among the Celts (S. Reinach,
Culles, tnythes el religions, 1904).
If arguments founded on these alleged survivals be valid,
it may be that the most civilized races have passed through the
stages of Exogamy, Totemism and reckoning descent in the
female line. McLennan explained Exogamy as a result of
scarcity of women, due to female infanticide. Women being
scarce, the men of a group would steal them from other groups,
and it would become shameful, and finally a deadly sin, for a man
to marry within his own group-name, or name of kinship, say
Wolf or Raven. Meanwhile, owing to scarcity of women, one
woman would be the mate of many husbands (polyandry);
hence, paternity, being undetermined, descent would be reckoned
through mothers.
Such are the outlines of McLennan's theory, which, as a
whole, has been attacked by many writers, and is now, perhaps,
accepted by none. McLennan's was the most brilliant mdLmmm ^
pioneer work; but his supply of facts was relatively v J^ aaa '
scanty, and his friend CharlesDarwin stated objections
which to many seem final, as regards the past existence of a stage
of sexual promiscuity. C. N. Starcke (The Primitive Family,
1889), Edward Alexander Westerroarck (History a/ Human
Marriage, 1891), Ernest Crawley (The Mystic Rose), Herbert
Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Lord Avebury and many others,
have criticized McLennan, who, however, in coining the term
Exogamy, and drawing scientific attention to Totemism, and
reckoning of kin through mothers, founded the study of early
society. Here it must be observed that " Matriarchate " (q.v.)
is a misleading term, as is " Gynaecocracy," for the custom of
deducing descent on the spindle side. Women among totemistic
and exogamous savages are in a degraded position, nor does the
deriving and inheriting of the kinship name, or anything else,
on the spindle side, imply any ignorance of paternal relations;
even where, as among Central Australian tribes r the facts of
reproduction are said to be unknown.
3. Simultaneous with McLennan's researches and speculations
were the works of Lewis H. Morgan. He was the discoverer of a
custom very important in its bearing on the history of
society. In about two-thirds of the globe, persons Smhs.
in addressing a kinsman do not discriminate between
grades of relationship. All these grades are* merged In large
categories. Thus, in what Morgan calls the " Malayan system,"
M all consanguinei, near or far, fall within one of these relation-
ships—grandparent, parent, brother, sister, child and grand-
child." No other blood-relationships are recognised (Ancient
Society). This at once reminds us of the Platonic Republic.
" We devised means that no one should ever be able to know his
own child, but that all should imagine themselves to be of one
family, and should regard as brothers and sisters those who
were within a certain limit of age; and those who were of an elder
generation they were to regard as parents and grandparents,
and those who were of a younger generation as children and
grandchildren " (Timaens, 18, Jowett's translation, first edition,
vol. if., 1871). This system prevails in the Polynesian groups
and in New Zealand. Next comes what Morgan chooses to call
the Turanian system. "It was uJversal among the North
American aborigines," whom he styles Ganowanians. " Traces
of it have been found in parts of Africa " (Ancient Society),
and " it still prevails in South India among the Hindus, who
speak the Dravidian language," and also in North India, among
other Hindus, The system, Morgan says, "is simply stu-
pendous." It is not exactly the same among all his miscellaneous
" Turanians," but, on the whole, assumes the following shapes.
Suppose the speaker to be a male, he will style his nephew and.
i6b
FAMILY
niece in the male line, his brother's children, " son " and
"daughter," and his grand-nephews and grand-nieces in the male
line, "grandson" and "granddaughter." Here the Turanian
and the Malayan systems agree. But change the sex; let the
male speaker address his nephews and nieces in the female line, —
the children of his sister,— he salutes them as " nephew" and
"niece," and they hail him as "uncle." Now, in the Malay
system, nephews and nieces on both sides, brother's children or
sisters, are alike named " children " of the uncle. If the speaker
be a female, using the Turanian style, these terms are reversed.
Her sister's sons and daughters are saluted by her as " son "
and' " daughter," her brother's children she calls " nephew "
and " niece." Yet the children of the persons thus styled
" nephew " and " niece" are not recognized in conversation as
" grand-nephew " and " grand-niece," but as " grandson " and
"granddaughter." It is impossible here to do more than
indicate these features of the dassificatory nomenclature, from
which the others may be inferred. The reader is referred for
particulars to Morgan's Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of
the Human Race.
The existence of the dassificatory system is not an entirely
novel discovery. Nicolaus Damascenus, one of the inquirers
into early society, who lived in the first century of our era,
noticed this mode of address among the Galactophagi. Lafitau
found it among the Iroquois. To Morgan's perception of the
importance of the facts, and to his energetic collection of reports,
we owe our knowledge of the wide prevalence of the system.
From an examination of the degrees of kindred which seem
to be indicated by the " Malayan " and " Turanian " modes of
address, he has worked out a theory of the evolution of the modern
family. A brief comparison of this with other modern theories
will close our account of the family. The main points of the
theory are shortly stated in Systems of Consanguinity, &c., and
in A ncienl Society. From the latter work we quote the following
description of the five different and successive forms of the
family: —
" I. The Consanguine Family. — It was founded upon the intet-
marriage of brothers and sisters, own and collateral, in a group.
" If. The Punaiuan Family.— It was founded upon the inter-
marriage of several sisters, own and collateral, with each others'
husbanar, in a group — the joint husbands not being necessarily
kinsmen of each other; also, on the intermarriage of several
brothers, own and collateral, with each others' wives in a group —
these wives not being necessarily of kin to each other, although
often the case in both instances (sic). In each ease the group of
men were conjointly married to the group of women.
"III. The Syndyasmian or Pairing Family. — It was founded upon
marriage between single pairs, but without an exdusive cohabita-
tion. The marriage continued during the pleasure of the parties.
" IV. The Patriarchal Family.— It was founded upon the marriage
of one man with several wives, followed in general by the seclusion
of the wives.
" V. The Monogamian Family. — It was founded upon marriage
between single pairs with an exclusive cohabitation.
" Three of these forms, namely, the first, second, and fifth, were
radical, because they were sufficiently general and influential to
create three distinct systems of consanguinity, all of which still
exist in living forms. Conversely, these systems are sufficient
of themselves to prove the antecedent existence of the forms of
the family and of marriage with which they severally stand
connected,"
Morgan makes the systems of nomendature proofs of the
existence of the Consanguine and Punaiuan fa milies. Unhappily,
there is no other proof, and the same systems have been explained
on a very different principle (McLennan, Studies in Ancient
History). Looking at facts, we find the Consanguine family
nowhere, and cannot easily imagine how early groups abstained
from infringing on each other, and created a systematic marriage
of brothers and sisters. St Augustine, however {Dt civ. Dei,
xv. 16), and Archinus in his Thessalica {Odyssey, xi. 7, scholia
B, Q) agree more or less with Morgan. Next, how did the
Consanguine family change into the Punaiuan ? Morgan says
{Ancient Society) brothers ceased to marry their sisters, because
"the evils of it could not for ever escape human observation."
Thus the Punaiuan family was hit upon, and " created a distinct
•yitem of consanguinity** (Ancient Society), the Turanian.
Again, " marriages in Punaiuan groups explain the relationships
in the system." But Morgan provides himself with another
explanation, " the Turanian system owes its origin to marriage
in the group and to the gentile organization." He calk exogamy
" the gentile organisation," though, in point of fact, the only
gentes we know, the Roman gentes, show scarcely a trace of
exogamy. Again., " the change of relationships which resulted
from substituting Punaiuan in the place of Consanguine marriage
turns the Malayan into the Turanian system." On the same
page Morgan attributes the change to the " gentile organization,"
and, still on the same page, uses both factors in his working out
of the problem. Now, if the Punaiuan marriage is a sufficient
explanation, we do not need the " gentile organization." Both,
in Morgan's opinion, were efforts of conscious moral reform.
In Systems of Consanguinity the gentile organization (there
called tribal), that is, exogamy, is said to have been " designed
to work out a reformation in the intermarriage of brothers and
sisters." But the Punaiuan marriage bad done that, otherwise
it would not have produced (as Morgan says it did) the change
from the Malayan to the Turanian system, the difference in the
two systems, as exemplified in Seneca and Tamil, being " in the
relationships which depended on the intermarriage or non-
intermarriage of brothers and sisters " (Ancient Society). Yet the
Punaiuan family, though itself a reform in morals and in " breed-
ing," "did not furnish adequate motives to reform the Malay
system," which, as we have seen, it did reform. The Punaiuan
family, it is suspected, " frequently involved own brothers and
sisters "; had it not been so, there would have been no need of a
fresh moral reformation, — " the gentile organization." Yet even
in the Punaiuan family (Ancient Society) " brothers ceased to
marry their own sisters." What, then, did the " gentile organiza-
tion " do for men ? As they had already ceased to marry their
own sisters, and as, under the gentile organization, they were
still able to marry thdr half-sisters, the reformatory "ingenuity"
of the inventors of the organizations was at once superfluous and
useless. It is impossible to understand the Punaiuan system.
Its existence is inferred from a system of nomendature which it
does (and does not) produce; it admits (and exdudes) own
brothers and sisters. Morgan has intended, apparently, to
represent the Punaiuan marriage as a long transition to the
definite custom of exogamy, but it will be seen that his language
is not very dear nor his positions assured. He does not adduce
sufficient proof that the Punaiuan family ever existed as an
institution, even in Hawaii. There is, if possible, a greater
absence of historical testimony to the existence of the Con-
sanguine family. It is difficult to believe that exogamy was a
conscious moral and sodal reformation, because, ex hypodusi, the
savages had no moral data, nothing to cause disgust at relations
which seem revolting to us. It is as improbable that they dis-
covered the supposed physical evils of breeding in and in. That
discovery could only have been made after a long experience, and
in the Consanguine family that^xperience was impossible. Thus,
setting moral reform aside as inconceivable, we cannot understand
how the Consanguine families ever broke up. Morgan's ingenious
speculations as to a transitional step towards the gens (as he calls
what we style the totem-kindred), supposed to be found in the
" classes " and marriage laws of the Kamilaroi, are vitiated by
the weakness and contradictory nature of the evidence (see
Pritchard; J. D. Lang's Queensland, Appendix; Proceedings of
American Academy of Arts, &c, vol. viii. 4x2; Nature, October
20, 1 874) . Further, though Morgan calls the Australian "gentile
organization " " incipient," he admits (Ancient Society) that the
Narrinyeri have totem groups, in which " the children are of the
dan of the father." Far from being " incipient," the gens of the
Narrinyeri is on the footing of the ghotra of Hindu custom.
Lastly, though Morgan frequently dedares that the Polynesians
have not the gens (for he thinks them not suffidently advanced) ,
W. W. GUI (Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, London,
1876) has shown that unmistakable traces of the totem survive in
Polynesian mythology.
4. Morgan's theory was opposed by McLennan (Studies its
Ancient History, 1876), who maintained that the names for
fAMILY
161
rektionahifta, in the " clftssjfiastAiy system," were merely terms
of addicts, as among ourselves when a preacher calls any adult
__ male u brother," when an old woman is addressed as
Sm ^th " mother/' when an elder man calls a junior " my
son." He also showed that his own system accounted
for the terms. The controversy » still alive; one set of writer*
regarding the savage terms of relationship as indicating a state of
things ha which human beings dwelt in a " horde," with pro-
suscuous intercourse; another set holding that the terms do not
indicate consanguineous kinship, but degrees of age, status, and
reciprocal obligations in a local tribe, and therefore that they do
not yield any presumption that there was a past of promiscuity or
of what is called " group marriage." On Morgan's side (not of
course accepting all his details) are L» Fison and A. W. Howitt,
and Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen. Against him are Starcke,
Westennarck, A. Lang, Dr Durkheim, apparently, Crawley and
many others.
5. A second presumption in favour of original promiscuity has
been drawn by the eminent Australian students, Baldwin
BH+wm Spencer and F. J. Gillen, and by A. W. Howitt, from
•tmrtgtmmi the customs of some Australian aborigines. In each
^^f K tribe, owing to customary laws which are to be
*** r * examined later, only men and women of a given status
are intermarriageable (nupa, noa, unavm) with each other.
Though child-betrothals are usual, and though the woman is
specialized to one man, who protects and nourishes her and all
ber children, and though their union is immediately preceded by
an extended jus prima* metis (such as Herodotus describes among
the Nasamones), yet, among: certain tribes, the following custom
prevails. At great meetings the tribal leaders assign a woman as
paramour (with what amount of permanence remains obscure) to
a man (pirrauru); one woman may have several pirrauru men,
cue man several pirrauru women, in addition to their regularly
betrothed (Uppa malku) wives and husbands* The husband
occasionally shows fight, and bitter jealousies prevail, but, at
the great ceremonial meetings, complaisance is enforced under
penally of strangling. Thenceforth, if the husband permits, the
Bale pirrauru has matrimonial rights over the other man's
uppa malku wife when they meet. A symbolic ceremony of
union precedes the junction of the pirrauru people. This institu-
tion, as far as reported, is peculiar to a group of tribes near Lake
Eyre, the Died, Urabunna, and their congeners,— or perhaps to
all who have the same " phratry " names as the Oieri and
Urabunna (Kiraru and Mailer a, in various dialectic forms).
Elsewhere the pirrauru custom is not known; but almost
everywhere there are licentious festivals, in which all marriage
rules except those which forbid incest (in our sense of the word,
namely between the closest relations) are thrown to the winds.
Aho a native travelling among alien tribes is lent women of the
status into which he may legally marry.
Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, and A. W. Howitt, regard
pirrauru as " group marriage " and as a proof that, at one time,
„_, all intermarriageable people were actually husbands
SJIam and wives, while the other examples of licence are also
survivals, in a later stage of decay, of promiscuity, and
u group marriage." To this it is replied that " group marriage "
e a misnomer; thai if pirrauru be in a sense marriage it is
actus, not group marriage. Again, it is urged, pirrauru is a
modification of Uppa malku, which comes first; a woman is
u specialized "to* man before she can be made pirrauru to
another, and her tip pa malku husband continues to support her,
and to recognize her children as bis own, after she has become
pirrauru 10 another man or other men. Without the foregoing
Up pa malku union, the pirrauru unions are not conceivable;
they are mere legalized paramourships, modifying the tippa
nalku marriage (like the Italian cicisbeism), procuring a protector
tor a woman in her husband's absence, and supplying legal loves
lor bachelors. The custom is peculiar to a given set of kindred
tribes. The festivals are the legalized, restricted and more or
less permanent modification of the casual orgies of feasts of
hcence, or Saturnalia, which have their analogies among many
people, ancient and modern. Pirrauru is no more a survival
of aad a proof of primitive pmmJMtifty, thf>a fo tfrg kgOfctrf fory t
of ancient Egypt or ancient Peru. If these views be correct the
argument for primitive promiscuity derived from pirrauru falls
to the ground.
6. The questions at issue obviously are, was mankind originally
promiscuous, with no objections to marriage between persons of
the nearest kin; and was the first step in advance
the prohibition of marriage (or of amatory intercourse) fcS,|j,f
between brothers and sisters; or did mankind origin- pnbhm,
ally live in very small groups, under a jealous sire,
who imposed restrictions on intercourse between tbe young
males, his sons, and all the females of the " hearth-circle," who
constituted his harem? The problem has been studied, first,
in the institutions of savages, notably of the most backward
savages, the black natives of Australia; and next, in the light
of the habits of the higher mammalia.
As regards Australian matrimonial institutions, it has been
known since the date of the Journals of two Expeditions of
Discovery, by Sir George Grey (1837-^39), that they are very
complex and peculiar, in pointsstrongly resembling the customary
laws of the more backward Red Indian tribes of North America.
Information came in, while McLennan was working, from
G. Taplin (The Narrinyeri, 1874), from A. W. Howitt and L.
Fison, and many other inquirers (in Brough Smyth's Aborigines
of Victoria, 1878), from Howitt and Fison again (in Kamilaroi
and Kurnai, 1880), and many essays by these authors, and finally,
in Native Tribes of Central Australia (1899) and Northern Tribes
of Central Australia (1004), by Baldwin Spencer and F.J. Gillen;
and in Howitt 's Native Tribes of South-East Australia (1004),
with R. Roth's North-West Central Queensland Aborigines (1897).
All of these are works of very high merit. Knowledge is now
much more wide, minute and securely based than it was when
McLennan's Studies in Ancient History, second series, was
posthumously published (1896). We know with certainty that
in Australia, among archaic savages who have neither metals,
agriculture, pottery nor .domesticated animals, a graduated
scale of matrimonial institutions exists. First there are local
tribes, each tribe having its own dialect; holding a recognized
area of territory; and living on friendly terms with neighbouring
tribes. Territorial conquest is never attempted. In many cases
a knot of tribes of allied dialects and kindred rites may be, or at
least is, spoken of as a " nation " by our authorities.
7. Customary law is administered by the Seniors, the wise,
the magically skilled, who in many cases are " headmen " of
local groups or of sets of kindred. As to marriage, PHmittr*
persons may wed within the local tribe, or into a natrt*
neighbouring local tribe, at will, provided that they ******
obey the restrictions of customary law. The local m ******
tribe is neither exogamous nor endogamous, any more than is an
English county. The restrictions, except where they have become
obsolete, fall into six main categories. —
(r) In the most primitive, each tribe consists of two inter*
marrying and exogamous divisions, which are often styled
pkralrics. Each such division has a name, which, when it can
be translated, is the name of an animal: in the majority of
cases, however, the meaning of the phratry name is lost. In one
instance, that of the Euahkyi tribe of north-west New South
Wales, the phratry names are said (by Mrs Langloh Parker) to
mean "Light Blood " and " Dark Blood." This, as in the theory
of the Rev. J. Mathews, Eagle and Crow, might be taken to
indicate a blending of two distinct races.
Taking, for the sake of clearness, tribes whose phratry names
mean " Crow " and " Eagle Hawk," every member of the tribe
belongs either to Eagle Hawk phratry or to Crow phratry: if to
Crow, the man or woman can only marry an Eagle Hawk, if to
Eagle Hawk, can only marry a Crow. The children invariably
belong to the phratry of the mother, in this most primitive type.
Within Eagle Hawk phratry is one set of totem kins, named
usually after various species of animals and plants; within
Crow phratry is another set of totem kins, named always (except
in one region of Central Australia) after a different set of plants
and animals. With the exception mentioned (that of the Arunta
1 6a
FAMILY
" nation "), in no tribe does the same totem ever occur in both
phratries. Totems and totem names are inherited by the
children from the mother, in this primitive type. Thus a man,
Eagle Hawk by phratry, Snipe by totem, marries a woman Crow
by phratry, Black Duck by totem. Bis children by her are of
phratry Crow, of totem Black Duck. Obviously no person can
marry another of his or her own totem, because, in the phratry
into which he or she must marry, no man or woman of Ins or her
totem exists. The prohibition extends to members of alien and
remote tribes, if of the same totem name.
The same rules exist in the more primitive North American
tribes, but as the phratry there has generally, though not always,
decayed, the rule, where this has occurred, merely forbids
marriage within the totem kin.
(2) We find this type of organization, where the child inherits
phratry and totem from the father, not from the mother.
(3) We find tribes in which phratry and totem arc inherited
from the mother, but an additional rule prevails: the rule of
" Matrimonial Classes." By this device, in phratry " Dilbi,"
there are two classes, "Muri" and "Kubl." In phratry
" Kupathin " are two classes, " Ipai " and " Kumbo " (all these
names are of unknown meaning) . Each child inherits its mother's
phratry name and totem name, and also the name of that class
of the two in the mother's phratry to which the mother does not
belong. No person may marry into his or her own class —
practically into his or her own generation: the rule makes
parental and filial marriages impossible, — but these never occur
even among more primitive tribes which have not the institution
of classes. Suppose that the class names are really names of
animals and other objects in nature— as in a few cases they
actually are. Then the rules, where classes exist, would amount
to this: no person may marry another who, by phratry, totem or
generation, owns the same hereditary animal name as himself
or herself. In practice, where phratries exist, a man who knows
a woman's phratry name knows whether or not he may marry
her. Where class names exist (even though the phratry name be
lost), a man who knows a woman's class name knows whether
or not he may marry her. Nothing can be simpler in practice.
(4) The same rules as under (3) exist, but the phratry, totem
and class are inherited through the father: the class of the child
of course not being the father's, but the linked class in his
phratry.
(5) In the fifth category (Central North Australia), while
phratry name (if not lost) and totem name are inherited from
the father, by a refinement of law which is spreading southwards
there are four classes in each phratry (or main exogamous
division unnamed), and the choice of a partner in life is thus
more restricted than in more primitive tribes.
(6) Finally we reach the institutions of the group of tribes
called, from the name of the most powerful tribe in the set,
" the Arunta nation." They occupy the Macdonnell
* ?<.»— r Ranges and other territory in the very centre of
Australia, The Arunta reckon kinship in the male line :
their phratry names they have forgotten, in place of phratries
eight matrimonial classes regulate marriage. In these respects
they resemble most of the central and northern tribes, but present
this unique peculiarity, that the same totems may and do exist
in both of the opposed intermarrying exogamous divisions con-
sisting of four classes each. It thus results that a man, in the
Arunta tribe, may marry a woman of his own totem, if she be
in the class with which he may intermarry. This licence is un-
known in every other part of the totemic world, and even in the
Kaittsh tribe of the Arunta nation intertotemic marriages, in
practice, almost never occur.
Among the Arunta the totems are only prominent in magical
ceremonies, unknown in South-Eastern Australia. At these
Ceremonies (Intichiuma) the men of the totem do co-operative
magic for the benefit of their plant or animal, as part of the
tribal food-supply. The members of the totem taste it sparingly
on these occasions, apparently under the belief that to do so
increases their magical power: the rest of the tribe eat freely.
But, as far as denoting kinship or regulating marriage is con-
cerned, the totems, among die Arunta, have no legally fmrwirtart
existence. Men and women of the same totem may intermarry,
their children need not belong to the totem of either father or
mother.
The process by which Arunta totems came thus to differ from
those of all other savages is easily understood, like the other
tribes from the centre to the north (including the Urabunna
nation, which reckons descent through women), the Arunta
believe that the souls of the primal semi-bestial ancestors of the
Alcheringa or "dream time" are perpetually reincarnated
This opinion does not affect by itself the usual exogamous
character of totcmism among the other tribes. The Arunta
nation, however, cultivates an additional myth, namely that the
primal ancestors, when they sank into the ground, left behind
them certain oval stone slabs, with archaic markings, called
churinga nanja, or " sacred things of the nanja." The scops,
again, is a tree or rock, fabled to have risen up to mark the spot
where a group of primal ancestors, all of one and the same totem
in each case (Cats here, Grubs there, Ducks elsewhere), " went
into the ground." The souls of these ancestors haunt such spots,
especially they haunt the nanja tree or rock, and the atone
churinga nanja. Each district, therefore, has its own o kna n ikUla
(or local totem centre of the ghosts), Cat ghosts, Grub ghosts,
Hakea flower ghosts and so on. These spirits enter into women
and are reborn as children. When a child comes to birth, the
mother names the oknanikilla in which she conceived it, and,
whatever the ghost totem of that place may be, it is the child's
totem. Its mother may be a Grub, its father may be a Crow,
but if the child was conceived in a Duck, or Cat, or Opossum or
Kangaroo locality, it is, by totem, a Cat, Opossum, Duck or
Kangaroo. The churinga nanja of its primal ancestor is sought
for at the place of the child's conception, and is put into the
sacred repository of such objects.
Thus the child does not inherit its totem from father, or from
mother, as everywhere else, but does inherit the right to' do
ceremonies for the paternal totem: a proof that, of old, totems
were inherited, as elsewhere, and that in the male line. If totems
among the Arunta, as everywhere else, were once arranged on
the plan that the same totem never occurs in both exogamous
moieties, that arrangement has been destroyed, as was in-
evitable, by the existing method of allotting totems to children, —
not by inheritance, — but at haphazard. By this means (a
consequence of the unique Arunta belief about churinga nanja)
the same totems have got into both exogamous moieties, so that
persons of the same totem, but of appropriate matrimonial
classes, may marry: This licence is absolutely confined to the
limited region in which stone churinga nanja occur.
The whole system is impossible except where descent is
reckoned in the male line, for there alone is local totemiszn
possible, and the Arunta system is based on local totemism,
plus the churinga nanja and reincarnation beliefs. With reckon-
ing of descent in the female line, no locality can possibly have
its local totem: all the totems indiscriminately distributed
everywhere: and thus no woman can say in what totemic
locality her child was conceived, for there is not and cannot be,
with female descent, any totemic locality. Now it is admitted
that reckoning by female descent is the earlier method, and it is
granted that in rites and ceremonies the Arunta are of a relatively
advanced and highly organized pattern. Their social organiza-
tion is local, and they have a kind of local magistracies, hereditary
in the male line.
In spite of these facts, Spencer and GiUen conceive that the
peculiar totcmism of the Arunta is the most primitive type
extant (cp. Spencer, J. A. I. (N.S.), vol. L 275-281; and Fraxer,
ibid. 281-288). It is not easy to understand this position, as,
without male kinship and consequent local totemism (which are
not primitive), and without the churinga nanja. (which exist only
in a strictly limited area), the Arunta system of non-exogamous
totems cannot possibly exist. Again, the other tribes cannot have
passed through the Arunta stage, for, if they had, their totems
would have existed, as among the Arunta, in both exogamous
moieties, and would there remain when they came to be inherited;
FAMILY
163
10 that the totems of all these tribes would still be noo-exogaraous,
ake those of the Arunta. But this is not the case. Once more,
it is dear that the Arunta system has but recently reached their
neighbours, tbeKaitish, for though they have the churinga nanja
beKef, and the haphazard method of acquiring totems by local
accident, these things have not yet overcome the old traditional
reluctance to marry within the totem name. It is not unlawful
among the Kailish; but it is hardly ever done.
Despite these objections, however, Spencer and Gillen hold,
as we have said, that, originally, there were no restrictions (or
no known restrictions) on marriage. Totems were merely the
result of the formation of cooperative magical societies, in the
interest of the tribal food supply. Then, in some unknown way,
regulations as to marriage were introduced for some unknown
purpose, or were involved in some manner not -understood. •
" The traditions of the Arunta," says Spencer, " point to a very
definite introduction of an exogamous system long .after the
totemic groups were fully developed, and, further, they point
very clearly to the fact that the introduction was due to the
deliberate action of certain ancestors. Our knowledge of the
natives leads us to the opinion that it is quite possible that this
really took place, that the exogamic groups were deliberately
introduced 90 as to regulate marital relations."
Thus the wisdom of men living promiscuously as regards
marriage, but organized in magical societies for the benefit of
the common food supply of the local tribe (a complex institution
postulated as already in being at this early stage), induced them
to institute exogamy. Why they did this, what harm they saw
in their promiscuity, we are not informed. Spencer goes on,
"by this we do not mean that the regulations had anything
whatever to do with the idea of incest, or of any harm accruing
from the union of individuals who were regarded as too nearly
related. . . . There was felt the need of some kind of organiza-
tion, and this gradually resulted in the development of exogamous
groups." But as " it is quite possible that the exogamous groups
were deliberately introduced to regulate marital relations," and
as they could only do so by introducing exogamy, we do not
tee how that system can be the result of the gradual develop-
ment of an organization quekonqut,-~ol unknown nature. A
magical organization already existed {Journal of the Anthropo-
logical Institute, New Series, i. pp. 284-285).
The traditions of the Arunta seem here to be first accepted:
u quite possibly " they are correct in stating that an exogamic
system was purposefully introduced, long after totemic groups
had arisen, by " the deliberate action of certain ancestors,"
and then that myth is rejected, in favour of the gradual develop-
ment of exogamy, " out of some form of organization," unknown.
People who, like the Arunta, have lost memory of the very
names of the phratries, cannot conceivably remember the
nature of the origin of exogamy. Accustomed as they now are to
tribal councils which introduce new rules, they fancy that, in the
beginning, new rules were thus introduced.
Meanwhile the working of magic for the behoof of the totem
animals and plants, or rather for the name-giving animals of
p magical societies, is not known to Howitt among the
' tribes of primitive social organization, while it is well
known among agricultural natives of the Torres
Strait Islands and among the advanced Sioux and
Omaha of North America. The practice seems to
belong rather to the decadence than to the dawn of totemism.
On the whole, then, there seem to be insuperable difficulties
in the way of Spencer's hypothesis that mankind were pro-
miscuous, as regards marriage, but were organized into co-
operative magical groups, athwart, which came, in some un-
explained way, the rule of exogamy; while, when it did come,
all savages except the Arunta arranged matters so that totem
kins were exogamous. The reverse was probably the case,
totem kins were originally exogamous, and ceased to be so,
and even to be kins among the Arunta, in consequence of the
ckuringa nanja. creed, becoming co-operative magical societies
(Hartland, Marett, Durkhehn and others).
&. Spencer and Gillen leave the origin of exogamy an open
question. Howitt supposes that, in the shape of the phratriac
division of the tribe into two exogamous moieties,
the scheme may have .been introduced to the tribal JJ* 1 *
headmen by a medicine man "announcing to his ixagaar.
fellow headman a command received from some super-
natural being . . ." (Natives of South-East Australia, pp. 89, 00).
The Council, so to speak, of "headmen" accept the divine
decree, and the assembled tribe pass the Act. But this explana-
tion explains nothing. Why did the prophet wish to introduce
exogamy? Why were names of animals given, in so many cases,
to the two exogamous divisions ? As Howitt asks (op. tit. p. 1 53) ,
" How was it that men assumed the names of objects, which in
fact must have been the commencement of totemism ? "
It is apparent that any theory which begins by postulating
the existence of early mankind in promiscuous groups or hordes,
into which exogamous moieties are introduced by tribal decree,
takes for granted that the tribe, with its headman, councils and
great meetings (not to mention its inspired prophet, with the
tribal " All Father " who inspires him), existed before any rules
regulating " marital relations " were evolved. Even if all this
were probable, we are not told why a promiscuous tribe thought
good to establish exogamous divisions. Some native myths
attribute the institution to certain wise ancestors; some to the
supernatural "AH Father," say Baiame; some to a treaty
between Eagle Hawk and Crow, beings of cosmogomc legend,
who give names to the phratries. Such myths are mere hypo-
theses. It is impossible to imagine how early savages, ex hypo*
thesi promiscuous, saw anything to reform in their state of
promiscuity. They now think certain unions wrong, because
they arc forbidden: they were not forbidden, originally, because
they were thought wrong.
Westermarck has endeavoured to escape the difficulty thus;
" Among the ancestors of man, as among other animals, there
was no doubt a time when blood relationship was no _.
bar to sexual intercourse. But variations here, as m l1 ii
elsewhere, would naturally present themselves, and
those of our ancestors who avoided in and in breeding would
survive," while the others would die out. This appears to be
orthodox evolutionary language, but it carries us no further.
Human societies are not animals or plants, in whose structure
various favourable "-accidents " occur, producing better types,
which survive. We ask why in human society did " variations
present themselves"; why did certain sets of human beings
"avoid in and in breeding"? We are merely told that some
of our ancestors became exogamous and survived, while others
remained promiscuous and perished. No light is^hrown on the
problem, — wherefore did some of our ancestors avoid in and in
breeding, and become exogamous ? Nothing is gained by saying
" thus an instinct would be developed which would be powerful
enough, as a rule, to prevent injurious unions." There is no
" instinct," there is a tribal law of exogamy. If there had been
an " instinct," it might account for the avoidance of " in and in
breeding "—that is, it might account for exogamy, ab initio.
But that is left unaccounted for by the theory which, after
maintaining that the avoidance produced the instinct, seems to
argue that the instinct produced the avoidance. Westermarck
goes on to say that " exogamy, as a natural extension of the
instinct, would arise when single families united in small hordes."
But, if the single families already had the " instinct," they would
not marry *rithin the family: they would be exogamous,—
marrying only into other families,— before they " united in small
hordes." The difficulty of accounting for exogamy does not
seem to have been overcome, and no attempt is made to explain
the animal names of totem kins and phratries. Westermarck,
however, says that " there is no reason why we should assume,
as so many anthropologists have done, that primitive men
lived in small endogamous groups, practising incest in every
degree," although, as he also says, " there was no doubt a time
when blood relationship was no bar to sexual intercourse."
If there was no bar, people would " practise incest in every
degree,"— what was there to prevent them? (History of Human
Marriage, pp. 352, 353 (1891)).
164
FAMILY
So far we have seen no luminous and consistent account of
how mankind became exogamous, if they began by being
Darkbmtm. promiscuous. The theories rest on the idea that man ,
uarwm ' dwelling in an " undivided horde " (except so far as
it was divided into co-operative magical societies), bisected it
into two exogamous intermarrying moieties. Durkheim has put
forward a theory which is riot at all points easily understood.
He supposes that, " at the beginning of societies of men, incest
was not prohibited . . . before each horde (peuplade) divided
itself into two primitive ' dans ' at least " (V Annie sociologist*,
i. pp. 62, 63). Each of the two " clans " claimed descent from a
different animal, which was its totem, and its " god." The two
clans were exogamous,— out of respect to the blood of their
totem (with which every member of the clan is mystically one),
and, being hostile, the two clans raided each other for women.
Each clan threw off colonies, which took new totems, new "gods,"
though still owning some regard to their original clan, from
which they had seceded, while abandoning its " god." When the
two "primary clans " made alliance and connubiutn, they became
the phra tries in the local tribe, and their colonies became the
totem kins within the pbratries.
We are not told why the original horde was disrupted into two
hostile and intermarrying "clans": we especially wonder why
the horde, if it wanted an animal god, did not choose one animal
for the whole community; and we may suspect that a difference
of taste in animal " gods " caused the hostility of the two clans.
Nor do we see why, if things occurred thus, the totem kins
should not represent twenty or thirty differences of religious
taste, in the original horde, as to the choice of animal gods.
If the horde was going to vary in opinion, it is unlikely that only
two factions put forward animal candidates for divinity. Again,
a "clan" (a totem kin, with exogamy and descent derived
through mothers) cannot overflow its territorial area and be
therefore obliged to send out colonies, for such a clan (as Durkheim
himself remarks) has no territorial area to overflow. It is not a
local institution at all.
While these objections cannot but occur, Durkheim does
provide a valid reason for the existence of exogamy. When once
the groups (however they got them) had totems, with the usual
taboos on any sort of use of the totem by his human kinsfolk,
the women of the kin would be tabooed to the men of the same
kin. In marrying a maiden of his own totem, a man inevitably
violates the sanctity of the blood of the totem {V Annie socio-
logique, i. pp. 47-57- Cf. Reinach, Cultes, myites d religions,
vol. i. pp. 162-166).
Here at last we have a theory which accounts for the " religious
horror " that attaches to the violation of the rule of totem ic
exogamy: a mysterious entity, the totem, is hereby offended.
But how did totems, animals, plants and so on, come to be
mystically soUdaires with their human namesakes and kinsmen?
We do not observe that Dr Durkheim ever explains why two
divisions of one horde chose each a different animal god, or why
the supposed colonies thrown off by these primary clans deserted
their animal gods for others, or why, and on what principle,
they all chose new " gods,"— fresh animals, plants and other
objects. His hereditary totem is, in practice, the last thing
that a savage changes. The only case of change on record is a
recent attempt to increase the range of legal marriages in a
waning Australian tribe, on whose lands certain species of
animals are perishing.
Theories based on a supposed primal state of promiscuity
Certainly encounter, when explaining the social oganization
of Australian savages, difficulties which they do not
surmount. But Howitt has provided (apparently
without fully realizing the merit of his own suggestions)
a way out of the perplexities caused by the conception of early
mankind dwelling promiscuously in "undivided communes."
The way out is practically to say that, in everyday life, they
lived in nothing of the sort. Howitt writes (Native Tribes of
Souih-East Australia, p. 173): " A study of the evidence . . »
has led me to the conclusion that the state of society among
the early Australians was that of an ( Undivided Commune/. .. .
It is, however, well to guard this expression. I do not desire .,
to imply necessarily the existence of complete and continuous
communism between the sexes. The character of the country,
the necessity of moving from one point to another in search of
game and vegetable food, would cause any Undivided Commute,
when it assumed dimensions greater than the immediate locality :
could provide with food, to break up into two or more Communes ;
of the same character.- In addition to this it is dear ... that J
in the past as now, individual likes and dislikes must have
existed, so that, admitting the existence of common rights
between the members of the Commune, these rights would remain
in abeyance, so far as the separated parts of the Commune woe
concerned. But at certain gatherings ... or on great cere* '
monial occasions, all the segments of the original Commune
'would reunite," and would behave in the fashion now common in J
great licentious festive meetings.
In the early ages contemplated, how can we postulate M great
ceremonial occasions" or even peaceful assemblies at f nut-
bearing spots? How can we postulate a surviving p ^-f-
sense of solidarity among the scattered segments olprvwknSr
the Commune, obviously very small, owing to lack of *■*»*■
supplies,. and perpetually disintegrated? But, taking afek *
the original groups as very small, and as ruled by likes and
dislikes, by affection and jealousy, we are no longer concerned
with a promiscuous horde, but with a little knot of human beings,
in whom love, parental affection and the jealousy of sires, would
promptly make discriminations between this person and that
person, as regards sexual privileges. Thus we have edged away
from the hypothesis of the promiscuous indiscriminating horde
to the opinion of Darwin. " We may conclude," he says, ** from
what we know of the jealousy of all male quadrupeds, armed as
many of them are with special weapons for battling with their
rivals, that promiscuous intercourse in a state of Nature is
extremely improbable. . . . The most probable view is that Man
originally lived in small communities, each (man) with a single
wife, or, if powerful, with several, whom he jealously guarded
against all other men." But, in a community of this early type,
to guard women jealously would mean constant battle, at least
when Man became an animal who makes love all the year round.
So Darwin adds: " Or man may not have been a social animal,
and yet have lived with several wives, like the Gorilla,— for all
the natives agree that but one adult male is seen in a band;
when the young male grows up a contest takes place for the
mastery, and the strongest, by killing or driving out the others,
establishes himself as head of the Community. Younger males,
being thus expelled and wandering about, would, when at last
successful in finding a partner, prevent too close interbreeding
within the limits of the same family " (Descent of Man, ii. pp..
361, 363 (187O).
Here, then, we have practical Exogamy, as regards unions of
brothers and sisters, among man still brutish, while the Sire is
husband of the whole harem of females, probably unchecked as
regards his daughters.
On this Darwinian text J. J. Atkinson builds his theory of the
evolution of exogamy and of savage society in his Primal Law
(Social Origins and Primal Law, by Lang and Atkinson,
1903). Paternal jealousy "gave birth to Primal Law, ]
prohibitory of marriage between certainmembers of a
family or local group, and thus, in natural sequence, led to Jond
connubial selection beyond its circle, that is, led to Exogamy . . .
as a habit, not as an expressed law. . . ." The " expressed law "
was necessarily a later development; conditioned by the tiicum-
stances which produced totemism, and sanctioned, as on Durk*
heim's scheme, by the totemic taboo. Atkinson worked out his
theory by a minute study of customs of avoidance between near
kin by blood or affinity; by observations on the customs of
animals, and by hypotheses as to the very gradual evolution of
human restrictions through many modifications. He also gave
a theory of the " dassificatory " system of names for relation.
ships opposed to that of Morgan. The names are based merelv,
" on reference to relativity of age of a class in relation to the
group." The exogamous moieties of a tribe (phratries) are nol
FAMILY
165
the result of a reformatory legislative bisection of tbe tribe,
but of the existence of " two Intermarrying totem dan groups."
The whole treatise, allowing for defects caused by the author's
deaih before the book was printed, is highly original and in-
genious. The author, however, did not touch on the evolution of
totcmism.
o. The following system, as a means of making intelligible tbe
evolution of Australian totemic society, is proposed by the
present writer. We may suggest that men originally
*f^ * lived in the state of "the Cyclopean family" of
Atkinson; that is, in Darwin's " family group," con-
taining but one adult male, with the females, the adolescent
males being driven out, to find each a female mate, or mates,
elsewhere if they can. With increase of skill, Improvements in
implements and mitigation of ferocity, such groups may become
larger, in a given area, but men may retain the habit of seeking
mates outside the limits of the group of contiguity; the " avoid-
ance " of brothers and sisters may already have arisen. Among
tbe advanced Arunta, now, a man may speak freely to his elder
sisters; to younger sisters, or " tribal sisters," he may not speak,
" or only at such a distance that the features are Indistinguish-
able." This archaic rule of avoidance would be a step facilitating
the permission to adult males to dwell in their paternal group,
avoiding their sisters. Such groups, whether habitually exoga-
mous or not, wffl require names for each other, and various
reasons would yield a preference to names, derived from animals.
These are easily signalled in gesture language; are easily
presented in Dictographs and tattooing; are even now, among
savages and boys, the most usual sort of personal nicknames;
and are widely employed as group names of villagers in European
folk-lore. Among European rustics such group sobriquets are
ttiual, but are resented. The savage, with hisideas of the equality
or superiority of animals to himself, sees nothing to resent in an
animal sobriquet, and the names, originally group sobriquets,
would not find more difficulty in being accepted than " Whig,"
" Tory," " Huguenot," " Cavalier," " Christian," " Cameronian,"
—all of them originally nicknames given from without. Again,
* Wry Nose " and " Crooked Mouth " are derisive nicknames,
but they are the translations of the ancient Celtic dan names
Cameron and Campbell The nicknames " Naked Dogs,"
' Liars," " Buffalo Dung," " Men who do not laugh," " Big
Topknots/* have been thoroughly accepted by the " gentes "
of the Blackfoot Indians, now passing out of Totemism (Grinnell,
Vtackfoot Lodge Tales, pp. 308-225).
As Howitt writes, " toe assumption of the names of objects
by men must in fact Have been the origin of totemism." Howitt
does not admit the theory that the totem names came to arise
in this way, but this way is a vera causa* Names must be given
either from within or from without. A group, in savagery,
has no need of a name for itself; "we" are "we," or are
" Tbe Men "; for all other adjacent groups names are needed,
The name of one totem, ThabaUa, " The Laughing Boy " totem,
among the Warramunga and another tribe, is quite trans-
parently a nickname, as is Korti, H The Grown-up Men " (Spencer
and GiUen, Northern Tribes of Central A uslrolio, p. 207).
Then is nothing, prima fade, which renders this origin of
animal, plant and other such names for early savage groups
at aB improbable. They would not even be resented, as now are
the animal names for villagers in the Orkneys, the Channel
Islands, France, Cornwall and in ancient Israel (for ciampbt
see Social Origins, pp. 295-301). The names once accepted,
and their origin forgotten, would be inevitably regarded as
implying a mystk rapport between the bestial and the human
namesakes, Crow, Eagle Hawk, Grub, Bandicoot, Opossum,
Emu, Kangaroo and so on (see Name). On this subject it is
enough to cite J. G. Fraser, in The Celden Bough (2nd ed n
vol L pp. 404-446). Here will be found a rich and satisfactory
collection of proof that community of name implies mystic
rapport. Professor Rhys is quoted for tbe statement that
probably M the whole Aryan race believed at one time not only
that the name was a part of the man, but that it was that part
of hsm which is termed the soul." In such a mental staff the
men " Crows " identify themselves with the actual Crow species!
the birds are now " of their flesh," are fabled to be their ancestors,
or the men have been evolved out of the birds. The Crow is
sacro-sanct, a friend and protector, and a centre of taboos,
one of which is the prohibition preventing a Crow man from
intercourse with a Crow woman, '•however far apart their
hunting grounds may have been." AD men and women Crows
are recognired as brothers and sisters in the Crow, and are not
intermarriageable.
On these lines tbe prohibition to infringe the totem taboo
by marriage within the totem name is intelligible, but the
system of phratriea has yet to be accounted for. It is obvious
that the names could only have been given originally to local
groups: the people who held this or that local habitation
received the name. Suppose that the rule of each such group,
or heart circle, had been " no marriage within the local group
or camp," as in Atkinson's scheme. When the groups accept
their new names, the rule becomes, " no marriage within local
group Eagle Hawk, group Crow," and so on. So far the animal
giving the group name may not yet have become a revered
totem. The result of the rule would inevitably be, in three or
four generations, that in groups Crow or Eagle Hawk, there were
no Crows or Eagle Hawks by descent, if the children took tbe
names of descent from their mothers; for the sake of differentia-
tion: the Ant woman's children in local group Crow being Ants,
the Grub woman's children being Grubs, the Eagle Hawk
woman's children being Eagle Hawks,— all in local group Crow,
and inheriting the names of the local groups whence their mothers
were brought into local group Crow.
By tins means (indicated first by McLennan) each member of a
local group would have a local group name, say Eagle Hawk,
and a name by female descent, say Kangaroo, in addition, as now,
to his or her personal name. In this way, all members of each
local group would find, in any other local group, people of his
name of descent, and, as the totem belief grew to maturity,
kinsmen of his in the totem, When this fact was realized, it
would inevitably make for peace among all contiguous groups.
In place of taking women by force, at the risk of shedding
kindred blood, peaceful betrothals between men and women of
different local group names and of different names by descent
could be arranged. - Say that local groups Eagle Hawk and Crow
took the lead in this arrangement of alliance and conuubtnm,
and that (as they would naturally flourish in the strength con-
ferred by union) the other local groups came into it, ranging
themselves under Eagle Hawk and Crow, we should have the
existing primitive type of organization: Local Groups Eagle
Hawk (Muhoara) and Crow (KUpara) would have become tbe
widely diffused phratries, Muhvmra and KUpara, with all the
totem kins within them.
But, on these lines, some members of any totem kin, say Cat,
would be in phratry Eagle Hawk, some would be in phratry
KUpara as now (for the different reason already indicated)
among the Arunta. Such persons were In a quandary. By
phratry law, as being in opposite phratries, a Cat in Eagle Hawk
phratry could marry a Cat in Crow phratry. But, by totem law,
this was impossible. To avoid the clash of law, all Cats had to
E> into one phratry or the other, either into Eagle Hawk or
to Crow. .
Two whole totem kins were in the same unhappy position.
The persons who wees Eagle Hawks by deuant could not be in
Eagle Hawk local group, now phratry, as we have already shown.
They were in Crow phratry, they could not, by phratry law,
marry in their own phratry, and to marry in Eagle Hawk was
to break the old law, " no marriage within the local group name."
Their only chance was to return to Eagle Hawk phratry, while
Crow totem kin went Into Crow phratry, and thus we often find,
in fact,, that in Australian phratries Mnkwara (Eagle Hawk)
there is a totem kin eagle Hawk, and in KUpara phratry (Crow)
there is a totem kin Crow. This arrangement— the totem kin
within the phratry of its own name—has long been known to
exist is America. . The Thhakets have Raven phratry, with
totem kins Raven, Frog, Goose, Ac, and Wolf phratry, with
i6*
FAMINE
totem kins Wolf, Bear, Eagle, &c. (praxer, Totemism, pp. 61, 62
(1887)). In Australia the. fact has hitherto escaped observa-
tion, because so many phratry names are not translated, while,
though Mukwara and Kilpara are translated, the Eagle Hawk
and Crow totem kins within them bear other names for the same
birds, more recent names, or tribal native names, such as Biliari
and Woo, while Mukwara and Kilpara may have been names
borrowed, within the institution of phratries, from some alien
tribe now perhaps extinct.
We have now sketched a scheme explanatory of the most
primitive type of social organization in Australia. The tendency
is for phratries first to lose the meanings of their names, and,
next, for their names to lapse into oblivion, as among the Arunta;
the work of regulating marriage being done by the opposed
Matrimonial Classes.
These classes are obviously an artificial arrangement, intended
to restrict marriage to persons on the same level as generations.
The meanings of the class names are only known with certainty
in two cases, and then are names of animals, while there is
reason to suspect that animal names occur in four or five of
the eight class-names which, in different dialect forms, prevail
in central and northern Australia. Conceivably the new class
regulations made use of the old totemic machinery of nomen-
clature. But until Australian philologists can trace the original
meanings of Class names, further speculation is premature.
10. Much might be said about the way out of totemism.
When once descent and inheritance are traced through males,
the social side of totemism begins to break up. One
Bn ^ ta 9 way out is the Arunta way, where totems no longer
?fr-fc.- designate kinships. In parts of America totems are
simply fading into heraldry, or into magical societies,
while the " gentes," once totemic, have acquired new names,
often local, as among the Sioux, or mere sobriquets, as among
the Blackfeet. In Melanesia the phratries, whether named or
nameless, have survived, while the totems have left but a few
traces which some consider disputable {Social Origins, pp. 176-
184). Among the Bantu of South Africa the tribes have sacred
animals (Siboko), which may be survivals of the totems of the
chief local totem group, with male descent in the tribe, the whole
of which now bears the name of the sacred animal Even in
Australia, among tribes where there is reckoning of descent
in the male line, and where there axe no matrimonial classes,
the tendency is for totems to dwindle, while exogamy becomes
local, the rule being to marry out of the district, not out of the
kin (Howitt, Native Tribes of South- Bast Australia, pp. 270-373;
cf. pp. U5-*37).
The problem as to why, among savages all on the same low
level of material culture, one tribe derives descent through
women, while its nearest neighbouring tribe, with ceremonies,
rites, beliefs and myths Hke its own, and occupying lands of
similar character in a similar climate, traces descent through
men, seems totally insoluble. Again, we find that the civilized
Lycians, as described by Herodotus (book i. ch. 173), reckoned
lineage in the female line, while the naked savages of north
and central Australia reckon in the male line. Our knowledge
does not enable us to explain the change from female to male
tracing of lineage. Yet the change was essential for the formation
of the family system of civilized life. The change may be observed
taking place in the region of North-West America peopled by the
Thlinket, Haida and Salish tribes; the first are pure totemists,
the last have arrived, practically, in the south, at the modern
family, while a curious intermediate stage pervades the inter-
jacent region.
The best authority on the Family developed in different shapes
in North- West America is Charles Hill-Tout (d . " Origin of the
Totemism of the Aborigines of British Columbia," Transactions
of the Royal Society of Canada, voL vii sect, zi, 1001). He,
like many American and some English and continental students,
applies the term " totem " not only to the hereditary totem of
the exogamous kin, but to the animal famihars of individual
men or women, called manitus, naguals, nyarongs and yunbeai,
among North American Indians, in South America, in Borneo
and in the Euahlayi tribe of New South Wales. These animal
familiars are chosen by individuals, obeying the monition of
dreams, or are assigned to them at birth, or at puberty, by the
tribal magicians. It has often been suggested that totemism
arose when the familiar of an individual became hereditary
among his descendants. This could not occur under a system
of reckoning descent and inheriting the kin name through
women, but as a Tsimshian myth says that a man's sister
adopted his animal familiar, the bear, and transmitted it to tor
offspring, Hill-Tout supposes that this may have been the origin
of totemism in tribes with reckoning of descent in the female
line. Instances, however, are not known to exist in practice,
and myths are mere baseless savage hypotheses.
Exogamy, in his opinion, is the result of treaties of political
alliance with exclusive interconnubium between two sets of hint-
folk by blood, totemism being a mere accidental concomitant.
This theory evades the difficulties raised by the hypothesis of
deliberate reformatory legislation introducing the bisection oi
the tribe into exogamous societies.
Authojuttbs.— The study of the History of the FaauTy has been
subject to great fluctuation of opinioiLas unexpected evidence has
kept pouring in from many quarters. The theory of primal promis-
cuity, which in 1870 succeeded to Sir Henry Maine's patriarchal
theory, has endured many attacks, and there is a tendency to return,
not precisely to the " patriarchal theory," but to the view that the
jealousy of the Sire of the " Cyclopean family," or "Gorilla family"
indicated by Darwin, has had much to do with laying the bases of
" primal law." The whole subject has been especially studied by
English-speaking writers, as the English and Americans are brought
most into contact with the most archaic savage societies. Among
foreigners, in addition to Starcke, Westermarck and Durkhdm,
already cited, may be mentioned Professor J. Kohler, Zttr Ur-
geschickte der Ehe (Stuttgart, 1897). Professor Kohler is in favour
of a remote past of "collective marriage*" indicated, as in Morgans
hypothesis, by the existing savage names of relationships, which are
expressive of relations of consanguinity. E. S. Hartland {Primu
tvoe Paternity, 1910) discusses myths of supernatural birth in
relation to the history of the Family.
A careful and well-reasoned work by Herr Cunow (Die Vermmtt-
schalts Organisation** der Australneger, Stuttgart, 1894) deals with
the Matrimonial Classes of Australian tribes. Cunow supposes that
descent was originally reckoned in the male line, and that tribes
with this organization (such as the Narrinyeri) are the more primitive.
In this opinion he has few allies: and on the origin of Exogamy he
seems to possess no definite ideas. Pikler's Vrsprung des Tetemimus
(Berlin, 1900) explains Totemism as arising from the need of names
lor early groups of men: names which could be «
Kft
._ . r inpicto-
.,_ js and tattooing, to which we may add " gesture language/'
13 is much akin to the theory which we have already suggested,
though Pilcler seems to think that the Dictograph (say of a Crow or an
Eagle Hawk) was prior to the group name. But, he remarks, like
Howitt, " the germ of Totemism is the naming " ; and the com-
munity of name between the animal species and the human group
led to the belief that there was an important connexion between the
men and their name-giving animal.
Other useful sources of information are the annual Reports of the
Bureau of Ethnology (Washington), the Journal of the Institute ej
the Anthropological Society, Folk Lore (the organ of the Folk Lore
Society), and Durkhcim's VA nnte sociologique. Tab** et tethmme
a Madagascar, by M. A. van Gennep (Leroux, Paris, 1904) a a
valuable contribution to knowledge.
For India, where vestiges of totemism linger in the hill tribes,
see Risley and Crooke, Tribes and Castes, vols, i., it., iti-.iv.; and
Crooke. Popular Religion: also Crooke in J.A.I. -(N5-), vol
pp. 232-244.
* (AL.)
FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)-, extreme and general scarcity of
food, causing distress and deaths from starvation among the
population of a district or country. Famines have caused wide-
spread suffering in all countries and ages. * A list of the chief
fainines recorded by history is given farther on. • The causes of
famine are partly natural and partly artificial. Among the
natural causes may be classed all failures of crops due to excess
or defect of rainfall and other meteorological phenomena, or
to the ravages of insects and vermin. Among the artificial
causes may be classed war and economic errors in the production,
transport and sale of food-stuffs.
The natural causes of famine are stul mainly outside our
control, though science enables agriculturists to combat them
more successfully, and the improvement in means of transport
allows a rich .harvest in one land to supplement the defective
FAMINE
167
cropi in another. In tropical countries drought is the commonest
cause oi a faihirc in the harvest, and where great droughts
axe not uncommon— as in parts of India and Australia— the
hydraulic engineer comes to the rescue by devising systems of
water-storage and irrigation. • It is less easy to provide against
the crib of excessive rainfall and of frost, hail and the like.
The experience of the French in Algiers shows that it is possible
to stamp out a plague of locusts, such as is the greatest danger to
the farmer in many pans of Argentina. But the ease with which
food can nowadays be transported from one part of the world to
another r"™™?]" 1 * the danger of famine from natural causes, as
we can hardly conceive that the whole food-producing area of
the world should be thus affected at once.
The artificial causes of famine have mostly ceased to be
operative on any large scale. Chief among them is war, which
may cause a shortage of food -supplies, either by its direct
ravages or by depleting the supply of agricultural labour. But
only local famines are likely to arise from this cause. Legislative
interference with agricultural operations or with the distribution
of food-supplies, currency restrictions and failure of transport,
which have ail caused famines in the past, are unlikely thus to
operate again; nor it it probable that the modern speculators
who attempt to make " corners " in wheat could produce the
oil effects contemplated in the old statutes against foreslallers
and regraton.
Such local famines as may occur In the toth century will
probably be attributable to natural causes. It is impossible to
regulate the rainfall of any district, or wholly to supply its
failure by any system of water-storage. Irrigation fa better
able to bring fertility to a naturally arid district than to avert
the failure of crops in one which is naturally fertile. The true
palliative of famine is to be found in the improvement of methods
of transport, which make it possible rapidly to convey food from
one district to another. But the efficiency of this preventive
stops short at the point of saving human life. - It cannot prevent
a rise in prices, with the consequent suffering among the poor.
Still, every year makes it less likely that the world will see a
renewal of the great famines of the past, and it is only the
countries where civilization is still backward that are in much
danger of even a local famine.
Crmi Famines.— Amongst the great famines of history may be
samed the following; —
ac. 436 Famine at Rome, when thousands of starving
people threw themselves Into the Tiber.
&j>. 4a Great famine in Egypt.
650 Famine throughout India.
679 Universal famine.
941, 102? Great famines in India, in which entire provinces
and 1033 were depopulated and man was driven to canni-
balism.
1005 Famine in England.
16 "* " "* *
1064-1072 Seven years' famine in Egypt.
1 1 4 S- 1 159 Eleven years' famine in India.
1 1 62 Universal famine.
»544-i345 Great famine in India, when the Mogul emperor
was unable to obtain the necessaries for his house-
hold. The famine continued for years and
thousands upon thousands of people perished of
want.
1396-1407 The Durga Devi famine in India, lasting twelve
years.
1586 Famine in England which gave rise to the Poor Law
system. •
1661 Famine in India, when not a drop of sain fell for
two years.
1769-1770 Great famine in Bengal, when a third of (he popu-
lation (10,000.000 persons) perished.'
I7g3 The Chafisa famine m India, which extended from
the eastern edge oi the Benares province to
Lahore and Jammu.
1790-1792 The Doji Bare, or skull famine, in India, so-called
because the people died in such numbers that
they could not be buried. According to tradition
this was one of the severest famines ever known.
It extended over the whole of Bombay into
Hyderabad and affected the northern districts of
hfadras. Relief works were first opened during
this famine in Madras.
ad. 1838 Intense famine kaJforth-Weat Provinces (United
Provinces) of India; 600,000 perished.
1 846-1847 Famine in Ireland, due to the failure of the potato-
crop. ' Grants were made by parliament amount-
ing to £10,000,000.
Famine in North- West India;
Famine fn Bengal and Orissa; one million perished*
Intense famine in Rajputana; one million and a
t half perished. The government initiated the
policy of saving fife.
Famine In Behar, India. Government relief in
excess of the needs of the people.
1 876-1878 Famine in Bombay, Madras and Mysore; five
millions perish. - Relief insufficient.
1 877-1878 Severe famine in north China. Nine and a half
millions said to have perished.
1887^1889 Famine in China,
1891-1892 Famine in Russia.
1897 Famine in India. Government policy of saving life
successfuL Mansion House fund £550,000.
1899-1901 Famine In India. One million people perished.
Estimated lose to India £50,000,000. The a
1841
1866
1869
1874
meut spent £10,000*000 on relief, and at one time
there were 4,500,000 people on toe relief works.
1905 Famine in Russia.
Famine* in India.— Owing to Its tropical situation and its
almost entire dependence upon the monsoon rains, India is
more liable than any other country in the world to crop failures,
which upon occasion deepen into famine. ' Every year sufficient
rain falls in India to secure an abundant harvest if it were
evenly distributed over the whole country; but as a matter of
fact the distribution is so uneven and so uncertain that every
year some district suffers from insufficient rainfall. In fact,
famine is, to all intents and purposes, endemic in India, and is a
problem to reckon with every year in some portion of that vast
area. The people depend so entirely upon agriculture, and the
harvest is so entirely destroyed by a single monsoon failure,
that wherever a total failure occurs the landless labourer is
immediately thrown out of work and remains out of work for
the whole year. Hie question is thus one of lack of employment,
rather than lack of food. The food is there, perhaps at a slightly
enhanced price, but the unemployed labourer has no money to
buy it. TTie problem is very much the same as that met by the
British Poor Law system. Every year in England a poor rate
of some £22,000,000 is expended for a population of 40 millions;
while it is only in an exceptional year m India that £10,000,000
are spent on a population of 300 millions.
Famines seem to recur in India at periodical Intervals, which
have been held to be in some way dependent on the sun-spot
period. Every five or ten years the annual scarcity widens
its area and becomes 'a recognized famine; every fifty or a
hundred years whole provinces are Involved, loss of life becomes
widespread, and a great famine is recorded. In the 140 years
since Warren Hastings initiated British rule m India, there have
been nineteen famines and five severe scarcities. For the period
preceding British rule the records have not been so well pre-
served, but there is ample evidence to show that famine was just
as frequent in its incidence and infinitely more deadly in its
effects under the native rulers of India. In the great Bengal
famine of 1760-T770, which occurred shortly after the foundation
of British rule, but whHe the native officials were still in power,
a third of the population, or ten millions out of thirty millions,
perished. From this it may be guessed what occurred in the
centuries under Mogul rule, when for years there was no rain,
when famine lasted for three, four or twelve years, and entire
cities were left without an inhabitant. ' In the famine of 1901,
the worst of recent years', the loss of Kfe in British districts was
3% of the population affected, as against 33% in the Bengal
fa'mine of t770.
The native rulers of India seem to have made no effort to
relieve the sufferings of their subjects in times of famine; and
even down to 1866 the British government had no settled
famine policy. In that year the Orissa famine awakened the
public conscience, and the commission presided over by Sir
George Campbell laid down the lines upon which subsequent
famine-relief was organized. In the Rajputana famine of 1869
the humane principle of saving every possible Cfe was first
1 63
FAN
enunciated. In the Behar famine o£ 1674 this principle was even
carried to an extreme, the cost was enormous, and the people
were in danger of being pauperized. The resulting reaction
caused a regrettable loss of life in the Madras and Bombay
famine of 1876-1878; and the Famine Commission of 1880,
followed by those of 1898 and 1901, laid down the principle that
every possible life must be saved, but that the wages on relief
works must be so regulated in relation to the market rate of
wages as not to undermine the independence of the people. The
experience gained in the great famines 4f 1808 and 1901 has been
garnered by these commissions, and stored up in the " famine
codes " of each separate province, where rules are provided for
the treatment of famine directly a crop failure is seen to be
probable. The first step is to open test works; and directly
they show the necessity, regular relief works are established,
in which the people may earn enough to keep them from starva-
tion, until the time comes to sow the next crop.
As a result of the severe famine of 1878-1870, Lord Lytton's
government instituted a form of insurance against famine known
as the Famine Insurance Grant. A sum of Rs. 1,500,000 was
to be yearly set aside for purposes of famine relief. This scheme
has been widely misunderstood; it has been assumed that an
entirely separate fund was created, and that in years when
the specified sum was not paid into this fund, the purpose of the
government was not carried out. But Sir John Strachey,
the author of the scheme, explains in his book on India that
the original intention was nothing more than the annual applica-
tion of surplus revenue, of the indicated amount, to purposes
of famine relief; and that when the country was free from
famine, this sum should be regularly devoted to the discharge
of debt, or to the prevention of debt which would otherwise
have been incurred for the construction of railways and canals.
The sum of ij- crores is regularly set aside for this purpose,
and is devoted as a rule to the construction of protective irriga-
tion works, and for investigating and preparing new projects
falling under the head of protective works.
The measures by which the government of India chiefly
endeavours to reduce the liability of the country to famine are
the promotion of railways; the extension of canal and well
irrigation; the reclamation of waste lands, with the establish-
ment of fuel and fodder reserves; the introduction of agricultural
improvements; the multiplication of industries; emigration;
and finally the improvement where necessary of the revenue and
rent systems. ' In times of famine the function of the railways
in distributing the grain is just as important as the function of the
irrigation-canals in increasing the amount grown. - There is
always enough grain within the boundaries of India for the needs
of the people; the only difficulty is to transport it to the tract
where it is required at a particular moment. Owing to the ex-
tension of railways, in the famines of 1898 and xooi there was
never any dearth of food in any famine-stricken tract; and the
only difficulty was to find enough rolling-stock to cope with the
demand. Irrigation protects large tracts against famine, and
has immensely increased the wheat output of the Punjab; the
Irrigation Commission of 1003 recommended the addition of 6|
million acres to the irrigated area of India, and that recommends-'
tion is being carried out at an annual cost of i\ millions sterling
for twenty years, but at the end of that time the list of works
that will return a lucrative interest On capital will be practically
exhausted. Local conditions do not make irrigation everywhere
possible.
As five-sixths of the whole' population of India are dependent
upon the land, any failure of agriculture becomes a national
calamity. If there were more industries and manufactures in
India, the dependence on the land would not be so great and the
liability to lack of occupation would not be so uniform in any
particular district. The remedy for this is the extension of
factories and home industries; but European capital is difficult
to obtain in India, and the native capitalist prefers to hoard his
rupees. The extension of industries, therefore, is a work of time.
It is sometimes alleged by native Indian politicians that famines
are growing worse under British rule, because India is becoming
exhausted by an excessive land revenue, a civil service, too
expensive for her needs, military expenditure on. imperial objects,
and the annual drain of some £15,000.000 for " home charges."
The reply to this indictment is that the British land revenue is
£16,000,000 annually, whereas Aurangzeb's over a smaller area,
allowing for the difference in the value of the rupee, was
£110,000,000; though the Indian Civil Service is expensive,
its cost is more than covered by the fact that India, under
British guarantee, obtains her loans at 3}% as against 1*0%
or more paid by native rulers; though India has a heavy military
burden, she pays no contribution to the British navy, which
protects her seaboard from invasion; the drain of the home
charges cannot be very great, as India annually absorbs 6 millions
sterling of the precious metals; in 1809-1000, a year of famine,
the net imports of gold and silver wete 130 millions. Finally,
ii is estimated by the census commissioners that in the famine of
1901 three million people died in the native states and only one
million in British territory.
See Cornel lu! Walford. " On the Famines of the World, Past and
Prc*tftt f< (Journal of thi Statiitital Society, 1878-1879); Roraesh
C. Dmt, Fiimittfi in India {19001 ; Robert Wallace. Famine in
India O900); George Campbtil, Famines in India (1769-17*8);
CkTfl*ola£it.aJ List of Famines Jot ail India (Madras Administration
Rrp&rt, l£Bs)t J- L Gcddes t Admini-.tratiM Experience in Former
Famimi (1074}: Statist itai Atlas of India (1895): F. H. S. Mere-
w*ihcr f Through ite Famine Dufrfctt P f India (1898); G. W. Forrest.
The Famine in India U&)&) : E, A. B. Hodgetta, In the Track of Ore
Russian Famine (1893); W. B. Steveni, Through Famine-stricken
Russia UtioJJ; Vaughan Nash. The Great Famine (1900); Lady
Hone, Sir Arthvr Cetton £1900); Urd Curton in India (1905);
T. w. Hotdcrncw, Narrative of the Famine of 1896-1897 {c. 8812 of
180R): the Indian Pamfas nmiiifaim reports of 1880, 1898 and
loejoj report o\ the Indian Irrigation Commission (1901-1903);
C. W. UcMkitu, j »»..*• 1'tUU, UniJ-Truths, Untruths (looa);
Theodore M orison, Indian Industrial Organisation (1906).
FAN (Lat. vonnus; Fr. evenlaU), in its usually restricted
meaning, a light implement used for giving motion to the air
in order to produce coolness to the face; the word is, however,
also applied to the winnowing fan, for separating chaff from
grain, and to various engineering appliances for ventilation, &c-
Ventilabrum and fiabdlum are names under which ecclesiastical
fans are mentioned in old inventories. - Fans for cooling the face
have been in use in hot climates from remote ages. A bas-relief
in the British Museum represents Sennacherib with female
figures carrying feather fans. They were attributes of royalty
along with horse-hair fly-flappers and umbrellas. Examples
may be seen in plates of the Egyptian sculptures at Thebes
and other places, and also in the ruins of Persepolis. In the
museum of Boulak, near Cairo, a wooden fan handle showing
holes for feathers is still preserved. It is from the tomb of Amen-
hotep, of the 18th dynasty, 17 th century B.C. In India fans
were also attributes of men in authority, and sometimes sacred
emblems. A heart-shaped fan , with an ivory handle, of unknown
age, and held in great veneration by the Hindus, was given to
King Edward VII. when prince of Wales. Large punkahs or
screens, moved by a servant who does nothing else, are in
common use in hot countries, and particularly India.
Fans were used in the early middle ages to keep flies from the
sacred elements during the celebrations of the Christian mysteries.
Sometimes they were round, with bells attached— of silver or
silver gilt. Notices of such fans in the ancient records 0/ St
Paul's, London, Salisbury cathedral and many other churches
exist still. For these purposes they are no longer used in the
Western church, though they are retained in some Oriental rites,
The large feather fans, however, are still carried in the state
processions of the supreme pontiff in Rome, though not used
during the celebration of the mass. The fan of Queen Theodo-
linda (7th century) is still preserved in the treasury of the
cathedral of Monza. Fans made part of the bridal outfit, or
mundus mulicbris, of Roman ladies.
Folding fans had their origin in Japan, and were imported
thence to China. They were in the shape still used— a segment
of a circle of paper pasted on a light radiating framework of
bamboo, and (variously decorated, some in colours, others of
white paper on which verses or sentences are written. It is a
FAtfCY— FANG
ibt)
compliment in China to invite a friend or distinguished guest
to write some sentiment on your fan as a memento of any special
occasion, and this practice has continued. A fan that has some
celebrity in France was presented by the Chinese ambassador to
the comtesse de Clause! at the coronation of Napoleon I. in
1804. When a site was given in 1635, on an artificial island,
for the settlement of Portuguese merchants in Nippo in Japan,
the space was laid oat in the form of a fan as emblematic of an
object agreeable for general use. Men and women of every rank
both in China and Japan carry fans, even artisans using them
with one hand while working with the other. In China they are
often made of carved ivory, the sticks being plates very thin and
sometimes carved on both sides, the intervals between the carved
parts pierced with astonishing delicacy, and the plates held
together by a ribbon. The Japanese make the two outer guards
of the stick, which cover the others, occasionally of beaten iron,
extremely thin and light, damascened with gold and other metals.
Fans were used by Portuguese ladies in the 14th century,
and were well known in England before the close of the reign
of Richard IL In France the inventory of Charles V. at the end
of the 14th century mentions a folding ivory fan. They were
brought into general use in that country by Catherine de'
Medici, probably from Italy, then in advance of other countries
in aD matters of personal luxury. The court ladies of Henry
MILS reign in England were used to handling fans. A lady in
the "Dance of Death" by Holbein holds a fan. Queen Elisabeth
is painted with a round feather fan in her portrait at Gorham-
bory; and as many as twenty-seven are enumerated in her
nrrentory (t 606). Coryat, the English traveller,in r6o8 describes
them as common in Italy. They also became of general use
from that time in Spain. In Italy, France and Spain fans had
special conventional uses, and various actions in handling them
grew into a code of signals, by which ladies were supposed to
coavejr hints or signals to admirers or to rivals in society. A
paper in the Spectator humorously proposes to establish a
regular drill for these purposes.
The chief seat of the European manufacture of fans during
the 17th century was Paris, where the sticks or frames, whether
of wood or ivory, were made, and the decorations painted on
Esounts of very carefully prepared vellum (incorrectly called
ckkhem skin) — a material stronger and tougher than paper,
which breaks at the folds. Paris makers exported fans uhpainted
to Madrid and other Spanish cities, where they were decorated
by native artists. Many were exported complete; of old fans
called Spanish a great number were in fact made in France.
Louis XIV. issued edicts at various times to regulate the manu-
facture. Besides fans mounted with parchment, Dutch fans of
ivory were imported into- Paris, and decorated by the heraldic
painters hi the process called "Venus Martin," after a famous*
carriage painter and. inventor of colourless lac varnish. Fans of
ths kind belonging to Queen Victoria and the baroness de
Rothschild were exhibited in 1870 at Kensington. A fan of the
date of x66o, representing sacred subjects, is attributed to
Philippe de Champagne, 'another to Peter Oliver in England in
the 17th century. Cano de Arevalo, a Spanish painter of the
17th century, devoted himself to fan painting. Some harsh
expressions of Queen Christina to the young ladies of the French
court are said to have caused an increased ostentation in the
splendour of their fans, which were set with jewels and mounted
in geld. Rosalba Carrier* was the name of a fan painter of
celebrity in the 17th century. Le Brun and Romanelli were
much employed during the same period. Ktingstet, a Dutch
artist, enjoyed a considerable reputation in the latter part of
the 17th and the first thirty years of the x8th century.
The revocation of the edict of Nantes drove many fan-makers
out of France to Holland and England. The trade in England
■as well established under the Stuart sovereigns. Petitions
■ere addressed by the fan-makers to Charles II. against the im-
portation of fans from India, and a duty was levied upon such
fans in consequence. This importation of Indian fans, according
to Savary, extended also to France. During the reign of Louis
XV. carved Indian and China fans displaced to some extent those
formerly imported from Italy, which fhad been painted on
swanskin parchment prepared with various perfumes.
During the x8th century all the luxurious ornamentation of
the day was bestowed on fans as far as they could display it.
The sticks were made of mother-of-pearl or ivory, carved with
extraordinary skill in France, Italy, England and other countries.
They were painted from designs of Boucher, Watteau, Lancret
and other "genre" painters; Henert, Rau, Chevalier, Jean
Boquet, Mine. Vent*, are known as fan-painters. These fashions
were followed in most countries of Europe, with certain national
differences. Taffeta and silk, as well as fine parchment, were
used for the mounts. Little circles of glass were let into the
stick to be looked through, and small telescopic glasses were
sometimes contrived at the pivot of the stick. They were
occasionally mounted with the finest point lace. An interesting
fan (belonging to Madame de Thiac in France), the work of Le
Flamand, was presented by the municipality of Dieppe to Marie
Antoinette on the birth of her son the dauphin. From the time
of the Revolution the old luxury expended on fans died out.
Fine examples ceased to be exported to England and other
countries. The painting on them represented scenes or per-
sonages connected with political events. At a later period fan
mounts were often prints coloured by hand. The events of the
day mark the date of many examples found in modern collections.
Among the fan-makers of modern days the names of Alexandre,
Duvelleroy, Fayet, Vanier became well known in Paris; and
the designs of Charles Conder (1868-1009) have brought his
name to the front in this art. Painters of distinction often
design and paint the mounts, the best designs being figure
subjects. A great impulse was given to the manufacture and
painting of fans in England after the exhibition which took place
at South Kensington in 1870. Modern collections of fans take
their date from the emigration of many noble families from
France at the time of the Revolution. Such objects were given
as souvenirs, and occasionally sold by families in straitened
circumstances. A large number of fans of all sorts, principally
those of the 18th century, French, English, German, Italian,
Spanish, &c., have been bequeathed to the South Kensington
(Victoria and Albert) Museum.
The sticks of folding fans are called In French brins, the two
outer guards panaches, and the mount f entile.
See also Blondel, Histoite des teenlaits (187$); Octave Uzanne,
VhentaU (1883); and especially G. WooUscroft Rhead. History cf
the Fan (1909). (J. H. P.*)
FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of
* fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fontasie, modern
farJahne. from the Latinized form of the Gr. farratji*, 4wurafeu»,
fait**, to show), display, showing forth, as a philosophical
term, the preventative power of the mind. The word u fancy "
and the older form " fantasy," which is now chiefly used poetic-
ally, was in Its early application synonymous with imagination,
the mental faculty of creating representations or images of
things not present to the senses; it is more usually, m this sense,
applied to the lighter forms of the imagination. " Fancy " also
commonly means inclination, whim, caprice. . The more learned
form " phantasy," as also such words as " phantom " and
M phantasm/' is chiefly confined to visionary imaginings.
FAHG (Fak, Fanwx, Panwe, Pahouin, Paoukn, Mpancwe),
a powerful African people occupying the Gabun district north
of the Ogowe river in French Congo. Their name means " men."
They call themselves Pa*we, Fa»wc and Fa* with highly
nasalized n. They are a finely-made race of chocolate colour;
some few are very dark, but these are of slave origin. They have
bright expressive oval faces with prominent cheek-bones. Many
of them file their teeth to points. Their hair, which is woolly, is
worn by the women long, reaching below the nape of the neck.
The men wear it in a variety of shapes, often building it up over
a wooden base. The growth of the hair appears abundant, but
that on the face is usually removed. Little clothing is worn;
the men wear a bark waist-cloth, 'the women a plantain girdle,
sometimes with a bustle of dried grass. A chief wears a leopard's
skin round the shoulders. Both sexes tattoo and paint the body,
170
FANO— FANSHAWE
and delight in ornaments of every kind. The men, whose sole
occupations are fighting and hunting, all carry arms— muskets,
spears for throwing and stabbing, and curious throwing-knivcs
with blades broader than they are long. Instead of bows and
arrows they use crossbows made of ebony, with which they hunt
apes and birds. In battle the Fang used to carry elephant hide
shields; these have apparently been discarded.
When first met by T. £. Bowdich (1815) the Paamways, as he
calls the Fang, were an inland people inhabiting the hilly plateaus
north of the Ogowe affluents. Now they have become the
neighbours of the Mpongwe (q.v.) of Glass and Libreville on the
Korao river, while south of the Gabun they have reached the sea
at several points. Their original home is probably to be placed
somewhere near the Congo. Their language, according to Sir
R. Burton, is soft and sweet and a contrast to their harsh voices,
and the vocabularies collected prove it to be of the Bantu-
Negroid linguistic family. W. Winwood Reade {Sketch Book, i.
p. 108) states that " it is like Mpongwe (a pure Bantu idiom)
cut in half; for instance, njina (gorilla) in Mpongwe is nji in
Fan." The plural of the tribal name is formed in the usual
Bantu way, Ba-Fang.
Morally the Fang are superior to the negro. Mary Ringslcy
writes: " The Fan is full of fire, temper, intelligence and go, very
teachable, rather difficult to manage, quick to take offence, and
utterly indifferent to human life." This latter characteristic
has made the Fang dreaded by all their neighbours. They are
noted cannibals, and ferocious in nature. Prisoners are badly
treated and are often allowed to starve. The Fang are always
fighting, but the battles are not bloody. After the fall of two
or three warriors the bodies are dragged off to be devoured, and
their friends disperse. Burton says that their cannibalism is
limited to the consumption of slain enemies; that the sick are
not devoured; and that the dead are decently buried, except
slaves, whose bodies are thrown into the forest. Mary Kingsley,
on the other hand, believed their cannibalism was not limited.
She writes: " The Fan is not a cannibal for sacrificial motives,
like the negro. He will eat his next door neighbour's relation and:
sell his own deceased to his next door neighbour in return, but
he does not buy slaves and fatten them up for his table as some
of the middle Congo tribes do. He has no slaves, no prisoners
of war, no cemeteries, so you must draw your own conclusions."
Among certain tribes the aged alone are permitted to eat human
flesh, which is taboo for all others. There* is no doubt that the
cannibalism of the Fang is diminishing before the advance of
civilisation. Apart from their ferocity, the Fang are an agreeable
and industrious people. They arc skilful workers in iron and
have a curious coinage called bikii, little iron imitation axeheads
tied up in bundles called ntct, ten to a bundle; these are used
chiefly in the purchase of wives. They are energetic traders and
are skilled in pottery and in gardening. Their religion appears
to be a combination of primitive animism and ancestor worship,
with a belief in sympathetic magic.
Bibliography.— Paul du Chaillu, Explorations in Equatorial
Africa (1 861): Sir R. Burton, " A Day with the Fan*," Transactions
of Ethnological Society, new scries, vols. 3-4; Maiy Kingsley, Travels
Fjort
. t O873..
A. L. Bennett, "Ethnographical Notes on the Fang,'
in West Africa (1897); Oscar Lens, Skmen aus West Africa (1878)
R. E. Dennett. Notes on the Folklore of the Fjort (1898); William
Winwood Reade, The African Sketch Booh (1873); and (chiefly)
* * " --"--• •♦ • -* * on the Fang," Journ.Antkr.
Inst. N.S., ii. p. 66, and L. Martron in Anthropos, t. i. (1906), fasc 4.
FANO (anc Fanum Fartunac, q.v.), a town and episcopal see
of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino,
8 m. S.E. of the former by rail, and 46 ft. above sea-level, on
the N.E. coast of Italy. Pop. (1901), town 10,535, commune
24,730. The cathedral has a 13th century portal, but the interior
b unimportant. The vestibule of S. Francesco contains the
tombs of some members of the Malatesta family. S. Croce and
S. Maria "Nuova contain works by Giovanni Santi, the father of
Raphael; the latter has also two works by Penigino, the predella
of one of which is attributed to Raphael. S. Agostino contains
a painting of S. Angelo Custode (" the Guardian Angel ") r which
is the subject of a poem by Robert Browning. The fine Gothic
Palazzo dclla Ragionc (1299) has been converted into a theatre. I
The palace. of the Malatesta, with fine porticos and Gothic
windows, was much damaged by an earthquake in 1874. &
Michele, built against the arch of Augustus, is an early Renais-
sance building (1475-1490), probably by Matteo Nuzio of Fano,
with an ornate portal The facade has an interesting relief
showing the colonnade added by Constantine as an upper storey
to the arch of Augustus and removed in 1463.
Fano in the middle ages- passed through various political
vicissitudes, and in the 14th century became subject to the
Malatesta. In 14 58 Pius II. added it to the states of the Church.
Julius II. established here in 15 14 the first printing press with
movable Arabic type. The harbour was restored by Paul V.
but is now unimportant.
FANSHAWE, SIR RICHARD, Bart. (1608-1666), English poet
and ambassador, son of Sir Henry Fanshawe, remembrancer of
the exchequer, of Ware Park, Hertfordshire, and of Elizabeth,
daughter of Thomas Smith or Smvthe, was born early in June
1608, and was educated in Crippfcgate by the famous school-
master, Thomas Famaby. In November 1623 be was admitted
fellow-commoner of Jesus College, Cambridge, and in January
1626 he entered the Inner Temple; but the study of the law
being distasteful to him he travelled in France and Spain.
On his return, an accomplished linguist, in 1635, he was appointed
secretary to the English embassy at Madrid under Lord Aston.
At the outbreak of the Civil War be joined the king, and while at
Oxford in 1644 married Anne, daughter of Sir John Harrison of
Balls, Hertfordshire. About the same time he was appointed
secretary at war to the prince of Wales, with whom he set out
in 1645 for the western counties, Stilly, and afterwards Jersey.
He compounded in 1646 with the parliamentary authorities,
and was allowed to live in London till October 1647, visiting
Charles L at Hampton Court. In 1647 he published his transla-
tion of the Pastor Fido of Guarini, which he reissued in 1648
with the addition of several other poems, original and translated.
In 1648 he was appointed treasurer to the navy under Prince
Rupert. In November of this year he was in Ireland, where he
actively engaged in the royalist cause till the spring of 1650,
when he was despatched by Charles II. on a mission to obtain
help from Spain. This was refused, and he joined Charles in
Scotland as secretary. On the 2nd of September 1650 he had
been created a baronet. He accompanied Charles in the expedi-
tion into England, and was taken prisoner at the battle of
Worcester on the 3rd of September 165 1. After a confinement
of some weeks at Whitehall, he was allowed, with restrictions,
and under the supervision of the authorities, to choose his own
place of residence. He published in 165 a his Selected Parts of
Horace, a translation remarkable for its fidelity, felicity and
elegance. In 1654 he completed translations of two of the
comedies of the Spanish poet Antonio de Mendoza, which were
published after his death, Querer per tola querer; To Lam only
for Love's Sake, in 1670, and Fiestas de Aranjua in 1671. But
the great labour of his retirement was the translation of the
Lusiad, by Camoens, published in 1655. It is in ottavs rims,
with the translation prefixed to it of the Latin poem Fmrer
Pctroniensis. In 1658 he published a Latin version of the
Faithful Shepherdess of Fletcher.
In April 1659 Fanshawe left England for Paris, re-entered
Charles's service and accompanied him to England at the
Restoration, but was not offered any place in the administration.
In 1661 he was returned to parliament for the university of
Cambridge, and the same year was sent to Portugal to negotiate
the marriage between Charles II. and the infanta. In January
166a he was made a privy councillor of Ireland, and was appointed
ambassador again to Portugal in August, where he remained till
August 1663. He was sworn a privy councillor of gwgUiwt on
the 1st of October. In January 1664 he was sent ss ambassador
to Spain, and arrived at Cadiz in February of that year. He
signed the first draft of a treaty on the 17th of December, which
offered advantageous concessions to English trade, but of which
one condition was that it should be confirmed by his fovernment
before a certain date. In January 1666 Fanshawe went to Lisbon
to procure the adherence of Portugal to this agreement. He
FANTAN— FANTI
i 7 i
I to Madrid, having failed In fab morion, and was almost
i—irdwtriy recalled by Clarendon on the plea that he had
eneeded his instruction*. He died very shortly afterwards
before leaving Madrid, on the *6th of Jane 1666. He bad a
tunOy of .fourteen children, of whom five only survived him,
ttcfaerd, the youngest, succeeding as second baronet and dying
umarriedin 1604*
.As a translator, whether from the Italian, Latin, Portuguese
or Spanish, Fanshawe has a considerable reputation. His
Pastor Fida and his Lasiad have not been superseded by later
scbolaiv *** fa» rendering of the latter is praised by Southey
and Sir Richard Burton. As an original poet abo the few verses
he has left are sufficient evidence of exceptional literary talent.
AuTHOBJTiB&~JfMNnry of Lady Panshawe, written in 1676 and
jp.KKA**! x8ro (from an inaccurate transcript)} these were re*
priated from the original manuicfipt and edited by H. C Fanthawe
Nicholas Papers (Camden Society); Quarterly
MaamOaafs Mar. Mi. 279; Comoen's life and
Barton, i. 135; Clarendon 1 * Slate Papers, Calendars of State Papers,
by H. Bagtjhaw;
Review, xxvu, X;
Lusiads, by Sir F.
' Ahtmaiaarapaj and Hist, efthe R*beUlon\ Athenaeum (1*83), i. isi.
AddTSST British Museum, 15.328 (poems); Hark M$S. Brit,
Mas. 7010 (letters). (P. C Y.)
FAVTAX, a form of gambling highly popular among the
Q>g— » The game is simple. A square is marked in the centre
of an ordinary table, or a square piece of metal is laid on it,
the sides being marked x, a, 3 and 4. The banker puts on the
table a double handful of small coins—in China •' cash "—or
similar articles, which he covers with a metal bowl. The players
bet on the numbers, setting their stakes on the side of the square
which bears the number selected..- When all have staked, the
bowl is removed, and the banker or croupier with a small stick
removes coins from the heap, four at a time, till the final batch
b reached. If it contains four coins, the backer of No. 4 wins;
if three, the backer of No. 3 wins, and so on. • Twenty-live per
cent is deducted from the stake by the banker, and the winner
r e ce iv es five times the amount of his stake thus reduced. In
Macao, the Monte Carlo of China, play goes on day and night,
every day of the week, and bets can be made from 5 cents to
900 dollars, which are the limits.
Fantan is also the name of a card game, played with an
ordinary pack, by any number of players up to eight. The
deal decided, the cards are dealt singly, any that are left over
farming a stock, and being placed lace downwards on the table.
Each player contributes a fixed stake or " ante." The first
player can enter if he has an ace; if he has not he pays an " ante "
and takes a card from the stock; the second player is then
catted upon and acts similarly till an ace is played. This (and
the other aces when played) is put face upwards on the table,
and the piles are built up from the ace to the king. The pool
goes to the player who first gets rid of all his cards. If a player
tails to play, having a playable card, he is fined the amount
of the ante for every card in the other players' hands.
FANTASIA (Italian for "fantasy," a causing to be seen,
from Greek, tabus*, to show), a name in musk sometimes loosely
used for a composition which has little structural form, and
appears to be an improvization; and also for a combination or
medley of familiar airs connected together with original passages
of more or less brilliance. The word, however, was originally
applied to more formal compositions, based on the madrigal,
far several instruments. Fantasias appear as distinct com-
positions in Bach's works, and also joined to a fugue, as in the
M Great Fantasia and Fugue " in A minor, and the " Fantasia
cromatica " in D minor. Brahms used the name for his shorter
piano pieces. It b also applied to orchestral compositions " not
long enough to be called symphonic poems and not formal
enough to be called overtures " (Sir C. Hubert Parry, in Grove's
Dictionary of Music, ed. 1006). The Italian word is still used in
Tunis, Algeria and Morocco, with the meaning of " showing
off," for an acrobatic exhibition of horsemanship by the Arabs.
The riders fire their guns, throw them and their lances into the
air, and catch them again, standing or kneeling in the saddle,
all at a foil gallop.
FANTI, MANFBBDO (1806-1865), Italian general, was born v
at Carpi and educated at the military college of Modena. In
1831 he was Implicated in the revolutionary movement organized
by Giro Menotti (see Fkanos IV., of Modena), and was con-
demned to death and hanged in effigy, but escaped to France,
where he was given an appointment in the French corps of
engineers. In 1833 he took part in Mazzini's abortive attempt
to invade Savoy, and in 1835 he went to Spain to serve in Queen
Christina's army against the Carlbts. There he remained for
thirteen years, distinguishing himself in battle and rising to a
high staff appointment. But on the outbreak of the war between
Piedmont and Austria in 1848 he hurried back to Italy, and
although at first fab services were rejected both by the Pied-
montese government and the Lombard provisional government,
he was afterwards given the command of a Lombard brigade.
In the general confusion following on Charles Albert's defeat
on the Mindo and his retreat to Milan, where the people rose
against the unhappy king, Fanti's courage and tact saved the
situation. He was elected member of the Piedmontese chamber
in 1849, and on the renewal of the campaign he again commanded
a Lombard brigade under General Ramorino. After the Pied-
montese defeat at Novara (23rd of March) peace was made,
but a rising broke out at Genoa, and Fanti with great difficulty
restrained his Lombards from taking part in it. But he was
suspected as a Mazzmian and a soldier of fortune by the higher
Piedmontese officers, and they insisted on hb being court-
martialled for hb operations under Ramorino (who had been
tried and shot). - Although honourabfy acquitted, he was not
employed again until the Crimean expedition of 1855. In the
second Austrian war in 1859 Fanti commanded the 2nd division,
and contributed to the victories of Palestro, Magenta and San
Martino. After the peace of Vaiaf ranca be was sent to organize
the army of the Central Italian League (composed of the pro-
visional governments of Tuscany, Modena, Parma and Romagna),
and converted it in a few months into a well-drilled body of
45,000 men, whose function was to be ready to intervene in the
papal states on the outbreak of a revolution. He showed
statesmanlike qualities in steering a dear course between
the exaggerated prudence of Baron RicasoK, who wished to
recall the troops from the frontier, and the impetuosity of
Garibaldi, hb second-in-command, who was anxious to invade
Romagna prematurely, even at the risk of Austrian intervention.
Fanti's firmness led to Garibaldi's resignation. In January
i860 Fanti became minister of war and marine under Cavour,
and incorporated the League's army in that of Piedmont. In
the meanwhile Garibaldi had invaded Sicily with hb Thousand,
and King Victor Emmanuel decided at last that he too must
intervene; Fanti was given the chief command of a strong
Italian force which invaded the papal states, seized Ancona
and other fortresses, and defeated the papal army at Castcl-
fidardo, where the enemy's commander, General Lamoricicre,
was captured. In three weeks Fanti had conquered the Marche
and Umbria and taken 28,000 prisoners. When the army entered
Neapolitan territory the king took the chief command, with
Fanti as chief of the staff. After defeating a large Neapolitan
force at Mola and organizing the siege operations round Gaeta,
Fanti returned to the war office at Turin to carry out important
army reforms. Hb attitude in opposing the admission of
Garibaldi's 7000 officers into the regular army with their own
grades made him the object of great unpopularity for a time,
and led to a severe reprimand from Cavour. On the death of
the latter (7th of June i860 he resigned office and took command
of the Vlf. army corps. But hb health had now broken down,
and after four years' suffering he died in Florence on the 5th of
April 1865. Hb lose was greatly felt in the war of 1866.
See Carandini, Vita di M. Pant* (Verona, 1 872); A- Di Giorgio,
II Generate M. Fanti (Florence. 1906). (L.V.*)
FANTI, a nation of Negroes, Inhabiting part of the seaboard
of the Gold Coast colony, British Wesl Africa, and about 20,000
ija
FANTIN-LATOUR— FARABI
sq. m. of the interior. They number about a million. They have
many traditions of early migrations. It stems probable that the
Fanti and Ashanti were originally one race, driven from the
north-east towards the sea by more powerful races, possibly the
ancestors of Fula and Hausa. There are many words in Fanti
for plants and animals not now existing in the country, but
which abound in the Gurunsi and Moshi countries farther north,
These regions have been always haunted by slave-raiders, and
possibly these latter may have influenced the exodus. At any
rate, the Fanti were early driven into the forests from the open
plains and slopes of the hills. The name Fanti, an English version
of Mfantsi, is supposed to be derived from fan, a wild cabbage,
and ti, di or ds, to eat; the story being that upon the exile of the
tribe the only available food was some such plant. They are
divided into seven tribes, obviously totemic, and with rules as
to exogamy still in force, (i) Kwonna, buffalo; (a) Etckuri,
leopard; (3) Eso, bush-cat; (4) Nitekvo, dog; (5) Nnuna,
parrot; (6) Ebradzi, Don; and (7) Abrulu, corn-stalk; these
names are obsolete, though the meanings are known. The tribal
marks arc three gashes in front of the ear on each side in a line
parallel to the jaw-bone. The Fanti language has been associated
by A. B. Ellis with the Ashanti speech as the principal descendant
of an original language, possibly the Tshi (pronounced Tchwi),
which is generally considered as the parent of Ashanti, Fanti,
Akim, Akwapim and modern Tshi.
The average Fanti is of a dull brown colour, of medium height,
with negroid features. Some of the women, when young, are
quite pretty. The women use various perfumes, one of the most
usual being prepared from the excrement of snakes. There are
no special initiatory rites for the youthful Fanti, only a short
seclusion for girls when they reach the marriageable age.
Marriage Is a mere matter of sale, and the maidens are tricked
out in all the family finery and walk round the village to indicate
that they are ready for husbands. The marriages frequently
end in divorce. Polygamy is universally practised. The care of
the children is left exclusively to the mothers, who are regarded
by the Fanti with deep veneration, while little attention is paid
to the fathers. Wives never eat with their husbands, but always
with the childrea The rightful heir in native law is the eldest
nephew, i.e. the eldest sister's eldest son, who invariably inherits
wives, children and all property. As to tenure of land, the source
of ownership of land is derived from the possession of the chief's
" stool," which is, like the throne of a king, the symbol of
authority, and not even the chief can alienate the land from the
stool. Females may succeed to property, but generally only
when the acquisition of such property is the result of their
succeeding to the stool of a chief. The Fanti are not permanent
cultivators of the soil. Three or at most five years will cover
the period during which land is continuously cultivated. The
commonest native dishes are palm-oil chop, a bowl of palm oil,
produced by boiling .freshly ground palm nuts, in which a fowl
or fish is then cooked; and /*/*, " white," a boiled mash of
yams or plantains. The Fanti have a taste for shark-flesh,
called locally " stink-fish." It is sliced up and partly sun-dried,
and is eaten in a putrid state. The Fanti are skilful sailors
and fishermen, build excellent canoes, and are expert weavers.
Pottery and goldsmithery are trades also followed. Their
religion is fetishism, every Fanti having his own " fetish " or
familiar spirit, but there is a belief in a beneficent Creative Being.
Food is offered the dead, and a ceremony of purification is said
to be indulged in at funerals, the bearers and mourners plunging
into the sea or river after the interment.
See Journal of Antkropolopcal Institute of Great Britain, vol. 36.
pp. 128 et seq.; A. B. Ellis, The Tshispeakint Peoples of the Cold
Oast (London, 1887).
FANTIN-LATOUR, IGNACE HENRI JEAN THEODORE
(1836-1904), French artist, was born at Grenoble on the 14th of
January 1836. He studied first with his father, a pastel painter,
and then at the drawing school of Lecoq de Boisbaudran, and
later under Couture. He was the friend of Ingres, Dalacroix,
Corot, Courbet and others. He exhibited in the Salon of 1861 ,
and many of his more important canvases appeared on its walls
in later years, though 1863 found him with Haqagnies, Msaet,
Legros and Whistler in the Salon des Refuses. Whistler intro-
duced him to English artistic ti^cles, and he lived for some use
in England, many of his portraits and flower pieces being is
English cileries. He died 00 the 28th of August 1004. His
portrait groups, arranged somewhat after the manner of the
Dutch masters, are as interesting from their subjects as they ut
from the artistic point of view. " Ho mmag ea Delacroix" shoved
portraits of Whistler and Legros, Baudelaire, Charnpfleory and
himself; " Un Atelier d BalignMes " gave portraits of Monet,
Manet, Zola and Renoir, and is now in the Luxembourg; M Un
Coin de table " presented Veiiaine, Rimbaud, Camttle PeUdan
and others; and " Autour du Piano " contained portraits of
Chabrier, D Indy and other musicians. His paintings of flowers
are perfect examples of the art, and form perhaps the mo*
famous section of his work in England. In his later yean Ik
devoted much attention to lithography, which had occupied
him as early as 1862, but his examples were then considered 10
revolutionary, with their strong lights and black shadows, that
the printer refused to execute them. After " UAnninrmrt "
in honour of Berlioz in the Salon of 1876, be regularly exhibited
lithographs, some of which were excellent examples of delicate a
portraiture, others being elusive and imaginative drawing*
illustrative of the music of Wagner (whose cause he championed
in Paris as early as 1864), Berlioz, Brahms and other composer*.
He illustrated Adolphe Jullien's Wagner (1886) and Mm
( 1 888). There are excellent collections pf his lithographic watt
at Dresden, in the British Museum, and a practically complete
set given by his widow to the Louvre. Some were also exhibited
at South Kensington in 1898-1899, and at the Dutch gallery
in 1904.
A catalogue of the lithographs of Fantin-Latour was drawn op
by Germain Hediard in Us Mattres da la lUkcgropki* (1898-1809).
A volume of reproductions, in a limited edition, was puUwhed
(Paris* 1907) as L'CEtcore lilhofrapkique de Fantin-Latour. See A.
Jullien, Fantin-Latour, savieet ses amities (Paris, 1909).
FANUM FORTUMAE (mod. Fane), an ancient town of Umbria,
Italy, at the point where the Via Flammia reaches the N.E.
coast of Italy. Its name shows that it was of Roman origin,
but of its foundation we know nothing. It is first mentioned,
with Pisaurum and Ancona, as held by Julius Caesar in 49 *- c
Augustus planted a colony there, and round it constructed a
wall (of which some remains exist), as is recorded in the inscrip-
tion on the triple arch erected in his honour at the entrance to
the town (a.d. 9-10), which is still standing. Vitrnvim tdh
us that there was, during Augustus's lifetime, a temple in his
honour and a temple of Jupiter, and describes a basilica of which
he himself was the architect The arch of Augustus bears 1
subsequent inscription in honour of Constantine, added after
his death by L. Turcius Secundus, corrector Flaminiae et Ficeni,
who also constructed a colonnade above the arch. Several
Roman statues and heads, attributable to members of the Juho-
Claudian dynasty, were found in the convent of S. Fib'ppo is
1 809. These and other objects are now in the municipal museum
(£. Brisio in Nolkie dcgli scan, 1899, 249 seq.). Of the temple
of Fortune from which the town took its name no traces have
been discovered. (T. As)
FAN VAULT, in architecture, a method of vaulting used in the
Perpendicular style, of which the earliest example is foond is
the cloisters of Gloucester cathedral, built towards the dost of
the 14th century. The ribs are all of one curve and equidistant,
and their divergency, resembling that of an open fan, baa
suggested the name. One of the finest examples, though of later
date (1640), is the vault over the staircase of Christ Chorea,
Oxford. For the origin of its development see Vault.
FArAbI [AbQ Nasr Muhammad ibn Tarkfcan ul-Firibi] («.
870-950), Arabian philosopher, was born of Turkish stock at
Farab in Turkestan, where also he spent his youth. Thence he
journeyed to Bagdad, where he learned Arabic and gave himself
to the study of mathematics, medicine and philosophy, especially
the works of Aristotle. Later he went to the court of the
Hamdinid Saif addaula, from whom he received a warm welcome
and a small pension. Here he lived a quiet if not an ascetic life-
FARADAY
?73
Be died in Damascus, whither he had gone with his patron.
EGs works are very dear in style, though aphoristic rather than
systematic in the treatment of subjects. Unfortunately the
success of Avkenna seems to have led to the neglect of much
of his work. In Europe his compendium of Aristotle's Rhetoric
was published at Venice, 1484. Two of his smaller works appear
in Alpkarabii opera omnia (Paris, 1638), and two are translated
in F. A. SchmGlders' Document* phUosopkiae Arabum (Bonn,
1836). More recently Fr. Dieterici has published at Leiden:
AlfarabCs phiiosophUcMe Abkandlungen (1800; German trans.
1892); AlfaroM's Abhandlung des Muster stoats (1805; German
trans, with an essay " Uber den Zusammenhang der arabischen
and grfechischen Philosophic," rooo); Die Slaatsleitung von
Aljarabi in German, with an essay on " Das Wesen der arabischen
Philosophic" (1904).
For FXribi's life see McG. de Sbne's translation of Ibn Khallikan
(vol- 3, pp. 307 ft.) ; and for further information as to his works
M. Strrnschneidcc's article in the Mimoires de I'Acadimit (St Peters-
burg, terie 7, torn. 13, No. 4, ,1869); and C. Brockclmann's Gesch.
der arab. LitUratur, vol i. (Weimar, 1 $98) , pp. 2 1 0-2 13. (Q. W. T.)
FARADAY, HKHABL (1791-1867), English chemist and
physicist, was born at Newington, Surrey, on the 22nd of Sep-
tember 1 701. His parents had migrated from Yorkshire to
London, where his father worked as a blacksmith. Faraday him-
self became apprenticed to a bookbinder. The letters written
to his friend Benjamin Abbott at this time give a lucid account
of his aims in life, and of his methods of self-culture, when his
mind was beginning to turn to the experimental study of nature.
In 18 1 a Mr Dance, a customer of his master, took him to hear
four lectures by Sir Humphry Davy. Faraday took notes of
these lectures, and afterwards wrote them out in a fuller form.
Coder the encouragement of Mr Dance, he wrote to Sir H. Davy,
enclosing these notes. " The reply was immediate, kind and
favourable." He continued to work as a journeyman bookbinder
tifl the xst of March 1813, when he was appointed assistant in
the laboratory of the Royal Institution of Great Britain on the
recomraendation of Davy, whom he accompanied on a tour
through France, Italy and Switzerland from October 18x3 to
April 1815. He was appointed director of the laboratory in
1S25; and in 1833 he was appointed FuUerian professor of
chemistry in the institution for life, without the obligation to
deliver lectures. He thus remained in the institution for fifty-
bur years. He died at Hampton Court on the 25th of August
1867.
Faraday's earliest chemical work was in the paths opened by
Davy, to whom he acted as assistant. He made a special study
of chlorine," and discovered two new chlorides of carbon. He
also made the first rough experiments on the diffusion of gases,
a phenomenon first pointed out by John Dalton, the physical
importance of which was. more fully brought to light by Thomas
Graham and Joseph Loschmidt. He succeeded in liquefying
several gases; he investigated the alloys of steel, and produced
several new kinds of glass intended for optical purposes. A
specimen of one of these heavy glasses afterwards became
historically important as the substance in which Faraday
detected the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light when the
glass was placed in the magnetic field, and also as the substance
which was first repelled by the poles of the magnet. • He also
endeavoured with some success to make the general methods
of chemistry, as distinguished from its results, the subject of
special study and of popular exposition. See his work on
Chemical Manipulation.
But Faraday's chemical work, however important in itself,
was soon completely overshadowed by bis electrical discoveries.
The first experiment which he has recorded was the construction
of a voltaic pile with seven halfpence, seven disks of sheet zinc,
and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water. With this
pOe he decomposed sulphate of magnesia (first letter to Abbott,
July i2, 1S12). Henceforward, whatever other subjects might
from time to time claim his attention, it was from among electrical
phenomena that he selected those problems to which he applied
the full force of his mind, and which he kept persistently in view,
even when year after year his attempts to solve them had been
His first notable discovery was the production of the con-
tinuous rotation of* magnets and of wires conducting the electric
current round each other. The consequences dcducible from
the great discovery of H. C. Oersted (21st July 1820) were still
in 182 x apprehended in a somewhat confused manner even by
the foremost men of science. Dr VV. H. Wollaston indeed had
formed the expectation that he could make the conducting wire
rotate on its own axis, and in April 182 1 he came with Sir H.
D&vy to the laboratory of the Royal Institution to make an
experiment. Faraday was not there at the time, but coming in
afterwards he beard the conversation on the expected rotation
of the wire.
In July, August and September of that year Faraday, at the
request of R. Phillips, the editor of the Annals oj Philosophy*
wrote for that journal an historical sketch of electro-magnetism,
and he repeated almost all the experiments he described. This
led him in the beginning of September to discover the method
of producing the continuous rotation of the wire round the
magnet, and of the magnet round the wire. He did not succeed
in making the wire or the magnet revolve on its own axis. This
first success of Faraday in electro-magnetic research became the
occasion of the most painful, though unfounded, imputations
against his honour. Into these we shall not enter, referring the
reader to the Life of Faraday, by Dr Bence Jones.
We may remark, however, that although the fact of the tan-
gential force between an electric current and a magnetic pole
was clearly stated by Oersted, and clearly apprehended by
A. M. Ampere, Wollaston and others, the realisation of the
continuous rotation of the wire and the magnet round each other
was a scientific puzzle requiring no mean ingenuity for its original
solution. For on the one hand the electric current always forms
a dosed circuit, and on the other the two poles of the magnet have
equal but opposite properties, and are inseparably connected,
so that whatever tendency there is for one pole to circulate
round the current in one direction is opposed by the equal
tendency of the other pole to go round the other way, and thus
the one pole can neither drag the other round and round the wire
nor yet leave it behind. The thing cannot be done unless we
adopt in some form Faraday's ingenious solution, by causing
the current, in some part of its course, to divide into two channels,
one on each side of the magnet, in such a way that during the
revolution of the magnet the current is transferred from the
channel in front of the magnet to the channel behind it, so that
the middle of the magnet can pass across the current without
stopping it, just as Cyrus caused his army to pass dryshod over
the Gyndes by diverting the river into a channel cut for it in
his rear.
We must now go on to the crowning discovery of the induction
of electric currents.
In December 1824 he had attempted to obtain an electric
current by means of a magnet, and on three occasions he had
made elaborate but unsuccessful attempts to produce a current
in one wire by means of a current in another wire or by a magnet.
He still persevered, and on the 29th of August 1831 he obtained
the first evidence that an electric current can induce another
in a different circuit. On the 23rd of September he writes to
his friend R. Phillips: "I am busy just now again on electro-
magnetism, and think I have got hold of a good thing, but can't
say. It may be a weed instead of a fish that, after all my labour,
I may at last pull up." This was his first successful experiment.
In nine more days of experimenting he had arrived at the results
described in his first series of "Experimental Researches" read
to the Royal Society on the 24th of November 1841. By the
intense application of his mind he had thus brought the new
idea, in less than three months from its first development, to a
state of perfect maturity. ,
During his first period of discovery, besides the induction of
electric currents, Faraday established the identity of the electri-
fication produced in different ways; the law of the definite
electrolytic action of the current; and the fact, upon which he
174
FARADAY
laid great stress, that every unit of positive electrification is
related in a definite manner to a unit of negative electrification,
so that it is impossible to produce what Faraday called " an
absolute charge of electricity " of one kind not related to an
equal charge of the opposite kind; He also discovered the
difference of the capacities of different substances for taking
part in electric induction. Henry Cavendish had before 1773
discovered that glass, wax, rosin and shellac have higher specific
inductive capacities than air, and had actually determined the
numerical ratios of these capacities, but this was unknown both
to Faraday and to all other electricians of his time, since Caven-
dish's Electrical Researches remained unpublished till 1879.
The first period of Faraday's electrical discoveries lasted ten
years. In 1841 he found that he required rest, and it was not till
1845 that he entered on his second great period of research, in
which he discovered the effect of magnetism on polarized light,
and the phenomena of diamagnetism.
Faraday had for a long time kept in view the possibility of
using a ray of polarized light as a means of investigating the
condition of transparent bodies when acted on by electric and
magnetic forces. Dr Bcnce Jones (Life of Faraday, vol. i. p. 362)
gives the following note from his laboratory book on the 10th of
September 1822: —
" Polarized a ray of lamplight by reflection, and endeavoured to
ascertain whether any depolarizing action (was) exerted on it by
water placed between the poles of a voltaic battery in a glass cistern;
Wollaston's trough u« * '* " "
er, weak solution or sulpl ___ r
none of them had any effect on the polarized light, cither when
Vollaston's trough used; the fluids decomposed were pure
water, weak solution or sulphate of soda, and strong sulphuric acid;
out of or in the voltaic circuit, so that no particular arrangement
of particles could be ascertained in this way. *
Eleven yean afterwards we find another entry in bis notebook
on the 2nd of May 1833 (Life, by Dr Bence Jones, vol. ii. p. 20).
He then tried not only the effect of a steady current, but the.
effect on making and breaking contact.
M I do not think, therefore, that decomposing solutions or sub-
stances wiU be found to have (as a consequence of decomposition or
arrangement for the time) any effect on the polarized ray. Should
now try non-decomposing bodies, as solid nitre, nitrate of silver,
borax, glass, &c, whilst solid, to see if any internal state induced,
which by decomposition is destroyed, •'.*. whether, when they can-
not decompose, any state of electrical tension is present. My borate
of glass good, and common electricity better than voltaic."
On the 6th of May he makes further experiments, and con-
dudes: " Hence I see no reason to expect that any kind of
structure or tension can be rendered evident, either in decom-
posing or non-decomposing bodies, in insulating or conducting
states."
At last, in 1845, Faraday attacked the old problem, but this
time with complete success. Before we describe this result we
may mention that in 1862 he made the relation between magnet-
ism and light the subject of his very last experimental work.
He endeavoured, but in vain, to detect any change in the lines
of the spectrum of a flame when the flame was acted on by a
powerful magnet.
This long series of researches is an instance of his persistence.
His energy is shown in the way in which he followed up his
discovery in the single instance in which he was successful.
The first evidence which he obtained of the rotation of the plane
of polarization of light under the action of magnetism was on
the 13th of September 1845, the transparent substance being
his own heavy glass. He began to work on the 30th of August
1845 on polarized light passing through electrolytes. After
three days he worked with common electricity, trying glass,
' heavy optical glass, quartz, Iceland spar, all without effect, as on
former trials. On the 13th of September he worked with lines
of magnetic force. Air, flint, glass, rock-crystal, calcareous spar
were examined, but without effect.
" Heavy glass was experimented with. It gave no effects when
the same magnetic poles or the contrary Doles were on opposite sides
(as respects the course of the polarized ray), nor when the same
poles were on the same side either with the constant or intermitting
current. But when contrary magnetic poles were on the same side
there was an effect produced on the polarized ray, and thus magnetic
force and light were proved to have relations to each other. This
fact will most likely prove exceedingly fertile, and of great value la
the investigation of the conditions of natural force."
He immediately goes on to examine other substances, but with
" no effect," and he ends by saying, " Have got enough for
to-day." On the i8tb of September he " does an excellent day's
work." During September he had four days of work, sod ia
October six, and on the 6th of November he sent in to tic Royal
Society the nineteenth series of his " Experimental Researches,"
in which the whole conditions of the phenomena are fully speci-
fied. The negative rotation in ferro-magnetic media is the only
fact of importance which remained to be discovered afterwards
(by M. E. Verdet in 1856).
But his work for the year was not yet over. On the 3rd of
November a new horseshoe magnet came home, and Faraday
immediately began to experiment on the action in the notarized '
ray through gases, but with no effect. The following day he
repeated an experiment which had given no result on the 6th of
October. A bar of heavy glass was suspended by silk between
the poles of the new magnet. " When it was arranged, and bad .
come to rest, I found I could affect it by the magnetic forces
and give it position." By the 6th of December he had seat
in to the Royal Society the twentieth, and on the nth of
December the twenty-first, series of his " Researches," in which
the properties of diamagnetic bodies are fully described. Thus
these two great discoveries were elaborated, like his earlier one,
in about three months.
The discovery of the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarized
light, though it did not lead to such important practical applica-
tions as some of Faraday's earlier discoveries, has been of the
highest value to science, as furnishing complete dynamical
evidence that wherever magnetic force exists there is nutter,
small portions of which are rotating about axes parallel to the
direction of that force.
We have given a few examples of the concentration of his
efforts in seeking to identify the apparently different forces of
nature, of his far-sightedness in selecting subjects for investiga-
tion, of his persistence in the pursuit of what he set before him,
of his energy in working out the results of his discoveries, and
of the accuracy and completeness with which he made his final
statement of the laws of the phenomenon.
These characteristics of his scientific spirit lie on the surface
of his work, and are manifest to all who read his writings. But
there was another side of his character, to the cultivation of
which he paid at least as much attention, and which was reserved
for his friends, his family and his church. His letters and bis
conversation were always full of whatever could awaken a
healthy interest, and free from anything that might rouse ill-
feeling. When, on rare occasions, be was forced out of the region
of science into that of controversy, he stated the facts and let
them make their own way. He was entirely free from pride
and undue self-assertion. During the growth of his powers he
always thankfully accepted a correction, and made use of every
expedient, however humble, which would make his work more
effective in every detail. When at length he found his memory
failing and his mental powers declining, he gave up, without
ostentation or complaint, whatever parts of his work he could
no longer carry on according to his own standard of efficiency.
When he was no longer able to apply his mind to science, be
remained content and happy in the exercise of those kindly
feelings and warm affections which he had cultivated 00 lea
carefully than his scientific powers.
The parents of Faraday belonged to the very small and isolated
Christian sect which is commonly called after Robert Sandeoan.
Faraday himself attended the meetings from childhood; at the
age of thirty he made public profession of his faith, and during
two different periods he discharged the office of eider. His
opinion with respect to the relation between his science and his
religion is expressed in a lecture on mental education delivered
in 1854, and printed at the end of his Researches in Chemistry
and Physics.
" Before entering upon the subject, I must make one distinction
which, however it may appear to others, is to me of the utmost
importance. High as man is placed above the creatures around
FARAH— FAREHAM
»75
boa, there is a higher and far more exalted position within his
view; and the ways are infinite in which he occupies his thoughts
about the fears, or hopes, or expectations of a future life. I believe
that the truth of that future cannot be brought to his knowledge
by any exertion of bis mental powers, however exalted they may
be; that it is made known to him by other teaching than his own,
and b received through simple belief of the testimony given. Let
bo one suppose for an instant that the self-education I am about to
commend, in respect of the things of this life, extends to any con-
skkiauons of the hope set before us, as if man by reasoning could
find out God. It would be improper here to enter upon this sub-
ject further than to claim an absolute distinction between religious
and ordinary belief. I shall be reproached with the weakness of
refusing to apply those mental operations which I think good in
respect of high things to the very highest. X am content to bear
the reproach. Yet even in earthly matters | believe that ' the in-
vtsmte things of Him from the creation of the world are clearly
seen, being understood by the things that are made, even His
eternal power and Godhead': and 1 have never seen anything
incompatible between those things of man which can be known by
the spirit of man which is within him and those higher things con-
cerning his future, which he cannot know by that spirit.'*
Faraday gives the following note as to this lectures—
" These observations were delivered as a lecture before His Royal
Highness the Prince Consort and the members of the Royal Insti-
tatjoQ on the 6th of May 1 8^4. They are 90 immediately connected
in their nature and origin with my own experimental life, considered
either aa cause or consequence, that I have thought the dose of
this volume not an unfit place for their reproduction."
As Dr Bcace Jones concludes—
*" Hb standard of duty was supernatural. It was not founded oil
any intuitive ideas of right and wrong, nor was it fashioned upon
any outward experiences of time and place, but it was formed
entirely on what he held to be the revelation of the will of God in
the written word, and throughout all his life his faith led him to
act up to the very letter of it."
Published Works.— -Chemical Manifndatum, leing Instructions to
Murray, isted. 1827,2nd 1830,
Students sa Chemistry (z vol., John 1
ttd J842); Experimental Researches in Electricity, vols. i. and Ii.|
,850); -„ »
by W. Crookes) (Griffin, Bohn & Co., 1861); 6n the Various* Force*
m Nature (edited by W. Crookes) (Chatto & Windus, no date).
Biogkapmxs.— Faraday as a Discoverer, by John Tyndall (Long-
nans, tat ed. 1868, and ed. 1870); The Life and Letters of Faraday,
by Or Benoe Jones, secretary of the Royal Institution, in a vols.
rLoogmans, 1870); Michael .Faraday, by J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D.,
F.R5TTMacmilhn, 1872): Michael Faraday; his Life and Work,
by S. P. Thompson (1898). (J. C. M.)
FARAH, a river of Afghanistan. It rises in the southern
slopes of Siah-Koh, which forms the southern wall of the valley
of Herat, and after a south-westerly course of about 200 m. falls
into the Seistan Hamun. At the town of Farah it has a width
of 150 yds. in the dry season with 2 ft. of water and a clear swift
stream.. It is liable to floods, when it becomes impassable for
ateks. The lower valley of the Farah Rud is fertile and well
cultivated.
FARAH, a town of Afghanistan. It is situated on the river
that bears its name on the main road between Herat and
Kandahar, 160 m» S. of Herat and 335 m. W. of Kandahar.
It is a place of some strategical importance, as it commands the
approaches to India and Seistan from Herat. The town (2460 ft.
above sea-level) is a square walled enclosure standing in the
middle of the plain, surrounded with a walled rampart* Owing
•0 Us onhealthiness it is now almost deserted, being only occupied
by the Afghan regiment quartered there. It is a place of great
antiquity, being probably the, Phra mentioned by Isidore of
Chanur. in the xst century a.d. It was sacked by the armies of
Jenghiz Khan, and the survivors transported to a position
farther north, where there are still great ruins. • The population
returned to the original site after the destruction of the medieval
city by Shah Abbas, and the city prospered again until its bloody
siege by Nadir Shah. Subsequently under constant attacks it
declined, and in 1837 the population amounting to 6000 was
carried off to Kandahar. The sole industry of the town at
present is the manufacture of gunpowder. In the districts east
of Farah are to be found the most fanatical of the Durani Afghan
tribes.
FARAZDAQ [Harnnoam ibn Gh&lib ibn Sa'sa', known as
al-Farazdaq] («. 641-ca, 738), Arabian poet, was born at Basra.
He was of the Darim, one of the most respected divisions of
the bani Tamlm, and his mother was of the tribe of P&bba*.
His grandfather Sa'sa' was a Bedouin of great repute, bis father
Ghalib followed the same manner of life until Basra was founded,
and was famous for his generosity and hospitality. At the age
of fifteen Faraadaq was known as a poet, and though checked for
a short time by the advice of the caliph Alt to devote his attention
to the study of the Koran, he soon returned to making verse.
In the true Bedouin spirit he devoted his talent largely to satire
and attacked the bani Nahshal and the bani Fuqaim. When
Ziyad, a member of the latter tribe, became governor of Basra,
the poet was compelled to flee, first to Kufa, and then, as he
was still too near Ziyad, to Medina, where he was well received
by Sa'Id ibn ul-AsI. Here he remained about ten years, writing
satires on Bedouin tribes, but avoiding city politics. But he
lived a prodigal life, and his amorous verses led to his expulsion
by the caliph Merwan I. Just at that time he learned of the
death of Ziyad and returned to Basra, where he secured the
favour of Ziyad's successor *Obaidallah ibn Ziyad. Much of bis
poetry was now devoted to his matrimonial affairs. He had
taken advantage of his position as guardian and married his
cousin Nawar against her will. She sought help in vain from
the court of Basra and from various tribes. All feared the poet's
satires. At last she fled to Mecca and appealed to the pretender
'Abdallah ibn Zobair, who, however, succeeded in inducing her
to consent to a confirmation of the marriage. Quarrels soon
arose again. Faraadaq took a second wife, and after her death
a third, to annoy Nawar. Finally be consented to a divorce
pronounced by Hasan al-Basrt. Another subject occasioned a
long series of verses, namely his feud with bis rival Jartr (ff.s.)
and his tribe the bani Kukub. These poems are published as
the Naka'id of Jorir and al-Faraadaq (ed. A. A. Bevan, Leiden,
1006 ff.). In political life Faraadaq was prevented by fear from
taking a large part* He seems, however, to have been attached
to the house of AU. During the reign of Moawiya I. he avoided
politics, but later gave his allegiance to 'Abdallah ibn Zobair.
The fullest account of his life is contained in J. Hell's Das Leben
Farasdaa nach seinen Gedichten (Leipzig. loot) ; Arabian stories of
him in the Kitab ul-Aghdni and in Ibn Rhallikkn. A portion of his
poems was edited with French translation by R. Boucher (Paris,
1870); the remainder have been published by J. Hell (Munich,
1900). (G. W. T.)
FARCE, a form of the comic in dramatic art, the object of
which is to excite laughter by ridiculous situations and incidents
rather than by imitation with intent to ridicule, which Is the
province of burlesque, 0? by the delineation of the play of
character upon character, which is that of comedy. The history
of the word is interesting. Its ultimate origin is the Latin/wire,
to stuff, and with the meaning of " stuffing " or forcemeat it
appears in old cookery books in English. In medieval Latin
far us. and farsia were applied to the expansion of the Kyrie
eleUon in litanies, &c, by interpolating words and phrases be-
tween those two words; later, to words, phrases and rhymed
verses, sometimes in the vernacular, also interpolated in various
parts of the service. The French farce, the form to which we
owe our word, was originally the " gag " that the actors in the
medieval drama inserted into their parts, generally to meet
the popular demand for a lightening of humour or buffoonery.
It has thus been used for the lighter form of comic drama (see
Drama), and also figuratively for a piece of idle buffoonery,
sham, or mockery.
FAREHAJf, a market town in the Fareham parliamentary
division of Hampshire, England, 76 m. S.W. from London by the
London & South Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1001 )-
8246. It lies at the head of a creek opening into the north-
western corner of Portsmouth harbour. The principal industries
are the manufacture of sackings, ropes, bricks, coarse earthen-
ware, terra-cotta, tobacco-pipes and leather. Fareham has a
considerable trade in corn, timber and coal; the creek being
accessible to vessels of 300 tons. Three miles E. of Fareham,
on Portsmouth harbour, are the interesting ruins of Porchcstex
176
FAREL— FAREY
Castle, an extensive walled enclosure retaining its Norman keep,
and exhibiting in its outer walls considerable evidence of Roman
workmanship; Professor Haverfield, however, denies that it
occupies the site of the Roman Portus Magnus. The church of
St Mary has some fine Norman portions. It belonged to an
Augustinian priory founded by Henry I. At Titchfield, 3 m.
W. of Fareham, are ruins of the beautiful Tudor mansion, Place
House, built on the site of a Premonstratensian abbey of the
13th century, of which there are also fragments.
The fact that Fareham (Fernham, Ferham) formed part of
the original endowment of the see of Winchester fixes its existence
certainly as early as the 9th century. It is mentioned in the
Domesday Survey as subject to a reduced assessment on account
of its exposed position and liability to Danish attacks. There
is evidence to show that Fareham had become a borough before
x 264, but no charter can be found. It was a mesne borough held
of the bishop of Winchester, but it is probable that during the
18th century the privileges of the burgesses were allowed to lapse,
as by 1 83 5 it had ceased to be a borough. Fareham returned two
members to the parliament of 1306, but two years later It peti-
tioned against representation on the ground of expense. A fair
on the 3 1 st of October and the two following days was held under
grant of Henry HI. The day appears to have been afterwards
changed to the 29th of June, and in the 18th century was mainly
important for the sale of toys. It was abolished in 1 87 1 . Fare-
ham owed its importance in medieval times to its facilities for
commerce. It was a free port and had a considerable trade in
wool and wine. Later its shipping declined and in the x6th
century it was Ettle more than a fishing village. Its commercial
prosperity in modern times is due to its nearness to Portsmouth.
FAREL, OUILLAUHE (1480-1565), French reformer, was
born of a noble family near Gap in Dauphine in 1489. His
parents meant him for the military profession, but his bent
being for study he was allowed to enter the university of Paris.
Here he came under the influence of Jacobus Faber (Stapulensis),
on whose recommendation he was appointed professor in the
college of Cardinal Lemoine, In 1521, on the invitation of
Bishop Briconnet, he repaired to Meaux, and took part in
efforts of reform within the Roman communion. The persecuting
measures of 1523, from which Faber found a refuge at Meaux,
determined Farcl to leave France. Oecolampadius welcomed
him to Basel, where in 1524 he put forth thirteen theses sharply
antagonizing Roman doctrine. These he defended with great
ability, but with so much heat that Erasmus joined in demanding
his expulsion from the city. He thought of going to Wittenberg,
but his first halt was at Strassburg, where Bucer and Capito
received him kindly. At the call of Duke Ulrich of Wttrt temberg
he went as preacher to Montbeliard. Displaying the same
qualities which had driven him from Basel, he was forced to
leave Montbeliard in the spring of 1525.
He retraced his steps to Strassburg and Basel; and, at the end
of 1596, obtained a preacher's post at Aigte, then a dependency
of Bern. Deeming It wise to suppress his name, he adopted the
pseudonym Ursinus, with reference to his protection by Bern.
Despite strenuous opposition by the monastic orders, he obtained
in is 28 a licence from the authorities to preach anywhere within
the canton of Bern. He extended his labours to the cantons
of Neuchatel and Vaud. His vehement missionary addresses
were met by mob violence, but he persevered with undaunted
seal. In October 1530 he broke into the church of Neuchatel
with an iconoclastic mob, thus planting the Reformation in that
city. In 1 532 he visited the Waldenses. On the return journey
he halted at Geneva, then at a crisis of political and religious
strife. On the 30th of June 1532 the council of two hundred
had ordained that in every church and cloister of the dty ° the
pure Gospel " should be preached; against this order the bishop's
vicar led the opposition. Reaching Geneva in October 1532,
Farel (described in a contemporary monastic chronicle as " un
chetif malheureux predicant, nomme maistre Guillaume ") at
once began to preach in a room of his lodging, and soon attracted
V un grand nombre de gens qui estoient advertis de sa venue et
deja infects de soft beresie." Summoned before the bishop's
vicar, his trial was a scene of insult and clamour, ending in his
being violently -thrust from the court and bidden to leave the
city within three hours. He escaped with difficulty to Orbe by
boat. Through the intervention of the government of Bern,
liberty of worship was granted on the 28th of March 1533 to the
Reformation party in Geneva. Farel, returning, achieved in a
couple of years a complete supremacy for his followers. On
New Year's Day 1534 the bishop interdicted all preaching un-
authorized by himself, and ordered the burning of all Protestant
Bibles. This was the signal for public disputations in whkh
Farel took the leading part on the Reformation aide, with the
result that by decree of the 97th of August 1535 the mass was
suppressed and the reformed religion established. Calvin, on
his way to Basel for a life of study, touched at Geneva, and
by the importunity of Farel was there detained to become the
leader of the Genevan Reformation. The severity of the discip-
linary measures which followed procured a reaction under which
Farel and Calvin were banished the dty in 1538. Farel was
called to Neuchatel in July 1538, but his position there was
made untenable, though he remained at his post during a visita-
tion of the plague. When (1541) Calvin was recalled to Geneva,
Farel also returned; but in 1542 he went to Met* to support
the Reformation there. It is said that when he preached in the
Dominican church of Metz, the bells were rung to drown his
voice, but his voice outdid the bells* and on the next occasion
he had three thousand hearers. His work was checked by the
active hostility of the duke of Lorraine, and in 1544 he returned
to Neuchatel No one was more frequently and confidentially
consulted by Calvin. When the trial of Servetus was in pro gr e s s
(i553), Calvin was anxious for Fard's presence, but he did not
arrive till sentence had been passed. He accompanied Servetus
to the stake, vainly urging him to a recantation at the last
moment. A coolness with Calvin was created by Farel's marriage,
at the age of sixty-nine, with a refugee widow from Rouen, of
unsuitable age. By her, six years later, he had one son, who
died in infancy. The vigour and fervency of his preaching were
unabated by length of years. Calvin's death, in 1564, affected
him deeply. Yet in his last year he revisited Met*, preaching
amid great enthusiasm, with all his wonted fire. The effort was
too much for him; he left the church exhausted, took to his
bed, and died at Mctz on the 13th of September 1565.
Farcl wrote much, but usually in haste, and for an immediate
purpose. He takes no rank as a stientiik theologian, h-s^g a
man of activity rather than of speculation or of much insight.
His Sommaire was re-edited from the edition of 1534 by J. G.
Baum in 1867. Others of his works (all in French) were his
treatise on purgatory (1534), on the Lord's Prayer (1543), on the
Supper (1555). He " was remarkable for boldness and energy
both in preaching and prayer " (M. Young, Life of Ptdeario),
As an orator, he was denundatory rather than suasive; thus
while on the one hand he powerfully impressed, on the other
hand Jie stimulated opposition. A monument to *»™ was
unveiled at Neuchatel on the 4th of May 1876.
Lives of Farel arc numerous; it may suffice to mention C. AnciBon
Vie deG. Farel (1691); the article in Bayfe; M. Kiftfahofer. £***
Uben W. Forth (1831-1833); Ch. Schmidt. £t*dcs sur Farel (18x4) ;
F. Bcvan, W. Farcl (i893)tj. J- Heraog, in Henog-Hauck'a JkofciJC:
klopadte (1808). (A. Go.*)
FAREY, JOHN (1766-1846), English geologist, was born at
Woburn in Bedfordshire in 1766. He was educated at Halifax
in Yorkshire, and showed such aptitude in mathematics, drawing
and surveying, that he was brought under the notice of Jobo
Smeaton (1724-1792). In 1792 he was appointed agent to the
duke of Bedford for his Woburn estates. After the decease of
the duke, Farcy in 1802 removed to London, and settled there
as a consulting surveyor and geologist. That he was enablexj
to take this step was due largely to his acquaintance with
WilUam Smith (q.v.), who in 1801 had been employed by the
duke of Bedford in works of draining and irrigation. The duke
appredating Smith's knowledge of the strata, commissioned
him in 1802 to explore the margin of the chalk-hills south oj
Woburn In order to determine the true succession of the strata
and he instructed Farcy to accompany him. Farey has remarked
FARGO—FARIBAULT
177
M Smith wii Us " Mater and Instructor in Mineral Survey-
ing," and his subsequent publications show how well he had
profited by the teaching* he received. Farcy prepared the
Gotnl View of tke Agriculture and Minerals cf Derbyshire in
two vols. (1S11-1813) for the Board of Agriculture. In the first
of these volumes (1&11) he gave an able accxauitof the Upper
pan of the British series of strata, and a masterly exposition of
(be Carboniferous and other strata of Derbyshire. * In this classic
work, and in a paper published in the PhU. Mag. voL 1L 1818,
p. 173. on " Mr Smith's Geological Claims stated," he zealously
called attention to the importance of the discoveries of William
tahh. Farey died in London on the 6th of January 1826.
See Biographical Notice, by W\ S. Mitchell, in Grot. Mag. 1873.
f.25.
FARGO, WILLIAM GEORGE (1818-1881), pioneer American
tiprcssman, was born in Fompcy, New York, on the aoth of
May 1818. From the age of thirteen he had to support himself,
ftbuioing little schooling, and- for several years he was a clerk
is grocery stores in Syracuse. He became a freight agent for
ike Auburn & Syracuse railway company at Auburn in 1841,
w express messenger between Albany and Buffalo a year later,
ud in 1843 * resident agent in Buffalo. In 1844 be organised,
viih Henry Wells (1805*1878) and Daniel Dunning* the first
express company (Wells & Co.; after 1845 Livingston & Fargo)
to engage in the carrying business west of Buffalo. The lines
4 this company (which first operated only to Detroit, via
Cleveland) were rapidly extended to Chicago, St Louis, and other
•estern points. In March 1850, when through a consolidation
<rf competing lines the American Express Company was organised,
Wells became president and Fargo secretary. In 1851, with
VeQs and others, he organized the firm of Wells, Fargo &
Company to conduct an express business between New York and
Sto Francisco by way of the Isthmus of Panama and on the
hcific coast, where it long had a virtual monopoly. In i86x
Wells, Fargo & Co. bought and reorganized the Overland Mail
Co., which had been formed in 1857 to carry the United States
auls, and of which Fargo had been one of the original promoters.
From i86a to 1 866 he was mayor of Buffalo, and from 1868 to his
<kth, in Buffalo, on the 3rd of August iS8t ? be was president
d the American Express Company, with which in 1868 the Mer-
daius Union Express Co. was consolidated. He was a director
<>i the New York Central and of the Northern Pacific railways.
FAflGO, a chy and the county-seat of Cass county, North
Dakota, U.S.A., about 254 m. W. of Duluth, Minnesota. Pop.
(1S90) 5664; (1000) 0580, of whom 2564 were forclgn-born;
(ioio census) 14,331. It is served by the Northern Pacific,
ta Great Northern, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul
"■fays. The city is situated on the W. bank of the Red river
«* the North, which in xooo had a navigable depth of only
tboot 2 ft. from Fargo to Crank Forks, and the navigation of
thkh was obstructed at various places by fixed bridges. In
tie city are Island and Oakgrove parks, the former of which
stains a statue (erected by Norwegians in 1908) of Henrik
tabid Wergeland, the Norwegian poet. Fargo is the seat of the
North Dakota agricultural college (coeducational), founded in
>Sqo under the provisions of the Federal " Morrill Act " of
i&z; it receives both Federal and state support (the former
"fa the Morrill Act of 1890), and in connexion with it
* United States Agricultural Experiment Station is main-
tained. In 1907-1008 the college had 088 students in the
r «3nlar courses (including the students in the Academy), 117
>o the summer course in steam engineering, and 68 in corre*
'Pondence courses. At Fargo, also, ore Fargo College (mm-
*curian, 1887; founded by Congregationalbts), which has a
college department, a preparatory department, and a conserva-
t0 7 of music, and in 1908 had 310 students, of whom *n
**a in the conservatory of music; the Oak Grove Lutheran
Mies' seminary (1006) and the Sacred Heart Academy (Roman
utholic). The city is the see of both a Roman Catholic bishop
ln d a Protestant Episcopal bishop; and it is the centre of
^sonic interests In the state, having a fine masonic temple.
There are a public library and a large Y.M.C.A. building. St
x.4.
John's hospital is controlled by Roman Catholic sisters, and
St Luke's hospital by the Lutheran Church. Fargo is in a
rich agricultural (especially wheat) region, is a busy grain-trading
and jobbing centse, is one of the most important wholesale
distributing centres for agricultural implements and machinery
in the United States, and has a number of manufactures, notably
fiour. The total value of the city's factory products in 190$
was $1,160,832. Fargo, named in honour of W. G. Fargo of
the Wells Fargo Express Company, was first settled as a tent
city in 1871, when the Red river was crossed by the Northern
Pacific, but was not permanently settled until after the extinction
in 1873 of the Indian title to the reservation on which it was
situated. It was chartered as a city in 1875. The Milwaukee
railway was completed to Fargo in 1884. In June 1893 a large
part of the city was destroyed by fire, the loss being more than
$3,000,000.
FARM Y 8QU&A. MANUEL DE (1590-1649), Spanish and
Portuguese historian and poet, was born of an ancient Portuguese
family* probably -at Pombeiro, on the 18th of March 1590,
attended the university of Braga for some years, and when about
fourteen entered the service of the bishop of Oporto. With the
exception of about four years from 163 1 to 1634, during which
he was a member of the Portuguese embassy in Rome, the greater
part of his later life was spent at Madrid, and there he died, after
much suffering, on the 3rd of June 1640. He was a laborious,
peaceful man; and a happy marriage with Catharina Macnado,
the Albania of his poems, enabled him to lead a studious domestic
life, dividing his cares and affections between his children and
his books. His first important work, an Epitome de las histories
Portugueses (Madrid, i6a8), was favourably received; but some
passages in bis enormous commentary upon Or Lusiadas t the
poem of Luis dc Camoens, excited the suspicion of the inquisitors,
caused his temporary incarceration, and led to the permanent
loss of bis official salary. In spite of the enthusiasm which is
said to have prescribed to him the daily task of twelve folio
pages, death overtook him before he had completed his greatest
enterprise, a history of the Portuguese in all parts of the world.
Several portions of the work appeared at Lisbon after his death,
under the editorship of Captain Faria y Sousa.— £kf<?^a Porlu-
gueza (1667, 3 vols.); Asia Partuguaa (1666-1675, 3 vols.);
Africa Portuguaa (1681). As a poet Faria y Sousa was nearly
as prolific; -but bis poems ore vitiated by the prevailing Gon-
gorism of his time. They were for the most part collected in the
Noches claras (Madrid, 1624-1626), and the Puente do Aganipe,
of which four volumes were published at Madrid in 1644-1646.
He also wrote, from information supplied by P. A. Seramedo,
Imptrio do China i tultura evangelica en H (Madrid, 1642); and
translated and completed the NobUiario of the count of
BarceUos,
There are English translations by J. Stevens of the History of
Portugal (London, i6o8), and of Portuguese Asia (London, 1693).
FARIBAULT, a city and the county-scat of Rice county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Cannon river, at the mouth of the
Straight river, about 45 m. S. of St Paul. (Pop. 1800) 6520;
(1000) 7868, of whom 1586 were foreign-born; (1905) 8279$
(1910) 9001. Faribault is served by the Chicago Great Western,
the Chicago, Milwaukee 8t St Paul, and the Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific railways. The city is attractively situated near a lake
region widely known for its summer resorts. Faribault is the
seat of the Minnesota institute for defectives, embracing the
state school for the deaf (1863), the state school for the blind
(1874), and the state school for the feeble-minded (1879); of
three institutions under control of the Protestant Episcopal
Church — the Seabury divinity, school (incorporated i860),
the Sbattuck school (1867; incorporated in 1905), a military
school for boys, and St Mary's hall (1866), a school for girls,
founded by Bishop Whipple; and of the Roman Catholic
(Dominican) Bethlehem Academy for girls. In the city are
the cathedral of our Merciful Saviour (1868-1869), the first
Protestant Episcopal church in the United States built and used
as a cathedral from its opening; and the hospital and nurses'
training school of the Minnesota District of the Evangelical
2a
i78
FARIDKOT—FAltfD UEK-DlN 'ATTAR
Synod. The dty has a public library, and owns and operates
its own water-supply system. There is a good water power,
and among the city's manufactures are flour, beer, shoes,
furniture, rattan-ware, warehouse trucks, canned goods, cane
syrup, waggons and carriages, gasolene engines, wind-mills,
pianos and woollen goods. Faribault, named in honour of Jean
Baptistc Faribault, a French fur-trader and pioneer who made
bis headquarters in the region in the latter part of the 18th
century, was permanently settled about 1848, and was chartered
as a city in 1872. A French millwright, N. La Croix, introduced
here, about i860, a new process of making flour, which revolu-
tionized the industry in the United States, but his mill was soon
destroyed by flood and he removed to Minneapolis, where the
process was Erst successful on a large scale. Faribault was for
many years the home of Bishop Henry Benjamin Whipple
(1822-1001), the pioneer bishop (1850-1901) of the Protestant
Episcopal Church in Minnesota, famous for his missionary work
among the Indians.
FARIDKOT, a native state of India in the Punjab. It ranks
as one of the Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence
In 1800. Its area is 642 sq. m., and its population in tool was
1 34,91 2. It is bounded on the W. and N.E. by the British district
of Fcrozepore, and on the S. by Nabha state. During the Sikh
wars in 1845 tnc cme ^ Ra i a Pahar Singh, exerted himself in the
British cause, and was rewarded with an increase of territory.
In the Mutiny of 1857, too, his son and successor, Waxir Singh,
did good service by guarding the Sutlej ferries, and in attacking
a notorious rebel, whose stronghold he destroyed. The esti-
mated gross revenue is £28,300; there is no tribute. The
territory Is traversed by the Rewari-Ferozepore railway, and also
crossed by the Fazilka line, which starts from Kotkapura, the
old capital. It is irrigated by a branch of the Strhind canal
The town of Faridkot has a railway station, 84 m. from
Lahore.
FARIDPUR, or Fukaeedpore, a town and district of British
India, in the Dacca division of eastern Bengal and Assam.
The town, which has a railway station, stands on an old channel
of the Ganges. Pop. (1001)11,649. There are a Baptist mission
and a government high school. The district comprises an area
of 2 281 sq. m. The general aspect is flat, tame and uninteresting,
although in the northern tract the land is comparatively high,
with a light sandy soil, covered with water during the rainy
season, but dry during the cold and hot weather. From the
town of Faridpur the ground slopes, until in the south, on the
confines of Backcrgunje, it becomes one immense swamp, never
entirely dry. During the height of the inundations the whole
district may be said to be under water. The villages are built
on artificially raised sites, or the high banks of the deltaic streams.
Along many of the larger rivers the line of hamlets is unbroken
for miles together, so that it is difficult to say where one ends
and another begins. The huts, however, except in markets and
bazaars, are seldom dose together, but are scattered amidst small
garden plots, and groves of mango, date and betel-nut trees.
The plains between the villages are almost invariably more or
less depressed towards the centre, where usually a marsh, or
lake, or deep lagoon is found. These marshes, however, are
gradually filling up by the silt deposited from the rivers; in
the north of the district there now only remain two or three
large swamps, and in them the process may be seen going on.
The climate of Faridpur is damp, like that of the other districts
of eastern Bengal; the average annual rainfall is 66 in. and the
average mean temperature 76-9* F.
The principal rivers of Faridpur are the Ganges, the Aria!
Khan and the Haringhata. The Ganges, or Padma as it is
locally called, touches the extreme north-west corner of the
district, flows along its northern boundary as far as Goalanda,
where it receives the waters of the Jamuna or main stream of the
Brahmaputra, and whence the united stream turns southwards
and forms the eastern boundary of the district. The river is
navigable by large cargo boats throughout the year, and has an
average breadth during the rainy season of 1600 yds. Rice is
the great crop of the district. In 1901 the population was
1 MlM^t showing an increase of 6 % in the decade. The north
of the district is crossed by the line of the Eastern Bengal railway
to Goalanda, the port of the Brahmaputra steamers, ud a
branch runs to Faridpur town. But most of the trice ii con-
ducted by river.
FARlD UD-DlN 'ATTAR, or Feud Edodm-Athai (mo-
1229), Persian poet and mystic, was born at Nishapur, 513 lb.
(1 1 19 a j>.), and was put to death 627 A.H. (1229 aj>.)« thus having
reached the age of 1 10 years. The date of his death is, however,
variously given between the years 1193 and 1235, aJLhou|h
the majority of authorities support 1229; it is also probabk
that he was born later than 1119, but before 115a His real same
was Abu T*kb ( OT Abu tfamid) Mahommed ben Ibrahim, and
Farld ud-dln was simply an honourable title equivalent to Pearl
of Religion. He followed for a time his father's profession of
druggist or perfumer, and hence the name 'Attar (one who sold
'Or, otto of roses; hence, simply, dealer in drugs), which be
afterwards employed as his poetical designation. According to
the account of Dawlatshah, his interest in the great mystery
of the higher life of man was awakened in the following way.
One day a wandering fakir gazed sadly into his shop, and,
when ordered to be gone, replied: "It is nothing for me to go;
but I grieve for thee, O druggist, for how wilt thou be able to
think of death, and leave all these goods of thine behind thee? "
The word was in season; and Mahommed ben Ibrahim the
dnlggist soon gave up his shop and began to study the mystic
theosophy of the Sufis under Sheik Rukneddis. So thoroughly
did he enter into the spirit of that religion that he was before
long recognized as one of its principal representatives. He
travelled extensively, visited Mecca, Egypt, Damascus and India,
and on his return was invested with the Sufi mantle by Sheik
Majd-ud-dinof Bagdad. The greater portion of his life was spent
in the town of Shadyakh, but he is not unfroquently named
Nishapuri, after the city of his boyhood and youth. The story
of his death is a strange one. Captured by a soldier of Jenghia
Khan, be was about to be sold for a thousand dirhems, when he
advised his captor to keep him, as doubtless a larger offer would
yet be made; but when the second bidder said he would give
a bag of horse fodder for the old man, he asserted that he was
worth no more, and had better be sold. The soldier, irritated
at the loss of the first offer, immediately slew him. A noble tomb
was erected over his grave, and the spot acquired a reputation
for sanctity. Farld was a voluminous writer, and left no fewer
than 120,000 couplets of poetry, though in his later years be
carried his asceticism so far as to deny himself the pleasures of
poetical composition. His most famous work is the Maniik
uttdir, or language of birds, an allegorical poem containing a
complete survey of the life and doctrine of the Sufis. It is ex-
tremely popular among Mahommedans both of the Stumiie and
Shiite sects, and the manuscript copies are consequently very
numerous. The birds, according to the poet, were tired of a
republican constitution, and longed for a king. As the lapwing,
having guided Solomon through the desert, best knew what
a king should be, he was asked whom they should choose. The
Simorg in the Caucasus, was his reply. But the way to the
Caucasus was long and dangerous, and most of the birds excused
themselves from the enterprise. A few, however, set out;
but by the time they reached the great king's court, their
number was reduced to thirty. The thirty birds (si mor[), wing-
weary and hunger-stricken, at length gained access to their
chosen monarch the Simorg; but only to find that they strangely
lost their identity in his presence — that they are he, and he is
they. In such strange fashion does the poet image forth the
search of the human soul after absorption into the divine.
The teat of the Mantik uttair was published by Garrin de Tassy in
1857, a summary of its contents having already appeared as La
Polite bkilosophtque et religieuse chez Us Persons in 1856; this was
succeeded by a complete translation in 1863. Among Farid ud-din'i
other workjumay be mentioned his Pandntona (Book of Counsel), of
which a translation bv Silvestre de Sacy appeared in 1819; B*tt*d
Namo (Book of the Nightingale); Wasaki Noma (Book of Con-
junctions); Khusru va Cut (The King and the Rose); and Tadk<
kiraltt 7 AwHyd (Memoirs of the Saints) (ed.' R. A. Nicholson is
FARINA— FARINI
*7*
Persian Historical Tests). See Sir Core Ouseley, Biographical Notices
if Persian Poets (1846), p. 256; Von Hammer Purgstatl, tksekkhte
ierstkoutn Roskktlnstt Ptrsiems (Vienna, 18 1 8), p. 140; the Oriental
Collection* ii. (London, 179*). pp. 84, 124. containing traoaiatioRS
of part of the Pamdndma.E. H. Palmer, Oriental Mysticism (1867);
E.G. Browne, Literary History of Persia (1 906).
FABJNA, SALVATORE (1846- ) T Italian novelist, was
born in Sardinia, and after studying law at Turin and Pavia
devoted himself to a literary life at Milan. Farina has often
been compared as a sentimental humorist with Dickens, and his
style of writing has given him a special place in modern Italian
fiction. His masterpiece is // Signer lo (1880), a delightful
portrait of an egoist; Don Ckiscsottino, A more bendalo, Capelli
iutidi t Oro nascosto, II Tesoro di Donnina, Amort a cent' occki,
H'wfclio, II numero 13, are some of his other volumes.
PAB1MAT0, PAOLO (1522-1606), Italian painter and archi-
tect, was a native of Verona. He is sometimes named Farinato
dfgli Uberti, as he came from the ancient Florentine stock to
which the Ghibelline leader Farinata degli Uberti, celebrated in
Dante's Commedia, belonged. He flourished at the same time
tbat (he art of Verona obtained its greatest lustre in the works
of Paolo Cagliari (Paul Veronese), succeeded by other members
of the Cagliari family, of whom most or all were outlived by
Firinato. He was instructed by Niccold Giolfino, and probably
by Antonio Badile and Domenico del Riccio (Brusasorci).
Proceeding to Venice, he formed his style partly on Titian and
Ciorgbne, though he was never conspicuous as a colourist, and
in form he learned more from the works of Giulio Romano. His
nude figures show knowledge of the antique; he affected a
bronzed tone in the complexions, harmonizing with the general
parity of his colour, which is more laudable in fresco than in
oil-painting. Vasari praised his thronged compositions and
peril of draughtsmanship. His works are to be found not only
ia Venice and principally in Verona, but also in Mantua, Padua
tod other towns belonging or adjacent to the Venetian territory.
He was a prosperous and light-hearted man, and continually
Progressed in his art, passing from a comparatively dry manner
)Bto a larger and bolder one, with much attraction of drapery
ud of landscape. The " Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes,"
painted in the church of S. Giorgio in Verona, is accounted his
afterpiece; it was executed at the advanced age of seventy-
aw, and is of course replete with figures, comprising those of
tbe painter's own family. A saloon was painted by him in
S. Maria in Organo, in the same city, with the subjects of
" Michael expelling Lucifer " and the "Massacre of the Inno-
tttts"; in Piacenxa is a " St Sixtus "; in Berlin a " Presenta-
tion in the Temple "; and in the communal gallery of Verona one
of las prime works, the " Marriage of St Catherine." Farinato
executed some sculptures, and various etchings of sacred and
cytologic subjects; his works of all kinds were much in
"quest, including the wax models which he wrought as studies
for bis painted figures. He is said to have died at the same hour
is his wife. His son Orazio was also a painter of merit.
PARDJELU (1705-1782), whose real name was Carlo
boson, one of the roost extraordinary singers that ever lived,
*» bom on the 24th of January 1705, at Naples. He was the
Kpbewof Cristlano Farinclli, the composer and violinist, whose
fcme he took. Having been prepared for the career of a soprano,
k won acquired, under the instruction of N. A. Porpora, a
*« of marvellous beauty, and became famous throughout
Kathern Italy as il ragotu (the boy). In 1722 he made his first
^pearance at Rome in his master's Eumene, creating the
Futest enthusiasm by surpassing a popular German trumpet-
fkyer. lor whom Porpora had written an obligate* to one of the
^>''s songs, in holding and swelling a note of prodigious length.
Purity and power, and in the variations, roulades and trills which
be introduced into the air. In 1724 he appeared at Vienna, and
« Venice in the following year, returning to Naples shortly
afterwards. He sang at Milan in 1726, and at Bologna in 1727,
v We he first met and acknowledged himself vanquished by
l ksinger Antonio Bernacchi(b. 1700), to whose instruction he
J 3 * much indebted. With ever-increasing success and fame
rarinelli appeared in nearly all the great cities of Italy; and
returned a third time to Vienna in 1731. He now modified his
style, it is said on the advice of Charles VI., from mere bravura
of the Porpora school to one of pathos and simplicity. He
visited London in 1734, arriving in time to lend bis powerful
support to the faction which in opposition to Handel bad set
up a rival opera with Porpora as composer and Senesino as
principal singer. But not even his aid could make the under-
taking successful. His first appearance at the Lincoln's Inn
Fields theatre was in Ar laser se, much of the music of which was
by his brother, Rkcardo Broschi. His success was instantaneous,
and the prince of Wales and the court loaded him with favours
and presents. Having spent three years in England, Farinclli
set out for Spain, staying a few months on the way in France,
where he sang before Louis XV. In Spain, where he had only
meant to stay a few months, he ended by passing nearly twenty-
five years. His voice, employed by the queen to cure Philip V.
of his melancholy madness, acquired for him an influence with
that prince which gave him eventually the power, if not the
name, of prime minister. This power he was wise and modest
enough to use discreetly. For ten years, night after night,, he
had to sing to the king the same six songs, and never anything
else. Under Ferdinand VI. he held a similar position, and was
decorated (1750) with the cross of Calatrava. He utilised his
ascendancy over this king by persuading him to establish
an Italian opera. After the accession of Charles III. Farinclli
retired with the fortune he had amassed to Bologna, and spent
the remainder of his days there in melancholy splendour, dying
on the 15th of July 178a. His voice was of large compass,
possessing seven or eight notes more than those of ordinary
singers, and was. sonorous, equal and clear; he also possessed a
great knowledge of music
FARINGDON. properly Great Farincdon, a market town
in the Abingdon parliamentary division of Berkshire, England.
17 m. W.S.W. of Oxford by road. Pop. (1901) 2900. It lies on
the slope of a low range of hills which borders the valley of the
Thames on tfic south. It is the terminus of a branch of the Great
Western railway from U fling ton. The church of All Saints is a
large cruciform building' with low central tower, lis period is
mainly Transitional Norman and Early English, -and though
considerably altered by restoration it contains some good details,
with many monuments and brasses* Faringdon House, dose to
the church, was built by Henry James Pyc (1745-1&13), poet
laureate from 1790 to 1813, who also caused to be planted the
conspicuous group of fir-trees on the hill east of the town called
Faringdon Clump, or locally (like other similar groups) the
Folly. The trade of Faringdon is agricultural.
PARINI, LUIOI CARLO (1812-1866), Italian statesman and
historian, was born at Russi, near Ravenna, on the a?nd of
October 181 2. After completing a brilliant university course
at Bologna, which he interrupted to take part in the revolution
of 1 83 1 (see Carbonari), he practised as a physician at Rossi
and at Ravenna. He acquired a considerable reputation, but
in 1843 his political opinions brought him under the suspicion
of the police and caused his expulsion from the papal states.
He resided successively in Florence and Paris, and travelled
about Europe as private physician lo Prince Jerome Bonaparte,
but when Pius IX. was elected to the Holy See and began his
reign with apparently Liberal and nationalist tendencies, Farini
returned to Italy and was appointed secretary-general to G.
Rccchi, the minister of the interior (March 1848). But he held
office for little more than a month, since like all the other Italian;
Liberals he disapproved of the pope's change of front in refusing
to allow his troops to fight against Austria, and resigned with the
rest of the ministry on the 29th of April Pius, wishing to
counteract the effect of this policy, sent Farini to Charles Albert,
king of Sardinia, to hand over the command of the papal con-
tingent to him. Elected member of parliament for Faenza, he
was again appointed secretary to the ministry of the interior in
the Mamiani cabinet, and later director-general of the public
health department. He resigned office on the proclamation of
the republic after the flight of the pope to Gaeta in 1849, resumed
it. for a while when Pius returned lo Rome with the protection
i8o
FARM— FARM-BUILDINGS
of French arras, but when a reactionary and priestly policy was
instituted, he went into exile and took up his residence at Turin.
There be became convinced that it was only through the House
of Savoy that Italy could be liberated, and he expounded his
views in Cavour's paper II Risorgimento, in La Frusta and II
Picmonte, of which latter he was at one time editor. He also
wrote his chief historical work, Lo Slaio Romano dot 181$ al 1850,
in four volumes (Turin, 1850). In 1851 he was appointed minister
of public instruction in the D'Azeglio cabinet, an office which he
held till May 1852. As a member of the Sardinian parliament
and as a journalist Farini was one of the staunchest supporters
of Cavour (?.».), and strongly favoured the proposal that Pied-
mont should participate in the Cimean War, if indeed be was
not actually the first to suggest that policy (see G. B. Ercolani's
letter in E. Parri's memoir of Farini). In 1856 and 1857 he pub-
lished two letters to Mr Gladstone on Italian affairs, which created
a sensation, while he continued to propagate his views in the
Italian press. When on the outbreak of the war of 1859
Francis V., duke of Modena, was expelled and a provisional
government set up, Farini was sent as Piedmontese commissioner
to that city; but although recalled after the peace of Villafranca
he was determined on the annexation of central Italy to Pied-
mont and remained behind, becoming a Modenesc citizen and
dictator of the state. He negotiated an alliance with Parma,
Romagna and Tuscany, when other provisional governments
had been established, and entrusted the task of organizing an
army for this central Italian league to General Fanti (9.9.).
Annexation to Piedmont having been voted by ptlbiscile and the
opposition of Napoleon HI. having been overcome, Farini
returned to Turin, when the king conferred on him the order of
the Annunziata and Cavour appointed him minister of the
interior (June i860), and subsequently viceroy of Naples; but
be soon resigned on the score of ill-health. Cavour died in 1861,
and the following year Farini succeeded Rattazzi as premier,
In which office he endeavoured to carry out Cavour's policy.
Over-exertion, however, brought on softening of the brain, which
compelled him to resign office on the 24th of March 1863, and
ultimately resulted in his death on the 1st of August 1866. He
was buried at Turin, but in 1878 his remains were removed to
his native village of Russi.
His son Domenico Farini had a distinguished political career
and was at one time president of the chamber.
Bibliography.— Several letters from Farini to Mr Gladstone and
Lord lohn Russell were reprinted in a Memoir* surles affaires d'ltalte
(1859), and a collection of his political correspondent* was pub-
lished under the title of Letlres sur les affaires dltalie (Paris, i860).
His historical work was translated into English in part by Mr Glad-
stone and in part under his superintendence. See E. rarri. Luiti
Carlo Farini (Rome, 1878); L. Carpi in // Risorgimento Ilaliano.
vol. iv. (Milan, 1888); and G. Finalrs article, " II 27 Aprile 1899,''
in the Nuova Anloiogia for the 16th of May 1903. (L. V.*)
FARM, in the most generally used sense, a portion of land
leased or held for the purpose of agriculture; hence " farming "
h equivalent to the pursuit of agriculture, and " farmer " to
an agriculturist. This meaning is comparatively modem. The
origin of the word has perhaps been complicated by an Anglo-
Saxon fcorm, meaning provisions or food supply, and more
particularly a payment of provisions for the sustenance of the
king, the cyninga feortn. In Domesday this appears as a food
rent: Jirma unius noctis or diet. According lo the New English
Dictionary there is no satisfactory Teutonic origin for the word.
It has, however, been sometimes connected with a word which
appears in the older forms of some Teutonic languages, meaning
"life." The present form "farm" certainly comes, through
the French ftrme, from the medieval Lat Jirma (Jirmus, fixed),
a fixed or certain payment in money or kind. The Anglo-Saxon
fcorm may be not an original Teutonic word but an early adapta-
tion of the Latin. The feorm, originally a tax, seems, as the king
" booked " his land, to have become a rent (sec F. W. Maitland,
Domesday Book and After, 1897, p. 236 ff., and J. H. Round,
Feudal England, 1895, P- 100 ff.). The word Jirma is thus used
of the composition paid by the sheriff in respect of the dues
to be collected from the shire. From the use of the word for the
fixed sum paid as rent for a portion of land leased for cultivation,
" farm " was applied lo the land itself, whether held on lease or
otherwise, and always with the meaning of agricultural land.
The aspect of the fixity of the sum paid leads to a secondary
meaning, that of a certain sum paid by a taxable person, com-
munity, state, &c, in respect of the taxes or dues that will be
imposed, or to such a sum paid as a rent by a contractor for tbe
right of collect ing such taxes. This method of indirect collection
of the revenue by contractors instead of directly by the officials
of the state is that known as " farming the taxes." The system
is best known through the publicani of Rome, who formed
companies or syndicates to farm not only the indirect taxation
of the state, but also other sources of the state revenues, such
as mines, fisheries, &c (sec Publicani).
In monarchical Europe, which grew out of the ruins of the
Roman empire, the revenue was almost universally fanned,
but the system was gradually narrowed down until only indirect
taxes became the subject of farming. France from the 16th to
the 18th centuries is the most interesting modern example.
Owing to the hopeless condition of its revenues, the French
government was continually in a state of anticipating its resources,
and was thus entirely in the hands of financiers. In 16S1 tbe
indirect taxes were farmed collectively to a single company of
forty capitalists (Jerme gf titrate), increased to sixty in 1755, and
reduced to the original number in 1780. These farmers-general
were appointed by the king for six years, and paid an annual fixed
sum every year in advance. The taxes which they collected
were the customs (douanes or traites), the gabelle or salt tax,
local taxes or octrois (entries, &c), and various smaller taxes.
They were under the management of a controller-general, who
had a central office in Paris. The office of farmer-general was
the object of keen competition, notwithstanding that the
successful candidates had to share a considerable part of the
profits of the post with ministers, courtiers, favourites, and
even the sovereign, in the shape of gifts (croupes) and pensions.
The rapacity of the farmers-general was proverbial, and the loss
to the revenue by the system was great, while very considerable
hardships were inflicted on the poorer contributors by the
unscrupulous methods of collection practised by the underlings
of the farmers. In addition, the unpopular nature of the taxes
caused deep discontent, and the detestation in which the farmers-
general were held culminated in the execution of thirty-two of
them during the French Revolution and the sweeping away
of the system.
See also Agriculture, Dairy and Dairy-Farming, Fruit and
Flower Farming, &c
FARM BUILDINGS. The best laying out of a farm, and the
construction of its buildings, are matters which, from the variety
Of needs and circumstances, involve practical considerations
and expert knowledge, too detailed in their nature for more than
a brief reference in this work. It may be said generally that the
best aspect for farm buildings is S. or S.S.E., and with a view to
easy disposal of drainage they should be built on a slight slope.
The supply of water, whether it be provided from wells by engine
or windmill power, by hydraulic rams or other means, is a prime
consideration, and it should if possible be laid on at different
suitable points or at any rate the central source of supply should
be in the most accessible and convenient place as regards stables
and cow-sheds. The buildings should be constructed on or within
easy distance of the public road, in order to save the upkeep
of private roads, and should be as near as possible to the centre
of the farm. On mixed farms of ordinary size (200 to 50c
acres) the building may be advantageously planned in on«
rectangular block, the stock-yards being placed in the centn
separated by the cow-sheds, and surrounded by the cart -sheds
stables, Stores and barn, cattle-boxes, piggeries and mino
buildings. On farms of larger size and on dairy farms specie
needs must be taken into account, while in all cases the Iocs
methods of farming must influence the grouping and arrangemea
of the steading.
For a more detailed treatment of the subject reference may I
made to the following works:— S. Taylor, Modem Homestead,
FARMER—FARMERS' MOVEMENT
181
a TVmlfst on ifa Jtafarisg of Farm Biddings (London. 1905) : A. D.
Oarhe. Jfedem. Farm BmMimg* (London. 1800); P. Robert*, The
Formatted, in the " Rural Science Series " (New York, 1900), and
inkles in the Standard Cyclopaedia of Agriculture, vol J, and in the
Cyclopaedia of American Agriculture, vol. 1.
FARMER, RICHARD (t73S-*797)r Shakespearian com-
mentator, the ion of a rich maltster, was bom at Leicester on
the 28th of August 1735. He was educated at the free grammar
school of his native town, and at Emmanuel College* Cambridge.
He graduated in 1757 a senior optima; three years later he
proceeded MA. and became classical tutor, and in 1775 master
of bis college, in succession to William Richardson, the bio-
grapher of the English bishops. In the latter year also he was
appointed vice-chancellor, and three years afterwards chief
librarian of the university. In 1780 he was appointed to a
prcbendal stall in Uchneld, and two years later to one at Canter-
bury; but the second office he exchanged in 1788 for that of a
canon residentiary of St Paul's. Cambridge, where he usually
resided, was indebted to him for improvements in lighting,
paving; and watching; but perhaps London and the nation have
less reason to be grateful for his sealous advocacy of the custom
of erecting monuments to departed worthies in St Paul's. In
1765 he issued a prospectus for a history of the town of Leicester;
but this work, based on materials collected by Thomas Suveley,
he never even began; it was carried out by the learned printer
John Nichols. In 1766 he published his famous Essay on the
Lecmimg §J Shakespeare, in which he proved that tbe poet's
acquaintance with ancient and modern Continental literature
was exclusively derived from translations, of which he copied
even the blunders. " Shakespeare," he said, " wanted not the
stilts of language to raise him above all other men." " He came
cat of nature's hand, like Pallas out of Jove's head, at full
growth and mature. " " One might," he said — by way of ridicul-
ing the Shakespearian criticism of the day—" with equal wisdom,
study the Talmud for an exposition of Tristram Shandy." Tbe
essay fully justifies the author's description of himself in the
preface to the second edition: " I may consider myself as the
pioneer of the commentators; I have removed a deal of learned
rubbish, and pointed out to them Shakespeare's track in the
very pleasant paths of nature." Fanner died at Cambridge
on the 8th of September 1797. He was, it appears, twice offered
a bishopric by Pitt, but declined the preferment. Fanner was
immensely popular in his own college, and loved, it was said,
above alt other things, old port, old clothes and old books.
FARMERS' MOVEMENT, in American political history, the
general name for a movement between 1867 and 1806 remarkable
for a radical socio-economic propaganda that came from what
was considered the most conservative class of American society,
la this movement there were three periods, popularly known as
Granger, Alliance and Populist.
The Grange, or Order of the Patrons of Husbandry (the latter
the official name of the national organization, while the former
vas the name of local chapters, including a supervisory National
Grange at Washington), was a secret order founded in 1867 to
advance the social needs and combat the economic backwardness
of farm life. It grew remarkably in 1873-1874, and in the latter
year attained a membership of perhaps 800,000. In the causes
of its growth— much broader than those that issued in the
Uncial crisis of 1873— a high tariff, railway freight-rates and
other grievances were mingled witR agricultural troubles like
tbe fall of wheat prices and the increase of mortgages. The
condition of tbe farmer seemed desperate. The original objects
of the Grange were primarily educational, but these were soon
overborne by an anti-middleman, cooperative movement.
Cringe agents bought everything from farm machinery to
vomen's dresses; hundreds of grain elevators and cotton and
tobacco warehouses were bought, and even steamboat Uses;
mutual insurance companies were formed and joint-stock stores.
Son was co-operation limited to distributive processes; crop-
leports were circulated, co-operative dairies multiplied, flour-
auils were operated, and patents were purchased, that the Grange
ought manufacture farm machinery ._ The outcome in some
states was rum, and the name Grange became a reproach.
Nevertheless these efforts in co-operation were exceedingly
important both for the results obtained and for their wider
significance. Nor could politics be excluded, though officially
tatooed; for economics must be considered by social idealists,
and economics everywhere ran into politics. Thus it was with
the railway question. . Railways had been extended into frontier
states; there were heavy crops in sparsely settled regions where
freight-rates were high,, so that— given the existing distributive
system — there were " over production " and waste; there was
notorious stock manipulation and discrimination in rates; and
the farmers regarded u absentee ownership " of railways by
New York capitalists much as absentee ownership of land has
been regarded in Ireland. The Grange officially disclaimed
enmity to railways; but though the organization did not attack
them, the Grangers— through political "farmers' clubs" and
the like — did. About 1867 began the efforts to establish
regulation of the railways, as common-carriers, by the states.
Such laws were known as " Granger laws," and their general
principles, soon endorsed (1876) by the Supreme Court of the
United States, have become an important chapter in the laws
of the land. In a declaration of principles in 1874 Grangers
were declared to be " not enemies of railroads," and their cause
to stand for " no communism, no agrarianism ." To conserva-
tives, however, co-operation seemed communism, and " Grange
laws" agrarianism; and thus in 1873- 1874 tbe growth of the
movement aroused extraordinary interest and much nnrasinesn
In 1874 the order was reorganized, membership being limited to
persons directly interested in the farmers' cause (there had been
a millions hv manufacturers' Grange on Broadway), and after
this there were constant quarrels in the order; moreover, in
1875 the National Grange largely lost control of the state Granges,
which discredited the organization by their disastrous co-opera-
tion ventures. Thus by 1876 it had already ceased to be of
national political importance. About 1880 a renascence began,
particularly in the Middle States and New England; this
revival was marked by a recurrence to the original social and
educational objects. The national Grange and state Granges
(in all, or nearly all, of the states) were still active in zona,
especially in the old cultural movement and in such economic
movements— notably the improvement of highways— as most
directly concern the farmers. The initiative and referendum,
and other proposals of reform politics in the direction of a
democratic advance, also enter in a measure into their
propaganda.
The Alliance carried the movement farther into economics.
The"' National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union," formed
in 1880, embraced several originally independent organisations
formed from 1873 onwards; it was largely confined to the South
and was secret. The " National Farmers' Alliance," formed in
x88o, went back similarly to 1877, was much smaller. Northern
and non-secret. Tbe " Colored Farmers* National Alliance and
Co-operative Union" (formed 1888, merged in the above
" Southern " Alliance in 1800) was the second greatest organiza-
tion. With these three were associated many others, state and
national, including an annual, non-partisan, deliberative and
advisory Farmers' National Congress. The Alliance movement
reached its greatest power about 1890, in which year twelve
national fanners' organizations were represented in conventions
in St Louis, and the six leading ones alone probably had a
membership of 5,000,000.*
As with the Grange, so in the ends and declarations of the
whole later movement, concrete remedial legislation for agri-
cultural or economic ills was mingled with principles of vague
radical tendency and with lofty idealism. 1 Among the principles
1 Membership usually Included males or females above 16 years
of age.
* Thus, the " Southern " Alliance in T890 (the chief platforms were
the one at Ocala, Florida, and that of 1889 at St Louis, in con-
junction with tbe Knights of Labor) declared its principles to be:
14 (1) To labour for the education of the agricultural classes in the
science of economical government in a strictly non-partisan way,
and to bring about a more perfect union of such classes, (a) To
1*2
FARNABY— FARNBOROUGH
Advocated about 1890, practically all the great organizations
demanded the abolition of national banks, the free coinage of
silver, a " sufficient " issue of government paper money, tariff
revision, and a secret ballot (the last was soon realized); only
less commonly demanded were an income tax, taxation of
evidence of debt, and government loans on lands. All of these
were principles of the two great Alliances (the Northern and the
Southern), as were also pure food legislation, abolition of land-
holding by aliens, reclamation of unused or unearned land grants
(to railways, €4.), and either rigid federal regulation of railways
and other means of communication or government ownership
thereof. The " Southern " Alliance put in theiorefront a " sub-
treasury " scheme according to which cheap loans should be
made by government from local sub-treasuries on non-perishable
farm products (such as grain and cotton) stored in government
warehouses; while the " Northern " Alliance demanded restric-
tion of the liquor traffic and (for a short time) woman suffrage.
Still other issues were a modification of the patent laws (e.g. to
prevent the purchase of patents to stifle competition), postal
currency exchange, the eight-hour day, inequitable taxation,
the single-tax on land, " trusts," educational qualification for
suffrage, direct popular election of federal judges, of senators,
and of the president, special-interest lobbying, &c.
In 1880-1800 the political (non-partisan) movement developed
astonishing strength; it captured the Republican stronghold of
Kansas, brought the Democratic Party to vassalage in South
Carolina, revolutionized legislatures even in conservative states
like Massachusetts, and seemed likely completely to dominate
the South and West. All its work in the South was accomplished
within the old-party organizations, but in 1890 the demand
became strong for an independent third party, for which various
consolidations since 1887 had prepared the way, and by 1892
a large part of the strength of the farmers' organizations, with
that of various industrial and radical orders, was united in the
People's Party (perhaps more generally known as the Populist
Party), which had its beginnings in Kansas in 1890, and received
national organisation in 1892. This party emphasized free
silver, the income tax, eight-hour day, reclamation of land
grants, government ownership of railways, telephones and
telegraphs, popular election of federal senators, and the initiative
and referendum. In the presidential election of 1893 it cast
1,041,021 votes (in a total of 12,036,089), and elected 22 presi-
dential electors, the first chosen by any third party since 1856.
In 1896 the People's Party " fused " with the Democratic Party
(?.».) in the presidential campaign, and again in 1000; during
this period, indeed, the greatest part of the People's Party was
reabsorbed into the two great parties from which its membership
had originally been drawn,— in some northern states apparently
largely into the Republican ranks, but mainly into the Democratic
Party, to which it gave a powerful radical impulse.
The Fanners* movement was much misunderstood, abused
and ridiculed. It accomplished a vast amount of good. The
movement— and especially the Grange, for on most important
points the later movements only followed where it had led—
contributed the initial impulse and prepared the way for the
establishment of travelling and local rural libraries, reading
courses, lyceums, farmers' institutes (a steadily increasing in-
fluence) and rural free mail delivery (inaugurated experimentally
in 1896 and adopted as part of the permanent postal system of
the country in 1902); for agricultural exhibits and an improved
agricultural press; for encouragement to and increased profit
from the work of agricultural colleges, the establishment (1885)
and great services of the United States Department of Agri-
demand equal rights to all, and special privileges to none. (3) To
endorse the motto: ' In things essential, unity; in all things,
charity.' (4) To develop a better state, mentally, morally, socially
and financially. ... (6) To suppress personal, local, sectional and
national prejudices." For the Southern farmer a chief concrete evil
... (p) To suppress personal, local, sectional and
. Jes. For the Southern fanner a chief concrete evil
was the pre-crop mortgages by which cotton fanners remained in
debt to country merchants; in the North the farmer attacked a
wide range Of "capitalistic " legislation that hurt him, he believed,
for the benefit of other classes— notably legislation sought by
agricultural discontent, Political Science Quarterly. W. (1889), p. 433,
93. and xiv. (rso?), p. 444. by C. F. Erocr>ck;
in Journal of Political Economy (1893) L p. 193 ;
culture,— in short, for an extraordinary lessening of rural isolation
and betterment of toe farmers' opportunities; for the irrigation
of the semi-arid West, adopted as a national policy in 1902, the
pure-food laws of 1906, the interstate-commerce law of 1887, the
railway-rate laws of 1903 and 1006, even the great Bureau of
Commerce-and-Labor law of 1903, and the Anti-trust laws of
190J and later. The Alliance and Populist movements were
bottomed on the idea of " ethical gains through legislation."
In its local manifestations the whole movement was often
marked by eccentric ideas, narrow prejudices and weaknesses
in economic reasoning It is not to be forgotten that owing
to the movement of the frontier the United States has always
been " at once a developed country and a primitive one. The
same political questions have been put to a society advanced
in some regions and undeveloped in others. . . On specific
political questions each economic area has reflected its peculiar
interests" (Prof. F. J. Turner). That this idea must not,
however, be over-emphasized, is admirably enforced by observing
the great mass of farmer radicalism that has, since about 1806,
become an accepted Democratic and Republican principle over
the whole country. The Farmers' movement was the beginning
of widespread, effective protest against " the menace of privilege"
in the United States.
American periodicals, especially in 1890-1892, are particularly
informing on the growth of the movement; see F. It. Drew in
Political Science Quarterly (1891), vi. p. 282; C. W. Pierson in
Popular Science Monthly (1888). xxril pp. 199, 368; C. S. Walker
and F. J. Foster in Annals of American Academy (1894), tv. p. 790;
Senator W. A. Peffer in Cosmopolitan (1890), x. p. 694; and oa
agricultural discontent, Political Sc ' " ' ' ' ' *
by W. F. Mappin; v. (1890), p. 65, 1
6ot, xii. (1897), p. 93, and xiv. (1
Prof. E. W. Beims in Journal ofPotutcai Economy (1893). L p. 193;
A. H. Peters in Quarterly Journal of Economics (1890), iv. p. 18;
C W. Davis in Forum (1890), ix. pp. 231, 291, 348.
FARNABY (or Farnabie), THOMAS (c 1575-1647), English
g ramm a ri a n, was the son of a London carpenter; his grandfather,
it is said, had been mayor of Truro, his great-grandfather an
Italian musician. Between 1590 and 1595 he appears succes-
sively as a student of Merton College, Oxford, a pupil in a Jesuit
college in Spain, and a follower of Drake and Hawkins. After
some military service in the Low Countries " he made shift,"
says Wood, " to be set on shore in the western part of England;
where, after some wandering to and fro under the name of The
Bainrafe, the anagram of his sirname, he settled at Martock,
in Somersetshire, and taught the grammar school there for some
time with success. After he had gotten some feathers at Martock,
he took his flight to London," and opened a school in Goldsmiths*
Rents, Cripplegate. From this school, which had as many as
300 pupils, there issued, says Wood, " more churchmen and
statesmen than from any school taught by one man in England.**
In the course of his London career " he was made master of arts
of Cambridge, and soon after incorporated at Oxon." Such was
his success that he was enabled to buy an estate at Otford near
Sevenoaks, Kent, to which he retired from London in 1636, still,
however, carrying on his profession of schoolmaster. In course
of time he added to bis Otford estate and bought another near
Horsham in Sussex. In politics he was a royalist ; and, suspected '
of participation in the rising near Tunbridge, 1643, he van
imprisoned in Ely House, Holborn. He died at Sevenoaks on
the rath of June 1647.
The details of his life were derived by Anthony a Wood from
Francis, Farnaby's son by a second marriage (see Wood** Athena*
Oxonienses, cd. Bliss. HI. 213). His works chiefly consisted of anno,
tated editions of Latin authors— Juvenal, Fershis, Seneca, Martial.
Lucan, Virgil, Ovid and Terence, which enjoyed extraordinary
popularity. His Systema grammaticum was published in l^-rfci
in 164 1. On the 6th of April 1632, Farnaby was presented with'*
royal patent granting him, for the space c/ twenty-one years, thi
bole nght of printing and publishing certain of his 1 — "-
FARMBOROUGH, THOMAS BUSKIN* HAT. Bason (18 ly-
1886), English Constitutional historian, was bom in London
on the 8th of February 1815 and educated at Bedford gramma*.
school. In 183 1 he was nominated by Manners Sutton, speaka
of the House of Commons, to the post of assistant librarian 2
that his long connexion with parliament began in his yoaitS
FARNBOKOUCH— FAKNESE
183
Be studied fee tie bar, end! waacaifed at the Middle Temple in
1838. In 1844 he published the first edition of bis I>*«Jm* on
Jfar Low, iVnttrge, Prooooim§s and Usage of Parliament. This
work, wiiidL has pasted through many editions, is oca only ab
■valuable mine of infonnation for the historicaLstodent, but H is
known as the text-book of the law by which parlismrnt governs
its proceedings. &» **4w Eeskine Kay- was appointed examiner
of petitions for private bills; and the following year taxing-
master of the House of Commons. He published his Remarks
to Facilitate PnbUc Business in Pa/Hamad in 1840; a work
On tie Consaiidanon of Election Laws in 1856; and his Saks,
Orders and Parwu of the House of Commons was printed by
command of the House in 1854. In 1856 he was appointed derk
assistant at the table of the Home of Commons. He received
the cofnpanionamp- of the Bath in i860 for his parliamentary
services, and became a knight commander in 1866. His im-
portant work, The Constitutional History of Entfamd jkua the
Ac cessi o n of George III. (1760-1860), was published in 1861-
1863, and it received frequent additions in snbseqnent editions.
In 187s Sir Erskihe May was appointed derk of the House of
Common*. His Democracy in Eur ops: a History appeared in
1877, but it failed to take the same rank in critical esteem as his
Cons tituti ona l History. He retired from the post of derk to the
House of Commons in April 1886, having- for fifteen yean
discharged the onerous duties of the office with as much know-
ledge and energy as unfailing tact and courtesy. Shortly after
his retirement from office he was raised to the peerage under the
title of Baron Farnborongh of Farnborough, in the county of
Southampton, but he only survived to enjoy the dignity for a
lew days. lie mod m London on the 17th of May x886, and as he
left no issue the title became extinct.
PARMBOROUGH, an urban district in the Basingstoke
parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 33 m. S. W. by W.
horn London, on the London & South Western and the South
Eastern & Chatham railways. Pop. (soox) 11,500 (including
5070 military) . The church of St Peter ranges from Early English
to Perpendicular in style. St Michael's Catholic memorial
chord), erected in 1887 by the ex-empress Eugenie, contains the
remains of Napoleon II L and the prince imperial. An adjoining
abbey in occupied by Benedictine fathers of the French congrega-
tion; the convent is a ladies' boarding-school. Alderahot North
Camp is within the parish.
FARXB ISLANDS (also Feaixe, Fern, or The Stakes], a
groop of rocky islands and reefs off the coast of Northumberland,
England, included in that county. In 1 001 they had only eleven
inhabitants. They extend in a line of some 6 m. in a north-
easterly direction from the coast, on which the nearest villages
sec Bamboroegh and North Sunderland. The Fairway, t\ m.
across, separates the largest island, Fame, or House, from the
m»»itianH Fame is x6 acres in area, and has precipitous diffs
ep to 80 f r. in height on the east,' but the shore is otherwise low.
The other principal islets are Staple, Brownsman, North and
South Wamses, Longstone and Big Harcar. On Fame is a small
ancient chapel, with a square tower near it built for purposes of 1
defence in the 15th century. The chapel is believed to occupy
the site of St Cuthbert's hermitage, whither he retired from the
priory on the neighbouring Holy Island or Lindisfaroe. He
was with difficulty persuaded to leave it on his elevation to the
bahoprk of lindisfaroe, and' returned to it to die (687). Long-
stone rock, with its lighthouse, is famous as the scene of the
bravery of Grace Darling in rescuing some of the survivors of
the wreck of the " Forfarshire " (183S). The rocks abound in
sea-birds, inducting eider duck.
FAJUTESE, the name of one of the most illustrious and powerful
Italian families, which besides including eminent prelates,
statesmen and warriors among its members, ruled the duchy
of Parma for two centuries. Hie early history of the family is
involved in obscurity, but they are first heard of as lords of
Faxnetoor Famese, a castle near the lake of Bolsena, and they
played an important part' as consuls and signori of Orvieto.
Tbey seem to have always been Guelphs, and in the dvil
broils of Orvieto they sided with the Monaldescbi faction against
the Ghfbehme Fflippeachi. One PSetto Famese commanded
the papal armies under Paschal IL (1009-1118); another
Pietro led the Florentines to victory against the Pisans in 1363*
Raaucrie Famese served Eugene IV. to well that the pope
endowed him with large fiefs, and is reported to have said, " The
Church is ours because Famese has given it back to us. 1 '
The family derived farther advantages at the time of Pope
Alexander VI., who was the lover of the beautiful Giulia Famese,
known as Giulia Bdla, and created her brother Alessandre*
a cardinal (1403). The latter was dected pope as Paul HI. in
1544* and it is from that moment that the great importance of
the family dates. An unblushing nepotist, he alienated immense
fiefs belonging to the Holy See in favour of his natural children.
Of these the most famous was Pierluigi Famese (1503-1547),
who served in the papal army in various compaigns, but also
took part in the sack of Rome in 1527. On his father's elevation
to the papacy he was made. captain-general of the Church, and
received the duchy of Castro in the Maremma, besides Frascati,
Nepi, Montalto and other fiefs. A shameless rake and a man
of uncontrollable temper, his massacre of the people of Perugia/
after a rebellion in 1540 and the unspeakable outrage he com-
mitted an the bishop of Fsno are typical of his character. In>
1545 his father conferred on him the duchy of Parma and
Piacenza, whkh likewise belonged to the Holy See, and his rule
proved crad and tyrannical. He deprived the nobles of their
privileges, and forced them to dwell in the towns, but to some
extent he improved the conditions of the lower dasses. Pierluigi
bang an uncompromising opponent of the emperor Charles V ,
Don Ferrante Gonzaga, the imperial governor of Milan, was
ever oa the watch for a pretext to deprive him of Piacenza,
which the emperor greatly coveted. When the duke proceeded
to build a castle in that town in order to overawe its inhabitants,
the nobles were furiously indignant, and a plot to murder him
was organized by the marquis Anguissola and others with the
support both of Gonzaga and of Andrea Doria (9.*.), Charles's
admiral, who wished to be revenged 00 Pierluigi for the part he
had played in the Fiesco conspiracy (see Fiasco). The deed
was done while the duke was superintending the building of the
above-mentioned dtadel, and his corpse was flung into the street
(December roth, 1547) . Piacensa was thereupon occupied by the
imperialists.
Pierluigi had several children, for all of whom Paul made
generous provision. One of them, Akssandro (1520-1580), was
created cardinal at theage of fourteen; he was a man of learning
and artistk tastes, and lived with great splendour surrounded
by scholars and artists, among whom were Annibal Caro, Paolo
Giovio, Mons. Delia Casa, Bembo, Vasari, &c. It was he who
completed the magnificent Famese pakce in Rome. He dis-
played diplomatic ability on various missions to foreign courts,
but failed to get elected to the papacy.
Otaaio, Picrluigi'e third son, was made duke of Castro when
his father became duke of Parma, and married Diane, a natural
daughter of Henry II. of France. Ottavio, the second son ( 1 52 x-
1586), married Margaret, the natural daughter of Charles V. and
widow of Alessandro de' Medici, at the age of fifteen, she being-
ay ear older; at first she disliked her youthful bridegroom, but
when he returned wounded from the expedition to Algiers in
1541 her aversion was turned to affection (see Margaret or
Austria). Ottavio had been made lord of Camerino in 1540,
but he gave up that fief when his father became duke of Parma.
When, on the murder of the latter in 1547, Piacenza was occupied
by the imperialists, Paul determined to make an effort to regain
the dty; he set aside Ottavk/s daims to the succession of
Parma, where he appointed a papal legate, giving him back
Camerino in exchange, and then claimed Piacenza of the emperor,
not for the Famed, but for the Church. But Ottavio would not
be put off; he attempted to seize Parma by force, and having
failed, entered into negotiations with Gonzaga. This unnatural
rebellion on the part of one grandson, combined with the fact
that it was supported by the other grandson, Cardinal Alessandro*
hastened the pope's death, which occurred on the 10th of
November 1 549. During the interregnum that followed Ottavio
iH
FARNESE, ALEXANDER
Again tried to induce the governor of Parma to give up the cky
to him, but met with no better success; however, on the election
of Giovan Maria Ciocchi (Julius III.) the duchy was conferred
on him (1551). This did not end his quarrel with the emperor,
for Gonzaga refused to give up Piacenza and even threatened
to occupy Parma, so that Ottavio was driven into the arms of
France. Julhis> who was anxious to be on good terms with
Charles on account of the council of Trent which was then sitting,
ordered Famese to hand Parma over to the papal authorities
once more, and on his refusal hurled censures and admonitions
at his head, and deprived him of his Roman fiefs, while Charles
did the same with regard to-those in Lbmbaxdy. A French army
came to protect Parma, war broke out, and Gonzaga at once laid
siege to the city. But the duke came to an arrangement with his
father-in-law, by which he regained Piacenza and his other fiefs
The rest of his life was spent quietly at home, where the modera-
tion and wisdom of his rule won for him the affection of his people.
At his death in 1586 he was succeeded by his son Alessandro-
Farncse (1545-1592), the famous general of Philip II. of Spain,
who spent the whole of his reign in the Flemish wars.
The first years of the reign of his son and successor Ranuccio I.
(1560*1022), who had shown much spirit in a controversy with
Pope Sixtu* V., were uneventful, but in 161 1 a conspiracy was
tanned against him by a group of discontented nobles supported
by the dukes of Mbdena and Mantua. The plot was discovered
and the conspirators were barbarously punished, many being
tortured and put to death, and their estates confiscated.
Rannccio was a reserved and gloomy bigot; he instituted savage
persecutions against supposed witches and heretics, and lived
in perpetual terror of plots. His eldest son Akssandro being
deaf and dumb, the succession devolved on his second son
Odoardo (1613-1646), who fought on the French side in the war
against Spain. His failure to pay the interest of the money
borrowed in Rome, and the desire of Urban VIII. to obtain
Castro for his relatives the Barberini (q.v.), resulted in a war
be t ween that pope and Odoardo. His son and successor Ra-
nuccio IL (1650-1604) also had a war with the Holy See about
Castro, which was eventually raced to the ground. His son
Francesco Maria (1678-1727) suffered from the wars between
Spain and Austria, the tatter's troops devastating his territory;
but although this obliged him to levy some burdensome taxes,
he was a good ruler and practised economy in his administration.
Having no children, the succession devolved at his death on
his brother Antonio (1670-1731), who was also childless. The
powers had agreed that at the death of the latter the duchy
should pass to Don' Carlos of Bourbon, son of King Philip V.
of Spain by Elisabetta Farncse (169 2- 17 66), granddaughter of
Ranucdo II. Antonio died in 1731, and with him the line of
Famese came to an end.
The Palazzo Farncse in Rome, one of the finest specimens of
Roman Renaissance architecture, was begun under Paul III.,
while he was cardinal, by Antonio da San Gallo, and completed
by his nephew Cardinal Alessandro under the direction of
Michelangelo (1 526). It was inherited by Don Carlos, afterwards
king of Naples and Spain, and most of the pictures were removed
to Naples. It now contains the French embassy to the Italian
court, as well as the French school of Rome.
Bibliography.— F. Odoriei rives a detailed history of the family
in P. Litta's Famiglie cdebri iwiame, vol. x. (Milan, 1868), to which
an elaborate bibliography vf appended, including manuscript
sources; a more recent bibliography is S. Lottici and G. Sitti,
Bibtiegrafio generate per la slorta farmense (Parma, 1904); much
information will be found in A. von Reumont's Geukichtt <Ur Stadt
Ram, vol- iit. (Berlin, 1868), and in F. Grcgorovius's Gtsckichit der
Stadl Rm (Stuttgart. 1872). <t. V.*)
FARNESB, ALEXANDER (1545-1502), duke of Parma,
general, statesman and diplomatist, governor-general of the
Netherlands under Philip II. of Spain, was born at Rome on the
17th of August 1 545, and died at the abbey of St Waast, near
Arras, on the 3rd of December x 543. He was the son of Ottavio
Famese, duke of Parma, and Margaret of Austria, natural
daughter of Charles V. He accompanied his mother to Brussels
when she was appointed governor of the Netherlands, and in
156$ his marriage with the princess Maria of Portugal was eele-
bratedin^Brussels with great splendour. Alexander Famese had
beta brought up in Spain with his cousin, the UWated Don
Carlos, and his uncle Don John of Austria, both of whom sere
about the same age as himself, and after his marriage be took
up his residence at once at the court of Madrid. He fought with
much personal distinction under the command of Don Jobs a
1571 at the battle of Lepanto. It was seven yean, howercr,
before he had again an opportunity for the display of bis peal
military talents. In the meantime the provinces Of the Nether*
lands had revolted against the arbitrary and op pwssir e Spanish
rule, and Don John of Austria, who had been sent as governM-
general to restore order, had found himself helpless in face of
the superior talent and personal influence of the prince of Onuue,
who had succeeded in uniting all the provinces in common
resistance to the civil and religious tyranny of Phflip. la the
autumn of 1577 Famese was sent to join Don John at the head
of reinforcements, and it was mainly his prompt derision at s
critical moment that won the battle of Gemblours (1578).
Shortly afterwards Don John, whose health had broken down
through disappointment and ill-health, died, and Famese vas
appointed to take his place.
It is scarcely possible to exaggerate the difficulties with which
he found himself confronted, but he proved himself more than
equal to the task. In military ability the prince of Parma was
inferior to none of his contemporaries, as a skilful diplomatist
he was the match even of his great antagonist William the Stat,
and, like most of the leading statesmen of his day, wis un-
scrupulous as to the means be employed so long as he achtertd
his ends. Perceiving that there were divisions and jealousies
in the rarks of bis opponents between Catholic and Protestant,
Fleming and Walloon, he set to work by persuasion, address and
bribery, to foment the growing discord, and bring back the
Walloon provinces to the allegiance of the king. He was success-
ful, and by the treaty of Arras, January 1579, he was able to
secure the support of the " Malcontents," as the Catholic nobles
of the south were styled, to the royal cause. The reply to the
treaty of Arras was the Union of Utrecht, concluded a few weeks
later between the seven northern provinces, who abjured the
sovereignty of King Philip and bound themselves to use all their
resources to maintain their independence of Spanish rule.
Famese, as soon as he had obtained a secure basis of operations
in Hainaut and Artois; set himself in earnest to the task of re-
conquering Brabant and Flanders by force of arms. Town
after town fell into his power. Tournai, Maastricht, Breda,
Bruges and Ghent opened tLeir gates, and finally he laid siege
to the great seaport of Antwerp. The town was open to the
sea, was strongly fortified, and was defended with resolute
determination and courage by the citizens. They were led by
the famous Philip de Marnix, lord of St Aldegoode, and had the
assistance of an ingenious Italian engineer, by name GianibcUi.
The siege began in 1584 and called forth all the resources 0/
Farnese 's military genius. He cut off. all access to Antwerp
from the sea by constructing a bridge of boats across the Scheldt
from Calloo to Oordam, in spite of the desperate efforts of the
besieged to prevent its completion. At last, on the 15th of
August 1585, Antwerp was compelled by famine to capitulate,
Favourable conditions were granted, but all Protestants wen
required to leave the town within two years. With the fall oi
Antwerp, for Malines and Brussels were already in the hand)
of Farnese, the whole of the southern Netherlands was broughi
once more to recognize the authority of Philip. But HolLurt
and Zeeland, whose geographical position made them unassaUabli
except by water, were by the courage and skill of their hard;
seafaring population, with the help of English auxiliaries sent b;
Queen Elizabeth, able to defy his further advance.
In 1586 Alexander Farnese became duke oi Parma by th
death of his father. He applied for leave to visit his patent
territory, but Philip would not permit him. He could not replac
him in the Netherlands; but while retaining him in bis commarl
at the head of a formidable army, the king would not give fa
sanction to his great general's desire to use it for the reconque
FARNESE, ELIZABETH-.FARNHAM
I8s
rf the Northern Provinces. Never was theiea better ope*rtunity
than the end of 1586 for an invading army to march through
the country almost without opposition, The mfegovertMnent
and lack of high statesmanship of the eaii of Leicester had
caused faction to be rampant in the United Provinces; and on
fab return to England he left the country without organized
forces or experienced general* to oppose an advance of a veteran
army under the greatest commander of bis time. But Philip's
whole thoughts and energies were already directed to the prepara-
tion of an Invincible Armada for the conquest of England,
and Parma was ordered to collect an enormous flotilla of trans-
ports and to keep his army concentrated and trained for the
projected Invasion of the island realm of Queen Elisabeth.
Thus the critical period passed by unused, and when the tempests
had finally dispersed the defeated remnants of the Great Armada
the Dutch had found a general, in the youthful Maurice of
Nassau, worthy to be the rivalin military genius even of Alexander
of Parma. Moreover, the accession to the throne of France of
Henry of .Navarre had altogether altered the situation oC
affairs, and relieved the pressure upon the Dutch by creating a
drversioa, and placing Parma and his army between hostile
forces. The ruinous expenditure upon the Great Armada had
also depleted the Spanish treasury and Philip found himself
virtually bankrupt. In 1500 the condition of the Spanish
troops had become intolerable. Farnese could get no regular
wppjk** of money from the king for the payment of the soldiery,
and he had to pledge his own jewels to meet the demand, A
mutiny broke out, but was suppressed. In the midst of these
ift'fin*'**** Parma received orders to abandon the task on which
he had spent himself for so many years, and to raise the siege
ef Paris, which was blockaded by Henry IV. He left the Nether*
lands on the 3rd of August 1500 at the head of 1&000 troops.
By briHrant generalship he outwitted Henry and succeeded
in relieving Paris; but owing to lack of money and supplies he
was compelled immediately to retreat to the Netherlands,
sbandosiing on the march many stragglers and wounded, who
were killed by the peasantry, and leaving aU the positions he had
taken to be recaptured by Henry.
Again in 1 501, in the very midst of a campaign against Maurice
ef Nassau, sorely against his will, the duke of Parma was obliged
to give up the engrossing struggle and march to relieve Rouen.
He was again successful in his object, but was wounded in the
arm before Caudebec, and was finally compelled to withdraw
his army with considerable losses through the privations the
troops had to undergo. He himself was shattered in health by
fo many years of continuous campaigning and exposure, and
by the cares and disappointments which had befallen him.
He died at Arras on the 3rd of December 159a, in the forty-
seventh year of his age. The feeling that his immense services
had not won for him either the gratitude or confidence of his
sovereign hastened his end. He was honoured by a splendid
funeral at Brussels, but his body was interred at his own capital
city of Parma. He left two sons, Raauce, who succeeded him,
and Edward, who was created a cardinal in 1591 by Pope
Gregory XIV, His daughter Margaret married Vincent, duke
of Mantua.
See L. P. Gachard, Correspondence tT Alexandre Famote, Prime* de
Parme, gouvemew funeral dee Pays-Bos, aoec PMippe //, *S7*-
tjw (Brussels, 1830); Fra Pietro, Alexandra Farnese, duca di
Parma (Rome, 1836).
FARJTESE, ELIZABETH (1602-2766), queen of Spain, born
oa the 35th of October 1692, was the only daughter of Odoardo
U., prince of Parma. Her mother educated her in strict seclusion,
but seclusion altogether failed to tame her imperious and am-
bitious temper. At the age ol twenty-one (2714) she was married
by proxy at Parma to Philip V. of Spain. The marriage was
arranged by Cardinal Alberoni (q.v.) t with the concurrence of
the Princess des Ursins, the Camerara Mayer. On arriving at
the borders of Spain, Elizabeth was met by the Princess des
Ursins, but received her sternly, and, perhaps in accordance
frith & plan previously concerted with the king, at once ordered
her to be removed from her presence and from Spain. Over the
weak king Eliabeth quickly obtained complete influence. This
influence was. exerted altogether in support of the policy of
Alberoni, one chief aim of. which was to recover the ancient
Italian possessions of Spain, and which actually resulted in the
seizure of Sardinia and Sicily. So vigorously did she enter into
this policy that, when the Frenchiorcesadvanced to. the Pyrenees,
she placed herself at the head of one division of the Spanish army*
But Elisabeth's ambition was grievously disappointed. The
Triple Alliance thwarted her plans, and MX length in 1720 the
allies made the banishment of Alberoni a condition of peace.
Sicily also bad to be evacuated. And finally, .all her entreaties
failed to prevent the abdication of Philip, who in 1724 gave up
the throne to his heir, and retired to the palace of La Granja.
Seven months later, however, the death of the young king recalled
him to the throne. During his later years, when he was nearly
imbecile, she directed the whole policy of Spain so as to secure
thrones in Italy for her sons, la 1736 she had the satisfaction
of seeing her favourite scheme realized fa the accession of her
son Don Carlos (afterwards Charles III. of Spain) to the throne
of the Two Sicilies and his recognition by the powers in the treaty
of Vienna. Her second son, Philip, became duke of Parma.
Elizabeth survived her husband twenty years, dying in 1766.
See MSmeJres pew serHif a ThisUme d'Bsparne sous le ftgatf de
Philippe V, by the Marquis de St Philippe, translated by Maudave
(Pans, 1756); Memoirs of Elieabeik Farnese (London, 1746); and
E. Armstrong, Elizabeik farnese, ike Termagant ef Spain (1892).
FARNHAM, a market town in the Guildford parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 37I m. S.W. by W. from London
by the London & South Western railway. Pop, of urban
district (1001) 6124, It lies on the left bank of the river Wey,
on the southern slope of a hill rising, about 700 ft. above the
sea-leveL The church of St Andrew is a spacious transitional
Norman and Early English building, with later additions, and
was formerly a chapel of ease to Waverley Abbey, of which a
crypt and fragmentary remains, of Early English date, stand in
the park attached to a modern residence of the same name.
This was the earliest Cistercian house in England, founded in
112S by William Gifford, bishop of Winchester. The Annates
Waverlienses, published by Gale in his Scriptores and afterwards
in the Record series of Chronicles, are believed to have suggested
to Sir Walter Scott the name of his first novel Farnham Castle,
on a hill north of the town, the seat of the bishops of Winchester,
was first built by Henry de Blois, bishop of Winchester, and
brother of King Stephen; but it was razed by Henry III. It
was rebuilt and garrisoned for Charles L by Denham, from
whom it was taken in 1642 by Sir W. Waller; and having been
dismantled, it was restored by George Morley, bishop of Win-
chester (1602-1684). Farnham has a town hall and exchange
in Italian style (1S66), a grammar school of early foundation,
and a school of science and art. It was formerly noted for its
cloth manufacture. Hops of fine quality are grown in the
vicinity. William Cobbett was born in the parish (1766), and is
buried in the churchyard of St Andrew's. The neighbouring
mansion of Moor Park was the residence of Sir William Temple
(d. 1699), and Swift worked here as his secretary. Hester
Johnson, Swift's " Stella," was the daughter of Temple's steward,
whose cottage still stands. The town has grown in favour as
a residential centre from the proximity of Aldersbot Camp
(3 m. N.E.).
Though there is evidence of an early settlement in the neigh-
bourhood, the town of Farnham (Fcrneham) seems to have grown
up round the castle of the bishops of Winchester, who possessed
the manor at the Domesday Survey. Its position at the junction
of tbe Pilgrim** Way and the road from Southampton to London
was important. In 120s Farnham had bailiffs, and in 1207 it
was definitely a mesne borough under the bishops of Winchester.
In 1 247 the bishop granted the first charter, giving, among other
privileges, a fair on Alt Saints' Day. The burgesses surrendered
the proceeds of the borough court and other rights in 1365 In
return for respite of the fee farm rent; these were recovered
in 1405 and rent again paid Bishop Waynflete is said to have
confirmed the original charter in 1452, and in 1566 Bishop Home
186
PARNWORTH-MEARQUHAR
granted a new charter by which the burgesses elected a bailiffs
and it burgesses annually and did service atlheir own courts
every three weeks, the court led being held twice a year. In
resisting an attack made by the bishop in 1660 on their right of
toll, the burgesses could only claim Farnham as a borough by
prescription as their charters had been mislaid, but the charters
were subsequently found, and after some litigation their rights
were established. In the 18th century the corporation, a close
body, declined, its duties being performed by the vestry, and in
1789 the one survivor resigned and handed over the town papers
to the bishop. Farnham sent representatives to parliament in
13 1 1 and 1460, on both occasions being practically the bishop's
pocket borough. In accordance with the grant of 1247 a fair
was held on All Saints' day and also on Holy Thursday; the
former was afterwards held on All Souls' Day. Farnham was
early a market of importance, and in 1*16 a royal grant changed
the market day from Sunday to Thursday in each week. It was
famous in the early 17th century for wheat and oats; hop-
growing began in 1597.
FARNWORTH, an urban district in the Raddiffe-cum-
Farnworth parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on
the Irwell, 3 m. S.E. of Bolton by the Lancashire & Yorkshire
railway. Pop. (1901) 25,925. Cotton mills, iron foundries,
brick and tile works, and collieries employ the large industrial
population.
FARO, the capital of a district bearing the same name, in
southern Portugal; at the terminus of the Lisbon-Faro raifway,
and on the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1000) 11,789. Faro is an
episcopal see, with a Renaissance cathedral of great size, an
ecclesiastical seminary, and a ruined castle surrounded by
Moorish fortifications. Its broad but shallow harbour is pro-
tected on the south by the long island of Caes, and a number of
sandy islets, which, being constantly enlarged by silt from the
small river Fermoso, render the entrance of large vesseb im-
possible. Fishing is an important industry, and fish, with wine,
fruit, cork, baskets and sumach, are the principal articles of
export. Little has been done to develop the mineral resources
of the district, which include tin, lead, antimony and auriferous
quartz. Faro was taken from the Moors by Alphonso III. of
Portugal (1248-1279). It was. sacked by the English in 1596,
and nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 1755.
The administrative district of Faro coincides with the ancient
kingdom and province of Algarve (q.v.); pop. (1900) 255,191;
area, 1937 sq. m.
FARO (from Pharaoh, a picture of the Egyptian king appearing
on a card of the old French pack), a game of cards, played with
a full pack. Originally the pack was held in the dealer's left
hand, but nowadays very elaborate and expensive implements
are used. The dealer places the pack, after shuffling and tutting,
in a dealing-box face upwards, and the cards are taken from the
top of the box in couples through a slit in the side. The exposed
card on top is called soda, and the last card left in the box is
in hoc. The implements include counters of various colours
and values, a dealing-box, a case or frame manipulated by a
" case-keeper," upon which the cards already played are arranged
in sight, a shuffling-board, and score-sheets for the players.
Upon the table is the " lay-out," a complete suit of spades
enamelled on green cloth, upon or near which to place the stakes.
The dealer takes two cards from the box, placing the first one
near it and the second close beside it. Each deal of two cards
is called a turn, and there are twenty-five such, soda and hoc
not counting. The players stake upon any card they please, or
in such manner as to take in several cards, reducing the amount,
but increasing the chances, of winning, as .at roulette. The
dealer, having waved the hand, after which no more bets may
be made, deals the turn, and then proceeds to gather in the
stakes won by him, and to pay those he has lost. The chances
as between dealer and punters, or players, are equal, except
that the banker wins half the money staked on the cards of a
turn should they chance to be alike. Faro is played considerably
in parts of the United States, whither it is said to have been
taken from France, where it had a great vogue during the reign
I of Louis XIV. Owing to the dishonest methods of many
gambling " clubs " the game is in disrepute.
1 FARQUHAR, GEORGE ( 1677*1 707) 1 British dramatist, son of
William Farquhar, a clergyman, was born in Londonderry,
Ireland, in 1677. When he was seventeen he was entered as
a sizar at Trinity College, Dublin, under the patronage of Or
Wiseman, bishop of Dromore. He dad not long continue his
studies, being, according to one account, expelled for a profane
joke, Thomas Wilkes, however, states that the abrupt termina-
tion of his studies was due to the death of his patron. He became
an actor on the Dublin stage, but in a fencing scene in Dryden's
India* Emperor he forgot to exchange his sword for a foil, with
results which narrowly escaped being fatal to a fellow-actor.
After this accident he never appeared on the boards. He had
met Robert WUks, the famous comedian, in Dublin. Though
he did not, as generally stated, go to London with Wtlks, it was
at his suggestion that he wrote his first play, Love and a Bottle,
which was performed at Drury Lane, perhaps through Wilks's
interest, in 1698. He received from the earl of Orrery a lieuten-
ancy in his regiment, then in Ireland, bat in two letters of his
dated from Holland in 1700 he says nothing of military service.
His second comedy, The Constant Couple: or a Trip to Ike
Jjtbitee (1609), ridiculing the preparations for the pilgrimage
to Rome in the Jubilee year, met with an enthusiastic reception.
Wilts as Sir Harry Wildair contributed substantially to its
success. In 1701 Farquhar wrote a sequel, Sir Sorry Wildair.
Leigh Hunt says that Mrs Oldfield, like Wales, played admirably
well in it, but the original Lady Lurewell was Mrs Verbruggen.
Mrs Oldfield is said to have been the " Penelope " of Farquhar's
letters. In 1702 Farquhar published a slight volume of mis-
cellanies — Love and Business; in a Colkction of Occanonory
Verse and Epistolary Prose— containing, among other things, ** A
Discourse on Comedy in reference to the English Stage," in
which he defends the English neglect of the dramatic unities.
" The rules of English comedy," he says, " don't tie in the com-
pass of Aristotle or his followers, but in the pit, box and galleries.'*
In 1702 he borrowed from Fletcher's Wild Coosa Chase, The
Inconstant, or the Way to win Him, in which be followed his original
fairly closely except in the last act. In 1703 he married, in the
expectation of a fortune, but found too late that he was deceived.
It is said that he never reproached his wife, although the marriage
increased his liabilities and the rest of his life was a constant
struggle against poverty. His other plays are: The Stage CoacJk
(1704), a one-act farce adapted from the French of Jean de la.
Chapetle in conjunction with Peter Motteux; The Tsssn Rival*
(Drury Lane, 1702); The Recruiting Officer (Drury Lane, 1706) -
and The Beaux' Stratagem (Haymarket, 1707). The Recruiting
Officer was suggested to him by a recruiting expedition (1705)
in Shropshire, and is dedicated to his " friends round the Wrekin. *•
The Beaux* Stratagem is the best of all his plays, and long kep>t_
the stage. Genest notes nineteen revivals up to 1818. Twq
embarrassed gentlemen travel in the country disguised as master
and servant in the hope of mending their fortune. The play gjve^ss
vivid pictures of the Lichfield inn with its rascally landlord.
and of the domestic affairs of the Sullens. Archer, the supposed
valet, whose adventurous spirit secures full play, was one <^
Gamck's best parts.
Meanwhile one of his patrons, said to have been the duke «>
Onn on d, had advised Farquhar to sell out of his regiment, asc*«
had promised to give him a captaincy in his own. Farquhar sol <
his commission, but the duke's promise remained unfulfilled^
Before he had finished the second act of The Beaux' Strata g r m
he knew that he was stricken with a mortal Alness, but it ^ a
necessary to persevere and to be " consumedly lively to the end
He had received in advance £30 for the copyright from Lia w^ ^
the bookseller. The play was staged on the 8th of March, sslx?»
Farquhar lived to have his third night, and there was sua exit 1
benefit on the 29th of April, the day of his death. He left V*
two children to the care of his friend Wilks. WUks obtained*?
benefit at the theatre for the dramatist's widow, but be se^»_
to have done little for the daughters. They were •pprenti^^
to a mantua-makcr, and one of them was, as late as x 76*. ^^
FARR— FARRAGUT
187
receipt of a pension of £io solicited for her by Edmund Chaldner,
a patron of Farquhar. She was then described as a maidservant
tod possessed of sentiments " fitted to her humble situation."
The plots of Farquhar's comedies are ingenious in conception
and skilfully conducted. He has no pretensions to the brilliance
of Congreve, but his amusing dialogue arises naturally out of the
situation, and its wit is never strained. Sergeant Kite in the
tanking. Officer, Scrub, Archer and Boniface in The Beaux*
Stratagem are distinct, original characters which had a great
success on the boards, and the unexpected incidents and adven-
tures in which they are mixed up are represented in an Irresistibly
comic manner by a man who thoroughly understood the resources
of the stage. The spontaneity and verve with which his ad-
venturous heroes are drawn have -uggested that in his favourite
type be was describing himself. His own disposition see*ms to
have been most lovable, and he was apparently a much gayer
person than the reader might be led to suppose from the " Portrait
of Himself " quoted by Leigh Hunt . The code of rribrals followed
by these characters is open to criticism, but they are human and
genial in their roguery, and compare far from unfavourably
with the cynical creations of contemporary drama. The advance
which he made on his immediate predecessors in dramatic con-
struction and in general moral tone Is more striking when it is
remembered that he died before he was thirty.
Farquhar's dramatic works were published in 1728, 174a and
1772. and by Thomas Wilkes wiih a biography in 1775. They were
mduded in the Dramatic Works of Wycherley, Congreve, Vanbrugk
urf Farquhar (1840), with biographical and critical notices, by Leigh
Hoot. See also The Dramatic Works of George Farquhar, with Ltfe
**d Nous, by A. C Ewald (2 vols.. 1802) ; The Best Plays of Gedrge
hrqukar (Mermaid series, 1906), with biographical and critical
ttrodoctions, by William Archer; Tke Beaux' Stratagem, edited
(ifeft) by H. MacauUy Fitifibbon for " The Temple Dramatists "j
«w D. bchmid, " George Farquhar, sein Lcben und seine Original-
Dramea " (1904) in Wtener Beitrdge sur engl. PhUol.
FARH, WILLIAM (1807-1883), English statistician, was born
*t Kenley, in Shropshire, on the 30th of November 1 807. When
mcteen he became the pupil of a doctor in Shrewsbury, also
King as dresser in the infirmary there. He then went to Paris
to study medicine, but after two years returned to London,
'here, in 1832, he qualified as L.S.A. Next year he began to
practise, but without very brilfiant results, for five years later he
^finitely abandoned the exercise of his profession on accepting
ftepost of compiler of abstracts in the registrar-general's office.
The commissioners for the 1841 census consulted him on several
points, but did not in every case follow his advice. For the.ncxt
to decennial censuses he acted as assistant-commissioner;
to that of 1871 he was a commissioner, and he wrote the greater
put of the reports of all. He had an ambition to become
Rgutrar-general; and when that post became vacant in 1879,
ke was so disappointed at the selection of Sir Brydges Henmker
instead of himself, that he refused to stay any longer in the
ftg&rir's office. He died of paralysis of the brain a year or two
liter, on the 14th of April 1883. A great part of FarVs literary
production is to be found in the papers which, from 1839 to
*88o, he wrote for each annual report of (he registrar-general
os the cause of the year's deaths in England. He was also the
toihor of many papers on general statistics and on life-tables
lor insurance, some read before the Royal Statistical Society,
d which he was president in 1871 and 1872, some contributed to
the Lancet and other periodicals. A selection from his statistical
writings was published in 1885 under the editorship of Mr Noel
Humphreys.
FARRAGUT, DAVID GLASGOW (1801-1870); first admiral
d the United States navy, was the son of Major George Farragut,
» Catalan by descent, a Mrnorquin by birtfi, who had emigrated
to America in 1776, and, after the peace, had married a lady
°f Scottish family and settled near Knoxville, in Tennessee;
there Farragut was born on the 5th of July 1801. At the early
M« of nine he entered the navy, under the protection of his
jaw-father, Captain David Porter, with whom he served in the
" Essex " during her cruise In the Atlantic in 181 2, and afterwards
« the Pacific, until her capture by the " Phoebe/' in Valparaiso
Bay, on the iSth of March 1814. He afterwards served on board
the " Washington " (74) carrying the broad pennant of Com-
modore Chauncey in the Mediterranean, and pursued his pro-
fessional and other studies under the instruction of the chaplain,
Charles Folsom, with whom he contracted ft lifelong friendship.
Folsom was appointed from the " Washington " as U.S. consul
at Tunis, and obtained leave for his pupil to pay him a lengthened
visit, during which he studied not only mathematics, but also
French and Italian, and acquired a familiar knowledge of Arabic
and Turkish. He is said to have had a great natural aptitude for r
languages and in after years to have spoken several fluently.
After more than four years in the Mediterranean, Farragut
returned to the States in November 1820. He then passed his
examination, and in 1822 was appointed for service in what was
called the "mosquito 1 * fleet, against the pirates, who then
infested the Caribbean Sea. The service was one of great exposure
and privation; for two years and a half, Farragut wrote, he
never owned a bed, but lay down to rest wherever he found the
most comfortable berth. By the end of that time the joint action
of the British and American navies had driven the pirates off
the sea, and when they took to marauding on shore the Spanish
governors did the rest. In 1825 he was promoted to the rank of
lieutenant, whilst serving in the navy yard at Norfolk, where,
with some breaks in sea-going ships, he continued till 1832;
he then served for a commission on the coast of Brazil, and was
again appointed to the yard at Norfolk.
It is needless to trace the ordinary routine of bis service step by
step. The officers of the TJ.S.navy have one great advantage which
British officers are without; when on shore tbey are not neces-
sarily parted from the service, but are employed in their several
ranks in the diffcrentdockyards.eseaping thus not only the private
grievance and pecuniary difficulties of a very narrow half-pay, but
also, what from a public point of view is much more important, the
loss of professional aptitude, and of that skill which comes from
unceasing practice. On the 8th of September 1841 Farragut
was promoted to the rank of commander, and on the 14th of
September 1855 to that of captain. At this time he was in
charge of the navy yard, Mare Island, California, from which
post he was recalled in 1858, and appointed to the " Brooklyn '*
frigate, the command of which he held for the next two years.
When the war of secession broke out in 1861, he was " waiting
orders " at Norfolk. By birth and marriage he was a Southerner,
and the dtixens of Norfolk counted on his throwing in his lot
with them; but professional pride, and affection for the flag
under which he had served for more than fifty years, held him
true to his allegiance, he passionately rejected the proposals
of his fellow-townsmen, and as It was more than hinted to him
that his longer stay in Norfolk might be dangerous, he hastily
quitted that place, and offered his services to the government
at Washington. These were at once accepted ; he was requested
to sit on the Naval Retiring Board—a board then specially
constituted for clearing the navy of unfit or disloyal officers
—and a few months later was appointed to the command of
the *' Western Gulf Blockading Squadron," with the rank of
flag-officer, and ordered to proceed forthwith, in the " Hartford,"
to the Gulf of Mexico, to collect such vessels as could be spared
from the blockade, to proceed up the Mississippi, to reduce the
defences which guarded the approaches to New Orleans, and to
take and hold the city. All this Farragut executed to the lettcr x
with a skill and caution that won for him the love of his followers,
and with a dash and boldness that gained him the admiration
of the public and the popular name of "Old Salamander."
The passage of the Mississippi was forced on the 24th of April
1862, and New Orleans surrendered on the a6th; this was
immediately followed by the operations against Vicksburg, from
which, however, Farragut was compelled to withdraw, having
relearnt the old lesson that against heavy earthworks, crowning
hiDs of sufficient height, a purely naval attack h unavailing;
it was not till the following summer, and after a long siege, that
Vicksburg surrendered to a land force under General Grant.
During this time the service on the Mississippi continued both
difficult and irksome; nor until the river was cleared could
i88
FARRANT— FARREN, ELIZABETH
Farragut seriously plan operations against Mobile, a port to which
the fall of New Orleans had given increased importance. Even
then he was long delayed by the want of monitors with which
to oppose the ironclad vessels of the enemy. It was the end of
July 1864 before he was joined by these monitors; and on the
5th of August, undismayed by the loss of his leading ship, the
monitor " Tecumseh," sunk by a torpedo, he forced the passage
into the bay, destroyed or captured the enemy's ships, including
the ram " Tennessee " bearing Admiral Buchanan's flag, and
took possession of the forts. The town was not occupied til] the
' following April, but with the loss of its harbour it ceased to have
any political or strategical importance.
With this Farragut's active service came to an end; for
though in September 1864 he was offered the command of the
force intended for the reduction of Wilmington, the state of his
health, after the labours and anxieties of the past three years,
in a trying climate, compelled him to decline it and to ask to
be recalled. He accordingly returned to New York in December,
and was received with the wildest display of popular enthusiasm.
It was then that the Government instituted the rank of vice-
admiral, previously unknown in the American service. Farragut
was promoted to it, and in July 1866 was further promoted
to the rank of admiral In 1867, with his flag flying in the
"Franklin," be visited Europe. The appointment was an
honourable distinction without political or naval import:
the " Franklin " was, to all intents, for the time being, a yacht
at Farragut's disposal; and her arrival in the different ports
was the signal for international courtesies, entertainments and
social gaiety. She returned to America in 1868, and Farragut
retired into private life. Two years later, on the 14th of August
1870, he died at Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
Farragut was twice married, and left, by his second wife, a son,
Loyall Farragut, who, in. 1878, published a Life of his father " em-
bodying his Journal and Letters." Another Ltfe (1602), by Captain
A. T. Mahan, though shorter, has a greater value from the pro-
fessional point of view, by reason of the critical appreciation of
Farragut's services. (J. K. L.)
FARRANT, RICHARD, composer of English church music,
flourished during the 26th century. Very little is known about
him. Fetis gives 1530 as the date of his birth, but on what
authority does not appear. He became a gentleman of the
Chapel Royal in the reign of Edward VI., but resigned his post,
in 1564 on being appointed master of the children of St George's
chapel , Windsor. I n this capacity he presented a play before the
queen at Shrovetide 1568, and again at Christmas of the same
year, receiving on each occasion the sum of £6: 13: 4<1 In
November 1569 he was reinstated as gentleman of the Chapel
Royal. It is stated by Hawkins {History of Music, voL iii. 279)
that Farrant was also one of the clerks and organists of St
George's chapel, Windsor, and that he retained these posts till
bis death. Many of his compositions are printed in the collections
of Barnard and Boyce. Among the most admired of them are
a service in G minor, and the anthems "Call to remembrance"
and " Hide not thou thy face." It is doubtful whether Farrant
is entitled to the credit of the authorship of the beautiful anthem
" Lord, for thy tender mercies' sake." No copy of the music
under his name appeared in print till 1800, although it had been
earlier attributed to him. Some writers have named John Hilton,
and others Thomas Tallis, as the composer. From entries
in the Old Check Book of the Chapel Royal (edited for the
Camden Society by Dr Rimbault) it appears that Farrant died,
not in 1585, as Hawkins states, but on the 30th of November
1580 or 1581.
FARRAR, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1831-1003), English divine,
was born on the 7th of August 1831, in the Fort of Bombay,
where his father, afterwards vicar of Sidcup, Kent, was then a
missionary. His early education was received in King William's
College, Castletown, Isle of Man, a school whose external sur-
roundings are reproduced in his popular schoolboy tale, Eric;
or, LiUlc by Little. In 1847 he entered King's College, London.
Through the influence of F.D Maurice he was led to the study
of Coleridge, Whose writings had a profound influence upon his
faith and opinions. He proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge,
in October 1851, and in the following year took the degree of
B.A. at the university of London. In 1854 he took his degree
as fourth junioroptime, and fourth in the first class of the classical
tripos. In addition to other college prizes he gained the chan-
cellor's medal for the English prize poem on the search for Six
John Franklin in 1852, the Le Bas price and the Nomsianpnze.
He was elected fellow of Trinity College in 1856.
On leaving the university Farrar became an assistant-master
under G. E. L. Cotton at Marlborough College. In November
1855 he was appointed an assistant-master at Harrow, where he
remained for fifteen years. He was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society in 1864, university preacher in 1868, honorary chaplaia
to the queen in 1869 and Hulsean lecturer in 1870. In 1871 he
was appointed headmaster of Marlborough College, and in the
following year he became chaplain-in-ordinary to the queen.
In 1876 he was appointed canon of Westminster and rector of
St Margaret's, Westminster. He took bis D.D. degree in 1874,
the first under the new regulations at Cambridge. Farrar began
bis literary labours with the publication of his schoolboy story
Eric in 1858, succeeded in the following year by Julian Home
and Lyrics of Lift, and in 186a by Si Winifred'*; or the Watt
of School. He had already published a work on The Origin of
Language, and followed it up by a series of works on grammar
and scholastic philology, including Chapters on Language (1865);
Creek Grammar Rules (1865); Greek Syntax (1866); and
Families of Speech (1869). He edited Essays on a Liberal
Education in 1868; and published Seekers after God in the
Sunday Library (1869). It was by bis theological works, how-
ever, that Farrar attained his greatest popularity. His Hulsean
lectures were published in 1870 under the title of The Witness of
History to Christ. The Life of Christ, which was published in
1874, speedily passed through a great number of editions.
and is still in much demand. It reveals considerable powers of
imagination and eloquence, and was partly inspired by a personal
knowledge of the sacred localities depicted. In 1877 appeared
In the Days of My Youth, sermons preached in the chapel of
Marlborough College; and during the same year his volume of
sermons on Eternal Hope—in which he called in question the
dogma of everlasting punishment— caused much controversy
in religious circles and did much to mollify the harsh theology
of an earlier age There is little doubt that his boldness and
liberality of thought barred his elevation to the episcopate.
In 1879 appeared The Life and Works of St Paul, and this was
succeeded in 1882 by The Early Days of Christianity. Then came
in order of publication the following works: Everyday Christian
Life; or, Sermons by the Way (1887); Lives of the Fathers
(x888); Sketches of Church History (1889); Darkness and Damn,
a story of the Neronic persecution (1891); The Voice from Sinai
(1892); The Life of Christ as Represented in Art (1894); a work
on Daniel (1895); Gathering Clouds, a tale of the days of
Chrysostom (1896); and The Bible, its Meaning and Supremacy
(1896). Farrar was a copious contributor of articles to various
magazines, encyclopaedias and theological commentaries. In
1883 he was made archdeacon of Westminster and rural dean;
in 1885 he was appointed B amp ton lecturer at Oxford, and took
for bis subject " The History of Interpretation." He was
appointed dean of Canterbury in 1895. From 1890 to 1895 be
was chaplain to the speaker of the House of Commons, and in
1894 he was appointed deputy-clerk of the closet to Queen
Victoria. He died at Canterbury on the 22 nd of March xooj.
As a theologian Farrar occupied a position midway between the
Evangelical party and the Broad Church; while as a somewhat
rhetorical preacher and writer he exerted a commanding influence
over wide circles of readers. He was an ardent temperance and
social reformer, and was one of the founders of the institution
known as the Anglican Brotherhood, a religious band with
modern aims and objects.
See his Life, by his ton R . Farrar (1904).
FARREN, ELIZABETH (c. 1 759-1829), English actress, was
the daughter of George Farren, an actor. Her first London
appearance was in 1777 as Miss Hardcaslle in She Stoops to
Conquer. Subsequent successes established her reputation
FARREN, WIUJAM— FARS
189
and she became the natural successor to Mrs Abinglon when the
latter left Drury Lane in 178a. The parts of Hermione, Olivia,
Portia and Juliet were in her repertory, but her Lady Betty
Modish, Lady Townly, Lady Fanciful, Lady Teazle and similar
parts were her favourites. In 1797 she married Edward, 12th
art of Derby (i75*-i8j4).
FARREV, WILLIAM (1786-1861), English actor, was born on
the 13th of May 1786, the son of an actor (b. 1725) of the same
name, who played leading roles from 1784 to 1795 at Covent
Garden. His first appearance on the stage was at Plymouth at
the Theatre Royal, then under the management of his brother,
in Love a la mode. His first London appearance was in 1818 at
Covent Garden as Sir Peter Teazle, a part with which his name
a always associated. He played at Covent Garden every winter
until 1828, and began in 1824 a series of summer engagements
at the Haymarkct which also lasted some years. At these two
theatres he played an immense variety of comedy characters.
From 1828 until 1837 he was at Drury Lane, where he essayed a
wider range, including Polonius and Caesar. He was again at
Covent Garden for a few years, and next joined Benjamin
Webster at the Haymarkct, as stage-manager as well as actor.
In 1843 at the close of bis performance of the title-part in Mark
Lemon's CM Parr, he was stricken with paralysis on the stage.
He was, however, able to reappear the following year, and he
remained at the Haymarkct ten years more, though his acting
never again reached its former level. For a time he managed
the Strand, and, 1850-1853, was lessee of the Olympic. During
his later years he confined himself to old men parts, in which
he was unrivalled. In 1855 he made his final appearance at the
Haymaxket, as Lord Ogleby in a scene from the Clandestine
Marriage. He died in London on the 24th of September 1861.
la 1825 he had married the actress Mrs Faucit, mother of
Miss Helena Savillc Faucit (Lady Martin), and be left two
sons, Henry (1826-1860) and William (1825-1908), both actors.
The former was the father of Ellen [Nellie] Farren (1848-1004),
long famous for boy's parts in Gaiety musical burlesques, in the
days of Edward Terry and Fred Leslie. As Jack Shcppard, and
ia similar roles, she had a unique position at the Gaiety, and
was an unrivalled public favourite. From 1802 her health failed,
and her retirement, coupled with Fred Leslie's death, brought
to an end the type of Gaiety burlesque associated with them.
FARRER, THOMAS HENRYFARREtl.iSTBARON(i8iQ-i89g),
English civil servant and statistician, was the son of Thomas
Farrcr, a solicitor in Lincoln's Inn Fields. Born In London on
the 24th of June 1810, he was educated at Eton and Balliol
College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1840. He was called to
the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1844, but retired from practice in the
course of a few years. He entered the public service in 1850 as
secretary to the naval (renamed in 1853 the marine) department
of the Board of Trade. In 1865 he was promoted to be one of
the joint secretaries of the Board of Trade, and in 1867 became
permanent secretary. Hb tenure of this office, which he held
{or upwards of twenty years, was marked by many reforms
and an energetic administration. Not only was he an advanced
Liberal in politics, but an uncompromising Free-trader of the
strictest school He was created a baronet for his services at tho
Board of Trade in 1883, and in 1886 he retired from office.
During the same year he published a work entitled Free Trade
tersus Fair Trade, in which he dealt with an economic contro-
versy then greatly agitating the public mind. He had already,
in 1883, written a volume on The State in its Relation to Trade.
la 1889 he was co-opted by the Progressives an alderman of tho
London County Council, of which he became vice-chairman in
1890. His efficiency and ability in this capacity were warmly
recognized; but in the course of time divergencies arose
between bis personal views and those of many of his colleagues.
The tendency towards socialistic legislation which became
apparent was quite at variance with his principles of individual
enterprise and responsibility. He consequently resigned his
position. In 1803 he was raised to the peerage. From this time
forward be devoted much of his energy and leisure to advocating
his views at the Cobden Club, the .Political Economy Club,
on the platform, and in the public press. Especially were his
efforts directed against the opinions of the Fair Trade League,
and upon this and other controversies on economic questions
he wrote able, clear, and uncompromising letters, which left no
doubt that he still adhered to the doctrines of free trade as
advocated by its earliest exponents. In 1808 he published hb
Studies in Currency. He died at Abinger Hall, Dorking, on the
1 1 th of October 1 800. He was succeeded in the title by his eldest
son Thomas Cecil (b. 1859).
FARRIER, and FARRIERY (from Lat. fcrrarius, a black-
smith, ferrum, iron). Farrier is the name given generally either
to the professional shoer of horses or in a more extended sense
to a practitioner of the veterinary art; and farriery is the term
for his business. Primarily the art of farriery is identical with
that of the blacksmith, m so far as he makes and fixes shoes on
horses (see Horse-Shoes); he is liable in taw for negligence,
as one who holds himself out as skilled; and be has a lien on the
animal for his expenses. William the Conqueror is supposed to
have introduced horse-shoeing into England, and the art had
an important place through the middle ages, the days of chivalry,
and the later developments of equitation. In modern times it
has been closely allied with the general progress in veterinary
science, and in the knowledge of the anatomy and physiology
of the horse's foot and hoof.
See Fisher, The Farrier (1893); Lungwitz, Text-Book oj Horse-
shoeing (Eng. trans., 1898).
FARS (the name Farsistan is not used), one of the five mam-
likats (great provinces) of Persia, extending along the northern
shore of the Persian Gulf and bounded on the west by Arabistan,
on the north by Isfahan and on the cast by Kerman. It lies
between 49* 30' and 56° iof E. and 26° 20' and 31 45' N. and
has an area of nearly 60,000 sq. m. Fars is the same word as the
Greek Persis, and, originally the name of only a part o{ the
Persian empire (Iran), has become the name which Europeans
have applied to the whole (see Persis). The province is
popularly, but not for administrative purposes, divided according
to climate into germslr and sardslr, or the warm and cold regions.
The former extends from the sea to the central chain of hills
and contains all the lowlands and many mountainous districts,
some of the latter rising to an elevation of between 3000 and
4000 ft. and the sardslr comprises the remaining and northern
districts of the province. ;
In Arrian's relation of the voyage of Ncarchus (Indica, 40),'
these two regions are well described. " The first part of Persis
which lies along the Persian Gulf is hot, sandy and barren and
only the date palm thrives there. The other part comprehends
inner Persis lying northwards; it enjoys a pleasant climate and
has fertile and well-watered plains, gardens with trees of all kinds,
rich pasturages and forests abounding with game; with the
exception of the olive all fruits axe produced in profusion,
particularly the vine. Horses and other draught animals are
reared in the province, and there are several lakes frequented
by water-fowl, and streams of clear water flow through it, as
for instance the Kyros (Kur) formed by the junction of the Mcdos
and Araxcs."
The mountains of Fars may be considered as a continuation
of the Zagros and ran parallel to the shores of the Persian Gulf.
They comprise several ranges which the roads from the sea to
the interior have \o cross at right angles, thereby rendering
communication and transport very difficult. The highest of
the mountains of Fars (14,000 ft.) is the Kuh Dina in the north-
western part of the province. Of the rivers of Fars only three
important ones flow into the sea: (1) the Mand (Arrian's Sitakos),
Karaaghach in its upper course; (2) the Shapur or Khisht
river (Grants); (3) the Tab (Oroatis). Some rivers, notably
the Kur (Kyros, Araxcs) which flows into the Bakhtegan lako
east of Shiraz, drain into inland depressions or lakes.
The capital of the province is Shiraz, and the subdivision
in districts, the chief places of the districts and their estimated
population, and the number of inhabited villages in each as they
appear in lists dated 1884 and 1905 are shown on the following
page.
i go
FARS
16
Name of District.
Abadch lkitd . . .
Abadch-Tashk . .
Abarj
Abbasi
(1) Bander Abbasi >
and villages .
(2) Issin and Tazian
(3) Shamil .
(4) Moghistan
(3) Minab .
Afzar . . .
'Alemrud . .
Arb'ah (the four)
(1) Den Rud 1
(2) Deh Ram I
(3) Hengam [
U) Rudbal J
Araakan ....
Arslnjan ....
Aslr
Baira
Bidshahr and Juvim .
Bovanat ....
Darab
Dashti
Bardistan . .
Butuk . . .
^, Mandistan . .
(4) TassQi . .
(5) Shumbch. . .
Dashtistan
ft) Angaii .. . .
(2) Ahrom . . .
(3] Borazjan. . . .
(4) Bushtre 1 . . .
<5)Daliki . . .
(6) Conavah . . .
(7) Hayat DaQd
(8) Khurmuj . .
(9) Rud Hillah . .
(10) Shaba n Kareh.
fn) Tangistaa . .
(12) Zcngcneh . .
(i3)Zirah . . .
Dtzkurd ....
Famur
Ferrashband . . .
Fessa
Firuzabad ....
Cillchdar ....
HQmeh of Shiraz . .
(stahbanat . . .
lahrum . « . .
Jirch
Kamfiruz ....
Kamin
Kazcrun ....
Kavir . . .
Kir and Karzin . .
Khafr . . . . .
Khajch
Khisht
Khunj
Kongan ....
Kuh GilQ and Beh-
bahan ....
Kurbal
Kuh i Marrch Shikeft
Kunkuri ....
Laristan
(i)Ur . . . .
(2) Bikhah Ihsham.
(3* Bikhah Fal . .
[41 Ichansiriych
k Shib KQh . .
FQmistan or Gav*
bandi . . .
KauristSn . .
Lingah l . . .
lg) Mazayijan .
Manor MilSti . . .
8 1
Chief Place or Scat of
Government.
Name.
Ab&deh
Tashk
Dashtek
Bander Abbasi
Isstn
Shamil
Ziarat
Minab
Nimdeh
Sabzpushan
Deh Ram
Ardakan
Arsinjan
Asar
Baiza
Bidshahr
Surian
Darab
Bander Dafr
Bushgan
Kalci
Tang Bagh
Shumbeh
HaftjQsh
Ahrom
Borazjan
Bushire
Daliki
Gonavah
Bander Rig
Khurmuj
Kclat Sukhtch
Dch Kohnch
Tangistan
Samal
Zirah
Chcrkcs
Pagah
Ferrashband
Fessa
Firuzabad
Cillchdar
Zcrkan
I stahbanat
{ahrum
shfayikan
PaLingcri
Kalilelc
Kazcrun
Kavar
Kir
Khafr
Zanjiran
Khisht
Khunj
Bander Kongan
Behbahan
Gavkan
Shikeft
Kazian
Lar
Bairam
lshkenan
Bastak
Bander ChJrak
Glvbandi
Kauristan
Bander Lingah
Mazayijan
Jcmalgird
Popula-
tion.
600
2,000
10,000
1,000
4.000
1,000
1.500
5,000
5.000
500
2,000
3,000
500
5.000
1, 000
1,500
500
1,500
4,000
25,000
1,500
i, 000
1,000
[,000
I.0QO
759
500
300
I.OOO
5.000
4,000
1,000
1,000
10,000
10,000
8,000
1,000
1,000
500
2,500
1,500
10,000
600
8,000
4,000
Number o
inhabited
Villages in
District.
1 Arc forming separate administrative division of *
Porta."
8
6
'I
18
10
23
12
16
19
IO
as
10
55
23
23
62
28
18
40
11
15
S
19
6
5
10
27
3«
t
6
3
14
40
20
&
89
12
33
23
34
if
<
26
23
41
«5
25
27
12
82
67
41
*9
34
11
10
30
36
13
4
II
6
Persian Gulf
56
Name of District.
Minn.,,! !
Maliki . . .
Mnm.wr.ru iMn-lisian)
(i J Bekesh \
(2) J&vfdior Jnvi I
13. 1 Duihmanziarii L
l\) Kiiil ami j
(SJ Fahtun
Mfiyin _ •
Mervast and Herat •
Mervdaaht . . .
t Upper Khafrek }
Lower Khafrek V
Mervdasht J
hedMaderSuliman
Niria
Ramjird ....
Rudan and Ahmcdi .
Sab'ah (the seven)
ii) Bivunj (Bivanej)
2) Hasanabad . .
3) Tarom . . .
4) Faraghan
5) Forg ....
6) Rn and Guhrah.
(7) Gileh Gah (aban-
doned)
Sarchahftn
Sarhad Chahar Dungch
(1) Dasht Uian
(2) Dasht Khosro va
Shirin
(3) Dasht Khungasht
(4) Dasht KushkZard
Sarhad Shcsh Nahiyeh
(I) Padina (foot of
Mount Dina) .
2) Henna . . .
3)Samiram.
4) Fclard . . .
'5) Vardasht. . .
|6). a Vank. . . .
Sarvistan ....
Shiraz (town) in 1884
Siyakh ....
SimkSn ....
Chief Place or Scat of
Government.
Name.
Popula-
tion.
Maimand
Bander Assalu
Kal'ah Safid
Mayin
Mervast
Fathabad
Murghab
Niriz
Jashian
Dchbariz
Durz
Hasanabad
Tarun
Faraghan
Forg
Fin
Ziaret
KQshk Zard
KhQr
Henna
Samiram
FeUrd
Germabad
Vank
Sarvistan
Darinjan
DOzeh
5.000
1,000
1.250
800
9.000
2,000
1,500
3,000
1,000
2h
8
6
16
36
7
5
8
14
H
16
22
6
36
71
»4
7
15
13
IS
13
II
£?
The above sixty districts are grouped into eighteen sub-
provinces under governors appointed by the governor-general
of Fare, but the towns of Bushire, Lingah and Bander Abbasi,
together with the villages in their immediate neighbourhood,
form a separate government known as that of the " Persian
Gulf Ports " (Bcnadir i Khali j i Fars), under a governor appointed
from Teheran. The population of the province has been cli-
mated at 750,000 and the yearly revenue it pays to the state
amounts to about £150,000. Many districts are fertile, but
some, particularly those in the south-eastern part of the province,
do not produce sufficient grain for the requirements of the sparse
population. In consequence of droughts, ravages of locusts
and misgovern men t by local governors the province has been
much impoverished and hundreds of villages are in ruins and
deserted. About a third of the population is composed of
turbulent and lawless nomads who, when on the march between
their winter and summer camping grounds, frequently render
the roads insecure and occasionally plunder whole districts,
leaving the inhabitants without means of subsistence.
The province produces much wheat, barley, rice, millet, cotton,
but the authorities every now and then prohibiting the export
of cereals, the people generally sow just as much as they think
will suffice for their own wants. Much tobacco of excellent
quality, principally for consumption in Persia, is also grown
(especially in Fessa, Darab and Jahrom) and a considerable
quantity of opium, much of it for export to China, is produced.
Salt, lime and gypsum arc abundant. There are also some oil
• Persian census in 1684; 25,284 males, 28.323 females.
FABIHINCr-FftSeiA
*9«
welb at Daliki, near Buebire, but several attempts to tap the oil
have been unsuccessful. There are no valuable oyster-bank* la
Persia* waters, and all the Persian Gulf pearl* are obtained from
banks on the coast of Arabia and near Bahrein. (A. H.-S.)
FARTHING (A.S. fetrlha, fourth, +***, diminutive), the
smallest English coin, equal to the fourth of a penny. It
became a regular part of the coinage from the reign of Edward I.,
and was, up to the reign of Mary, a silver coin. No farthing waft
struck in the reign of Elizabeth, but a silver three-farthing piece
was issued in that reign, with a profile bust of the queen crowned,
with a rose behind her head, and inscribed " EJ>.G. Rosa tine
spina." The copper farthing was first introduced in the reign
of James L, a patent being given to Lord Harington of Eaton
in 1613 lor the issue of copper tokens of this denomination. It
was nominally of six grains' weight, but was usually heavier.
Properly, however, the copper farthing dates from the reign of
Charles II., in whose reign also was issued a tin farthing, with
a small copper plug in the centre, and an inscription on the edge,
" Nummorum famulus 1684." No farthings were actually issued
in the reign of Queen Anne, though a number of patterns were
prepared (see Numismatics: medieval sedion, England). In
i860 the copper farthing was superseded by one struck in bronze.
In 184a a proclamation was issued giving currency to half-
farthings, and there were several issues, but they were de-
monetized in i860. In 1897 the practice was adopted of darken-
ing farthings before issue, to prevent their being mistaken for
half-sovereigns.
FABTBDI0A1B (from the Q. Fr. vcrdagalU, or vertugolle, a
corruption of the Spanish name of the article, verdagado t from
icrdago, a rod or stick), a case or hoop, originally of bent rods,
but afterwards made of whalebone, upon which were hung the
voluminous skirts of a woman's dress. The fashion was intro-
duced into England from Spain in the 16th century. In its most
exaggerated shape, at the beginning of the 17th century, the
top of the farthingale formed a flat circular surface projecting
at right angles to the bodice (see Costume).
FABUKHABAD, Fauukhabad, or Furruckabad, a city and
district of British India in the Agra division of the United
Provinces. The city is near the right bank of the Ganges, 87 m%
by rail from Cawnporc. It forms a joint municipality with
Fatehgarh, the civil headquarters of the district with a military
cantonment. Pop. (1001) 67,338. At Fatehgarh is the govern-
ment gun-carriage factory; and other industries include cotton-
printing and the manufacture of gold lace, metal vessels and
The District or Farukhabad has an area of 1685 sq. rm
It is a fiat alluvial plain in the middle Doab. The principal rivers
are: the Ganges, which has a course of 87 m. either bordering
on or passing through the district, but is not at all times navigable
by large boats throughout its entire course; the Kali-nadi, (84 m.)
and the Isan-nadi (4a m.), both tributaries of the Gauges; and
the Arind-nadi, which, after a course of 20 m in the south of the
district, passes into Cawnpore. The principal products are rice,
wheat, barley, millets, pukes, cotton, sugar-cane, potatoes, &c*
The grain crops, however, are insufficient for local wants, and
grain is largely imported from Oudh and Rohilkhand. The
district is, therefore, liable to famine, and it was severely visited
by this calamity six times during the 19th century — in 1803-
1804, 1815-1816, 1825-1826, 1837-1838, 1868-1869 and 1800-
1000. Farukhabad is one of the healthiest districts in the Doab,
but fevers are prevalent during August and September. The
average annual mean temperature is almost 8o „F.; the average
annual rainfall, 29-4 in.
In the early part of the i&th century, when the Mogul empire
was breaking up, Mahommed Khan, a Bangash Afghan from
a village near Kaimganj, governor of Allahabad and later of
Malwa, established a considerable state of which the present
district of Farukhabad was the nucleus, founding the city of
Farukhabad in 1714. After his death in 1743, Lis son and suc-
cessor Kaim Khan was embroiled by Safdar Jang, the oawab
wazir of Oudh, with the Rohillas, in battle with whom he lost
his life in 1749. In 1750 his brother, Ahmad Khan, recovered
the Farukhabad territories; but Safdar Jang called in the
Mabrattas, and a struggle for the possession of the country
began, which ended in. 1 771, on the death of Ahmad Khan, by
its becoming tributary to Oudh. In 1 801 the nawab waair ceded
to the British his lands in this district, with the tribute due from
the nawab of Farukhabad, who gave up hb sovereign rights in
x8oa. In 1804 the Mahratta* under Holxar, ravaged this tract,
but were utterly routed by Lord Lake at the tbwn of Farukhabad.
During the mutiny Farukhabad shared the late of other districts,
and passed entixely out of British hands for a time. The native
troops, who had for some time previously evinced a seditious
spirit, finally broke into rebellion on the 18th of June 1857,
and placed the titular nawab of Farukhabad on the throne.
The English military residents took shelter in the fort, which
they held until the 4th of July* when, the fort being undermined,
they endeavoured to escape by the river. One boat succeeded in
peaching Cawnpore, but only to fall into the hands of Nana,
Its occupants were made prisoners, and perished in the massacre
of the 19th of July. . The other boat was stopped on its progress
down the river, and all those in it were captured or killed, except
four who escaped. The prisoners were conveyed back to Fateh-
garh, and murdered there by the nawab fen the 19th of July.
The rebels were defeated in several engagements, and on the
3rd of January 1858 the English troops recaptured Fatehgarh
fort; but it was not till May. that order was thoroughly re-
established. In 1901 the population was 025,812, showing
an increase of 8% in one decade. Part of the district is watered
by distributaries of the Ganges canal; it is traversed throughout
its length by the Agra-Cawnpore line of the Rajputaaa railway,
and is also served by a branch of the East Indian system.
Tobacco, opium, potatoes and fruit, cotton-prints; scent and
saltpetre are among the principal exports.
FASCES, in Roman antiquities, bundles of dm or birch rods
from which the head of an axe projected, fastened together by a
led strap* Nothing is known of their origin, the tradition that
represents them as borrowed by one of the kings from Etruria
resting on insufficient grounds. As the emblem of official
authority, they were carried by the tictort, in the left hand
and on the left shoulder, before the higher Roman magistrates;
at the funeral of a deceased magistrate they were carried behind
the bier 4 The lie tots and the fasces wereso inseparably connected
that they came to be used as synonymous terms. The fasces
originally represented the power over life and limb possessed by
the kings, and after the abolition of the monarchy r the consuls,
like the kings, were preceded by twelve 'fasces. Within the
precincts of the city the axe was removed, in recognition of the
right of appeal (provocaiio) to the people in a matter of. life
and death; outside Rome, however, each consul retained 'the
axe, and was preceded by his own lictors, not merely by a single
accensu* (supernumerary), as was originally the case within the
city when he was not officiating. Later, the lictors preceded the
officiating consul, and walked behind the other. Valerius
Publicola, the champion of popular rights, further established
the custom that the fasces should be lowered before the people,
ss the real representatives of sovereignty (Livy ii. 7; Floras
i. 9; Plutarch, PubHcoto, 10); lowering the fasces was also the
manner in which an inferior saluted a superior magistrate. A
dictator, as taking the place of the two consuls, had 24 fasces
(including the axe even within the city); most of the other
magistrates .had fasces varying in number, with the exception
of the censors, who, as possessing as executive authority, had
none, Fasces were given to the Flamen Dialis and (after 42 *•<?•)
even to the Vestals. During the times of the republic, a victorious
general, who had been saluted by the title of imperator by his
soldiers, had bis fasces crowned with laurel (Cicero, Pro Litario,
3). Later, under the empire, when the emperor received the
title foe life on his accession, it became restricted to him, and the
laurel was regarded as distinctive of the imperial fasces (see
Mommsen, Rdmwkes StaaUrtcM, i, 1887, p. 373).
FASCIA (Latin for a bandage or fillet), a term used for many
objects which resemble a band in shape; thus in anatomy it is
applied to the layers, of. fibrous connective tissue which sheathe
t$2
FASCINATION— FASTI
the muscles or cover various parts or organs in the body, and in
zoology, and particularly in ornithology, to bands or stripes of
colour. In architecture the word is used of the bands into
which the architrave of the Ionic and Corinthian orders is
subdivided; their origin would seem to have been derived from
the superimposing of two or more beams of timber to spaa the
opening between columns and to support a superincumbent
weight; the upper beam projected slightly in front of the lower,
and similar projections were continued in the stone or marble
beam though in one block. In the Roman Corinthian order the
fasdae, still projecting one in front of the other, were subdivided
by small moulding sometimes carved. The several bands are
known as the first or upper fascia, the second or middle fascia
and the third or lower fascia. The term is sometimes applied
to flat projecting bands in Renaissance architecture when em-
ployed as string courses. It is also used, though more commonly
in the form " facia," of the band or plate over a shop-front,
on which the name and occupation of the tradesman is written.
FASCINATION (from Lat. fascinate, to bewitch, probably
connected with the Gr. Paaitabxtp, to speak ill of , to bewitch),
the art of enchanting or bewitching, especially through the
influence of the " evil eye," and so properly of the exercise of an
evil influence over the reason or will. The word is thus used
of the supposed paralysing attraction exercised by some reptiles
on their victims. It is also applied to a particular hypnotic
condition, marked by muscular contraction, but with conscious-
ness and power of remembrance left. In a quite general sense,
fascination means the exercise of any charm or strong attraction.
FASCINB (from the Lat. fascine, fastis, a bundle of sticks),
a large faggot of brushwood used in the revetments of earthworks
and for other purposes of military engineering. The British
service pattern of fascine is x8 ft. long; it is tied as tightly as
possible at short intervals, and the usual diameter is o in. Similar
bundles of wood formed part of the foundations of the early
lake-dwellings, and in modern engineering fascines are used in
making rough roads over marshy ground and in building river
and sea walls and breakwaters.
FASHION (adapted from Tr.fac,on, L&t.f actio, making, facere,
to do or make), the action of making, hence the shape or form
which anything takes in the process of making. It Is thus used
in the sense of the pattern, kind, sort, manner or mode in which
a thing is done. It is particularly used of the common or
customary way in which a thing is done, and so is applied to
the manner or custom prevalent at or characteristic of a particular
period, especially of the manner of dress, &c, current at a
particular period in any rank of society, for which the French
term is modes (see Costume).
FASHODA (renamed, 1004, Kcoox), a post on the west bank
of the Upper Nile, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in 0° 53' N., 3a 8' E.,
4S9 m. S., by river, of Khartum. It is the headquarters of the
mudiria (province) of the Upper Nile. The station is built on a
flat peninsula connected by a narrow strip of land with a ridge
which runs parallel with the river. The surrounding country is
mostly deep swamp and the station is most -unhealthy ; mosquitoes
are present in millions. The climate is always damp and the
temperature rarely below 08 In the shade. The government
offices are well-built brick structures. In front of the station
is a long low island, and when the Nile is at its lowest this channel
becomes dry. Several roads from Kordofan converge on the
Nile at this paint, and near the station is the residence of the
mek, or king, of the Shilluk tribe, whose designation of the post
was adopted when it was decided to abandon the use of Fashoda.
At Lul, x8 m. farther up stream, is an Austrian Roman Catholic
mission station.
An Egyptian military post was established at Fashoda in 1865.
It was then a trading station of some importance, slaves being
the chief commodity dealt in. In 1883-1884 the place fell into
the hands of the Mahdists. On the 10th of July 1808 it was
occupied by a French force from the Congo under Commandant
J. B. Marchand, a circumstance which gave rise to a state of
great tension between Great Britain and France. On the 1 1 tb of
December following the French force withdrew, returning home
via Abyssinia (see AfBXCA, § 5, and Ecyft: History, sod 1/ifttor;
Operations).
FAST AND LOOSE, a cheating' game played at fairs by
sharpers, A strap, usually in the form of a belt, is rolled or
doubled up with a loop in the centre, and laid edgewise on a
table. The swindler then bets that the loop cannot be aught
with a slick or skewer as be unrolls the belt. As this looks (0
be easy to do the bet is often taken, but the sharper unroBs the
belt in such a manner as to make the catching of the loop
practically impossible. Centuries ago it was much practised by
gipsies, a circumstance alluded to by Shakespeare in Anthny
and Cleopatra (iv. is):
" Like a right gipsy, hath, at fast and loose,
Beguiled me to the very heart of loss."
From this game is taken the colloquial expression " to play fast
and loose." At the present day St is called " prick the garter "
or '♦ prick the loop."
FASTI, in Roman antiquities, plural of the Latin adjective
fastus, but more commonly used as a substantive, derived horn
Jos, meaning what is binding, or allowable, by divine law, as
opposed to jus, or human law. Fasti dies thus came to mean
the days on which law business might be transacted wilfeovt
impiety, corresponding to our own " lawful days "; the opposite
of the dies fasti were the dies ncfasii, on which, on various
religious grounds, the courts could not sit. The word fasti itself
then came to be used to denote lists or registers of various kinds,
which may be divided into two great classes.
1. Fasti Diurni, divided into wham and rttsHci, a kind of
official year-book, with dates and directions for religious cere-
monies, court-days, market-days, divisions of the month, and
the like. Until 304 B.C. the lore of the calendaria remained the
exclusive and lucrative monopoly of the priesthood; but in tbat
year Gnacus Flavius, a pontifical secretary, introduced the
custom of publishing in the forum tables containing the requisite
information, besides brief references to victories, triumphs,
prodigies, &c. This list was the origin of the public Roman
calendar, in which the days were divided into weeks of eight
days each, and indicated by the letters A-H. Each day *is
marked by a certain letter to show its nature; thus the letters
F., N., N.P., F.P., Q. Rex C.F., C, EN., stood for fast*,
nefastus, nefastus in some unexplained sense, fastus print*
quando rex (sacrorum) comitiatit fastus, comitidis and inkKisus.
The dies intercisi were partly fasti and partly nefasti. Ovid^
Fasti is a poetical description of the Roman festivals of the first
six months, written to illustrate the Fasti published by Julius
Caesar after he remodelled the ' Roman year. Upon the
cultivators fewer feasts, sacrifices, ceremonies and holidays
Were enjoined than on the inhabitants of cities; and the rustic
fasti contained little more than the ceremonies of the calends,
nones and ides, the fairs, signs of zodiac, increase and decrease
of the days, the tutelary gods of each month, and certain direc-
tions for rustic labours to be performed each month.
a. Fasti Magistrates, Annates or Histarici, were concerned
with the several feasts, and everything relating to the gods,
religion and the magistrates; to the emperors, their birthdays,
offices, days consecrated to them, with feasts and ceremonies
established in their honour or for their prosperity. They ami
to be denominated magni, by way of distinction from the ban
calendar, or fasti diurni. Of this class, the fasti censulara, fa
example, were a chronicle or register of time, in which the seven
years were denoted by the respective consuls, with the principa
events which happened during their consulates. The /ad
triumpkales and sacerdotales contained a* list in chronologic;
order of persons who had obtained a triumph, together wii
the name of the conquered people, and of the priests. The »or
fasti thus came to be used in the general sense of " annals
or " historical records." A famous specimen of the same cli
are the fasti CapiluHni, so called because they were deposit*
in the Capitol by Alexander Farnese, after their excavation fro)
the Roman forum in 1547. They are chiefly a nominal list 1
statesmen, victories, triumphs, &c, from the expulsion of tl
kings to the death of Augustus. A considerable number of jas
FASTING
'93
of the first, class have also .been discovered; bet nave of them
appear to be older than the time of Augustus. The JPraenestinc
calendar, discovered in 1770, arranged by the famous gram*
narian Verrius Flaccus, contain* the months of January, <Marcb,
April and December, and a portion of February, The tablets
give an account of festivals, as also of the triumphs of Augustus
and Tiberius, There are still two complete calendars in existence,
an official list by Furius Dionysjus Philocaius (a.d, 354), and a
Christian version of the official calendar, made by.Polcmiua
Silvius (a.o. 448) But some kinds of fasti included under the
second general head were, from the very beginning, written
ior publication. The AnrtaUs Poa/ffcw*— difierent from the
wUmdaria properly so called— were "annually exhibited in
public on a white table, on which the memorable events of the
year, with special mention of the prodigies, were set down in
the briefest possible manner," Any one was allowed to copy
them. Like the pontifices, the augurs also. had their books,
libwi avgurakj. In fact, all the state offices had their fasti
corresponding in character to the consular fasti named above. -
For the best text and account of the fragments of. the Fasti see
Corpus Inscriptionum Lalinarum, i. (2nd ed.); on. the subject gener-
ally. Teuffd-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature, }§ 74, 75, and
article by Boache-Leclercq in Daremberg and SagCo, Diclwnnaire
FASTING (from " fast," derived from old Teutonic fiuttjau;
synonyms . being the Gr. nprticu', late Lot, jqunare)* an
act which is most accurately defined as an abstention from
meat, drink and all natural food for a determined period. So
k is defined by the Church of England, in the 16th homily, on
the authority of the Council of Chakedon 1 and of the primitive
church generally. In a looser sense the word is employed to
ceaote abstinence from certain kinds of food merely; and this
meaning; which inordinary usage is probably the more prevalent,
seems also to be at least tolerated by the Church of England
then it speaks of " fast or abstinence days," as if fasting and
abstinence were synonymous. 3 More vaguely still, the word
s occasionally used as an equivalent for moral self-restraint
generally. This secondary and metaphorical sense (jnprcfaj*
taKomTOf) occurs in one of the , fragments of Empedoclea.
For the physiology of fasting, see Diktetjgs; Nutrition i
also Coepvlencs.
Starvation itself (see also Hunger and Thtrst) is of the nature
<A a disease which may be prevented by diet; nevertheless
there are connected with it a few peculiarities of scientific and
practical interest. " Inedia/' as it is called in the nomenclature
of diseases by the London College of Physicians, is of two kinds,
arising from vant of food and from want of waUr. When entirely
deprived of nutriment the human body is ordinarily capable
ef supporting life under ordinary circumstances for little more
than a week. In the spring of 1869 this was tried on the person
of a " fasting girl " in South Wales. The parents made a show
of their child, decking her out like a bride on a bed, and asserting
that she had eaten no food for two years. §oroe reckless en-
thusiasts for truth set four trustworthy hospital nurses to watch
her; the Celtic obstinacy of the parents was roused, and in
defence of their imposture they allowed death to take place in
eight days. Their trial and conviction for manslaughter may
be found in the daily periodicals of the date; but, strange to
s*y, the experimental physiologists and nurses escaped scot-free.
There is no doubt that in this instance the unnatural quietude,
1 he grave-like silence, and the dim religious light in which the
victim was kept contributed to deter death.
One thing which remarkably prolongs life is a supply of water.
1 " The Fathers assembled there . . . decreed in that council that
every person, as well in his private as public fast, should continue all
the nay without meat and drink, till after the evening prayer.
And
vhtnoever did cat or drink before the evening prayer was ended
should be accounted and reputed not to consider the purity of his
Use. This canon teacheth so evidently how fasting was used in the
primitive church as by words it cannot be more plainly expressed "
{Of Goad Works; and first, of Fasting.)
* As indeed they are, etymologies Ny; but, prior to the Reforma-
tion, a conventional distinction between abstinenHa and jejunium
matsraU had long been recognized. " Exceptio *dutiorum qeo-
randam portionale jejunium est " (Tertulhan).
Dogs furnished with as much as they wished to drink were found
by M. Cbossal (Sur I' inanition, Paris, 1843) to live three times as
long as those who were deprived of solids and liquids at the same
time. Even wetting the skin with sea-water has been found
useful by shipwrecked sailors. Four men and a boy of fourteen
who got shut in the Tynewydd mine near Forth, m South Waits,
in the winter oi 1876-J877 for ten days without food, were not only
alive when released* but several of them were able to walk, and
all subsequently recovered The thorough saturation of the
narrow space with aqueous vapour, and. the presence of drain
water in the cutting, were probably their chief preservatives—
assisted by the high, even temperature always found in the
deeper headings oi coal mines, and by the enormous compres-
sion of the confined ata This doubtless prevented evaporation,
and retarded vital processes dependent upon oxidation. The
accumulation of carbonic acid in the breathed air would also have
a similar srrestive power over destructive assimilation. These
prisoners do not seem to have felt any oi the severer pangs of
hunger, for they were not tempted to eat their candles. With
the instinctive feeling that darkness adds, a horror to death,
they prefeaed to use them for light. At the wreck of ike
" Medusa " frigate in 1816,. fifteen people survived on a raft
for thirteen days without food.
It is a paradoxical fact, that .the supply oi the stomach even
from the substance of the starving individual's body should tend
to prolong life. In April 1874 * case was recorded of exposure
in an open boat for 39 days oi three men and two boys, with
only ten days' provisions, exclusive of old boots and jelly-fish^
They had a fight in their delirium, and one was severely wounded.
As the blood gushed out he lapped it up; and instead otsuflering
the fatal weakness which might have been expected from the
haemorrhage, he seems to have done well. Experiments were
performed by a French physiologist, M. Anselmier (AreMies
gin. de mUecint, i860, vol L p. 160), with the object of trying
to preserve the lives of dogs by what he calls " artificial auto*
phagy." He fed them on the Mood taken from their own veins
daily, depriving them of all other food, and he found that .the
fatal cooling incident to starvation was thus postponed, and
existence prolonged. Life lasted till the emaciation had pro-
ceeded to six-tenths of the animal's weight, as in Chossat's
experiments, extending to the fourteenth day, instead of ending
on the tenth, day, as was the case with other dogs which were
not bled.
Various people have tried, generally for exhibition purposes,
how long they could fast from food with the aid merely of water
or some medicinal preparation; but these exhibitions cannot be
held to have proved anything of importance. A man named
Jacques in this way fasted at Edinburgh for thirty days in 1888,
and in London for forty-two days in 1890, and for fifty days in
1892 ; and an Italian named Sued fasted for forty days in 1800.
Religious Fasts. — Fasting is of special interest when considered
as a discipline voluntarily submitted to for moral and religious
ends. As such it is very widely d iffused. Its modes and motives
vary considerably according to climate, race, civilization and
other circumstances; but it would be difficult to name any
religious system of any description in which it is wholly ant
recognized. * The origin of the practice is very obscure. 4 In his
Principles of Sociology Herbert Spencer collected, from the
accounts we have of various savage tribes in widely separated
* Confucianism ought perhaps to be named as one. Zoroasrrian*
ism is frequently given as another, but hardly corrrectly. In the Liber
Sad-dtr, indeed (Porta xxv.>. we read, " Cavendum est tibi a jejunio;
nam a mane ad vesperam nihil comedere non est bonum in religione
nostra "; but according to the Pere de Chinon (Lyons,- 16717 the
Parsee religion enjoins, upon the priesthood at least, no fewer than
five yearly fasts. See Hyde, Vetenm Porsarum religio, pp. 449, 548
(ed. 1700).
4 During the middle ages the prevalent notion was that Jt had its
origin in paradise. The germ at least of this idea is to be found in
Tcrtullian, who says: " Accepcrat Adam a Deo legem non gustandi
de arbore agntttonis boni et mali, moriturus si gustasset; vcrOm
et ipse tunc in p*ychicum reversus . . . faciltus ventri quam Deo
ccssit, pabulo potius quam praccepto annuit, salutem gula vendidit,
manducavit denique et periit, salvus auoquin si uni arbusculae,
jejunare maluisset " {De jejuniis, a 3).
.1^4
FASTING
parts of the globe, a considerable body of evidence, from which
he suggested that it may have arisen out of the custom of
providing refreshments for the dead, either by actually feeding
the corpse, or by leaving eatables and drinkables for its use.
It is suggested that the fasting which was at first the natural
and inevitable result of such sacrifice on behalf of the dead
may eventually have come to be regarded as an indispensable
concomitant of all sacrifice, and so have survived as a well*
established usage long after the original cause had ceased to
operate. 1 But this theory is repudiated by the best authorities;
indeed its extreme precariousness at once becomes evident when
it is remembered that, now at least, it is usual for religious fasts
to precede rather than to follow sacrificial and funeral feasts,
if observed at all in connexion with these. Spencer himself
(p. 284) admits that " probably the practice arises in more ways
than one," and proceeds to supplement the theory already
given by another— that adopted by E. B. Tylor— to the effect
that it originated in the desire of the primitive man to bring on
at will certain abnormal nervous conditions favourable to the
seeing of those visions and the dreaming of those dreams which
are supposed to give the soul direct access to the objective
realities of the spiritual world.* Probably, if we leave out of
sight the very numerous and obvious cases in which fasting,
originally the natural reflex result of grief, fear or other strong
emotion, has come to be the usual conventional symbol of these,
we shall find that the practice is generally resorted to, either as
a means of somehow exalting the higher faculties at the expense
of the lower, or as an act of homage to some object of worship.
The axiom of the Amazulu, that " the continually stuffed body
cannot sec secret things," meets even now with pretty general
acceptance, and if the notion that it is precisely the food which
the worshipper foregoes that makes the deity more vigorous to
do battle for his human friend be confined only to a few scattered
tribes of savages, the general proposition that " fasting is a work
of reverence toward God " may be said to be an article of the
Catholic faith.'
Although fasting as a religious rite is to be met with almost
everywhere, there are comparatively few religions, and those only
of the more developed kind, which appoint definite public fasts,
and make them binding at fixed seasons upon all the faithful,
Brabmanism, for example, does not appear to enforce any stated
fast upon the laity. 4 Among the ancient Egyptians fasting
seems to have been associated with many religious festivals,
notably with that of Isis (Herod, ii. 40), but it does not appear
that, so far as the common people were concerned, the observance
of these festivals (which were purely local) was compulsory.
The npreta on the third day of the Tbesmophoria at Athens
was observed only by the women attending the festival (who
were permitted to eat cakes made of sesame and honey). It is
doubtful whether the fast mentioned by Uvy (xxxvi. 37) was
intended to be general or sacerdotal merely.
Jewish Posts. — While remarkable for the cheerful, non-ascetic
character of their worship, the Jews were no less distinguished
from all the nations of antiquity by their annual solemn fast
appointed to be observed on the 10th day of the 7th month
(Tisri), the penalty of disobedience being death. The rules, as
laid down in Lev. xvi. 29-34, xxiii. 27-32 and Numb. xxix. 7-1 1,
include a special injunction of strict abstinence (" ye shall afflict
your souls " •) from evening to evening. This fast was intimately
associated with the chief feast of the year. Before that feast
1 Principles of Sociology, t. pp. 170, 284, 285. Compare the passage
in the appendix from Hanusch, Stavischer Mytkus, p. 408.
' Spencer, Prin. of Sociology, I 256, &c; £. B. Tylor, Primitu*
Culture, I 277, 402; ii. 372, &c
■ Hooker, KP. v. 72. In the Westminster Assembly's Larger
Catechism fasting is mentioned among the duties required by the
second commandment.
4 The Brahmans themselves on the eleventh day after the full
moon and the eleventh day after the new " abstain for sixty hours
from every kind of sustenance " ; and some have a special fast every
Monday in November. See Picart, The Religion and Manners of the
Brahmins.
• »*W »» here to be taken as substantially equivalent to " desire,"
" appetite."
could be entered upon, the sins of the people had to be confessed
and (sacramentally) expiated. The fast was a suitable cod*
comitant of that contrition which befitted the occasion. The
practice of stated fasting was not in any other case enjoined
by the law; and it is generally understood to have been forbidden
on Sabbath.* At the same time, private and occasional fasting,
being regarded as a natural and legitimate instinct, was regulated
rather than repressed. The only other provision about fasting
in the Pentateuch is of a regulative nature, Numb. xxx. 14 (15),
to the effect that a vow made by a woman " to aflict the soul "
may in certain circumstances be cancelled by her husband.
The history of Israel from Moses to Ezra furnishes a urge
number of instances in which the fasting instinct was obeyed
both publicly and privately, locally and nationally, under the
influence of sorrow, or fear, or passionate desire. See, for
example, Judg. xx. 26; 1 Sam. viL 6 (where the national fast
was conjoined with the ceremony of pouring out water before
the Lord) ; Jer. xxxvi. 6, 9; and 2 Sam. xii- 16.' Sometimes the
observance of such fasts extended over a considerable period of
time, during which, of course, the stricter jejunium was conjoined
with abstinenlia (Dan. x. 2). Sometimes they lasted only for 1
day. In Jonah Ui. 6, 7, we have an illustrative example of the
rigour' with which -a strict fast might be observed; and such
passages as Joel 5. and Isa. Ivtii. 5 enable us to picture with
some vividness the outward accompaniments of a Jewish fast
day before the exile.
During the exile many occasional fasts were doubtless observed
by the scattered communities, in sorrowful commemoration of
the various sad events which had issued in the downfall of the
kingdom of Judah. Of these, four appear to have passed into
general use— the fasts of the toth, 4th, sth and 7th months-
commemorating the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem, the
capture of the city, the destruction of the temple, the assassina-
tion of Gedaliafa. As time rolled on they became invested with
increasing sanctity; and though the prophet Zechariah, when
consulted about them at the close of the exile (Zech. viii. 19).
had by no means encouraged the observance of them, the re*
building of the temple does not appear to have been considered
an achievement of sufficient importance to warrant their dis-
continuance. It is worthy of remark that Exekiel's prophetic
legislation contains no reference to any fast day; the book ol
Esther (ix. 31), on the other hand, records the institution of a
new fast on the 13th of the 12th month.
In the post-exile period private fasting was much practised
by the pious, and encouraged by the religious sentiment of the
time (see Judith viii. 6; Tob. xii. 8, and context; Sirach xxxiv.
26, Luke ii. 37 and xviii. 12). The last reference contains an
allusion to the weekly fasts whkh were observed on the and
and cth days of each week, in commemoration, it was said, of
the ascent and descent of Moses at Sinai. The real origin of
these fasts and the date of their introduction are afike uncertain;
it is manifest, however, that the observance of them was vohra-
lary, and never made a matter of universal obligation. It is
probable that the Sadducees, if not also the Essenes, wholly
neglected them. The second book {Seder Moed) of the Mishna
contains two tractates bearing upon the subject of fasting.
One (Yonux, " the day ") deals exclusively with the rites which
were to be observed on the great day of expiation or atonement
the other (Taanith, " fast ") is devoted to the other fasts, and
* See Judith viii. 6. " And yet it may be a question whether they
(the Jews) did not always fast upon Sabbath, says Hooker (£P
v. 72, 7), who gives a curious array of evidence pointing in tho
direction. He even makes use of Neh. viii. 0-12, which might be
thought to tell the other way. Justinian s phrase, "Sabbau
Judaeorum a Most in omne aevum jeiunio dicata " (L xxxvi. c. 2;
comp. Suetonius, Augustus, 76) may be accounted for by tbefad
that the day of atonement is called Sabbat Sabbatdn (" a perfect
Sabbath ">.
7 There is, as Graf (Cesch. Bucket des A.T. p. 41) has pointed out
no direct evidence that the fast on the 10th of the 7th month was rm
observed before the exile. But the inference which he draws iron
this silence of the historical books is manifestly a precarious one *
best. Bleek calls Lev. xvi. " ein deutliches P
Abfassung " (EinUiiung, p. 31, ed. 1678). •
FASTING
«95
toll ttftdtJfy with the maimer in which oocmmuI testing it
to be gone about if no rain shell have fallen on or before the 17th
day of liarcheKhwan. It it enacted that in such a case the
rabbis shall begin with a light fast of three days (Monday,
Thursday, Monday)* *•*« * teat during which it is lawful to work,
ud abo to wash and anoint the person. Then, in the event of a
cosUntxd drought, tests of increasing intensity are ordered;
tod is s last resort the ark is to be brought into the street and
spriakkd with ashes, the beads of the Nasi and Ab-beth-din being
at the ssme time similarly sprinkled. 1 In no case was any
fist to be allowed to interfere with new-moon or other fixed
festival Another institution treated with considerable fulness
in the treatise Taanith is that of the Wm (tin statiomis),
who are represented as having been laymen severally represent-
u| the twenty-four classes or families into which the whole
commonwealth of the laity was divided. They used to attend
the temple in rotation, and be present at the sacrifices; and as
this duty fell to each in his turn, the men of the class or family
which he represented were expected in their several cities and
places of abode to engage themselves in religious exercises,
ud especially in fasting. The suggestion will readily occur that
hen may be the origin of the Christian statwnes. But neither
TertuUian nor any other of the fathers seems to nave been
ware of the existence of any such institution among the Jews;
ud very probably the story about it may have been a com-
paratively late invention. It ought to be borne in mind that the
Aramaic portion of the Megillath Taanith (a document consider-
ably older than the treatises in the Mishna) gives a catalogue
oo|y of the days on which fasting was forbidden. The Hebrew
part (commented on by Maimonides), in which numerous fasts
are recommended, is of considerably later date. See Reland,
A*tiq. Bebr. p. iv. c xo; Derenbourg, Hist, de Palestine, p. 439,
Practice of the Early Christian Church.— Jesus Himself did not
inculcate asceticism in His teaching, and the absence of that
distinctive element from His practice was sometimes a subject
of hostile remark (Matt. xi. 19). We read, indeed, that on one
occasion He fasted forty days and forty nights; but the ex-
pression, which is an obscure one, possibly means nothing more
than that He endured the privations ordinarily involved in a
<Uy in the wilderness. While wc have no reason to doubt that
He observed the one great national fast prescribed in the written
bw of Moses, we have express notice that neither He nor His
disciples were in the habit of observing the other fasts which
custom and tradition had established. See Mark ii. 18, where
the correct reading appears to be—" The disciples of John, and
the Pharisees, were fasting " (some customary fast). He never
formally forbade fasting, but neither did He ever enjoin it.
He assumed that, in certain circumstances of sorrow and need,
the fasting instinct would sometimes be felt by the community
ud the individual; what He was chiefly concerned about was
to warn His followers against the mistaken aims which His
contemporaries were so apt to contemplate in their fasting
(Matt. vi. 16-18). In one passage, indeed, He has been understood
u practically commanding resort to the practice in certain
circumstances. It ought to be noted, however, that Matt.
nu Ji is probably spurious; and that in Mark ix. 29 the
words "and fasting" are omitted by Westcott and Hort as
*tll as by Teschendorf on the evidence of the Cod. Sinaiticus
(5rst hand) and Cod. Vaticanus.* The reference to " the fast "
"> Acts xxvii. 9 has generally been held to indicate that the
titles continued to observe the yearly Jewish fast. But this
inference is by no means a necessary one. According to Acts
^i- >. 3, xiv. 23, they conjoined fasting with prayer at ordina-
tions, and doubtless also on some other solemn occasions; but
« the same time the liberty of the Christian " in respect of an
jxtfday, or of the new moon, or of the Sabbath " was strongly
iftisted on, by one of them at least, who declared that meat
Aether taken or abstained from commendeth not to God (Col.
' The ailusiosi to the ark warns us to be cautious in assuming the
b* of the Mishna to have been ever in force.
.The idea, however, is found in the Clementine Homilies, ix. 9.
g»pare TertuUian De jejuniis, c. 8: " Docutt cttara advenus
**K«a daemonia jejuniis
ii. 16-43; 1 Cor. viii. 6 ; Rom. xiv. ta-aa ; 1 Tim. iv. 3-5).
The fastings to which the apostle Paul alludes in a Cor. vi 5,
xt. *7, were rather of the nature of inevitable hardships cheerfully
endured in the discharge of his sacred calling. The words
which appear to encourage fasting in 1 Cor. viL 5 are absent
from all the oldest manuscripts and are now omitted by all
critics;' and en the whole the precept and practice of the New
Testament, while recognising the propriety of occasional and
extraordinary fasts, teem to be decidedly hostile to the imposition
of any of a stated, obligatory and general kind.
The usage of the Christian church during the earlier centuries
was in this, as in so many other matters, influenced by traditional
Jewish feeling, and by the force of old habit, quite as much as
by any direct apostolic authority or supposed divine command.
Habitual temperance was of course in all cases regarded as an
absolute duty; and " the bridegroom " being absent, the present
lifo was regarded as being in a sense one continual " fast."
Fasting in the stricter sense was not unknown; but it is certain
that it did not at first occupy nearly so prominent a place in
Christian ritual as that to which it afterwards attained. There
are early traces of the customary observance of the Wednesday
and Friday fasts—the dies sMiemum (Clem. Alex. Strom, vii.
877), and also of a " quadragesimal " fast before Easter. But
the very passage which proves the early origin of " quadra*
gesiroa/' conclusively shows how uncertain it was in its character,
and how unlike the Catholic "Lent." Irenaeus, quoted by
Eusebius (v. 24), informs us with reference to the customary
yearly celebration of the mystery of the resurrection of our Lord*
that disputes prevailed not only with respect to the day, but
also with respect to the manner of fasting in connexion with it.
" For some think, that they ought to fast only one day, some
two, some more days ; some compute their day as consisting of
forty hews night and day ; and this diversity existing among
those that observe it is not a matter that has just sprung up in
our times, but long ago among those before us." It was not
pretended that the apostles had legislated on the matter, but
the general and natural feeling that the anniversaries of the
crucifixion and the resurrection of Christ ought to be celebrated
by Christians took expression in a variety of ways according to
the differing tastes of individuals. No other stated fasts, besides
those already mentioned, can be adduced from the time before
Irenaeus ; but there was also a tendency— not unnatural in
itself, and already sanctioned by Jewish practice— to fast by
way of preparation for any season of peculiar privilege. Thus,
according to Justin Martyr (Apol. n, 93), catechumens were
accustomed to fast before baptism, and the church fasted with
them. To the' same feeling the quadragesimal fast which (as
already stated) preceded the joyful feast of the resurrection,
is to be, in part at least, attributed. As early as the time of
TertuUian it was also usual for communicants to prepare them-
selves by fasting for receiving the eucharist. But that Christian
fasts had not yet attained to the exaggerated importance which
they afterwards assumed is strikingly shown in the well-known
Shepherd of Bermas (lib. iti. sim. v.), where it is declared that
" with merely outward fasting nothing is done for true virtue " ;
the believer is exhorted chiefly to abstain from evil and seek to
cleanse himself from feelings of covetousness, and impurity, and
revenge : " on (he day that thou fastest content thyself with
bread, vegetables and water, and thank God for these. But
reckon up on this day what thy meal would otherwise have cost
thee, and give the amount that it comes to to some poor widow
or orphan, or to the poor." The right of bishops to ordain special
fasts, "ex aliqua soUicitudinis ecdesiasticae causa " (TertuUian),
was also recognised.
Later Practice of the C*wfeA.~According to an expression
preserved by Eusebius {H.E. v. 18), Montanus was the first to
give laws (to the church) on fasting. Such language, though
rhetorical in form , is substantially correct. The treatise of Ter*
tum*n,—Coneetnittt Pasting : against the Carnal,— written as
■ On the manuscript evidence the words " I was fasting." in Acts x.
30. must also be regarded as doubtful They arc rejected by Lach-
mann, Tregelles end Teschendorf.
196
FASTING
it was under Montanistk influence, is doubly interesting, first
as showing how free the practice of the church down to that time
bad been, and then as foreshadowing the burdensome legislation
which was destined to succeed. In that treatise <c. 15) he
approves indeed of the church practice of not fasting on Saturdays
and Sundays (as elsewhere, De corona, c. 3, he had expressed
his concurrence in the other practice of observing the entire
period between Easter and Pentecost as a season of joy) ; but
otherwise be evinces great dissatisfaction with the indifference
of the church as to the number, duration and severity of her
fasts. 1 The church thus came to be more and more involved in
discussions as to the number of days to be observed, especially
in " Lent," as fast days, as to the hour at which a fast ought to
terminate (whether at the 3rd or at the 9th hour), as to the
rigour with which each fast ought to be observed (whether by
abstinence from flesh merely, abstinent ia, or by abstinence from
lacticinia, xeropkagia, or by literal jejunium), and as to the
penalties by which the laws of fasting ought to be enforced.
Almost a century, however, elapsed between the composition
of the treatise of Tertullian (or. si 2) and the first recorded
rmtanret of ecclesiastical legislation on the subject. These, while
far from indicating that the church had attained unanimity
on the points at issue, show progress in the direction of the Inter
practice of Catholicism. About the year 306 the synod of
Hliberis in its 26th canon decided in favour of the observance
of the Saturday fast. 1 The council of Ancyra in 3*14, on the other
hand, found it necessary to legislate in a somewhat different
direction, — by its 14th canon enjoining its priests and clerks
at least to taste meat at the love feasts.' The synod of Laodicea
framed several rules with regard to the observance of " Lent,"
such as that " during Lent the bread shall not be offered except
on Saturday and Sunday " (can. 40), that " the fast shall not be
relaxed on the Thursday of the last week of Lent, thus dishonour-
ing the whole season'; but the fast shall be kept throughout the
whole period '* (can. 50), that " during the fast no feasts of the
martyrs shall be celebrated " (can. 51), and that " no wedding
or birthday feasts shall be celebrated during Lent " (can. 52).
The synod of Hippo (393 a.d.) enacted that the sacrament of
the altar should always be taken fasting, except on the Thursday
before Easter. Protests in favour of freedom were occasionally
raised, not always in a very wise manner, or on very wise grounds,
by various individuals such as Eustathius of Sebaste (c. 350),
Aerius of Pontus (c. 375), and Jovinian, a Roman monk (c. 388).
Of the Eustathians, for example (whose connexion with Eusta--
thius can hardly be doubted), the complaint was made that " they
fast on Sundays, but eat on the fast-days of the church." They
were condemned by the synod of Gangra in Paphlagonia in the
following canons:— Can. 19, " If any one fast on Sunday, let
him be anathema." * Can. 20, " If any one do not keep the fasts
universally commanded and observed by the whole church, let
him be anathema." Jovinian was very moderate. He "did not
allow himself to be hurried on by an inconsiderate zeal to con*
demn fasting, the life of celibacy, monachism, considered purely
in themselves. ... He merely sought to show that men were
I Quinam isti (adversarii) sint, semel aomioabo: exteriores'et
interioresbotulipsychicorum . . . Arguuntnoa quod je junta propria
custodiamus, quod stationcs plcrumque in vesperam produaxmus,
quod etiam xerophopascbaervemu*, siccantes cibum ab omni carne
et omni jurulentiaet uvidioribusquibiMquepornis, nee quid vinositatis
vcl edamusvel potemiis; lavacrt quoque aostinentiam congrucntem
arido victui.
. * The language of the canon is ambiguous: but this interpretation
stems to be preferable, especially in view of canon 23, which enacts
that jtjunii superposition** are to be observed in all months except
July and August. See Hefele, Councils, L 148 (EngL trs>).
• Compare the 52nd feist] of the Apostolical canons. " If any
bishop or presbyter or deacon, or indeed any one of the sacerdotal
catalogue, abstains from flesh and wine, not for his own exercise
but oat of hatred of the things, forgetting that all things were very
good . . . either let him reform, or let him be deprived and be cast
out of the church. So also a layman." To this particular canon
Hefele is disposed to assign a very early date.
* Compare canon 64 of the (supposed) fourth synod of Carthage:
" He who fast* on Sunday is not accounted a Catholic ** (Hefele, ii.
415).
wrong in recommending so highly and mdiscriminstdy the life
of celibacy and fasting, though he was ready to admit that both
under certain circumstances might be good and useful"
(Neander) . He was nevertheless condemned (390) both by Pope
Siridus at a synod in Rome, and by Ambrose at another in Milan.
The views of Aerius, according to the representations of his
bitter opponent Epiphanius (Hotr. 75, " Adv. Aerium "), teen
on this head at least, though unpopular, to have been character-
ised by great wisdom and sobriety. He did not condemn
fasting altogether, but thought that it ought to be resorted to
in the spirit of gospel freedom according as each occasion should
arise. He found fault with the church for having substituted
for Christian liberty a yoke of Jewish bondage.*
Towards the beginning of the 5th century we fed Socrates
(439) enumerating (H.E. v. as) a long catalogue of the different
fasting practices of the church. The Romans fasted three weeks
continuously before Easter (Saturdays and Sundays excepted).
In Illyria, Achaia and Alexandria the quadragesimal fast lasted
six weeks. Others (the Constantinopoiitans) began their fasts
seven weeks before Easter, but fasted only on alternate weeks,
five days at a time. Corresponding differences as to the manner
of abstinence occurred. Some abstained from all living creatures;
others ate fish ; others fish and fowl. Some abstained from eggs
and fruit; some confined themselves to bread; some would not
take even that. Some fasted till three in the afternoon, and
then took whatever they pleased. " Other nations/' adds the
historian, " observe other customs in their fasts, and that for
various reasons. And since no one can show any written ruk
about this, it is plain the apostles left this matter free to every
one's liberty and choice, that no one should be compelled to do
a good thing out of necessity and fear." When Leo the Great
became pope in 440, a period of more rigid uniformity began.
The imperial authority of Valentinian helped to bring the whole
West at least into submission to the see of Rome ; and ecclesi-
astical enactments had, more than formerly, the support of the
civil power. Though the introduction of the four Ember seasons
was not entirely due to him, as has sometimes been asserted,
it is certain that their widespread observance was due to his
influence, and to that of his successors, especially of Gregory the
Great The tendency to increased rigour may be discerned in
the 2nd canon of the synod of Orleans (541), which declares that
every Christian is bound to observe the fast of Lent, and, in case
of failure to do so, is to be punished according; to the laws of the
church by his spiritual superior; in the 9th canon of the synod
of Toledo (653), which declares the eating of flesh during Lent
to be a mortal sin; in Charlemagne's law for the newly con-
quered Saxony, which attaches the penalty of death to wanton
disregard of the holy season.* Baronius mentions that in the
nth century. those who ate flesh during Lent were liable to have
their teeth knocked out. But it ought to be remembered that
this severity of the law early began to be tempered by the power
to grant dispensations. . The so-called Butter Towers {Tours dt
beurre) of Rouen, 1485-1507, Bourges and other cities, arc said
to have been built with money raised by sale of dispensations
to eat Iacticinia on fast days.
It is probable that the apparent severity of the medieval
Latin Church on this subject was largely due to the real strictness
of the Greek Church, which, under the patriarch Phothis in 864,
had taken what was virtually a new departure in its fasting
praxis. The rigour of the fasts of the modern Greek Church is
well knbwn; and it can on the whole be traced back to that
comparatively early date. Of the nine fundamental laws of that
* Prtscillian, whose widespread heresy evoked from the synod of
Saragossa (418) the canon. l ' No one shall fast on Sunday, nor nay
any one absent himself from church during Lent and bold a fes-
tival of his own," appears, on the question of fasting, not to have
differed from the Encratites and various other sects of Manichean
tendency (c. 406).
■ Cap. iii. pro partib. Saxoniae: " Si oub sanctum ojtadragesunate
jejunium pro despectu Christianitatis contempaent et carnem
comederit. morte moriafur. Sed tamen consideretur a aacerdote ne
forte causa necessitatis hoc cuilibet proveniat, ut <
See Augusti, ChrisUUhe Arck8dofie t x. p. 374.
FASTING
197
drank (brie twpe^rylXjiera t^i tafctrf as) two are concerned
with ftstiog. Besides fasts of an occasional and extraordinary
Mture, the following are recognized as of stated and universal
obligation:— (1) The Wednesday -and Friday fasts throughout
the ytar (with the exception of the period between Christmas
ind Epiphany, the Easter week, the week after Whitsunday,
the third week after Epiphany); (a) The great yearly fasts, via\
that of Lent, lasting 48 days, from the Monday of Sexagesima
to Easter eve; that of Advent, 30 days, from November 15 to
Christmas eve; that of the Theotokos (nprtfa rijr OtcfSnw),
from August 1 to August 15; that of the Holy Apostles, last-
ing 1 variable number of days from the Monday after Trinity;
(3) The minor yearly fasts before Epiphany, before Whitsunday,
Wore the feasts of the transfiguration, the invention of the cross,
iht beheading of John the Baptist. During even the least rigid
of these the use of flesh and lactlcinia is strictly forbidden;
fish, oil and wine are occasionally conceded, but not before two
o'clock in the afternoon. The practice of the Coptic church is
almost identical with this. A week before the Great Fast (Lent),
a fast of three days is observed in commemoration of that of the
N'ioevites, mentioned in the book of Jonah. Some of the Copts
tre said to observe it by total abstinence during the whole
period. Hie Great Fast continues fifty-five days; nothing is
aieo except bread and vegetables, and that only in the afternoon,
•sea church prayers are over. The Fast of the Nativity lasts
tor twenty-eight days before Christmas; that of the Apostles
fa a variable number of days from the Feast of the Ascension;
ad that of the Virgin for fifteen days before the Assumption.
AH Wednesdays and Fridays are also fast days except those that
occur in the period between Easter and Whitsunday. The
Armenians are equally strict; but (adds Rycaut) " the times
ma so confused and without rule that they can scarce be re*
counted, unless by those who kVe amongst them, and strictly
observe them, it being the chief cure of the priest, whose learning
prindpally consists in knowing the appointed times of fasting
ud feasting, the which they never omit on Sundays to publish
nto the people."*
At the council of Trent no move than a passing allusion was
aide to the subject of lasting. The faithful were simply en*
piaed to submit themselves to church authority on the subject;
«o! the clergy were exhorted to urge their flocks to the observance
°f {request jejunia, as conducive to the mortification of the flesh,
ud u assuredly securing the divine favour. R. F. R. Beilarmine
'ft jtjmue) distinguishes jpnmium spkiltttU {abstintntia a
*&s), jtjmtimm morale (parsimonia tf Umpcrontia cibi et peiv*),
Kjmum maimraU (abiUnenH* ok omni prorsus cibo al poiu,
fsacamta* ratiom* sumpio), and jejunum itc kmsfi ctm. The
bit he defines simply as an abiliurncc from food in conformity
«iih the rule of the church. It may be either voluntary or
onpulsary; nod compulsory either because of a vow or because
4 a command. But the definition given by Alexander Hsknais,
tfekh is much fuller, still retains its authority.—" Jejunium
at ah&tiaeaiia n riboot potu secundum formam eccksiae, intuitu
atisfariradi pro peccato et acoutrendi vitam aetemam.' 1 it
*u to this last clause that the Reformers most seriously objected.
They did not deny that fasting might be a good thing, nor did
taey maintain that the church or the authority might not ordain
tuts, though they deprecated the imposition of needless burdens
00 the conscience. What they protested against was the theory
tt the opus operatum et meritorium as applied to fasting. As
auter of fact the Reformed churches in no case- gave up the
ottom of observing fast days, though by some churches the
ftnher of such days was greatly reduced. In many parts of
Germany the seasons of Lent and Advent are still marked by
tot use of emblems of mourning in the churches, by* the frequency
o> certain phrases (Kyrie eleison, Agnus Dei) and the absence of
others (Hallelujah, Gloria in excetsis) in the liturgical services,
fay abstinence from some of the usual social festivities, and by
u* aon-cekbration of marriages. And occasional fasts are more
' See Fink's article " Fasten " in E«ch and Grubcr's Encyclop&die*,
£«, Modem BgypHmr; and Rycaut, Prtunt StaU of the Armenian
or less familiar. The Church of England has retained a con-
siderable list of fasts; though Hooker (E.P. v. 72) had to con-
tend with some who, while approving of fastings undertaken
" of mens own free and voluntary accord as their particular
devotion doth move them thereunto/* yet "yearly or weekly
fasts such as ours in the Church of England they allow no further
than as the temporal state of the land doth require the same
for the maintenance of seafaring men and preservation of cattle;
because the decay of the one and the waste of (he other could not
well be prevented but by a politic order appointing some such
usual change of diet as ours is:"
In the practice of modern Roman Catholicism the following
are recognized as fasting days, that is to say, days on which one
meal only, and that not of flesh, may be taken in the course of
twenty-four hours: — The forty days of Lent (Sundays excepted),
all the Ember days, the Wednesdays and Fridays in Advent,
and the vigils of certain feasts, namely, those of Whitsuntide,
of St Peter and St Paul, of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin
Mary, of All Saints and of Christmas day. The following are
simply days of abstinence, that is to say, days on which flesh at
all events must not be eaten.*— The Sundays in Lent, the three
Rogation days, the feast of St Mark (unless it falls In Easier
week), and all Fridays which are not days of fasting. In the
Anglican Church, the " days of fasting or abstinence " are the
forty days of Lent, the Ember days, the Rogation days, and all
the Fridays in the year, except Christmas day. The evens or
vigils before Christmas, the Purification of the Blessed Virgin
Mary, the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Easter day,
Ascension day, Pentecost, St Matthias, the Nativity of St John
Baptist, St Peter, St James, St Bartholomew, St Matthew, St
Simon and St Jude, St Andrew, St Thomas, and All Saints are
also recognised as " fast days." By the 64th canon it is enacted
that " every parson, vicar or curate, shall in his several charge
declare to the people every Sunday at the time appointed in the
communion-book (which is, after the Nicene creed has been
repeated] whether there be any holy-days or fast-days the week
following." The 72nd canon ordains that "no minister or
ministers shall, without licence and direction of the bishop
under hand and seal, appoint or keep any solemn fasts, either
publicly or in any private houses, other than such as by law
are or by public authority shall be appointed, nor shall be
wittingly present at any of them under pain of. suspension for
the first fault, of excommunication for the second, and of
deposition from the ministry for the third." While strongly
discouraging the arbitrary multiplication of public or private
fasts, the English Church seems to leave to the discretion of the
individual conscience every question as to the manner in which
the fasts she formally enjoins are to be observed. In this
connexion the homily Of Fasting may be again referred to.
By a statute of the reign of Queen Elisabeth it was enacted that
none should eat flesh on " fish days " (the Wednesdays, Fridays
and Saturdays throughout the year) without a licence, under a
penalty. In the Scottish Presbyterian churches days of " fast-
ing, humiliation and prayer" are observed by ecclesiastical
appointment in each parish once or twice every year on some day
of the week preceding the Sunday fixed for the administration
of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. In some of the New
England States, it has been usual for the governor to appoint
by proclamation at some time in spring a day of fasting, when
religious services are conducted in the churches. National fasts
have more than once been observed on special occasions both in
this country and in the United Slates of America. .
On the subject of fasting the views of Aerius arc to a large
extent shared by modern Protestant moralists. R. Rothe, for
example, who on this point may be regarded as a representative
thinker, rejects the idea that fasting is a thing meritorious in
itself, and is very doubtful of its value even as an aid to devotional
feeling. Of course when bodily health and other circumstances
require it, it becomes a duty; and as a means of self-discipline
it may be used with due regard to the claims of other duties,
and to the fitness of things. In this last aspect, however,
habitual temperance will generally be found to be much more
198
FASTOLF— FATALISM
beneficial than occasional fasting. It is extremely questionable,
in particular, whether fasting be so efficient as it is sometimes
supposed to be in protecting against temptation to fleshly sin.
The practice has a well-ascertained tendency to excite the
imagination; and in so far as it disturbs that healthy and well-
balanced interaction of body and mind which is the best or at
least the normal condition for the practice of virtue, it is to
be deprecated rather than encouraged (Theobgisckc Eikik, see.
873-S75).
Makommcdan Fasts. — Among the Mahommedans, the month
Ramadan, in which the first part of the Koran is said to have
been received, is by command of the prophet observed as a fast
with extraordinary rigour. No food or drink of any kind is
permitted to be taken from daybreak until the appearance of
the stars at nightfall. Extending as it does over the whole
" month of raging heat," such a fast manifestly involves con-
siderable self-denial; and it is absolutely binding upon all the
faithful whether at home or abroad. Should its observance at
the appointed time be interfered with by sickness or any other
cause, the fast must be kept as soon afterwards as possible for
a like number of days. It is the only one which Mahommedanism
enjoins; but the doctors of the law recommend a considerable
number of voluntary fasts, as for example on the tenth day of
the month Moharram. This day, called the " Yom Ashoora,"
is held sacred on many accounts: — *' because it is believed to be
the day on which the first meeting of Adam and Eve took place
after they were cast out of paradise; and that on which Noah
went out from the ark; also because several other great events
are said to have happened on this day; and because the ancient
Arabs, before the time of the prophet, observed it by fasting.
But what, in the opinion of most modern Moslems, and especially
the Persians, confers the greatest sanctity on the day of Ashoora
is the fact of its being that on which El-Hoseyn, the prophet's
grandson, was slain a martyr at the battle of the plain of Karbala."
It is the practice of many Moslems to fast on this day, and some
do so on the preceding day also. Mahomet himself called fast ing
the " gate of religion," and forbade it only on the two great
festivals, namely, on that which immediately follows Ramadan
and on that which succeeds the pilgrimage. (See Lane, Modem
Egyptians, chaps, in., xxiv.)
FASTOLF, SIR JOHN (d. 1450), English soldier, has enjoyed a
more lasting reputation as in some part the prototype of Shake-
speare's Falstaff. He was son of a Norfolk gentleman, John
Fastolf of Caister, is said to have been squire to ThomasMowbray,
duke of Norfolk, before 1308, served with Thomas of Lancaster
in Ireland during 1405 and 1406, and in 1408 made a fortunate
marriage with Millicent, widow of Sir Stephen Scropc of Castle
Combe in Wiltshire. In 14x3 he was serving in Gascony, and
took part in all the subsequent campaigns of Henry V. in France.
He must have earned a good repute as a soldier, for in 1423 be
was made governor of Maine and Anjou, and in February 1426
created a knight of the Garter. But later in this year he was
superseded in his command by John Talbot. After a visit to
England in 1428, he returned to the war, and on the 12th of
February 1420 when in charge of the convoy for the English
army before Orleans defeated the French and Scots at the
" battle of herrings." On the 18th of June of the same year
an English force under the command of Fastolf and Talbot
suffered a serious defeat at Patay. According to the French
historian Waurin, who was present, the disaster was due to
Talbot's rashness, and Fastolf only tied when resistance was
hopeless. Other accounts charge him with cowardice, and it is
true that John of Bedford at first deprived him of the Garter,
though after inquiry he was honourably reinstated. This
incident was made unfavourable use of by Shakespeare in Henry
VI. (pt. i. act iv. sc. i.). Fastolf continued to serve with honour
fn France, and was trusted both by Bedford and by Richard of
York. He only came home finally in 1440, when past sixty years
of age. But the scandal against him continued, and during
Cade's rebellion in 1451 he was charged with having been the
cause of the English disasters through minishing the garrisons
of Normandy. It is suggested that he had made much money
in the war by the hire of troops, and in his later days be showed
himself a grasping man of business. A servant wrote oi him ;—
" cruel and vengible he hath been ever, and for the most put
without pity and mercy " (Fasten Letters, i. 389). Besides his
share in his wife's property he had large estates in Norfolk aid
Suffolk, and a house at Southwark, where he also owned the
Boar's Head Inn. He died at Caister on the 5th of November
I45g. There is some reason to suppose that Fastolf favoured
Lollardry, and this circumstance with the tradition oi his
braggart cowardice may have suggested the use of his name (or
the boon companion of Prince Hal, when Shakespeare found
it expedient to drop that of Oldcastle. In the first two folios
the name of the historical character in the first part of Henry 17.
is given as " Falstaffe " not Fastolf. Other points of resemblaoce
between the historic Fastolf and the Falstaff of the dramatist
are to be found in their service under Thomas Mowbray, and
association with a Boar's Head Inn. But Falstaff is in no true
sense a dramatization of the real soldier.
The facts of Fastolf 's early career are to be found chiefly in the
chronicles of Monstrelet and Waurin. For his later life there is much
material, including a number of his own letters, in the Paston Letters.
There is a full life by W. Oldys in the Biographia Britannica (isted..
enlarged by Cough in Kippis's edition). See also Dawson Turoet s
History of Caister Castle, Scrape's History of Castle Combe.l.GiirdtKt'i
essay On the Historical Element in Shakespeare's Falstaff, ap. Stadia
in English History, Sidney Lee's article in the Dictionary of Nattonei
Biography, and 0. W. Duthie, The Case of Sir John Fastoft ani ttktt
Historical Studies (1907). (C L K.)
FAT (O.E. fddt; the word is common to Teutonic languages.
cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fell, &c, and may be ultimately related to
Greek mW and wcapot, and Sanskrit pivan), the name given
to certain animat and vegetable products which are oily solids
at ordinary temperatures, and are chemically distinguished
as being the glyceryl esters of various fatty acids, of which the
most important are stearic, palmitic, and oleic; it is to be
noticed that they are non-nitrogenous. Fat is a normal con-
stituent of animal tissue, being found even before birth; il
occurs especially in the intramuscular, the abdominal ani
the subcutaneous connective tissues. In the vegetable kingdoo
fats especially occur in the seeds and fruits, and sometimes it
the roots. Physiological subjects concerned with the part play*
by fats in living animals are treated in the articles Coknectivi
Tissues; Nutrition; Corpulence; Metabolic Diseases
The fats arc chemically similar to the fixed oils, from which the
are roughly distinguished by being solids and not liquids (sc
Oils). While all fats have received industrial application^
foremost importance must be accorded to the fals of the domesti
animals — the sheep, cow, ox and calf. These, which are eat racte
from the bones and skins in the first operation in the mam
facture of glue, are the raw materials of the soap, candle an
glycerin industries. "
FATALISM (Lat. fatum, that which is spoken, decreed
strictly the doctrine that all things happen according to a pr
arranged fate, necessity or inexorable decree. It has frequent!
been confused with determinism (q.v.), which, however, diflei
from it categorically in assigning a certain function to the wii
The essence of the fatalistic doctrine is that it assigns no plat
at all to the initiative of the individual, or to rational sequew
of events. Thus an oriental may believe that he is fated to d
on a particular day; he believes that, whatever be does and 1
spite of all precautions he may take, nothing can avert tl
disaster. The idea of an omnipotent fate overruling all aflai
of men is present in various forms in practically all retigsi
systems. Thus Homer assumes a single fate (MoT/xx). 1
impersonal power which makes all human concerns subject
the gods: it is not powerful over the gods, however, for Ze
is spoken of as weighing out the fate of men (//. xxii. 200. w
60). Hesiod has three Fates (Moipat), daughters of Nigjj
Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos. In Aeschylus fate is pow
even over the gods. The Epicureans regarded fate as I
chance, while to the Stoics everything is subject to an ab
rational law. I
The doctrine of fate appears also in what are known as \
higher religion-, e.g. Christianity and Mahommedanism. la I
FATE— FATHER
'99
boner the ides* of peifQMUty and infinite power have vanished,
illpovcr being conceived as inherent in Cod. It b recognised
that the moral individual most have some kind of initiative,
ud yet since God a omnipotent and omniscient man must be
conceived as in tome sense foreordained to a certain moral,
neotal and physical development. In the history of theChristian
chuck emphasis baa from time to time been laid specially on the
alter aspect of human- life (d. the doctrines of election, tore-
onfination, determinism). Even those theologians, however,
who have laid special stress on the limitations of the human wHI
have repudiated the strictly fatalistic doctrine which is character*
sticof Oriental thought and ■ the negation of all human initiative
(see Piedcstinatxon; Avcustins, Sautt; Will). In Islam
tale is an absolute power, known as Kiswtet, or Nasib, which is
morjved as inexorable and transcending all the physical laws
oi the universe. The most striking feature of the Oriental
uulism is its complete indifference to material circumstances:
men accept prosperity and misfortune with calmness as the decree
of fate.
FATB, in Roman mythology, the spoken word (fatum) of
Jupiter, the unalterable will of heaven. The plural (Fata, the
ftics) was used for the " destinies " of individuals or cities,
tad then for the three goddesses who controlled them. Thus,
hu Scribunda were the goddesses who wrote down a man's
daisy at bis birth. In this connexion, however, Fata may be
angular, the masculine and feminine Folia, Fata, being the usual
bran in popular and ce r emonial language. The Pates were
isocaikd Paroae, toe attributes of both being the same as those
athe Greek Moerae.
FATEHPUR, Fathbuh or Futtehpooe, a town and district
•{British India, in the Allahabad division of the United Provinces.
Tie town is 73 m. by rail N.W. of Allahabad. Pop. (toot) 10,281.
The district has an area of 1618 sq. m. It b situated in the
mits* south-eastern corner of the Doab or tract of country
tavten the Ganges and the Jumna, which respectively mark its
northern and southern boundaries. The whole district consists
of aa alluvial plain formed by the deposits of the two great rivers.
The central part is almost perfectly level, and consists of highly
criuvited land interspersed with jungle and with tracts im-
pregnated with saltpetre {mar). A ridge of higher land, forming
the watershed of the district, runs along it from east to west at
« average distance of about 5 m. from the Ganges. Fatehpur
therefore consists of two inclined planes, the one 5 m. broad,
doping down rapidly to the Ganges, and the other from 1 5 to so
*- broad, falling gradually to the Jumna. The country near the
tab of the two riven is cut up into ravines and ntiHahs running
°> ail directions, and is almost entirely uncuhivaUe. Besides
i*e Ganges and Jumna the only rivers of importance are the
fadu, a tributary of the Ganges, and the Arind and Nun,
*tich both fall into the Jumna. The climate is more humid
dan in the other districts of the Doab, and although fevers are
oornon, it is not considered an unhealthy district The average
ooaal rainfall is 34 in.
The tract in which tMs district is comprised was conque re d
a "W by the Pathans; but subsequently, after a desperate
^stance, it was wrested from them by the Moguls. In the 1 8th
cttturjr it formed a part of the subak of Korah, and was under
'k government of the wasir of Oodh. In 1736 it was overrun
^ the Mahrattas, who retained possession of h until, in 1750,
'hey vere ousted by the Pathans of Fatehpur. In 1753 it was
^conquered by the nawab of Oudh. In 1 765, by a treaty between
** East India Company and the nawab, Korah was made
Gf er to the Delhi emperor, who retained it till 1774, when it
■** again restored to the nawab wasir 's dominions. Finally in
&i, the nawab, by treaty, reconveyed it to the Company in
ttQnnitation of the amount which he had stipulated to pay in
"bra for the defence of his country. In June 1857 the district
** in rebellion, and the usual murders of Europeans took place.
Or&r was established after the fall of Lucknow, on the return of
i*4 Clyde's army to Cawnpore. In ioox the population was
f**»3oi, showing a decrease of 2 % in the decade. The district
» uaversed by the main line of the East Indian railway from
Allahabad to Cawnpore. Trade fa mainly agricultural, but the
town of Fatehpur is noted for the manufacture of ornamental
whip s, and Jafarganj for artistic curtains, ftc.
FATBHPUR glKRI, a town in the Agra district in the United
Provinces of India, on the road from Agra to Jaipur. Pop. (1901)
7 147. It is a ruined city, and is interesting only from an archaeo-
logical point of view. It was founded by Akbar in 1569 as a
thank-offering for the birth of a son, Selim, afterwards the
emperor Jahangir, foretold by Selim Chisti, a famous Mabom-
medan saint. The principal building is the great mosque, which
is said by Fergusson to be hardly surpassed by any in India.
" It measures 550 ft. east and west by 470 ft. north and south,
over all. The mosque itself, 250 ft. by 80 ft., is crowned by three
domes. In Its courtyard, which measures 350 ft. by 440 ft.,
stand two tombs. One is that of Selim Chisti, built of white
marble, and the windows with pierced tracery of the most
exquisite geometrical patterns. It possesses besides a deep
cornice of marble, supported by brackets of the most elaborate
design. The other tomb, that of Nawab Islam Khan, is soberer
and in excellent taste, but quite eclipsed by its surroundings.
Even these parts, however, are surpassed in magnificence by
the southern gateway. As it stands on a rising ground 4 , when
looked at from below its appearance is noble beyond that of
any portal attached to any mosque in India, perhaps in the whole
world." Among other more noteworthy buildings the following
may be mentioned. The palace of Jodh Bai, the Rajput wife of
Akbar, consists of a courtyard surrounded by a gallery, above
which rise buildings roofed with blue enamel. A rich gateway
gives access to a terrace on which are the " houses of Birbal and
Miriam"; and beyond these is another courtyard, where are
Akbar's private apartments and the exquisite palace of the
Turkish sultana, Here are also the Panch Mahal or five-storeyed
building, consisting of five galleries in tiers, and the audience
chamber. The special feature in the architecture of the city is
the softness of the red sandstone, which could be carved almost
as- easily as wood, and so lent itself readily to the elaborate
Hindu embellishment. Fatehpur Sikri was a favourite residence
of Akbar throughout his reign, and his establishment here was
of great magnificence. After Akbar's death Fatehpur Sikri
was deserted within 50 years of its foundation. The reason for
this was that frequent cause in the East, lack of water. The
only water obtainable was so brackish and corroding as to cause
great mortality among the inhabitants. The buildings are
situated within an enclosure, walled on three sides and about
7 m. in circumference. They are all now more or less in ruins,
and their elaborate painting and other decoration has largely
perished, but some modern restoration has been effected.
See E. B. Havell, A Handbook to A pa and iht Taj, Sikandra,
FaUhpur Sikri, &c. (1904).
FATHER, the begetter of a child, the male parent. The
word is common to Teutonic languages, and, like the other
words for close family relationship, mother, brother, son, sister,
daughter, appears in most Indo-European languages. The
O. Eng. form is /enter, and it appears in Gcr. Vattr, Dutch tadcr,
Gr. rarffp, Lat. pater, whence Romanic Fr. pin, Span, padre, &c.
The word is used of male ancestors more remote than the actual
male parent, and of ancestors in general. It is applied to God,
as the Father of Jesus Christ, and as the Creator of the world,
and is thus the orthodox term for the First Person of the Trinity.
Of the transferred uses of the word many have religious reference;
thus it is used of the Christian writers, usually confined to those
of the first five centuries, the Fathers of the Church (see below),
of whom those who flourished at the end of, or just after the age
of, the apostles are known as the Apostolic Fathers. One who
stands as a spiritual parent to another is his " father," e.g. god-
father, or in the title of bishops or archbishops, Right or Most
Reverend Father in God. The pope is, in the Roman Church,
the Holy Father. In the Roman Church, father is strictly applied
to a " regular," a member of one of the religious orders, and so
always in Europe, in English usage, often applied to a confessor,
whether regular or secular, and to any Roman priest, and
sometimes used of sub-members of a religious society or fraternity
2O0
FATHERS OF THE CHURCH
in the English Church. Of t ransferred uses, other than religious,
may be mentioned the application to the first founders of an
institution, constitution, epoch, &c. Thus the earliest settlers
of North America are the Pilgrim Fathers, and the f miners of
the United States constitution are the Fathers of the Constitution.
In ancient Rome the members of the senate are the Palres
conscripti, the "Conscript fathers." The senior member or
doyen of a society is often called thp father. Thus the member
of the English House of Commons, and similarly, of the House
of Representatives in the United States, America, who has sat
for the longest period uninterruptedly, is the Father of the
House.
FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. The use of the word " father "
as a title of respect is found in the Old Testament, where it is
applied to patriarchs (Gen. 1. 24 (Scptuagint); Exod. iii. 13, 15;
Deut. i. 8), priests (Judg. xvii. 10, xviii. 19), prophets (2 Kings ii.
12, vi. 21, xiii. 14), and distinguished ancestors (Ecclus. xliv. x).
In the time of our Lord the scribes claimed the name with an
arrogance which He disapproved (Matt, xxiii. 9); in the rabbinic
literature " the fathers " are the more eminent of the earlier
rabbis whose sayings were handed down lor the guidance of
posterity. 1 The Christian Church, warned perhaps by the words
of Christ, appears at first to have avoided a similar use of the
term, while St Paul, St Peter and St John speak of their
converts as spiritual children (1 Cor. iv. 14 f., Cal. iv. 19, 1 Pel. v.
13 1 1 John ii. 12); they did not assume, so far as we know, the
official style of " fathers in God." Nor is this title found in the
age which succeeded to that of the apostles. When Polycarp,
bishop of Smyrna, was martyred (a.d. 155), the crowd shouted,
" This is the father of the Christians "'; but the words were
probably prompted by the Jews, who took a prominent part in
the martyrdom, and who naturally viewed Polycarp in the
light of a great Christian rabbi, and gave him the title which their
own teachers bore In the next century members of the episcopal
order were sometimes addressed in this manner: thus Cyprian
is styled papas or pep a by his Roman correspondents. 4 The
bishops who sat in the great councils of the 4th century were
known as "the 318 fathers" of Nicaea, and "the 150 fathers"
of Constantinople. Meanwhile the custom was growing up of
appealing to eminent Church writers of a past generation under
this name. Thus Athanasius writes {ad Afros vi.): " We have
the testimony of fathers (the two Dionysii, bishops of Alexandria
and Rome, who wrote in the previous century) for the use of
the word o/foofows." Such quotations were multiplied, as
theologians learnt to depend increasingly upon their predecessors,
until the testimony of " our holy father " Athanasius, or Gregory
the Divine, or John the.Goldcn-mouthed, came to be regarded
as decisive in reference to controverted points of faith and
practice.
In the narrower sense thus indicated the " fathers " of the
Church are the great bishops and other eminent Christian
teachers of the earlier centuries, who were conspicuous for
soundness of judgment and sanctity of life, and whose writings
remained as a court of appeal for their successors. A list of fathers
drawn up on this principle will begin with the Christian writers
of the 1st century whose writings are not included in the New
Testament: where it ought to end is a more difficult point to
determine. Perhaps the balance of opinion is in favour of
regarding Gregory the Great (d. 604) as the last of the Latin
fathers, and John of Damascus (d. c. 760) as the last of the fathtrs
of the Greek Church. A more liberal estimate might include
John Scot us Erigcna or even Ansclm or Bernard of Clairvaux
in the West and Photius in the East. The abbe" Mignc carried
his Latin patrology down to the time of Innocent III. (d. 1216),
and his Greek patrology to the fall of Constantinople (1453);
but, while this large extension of the field is much to the advan-
tage of his readers, it undoubtedly stretches the meaning of
patroloiia tar beyond its natural limits. For ordinary purposes
It is best to make the patristic period conterminous with the life
1 See Buxtorf. ur. Abk, and cf. the title of the tract Pirkt Abotk
(ed. Taylor, p. 3).
* Potyc. Hart. 8. * Studio biblka, iv. p. 273.
of the ancient Catholic Church. In the West the Church enters
the medieval stage of its history with the death of Gregory,
while in the East even John of Damascus is rather a compiler
of patristic teaching than a true "father."
A further question arises. Axe all the Christian writers of a
given period to be included among the " fathers," or those only
who wrote on religious subjects, and of whose orthodoxy there
is no doubt? Mignc, following Che example of the editors of
biUiothctat patntm who preceded him, swept into his great
collection all the Christian writings which fell within his period;
but he is careful to state upon his title-page that his patrologies
include the ecclesiastical writers as well as the fathers and doctors
of the Church. For a comprehensive use of the term " ecclesi-
astical writers " he has the authority of Jerome, who enumerates
among them 4 such heresiarchs or leaders of schism as Tatian,
Bardaisan, Novatus, Donatus, Photinus and Eunomius. This
may not be logical, but long usage Has made it permissible or
even necessary. It is often difficult, if not impracticable, to
draw the line between orthodox writers and heterodox; on
which side, it might be asked, is Origen to be placed ? and in the
case of a writer like Tertullian who left the Church in middle
life, are we to admit certain of his works into our patrology and
refuse a place to others ? It is dear that in the circumstances
the terms " father," " patristic," '' patrology " must be used
with much elasticity, since it is now too late to substitute for
them any more comprehensive terms.
By the " fathers," then, we understand the whole of extant
Christian literature from the time of the apostles to the rise of
scholasticism or the beginning of the middle ages. However *e
may interpret the lower limit of this period, the literature which
it embraces is immense. Some method of subdivision is necessary,
and the simplest and most obvious is that which breaks the whole
into two great parts, the ante-Nkene and the post-Nicene.
This is not an arbitrary cleavage; the Council of Nicaea (aj>.
325) is the watershed which actually separates two great tracts
of Christian literature. The ante-Nicene age yields priceless
records of the early struggles of Christianity; from it we have
received specimens of the early apologetic and the early polemic
of the Church, the first essays of Christian philosophy. Christian
correspondence, Christian biblical interpretation: we owe to it
the works of Justin, Ircnaeus, the Alexandrian Cement, Origen,
Tertullian, Cyprian. In these products of the and and 3rd
centuries there is much which in its own way was not surpassed
by any of the later patristic writings. Yet the post-Nicene
literature, considered as literature, reaches a far higher level.
Both in East and West, the 4th and 5th centuries form the golden
age of dogmatic theology, of homHetic preaching, of exposition,
of letter-writing, of Church history, of religious poetry. Two
causes may be assigned for this fact. The conversion of the
empire gave the members of the Church leisure and opportunities
for the cultivation of literary taste, and gradually drew the
educated classes within the pale of the Christian society. More-
over, the great Christological controversies of the age tended to
encourage in Christian writers and preachers an intellectual
acutcness and an accuracy of thought and expression of which
the earlier centuries had not felt the need.
The ante-Nicene period of patristic literature opens with the
"apostolic fathers,"* i.e. the Church writers who flourished
toward the end of the apostolic age and during the half century
that followed it, including Clement of Rome, Ignatius of AnUoch,
Polycarp of Smyrna and the author known as "Barnabas."
Their writings, like those of the apostles, are epistolary; but
editions of the apostolic fathers now usually admit also the early
Church order known as the Didachi, the allegory entitled the
Shepherd, and a short anonymous apology addressed to one
Diognetus. A second group, known as the " Greek Apologists,"
embraces Aristides, Justin, Tatian, Athenagorasand TheopbHus;
and a third consists of the early polemical writers, Ircnaeus and
4 In his book De viris tflustribus.
• The term palres aposloNci is due to the patristic scholars of the
17th century: see Lightfoot, St Ctemtnt of Kom*, i. p. 3. ♦• Sub-
aposiolic " U perhaps a more accurate designation.
FATHOM
20 1
Sppolytos. Nest come the great Alexandrians, Clement,
Origen, Dionysius; the Carthaginians, Tertullian and Cyprian;
the Romans, Minucius Fehx and Novatian; the last four laid
the foundations of a Latin Christian literature. Even the stormy
days of the last persecution yielded some considerable writers,
such as Methodius in the East and Lactantius in the West* This
list is -far from complete; the principal collections of the ante-
Nkene fathers include not a few minor and anonymous writers,
and the fragments of many others whose works as a whole have
perished.
In the post-Nicene period the literary output of the Church
was greater. Only the more representative names can be men-
tioned here. From Alexandria we get Athanasius, Didymus and
Cyril; from Cyrene, Synesius; from Antioch, Theodore of
Mopsuestia, John Chrysostom and Thcodoret; from Palestine,
Eusebius of Caesarea and Cyril of Jerusalem; from Cappadocia,
Basil, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazknaus. The Latin
West was scarcely less productive; it is enough to mention
Hilary of Poitiers, Ambrose of Milan, Augustine of Hippo, Leo of
Rome, Jerome, Runnus, and a father lately restored to his place
in patristic literature, Niceta of Remesiana. 1 Gaul alone has a
goodly list of Christian authors to show: John Cassian, Vincent
of Lerins, Hilary of Aries, Prosper of Aquitaine, Salvian of
starsrillrs, Sidonius ApoUinaris of Auvergne, Caesarius of Aries,
Gregory of Tours. The period ends in the West with two great
Italian names, Cassiodorus and Pope Gregory L, after Leo the
greatest of papal theologians.
The reader to whom the study is new will gain some idea of the
balk of the extant patristic literature, if we add that in Migne*s
collection ninety-six targe volumes are occupied with the Greek
fathers from Clement of Rome to John of Damascus, and seventy-
six with the Latin fathers from Tertullian to Gregory the
Great.'
For a discussion of the more important fathers the student is
referred to the articles which deal with them separately. In this
place it is enough to consider the general influence of the patristic
writings upon Christian doctrine and biblical interpretation.
Can any authority be claimed for their teaching or their exegesis,
other than that which belongs to the best writers of every age.
The decree of the council of Trent* (ul nemo . . . contra un~
mumum consensum patrum ipsam scriptural* satram interpreter*
amUat) is studiously moderate, and yet it seems to rule that
ander certain circumstances it is not permitted to the Church of
latex times to carry the science of biblical interpretation beyond
the point which it had reached at the end of the patristic period.
Roanaa Catholic writers, 4 however, have explained the prohibition
to apply to matters of faith only, and in that case the Tridentine
decree is little else than another form of the Vincentian canon
which has been widely accepted in the Anglican communion:
turamdum est ut id tenesmus quod ubique, quod semper* Quod ab
omnibus aediium est. The fathers of the first six or seven
centuries* so far as they agree, may be fairly taken to represent
the main stream of Christian tradition and belief during the
period when the apostolic leaching took shape in the great creeds
and dogmatic decisions of Christendom. The English reformers
realised this fact; and notwithstanding their insistence on the
unique authority of the canon of Scripture, their appeal to the
fathers as representatives of the teaching of the undivided
Church was as wholehearted as that of the Tridentine divines.
Thus the English canon of 1571 directs preachers " to take heed
that they do not teach anything in their sermons as though
they would have it completely held and believed by the people,
save what is agreeable to the doctrine of the Old and New
Testaments, and what the Catholic Fathers and ancient Bishops
have gathered from that doctrine." Depreciation of the fathers
was characteristic, not of the Anglican reformation, but of the
1 Tb* edits* frfa*£* of Niotta's works was published byDrA.E.
Burn in 1905.
■ The Greek patrology contains, however, besides the text, a
Latin translation, and in both petrologies there is much editorial
natter.
• E.C. l M6hler,5>mWMSsCE.U.)ia3.
revolt against soma of its fundamental principles which was led
by the Puritan reaction.*
• Now that the smoke of these controversies has passed away,
it is possible to form a clearer judgment apon the merits of the
patristic writings. They are no longer used as an armoury
from which opposite sides may draw effective weapons, offensive
or defensive; nor on the other- hand are they cast aside as the
rubbish of an ignorant and superstitious age. All patristic
students now recognize the great inequality of these authors,
and admit that they are not free from the faults of their times;
it is not denied that much of their exegesis is untenable, or that
their logic is often feeble and their rhetoric offensive to modern
taste. But against these disadvantages may be set the unique
services which the fathers still render to Christian scholars.
Their works comprise the whole literature of our faith during
the decisive centuries which followed the apostolic age. They
are important witnesses to the text of the New Testament, to
the history of the canon, and to the history of Interpretation.
It is to their page* that we owe nearly all that we know of the
life of ancient Christianity. We see in them the thought of the
ancient Church taking shape in the minds of her bishops and
doctors; and in many cases they express the results of the great
doctrinal controversies of their age in language which leaves
little to be deswed.*
AuTHORiTras.— The earUett writer on patristic* was Jerome*
whose book Do oiris itlustribus gives a brief account of one hundred
and thirty-five Church writers, beginning with St Peter and ending
with himself. Jerome's work was continued successive- hv
Gennadius of Marseilles, Isidore 01 Sevitle, and I Idcfonsus of Toledo .
the last-named writer bring* Hie li*l down to the middle of (he 7th
century. Since the revival of teaming book* on the fat hen have
been numerous; among the more recent and most accessible of these
we may mention Smith and Wjcc's Dtitienary 0/ Chriuian Bio*
graphy, Hauck-Herzoe's RtidencykiopMu, EUrdenhewcr'i Paituiogit
and Gescnichie der oJtktrchltfhrn Ltiteralur, Uarnack* tttuhithtt itr
oitchrisUiehen Litteratur be* Eusebius and Eh* ard's Die atttkwilukt
Litteratur und ihre Erforschung. A record of patriotic collections
and editions down to l8%n m&y Lc found in Dou-ling'a AWriia
Scriptorum SS. Patrum. The contort* at the volume* of Mijznea
petrologies are given in the ftttfegs* glnirzl dt% hvfrs do fatH
Migne, and a useful 1st in alphabetical order of the writer* in ihe
Greek Patrologia has been enssjpued by Dr J. B. Pearson [Cambridge,
1882). Migne's texts are nut always satisfactory, but since the
completion of his great undertaking two important collect iom have
been begun on critical tines— the Vienna edition of the Latin Church
writers/ and the Berlin editio n of the Greek wri te n of t he a n t e N icw
periods
for Cn^li?h readeri there are three senes of translations from the
fathers, which Mirer much of the ground; the Oxford Library of
the Fni^frt, 1 \\f A ntf PI tune CftrhtiaH Library and the Select Library
of jV iiyiif n nJ Pa ;jS A 1 icen t Fathrrs, S j tiafactory lexicons of patristic
Grsefc and Latin a re itill a de*iJ< r ;num: but assistance may be
ob fined in the study of the Greet; hi hers from Suiccr's Thesaurus,
the Lexitvn r>f Byttntint Creek by E. A. Sophocles, and the Lexicon
Gr : KIM lupptttcrium ti dtaJfctt'tttm of Van Herwerden; whilst the
new urtat Lin* Lniton, published by the Berlin Academy, iscalco*
laU-d to meet the nevdi ol student a ...1 Latin patristic literature. For
a f utter list ofbooL* useful to. (M reader of the Greek and Latin fathers
set H. B. Sivctea PaidUk Study [)n<i ed., 1902). (H. B. S.)
FATHOM (a word common, in various forms, to Scandinavian
and Teutonic languages; cf. Danish /am, Dutch vaam and
Ger. Fad en, and meaning " the arms extended "; the ultimate
origin is a root pet, seen in the Gr. rerowwex, to spread), a
measure of length, being the distance from the tip of one middle
finger to the tip of the other, when the arms are stretched out
to their widest extent. This length has been standardized to
a measure of 6 ft., and as such is used mainly in soundings as
a unit for measuring the depth of the sea. " Fathom " is also
used in the measurement of timber, when it is equivalent to 6 ft.
sq.; similarly, in mining, a fathom is a portion of ground
running the whole thickness of the vein of ore, and is 6 fL in
breadth and thickness. The verb " to fathom," ix. to sound
or measure with a fathom-line, is used figuratively, meaning to
go into a subject deeply, to penetrate, or to explore thoroughly.
• See T. J. Blunt, Right Use of the Father s t p. 15 ff.
• See Stanton, Place of Authority in Religion, p. 165 f.
1 Corpus scriptorum eccUsinsticorum Lottnorumt
• (hioehisckenduistikhenSckriftsteikrn
a* J^XTsslITBS. or Fatimidcs, the name of a dynasty called after
sr'stxixnaa, daughter of the prophet Mahomet, from whom and bcr
^»r%V»nnTl the caliph Ali, son of Abu Talib,- they claimed descent
TTlae* dynasty is also called 'Obaidi (UbaidI) after 'Obaidallah,
%**** first sovereign, and 'Alawl, a title which it shares with
other dynasties claiming the same ancestry. For a list of
sovereigns see Eoypt, section History (Mahommedan period);
three, however, must be prefixed who reigned in north-western
Aicica before the annexation of Egypt: al-Mahdl 'Obaidallah
s^7 (009); al-Qfl'im Mahommed 32a (934); al-MansQr Isma'il
^34 (Q45)-
The dynasty owed its rise to the attachment to the family of
the prophet which was widespread in the Moslem world, and
the belief that the sovereignty was the right of one of its members.
<Z»wing, however, to the absence of the principle of primogeniture
there was difference of opinion as to the person whose claim
should be enforced, and a number of sects -arose maintaining the
nrin^ts of different branches of the family. The Fatimites were
sviapported by those who regarded the sovereignty as vested in
"Xsma'Il, son of Ja'far al-Sidiq, great-great-grandson of All,
-through his second son Hosain (rjusain). Of this Ismail the
first Fatimite caliph was supposed to be the great-grandson.
The line of ancestors between him and Isma'il is, however,
"variously given, even his father's name being quite uncertain,
And in some of the pedigrees even Isma'il does not figure.
Apparently when the family first became of political importance
their Alid descent was not disputed at Bagdad, and the poet
si-Sharif al-Radl (d. a.h. 406: A.D. 1015), in whose family the
office of Naqib (registrar of the Alids) was hereditary, appears
to have acknowledged it (Diwdn, ed. Beirut, p. 072). When
their success became a menace to the caliphs of Bagdad, genealo-
gists were employed to demonstrate the falsity of the claim,
and a considerable literature, both official and unofficial, rose in
consequence. The founder of the dynasty was made out to be
a scion of a family of heretics from whom the terrible Carmathian
sect had originated: later on (perhaps owing to the role played
by Jacob, son of Killis, in bringing the Fatimites to Egypt),
the founder was made out to have been a Jew, either as having
been adopted by the heretic supposed to be his father, or as
having been made to personate the real 'Obaidallah, who had
been killed in captivity. While the stories that make him of
either Jewish or Carmathian origin may be neglected, as the
product of malice, the uncertainty of the genealogies offered by
their partisans renders any positive solution of the problem
impossible. What seems to be clear is that secretly within the
Abbasid empire propaganda was carried on in favour of one or
other Alid aspirant, and the danger which any such aspirant
incurred by coming forward openly led to bis whereabouts being
concealed except from a very few adherents. What is known
then is that towards the end of the 3rd Islamic century the leader
of the sect of Ismillites (Assassins, q.v.) who afterwards mounted
a throne, lived at Salamia, near Emesa (Horns), having agents
spread over Arabia, Persia and Syria, and frequently receiving
visits from pious adherents, who had been on pilgrimage to the
grave of Hosain (rjusain). Such visitors received directions
and orders such as are usual in secret societies. One of these
agents. Aba Abdallah al-Hosain called al-Shll, said to have
filled the office of censor (muktesib) at Basra, received orders
go carry on a mission in Arabia, and at Mecca is said to have
*nade the acquaintance of some members of the Berber tribe
JCutama, south of the bay of Bougie. These persons persuaded
trim to travel home with them in the character of teacher of the
JCoran, but according to some authorities the ground had already
sbeen prepared there for a political mission. He arrived in the
jCutama country in June 803, and appears very soon to have
feeen made chief, thereby exciting the suspicion of the Aghlabite
sruler of Kairawffn, Ibrahim b. Ahmad, which, however, was
stoon allayed. His success provoked a civil war among the
Berbers, but he was protected by a chief named Hasan b. Harun,
«nd displayed sufficient military ability to win respect. Nine
years after his arrival he made use of the unrest following on the
death of the Aghlabite Ibrahim to attack the town of Mila,
FATIMITES
1
1
which he took by treachery, and turned into his capital; the son
and successor of Ibrahim, AbuV Abbas 'Abdallah, ant bis son
al-Afcwal to deal with the new power, and he defeated al-Shf!
in some battles, but in 003 al-Abwal was recalled by hb brother
Ziyidatallah, who had usurped the throne, and put to death.
At some time after his first successes al-Shl'I sent a messenger
(apparently his brother) to the head of his sect at Salamia,
bidding him come to the Kutama country, and place himself at
the head of affairs, since al-ShlTs followers had been taught to
pay homage to a Mahdl who would at some time be shown them.
It is said that 'Obaidallah, who now held this post, was known
to the court at Bagdad, and that on the news of his departure
orders were sent to the governor of Egypt to arrest him: but by
skilful simulation 'Obaidallah succeeded in escaping this danger,
and with his escort reached Tripoli safely. Instru c tions had by
this time reached the Aghlabite Ziyidatallah to be on the watch 1
for the Mahdl, who was finally arrested at Sijilmia* (Tafilalt) in 1
the year ajl aoa (a.d. 905); his companion, al-SMTa brother,
had been arrested at an earlier point, and the MaaoTs journey ,
to the south-west must have been to dude pursuit.
The invitation to the Mahdl turned out to have been prema* ,
ture; for Ziyidatallah had sent a powerful army to oppose ,
al-Shl'I, which, making Constantine its headquarters, had driven
al-Shrt into the mountains: after six months al-Shfl sensed
an opportunity for attacking it, and won a complete victory.
Early in 006 another army was sent to deal with al-Shl'I, and
an earnest appeal came from the caliph Muqtafl (Moktafi),
addressed to all the Moslems of Africa, to aid Ziyidatallah
against the usurper. The operations of the Aghlabite prince
were unproductive of any decided result, and by September
006 al-Shrt had got possession of the important fortress Tuhna
and some others. Further forces were immediately sent to the
front by Ziyidatallah, but these were defeated by al-Shl'I and
his officers, to whom other towns capitulated, till Zijadstallah
found it prudent to retire from Al-Urbus or Laribus, which had
been ms headquarters, and entrench himself in R aqqida, one
of the two capitals of his kingdom, Kairawin being the other.
Ziyidatallah is charged by the chroniclers with dissoluteness and
levity, and even cowardice: after his retreat the fortresses and
towns in what now constitute the department of Constantine
and in Tunisia fell fast into al-Shff s hands, and he was soon
able to threaten Raqqida itself.
By March 009 Raqqida had become untenable, and Zi y&cUt-
allah resolved to flee from his kingdom; taking with him Yds
chief possessions, he made for Egypt, and thence to "Irak.: hi
final fate is uncertain. The cities Raqqida and Kairawan wen
immediately occupied by Al-Shf!, who proceeded to sen
governors to the other places of importance in what had bee:
the Aghlabite kingdom, and to strike new coins, which, howevei
bore no sovereign's name. Orders were given that the StaTit
peculiarities should be introduced into public worship).
In May 000 aWShfl led a tremendous army westwards to th
kingdom of Tahert, where he put an end to the Rnstsimit
dynasty, and appointed a governor of his own: he them
proceeded to Sijilmisa where "Obaidallah lay imprisoned, -wit
the intention of releasing him and placing him on the fitaroet
After a brief attempt at resistance, the governor fled, » r
al-Shfl entered the dty, released 'Obaidallah and present 1
him to the army as the long-promised Imam. The day is ssi-vi
as the 26th of August 000. 'Obaidallah had been in x>ri&4
more than three years. Whether Ins identity with the Mat
for whom al-Shl'I had been fighting was known to the roverc
of Sijilmisa h uncertain. If it was, the governor and his m asi
the Aghlabite sovereign might have been expected to make v
of their knowledge and outwit al-Shf I by putting has X£a\J
to death. Opponents of the Fatimites assert that this wi
actually done, and that the Mahdl presented to the army •«
not the real 'Obaidallah, but (as usual) a Jewish captive*, wi
had been suborned to play the role.
The chief command was now assumed by 'Obaidallah, who *.«
the title " al-Mahdl, Commander of the Faithful/* latest
claiming the headship of the whole Moslem world; Rau^qj
PATIMITES
303
ms At the fint made the fett of the court, and the Shi'Tte
doctrines were enforced on the Inhabitants, not without en*
countering some opposition. Revolts which arose in different
parts of the Aghlabite kingdom were, however, speedily quelled.
The course followed by 'Obaidallah in governing independently
of si-Sim soon led to dissatisfaction on the part of the latter,
who, urged on it is said by his brother, decided to dethrone
their MahoX and on the occasion of an expedition to Ttnes,
nkh al-Shfl commanded, organized a conspiracy with that
end. The conspiracy was betrayed to *ObaldaHah, who took
steps to defeat it, and on the last day of July 011 contrived
to assassinate both at-Shll and his brother. Thus the procedure
which bad characterized the accession of the 'Abblsid dynasty
vis repeated. It has been conjectured that these essassina-
ims lost the Fatlmites the support of the organisation that
coDtiaued to exist in the East, whence the Carmathians figure as
an independent and even hostile community, though they appear
to hive been amenable to the Influence of the African caliph.
'Obaidallah had now to face the dissatisfaction of the tribes
whose allegiance at-Shfl had won, especially the Kutftma,
Zenita and Lawata: the uprising of the first assumed formidable
proportions, and they even elected a Mahdl of their own, one
Xidtt b. Mu'arih al-lf fwat!, who promulgated a new revelation
for their guidance. They were finally defeated by 'Obaidallah's
son Abul-Qasun Mahomned, who took Constantlne, and
mxeeded in capturing the new Mahdl, whom he brought to
Raqqada. Other opponents were got rid of by 'Obaidallah by
ruthless executions. By the middle of the year 013 by his own
nd his son's efforts he had brought his kingdom into order.
After the style of most founders of dynasties he then selected
tate for a new capital, to be called after his title Mahdia (q.v.),
« a peninsula called IJaxnma (Cape Africa) S.S.E. of Kairawln.
Eight years were spent in fortifying this place, which in 021
»» made the capital of the empire.
After defeating internal enemies *Obaidallah turned his
attention to the remaining 'AbbJafd possessions in Africa, and
b general Hahfieth b. Yuauf in the 'year 913 advanced along
the northern coast, taking various places, including the important
town of Barca, bis progress, it is said, being marked by great
croehy. He then advanced towards Egypt, and towards the
cad of July 914, being reinforced by Abu'l-Qasim, afterwards
at-QTim, entered Alexandria. The danger led to measures of
•usual energy being taken by the Bagdad caliph Moqtadlr,
tn amy being sent to Egypt under Mu'nis,' and a special post
bear organizer! between that country and Bagdad to convey
dosages uninterruptedly. The Fatimite forces were defeated,
partly owing to the insubordination of the general Hab&sah,
ia the winter of 914, and returned to Barca and Kairawin with
mat loss.
A second expedition was undertaken against Egypt hi the
for 919, and on the 10th of July Alexandria was entered by
Abnl-Qasim, who then advanced southward, seizing the Fayum
and Ushmunain (Eehmunam). He was presently reinforced by
a fleet, which, however, was defeated at Rosctta in March of
tfe year 920 by a fleet despatched from Tarsus by the 'Abbasid
caliph Moqtadir, moat of the vessels being burned. Through
l $* energetic measures of the caliph, who sent repeated rein-
forcements to Fostat, Abul«Qlaim was compelled in the spring
•f oaj to evacuate the places which be had seized, and return
l « the west with the remains of his army, whkh had suffered
■sen from piague as well as defeat on the field. On his return
k found that the court had migrated from Raqqada to the new
capital Mahdia (?.?.). Meanwhile other expeditions had been
^patched by 'Obaidallah towards the west, and Nekor (Nakur)
ud Fes had been forced to acknowledge his sovereignty.
The remaining years of 'Obaidallah's reign were largely
Vest in dealing with uprisings in various parts of his dominions,
ti* success of which at times reduced the territory in which he
**> recognized to a small area.
'Obaidallah died on the 4th of March 933, and was succeeded
py Abu'l-Qasim, who took the title al-Qa'im biamr allah. He
tauediatcly after his secession occupied himself with the
rcconquest of Fes and Nekor, which had revolted during the last
years of the former caliph. He also despatched a fleet under
YaTrOb b. Isfcfiq, which ravaged the coast of France, took
Genoa, and plundered the coast of Calabria before returning
to Africa. A third attempt made by him to take Egypt resulted
in a disastrous defeat at Dhat al-Human, after whkh the remains
of the expedition retreated in disorder to Barca.
The later years of the reign of Qa'im were troubled by the
uprising of Abu Yaald Makhlad al-Zenatf, a leader who during
the former reign had acquired a following among the tribes
inhabiting the Jebel Aures, including adherents of the Ibfid!
sect. After having fled for a time to Mecca, this person returned
in 937 to Tausar (Tourer), the original seat of his operations,
and was imprisoned by Qa'im's order. His sons, aided by the
powerful tribe Zenlta, succeeded in forcing the prison, and
releasing their father, Who continued to organise a conspiracy
on a vast scale, and by the end of 043 was strong enough to take
the field against the Fatimite sovereign, whom he drove out of
Kairawln. Abu Yazfd proclaimed himself a champion of Sunnl
doctrine against the Shfis, and ordered the legal system of
Malik to be restored in place of that introduced by the Fatimites.
Apparently the doctrines of the latter has as yet won little
popularity, and Aba Yazfd won an enormous following, except
among the Kutflma, who remained faithful to Qa'im. On the
last day of October 944, an engagement was fought between
Kairawln and Mahdia at a place called al-Akhawf n, which
resulted in the rout of Qa'im's forces, and the caliph's being
shortly after shut up in his capital, the suburbs of which he
defended by a trench. Aba Yazfd's forces were ill-suited to
maintain a protracted siege, and since, owing to the former
caliph's forethought, the capital was in a condition to hold out
for a long time, many of them deserted and the besiegers gained
no permanent advantage. After the siege had lasted some
ten months Aba Yasld was compelled to raise it (September
945); the struggle, however, did not end with (hat event, and
for a time the caliph and Aba Yazfd continued to fight with
varying fortune, while anarchy prevailed over most of the
caliph's- dominions. On the 13th of January 946, Aba Yazld
shut up Qa'im's forces in Susa which he began to besiege, and
attempted to take by storm.
On the 18th of May 945. while Aba Yazld was besieging Snsa,
the caliph al-Qa'im died at Mahdia, and was succeeded by his
son Ismail, who took the title MansOr. He almost immediately
relieved Susa by sending a fleet, which joining with the garrison
inflicted a severe defeat on Aba Yazld, who had to evacuate
Kairawln also; but though the cities were mainly in the hands
of Fathnite prefects, Aba Yazld was able to maintain the field
for more than two years longer, while his followers were steadily
decreasing in numbers, and he was repeatedly driven into fast*
nesses of the Sahara. In August 947 his last stronghold was
taken, and he died of wounds received in defending it. His
sons carried on some desultory warfare against MansOr after
their father's death. A town called MansOra or §abrg was
built adjoining Kairawfln to celebrate the decisive victory over
Aba Yazld, which, however, did not long preserve its name.
The exhausted condition of north-west Africa due to the pro-
tracted civil war required some years of peace for recuperation,
and further exploits are not recorded for MansOr, who died on
the 19th of March 952.
His son, AbO Tamlm Ma'add, was twenty-two years of age at
the time, and succeeded his father with the title Molzz fidin
allah. His authority was acknowledged over the greater part
of the region now constituting Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, as
well as Sicily, and he appears to have had serious thoughts of
endeavouring to annex Spain. At an early period in bis reign he
made Jauhar, who had been secretary under the former caliph,
commander of the forces, and the services rendered by this
person to the dynasty made him count as its second founder
after al-Shf I. In the years 958 and 959 he was sent westwards to
reduce Fez and other places where the authority of the Fatimhe
caliph had been repudiated, and after a successful expedition
advanced as far as the Atlantic As early as 966 the plan of
204
FAUBOURG— FAUCHER
attempting a fresh invasion of Egypt was conceived, and pre-
parations made for its execution; but it was delayed, it is said
at the request of the caliph's mother, who wished to make a
pilgrimage to Mecca first; and her honourable treatment by
K&fur when she passed through Egypt induced the caliph to
postpone the invasion till that sovereign's death.
In August 97 a Mo'iza resolved to follow Jauhar's pressing
invitation to enter his new capital Cairo. With his arrival there
the centre of the Fatimite power was transferred from Mahdia
and Kairawan to Egypt, and their original dominion became
a province called al-Maghrib, which immediately fell into the
hands of a hereditary dynasty, the Zeirids, acknowledging
Fatimite suzerainty. The first sovereign was Bulukkln, also
called Abu'l-FutOb YQsuf, appointed by Mo'isz as his viceroy
on the occasion of his departure for Egypt: separate prefects
were appointed for Sicily and Tripoli; and at the first the
minister of finance was to be an official independent ol the
governor of the Maghrib. On the death of Bulukkln in 084 he
was succeeded by a son who took the royal title al-Mansur, under
whose rule an attempt was made by the Kutfma, instigated by
the caliph, to shake off the yoke of the Zeirids, who originated
from the Sanhaja tribe. This attempt was defeated by the energy
of Mansur in 088; and the sovereignty of the Fatimitcs in the
Maghrib became more and more confined to recognition in public
prayer and on coins, and the payment of tribute and the giving
of presents to the viziers at Cairo. The fourth ruler of the
Zeirid dynasty, called Mo'iza, endeavoured to substitute 'Abbasid
suzerainty for Fatimite: his land was invaded by Arab colonies
sent by the Fatimite caliph, with whom in 1051 Mo'izz fought a
decisive engagement, after which the dominion of the Zeirids
was restricted to the territory adjoining Mahdia; a number of
smaller kingdoms rising up around them. The Zeirids were finally
overthrown by Roger II. of Sicily in 1x48.
After the death of al-Adid, the last Fatimite caliph in Egypt,
some attempts were made to place on the throne a member of
the family, and at one time there seemed a chance of the Assassins,
who formed a branch of the Fatimite sect, assisting in this project.
In 1174 * conspiracy for the restoration of the dynasty was
organized by 'Umarah of Yemen, a court poet, with the aid of
eight officials of the government: it was discovered and those
who were implicated were executed. Two persons claiming
Fatimite descent took the royal titles al-Mo'tasia billah and
al-Hamid lillah in the years 1175 **& n 76 respectively; and
as late as 1192 we hear of pretenders in Egypt. Some members
of the family are traceable till near the end of the 7th century
of Islam.
The doctrines of the Fatimites as a sect, apart from their
claim to the sovereignty in Islam, are little known, and wc
are not justified in identifying them with those of the Assassins,
the Carmathians or the Druses, though all these sects are
connected with them in origin. A famous account is given by
MaqrizI of a system of education by which the neophyte had
doubts gently instilled into his mind till he was prepared to
have the allegorical meaning of the Koran set before him, and to
substitute some form of natural for revealed religion. In most
accounts of the early days of the community it is stated that the
permission of wine-drinking and licentiousness, and the com-
munity of wives and property formed part of its tenets. There
is little in the recorded practice of the Fatimite state to confirm
or justify these assertions; and they appear to have differed
from orthodox Moslems rather in small details of ritual and law
than in deep matters of doctrine.
Authorities.— F. WOstenfeld, Gesthichta der Falimiden Chalifen
(Gottingen, l88t): E. Merrier, Histoire de I'AJrique SepfentrionaU
(Paris, 1888) ; M. J. de Gocjc, Mtmoirc sur Us Carmathes de Bahrain
el let Faiimidet (2nd ed., Leiden, 1886); P. Casanova, " M6motre
sur les denricra Fatiicides," Mem, Mist, ardUologiguo au Caire,
voL vi. ; for the lives of *Obaidallah and AbQ Yaad, Cberbonneau in
the Journal Asiatique, acr. iv. vol. 20, and sex. v. vol. 5. See alto
Egypt: History, sect. Mahommedan. (D. S. M.*)
( FAUBOURG, the French name for a portion of a town which
lies outside the walls, hence properly a suburb. The name
survives in certain parts of Paris, such as the Faubourg St
Antofne, and the Faubourg St Germain, ftc, which have long
since ceased to be suburbs and have become portions of the
town itself. The origin of the word is doubtful. The earlier
spelling favx-bourg, and the occurrence in medieval Latin of
falsus-burgus (see Ducange, Glossarium, s.v. " Falsus-Burgus"),
was taken as showing its obvious origin and meaning, the sham
or quasi-borough. The generally accepted derivation is from
fors, outside (Lat. /oris, outside the gates), and tar*. It is
suggested that the word is the French adaptation of the Ger.
PfahlbUrgcr, the burghers of the pale, t.e. outside the walla
but within the pale.
FAUCES (a Latin plural word for " throat "; the singular
faux is rarely found), in anatomy, the binder part of the mouth,
which leads into the pharynx; also an architectural term given
by Vitruvius to narrow passages on either side of the tablinum,
through which access could be obtained from the atrium to the
peristylar court in the rear.
FAUCHER, LEONARD JOSEPH {Li on] (1803-1854), French
politician and economist, was born at Limoges on the 8th of
September 1803. When he was nine years old the family
removed to Toulouse, where the boy was sent to school. His
parents were separated in 18x6, and Leon Faucber, who resisted
his father's attempts to put him to a trade, helped to support
himself and his mother during the rest of his school career by
designing embroidery and needlework. As a private tutor in
Paris he continued his studies in the direction of archaeology
and history, but with the revolution of 1830 he was drawn into
active political journalism on the Liberal side. He was on the
staff of the Temps from 1830 to 1833, when he became editor
of the Constitutionnd for a short time. A Sunday journal of
his own, Le Bicn public, proved a disastrous financial failure;
and his political independence having caused his retirement
from the Constitution net, he joined in 1834 the Courtier francytu ¥
of which he was editor from 1839 until 1842, when the paper
changed bands. Faucher belonged in policy to the dynastic
Left, and consistently preached moderation to the more ardent
Liberals. On resigning his connexion with the Courrier frauQais
he gave his attention chiefly to economic questions. He advo-
cated a customs union between the Latin countries to counter-
balance the German ZoUvercin, and in view of the impractic-
ability of such a measure narrowed his proposal in 184s to a
customs union between France and Belgium. In 1843 he visited
England to study the English social system, publishing the
results of his investigations in a famous series of £imd*s sur
VAngleUrrt (2 vols., 1845), published originally in the Revut
des deux mondts. He helped to organize the Bordeaux associa-
tion for free-trade propaganda, and it was as an advocate of
free trade that he was elected in 1847 to the chamber of deputies
for Reims. After the revolution of 1848 he entered the Con*
stituent Assembly for the department of Marne, where he
opposed many Republican measures— the limitation of the hours
of labour, the creation of the national relief works in Paris,
the abolition of the death penalty and others. Under the
presidency of Louis Napoleon he became minister of public
works, and then minister of the interior, but his action in seeking
to influence the coming elections by * circular letter addressed
to the prefects was censured by the Constituent Assembly,
and he was compelled to resign office on the 14th of May 1849.
In 185 1 he was again minister of the interior until Napoleon
declared his intention of resorting to universal suffrage. After
the coup d'itat of December he refused a seat in the consultative
commission instituted by Napoleon. He had been elected a
member of the Academy of Moral and Political Science in 1849,
and his retirement from politics permitted a return to Ms writings
on economics. He had been to Italy in search of health in 1S54,
and was returning to Paris on business when he was seised by
typhoid at Marseilles, wheat he died on the xath of December
1854-
His miscellaneous writings were collected (2 vols., 1836) aa
Melanges d'tconomk politique el de finance, and his speeches in the
legislature are printed in vol. ii. of Uon Faucher, biographic at
torrespoudante (a vols., and ed., Paris, 1873)..
FAUCHET— FAUfAS DE SAINT-FOND
FAUCHCT, CLATJDB (i 530-1601),- French historian -and
antiquary, was born at Paris on the 3rd of July 1530. Of Ha
early life few particulars arc known. He applied himself to the
study of the early French chroniclers, and proposed to publish
extracts which would throw light on the first periods of the
monarchy. During 4b» «ivil wan iic lost a Uuge J&ci of his
boob .and manuscripts in a riot, and was compelled to leave
Paris. He then settled at Marseilles. Attaching himself after-
wards to Cardinal de Tournon, he accompanied him in 1554
to Italy, whence he was several times sent on embassies to the
king; with reports on the siege of Siena. His services at length
procured him the post of president of the chambrc des monnaics,
aad thus enabled him to resume his literary studies. Having
become embarrassed with debt, he found it necessary, at the
age of seventy, to sell his office; but the king, amused with an
ep'gram, gave him a pension, with the title of historiographer
of France. Fauchet has the reputation of an impartial and
scrupulously accurate writer; and in his works are to be found
important facts not easily accessible elsewhere. He was, however,
entirely uncritical, and his style h singularly inelegant. His
principal works (1579, 1509) treat of Gaulish and French ami-
quities, of the dignities and magistrates of France, of the
origin of the French language and poetry, of the liberties of the
Gallican church, Stc A collected edition was published in 16 10.
Fauchet took part in a translation of the Annuls of Tacitus
(1583). He died at Paris about the close of 1601,
FAUCHFT, CLAUDE (1744-1793)1 French revolutionary
bishop, was born at Domes (Nievre) on the 22nd of September
1744. He was a curate of the church of St Roch, Paris, when
be was engaged as tutor to the children of the marquis of Choiseul,
brother of Louis XV.'s minister, an appointment which proved
(a be the first step to fortune. He was successively grand vicar
to the archbishop of Bourges, preacher to the king, and abbot
of Montf ort-Lacarre. The " philosophic " tone of his sermons
caused his dismissal from court in 1788 before he became a
popular speaker in the Parisian sections. He was one of the
leaders of the attack on the Bastille, and on the 5th of August
1789 he delivered an eloquent discourse by way of funeral
iermon for the citizens slain on the ratfc of July, taking as his
text the words of St Paul, " Ye have been called to liberty."
He blessed the tricolour flag for the National Guard, and in
September was elected to the Commune, from which he retired
in October 1790. During the next winter he organized within
the Palais Royal the "Social Club of the Society of the Friends
of Truth," presiding over crowded meetings under the self-
assumed title of procureur geniral de la vtriU. Nevertheless,
events were marching faster than his opinions, and the last
occasion on which he carried his public with him was in a sermon
preached at Notre Dame on the 14th of February 1791. In
May he became constitutional bishop of Calvados, and was
presently returned by the department to the Legislative
Assembly, and afterwards to the Convention. At the king's
trial he voted for the appeal to the people and for the penalty
of imprisonment He protested against the execution of Louis
XVL in the Journal des amis (January 26, 1793), and next
month was denounced to the Convention for prohibiting married
priests from the exercise of the priesthood in his diocese. He
remained secretary to the Convention until the accusation of
the Girondists in May 1793. In July he was imprisoned on the
charge of supporting the federalist movement at Caen, and of
ttutptidty with Charlotte Corday, whom he had taken to see
1 sitting of the Convention on her arrival in Paris. Of the
Kcond.of these charges he was certainly innocent. With the
Girondist deputies lie waa brought before the revolutionary
tribunal on tie 30th of October, and was guillotined on the
Mowing day.
u See Memmres . . . on Lettres de Claude Fauchet (5th ed-, 1793) ;
*4tf tur Claude Fauchet (Caen, 184a).
FAUCIT, HELENA SAVILLB (i8i7-t8o8), English actress,
ti* daughter of John SaviUe Fatttit«.an actor, was bora in London.
Ht* fiat London appearance was made on the 5th of January
*JtatCov^G*i4eiiaJufeinr4w&j<a*Mfft. Her success
205
in this was so definitely confirmed by her subsequent acting
of Juliet, Lady Teazle, Beatrice, Imogen and Hermione, that
within eighteen months she was engaged by Macready as leading
lady at Covent Garden. There, besides appearing in several
Shakespearian characters, she created the heroine's part in
Lytton's Duchess de la Valliere (1036), Lady 0/ Lyons (1838),
Richelieu (1839), The Sea Captain (1839), Money (1840), and
Browning's Strafford (1837). After a visit to Paris and a short
season at the Haymarket, she joined the Drury Lane company
under Macready early in 1842. There she played Lady Macbeth,
Constance in King John, Desdemona and Imogen, and took
part in the first production of Westland Marston's Patrician's
Daughter (1842) and Brownings Blot on the Scutcheon (1843).
Among her successful tours was included a visit to Paris in 1844-
z845> where she acted with Macready in several Shakespearian
plays. In 185 1 she waa married to Mr (afterwards Sir) Theodore
Martin, but still acted occasionally for charity. One of her last
appearances was as Beatrice, on the opening of the Shakespeare
Memorial at Stratford-on-Avon on the 23rd of April 1879.
In 188! there appeared in Blackwood's Magazine the first of her
Letters on some of Shakespeare's Heroines, which were published
in book form as On Some of Shakespeare's Female Characters
(1885). Lady Martin died at her home near Llangollen in Wales
on the 31st of October 1898. There is a tablet to her in the
Shakespeare Memorial with a portrait figure, and the marbl*
pulpit in the Shakespeare church— with her portrait as Saint
Helena—was given in her memory by her husband.
See Sir Theodore Martin's Helena Faucit (1900).
FAOJAS DB SAINT-FOND, BARTH^LEMY (1741-1819),
French geologist and traveller, was born at Montctlimart on the
17th of May T74T. He was educated at the Jesuits' College at
Lyons; afterwards he went to Grenoble, applied himself to the
study of law, and was admitted advocate to the parliament.
He rose to be president of the seneschal's court (1765), a post
which he honourably filled, but the duties of which became
irksome, as he had early developed a love of nature and his
favourite relaxation was found in visits to the Alps. There he
began to study the forms, structure, composition, and super-
position of rocks. In 1775 he discovered in the Velay a rich
deposit of pozzuolana, which in due course was worked by the
government. In 1776 he put himself in communication with
Buffon, who was not slow to perceive the value rf his labours.
Invited by Buffon to Paris, he quitted the law, and was appointed
by Louis XVL assistant naturalist to the museum, to which office
was added some years later (1785, 1788) that of royal commis-
sioner for mjnes. One of the most important of his works was the
Recherches sur Us volcans iteints du Vivarais et du Velay, which
appeared in 1778. In this work, rich in facts and observations,
he developed his theory of the origin of volcanoes. In his
capacity of commissioner for mines Faujas travelled in almost
all the countries of Europe, everywhere devoting attention to
the nature and constituents of the rocks. It was he who first
recognized the. volcanic nature of the basaltic columns of the
cave of Fingal (Staffs), although the island was visited in 1772
by Sir Joseph Banks, who remarked that the stone "isa coarse
kind of Bosalles, very much resembling the Giants' Causeway
in Ireland" (Pennant's Tour in Scotland and Voyage to the
Hebrides). Faujas's Voyage en Angteterre, en ltcasse et aux ties:
Hibrides (1797) is full of interest— containing anecdotes of Sir
Joseph Banks and Dr John Whitehurst, and an amusing account
of " The Dinner of an Academic Club " (the Royal Society), and
has been translated into English (a vols., 1799). Having been
nominated in 1793 professor at the Jardin des Plantes, be held
this post till he was nearly eighty years of age, retiring in 18x8
to his estate of Saint-Fond in Dauphinfe\ Faujas took a warm
interest in. the balloon experiments of the brothers Montgolner,
and published a very complete Description des experiences de la
machine airostatiqm de MM. Montgolficr, &c. (1783, 1784).
He contributed many scientific memoirs to the Annates and the
Mtmaires at the museum of natural history. Among his separate
works, in addition to those already named are — Hisloire na tur die
de la province de Daufhini (1781, 1782); Miniralogic des volcans.
206
FAULT
(i 784) ; and Essai ds gtologie (1803-1800). Faujas died on the
18th of July 1819.
FAULT (Mid. Eng. fauk, through the French, from the popular
Latin use of fallere, to fail; the original /of the Latin being replaced
in English in the 15th century), a failing, mistake or defect.
In geology, the term is given to a plane of dislocation in a
portion of the earth's crust; synonyms used in mining are
" trouble," " throw ? ' and " heave "; the German equivalent
is Verwerfung, and the French foillt. Faults on a small scale are
sometimes sharply*
denned planes, 1 as if
the rocks had been
sliced through and
fitted together again
after being shifted
(fig. 1). In such
cases, however, the
harder portions of the
dislocated rocks will
usually be found
"slickeneided." More
frequently some dis-
turbance has occurred
on one or both sides
of the fault. Sometimes in a series of strata the beds on the side
which has been pushed up are bent down against the fault, while
those on the opposite side are bent up (fig. 2). Most commonly
Fie. 1.— Section of clean-cut fault.
Fio. 2.— Section of strata, beat at a line of fault.
the rocks on both sides are considerably broken, jumbled and
crumpled, so that the line of fracture is marked by a belt or wall-
like mass of fragmentary rock, fault-rock, which may be several
yards in breadth. Faults are to be distinguished from joints
and fissures by the fact that there must have been a movement
of the rock on one side of the fault-plane relatively to that on the
other side. The trace of a fault-plane at the surface of the earth
is a line (or belt of fault-rock), which in geological mapping is
often spoken of as a " fault-line " or " line of fault." Fig. 3
Fig. 3. — Plan of simple fault
represents the plan of a simple fault; quite frequently, however,
the main fault subdivides at the extremities into a number of
minor faults (fig. 4), or the main fault may be accompanied by
Fie. 4.— Plan of a fault splitting into minor faults.
lateral subordinate faults (fig. 5), some varieties of which have
been termed flaws or Blatis.
" Fault- planes "are sometimes perpendicular to the horizon, but
more usually they arc inclined at a greater or lesser angle. The
angle made by the fault-plane with the vertical is the hade of the
1 The fault-tianc is not a plane surface in the mathematical sense;
it may curve irregularly in more than one direction.
fault (if the angle of inclination were measured from the horizon,
as in determining the " dip " of strata, this would be expressed
as the "dip of the fault "). In figs. 1 and 2 the faults are hading
XI IT
r-^TT
FlG. 5.— Plan of main i
, with branches.
towards the right of the reader. The amount of dislocation as
measured along a fault-plane is the displacement of the fault
(for an illustration of these terms see fig. x8, where they are
applied to a thrust fault) ; the vertical displacement is the throw
(Fr. rejet); the horizontal displacement, which even with vertical
movement must arise in all cases where the faults are not per-
pendicular to the horizon and the strata are not horizontal,
is known as the heave. In fig. 6 the displacement is equal to the
throw in the fault A; in the fault B the displacement is more than
Fig. 6. — Section of a vertical and inclined fault.
twice as great as in A, while the throw is the same in both; the
fault A has no heave, in B it is considerable. The rock on that
side of a fault which has dropped relatively to the rock on the
other is said to be upon the downthrow side of the fault; con-
versely, the relatively uplifted portion is the upthrow side.
The two fault faces are known as the " hanging-wall " and the
" foot-wall."
The relationship that exists between the hade and the direction
of throw has led to the classification of faults into " normal
faults," which hade Under the downthrow side, or in other
words, those in which the hanging- wall has dropped; and
" reversed faults," which hade beneath the upthrow side, that
is to say, the foot-wall exhibits a relative sinking. Normal
faults are exemplified in figs. 1, s, and 6; in the latter the
masses A and B are on the downthrow sides, C is upthrown.
Fig. 7 represents a small reversed fault. Normal faults axe
Fig. 7.— Reversed fault, Liddesdale.
so called because they are more generally prevalent than the other
type; they are sometimes designated " drop " or " gravity "
faults, but these are misleading expressions and should be
discountenanced. Normal faults are regarded as the result of
stretching of the crust, hence they have been called " tension "
faults as distinguished from reversed faults, which are assumed
to be due to pressure. It is needful, however, to exercise great
caution in accepting this view except ir a restricted and localized
sense, for there ant many instances in which the two forms arc
intimately associated (see fig. 8), and a whole complex system
of faults may be the result of horizontal (tangential) pressure
alone or even of direct, vertical uplift. It is often tacitly assumed
FAULT
*©7
that most aoraal and reversed faults are due to simple vertical
novements of the fractured crust-blocks ; but this is by no means
the ass. Whet is actually observed ia examining a fault is
the apparent direction of motion; but the present position of
the dislocated masses is the result of nal motion or series of
Fig. 8.— Diagram of gently undulating strata cut by a faoie,
with alternate throw in opposite directions.
actions, which have taken place along the fault-plane at various
ingles from horizontal to vertical; frequently it can be shown
that these movements have been extremely complicated. The
Anitioot sad M sUckensldes " on the faces bf a fault indicate
«ly the direction of the last movement.
Fie. 9.— Section of strata cut by step faults.
A broad monociinal fold is sometimes observed to pass into
» fault of gradually increasing throw; such a fault is occasionally
regarded as pivoted at one end. Again, a faulted mass may be
w the downthrow side towards one end, and on the upthrow
sde towards the other, the movement having taken place about
Fig. 10.— Trough faults.
u an approximately normal to the fault -plane, the * pivot "
ia this case being near the centre. From an example of this
tod it is evident that the same fault may at the same time be
both "normal "and "reversed" (see fig. 8). When the principal
t along a highly inclined fault-plane has been approxi-
S»*tk
Fig. 11.— Plan of a strike fault,
^dy horizontal, the fault has been variously styled a lateral'
*bfl, transcurrent fault, transversa thrust or a heave fault. The
horizontal component in faulting movements is more common
ta* is often supposed.
A single normal fault of- large throw is sometimes replaced
by a series of dose parallel faults, each throwing a small amount
in the same direction; if these subordinate faults occur within
a narrow width of ground they are known as distribution faults;
if they are more widely separated they are called step faults
(fig. 9). Occasionally
two normal faults
hade towards one
another and intersect,
and, the rock mass
between them has.
been let down; this is -
described as a trough ^y.^i^
fault (fig. 10), A fault
running" parallel to
the strike of bedded
rocks is a strike fault;
one which runs along
the direction of the Fig. ia.— Section across the plan, fig. 11.
dip is a dip fault; a.
so-called diagonal fault takes a direction intermediate between
these two directions. Although the effects of these types of
fault upon the outcrops of strata differ, there are no intrinsic
differences between the faults themselves.
The effect of normal faults upon the outcrop may be thus
briefly summarised:— a strike fault that hades with the direction
of the dip may cause beds to be cut out at the surface on the
Fig. 13.— Plan of strata cut by a dip fault.
upthrow side; if it hades against the dip direction it may repeat
some of the beds on the upthrow side (figs, tx and is). With
dip faults the crop is carried forward (down the dip) on the
upthrow side. The perpendicular distance between the crop
of the bed (dike or vein) on opposite sides of the fault is the
"offset." The offset decreases with increasing angle of dip
and increases with increase in the throw of the fault (fig. 13).
Fig. 14. — Plan of strata traversed by a diminishing strike fault.
Faults which run obliquely across the direction of dip, if they
hade with the dip of the strata, will produce offset with " gap "
between the outcrops; if they hade in the opposite direction
to the dip, offset with " overlap " is caused: In the latter case
the crop moves forward (down dtp) on the denuded upthrow
side, in the former it moves backward. The.effect of a strike
fault of diminishing throw is seen in fig. 14. Faults crossing
folded strata cause the outcrops to approach oa the upthrow
side of s synchne and tend to separate the outcrops of an anti-
cline (figs. 15, 16, 17).
In the majority of cases the upthrown side of a fault has been
so reduced by denudation as to leave no sharp upstanding
ridge; but examples are known where the upthrown side still
2o8
FAULT
ir
r
""""•». '
• *- «
4
s •** »
s
••— , *
.
r.
.- *x
«
A
i"
A
«
1_
7
exists as a prominent cliff-like face of rock/ a * fault-scarp";
familiar instances occur in the Basin ranges of Utah, Nevada, &c,
and many smaller examples have been observed in the areas
affected by recent earthquakes in Japan, San Francisco and
other places. But although there may be no sharp cliff, the
effect of faulting upon topographic forms is abundantly evident
wherever a harder
series of strata has been
brought in juxtaposi-
tion to softer rocks.
By certain French
writers, the upstanding
side of a faulted piece
. of ground is said to
%S have a regard, thus the
faults of the Jura
Mountains have a
"regard francflU,** and
in the same region it
has been observed that
in curved faults the
convexity is directed
Fro. 15.— Phn of an anticline (A) and the same way as the
syncline (SJ, dislocated by a fault. regard. Occasionally
one or more parallel
faults have let down an intervening strip of rock, thereby form*
ing " fault valleys " or Graben (Grabensenken); the Great Rift
Valley is a striking example. On the other hand, a large area of
rock is sometimes lifted up, or surrounded by a system of faults,
which have let down the
/*-V\ rnrtrding ground; such
a fault-block is known
also as a horst; a con-
siderable area of Green-
land stands up in this
manner.
Faults have often an
important influence upon
water-supply by bringing
impervious beds up
against pervious ones or
vice versa, thus forming underground dams or reservoirs, or
allowing water to flow away that would otherwise be conserved.
Springs often rise along the outcrop of a fault. In coal and metal
N.W.
Fig. 16. — Section along the upcast side
of the fault in fig. 15.
mining it is evident from what has abeady.been said that faults
most act sometimes beneficially, sometimes the reverse. It b 1
common occurrence for fault-fissures and fault-rock to appeal
as valuable mineral lodes through the infilling or impregnauoi
of the spaces and broken ground with mineral ores.
In certain regions which have been subjected to very grtal
crustal disturbance a
type of fault is found
which possesses a very
low hade— sometimes
only a few degrees
from the horizontal —
and, like a reversed
fault, hades beneath
the upthrown mass;
these are termed
thrusts, overlkrusts, or
MM./.' .'A* *«•"
Fig. 17.— Section along the downeul
aide of same fault.
evcrthrusl faults fFr. recouvremmds, failles da dmauckemenl
ckarriages; Ger. Uherschiebungen, tibersprtjnge, Wtcksel, Fallen
verwerfungen). Thrusts should not be confused with reverse
faults, which have a strong hade. Thrusts play a very importan
Fig. 18. — Diagram to illustrate the terminology of faults
and thrusts.
part in the N.W. highlands of Scotland, the Scandinavian higti
lands, the western Alps, the Appalachians, the Belgian coal regkM
&c. By the action of thrusts enormous masses of rock have bee
pushed almost horizontally over underlying rocks, in some ca*
for several miles. One of the largest of the Scandinavian thru
t ^
y*+ Ao "%
f
Minor
Fig. 19.— Section of a very large thrust in the Durness Eriboll district, Scotland.
FAUNA— FAURE
409
Bases b its* m. tang, 80 m. bond, and $000 ft. thick.
la Scotland three grades of thrusts tie recognised, maximum,
major, tad minor thrusts; the lift have very generally been
truncated by tboae of greater magnitude Some of fheae great
tkrusta have received diatingnithing names, *.g. the Maine
tfarost (fig. 19) and the Ben Move thrust; aimilarly in the coal
faasio of Mont and Valenckanca we find the /rite de Bouse*
and the Grande faille du midi. Overturned folds are frequently
sees passing into thrusts. Bayley Willis has classified thrusts
as (1) Shear thrusts, (a) Break thrusts, (3) Stretch thrusts, and
(4) Erosion thrusts.
Dr J. E. Mart f Notes on the Geology of the English Lake
District," Proc. Geol. Assoc., 1900) has described a type of fault
which may be regarded as the converse of a thrust fault. If
■e coosider a series of rock masses A, B, C—of which A is the
oldest and imdermost— undergoing thrusting, say from south
u> north, should the mass C be prevented from moving forward
a rapidly as B, a low-hading fault may form between C and B
sad the mass C may lag behind; similarly the mass B may lag
behind A. Such faults Dr Mart calls "lag faults." A mass of
rock suffering thrusting or lagging may yield unequally in its
several parts, and those portions tending to travel more rapidly
titan the adjoining masses in the same sheet may be cut off by
fractures. Thus the faster-moving blocks will be separated from
the slower ones by faults approximately normal to the plane
cf movement: these are described as " tear faults."
Faults may occur fn rocks of all ages; small local dislocations
at observable even in glacial deposits, alluvium and loess.
A region of faulting may continue to be so through more than one
geological period. Little is known of the mechanism of faulting
or of the causes that produce it; the majority of the text-book
ophaatbns will not bear scrutiny, and there is room for ex-
tended observation and research. The sudden yielding of the
strata along a plane of faulting Is a famliar came of earthquakes.
See E. de Margerie and A. Heim, La Dislocations it PScorce terrestre
(Zurich, 1888); A. Rothpletz, GeoUktonische Problem* (Stuttgart.
i*H); a Willis, " The Mechanics of Appalachian Structure," 131k
An. Hep. U.S. GeoL Survey (1891-1892, pub. 1893). A prolonged
&cussioo of the subject is given in Economic Ga^ry, Lancaster, Pa.,
CSA, vols. L and u. (1906, 1907). (A. Gs. ; J. A. H.)
FaOH A, the name, in Roman mythology, of a country goddess
of the fields and cattle, known sometimes as the sister, sorae-
faei as the wife of the god Faunus; hence the term is used
collectively for all the animals in any given geographical area
« geological period, or for an enumeration of the same. It thus
corresponds to the.term " flora " in respect to plant life.
'AOXTLEROY, HENRY (1785-1624), English banker and
focjer, was born in 1785. After seven years as a clerk In the
Loodon bank of Marsh, Sibbald & Co., of which his father was
«e of the founders, he was taken into partnership, and the whole
taaness of the firm was left in his hands. In 1824 the bank
aspemkd payment. Fauntleroy was arrested on the charge of
■ppropriating trust funds by forging the trustees' signatures,
tad vas committed for trial, it being freely rumoured that he
tad appropriated £250,000, which, he had squandered in de-
buchery. He was tried at the Old Bailey, and, the case against
km having been proved, be admitted his guilt, but pleaded that
be had used the misappropriated funds to pay his firm's debts.
He vas found guilty and sentenced to be hanged. Seventeen
merchants and bankers gave evidence as to his general integrity
at the trial, and after his conviction powerful influence was
bought to bear on his behalf, and bis case was twice argued
before judges on points of law. An Italian named Angalini
ota offered to take Fauntlcroy'a place on the scaffold. The
t&rts of his many friends were, however, unavailing, and he
*as executed on the 30th of November 1824. A wholly
Qdooaded rumour was widely credited for some time subse-
quently to the effect that he had escaped strangulation by
inserting a silver tube in his throat, and was living comfortably
abroad.
See A. Griffith's Ckronieles of Newgate, 0. 304.300, and Pierce
Egu '■ Acctuni of me Trial of Mr FounUeroy.
X. 4*
FAJJIITJg (i^Ule" kindly, "from Ut./^fd, or the" speaker/'
from /org), an old Italian rural deity, the bestower of fruitfulnesa
on fields and cattle. As such he is akin to or identical with
Inuus (" fructificr ") and Lupcrcus (see Lupeecalia). Faunus
also revealed the secrets of the future by strange sounds from
the woods, or by visions communicated to those who slept within
his precincts in the skin of sacrificed lambs; he was then called
Fatuua, and with him was associated his wife or daughter Fatua.
Under Greek influence he was identified with Pan, and just as
there was supposed to be a number of Panisd, so the existence
of many Fauni was assumed— misshapen and mischievous
goblins of the forest, with pointed ears, tails and goat's feet,
who loved to torment sleepers with hideous nightmares. In
poetical tradition Faunus is an old king of Latium, the son of
Picus (Mars) and father of Latinus, the teacher of agriculture and
cattle-breeding, and the introducer of the religious system of the
country, honoured after death as a tutelary divinity* Two
festivals called Faunalia were celebrated in honour of Faunus,
one on the 13th of 'February in his temple on the island in the
Tiber, the other in the country on the 5th of December (Ovid,
Fasti, H. 193; Horace, Odea, iii. x8. xo). At these goats were
sacrificed to him with libations of wine and milk, and be was im-
plored to be propitious to fields and flocks. Tl)e peasantsand slaves
at the same time amused themselves with dancing in the meadows.
FAURB. FRAHfOlS FnXIX (1841-1899), President of the
French Republic, was born in Paris on the 30th of January 1841,
being the son of a small furniture maker. Having started as
a tanner and merchant at Havre, he acquired considerable
wealth, was elected to the National Assembly on the aist of
August 1881, and took his seat aa a member of the Left, interest-
ing himself chiefly in matters concerning economics, railways
and the navy. In November 188a he became under-secretary
for the colonies in M. Ferry's ministry, and retained the post
till 1685. He held the same post in M. Tiraxd's ministry in 1888,
and in 1803 waa made vice-president of the chamber. In 1894
he obtained cabinet rank as minister of marine in the administra-
eionof II. Dupuy. In the January following he was unexpectedly
elected president of the Republic upon the resignation of M.
Casimir-Perier. The principal cause of bis elevation was the
determination of the various sections of the moderate republican
party to exclude -M. Brisson, who had had a. majority of votes
on the first ballot, but had failed to obtain aa absolute majority.
To accomplish this end it was necessary to unite among them-
selves, and onion could only be secured by the nomination of
some one who offended nobody. M. Faure answered perfectly
to this description. His fine presence and his tact on ceremonial
occasions rendered the state some service when in 1806 he re-
ceived the Tsar of Russia at Paris, and in 1897 returned his
visit, alter which meeting the momentous Franco-Russian
Alliance was publicly announced. The latter days of M. Faure's
presidency were embittered by the Dreyfus affair, which he was
determined to regard aa chose jugie. But at a critical moment
in the proceedings his death occurred suddenly, from apoplexy,
on the 16th of February i8oo« With all his faults, and in spite
of no slight amount of personal vanity, President Faure. was
a shrewd political observer and a good man of business. After
his death, some alleged extracts from his private journals,
dealing with French policy, were published in the Paris press.
See E. Maillard, Le President P. Faure (Paris, 1897); P. Bluvscn.
Ftiix Fours intime (1898) ; and F. Martin-Cinouvicr, F. Faure deeaHt
rhisteirt (1895).
FAUR& GABRIEL (1845- )> French musical composer,
was born at Pamiers on the 13th of May 1*843. He studied at
the school of sacred music directed by Niedermeyer, first under
Dietsch, and subsequently under Saint-Saens. He became
" maltre de chapeJJe " at the church of the Madeleine In 1877,
and organist in 1896. His works include a symphony in D
minor (Op. 40), two quartets for piano and strings (Opp. 15 and
45), a suite for orchestra (Op. za), sonata for violin and piano
(Op. 13), concerto for violin (Op. 14)1 berceuse for violin, elegfe
for violoncello, pavane for orchestra, incidental music for
Alexandre Dumas' CqIhuU and De Haraucourt's Shylotk,
210
FAUHIEL— FAUST
a requiem, a cantata, The Birth of Venus, produced at the Leeds
festival in 1898, a quantity of piano music, and a large number
of songs. Faure occupies a place by himself among modern
French composers. He delights in the imprevu, and loves to
wander through labyrinthine harmonies. There can be no
denying the intense fascination and remarkable originality of
his music His muse is essentially aristocratic, and suggests
the surroundings of the boudoir and the perfume of the hot-
house.
FAURIEL, CLAUDE CHARLES (1772-1844), French historian,
philologist and critic, was born at St £tienne on the 21st of
October 1772. Though the son of a poor joiner, he received a
good education in the Oratorian colleges of Tournon and Lyons.
He was twice in the army— at Perpignan in 1793, and in 1796-
1 707 at Briancon, as private secretary to General J. Servan de
Gerbey (1741-1808); but he preferred the civil service and the
companionship of Ins friends and his books. In x 704 he returned
to St £tienne, where, but only for a short period, he filled a
municipal office; and from 1797 to 1799 be devoted himself
td strenuous study, more especially of the literature and history,
both ancient and modern, of Greece and Italy. Having paid a
visit to Paris in 1709, he was introduced to Foucht, minister of
police, who induced him to become his private secretary. Though
he discharged the duties of this office to Fouche's satisfaction,
hts strength was overtasked by his continued application to
study, and he found it necessary in 1801 to recruit his health
by a three months' trip in the south. In resigning his office in the
following year he was actuated as much by these considerations
as by the scruples he put forward in serving longer under
Napoleon, when the latter, in violation of strict republican prin-
ciples, became consul for life. This is clearly shown by the frag*
ments of Memoirs discovered by Ludovic Lalanne and published
in 1886.
Some articles which Fauriel published in the Dicade philo-
topkiquc (1800) on a work of Madame de StzWt—Dclaliltirature
consider** dans sts rapports avec Us institutions socialcs—\eA to an
intimate friendship with her. About 1802 he contracted with
Madame de Condorcet a liaison which lasted till her death (1822).
It was said of him at the time that be gave up all his energies
to love, friendship and learning. The salon of Mme de Condorcet
was throughout the Consulate and the first Empire a rallying
point for the dissentient republicans. Fauriel was introduced
by Madame de Stael to the literary drde of Auteuil, which
gathered round Destutt de Tracy. Those who enjoyed his closest
intimacy were the physiologist Cabanis (Madame de Condorcet's
brother-in-law), the poet Manaoni, the publicist Benjamin
Constant, and Guizot. Later Tracy introduced to him Aug.
Thierry (1821) and perhaps Thiers and MignoL During his
connexion with Auteuil, FaurieTs attention was naturally
turned to philosophy, and for some years he was engaged on a
history of Stoicism, which was never completed, all the papers
connected with it having accidentally perished in 1814. He also
studied Arabic, Sanskrit and the old South French dialects. He
published in 1810 a translation of the Par I he nets of the Danish
poet Baggesen, with a preface on the various kinds of poetry;
in 1823 translations of two tragedies of Manzoni, with a preface
" SurlathiorUdeVart dramalique "; andin 1824-1825 his transla-
tion of the popular songs of modern Greece, with a " Discours
priliminaire " on popular poetry.
The Revolution of July, which put his friends in power, opened
to him the career of higher education. In 1830 he became
professor of foreign literature at the Sorbonne. TbtHistoiredela
CauU meridionale sous la domination da conqutrants germains
(4 vols., 1836) was the only completed section of a general history
of southern Gaul which he had projected. In 1836 be was elected
a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1837 he pub-
lished (with an introduction the conclusions of which would not
now all be endorsed) a translation of a Provencal poem on the
Albigensian war. He died on the 15th of July 1844. After his
death his friend Mary Clarke (afterwards Madame J. MOhl)
published his Histoirt delaHlUrature provcnc.de (3 vols., 1846)—
hb lectures for 1831*1839. Fauriel was biased in this work by
his preconceived and somewhat fanciful theory thatPwenctwat
the cradle of the chansons da teste and even of the Round Table
romances; but he gave a great stimulus to the scientific study of
Old French and Provencal. Dante at Us engines de la loupe d at
la lUUrature Ualiesmes (a vols.) was published in 1854.
Fauriel's If (moires, found with Condorcet's papers, are a the
Institute library. They were written at latest in 1804, and iaclude
some interesting fragments on the close of the consulate. Moreau, Ac
Though anonymous, Lalanne, who published them (Let Dtntitrt
Jours du CohsuIoJ, 1886), proved them to be in the same handwriting
as a letter of Fauriel 's m 1 803. The same library has Faurid'i cone-
spondencc, catalogued bv Ad. Regnier (1900). Benjamin Constant*
letters (iHoj-iaVji w*t published by Victor GUdunt in 1906.
For Faurtd'i corretpon donee with Guiaot see Noutelle Rev. (Dec. I,
loot , by V. GUthani), i ud for his love-letters to Miss Clarice (1822-
t*4j) the JEninr 4ti faux mondes (1008-1909) by E." Rod) See
furrier Sairvrf-il*uvr T r.rlraits content porains, ii.; Antoine Guillou,
U Sal tin de Mme HrU* tius (1894) and La Marquise de Conierid
(i8»>i O'Miura, Ui* : Uon A Paris: Mme Mdkl (undated); and
J. B, Galley, Claude Fauriel (1909).
FAUS1V or Faustus, the name of a magician and charlatan
of the 16th century, famous in legend and in literature. The
historical Faust forms little more than the nucleus round which
a great mass of legendary and imaginative material gradually
accumulated. That such a person existed there is, however,
sufficient proof. 1 He is first mentioned in a letter, dated August
20, 1507, of the learned Benedictine Johann Tritheira or Triihe-
mius (1462-1516), abbot of Spanheira, to the mathematician
and astrologer Johann Windung, at Hasfurt, who had apparently
written about him. Trjthemius, himself reputed a magician, and
the author of a mystical work (published at Darmstadt in 1611
under the title of Steganographica and burnt by order of the
Spanish Inquisition), speaks contemptuously of Faust, who
called himself Magister Georgius Sabeilicus Faustus Junior, as
a fool rather than a philosopher (faiuum non philosophum), a
vain babbler, vagabond and mountebank who ought to be
whipped, and who had fled from the city rather than confront
him. The insane conceit of the man was proved by his boast that,
were all the works of Aristotle and Plato blotted from toe
memory of men, he could restore them with greater elegance, and
that Christ's miracles were nothing to marvel at, since he could
do the like whenever and as often as he pleased; his debased
character by the fact that he had been forced to flee from the
school of which he had been appointed master by the discovery
of his unnatural crimes. The same unflattering estimate is con-
tained in the second extant notice of Faust, in a letter of the
jurist and canon Konrad Mudt (Mutianus Rufus), of the 3rd of
October 1513, to Hdnrich Urbanus. Mudt, like Trithemitts,
simply regards Faust as a charlatan. Similar is the judgment of
another contemporary, Philipp Begardi, who in the fourth
chapter of his Index sanitatis (Worms, 1539) ranks Faust, with
Theophrastus Paracelsus, among the " wicked, cheating, useless
and unlearned doctors.
It was Johann Gast (d 1572), a worthy Protestant pastor
of Basel, who like Mudt claims to have come into personal
contact with Faust, who in bis Sermones comitates (Basel, 1543)
first credited the magician with genuine supernatural qualities.
Gast, a man of some learning and much superstition, believed
Faust to be in league with the devil, by whom about 1525 **
was ultimately carried off, and declared the performing horse anc
dog by which the necromancer was accompanied to be familial
and evil spirits.. Further information was given to the work
by Johann Mannel or Manlius (d 1560), councillor and historiai
to the emperor Maximilian II., in his Locorum comrnuwu*
collectanea (Basel, undated). Manlius reports a conversatioi
of Mclanchthon, which there is no reason to suspect of being othe
than genuine, in which the Reformer speaks of Faust as " 1
disgraceful beast and sewer of many devils," as having bee
born at Kundling (Kundlingen or Kmttlingen), a little tow
near his own native town (of Bretten), and as having studio
magic at Cracow. The rest of the information given can hard!
be regarded as historical, though Melanchthon, who, likeLuthei
1 The opinion, long maintained by some, that he was identic]
with Johann Fust, the printer, is now universally rejected.
1 ^FAVERSHAM
«m do whit less superstitious than most people of hie t
evidently believed it to be so. According to him, among o
marvels, Faust was killed by the devil imaging bit neck. W
be lived he had taken about with him a dog, which was re
a devil A similar opinion would seem to have been nek
Faust by Lather also, who in Widmaaa's Faust-book is m
uooed as having declared that, by God's help, he had been a
to ward off the evus which Faust with his sorceries had soughu>
put upon him. The passage, with the omission of Faust's nai>k
occurs word fox word in Luther's Table-talk(ed.C^Fftsteinafe\g t
voL i p. 50). It is not improbable, then, that Widmann, v *
supplying the name of the necromancer omitted in the Tab Jfyrfc
talk, may be giving a fuller account of the conversatk^^^
BuUinger also, in his Thcatrum de beneficus (Frankf., 156^ ^%% r
■anions Faust as one of those " of whom the Scriptures spta.^ ^ .%*/,
in various places, calling
Wierusor Pi vi nanus '
ling them magi." Lastly Johann Weih*£ V* \ \
dyis-isy^T** pupil ©I Corneous Ag^Afi "* <& JV^*
rt»
doctoi.
right cries: ** *
on with the study *.
of mortals.'* The Void,
leave the study of Theology.
'^.V ^ fc * ^ «i
had practised "this beautiful art shamelessly up and dow^' <£ <j,y% * <§*
Germany, with unspeakable deceit, many lies and great eika/- J > " * * \^
He goes on to tell how the magician had revenged himself 01 ^.^^'"V
aa unhappy parish priest, who had refused to supply him an$; fyA, *
*agu with drink, by giving him a depilatory which remove*.^ *
wt only the beard but the skin, and further, how he had insulted'
a poor wretch, for no better reason than that he had a black
beud, by greeting him as his cousin the devil Of his supeM
banan powers Weiher evidently believes nothing, but he tells
the tale of bis being found dead with his neck wrung, after the
vk4e boose had been shaken by a terrific din.
The sources above mentioned, which were but the first of
ssmerous works on Faust, of more or less value, appearing
laroughout the next two centuries, give a sufficient picture of
U* man as he appeared to his contemporaries: a wandering
cfearktan who lived by his wits, cheiromantist, astrologer,
dinner, spiritualist medium, alchemist, or, to the: more credulous,
* necromancer whose supernatural gifts were the outcome of a
awl pact with the enemy of mankind. Whatever his character,
lis efforts to secure a widespread notoriety had, by the time of
bd death, certainly succeeded. By the latter part of the 16th
century he had become the necromancer pot excellence, and all
t&u legend had to tell about the great wizards of the middle ages,
Virgo, Pope Silvester, Roger Bacon, Michael Scot, or the mythic
KEsgsor, had become for ever associated with his name. When
is 15S7, the oldest Faust-book was published, the Faust legend
*u, in all essential particulars, already complete.
The origin of the main elements of the legend must be sought
iu back in the middle ages and beyond. The idea of a compact
viih the devil, for the purpose of obtaining superhuman power
» knowledge, is of Jewish origin, dating from the centuries
^mediately before and after the Christian era which produced
:he Talmud, the Kabbalah and such magical books as that of
Enoch. In the mystical rites— in which blood, as the seat of life,
pUyed a great part — that accompanied the incantations with
*akh the Jewish magicians evoked the Satarum— the lowest
grade of those elemental spirits (shedim) who have their existence
leyood the dimensions of time and space 1 — we have the proto-
type and originals of all the ceremonies which occupy the books
d magic down to the various versions of the Hdllenswang ascribed
u> Faust. The other principle underlying the Faust legend,
(ae belief in the essentially evil character of purely human
laming, has existed ever since the triumph of Christianity set'
dmne revelation above human science. The legend of Theo-
paOus— a Cflician archdeacon of the 6th century, who sold his
soul to Satan for no better reason than to clear himself of a false
Miness and devote himself entirely to the drama. He provided
\V pieces anonymously- for the lesser theatres, and first put
Nome to La Cherckeuse d' esprit, which was produced in x 74*.
Xa * his most successful works were Annette et Lubin, be
\<Uage (1743), Ninette & la cour (1753), les Treis Sultanes
\ VA ngfaua Bordeaux (1763). Favart became director
fa Comique, and in .1745 married Marie Jdstinb
\aONCEEAY (1727-1772), a beautiful young dancer,
>ass, who as " Mile Chantilly " had made a success-
V before. By their united talents and labours
\rose to such a height of success that it aroused
^val Gomedie Italienne and was suppressed.
Xhout resources, accepted the proposal of
Nundertook the direction of a troupe of
> accompany his army into Flanders.
>ompose from time to time impromptu
Campaign, amusing and stimulating
\ular were Favart and his troupe
y hearing his company and shar-
\given to gratify them, battles
\ting with each other. But
. Mme Favart, began to perae-
j ^vscape hi™ she went to Paris,
y # ^husband. A httre de cachet
PsWR
charge brought against him by his bishop— was immensely
popular throughout the middle ages, and m the 8th century
formed the theme of a poem in Latin hexameters by the nun
Hroswithn of Gandersheim, who, especially in her description of
the ritual of Satan's court, displays a Sufficiently lively and
^ ^ *v to Stmsabtirg and found
« f^* 11 ^^t mean while had been
/(l ' i Vaurirard; but US she
ind confined
.Lionel surrender
the marshal
^mfdie Italienne,
v 1**^ <#£ rc&s. To her is
^^a -4* & ^ -& ^*.re to perform-
/j?£ #£?*f# °ch developed
$£<?£ ^./^santwith
vs^S? *? * ^etofore,
^/^abor-
' dU
you will be the happiest of moxw «y
in fact, the creation of orthodox 1. *">
the inevitable doom which follows the *-
tellect against divine authority as representv
Scriptures and its accredited interpreters. Faust, tt» v
of Holy Writ, is set up as a foil to Luther, the champion,
new orthodoxy, who with well-directed inkpot worsted the Ov
when he sought to interrupt the sacred work of rendering the
Bible into the vulgar tongue.'
It was doubtless this orthodox and Protestant character of
the Faust story which contributed to its immense and immediate
popularity in the Protestant countries. The first edition of the
Hisioria son Z>. Johann Fausten, by an unknown compiler,
pubhshed by Johann Spies at Frankfort in 1587, sold out at
once. Though only placed on the market in the autumn, before
the year was out it had been reprinted in four pirated editions.
In the following year a rhymed version was printed at Tubingen,
a second edition was published by Spies at Frankfort and a
version in low German by J. J. Balhorn at Lflbeck. Reprints
and amended versions continued to appear in Germany every
year, till they culminated in the pedantic compilation of Georg
Rudolf Widmann, who obscured the dramatic interest of the
story by an excessive display of erudition and by his well-meant
efforts to elaborate the orthodox moral. Widmann's version of
1500 formed the basis of that of Johann Nicholaus Pfitxer,
published at Nuremberg in 1674, which passed through six
editions, the last appearing in 1726. Like Widmann, Pfitaer
was more xealous for imparting information than for perfecting
a work of art, though he had the good taste to restore the episode
of the evocation of Helen, which Widmann had expunged as
unfit lor Christian readers. Lastly there appeared, about
1 Many are given in K kae wt ttcr 's Faust, p. 1x2, Ac
FAURIELusT
210
a requiem, a cantata, The Birth of Venus, produced at the
festival in 1808, a quantity of piano music, and a large m
of songs. Faure* occupies a place by himself among n liafcMM1
French composers. He delights in the imprtvu, and lfi£re"the
wander through labyrinthine harmonies. There cast editions,
denying the intense fascination and remarkable origf^^^ ^
his music His muse is essentially aristocratic, Mfriisb version
the surroundings of the boudoir and the perfume^ Damnable
house. published some
FAURIBL, CLAUDE CHARLES (177^1844), ^translation of
philologist and critic, was born at St £tienmfj S9a ^^ fa ^
October 177a. Though the son of a poor ufot through fifteen
good education in the Oratorian colleges o(/ versions an dated
He was twice in the army—at Perpignan/j published at Prague.
1707 at Briancon, as private secretary f all more or less founded
Gerbey (1741-1808); but he preferred' ous ballads on the same
companionship of his friends and his ^ Of these the most interest-
to St fctienne, where, but only t/ ad of the life and death ef Dr
municipal office; and from 179/ 4 in 1588 with the imprimatur
td strenuous study, more espec^ x>ndon. This ballad is supposed
both ancient and modern, of / ; version of Spica's Faust-book,
visit to Paris in 1709, he mi /ariowe's drama was founded,
police, who induced him to becft would appear, belongs the honour
he discharged the duties of/ dramatic possibilities of the Faust
hts strength was ovcrtasK*^ ef D. Faustus as it hath bene
study, and he found it Arabia the Eerie ef Nottingham his servants
by a three months' trip ifrhomas Bushall at London in 1604. As
following year he was/, the play must have been written shortly
as by the scrupiesJfe f the English version of the Faust story
Napoleon, when thjased. The first recorded performance was on
ciples, became container 2504.
ments of MtmMFanstus is the first, so it isimcomparably the
in 1886. ^ /4ust drama* which preceded Goethe's masterpiece.
Some artidf Marlowe's work it is, indeed, very unequal. At
tophique (ijfcents the poet seems to realise the great possibilities
considered jfy f only to sacrifice them to the necessity for humouring
intimate/ailing public taste of the age. Faust us, who in one
Madam/urns disillusioned from the ordinary, fountains of know-
It was/, or flies in a dragon-drawn chariot through the Empyrean
tolojfearch out the mysteries of the heavens, in another is made
wafW-his superhuman powers to satisfy the taste of the ground-
pongs for senseless buffoonery, to swindle a horse-dealer, or cheat
j^ao, ale-wife of ber score; .while Protestant orthodoxy is concili-
ated by irrelevant insults to the Roman Church and by the final
catastrophe, when Faust us pays for his revolt against the Word
of God by the forfeit of his soul. This conception, which followed
that of the popular Faust histories, underlay all further develop*
ments of the Faust drama for nearly two hundred years. Of
the serious stage plays founded on this theme, Marlowe's Panstus
remains the sole authentic example until near the end of the
18th century; but there is plenty of evidence to- prove that
in Germany the Comedy of Dr Faust, in one form or another,
was and continued to be a popular item in the repertories of
theatrical companies until far into the z8th century. It is
supposed, with good reason, that the German versions were
based on those introduced into the country by English strolling
players early in the 17th century. However this may be, the
dramatic versions of the Faust legend followed much the same
course as the prose histories. Just as these gradually degener-
ated into chap-books hawked at fairs, so the dramas were replaced
by puppet-plays, handed down by tradition through genera-
tions of showmen, retaining their original broad characteristics,
but subject to infinite modification in detail. In this way, in
the puppet-shows, the traditional Faust story retained its popu-
larity until far into the 19th century, long after, in the sphere of
literature, Goethe had for ever raised it to -quite another plane.
h It was natural that during the literary revival in Germany
in the 18th century, when German writers were eagerly on the
look-out for subjects to form the material of a truly national
literature, the Faust legend should have attracted their attention.
Leasing was the first to point out its great possibilities; 1 and
* In the LitcraturbriefctFeb* 16, 1750.
he himself wrote a Faust drama, of which unfortunately only a
fragment remains, the MS. of the completed work having bees
lost in the author's lifetime. None the less, to Leasing, not u
Goethe, is due the new point of view from which the story wu
approached by most of those who, after about the year 1770,
attempted to tell iL The traditional Faust legend represented
the sternly orthodox attitude of the Protestant reformers
Even the mitigating elements which the middle ages had per-
mitted had been banished by the stern logic of the theologians
of the New Religion. Theophilus had been saved in the end by
the intervention of the Blessed Virgin; Pope Silvester, accordiai
to one version of the legend, had likewise been snatched from
the jaws of hell at the last moment. Faust was irrevocably
damned, since the attractions, of the studium theohgkum
proved insufficient to counteract the fascinations of the classic
Helen. But if he was to become, in the x8th century, the type
of the human intellect face to face with the deep problem! of
human life, it was intolerable that bis struggles should issue
in eternal reprobation. Error and heresy had ceased to be
regarded as crimes; and Stereotyped orthodoxy, to the age ol
the Encyclopaedists, represented nothing more than the atrophy
of the human intellect. Es irrt der Menseh so long er strtbt,
which sums up in one pregnant line the spirit of Goethe's Faust,
sums up also the spirit of the age which killed with ridicule th«
last efforts of persecuting piety, and saw the birth of modem
science. Leasing, in short, proclaimed that the final end of Fsust
must be, not his damnation, but his salvation. This revolution-
ary conception is the measure of Goethe's debt to Less*.
The essential change which Goethe himself introduced into the
story is in the nature of the pact between Faust and Mephis-
topheles, and in the character of Mephistopbeles himself.
The Mephistopheles of Marlowe, as of the old Faust-books, for
all his brave buffoonery, is a melancholy devil, with a soal above
the unsavoury hell in which he is forced to pass a hopeless
existence. "Tell me," says Faust, in the puppet-play, to
Mephistopheles, " what would you do if you could attain to
everlasting salvation? *' And the devil answers, " Hear and
despair! Were I able to attain everlasting salvation, I would
mount to heaven on a ladder, though every rung were a razor
edge I" Goethe's Mephistopheles would have made no such
reply. There is nothing of the fallen angel about him; he is
perfectly content with his past, his present and his future;
and he appears before the throne of God with the same easy
insolence as he exhibits in Dame Martha's back-garden. He
is, in fact, according to his own definition, the Spirit of Denial,
the impersonation of that utter scepticism which can see no
distinction between high and low, between good and bad, and
is therefore without aspiration because It knows no "divine
discontent." And the compact which Faust makes with this
spirit is from the first doomed to be void. 'Faustus had bartered
away his soul for a definite period of pleasure and power. The
conception that underlies the compact of Faust with Mephis*
topheles is far more subtle. He had sought happiness vainly
in the higher intellectual and spiritual pursuits; he is content
to seek it on a lower plane since Mephistopheles gives him the
chance; but he is confident that nothing that " such a poor
devil " can offer him could give him that moment of supreme
satisfaction for which he craves. He goes through the traditional
mummery of signing the bond with scornful submission; for
he knows that his damnation wiD not be the outcome of any
formal compact, but will follow inevitably, and only then, when
his soul has grown to be satisfied with what Mephistopheles can
purvey him.
" Canst thon with lying flattery rule me
Until self-pleaaed myself 1 see.
Canst thou with pleasure mock and fool me.
Let that hour be the last for me!
When thus I hail the moment flying:
* Ah, still delay, thou art so fairr
Then bind me in thy chains undying,
My final ruin then declare!" •
Uis because Mephistophdes fails tomveh^
1 Bayard Taylor's trans;
FAUSTINA— FAVERSHAM
3IJ
or to absorb his being in the pleasures he provides, that the
compact cones to nothing. When, at last, Faust cries to the
passing moment to remain, it is because be has forgotten self in
enthusiasm for a great and beneficent work, in a state of mind the
very antithesis of all that Mephistaphetes represents. In the
old Faust-books, Faust had been given plenty of opportunity
for repentance, but the inducements had been no higher than
the exhibition of a throne in heaven on the one hand and the tor-
tures of hell on the other. Goethe's Fasts* , for all it* Christian
setting, departs widely from this orthodox standpoint. £aust
shows no signs of "repentance 1 '; he simply emerges by the
innate force of his character from a lower into a higher state,
the triumph, foretold by " the Lord " in the opening scene,
was inevitable from the first, since, though
" ' Man errs so long as he is striving,
A good man through obscurest aspiration
Is ever conscious of the one true way.' '*
A man, in short, must be judged no* by the sins and follies which
may be but accidents of his career, but by the character which is
its essential outcome.
This idea, which inspired also the kindred theme of Browning's
Paracelsus, is the main development introduced by Goethe
into the Faust legend. The episode of Gretchen, fox all its tragic
interest, does not belong to the legend at all.; and it is difficult
to deny the pertinency of Charles Lamb's criticism, " What has
Margaret to do with Faust?" Yet in spite of all that may be
said of the irrelevanries, and of the discussions of themes of
ocrely ephemeral interest, with which Goethe overloaded
especially the second part of the poem, his Faust remains for the
modem world the final form of the legend out of which it grew,
the magnificent expression of the broad humanism which, even
in spheres accounted orthodox, has tended to replace the peculiar
thtdium tkeologicum which inspired the early Faust-books.
See Karl Engel, ZusommensteUung der Faust-Schrijten torn 16.
J&krhindert ffis Mine 1884— a second edition of the Bibliotheca
Peustiana (1874)— {Oldenburg, 1885), a complete bibliography of all
published matter concerned, even somewhat remotely, with Faust;
Goethe's Faust, with introduction and notes by K. J. Schroer
(2nd ed.. Heilbronn, 1886); Carl Kicsewctter, Faust in der Gtschickle
vj Tradition (JLetpzig, 1893). The last book, besides being a critical
study of the material for the historical and legendary story of
Faust, aims at estimating the relation of the Faust-legend to the
vhole subject of occultism, ancient and modern. It is a mine of
information on necromancy and its kindred subjects, as well
as on eminent theurgists, wizards, crystal-gazers and the like of
all ages. (W. A. P.)
FAUSTINA, AUTflA OALEMA, the younger, daughter of
Antoninus Pius, and wife of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. She
is accused by Dio Cassius and Capitolinus of gross profligacy,
sod was reputed to have instigated the revolt of Avidius Cassrus
against her husband. She died in 175 or 176 (so Clinton, Fasti
rest.) at Halala, near Mount Taurus, in Cappadocia, whither she
had accompanied Aurelius. Charitable schools for orphan girls
(hence called Faustinianae) were founded in her honour, like
those est a b l is he d by her father Antoninus in honour of his wife,
the eider Faustina. Her statue was placed in the temple of
Venus, and she was numbered among the tutelary deities of Rome.
From the fact that Aurelius was always devoted to her and was
heartbroken at her death, it has been inferred that the unfavour-
able estimate of the historians is prejudiced or at least mistaken.
See Capitolinus, Marcus Aurelius: Okt Cassius lxxi 32, baiv. 3;
L Kenan, in Melanges eVhistoire et ies voyages, 169-195.
FA V ABA, a town of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, 5 m. E.
©f Girgenti by road. Pop. (1001) 20,308. It possesses 2 fine
castle of the Chiaramonte family, erected in 1280. The town
has a considerable agricultural trade, and there are sulphur and
other mines in the neighbourhood.
FAVAHT, CHARLES SIMON (1710-170*). French dramatist,
was born in Paris on the 13th of November 1710, the son of a
pastry-cook. He was educated at the college of Louis-Ie-Grand,
and after his father's death carried on the business for a time.
His first success in literature was La France d&brie par la
PucdU cTOrliens, a poem which obtained a prt2e of-the Acad£rme
des Jcux Flor ux. After the production of his first vaudeville,
Us DeuxJumcUa (1734), circumstances enabled him to relinquish
business and devote himself entirely to the drama. He provided
many pieces anonymously- foe the lesser theatres, and first put
bis name to La Chercheuse & esprit, which was produced in 1 741*
Among his most successful works were Annette ei Luton, La
Coq du village (1743), Ninette a la tour (1 753), Us Trois SuUanes
( 1 761) and VA ngjats A Bordeaux (1763). Favart became director
of the Opera Comique, and in .1745 married Make Justine
BbnoSte Dimoncebay <I7*7-X77a), » beautiful young dancer,
singer and actress, who aa " Mile Chantilly " had made a success-
ful debut the year before. By their united talents and labours
the Opeta Comique rose to such a height of success that it aroused
the jealousy of the rival Comedie Itaiienne and was suppressed.
Favart, left thus without resources, accepted the proposal of
Maurice de Saxe, and undertook the direction of a troupe of
comedians which was to accompany his army into Flanders.
It was part of his duty to compose from time to time impromptu
verses on the events of the campaign, amusing and stimulating
the spirits of the men. So popular were Favart and his troupe
that the enemy became desirous of hearing his company and shar-
ing his services, and permission was given to gratify them, battles
and comedies thus curiously alternating with each other. But
the marshal, who was an admirer of Mme Favart, began to perse-
cute her with his attentions. To escape him she went to Paris,
and. the wrath of Saxe fell upon the husband. A Uttre de cachet
was issued against him, but he fled to Strassburg and found
concealment in a cellar. Mme Favart meanwhile had been
established by the marshal in a house at Vaugirard; but as she
proved a fickle mistress she was suddenly arrested and confined
in a convent, where she was brought to unconditional surrender
in the beginning of 1750. Before the year was out the marshal
died, and Mme Favart reappeared at the Comedie Itaiienne,
where for twenty years she was the favourite actress. To her is
largely due the beginnings of the change in this theatre to perform-
ances of a lyric type adapted from Italian models, which developed
later into the genuine French comic opera* She was also a bold
reformer in matters of stage costume, playing the peasant with
bare arms, in wooden shoes and linen dress, and not, as heretofore,
in court costume with enormous hoops, diamonds and long white
kid gloves. With her husband, and other authors, she collabor-
ated in a number of successful pieces, and one— £a Fille mal gardie
-—she produced alone,
Favart survived his wife twenty yean. After the marshal's
death in 1750 be had returned to Paris, and resumed his pursuits
as a dramatist. It was at this time that the abbe de Voisenon
became intimate with him and took part in his labours, to what
extent is uncertain* He had grown nearly blind in his last
days, and died in Paris on the 12th of May 1702. His plays
have been several times republished* in various editions and
selections (i703-i77a t xa vols.; 1810, 3 vols.; 1813; 1853).
His correspondence (X750-X763) with Count Durazzo, director
of theatres at Vienna, was published in x8o8 as Mimoira et
correspondence liUfroire, dramaUque el anecdotique de C. S. Favart,
It furnishes valuable information on the state of the literary and
theatrical worlds in the 18th century,
Favart's second son, Charles Nicolas Joseph Justin Favart
(1740-1806), was an actor of moderate talent at the Comedie
Francaise for fifteen years. He wrote a number of successful
plays?— LeDiable boiteux (1 78a) , Le Mariage singulicr (1 787) and,
with his father, La Vieillesse o" Annette (1791). His son Antoine
Pierre Charles Favart (1 780-1867) was in the diplomatic service,
and assisted in editing his grandfather's memoirs; he was a
playwright and painter as well.
FAVERSHAH, a market town and river-port, member of the
Cinque Port of Dover, and municipal borough in the Faversham
parliamentary division of Kent, England, on a creek of the Swale,
9 m. W.N.W. of Canterbury on the South-Eastern & Chatham
railway. Pop. (xoox) x 1 ,200. The church of St Mary of Charity,
restored by Sir G, G. Scott in 1874, is of Early English archi-
tecture, and has some remains on one of the columns of frescoes
of the same period, while the 14th-century paintings in the
chancel are in better preservation. Some of the brasses are very
fine, and there is one commemorating King Stephen, as well as
214
FAVORINUS— FAVRE
a tomb said to be his. He was buried at the abbey he founded
here, of which only a wall and the foundations below ground
remain. At Davington, close to Faversham, there are remains,
incorporated in a residence, of the cloisters and other pails of
a Benedictine priory founded in 1153. Faversham has a free
grammar school founded in 1527 and removed to its present
site in 1877. Faversham Creek is navigable up to the town for
vessels of 200 tons. The shipping trade is considerable, chiefly
in coal, timber and agricultural produce. The oyster fisheries
are important, and are managed by a very ancient gild, the Com-
pany of Free Dredgermen of the Hundred and Manor of Faver-
sham. Brewing, brickmaking and the manufacture of cement
are also carried on, and there are several large powder mills in
the vicinity. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Area, 686 acres.
There was a Romano-British village on the site of Faversham.
The town (Fauresfcld, Faveresham) owed its early importance
to its situation as a port on the Swale, to the fertile country
surrounding it, and to the neighbourhood of Watling Street.
In Six it was called the king's town, and a witenagemot was
held here under iEthelstan. In 1086 it was assessed as royal
demesne, and a market was held here at this date. An abbey
was built by Stephen in 1147, in which he and Matilda were
buried. They had endowed it with the manor and hundred of
Faversham; this grant caused many disputes between the abbot
and men of Faversham concerning the abbot's jurisdiction'.
Faversham was probably a member of Dover from the earliest
association of the Cinque Ports, certainly as early as Henry III.,
who in 1252 granted among other liberties of the Cinque Ports
that the barons of Faversham should plead only in Shepway
Court, but ten years later transferred certain pleas to the abbot's
court. In this reign also the abbot appointed the mayor, but
from the reign of Edward I. he was elected by the freemen and
then installed by the abbot. The corporation was prescriptive,
and a hallmote held in 1293 was attended by a mayor and
twelve jurats. All the liberties of the Cinque Ports were granted
to the barons of Faversham by Edward I. in 13012, and confirmed
by Edward III. in 1365, and by later monarchs. The governing
charter till 1835 was that of Henry VIII., granted in 1545 and
confirmed by Edward VI.
FAVORINUS (2nd century a.d.), Greek sophist and philosopher,
flourished during the reign of Hadrian. A Gaul by birth, he was
a native of Arelate (Aries), but at an early age began his lifelong
travels through Greece, Italy and the East. His extensive
knowledge, combined with great oratorical powers, raised him
to eminence both in Athens and in Rome. With Plutarch, who
dedicated to him his treatise Ilept rod rpCnov ihncpod, with
Herodes Atticus, to whom he bequeathed his library at Rome,
with Demetrius the Cynic, Cornelius Fronto, Aulus Gellius,
and with Hadrian himself, he lived on intimate terms; his great
rival, whom he violently attacked in his later years, was Polemon
of Smyrna. It was Favorinus who, on being silenced by Hadrian
in an argument in which the sophist might easily have refuted
his adversary, subsequently explained that it was foolish to
criticize the logic of the master of thirty legions. When the
servile Athenians, feigning to share the emperor's displeasure
with the sophist, pulled down a statue which they had erected
to him, Favorinus remarked that if only Socrates also had bad a
statue at Athens, be might have been spared the hemlock. Of
the very numerous works of Favorinus, we. possess only a few
fragments (unless the. Kopotfta«o* Xoyof attributed to his
tutor bio Chrysostom is by him), preserved by Aulus Gellius,
Diogenes Lafrtius, Philostratus, and Suldas, the second of
whom borrows from his Uayro6airfi Urropla (miscellaneous
history) and his 'Airo/iOTj/ievefyiara (memoirs). As a philosopher,
Favorinus belonged to the sceptical school; his most important
work in this connexion appears to have been TlvppvPtiot rporot
(the Pyrrhonean Tropes) in ten books, in which he endeavours
to show that the methods of Pyrrho were usef ll to those who
intended to practise in the law courts.
See Philostratus, Vtiae iobkistarum, i. 8; Suldas, r.tt; frags,
in C. W. Mullcr, Frag. Hist. Grate. iih4; monographs by L. Legrc
(1900). T. Colardcau (1903).
FAVRAS, THOMAS DB MAHV, Maiquis 0£ (i?4*~i7»>),
French royalist, was born on the 26th of March 1744* «t BMa.
He belonged to a poor family whose nobility dated from the
1 ath century. At seventeen he was a captain of dragoons,
and saw some service in the closing campaign of the Seven
Years' War. In 1772 he became first lieutenant of the Swiss
guards of the count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII).
Unable to meet the expenses of his rank, which was equivalent
to the grade of colonel in the army, he retired in 1775- He
married in 1776 Victoria Hedwig Caroline, princess of Anhalt-
Bernburg-Schaumburg, whose mother, deserted by her husband
Prince Carl Ludwig in 1749, had found refuge with her daughter
in the house of Marshal Soubise. After his marriage he went to
Vienna to press the restitution of his wife's rights, and spent
some time in Warsaw. In 2787 be was authorised to raise t
patriotic legion to help the Dutch against the stadtholder
William IV. and his Prussian allies. Returning to Paris at the
outbreak of the Revolution, .he became implicated in schemes
for the escape of Louis XVI. from Paris and the dominance of
the National Assembly. He was commissioned by the count
of Provence through one of his gentlemen, the comte de U
Chatre, to negotiate a loan of two million francs from the bankers
Schaumcl and Sartorius. Favras took into his confidence
certain officers by whom he was betrayed; and, with bis wife,
he was arrested on Christmas Eve 1789 and imprisoned in the
Abbaye. A fortnight later they were separated, Favras bcini
removed to the Ch&telet. It was stated in a leaflet circulated
throughout Paris that Favras had organized a plot of which
the count of Provence was the moving spirit. A force of 30,000
was to be raised, La Fayette and Bailly, the- mayor of Pins,
were to be assassinated, and Paris was to be starved into sub-
mission by cutting off supplies. The count hastened publicly
to disavow Favras in a speech delivered before the commune of
Paris and in a letter to the National Assembly, although there is
no reasonable doubt of his complicity in the plot that did exist
In the course of a trial of nearly two months' duration the
witnesses disagreed, and even the editor of the Revolutions it
Paris (No. 30) admitted that the evidence was insufficient;
but an armed attempt of the Royalists on the Chitdet on the
26th of January, which was defeated by La Fayette, roused the
suspicious temper of the Parisians to fury, and on the iSth of
February 1700, in spite of the courageous defence of his counsel,
Favras was condemned to be hanged. He refused to give any
information of the alleged plot, and the sentence was carried out
on the Place de Greve the next day, to the delight of the populace,
since It was the first instance when no distinction in the mode
of execution was allowed between noble and commoner. Favras
was generally regarded as a martyr to his refusal to implicate
the count of Provence, and Madame de Favras was pensioned
by Louis XVI. She left France, and her son Charles de Favras
served in the Austrian and the Russian armies. He received an
allowance from Louis XV7II. Her daughter Caroline married
Rtidigcr, Frcihcrr von St ill fried Ratenic, in 1805.
The official dossier of Favras's trial for high treason against
the nation disappeared from the Chatelet, bat its substance
is preserved in the papers of a clerk.
Bibliography.— For particulars see A. Tuetey. Ripertoire f/«foi
des sources manuscritcs de Pkistoite de Paris pendant la Rcroluticn
Fran^aise (vol.i., I&oo, pp. 175-»77): M.Toumeux, Bibl. defkish"^
de Paris pendant la Revolution Franfaiu (vol. L pp. 196-106. 1800
de Valon in the Revue des deux mondes (15th June 1S51),
FAVRB, JEAN ALPHONSB (1815-1890), Swiss gtologist
was born at Geneva on the 31st of March 1815. He was fa
many years professor of geology in the academy at Geneva, in<
afterwards president of the Federal Commission with chargt
of the geological map of Switzerland. One of his earliest paper
was On the Anthracites of the Alps (1841), and later he gav
special attention to the geology of Savoy and of' Mont Blanc
and to the ancient glacial phenomena of those Alpine region
His elucidation of the geological structure demonstrated tha
FAVRE— FAWCETT, HENRY
a*5
certain anomalous occurrences of fossils were due to repeated
interfoldings of the strata and to complicated overthruat faults.
In 1867 he published Rcchettkts giologiquts dans las parties
it la Saw*, du Ptimont eliela Suisu voisincs du Mont Blanc.
He died at Geneva in June 1890.
His son Ernest Favre (b. 1845) has written on the palaeon-
tology and geology of Galicia, Savoy and the Fribourg Alps,
and of the Caucasus and Crimea.
FAVRE, JULES CLAUDE GABRIEL (1800-1880), French
statesman, was born at Lyons on the aist of March 1809, and
began his career as an advocate. From the time of the revolu-
tion of 1830 be openly declared himself a republican, and in
political trials he seized the opportunity to express his opinions.
After the revolution of 1848 he was elected deputy for Lyons
to the Constituent Assembly, where he sat among the moderate
republicans, voting against the socialists. When Louis Napoleon
wis elected President of France, Favre made himself conspicuous
by his opposition, and on the and of December 1851 he trued with
Victor Hugo and others to organize an armed resistance fin the
streets of Paris. After the coup d'tlal bo withdrew from politics,
resumed his profession, and distinguished himself by his defence
of Fefice Orsini, the perpetrator of the attack against the life
of Napoleon 1H. In 1858 he was elected deputy for Paris, and
was one of the " Five " who gave the signal for the republican
opposition to the Empire. In 1863 he became the head of his
parly, and delivered a number of addresses denouncing the Mexi-
can expedition and the occupation of Rome. These addresses,
eloquent, clear and incisive, won him a seat in the French
Academy in 1867. With Thiers he opposed the declaration of
war against Prussia in 1870, and at the news of the defeat of
Napoleon III. at Sedan he demanded from the Legislative
Assembly the deposition of the emperor. In the government of
National Defence he became vice-president under General Trochu,
and minister of foreign affairs, with the onerous task of negotiat-
ing peace with victorious Germany. He proved to be less adroit
as a diplomat than he had been as an orator, and committed
several irreparable blunders. His famous statement on the
6th of September 1870 that he " would not yield to Germany
an inch of territory nor a single stone of the fortresses " was a
piece of oratory which Bismarck met on the 10th by his declara-
tion to Favre that the cession of Alsace and of Lorraine was the
indispensable condition of peace. He also made the mistake
of not having an assembly elected which would have more regular
powers than the government of National Defence, and of opposing
the removal of the government from Paris during the siege. In
the peace negotiations he allowed Bismarck to get the better
of him, and arranged for the armistice of the 28th of June 1871
without knowing' the situation of the armies, and without
consulting the government at Bordeaux. By a grave oversight
he neglected to inform Gambetta that the army of the East
(80,000 men) was not included in the armistice, and it was thus
obliged to retreat to neutral territory. He gave no proof what-
ever of diplomatic skill in the negotiations for the treaty of Frank-
fort, and it was Bismarck who imposed all the conditions. He
withdrew from the ministry, discredited, on the and of August
1871, but remained in the chamber of deputies. Elected senator
on the 30th of January 1876, he continued to support the govern-
ment of the republic against the reactionary opposition, until his
death on the 20th of January 1880.
His works include many speeches and addresses, notably
La Liberli de la Presse (1849), THUnse de P. Orsini (1866),
Discours de ricspticn a PAcadimie franchise (1868), Discours sur
la liberti inUrieure (1869). In Le Gouvernement de la Difense
Xali<maU, 3 vols., 2872-1875, he explained his role in 1 870-1871.
After his death his family published his speeches in 8 volumes.
See G. HanotainvlfMtotrf d$ la France ccntempotaine (1903, Ac) ;
abo E. Benoft-Levy, JuUs Pant (1884).
FAVUI (Lat. for honeycomb), a disease of the scalp, but occur-
ring occasionally on any part of the- skin, and even at times on
mucous membranes. The uncomplicated • appearance is that
of a number of yellowish, circular, cup-shaped crusts (scutula)
grouped in patches like a piece of honeycomb, each about the
size of a split pea, with a hair projecting in the centre. These
increase in sue and become crusted over, so that the character*
istic lesion can only be seen round the edge of the scab. Growth
continues to take place for several months, when scab and
scutulum come away, leaving a shining bare patch destitute
of hair. The disease is essentially chronic, lasting from ten to
twenty years. It is caused by the growth of a fungus, and
pathologically is the reaction of the tissues to the growth. It
was the first disease in which a fungus was discovered— by
J. L. Schbnlein in 1839; the discovery was published in a brief
note of twenty lines in Midlers Ardriv for that year (p. 8s),
the fungus having been subsequently named by R. Remak
Achorion SchdnldnU after its discoverer. The achorion consists
of slender, mycelial threads matted together, bearing oval,
nucleated gonidia either free or jointed. The spores would
appear to enter through the unbroken cutaneous surface, and
to germinate mostly in and around the hair-follicle and some-
times in (he shaft of the hair. In 2892 two other species of the
fungus were described by P. G. Unna and Frank, the Panes
griseus, giving rise to greyish-yellow scutula, and the Pavus
sulphureus ulerior, causing sulphur-yellow scutula of a rapid
growth. Favus is commonest among the poorer Jews of Russia,
Poland, Hungary, Galicia and the East, and among the
same class of Mahommedans in Turkey, Asia Minor, Syria,
Persia, Egypt, Algiers, &c. It is not rare in the southern depart-
ments of France, in some parts of Italy, and in Scotland. It
is spread by contagion, usually from cats, often, however, from
mice, fowls or dogs. Lack of personal cleanliness is an almost
necessary factor in its development, but any one in delicate
health, especially if suffering from phthisis, seems especially
liable to contract it. Before treatment can be begun the scabs
must be removed by means of carbolised oil, and the head
thoroughly cleansed with soft soap. The cure is then brought
about by the judicious use of parasiticides. If the nails are
affected, avulsion will probably be needed before the disease can
be reached.
FAWCETT, HENRY (2833-2884), English politician and
economist, was born at Salisbury on the 25th of August 1833.
His father, William Fawcett, a native of Kirkby Lonsdale, in
Westmorland, started life as a draper's assistant at Salisbury,
opened a draper's shop on his own account in the market-place
there in 2825, married a solicitor's daughter of the city, became
a prominent local man, took a farm, developed his north-country
sporting instincts, and displayed his shrewdness by successful
speculations in Cornish mining. His second son, Henry, inherited
a full measure of his shrewdness, along with his masculine energy,
his straightforwardness, his 'perseverance and his fondness for
fishing. The father was active in electioneering matters, and his
wife was an ardent reformer. Henry Fawcett was educated
locally and at King's College school, London, and proceeded
to Peterhouse, Cambridge, in October 1852, migrating in 2853
to Trinity HalL He was seventh wrangler in 1856, and was
elected to a fellowship at his college.
He had already attained some prominence as an orator at
the Cambridge Union. Before he left school he had formed
the ambition of entering parliament, and, being a poor man, he
resolved to approach the House of Commons through a career
at the bar. He had already entered Lincoln's Inn. His prospects,
however, were shattered by a calamity which befell him in
September 2858, when two stray pellets from his father's fowling'
piece passed through the glasses he was wearing and blinded
him for life. Within ten minutes after his accident he had made
up his mind " to stick to bis old pursuits as much as possible."
He kept up all recreations contributing to the enjoyment of life;
be fished, rowed, skated, took abundant walking and horse
exercise, and learnt to play cards with marked packs. Soon
after his accident he established his headquarters at Trinity
Hall, Cambridge, entered cordially into the social life of the
college, and came to be regarded by many as a typical Cambridge
man. He gave up mathematics (for which he had little aptitude),
and specialised in political economy. He paid comparatively
little attention to economic history, but he was in the main a
2l6
FAWCETT, HENRY
devout believer in economic theory, as represented by Rkardo
and his school. The later philosophy of the subject he believed
to be summed up in one book, Mill's Principles of Political
Economy, which he regarded as the indispensable " vade mecum "
of every politician. He was not a great reader, and Mill probably
never had a serious rival in his regard, though he was much
impressed by Buckle's History of Civilization and Darwin's
Origin of Specks when they severally appeared. He made a
great impression in 1859 with a paper at the British Association,
and he soon became a familiar figure there and at various lecture
halls in the north as an exponent of orthodox economic theory.
Of the sincerity of his faith he gave the strongest evidence
by his desire at all times to give a practical application to his
views and submit them to the test of experiment. Among
Mill's disciples he was, no doubt, far inferior as an economic
thinker to Cairnes, but as a popularixer of the system and a
demonstrator of its principles by concrete examples he had no
rivaL His power of exposition was illustrated in his Manual of
Political Economy (1863), of which in twenty years as many as
20,000 copies were sold. Alexander Macmillan had suggested
the book,. and it appeared just in time to serve as a credential,
when, in the autumn of 1863, Fawcctt stood and was elected
for the Chair of Political Economy at Cambridge. The appoint-
ment attached him permanently to Cambridge, gave him an
income,, and showed that he was competent to discharge duties
from which a blind man is often considered to be debarred.
He was already a member of the Political Economy Club, and
was becoming well known in political circles as an advanced
Radical. In January 1863, after a spirited though abortive
attempt in Southwark, he was only narrowly beaten for the
borough of Cambridge. Early in 1864 he was adopted as one
of the Liberal candidates at Brighton, and at the general election
of 1865 he was elected by a large majority. Shortly after his
election he became engaged to MOlicent, daughter of Mr Ncwson
Garrett of Aldeburgh, Suffolk, and in 1867 he was married.
Mrs Fawcett (b. 1847) became well known for her social and
literary work, and especially as an advocate, in the press and
on the platform, of women's suffrage and the higher education
and independent employment of women. And after her husband 's
death, as well as during his lifetime, she was a prominent leader
in these movements.
Fawcett entered parliament just in time to see the close of
Palmerston's career and to hail the adoption by Gladstone of
a programme of reform to which most of the laissahfaire
economists gave assent. He was soon known as a forcible
speaker, and quickly overcame the imputation that he was
academic and doctrinaire, though it is true that a certain
monotony in delivery often gave a slightly too didactic tone to
his discourses. But it was as the uncompromising critic of the
political shifts and expedients of his leaders that he attracted
most attention. He constantly insisted upon the right of
exercising private judgment, and he especially devoted himself
to the defence of causes which, as he thought, were neglected
both by bis official leaders and by his Radical comrades. Re-
elected for Brighton to the parliament of 186&-1874, he greatly
hampered the government by his persistence in urging the
abolition of clerical fellowships and the payment of election
expenses out of the rates, and by opposing the " permissive
compulsion " clauses of the Elementary Education Bill, and the
exclusion of agricultural children from the scope of the act.
His hatred of weak concessions made him the terror of parlia-
mentary wirepullers, and in 1871 he was not undeservedly spoken
of in The Times as the most "thorough Radical now in the House."
Bis liberal ideals were further shocked by the methods by
which Gladstone achieved the abolition of Army Purchase.
His disgust at the supineness of the cabinet in dealing with the
problems of Indian finance and the growing evil of Commons
Enclosures were added to the catalogue of grievances which
Fawcett drew up in a powerful article, " On the Present Position
0/ the Government," in the Fortnightly Renew for November
1871. In 1867 he had opposed the expenses of a ball given to
the sultan at the India office being charged upon the Indian
budget. In 1870 he similarly opposed the taxation of the
Indian revenue with the cost of presents distributed by the duke
of Edinburgh in India. In 187 1 he went alone into the lobby
to vote against the dowry granted to the princess Louise. The
soundness of his principles was not impeached, but his leaders
looked askance at him, and from 187 1 he was severely shunned
by the government whips. Their suspicion was justified when
in 1873 Fawcett took a leading share in opposing Gladstone's
scheme for university education in Ireland as too denominational,
and so contributed largely to a conclusive defeat of the Gladstone
ministry.
From 1869 to 1880 Fawcett concentrated his energies upon
two important subjects which had not hitherto been deemed
worthy of serious parliamentary attention. The first of these
was the preservation of commons, especially those near large
towns; and the second was the responsibility of the British
government for the amendment of Indian finance. In both
cases the success which he obtained exhibited the sterling sense
and shrewdness which made up such a great part of Fawcett's
character. In the first case Fawcett's great triumph was tbe
enforcement of the general principle that each annual Enclosure
Act must be scrutinized by parliament and judged in the light
of its conformity to the interests of the community at large.
Probably no one did more than he did to prevent the disafforesu-
tion of Epping Forest and of the New Forests From 1869 he
regularly attended the meetings of the Commons Preservation
Society, and he remained to the end one of its st&unchcst sup-
porters. His intervention in the matter of Indian finance,
which gained him the sobriquet of the u member for India,"
led to no definite legislative achievements, but it called forth
the best energies of his mind and helped to rouse an apathetic
and ignorant public to its duties and responsibilities. Fawcett
was defeated at Brighton in February 1874. Two months
later, however, he was elected for Hackney, and retained the
seat during his life. He was promptly replaced on tbe Indian
Finance Committee, and continued his searching inquiries with
a view j.o promote a stricter economy in the Indian budget, and
a more effective responsibility in the management of Indian
accounts.
As an opponent of the Disraeli government (1 874-1880)
Fawcett came more into line with the Liberal leaders. In foreign
politics he gave a general adhesion to Gladstone's views, but he
continued to devote much attention to Indian matters, and it
was during this period that he produced two of his best publica-
tions. His Free Trade and Protection (1878) illustrated his
continued loyalty to Cobdcnite ideas. At the same time his
admiration for Palmerston and his repugnance to schemes of
Home Rule show that he was not by any means a peace-at-any-
price man. He thought that the Cobdcnites had deserved well
of their country, but he always maintained that their foreign
politics were biased to excess by purely commercial considera-
tions. As befitted a writer whose linguistic gifts were of the
slenderest, Fawcett's English was a sound homespun, clear and
unpretentious. In a vigorous employment of the vernacular
he approaehed Cobbctt, whose writing he justly admired.
The second publication was his Indian Finance (z88o), three
essays reprinted from the Nineteenth Century, "with an intro-
duction and appendix. When the Liberal party returned to
power in 1880 Gladstone offered Fawcett a place in the new
government as postmaster-general (without a seat in the cabinet).
On Egyptian and other questions of foreign policy Fawcett was
often far from being in full harmony with his leaders, but his
position in the government naturally enforced reserve. He was,
moreover, fully absorbed by his new administrative functions.
He gained the sympathy of a class which he had hitherto done
little to conciliate, that of public officials, and he showed himself
a most capable head of a public department. To his readiness
in adopting suggestions, and his determination to push business
through instead of allowing it to remain permanently in the
stage of preparation and circumlocution, the public is mainly
indebted for five substantial postal reforms.—- (1) The parcels
post, (2) postal orders, (3) sixpenny telegrams, (4) the banking
FAWCETT, J.-*?AWKES, GUY
w? small savings by Beans cf stamps, (5) increased facilities for
tie insurance and annuities. In connexion with these last two
improvements Fawcett, in 1880, with the assistance of Mr James
Cardin, took great pains in drawing up a small pamphlet called
Aids to Thrift, of which oyer a million copies were circulated
gratis. A very useful minor innovation of his provided <for the
aaoooncement on every pillar-box of the time of the " next
collection-" In- the post office, as elsewhere, he was a strong
advocate of the employmentof women. Proportional representa-
tion and the extension of franchise to women were both political
doctrines which he adopted very early in his career, and never
abandoned. Honours were showered upon him during his later
years. He was made an. honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, a fellow
of the Royal Society, and was in 1883 elected lord rector of
Glasgow University. But the stress of departmental work soon
began to tell upon his health. In the autumn of 1882.be had a
sharp attack of diphtheria complicated by typhoid, from which
be sever properly recovered. He resumed his activities, but on
the 6th of November 1884 he succumbed at Cambridge to an
attack ol congestion of the lungs. He was buried in Trump-
iagtoa churchyard, near Cambridge, and to bis memory were
erected a monument in Westminster Abbey, a statue in Salis-
bury market-place* and a drinking fountain on tbe Thames em-
bankment.
In economic matters Fawcctt's position can best be described
as transitional. He believed in co-operation almost as a panacea,
la other matters he dung to the old laissesrjain theorists, and
was a strong anti-socialist, with serious doubts about free
education, though he supported the Factory Acts and wished
their extension to agriculture. Apparent inconsistencies were
harmonized to a great extent by his dominating anxiety to
increase the well-being of the poor. One of his noblest trails
was his kindliness and genuine affection for the humble and
oppressed, country labourers and the like, for whom his sympathies
teemed always on the increase. Another was his disposition to
interest himself in and to befriend younger men. In the great
affliction of his youth Fawcctt bore himself with a fortitude
which it would be difficult to parallel* The effect of bis blindness
was, as the event proved, the reverse of calamitous. It brought
the great aim and purpose of his life to maturity at an earlier
date than would otherwise have been possible, and it had a
Bellowing influence upon his character of an exceptional and
beneficent kind. As a youth he was rough and canny, with a
suspicion of harshness. The kindness evoked by his misfortune,
a strongly reciprocated family affection, a growing capacity for
making and keeping friends— these and other causes tended to
ripen all that was best, and apparently that only, in a strong
bat somewhat stem character. His acerbity passed away, ana
in later life was reserved exclusively for official witnesses before
parliamentary committees. Frank, helpful, conscientious to a
fault, a shrewd gossip, and a staunch friend, he was a man
whom no one could help liking. Several of his let ters to his father
and mother at different periods of his career are preserved in
Leslie Stephen's admirable Lift (1885), and show a goodness
of heart, together with a homely simplicity of nature, which
is most touching. In appearance Fawcctt was gaunt and
tall, over 6 ft. 3 in. in height, large of bone, and massive
in limb. (T. Se.)
FAWCETT. JOHN (1768-1837), English actor and playwright,
was born on the 29th of August 1768, the son of an actor of the
same name (d. 1793). At the age of eighteen he ran away from
school and appeared at Margate as Courtall in The Belle's
Stratagem; afterwards he joined Tate Wilkinsons company
and turned from tragedy to low comedy parts. In 1791 he
appeared at Covent Garden, and in 1704 at the Haymarket.
Caiman, then manager of that house, wrote a number of parts
designed to suit his talents, and two of Fawcett's greatest
successes were as Dr. Pangloss in The Heir at Law (1797) and as
Dr Ollapod in The Poor Gentleman (1798). He retired from
the stage in 1830.
FAWKBS, FRANCIS (ijao-1777), English poet and divine,
was born at Warmswortn, near Doncaster, Yorkshire, where
217
his father was rector, and was baptised on the 4th of April 1720.
After studying at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he graduated
M.A. in 1745. he took holy orders, and was successively curate
of Bramham, curate of Croydon, vicar of Orpington, and rector
of Hayes, and finally was made one of the chaplains to the princess
of Wales. His first publication is said to have been Bramham
Park, a Poem, in 1745; a volume of poems and translations
appeared in 1761; and Partridge Shooting, an eclogue, in 1764.
His translations of the minor Greek poets— Anacreon, Sappho,
Bion and Moschus, Musaeus, Theocritus and Apollonius— ac-
quired for him considerable fame, but they are less likely to be
remembered than his fine song, " Dear Tom, this brown jug,
that now foams with mild ale." Fawkcs died on the 26th of
August 1777.
FAWKES, GUY 0570-1606), English "gunpowder plot"
conspirator, son of Edward Fawkcs of York, a member of a
good Yorkshire family and advocate of the archbishop of York's
consistory court, was baptized at St Michael le Bclf rey at Yorlc
on the 16th of April 157a His parents were Protestants, and
he was educated at the free school at York, where, it is said,
John and Christopher Wright and tbe Jesuit Tcsiroond alias
Grecnway, afterwards implicated in the conspiracy, were his
schoolfellows. On his father's death in 1579 he inherited his
property. Soon afterwards his mother married, as her second
husband, Dionis Baynbrigge of Scotton in Yorkshire, to which
place the family removed. Fawkes's stepfather was connected
with many Roman Catholic families, and was probably a Roman
Catholic himself, and Fawkcs himself became a zealous adherent
of the old faith. Soon after he had come of age he disposed of
his property, and in 1593 went to Flanders and enlisted in the
Spanish army, assisting at the capture of Calais by the Spanish
in 1 59$. and gaining some military reputation. According to
Father Grecnway he was " a man of great piety, of exemplary
temperance, of mild and cheerful demeanour, an enemy of
broils and disputes, a faithful friend and remarkable for bis
punctual attendance upon religious observances," while his
society was " sought by all the most distinguished in the arch-
duke's camp for nobility and virtue." He is described as " tall,
with brown hair and auburn beard."
In 1604 Thomas Winter, at tbe instance of Catesby, in whose
mind the gunpowder plot had now taken definite shape, intro-
duced himself to Fawkes in Flanders, and as "a confident
gentleman," " best able for this business," brought him on to
England as assistant in the conspiracy. Shortly afterwards
he was initiated into the plot, after taking an oath of secrecy,
meeting Catesby, Thomas Winter, Thomas Percy and John
Wright at a house behind St Clement's (see Gunpowder Plot
and Catesby, Robert). Owing to the fact of his being unknown
in London, to his exceptional courage and coolness, and probably
to his experience in the wars and at sieges, the actual accomplish-
ment of the design was entrusted to Fawkes, and when the house
adjoining the parliament house was hired in Percy's name, he
took charge of it as Percy's servant, under the name of Johnson.
He acted as sentinel while the others worked at the mine in
December 1604, probably directing their operations, and on
the discovery of the adjoining cellar, situated immediately
beneath the House of Lords, he arranged fn it the barrels of gun-
powder, which he covered over with firewood and coals and with
iron bars to increase the force of the explosion. When all was
ready in May 1605 Fawkes was despatched to Flanders to
acquaint Sir WflHam Stanley, the betrayer of Dcventer, and the
int riguer Owen with the plot. He returned in August and brought
fresh gunpowder into the cellars to replace any which might
be spoilt by damp. A slow match was prepared which would
give him a quarter of an hour in which to escape from tbe ex-
plosion. On Saturday, the 26th of October, Lord Monteagle
(q.v.) received the mysterious letter which revealed the con-
spiracy and of which the conspirators received information
the following day. They, nevertheless, after some hesitation,
hoping that the government would despise the warning, deter*
mined to proceed with their plans, and were encouraged in their
resolution by Fawkes, who visited the cellar on the 30th and
2t8
FAY— FAYETTEVILLE .
reported that nothing had been moved or touched.- He returned
accordingly to his lonely and perilous vigil on the 4th of
November. On that day the earl of Suffolk, as lord chamberlain,
visited the vault, accompanied by Monteagle, remarked the
quantity of faggots, and asked Fawkes, now described as " a very
tall and desperate fellow/' who it was that rented the cellar.
Percy's name, which Fawkes gave, aroused fresh suspicions
and they retired to inform the king. At about ten o' clock Robert
Keyes brought Fawkes from Percy a watch, that he might
know how the anxious hours were passing, and very shortly
afterwards he was arrested, and the gunpowder discovered, by
Thomas Knyvett, a Westminster magistrate. Fawkes was
brought into the king's bedchamber, where the ministers had
hastily assembled, at one o'clock. He maintained an attitude
of defiance and of " Roman resolution," smiled scornfully at
his questioners, making no secret of his intentions, replied
to the king, who asked why he would kill him,' that the pope
had excommunicated him, that " dangerous diseases require a
desperate remedy," adding fiercely to the Scottish courtiers
who surrounded him that " one of his objects was to blow back
the Scots into Scotland." His only regret was the failure of
the scheme. " He carrieth himself," writes Salisbury to Sir
Charles Cornwailis, ambassador at Madrid, " without any feare
or perturbation . . . ; under all this action he is noe more
dismayed, nay scarce any more troubled than if he was taken for
a poor robbery upon the highway," declaring " that he is ready
to die, and rather wisheth 10,000 deaths, than willingly to accuse
his master or any other." He refused stubbornly on the following
days to give information concerning his accomplices; on the
8th he gave a narrative of the plot, but it was not till the 9th,
when the fugitive conspirators had been taken at Holbeche,
that torture could wring from him their names. His imperfect
signature to his confession of this date, consisting only of his
Christian name and written in a faint and trembling hand, is
probably a ghastly testimony to the severity of the torture
("per gradus ad ima ") which James had ordered to be applied
if he would not otherwise confess and the " gentler tortures "
wcTe unavailing, — a horrible practice unrecognized by the law
of England, but usually employed and justified at this time in
cases of treason to obtain information. He was tried, together
with the two Winters, John Grant, Ambrose Rokewood, Robert
Keyes and Thomas Bates, before a special commission in West-
minster Hall on the 37th of January 1606. In this case there
could be no defence and he was found guilty. He suffered
death in company with Thomas Winter, Rokewood and Keyes
on the 31st, being drawn on a hurdle from the Tower to the
Parliament House, opposite which he was executed. He made
a short speech on the scaffold, expressing his repentance, and
mounted the ladder last and with assistance, being weak from
torture and illness. The usual barbarities practised upon him
after he had been cut down from the gallows were inflicted on a
body from which all life had already .fled.
Bibliography. — Hist, of England, by S. R. Gardiner, vol. L;
and the same author's What Gunpowder Plot was (1897) ; What was
the Gunpowder Plot? by J. Gerard (1897); The Gunpowder Plot, by
D. Jardine (1857); Calendar of State Pap. Dom. 1603-1610; State
Trials, vol ii.; Archaeologia, xti. 200; K. Winwood's Memorials;
Notes and Queries, vi. ser. vii. 233, viii. 136; The Fawkeses of York
in the 16th Century, by R. Davies (1850); Diet, of Nat. Biog. and
authorities cited there. The official account (untrustworthy in
details) is the True and Perfect Relation of the Whole Proceedings
against the late most Barbarous Traitors (1606), reprinted by Bishop
Barlow of Lincoln as The Gunpowder Treason (1679). See also
Gunpowder Plot.
The lantern said to be Guy Fawkes's is in the Bodleian library at
Oxford. (P. C Y.)
FAY, ANDRAS (1 780-1864), Hungarian poet and author,
was born on the 30th of May 1786, at Kohany in the county of
Zemplin, and was educated for the law at the Protestant college
of Sarospatak. His Mestk (Fables), the first edition of which
appeared at Vienna in 1820, evinced his powers of satire and
invention, and won him the well-merited applause of his country-
men. These fables, which, on account of their originality and
simplicity, caused Fay to be regarded as the Hungarian Aesop,
were translated into Genmrtt by Fetz (Raab, i8*s), and partly
into English by E. D. Butter, Hungarian Poms and FahUs
(London, 1877). Fay wrote also numerous poems, the chief of
which are to be found in the collections Bokrtta (Nosegay) (Pest,
1807), and Fris Bokrtta (Fresh Nosegay) (Pest, 1818). He also
composed plays and romances and tales. In 1835 Fayvu
elected to the Hungarian diet, and was for a time the leider
of the opposition party. It is to him that the Pest Savings
Bank owes its origin, and he was one of the chief founder*
of the Hungarian National theatre. He died on the 26th of
July '1864. His earlier works were collected at Pest (1843-
1844, 8 vols.). The most noteworthy of his later works is a
humorous novel entitled J Avar orxos is Bakalor Ambrus sxd&iia
(J&oor the Doctor and his servant Ambrose Bakalor), (Pest 1855,
2 vols.).
FAYAL (Paid), a Portuguese island in the Atlantic Ocean,
forming part of the Azores archipelago. Pop. (1000) 23,362;
area, 63 sq. m. Fayal, i.e. " the beech wood," was so called
from the former abundance of the Myrica fayo t which its dis-
coverers mistook for beech trees. It is one of the most frequented
of the Azores, for it lies directly m the track of vessels crossing
the Atlantic, and has an excellent harbour at Horta (e.t.), a
town of 6574 inhabitants. Cedros (3278) and FSteira (acoa)
are the other chief towns. The so-called " Fayal wine," wbkh
was largely exported from the Azores in the 19th century, was
really the produce of Pico, a larger island lying to the east.
The women of Fayal manufacture fine lace from the agave
thread. They also execute carvings in snow-white fig-tree
pith, and carry on the finer kinds of basket-making. A small
valley, called Flcmengos, perpetuates the name of the Flemish
settlers, who have left their mark- on the physical appearance
of the i nhab itants. (See Azores.)
FAYETTEVILLB, a city and the county-seat of Washington
county, Arkansas, U.S.A., about 150 m. N.W. of Little Rock.
Pop. (1800) 2042; (1000) 4061; (1010) 4471. It is served by the
St Louis & San Francisco railway. The city lies about 1400 fc
above the sea, in the Ozark Mountain region. There is much
fine scenery in the neighbourhood, there are mineral springs
near by, and the place has become known as a summer resort.
Fayetteville is the seat of the University of Arkansas (incor-
porated 1871; opened 1872; co-educational), which indudci
the following departments: at Fayetteville, a college of liberal
arts, science and engineering, a conservatory of music and art,
a preparatory school, and an agricultural college and agricultural
experiment station; at Little Rock, a medical school and a lav
school, and at Pine Bluff, the Branch Normal College for negroes
In 1008 the university had 122 instructors and a total enrolmcnl
of r 725 students. In Fayetteville there are a National ccraetcr)
with 1236 soldiers' graves (782 " unknown ") and a Confederal
cemetery with 725 graves and a memorial monument. In thi
vicinity of Fayetteville there are deposits of coal; and the citj
is in a fine fruit-growing region, apples being the principal crop.
Much of the surrounding country is still covered with timber
Among manufactures are lumber, spokes, handles, waggons, lime
evaporated fruit and flour.
The first settlement on the site of what is now FayettcviUi
was made between 1820 and 1825; when Washington count]
was created in 1828 the place became the county-seat, and il
was called Washington Court-house until 1829, when it receive*
its present name. The citizens of Fayetteville were main!;
Confederate sympathizers; Fayetteville was raided by Federa
cavalry on the 14th of July 1862, and was permanently occupici
by Federal troops in the autumn of the same year. Con
federate cavalry under Brigadier-General William Lewis Cabcl
attacked the city on the 18th of April 1863, but were driven ofl
The town was burned in August 1863, and shelled on the 3rd c
November 1864, after the battle of Pea Ridge, by a detachmen
of General Price's army. Fayetteville was incorporated as
town in 184 1, and in 1850 received a city charter, which *a
abolished by act of the Legislature in 1867; under a general hi
of 1869 the town was re-incorporated; and in 1906 it became
city of the first class.
FAYETTEVILLE-- FAZOGLI
219
FAYBTTBVIIAB, a city and the county-seat of Cumberland
county, North Carolina, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Cape Fear
river (at the head of steamboat navigation), about 80 nu N.W.
of Wilmington. Pop. (1890) 432a; (1900) 4670, including 2221
negroes; (1910) 7045. It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line
railway and the short Raleigh & Southport railway, and by
stnm*re* lines to Wilmington. A scheme was set on foot for
the improvement by canalization of the Cape Fear river above
Wilmington under a Federal project of iooa, which provided for
achannd & ft. deep at low water from Wilmington to Fayetteville.
Below Wilmington the improvement of the river channel, 270 ft.
wide and 16 ft. deep, was completed in 1889, and the project
of 18&9 provided for an increase in depth to so ft. Pine forests
sairottnd the town, and oaks and elms of more than a century's
growth shade its streets. Fayetteville has two hospitals (each
with a training school for nurses), and is the seat of a state coloured
normal school and of the Donaldson military school. Several
creeks and the upper Cape Fear river furnish considerable water-
power, and in or near Fayetteville are manufactories of cotton
goods, silk, lumber, wooden-ware, turpentine, carriages, wagons,
ploughs, edge tools and flour. In the earlier half of the 10th
century Fayetteville was a great inland market for the western
part of the state, for eastern Tennessee and for south-western
Virginia. There is a large vineyard in the vicinity; truck-
gardening is an important industry in the surrounding country;
sod Fayetteville is a shipping centre for small fruits and vege-
tables, especially lettuce, melons and berries. The municipality
owns its water- works and its electric-lighting plant. The vicinity
was settled between 1739 and 1747 by Highlanders, the settle-
ment called Cross Creek lying within the present limits of Fayette-
vffle. In 1762, by an act of the assembly, a town was laid out
including Cross Creek, and was named Campbelltown (or " Camp-
beltown "); but in 1784, when Lafayette visited the town, its
same was changed in his honour to Fayetteville, though the
same Cross Creek continued to be used locally for many years.
Flora McDonald, the famous Scottish heroine, came to Campbell-
town in April 1775 with her husband and children, and here she
seems to have lived during the remainder of that year. The
general assembly of the state met at Fayetteville in 1787, 1788
sod 17S9 (Newbern, Tarboro, HUlsboro and Fayetteville all
being rivals at this time for the honour of becoming the permanent
capital); and in 1789 the Federal constitution was here ratified
for North Carolina. In 1831 most of the town was burned.
At the outbreak of the Civil War, the state authorities seized the
United States Arsenal at Fayetteville, which contained 37,000
muskets and a complete equipment for a battery of light artillery,
la March 1865 General W. T. Sherman and his army took
possession of the town, destroyed the arsenal, and did consider-
able damage to property. Fayetteville was chartered as a city
in 1893,. A serious flood occurred in August 1908.
PAYRER. SIR JOSEPH, Bart. (1824-1907), English physician,
was born at Plymouth on the 6th of December 1824. After
studying medicine at Charing Cross hospital, London, he was
in 1847 appointed medical officer of H.M.S. " Victory/' and
soon afterwards accompanied the 3rd Lord Mount-Edgcumbe on
a tour through Europe, in the course of which he saw righting
at Palmero and Rome. Appointed an assistant surgeon in
Bengal in 1850, he went through the Burmese campaign of 1852
and was political assistant and Residency surgeon at Lucknow
during the Mutiny. From 1859 to 1872 he was professor of
iurgery at the Medical College of Calcutta, and when the prince
of Wales made his tour in India he was appointed to accompany
him as physician. Returning from India, he acted as president
of the Medical Board of the India office from 1874 to 1895, and in
1806 he was created a baronet. Sir Joseph Fayrer, who became
a fellow of the Royal Society in 1877, wrote much on subjects
connected with the practice of medicine in India, and was
especially known for his studies on the poisonous snakes
of that country and on the physiological effects produced by
their virus {Thanalophidia of India, 1872). In 1000 appeared
Us Recollections of my Life. He died at Falmouth on the atst
el May 1907.
FA YUM, a mudiria (province) of Upper Egypt, having an area
of 400 sq. m. and a population (1907) of 441,583. The capital,
>Medinet-el-Fayum,is8xm.S.S.W.ofCairobyxail. The Fayum
proper is an oasis in the Libyan "Desert, its eastern border being
about i$m. west of the Nile. It is connected with that river
by the Bahr Yusuf, which reaches the oasis through a gap in
the hills separating the province from the Nile Valley. South-
west of the Fayum, and forming part of the mudiria, is the
Gharak depression. Another depression, entirely barren, the
Wadi Rayan, covering 280 sq. m., lies west of the Gharak. The
whole region is below sea-level, and save for the gap mentioned
is encircled by the Libyan hills. The lowest part of the province,
the north-west end, is occupied by the Birket el Kerun, or Lake
of the Horns, whose surface level is 140 f L below that of the sea.
The lake covers about 78 sq. m.
Differing from the typical oasis, whose fertility depends on
water obtained from springs, the cultivated land in the Fayum
is formed of Nile mud brought down by the Bahr Yusuf. From
this channel, 15 m. in length from Labun, at the entrance of
the gap in the hills, to Medina, several canals branch off and by
these the province is irrigated, the drainage water flowing into
the Birket el Kerun. Over 400 sq, m. of the Fayum is cultivated,
the chief crops being cereals and cotton. The completion of
the Assuan dam by ensuring a fuller supply of water enabled
20,000 acres of land, previously unirrigatcd and untaxed, to be
brought under cultivation in the three years 1903-1005. Three
crops are obtained in twenty months. The province is noted for
its figs and grapes, the figs being of exceptionally good quality.
Olives are also cultivated. Rose trees are very numerous
and most of the attar of roses of Egypt is manufactured in
the province. The Fayum also possesses an excellent breed
of sheep. Lake Kerun abounds in fish, notably the bulti (Nile
carp), of which considerable quantities are sent to Cairo.
Medinet el-Fayum (or Medina), the capital of the province,
is a great agricultural centre, with a population which increased
from 26,000 in 1882 to 37,320 in 1907, and has several large
bazaars, mosques, baths and a much-frequented weekly market.
The Bahr Yusuf runs through the town, its banks lined with
houses. There are two bridges over the stream: one of three
arches, which carries the main street and bazaar, and one of two
arches over which is built the Kait Bey mosque. Mounds north
of the town mark the site of Arsinoc*, earlier Crocodilopolis,
where was worshipped the sacred crocodile kept in the Lake
of Moeris. Besides Medina there are several other towns in the
province, among them Senuris and Tomia to the north of Medina
and Senaru and Abuksa on the road to the lake, all served by rail-
ways. There are also, especially in the neighbourhood of the
lake, many ruins of ancient villages and cities. The Fayum
is the site of the Lake of Moeris (q.v.) of the ancient Egyptians—
a lake of which Birket el Kerun is the shrunken remnant.
See The Fayum and take Moeris. by Major (Sir) R. H. Brown, R.E.
(London, 1892), a valuable contribution as to the condition of the
province at that date* its connexion with Lake Moeris and its possi-
bilities in the future ; The A ssudn Reservoir andLake Moeris (London.
1904), by Sir William Willcocka— with text in English, French and
Arabic— a consideration of irrigation possibilities; The Topograph/
and Geology of the Fayum Province of Egypt, by H. J. L. Beadncll
(Cairo, 1905).
PAZOGLT, or Fatokl, a district of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,
cut by 1 1° N. and bounded E. and S. by Abyssinia. It forms part
of the foot-hills of the Abyssinian plateau and is traversed by
the Blue Nile and its affluent the Tumat. Immediately south is
the auriferous Beni Shangul country. The chief gold-washings
lie (In Abyssinian territory ) on the west slope of the hills draining
to the White Nile. Here is the steep Jebel-Dul, which appears
to contain rich gold-bearing reefs, as gold is found in all the
ravines on its flanks. The auriferous region extends into Sudanese
territory, gold dust being found in all the khors coming from
Jebel Faronge on the S.E. frontier. The inhabitants of Fazoglt,
who are governed, under the Sudan administration, by their
own raeks or kings, are Berta and other Shangalla tribes with
an admixture of Funj blood, the country having been con-
quered by the Funj rulers of Sennar at the close of the 15th
220
FEA-— FEASTS AND FESTIVALS
century. There are also Arab settlements. Fazoglt, the residence
of the principal mek, is a straggling town built some 800 yds.
from the left bank of the Blue Nile near the Tumat confluence,
434 m. by river above Khartum and opposite Famaka, the
headquarters of the Egyptians in this region between 1839 and
1883. Above Famaka and near the Abyssinian frontier is the
prosperous town of Kiri, while Abu Shaneina on the Nile below
Fazogli is the spot where the trade route from Beni Shangul
strikes the river. The chief imports from Abyssinia are coffee,
cattle, transport animals and gold. Durra and tobacco arc the
principal crops. The local currency includes rings of gold, specially
made as a circulating medium.
FBA, CARLO (1753-1836), Italian archaeologist, was born
at Pigna in Piedmont on the 2nd of February 1753, and studied
law in Rome. He received the degree of doctor of laws from
the university of La Sapienza, but archaeology gradually ab-
sorbed his attention, and with the view of obtaining better
opportunities for his researches in 1708 he took orders. For
political reasons he was obliged to take refuge in Florence;
on his return in 1709 he was imprisoned by the Neapolitans, at
that time in occupation of Rome, as a Jacobin, but shortly
afterwards liberated and appointed Commissarto dclle Antichita
and liorarian to Prince Chigi. He died at Rome on the 18th of
March 1836.
Fea revised, with notes, an Italian translation of J. J. Winclecl-
mann's Gesckichte der Kunst, and also added notes to some of G. L.
Biancooi s works. Among his original writings the principal are : —
Miscellanea JUologica, eritica, e auliquaria; UlnUgnUl del PanUone
rivendicata a M. Apippa; FrammenH di fasti consolari; Jscrisdoni
di monument* pvbbltcfo ; and Descrtuont d\ Roma.
FRARNBp CHARLES (1 743-1 704), English jurist, son of
Charles Fearne, judge-advocate of the admiralty, was born in
London in 1742, and was educated at Westminster school.
He adopted the legal profession, but, though well fitted by his
talents to succeed as a barrister, he neglected his profession and
devoted most of his attention and his patrimony to the prosecu-
tion of scientific experiments, with the vain hope of achieving
discoveries which would reward him for his pains and expense.
He died in 1794, leaving his widow and family in necessitous
circumstances. His Essay on the Learning of Contingent Re-
mainders and Executory Devises, the work which has made
his reputation as a legal authority, and which has passed through
numerous editions, was called forth by a decision of Lord Mans-
field in the case of Perrin v. Blake, and had the effect of reversing
that decision.
A volume entitled Feamt's Posthumous Works was published by
subscription in 1797 for the benefit of his widow.
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. A festival or feast 1 is a day or
series of days specially and publicly set apart for religious observ-
ances. Whether its occurrence be casual or periodic, whether
its ritual be grave or gay, carnal as the orgies of Baal and Astarte,
or spiritual as the worship of a Puritan Sabbath, it is to be
regarded as a festival or " holy day" as long as it is professedly
held in the name of religion.
To trace the festivals of the world through all their variations
would be to trace the entire history of human religion and human
civilization. Where no religion is, there can of course be no
feasts; and without civilization any attempt at festival-keeping
must necessarily be fitful and comparatively futile. But as
religion develops, festivals develop with it, and assume their
distinctive character; and an advancing civilization, at least in
its earlier stages, will generally be found to increase their number,
enrich their ritual, fix more precisely the time and order of their
recurrence, and widen the area of their observance.
Some uncivilised tribes, such as the Juings of Bengal, the
Fuegians and the Andamanese, have been described as having
no word for God, no idea of a future state, and consequently
no religious ceremonies of any kind whatever. But such cases,
doubtful at the best, are confessedly exceptional. In the vast
majority of instances observed and recorded, the religiosity
1 " To feast " is simply to keep a festura or festival. The ety-
mology of the word is uncertain; but probably it has no connexion
with the Gr. Im&r.
of the savage is conspicuous. Even when incapable of higher
manifestations, it can at least take the form of reverence for the
dead; the grave-heap can become an altar on which offerings
of food for the departed may be placed, and where in acts of
public and private worship the gifts of survivors may be accom-
panied with praises and with prayers. That the custom of ghost-
propitiation by some sort of sacrifice is even now very widely
diffused among the lower races at least, and that there are also
many curious " survivals " of such a habit to be traced among
highly civilized modern nations, has been abundantly shown
of late by numerous collectors of folk-lore and students of
sociology; and indications of the same phenomena can be readily
pointed out in the Rig-Veda, the Zend-Avesta and the Pentateuch,
as well as in the known usages of the ancient Egyptians, Greeks
and Romans. 1 In many cases the ceremonial observed is of
the simplest; but it ever tends to become more elaborate; and
above all it calls for repetition, and repetition, too, at regular
intervals. Whenever this last demand has made itself felt, a
calendar begins to take shape. The simplest calendar is obviously
the lunar. " The Naga tribes of Assam celebrate their funeral
feasts month by month, laying food and drink on the graves
of the departed." But it soon comes to be combined with the
solar. Thus the Karens, " while habitually making oblations,
have also annual feasts for the dead, at which they ask the
spirits to eat and drink." The natives of the Mexican valley
in November lay animals, edibles and flowers on the graves
of their dead relatives and friends. The common people in
China have a similar custom on the arrival of the winter solstice.
The ancient Peruvians had the custom of periodically assembling
the embalmed bodies of their dead emperors in the great square
of the capital to be feasted in company with the people. The
Athenians had their annual Ncxfomor Nc/i&rera and the Romans
their Feralia and Lemuralia. The Egyptians observed their
three " festivals of the seasons," twelve " festivals of the month,"
and twelve " festivals of the half month," in honour of their
dead. The Parsces, too, were required to render their afringans
(blessings which were to be recited over a meal to which an
angel or the spirit of a deceased person was invited) at each of
the six seasons of the year, and also on certain other days.'
. In the majority of recorded instances, the religious feding
of the savage has been found to express itself in other forms
besides that of reverence towards the dead. The oldest litera-
tures of the world, at all events, whether Aryan or Semitic,
embody a religion of a much higher type than ancestor worship.
The hymns of the Rig- Veda, for example, while not without
traces of the other, yet indicate chiefly a worship of the powers
of nature, connected with the regular recurrence of the seasons.
Thus in iv. 57 we have a hymn designed for use at the commence'
ment of the ploughing time; 4 and in the Ailareya-BrdkmaM,
the earliest treatise on Hindu ceremonial, we already find a
complete series of sattras or sacrificial sessions exactly following
the course of the solar year. They are divided into two distinct
sections, each consisting of six months of thirty days each. The
sacrifices arc allowed to commence only at certain lucky con-
stellations and in certain months. So, for instance, as a rule, no
great sacrifice can commence during the sun's southern progress.
The great sacrifices generally take place in spring, in the months
of April and May. 1 In the Parsee Scriptures • the year is divided
into six seasons or gahanbars of two months each, concluding
with February, the season at which " great expiatory sacrifices
were offered for the growth of the whole creation in the last two
months of the year." We have no means of knowing precisely
what were the arrangements of the Phoenician calendar, but it
* See Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i. 170, 280, 506.
* Haug, Parsis, 224, 225.
* " May the heavens, the waters, the firmament, be land to us; mav
the lord of the field be graciotis to us ... . May the oxen (draw)
happily, the men labour happily ; may the traces Upd happily, wield
th» nniH kinnitu " /WSIutn'a »nn.l.l!/ul ill «<w\
Max MflOer's
through Persia.
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS
221
ts generally admitted that the worship was solar, the principal
festivals taking place in spring and in autumn. Among the
most characteristic celebrations of the Egyptians were those
winch took place at the afrunepM or disappearance of Osiris
in October or .November, at the search for his remains, and their
discovery about the winter solstice, and at the date of his sup-
posed entrance into the moon at the beginning of spring. The
Phrygian festivals were also arranged on the theory that the
deity was asleep during the winter and awake during the summer;
in the autumn they celebrated his retiring to rest, and in spring
with mirth and revelry they roused him from his slumbers. 1
The seasonal character of the Teutonic Ostern, the Celtic Beltcin
and the Scandinavian Yule is obvious. Nor was the habit of
observing such festivals peculiar to the Aryan or the Semitic
nee. The Mexicans, who were remarkable for the perfection
of their calendar, in addition to this had an elaborate system
of movable and immovable feasts distributed over the entire
year; the principal festivals, however, in honour of their chief
gods, Tescatlipoca, Haitzilopochtli and TIaloc, were held in
Shy, June and December. Still more plainly connected with
the revolutions of the seasons was the public worship of the
aarient Peruvians, who, besides the ordinary feast at each new
coon, observed four solar festivals annually. Of these the
cost important was the Yntip-Raymi (Sun-feast), which,
preceded by a three days* fast, began with the summer solstice,
tad lasted for nine days. Its ceremonies have been often
described. A similar but less important festival was held at the
vinter solstke. The Cusqui-Raymi, held after seedtime, as
the maize began to appear, was celebrated with sacrifices and
banquets, music and dancing. A fourth great festival, called
Citua, held on the first new moon after the autumnal equinox,
«2S preceded by a strict fast and special observances intended
tar purposes of purification and expiation, after which the
festivities lasted until the moon entered her second quarter.
Greek Festivals. — Perhaps the annual Attic festival in honour
of Erechtheus alluded to in the Iliad (ii. 550) ought to be regarded
as m instance of ancestor-worship; but the seasonal character
of the ioprii or new-moon feast in Od. xx. 156", and of the
kXkrut or harvest-festival in //. ix. 533, n generally acknow-
ledged. The older Homeric poems, however, give no such
express indications of a fully-developed system of festivals as
ire to be met with in the so-called •' Homeric " hymns, in the
Works and Days of Hesiod, in the pages of Herodotus, and so
tbundantrjr in most authors of the subsequent period; and it is
Banifest that the calendar of Homer or even of Herodotus
ast have been a much simpler matter than that of the Tarcn-
Loes, for example, came to be, of whom we are told by Slrabo
that their holidays were in excess of their working days. Each
demos of ancient Greece during the historical period had its
own local festivals (h>pral6rjfioracvd), often largely attended
sad splendidly solemnised, the usages of which, though essentially
alike, differed very considerably in details. These details have
ia many cases been wholly lost, and in others have reached us
ea*y m a very fragmentary state. But with regard to the
Athenian calendar, the most interesting of all, our means of
h&krmation are fortunately very copious. It included some
50 or 60 days on which all business, and especially the ad-
ministration of justice, was by order of the magistrates suspended.
Among these kpautplai were included— in Gamelion (January),
the Lenaea or festival of vats in honour of Dionysus; in
ft.stbesterion (February), the Antkeslcria, also in honour of
£Koaysus, lasting three days (Pilhoigia, Choes and Chytri);
the Diassa in honour of Zeus, and the lesser Eleusinia; in
Llaphebolion (March), the Pandia (? of Zeus), the EJapkebotia
of Artemis, and the greater Dionysia; in Munychion, the
M onychia of Artemis as the moon goddess (Mowvyfa) and the
DtJpkinio of Apollo; in Thargelion (May), the Thargelia of
Apollo and the Plynteria and CaUynleria of Athena; in Sciro-
pborion (June), the Diipoiia of Zeus and the SdropMoria of
Athena; in Hekatombaion, hecatombs were offered to Apollo
the summer-god, and the Creuia of Cronus and the Panatkenaea
> Plutarch. De Iside et Otiride\ Macrobius, Saturnalia, I ai.
of Athena were held; in Metageknioo, the MetogeUnia of
Apollo; in Boedromion, the Boedromia of Apollo the helper, 1
the Nekusia or Nemcseia (the festival of the dead), and the
greater Eleusinia; in Pyanepsion, the Pyamepsia of Apollo, the
Osckepkoriavi Dionysus (probably), the Ckalkeia or Alhenaea of
Athena, the TJtesmwpkoria of Demeter, and the Apaturia; in
Maimacterion, the Maimacterid of Zeus; and in Foscideon
(December), the lesser Dionysia,
Of these some are commemorative of historical events, and
one at least may perhaps be regarded as a relic of ancestor-
worship; but the great majority are nature-festivals, associating
themselves in the manner that has already been indicated with
the phenomena of the seasons, the equinoxes and the solstices.'
In addition to their numerous public festivals, the Greeks held
various family celebrations, also called eapral, in connexion with
weddings, births and similar domestic occurrences. For the
great national tfunnrtpeis— Olympian, Pythian, Ncmean and
Isthmian— sec the article Games, Classical.
Reman Festivals.— For the purpose of holding cemiHa and
administering justice, the days of the Roman year were regarded
as being either dies fasH or dies ncfasti— the dies fasti being the
days on which it was lawful for the praetors to administer
justice in the public courts, while on the dies ncfasti neither
courts of justice nor meetings of comitia were allowed to be held.
Some days were fasti during one portion and nefasti during
another; these were called dies intercisi. For the purposes of
religion a different division of the year was made; the days
were treated asfesti or as prefesH,—\ht former being consecrated
to acts-of public worship, such as sacrifices, banquets and games,
while the latter (whether fasti or nefasti) were not specially
claimed for religious purposes. The diesfesU or feriae publicae*
were either efefcea*, eencepHvae or imperatival The stativaa
were such as were observed regularly, each on a definite day;
the concepivoae were observed annually 011 days fixed by the
authorities for the time being; the imperative were publicly
appointed as occasion called for them. In the Augustan age the
feriae siatwae were very numerous, as may be seen from what
we possess of the Fasti of Ovid* The number was somewhat
fluctuating. Festivals frequently fell into desuetude or were
revived, were increased or diminished, were shortened or pro-
longed at the will of the emperor, or under the caprice of the
popular taste. Thus Augustus restored the Compitalia and
Lupercalia; while Marcus Antoninus in his turn found it ex-
pedient to diminish the number of holidays.
The following is an enumeration of the stated festivals as
given by Ovid and contemporary writers. The first day of
January was observed somewhat as is the modern New Year's
day: clients sent presents to their patrons, slaves to their
masters, friends and relatives to one another. On the 9th the
Aganalia were held, apparently in honour of Janus. On the
1 ith the Carmentalia were kept as a half-holiday, but principally
by women; so also on the 15th. On the 13th of February were
the Fauualia, on the 15th the Lupercalia, on the 17th the
Quirinalia, on the i8lh the Feralia y on the 23rd (at one time the
last day of the Roman year) the Terminalia, on the 24th the
Regifugium or Fugalia, and on the 27th the Eqmria (of Mars).
On the 1st of March were the Malronalia, on the 14th a repetition
of the Equina, on the 15th the festival of Anna Perenna, on the
17th the Liberalia or Agonalia, and from the 19th to the 23rd
the Quinqualria (of Minerva). On the 4th of April wore the
Msgalesia (of Cybele), on the 12th the Cerealia t on the 21st the
Palilia, on the 23rd the Vinalia, on the 25th the RobigaUa,
and on the 28th the Floralia, The 1st of May was the festival
of the Lares Praestites; on the 9th, nth and 13th the Lemuria
were celebrated ;on the 12th the Ludi Mar Halts, and on the 15th
those of Mercury. June s was sacred to Semo Sancus\ the
VeslaUa occurred on the 9th, the Mat ratio on the nth, agd the
* In this month the anniversaries of the battle of Marathon, and
of the downfall of the thirty tyrants, were also publicly celebrated.
* See Schoemann, Crieehuche AUerUimer, ii. 439 aeq.; Mommsen,
Heortoiegi*.
* Feriae prhalae, such as anniversaries of births, deaths and the
like, were observed by separate clans, families or individuals.
223
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS
Quinquatrus Minusculae on the i^th. The Ludi A pollinates
were on the 5th, and the Neptunalia on the 23rd of July. On
the 13th of August were the Nemotalia, in honour of Diana;
on the 18th the Consualia, on the 19th the Vinalia Rustica, and
on the 23rd the Vulcanalia. The Ludi Magni, in honour of
Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, began on September 4. The Medi-
ttinalia (new wine) were on the nth of October, the Faunalia
on the 13th, and the Equina on the 15th. The Epulutn Jovis
was on 13th November. The December festivals were— on the 5th
Faunalia, and towards the dose Opalia, Saturnalia, Larentalia.
The calendar as it stood at the Augustan age- was known
to contain many comparatively recent accessions, brought
in under the influence of two " closely allied powers, the foreign
priest and the foreign cook " (Mommscn). The Megaiesia, for
example, had been introduced 204 B.C. The Ludi A pollinates
could not be traced farther back than 208 B.C. The Floralia
and Cetealia had not come in much earlier. Among the oldest
feasts were undoubtedly the Lupetcalia, in honour of Lupercus,
the god of fertility; the ifymrfo, in honour of Mars; the Palilia;
the great September festival; and the Saturnalia,
Among the feriae conceptivae were the very ancient fetiae
Latinae, held in honour of Jupiter on the Alban Mount, and
attended by all the higher magistrates and the whole body of
the senate. The time of their celebration greatly depended
on the state of affairs at Rome, as the consuls were not allowed
to take the field until they had held the Latinae, which were
regarded as days of a sacred truce. The feriae sementivae
were held in the spring, and the Ambarvalia in autumn, both
in honour of Ceres. The Paganalia of each pagus, and the
CompUalia of each vicus were also conceptivae. Of feriae
impetativae, — that is to say, festivals appointed by the senate,
or magistrates, or higher priests to commemorate some great
event or avert some threatened disaster, — the best known is
the NovendiaU, which used to be celebrated as often as stones
fell from heaven (Livy xxi. 62, xxv. 7, &c). In addition to
all those already mentioned, there occasionally occurred ludi
votivi, which were celebrated in fulfilment of a vow ; ludi
funeotes, sometimes given by private persons; and ludi scculores,
to celebrate certain periods marked off in the Etrusco-Roman
religion.
Feasts of the Jews. — By Old Testament writers a festival or
feast is generally called either^ (compare the Arabic Hadj), from
m to rejoice, or tft>, from is:, to appoint. The words n^ and
*#*•$?? are also occasionally used. In the Talmud the three
principal feasts are called o^p, after Exod. xxiii. 14. Of the
Jewish feasts which are usually traced to a pre-Mosaic origin
the most important and characteristic was the weekly Sabbath;
but special importance was also attached from a very early date
to the lunar periods. It is probable that other festivals also, of
a seasonal character, were observed (see Exod. v. z). In common
with most others, the Mosaic system of annual feasts groups
itself readily around the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. In
Lev. xxiii., where the list is most fully given, they seem to be
arranged with a conscious reference to the sacred number seven
(compare Numb, xxviii.). Those belonging to the vernal equinox
are three in number ; a preparatory day, that of the Passover,
leads up to the principal festival, that of unleavened bread,
which again is followed by an after-feast, that of Pentecost (see
Passover, Pentecost). Those of the autumnal equinox arc
four; a preparatory day on the new moon of the seventh month
(the Feast of Trumpets) is followed by a great day of rest, the
day of Atonement (which, however, was hardly a festival in the
stricter sense of the word), by the Feast of Tabernacles, and by
a great concluding day (Lev. xxiii. 36; John vii. 37). If the
feast of the Passover be excepted, it will be seen that all these
celebrations or commemorations associate themselves more
readily with natural than with historical events. 1 There was
1 In the " parallel " passages, there is considerable variety in the
designation and arrangement of these feasts. While Ex. xii. approxi-
mates most closely to Lev. xxiii. and Num. xxviii., Ex. xxiii. has
stronger affinities with Dcut. xvi. The relations of these passages arc
largely discussed by Graf, Die gesckicktlkhen Bucket des A. T., pp.
34-41, and by other recent critics.
also a considerable number of post-Mosaic festivals, of which
the principal were that of the Dedication (described in x Mace
iv. 52-59; conap. John x. 22) and that of Puxim, the origin ot
which is given in the book of Esther (ix. 20 seq.) . It has probably
no connexion with the Persian festival Furdigan (see Estxu).'
Earlier Christian Festivals. — While making it abundantly
manifest that Christ and his disciples observed the appointed
Jewish feasts, the New Testament nowhere records the formal
institution of any distinctively Christian festival But we bave
unambiguous evidence of the actual observance, from a very
early period, of the first day of the week as a holy day (John
xx. 19, 26; 1 Cor. xvi. 2; Acts xx. 7; Rev. i. zo). Pliny in
his letter to Trajan describes the Christians of Bithynia as meeting
for religious purposes on a set day; that this day was Sunday b
put beyond all reasonable doubt by such a passage as that in the
Apology of Justin Martyr, where he says that "on Sunday
(rp tov ifXLou \eyovivj) 4/<fpa) all the Christians living either in the
city or tjie country met together." The Jewish clement, in some
churches at least, and especially in. the East, was strong enough
to secure that, along with the dies dominica, the seventh day
should continue to be kept holy. Thus in the AposUlic Cm-
slilutions (ii. 59) we find the Saturday specially mentioned along
with the Sunday as a day for the assembling of the church;
in v. 15 it is ordained that there shall be no fasting on Saturday,
while in viii. 33 it is added that both on Saturday and Sunday
slaves are to have rest from their labours. The x6th canon of
the council of Laodicea almost certainly means that solemn
public service was to be held on Saturday as well as on Sunday.
In other quarters, however, the tendency to regard both days as
equally sacred met with considerable resistance. The 361b
canon of the council of Ulibcris, for example, deciding that
Saturday should be observed as a fast-day, was doubtless intended
to enforce the distinction between Saturday and Sunday. At
Milan in Ambrose's time Saturday was observed as a festival;
but Pope Innocent is found writing to the. bishop of Eugubium
to urge that it should be kept as a fast. Ultimately the Christian
church came to recognise but one weekly festival.
The numerous yearly festivals of the later Christian church,
when historically investigated, can be traced to very small
beginnings. Indeed, while it appears to be tolerably certain that
Jewish Christians for the most part retained all the festivals
which had been instituted under the old dispensation, it is nol
at all probable that either they or their Gentile brethren recog-
nized any yearly feasts as of distinctively Christian origin 01
obligation. It cannot be doubted, however, that gradually
in the course of the 2nd century, the universal church came l<
observe the anniversaries of the death and resurrection of Christ-
the irojTxa cravfXMJtfiov and the irdoxa ayaurraeyjov, as the]
were respectively called (see Easter and Gooo Fkjday). Nol
long afterwards Whitsunday also came to be fixed in the usa#
of Christendom as a great annual festival. Even Origen (in th<
8th book Against Celsus) enumerates as Christian festivals ihi
Sunday, the vapwumf, the Passover with the feast of the
Resurrection, and Pentecost; under which latter term, however
he includes the whole period between Easter and Whitsuntide
About Cyprian's time we find individual Christians coramemorat
ing their departed friends, and whole churches commemoratinj
their martyrs; in particular, there are traces of a local an<
partial observance of the feast of the Innocents. Christmas daj
and Epiphany were among the later introductions, the feast o
the Epiphany being somewhat the earlier of the two. Both ar
alluded to indeed by Clemens Alexandrinus (1.-340), but onij
in a way which indicates that even in his time the precise dat
of Christ's birth was unknown, that its anniversary was dg
usually observed, and that the day of his baptism was kept a
a festival only by the followers of Basilides (see Epiphany).
When we come down to the 4th century we find that, amon
the 50 days between Easter and Pentecost, Ascension Day ha
* On the whole subject of Jewish festivals see Rclatwj, Antiq. IJeh,
Knobel, Leviticus (c. 23); George, Du judischen Fextei Edcrshcin
The Temple; its Ministry and Services; Ewald, AUettnwer dt
Volkes Israel; articles in Bible dictionaries.
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS
«3
cone into new prominence. Augustine, for example, enumerates
as anniversaries celebrated by the whole church those of Christ's
passion, resorrection and ascension, along with that of the out-
pouring of the Holy Ghost, while he is silent with regard to
Christmas and Epiphany. The general tendency of this and the
following centuries was largely to increase the festivals of the
Church, and by legislation to make them more fixed and uniform.
Many passages, indeed, could be quoted fvom Chrysostom,
Jerome and Augustine to show that these fathers had not by
any means forgotten that comparative freedom with regard
to outward observances was one of the distinctive excellences
of Christianity as contrasted with Judaism and the various
heathen systems (compare Socrates, H.R. v< as). But there
were many special circumstances which seemed to the leaders
of the Church at that time to necessitate the permission and even
legislative sanction of a large number of new feasts. The innova-
tions of heretics sometimes seemed to call for rectification by
the institution of more orthodox observances; in other instances
the propensity of rude and uneducated converts from paganism
to ding to the festal rites of their forefathers proved to be in-
vincible, so that it was seen to be necessary to seek to adapt
the old usages to the new worship rather than to abolish
them altogether; 1 moreover, although the empire had become
Christian, it was manifestly expedient that the old holidays
should be recognized as much as possible in the new arrange-
ments of the calendar. Constantine soon after his conversion
enacted that on the dies dominka there should be no suits or
trials in law; Theodosius the Great added a prohibition of all
public shows on that day, and Theodosius the younger extended
the prohibition to Epiphany and the anniversaries of martyrdoms,
which at that time included the festivals of St Stephen, and of St
Peter and St Paul, as also that of the Maccabees. In the 21st
anon of the council of Agde (506), besides Easter, Christmas,
Epiphany, Ascension and Pentecost, we find the Nativity of
John the Baptist already mentioned as one of the more important
festivals on which attendance at church was regarded as obli-
gatory. To these were added, in the centuries immediately
following, the feasts of the Annunciation, the Purification, and
the Assumption of the Virgin ; as well as those of the Circum-
cision, of St Michael and of All Saints.
Festivals were in practice distinguished from ordinary days
in the following ways: all public and judicial business was
suspended, 9 as well as every kind of game or amusement which
aught interfere with devotion; the churches were specially
decorated; Christians were expected to attend public worship,
attired in their best dress; love feasts were celebrated, and the
rich were accustomed to show special kindness to the poor;
fasting was strictly forbidden, and public prayers were said in a
standing posture.
Later Predict.— In the present calendar of the Roman Catholic
Church the number of feast days is very large. Each is cele-
brated by an appropriate office, which, according to its character,
is either duplex, semi-duplex or simplex. A duplex again may
be either of the first class or of the second, or a major or a minor.
The distinctions of ritual for each of these are given with great
minuteness in the general rubrics of the breviary; they turn
chiefly on the number of Psalms to be sung and of lessons to be
read, on the manner in which the antiphons are to be given and
on similar details. The duplicia of the first class are the Nativity,
the Epiphany, Easter with the three preceding and two following
days, the Ascension, Whitsunday and the two following days,
Corpus Christi, the Nativity of John Baptist, Saints Peter and
Paul, the Assumption of' the Virgin, All Saints, and, for each
church, the feast proper to its patron or title and the feast of its
dedication. The duplicia of the second class are the Circum-
cision, the feast of the Holy Name of Jesus, of the Holy Trinity,
and of the Most Precious Blood of Christ, the feastsof the Purinca-
*As. at a later period (601), Gregory the Great instructed his
Anglo-Saxon missionaries so to Christianize the temples, festivals,
Ac. of the heathen " tit durae mentes gradibus vel passibus, non
autrxn saltibus, clevcntur."
• Manumission, however, was lawful on any day.
tkra, Annunciation, Visitation, Nativity and Conception of the
Virgin, the Natalitia of the Twelve Apostles, the feasts of the
Evangelists, of St Stephen, of the Holy Innocents, of St Joseph
and of the Patrorinium of Joseph, of St Lawrence, of the Inven-
tion of the Cross and of the Dedication of St Michael. The
Dontiiricae majores of the first class are the first Sunday in
Advent, the first in Lent, Passion Sunday, Palm Sunday, Easter
Sunday, Dominica in Alois, Whitsunday and Trinity Sunday ;
the Domjnicae majores of the second class are the second, third
and fourth in Advent, Septuagesima, Sexagosima and Qufnqua-
gesim* Sundays, and the second, third and fourth Sundays in
Lent.
In the canons and decrees of the council of Trent repeated
allusions are made to the feast days, and their fitness, when
properly observed, to promote piety. Those entrusted with the
cure of souls are urged to see that the feasts of the Church be
devoutly and religiously observed, trs faithful are enjoined
to attend public worship on Sundays ar i on the greater festivals
at least, and parish priests are bidden to expound to the people
on such days some of the things which have been read fn the
office for the day. Since the council of Trent the practice of the
Church with respect to the prohibition of servile work on holidays
has varied considerably indifferent Catholic countries, and even
in the same country at different times. Thus in 1577, in the
diocese of Lyons, there were almost forty annual festivals of a
compulsory character. By the concordat of 1 802 the number of
such festivals was for Fiance reduced to four, namely, Christmas
day, Ascension day, the Assumption of the Virgin, and All Saints
day.
The calendar of the Greek Church is even fuller than that
of the Latin , especially as regards thefosrai rwr ttytvr. Thus oa
the last Sunday in Advent the feast of All Saints of the Old
Covenant is celebrated; while Adam and Eve, Job, Elijah,
Isaiah, &c, have separate days. The distinctions of ritual are
analogous to those in the Western Church. I n the Coptic Church
there are seven great festivals, Christmas, Epiphany, the
Annunciation, Palm Sunday, Easter Sunday, Ascension and
Whitsunday, on all of which the Copts " wear new clothes (or
the best they have), feast and give alms " (Lane). They also
observe, as minor festivals, Maundy Thursday, Holy Saturday,
the feast of the Apostles (nth July), and that of the Discovery
of the Cross.
In common with most of the churches of the Reformation,
the Church of England retained a certain number of feasts
besides all Sundays in the year. They are, besides Monday and
Tuesday both in Easter-week and Whitsun-week, as follows :
the Circumcision, the Epiphany, the Conversion of St Paul, the
Purification of the Biassed Virgin, St Matthias the Apostle, the
Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, St Mark the Evangelist, St
Philip and St James (Apostles), the Ascension, St Barnabas,
the Nativity of St John Baptist, St Peter the Apostle, St
James the Apostle, St Bartholomew, St Matthew, St Michael and
all Angels, St Luke the Evangelist, St Simon and St Jude, AU
Saints, St Andrew, St Thomas, Christmas, St Stephen, St John
the Evangelist, the Holy Innocents. The 13th canon enjoins
that all manner of persons within the Church of England shall
from henceforth celebrate and keep the Lord's day, commonly
called Sunday, and other holy days, according to God's holy will
and pleasure, and the orders of the Church of England prescribed
in that behalf, that is, rn hearing the Word of God read and*
taught, in private and public prayers, in acknowledging their
offences to God and amendment of the same, in reconciling them-
selves charitably to their neighbours where displeasure hath been,
in oftentimes receiving the communion of the body and blood
of Christ, in visiting of the poor and sick, using all godly and sober
conversation. (Compare Hooker, E.P. v. 70.) In the Directory
for the Public Worship of Cod which was drawn up by the West-
minster Assembly, and accepted by the Church of Scotland in
1645, there is an appendix which declares that there is no day
commanded in Scripture to be kept holy under the gospel but
the Lord's day, which is the Christian Sabbath; festival days,
vulgarly called holy-days, having no warrant in the Word of God,
226
FEATHBR
la addition to these roust be reckoned iwacm, a reddiskv
purple pigment consisting of the same elements as zoomelanin,
bat remarkable for the fact that it contains from 5 to 8% of
copper, which can be extracted by a weak alkaline solution, such
as ammonia, and with the addition of acetic acid it can be
filtered off as a metallic red or blue powder. The presence of
metallic copper is indicated by the green flame of these red
feathers when burnt. Turadn was discovered by Sir A. H. Church
in the quill-feathers of the wings of Touracoes or " plantain
eaters." These feathers, he showed, lose their colour after they
have become wet, but regain it on drying. But turacin is not,
as was supposed, confined to the feathers of the plantain eaters,
since it has been obtained from a cuckoo, Dasyhphus supercilious.
What effect food may have on colour in birds in a wild state
we have no means of knowing, but it is significant that flamingoes
and linnets in confinement never regain their bright hues after
their first moult in captivity. If cayenne pepper be mixed with
the food of certain strains of canaries, from the time the birds
are hatched onwards, the yellow colour of the feathers becomes
intensified, till it takes on a deep orange hue. Bullfinches, if fed
on hemp-seed, turn black. According to Darwin, the natives of
the Amazonian region feed the common green parrot on the fat
of large Siluroid fishes, and as a result the feathers become beauti-
fully variegated with red and yellow. Similarly, in the Malay
Archipelago, the natives of Gilolo change the colours of another
With but rare exceptions bright colours are confined to the
exposed portions of the plumage, but in some of the Bustards the
down is of a bright pink colour.
Structural colours include all metallic or prismatic colours,
blue, green, white, some yellows, and, in part, glossy black.
In metallic feathers the radii (barbules) are modified
in various ways, frequently to form flattened, over-
lapping plates or tiles, while the surfaces of the plates
are either smooth, finely striated or pitted. But, save only
in the case of white feathers, beneath this colourless, glazed outer
coat there is always a layer of pigment.
The only green pigment known to occur in feathers is tvra-
coverdin, found in the feathers of the plantain eaters; it contains
a relatively large amount of iron, but no copper. In all other
cases the green colour of feathers is due to yellow, orange or
greyish-brown pigment occurring with a special superstructure
consisting of narrow ridges, as in some parrots and pittas (ant-
thrushes), or the surface of the barbs and barbules is smooth and
transparent, while between it and the pigment there exists a
layer of small polygonal, colourless bodies having highly re-
fractory, and often striated, surfaces.
Blue is unknown as a pigment in feathers. Blue feathers
contain only orange or brownish pigment (Gadow), the blue
colour being caused by the combination of pigment corpuscles
and colourless striated polygonal bodies, as in green feathers.
While in many birds the coloration takes the form either of
a uniform hue or of bands and patches of colour more or less
brilliant, in others the coloration is sombre, and made up of
dark longitudinal stripes or transverse bars on a lighter ground.
The latter is the more primitive, and there seems good reason
to believe that longitudinal stripes preceded transverse bars.
This is indicated by the fact that the nestlings of the more
primitive groups are longitudinally striped, and that young
hawks in their first plumage are so striped, -while the adults are
barred.
There is also evidence to show that the evolution of brilliant
plumage began with the males, and has, in many cases, been more
or less perfectly acquired by the females, and also by the young,
as for example in the kingfishers, where parents and offspring
wear the same livery. Often, where the parents are alike in
plumage, the young wear a different and duller livery, as in the
case of the common starling {Sturnus vulgaris). But where the
female differs from the male in coloration the young resemble
the female parent.
The physiological explanation of complete disappearance of
pigment in adult life, e.g. gannet, is not yet apparent.
At least once annually birds renew their feathers completely
by a process known, as a moult. Until the new feathers have
attained at least half their full length they are invested ^^^
in a soft sheath, and, as development proceeds, the
sheath breaks up from the tip of the feather downwards, so that
for a time the new feathers have almost a brush-like appearance.
Generally this replacement takes place gradually, new and old
feathers occurring side by side, and on this account it is not
always possible to see whether a moult is proceeding without
raising the old feathers.
The " quill " feathers of the wing and tail are renewed in pairs,
so that flight is little, if at all, impaired, the change taking
place in the wing from the region of the wrist inwards, as to the
primaries, and from the body outwards, towards the tip of the
wing, as to the secondaries. In certain birds, however, as in
the duck tribe and the rails, for example, all the quill-feathers
of the wing are shed at once, so that for some time flight is
impossible.
In the penguins this simultaneous method of moulting is
carried still further. That is to say, the old feathers covering
the body are not replaced gradually, but en mass*. This method
of ecdysis is, however, still further remarkable in that the old
feathers do not drop out, to be succeeded by spine-like stumps
which, later, split at the tip, liberating the barbs of the new
feathers. They are, on the contrary, thrust out upon the tips
of the new feathers, the barbs of which are never enclosed within
an envelope such as that just described. When their growth
has practically completed, and not till then, the old feathers are
removed in large patches by the aid of the bird's beak; ex-
posing thereby a perfectly developed plumage. In the cassowary,
and emeu, the old feathers similarly adhere for a time to the tips
of the new; but in these. birds the feathers are moulted singly
as in other birds.
Some birds moult twice within the year, the additional moult
taking place in the spring, as in the case of the " warblers "
(Syrviidae) and Limicolae, for example. But when this is the
case the spring moult is only partial, since the quill feathers
of the wings and the tail feathers are not renewed.
At this spring moult a special " nuptial " plumage is often
assumed, as for example in many of the Limicolae, e.g. godwits,
knots, dunlin, ruff.
The sequel to this habit of assuming a nuptial dress is aa
interesting one. Briefly, this plumage, at first assumed at Use
mating period by the males only, and doffed soon after the young
appear, has become retained for longer and longer periods*
so that the succeeding plumage, often conspicuously dull com-
pared with the nuptial dress, is worn only for a few weeks, instead
of many months, as in the case of many of the ducks, for example;
wherein the males, as soon aa the young are hatched, assume
what C. Waterton has aptly called an " eclipse " dress. This,
instead of being worn till the following spring, as in the waders,
is shed again in the autumn and replaced by what answers to
the waders' " nuptial " dress. In the game-birds but a trace
of this " eclipse " plumage remains; and this, apparently, only
in jungle-fowl, the common grey partridge (Perdix cinerta) and
the blackcock (Lyrurus), in whose case the head and neck for
a short period following the breeding season are clothed only
by dull feathers. Further, this more highly developed plumage
becomes transferred, first to the- female, then to the young, so
that, in many groups, the dull phase of plumage is entirely
eliminated.
But the assumption at the breeding season of a conspicuously
brilliant plumage is not always due to a moult. In many birds,
notably many Passerines, this change is brought about by
shedding the tips of the feathers, which are of a duller hue than
the rest of the feather. In this way the bright rose pink of the
linnet's breast, the blue and black head of the chaffinch, and the
black throat and chestnut-and-black markings of the back of
the sparrow, are assumed — to mention but a few instances.
These birds moult but once a year, in the autumn, when the
new feathers have broad brown fringes; as the spring advances
these drop off, and with them the barbicels from the barbules
FEATHER
£*5
npper edge is towards the upper, and the lower edge towards
Ik under surface of the feather. Hie manner in which this
beautiful mechanism works may be seen in fig. i #.
In one of the primary or " qufll " feathers of the wing of a
aine, each barb of the inner side of the vane was found to bear
tboat 600 pairs of barbules, which would make about 800,000
buboles for the inner web of the vane alone, or more than a
mOiion'for the whole feather (H. F. Gadow). It a to the agency
of these booklets alone that the closely-knit, elastic vanes of the
flight feathers and the body feathers are due. Where these
booklets are wanting the barbs do not adhere together, resulting
in & loose " discontinuous " vane such as, for example, is found
in the plumes of the ostrich.
Many feathers, in addition to the main axis, bear a second,
generally much shorter axis, supporting a loose discontinuous
net; this shorter branch is known as the " aftershaft " and
arises from the under surface of the feather. Only tn the casso-
wary and emu among adult birds is the- aftershaft as large as
the main shaft.
There are several different kinds of feathers— contour feathers,
wniphiraes, down-feathers, filophtmes and powder-down.
Contour feathers, as their name implies, are those which form the
contour or outline of the body, and are • all that can generally
be seen. Those which form the " flight feathers " of the wing,
isd the tail feathers, are the most perfectly developed. Semi-
plumes are degenerate contour feathers. The down-feathers
ne generally completely hidden by the contour feathers: they
farm in many birds, such as gulls and ducks, a thick under-
dotbing comparable to the under-fur of mammals such as the*
ink In all cases they are of a loose, soft, " fluffy " structure,
ue barbs being of great length and slenderness, while the
tatuks are often long and provided with knob-like thickenings
answering to the booklet* of the more perfectly developed
contour feathers; these thickenings help to u felt " the separate
dovfr-feathers together, the barbs of one down-feather inter-
locking with those of its neighbour. Down-feathers differ from
KDiphunes both in their relation to Contour feathers and in
tot they do not possess a main axis, all the barbs arising from
a common centre.
Fikplumes are degenerate structures having a superficial
resemblance to hairs, but they always bear a minute vane at
u* tip. They occur in all birds, in clusters of varying number,
•tat the bases of contour feathers. In some birds they attain
a peat length, and may project beyond the contour feathers,
onetimes forming conspicuous white patches, as for example
■ the necks of cormorants. In their early stages of development
ttey often poss es s a large aftershaft made up of a number of
fab, but these quickly disappear, leaving only the degenerate
pain shaft. The eyelashes and bristles round the mouth found
Dfflany birds appear to be akin to filoplumea.
Powder-down feathers are degenerate down-feathers which
tPPear to secrete a dry, waxy kind of powder. This powder
rapidly disintegrates and becomes distributed over the plumage,
ttiing thereto s quite peculiar bloom. In birds of the heron
tit* powder-down feathers have reached a high degree of
wvdopment, forming large patches in the breast and thighs,
■We in some hawks, and in the parrots, these mysterious
fathers are scattered singly over the greater part of the body.
Ifee nature of the covering of nestling birds is of a more
ttapfex character than has hitherto been suspected. The
,14- majority of young birds, as is well known, either
4**? emerge from the egg clothed in down-feathers, ox they
develop these within a day or two afterwards. But
tfc covering, though superficially similar in all, may, as a
Bitter of fact, differ widely in its constitution, even in closely
*kted forms, while only in a very few species can the complete
««ory of these feathers be made out.
The brown or tawny owl (Syrnium aluco) is one of these.
At batching, the young of this species is thickly clad in white,
**% down-feathers, of the character known as urabeMorm—
tfiat if to say, the central axis or main shaft is wanting, so that
U* barbs all start from a common centre. These feathers
occupy the posftfonf of the ultimate contour feathers. They are
shortly replaced by a second down-like covering, superficially
resembling, and generally regarded as, true down. But they
differ in that their barbs spring from a central axis as in typical
contour feathers. Feathers of this last description indeed have
now made their appearance in the shape of the " flight " or quill
feathers (remiges) and of the tail feathers. This plumage is
worn until the autumn, when the downy feathers give place to
the characteristic adult plumage. The down feathers which
appear at hatching-time are known as prc-penna£, or pre-plumulae^
as the case may be; the first generation of pre-pennae, in the
case of the tawny owl for example, Is made up of fnloptyki,
while the succeeding plumage is made up of sterostyfa, and
these in turn give place to the UicvptyUs or adult feathers. The
two forms of nestling plumage-~-pre*pennae and pre-plumula©—
nucy be collectively caned " neossoptyles," a term coined fay
H. F. Gadow to distinguish the plumage of the nestling from
that of the adult— the " teleoptyle " plumage.
As a rule the nestling develops but one of these generations
of neossoptyles, and this generally answers to the mesoptyle
plumage, though this is of a degenerate type. In some birds,
as in the Megapodes, the " protoptyle" or first of these two
generations of pre-pennae is developed and shed while the dock
is yet in the shell, so that at hatching the mesoptyle plumage
is well developed. But in the majority of birds, probably* the
mesoptyle plumage only is developed, while the earlier, and
apparently more degenerate, dress is suppressed. In the penguins
both of these nestling plumages are developed, but the mesoptyle
dress has degenerated so that umbellifonn feathers now take the.
place of feathers having a cental axis*
The Anatidae show traces of the earlier, first generation of
feathers in one or two spedea only, e.g. Ckipkaga rubidiceps.
In all the remaining spedea mesoptyles only occur. And this
b true also of the game-birds. In both the Tinamous, the duck-
tribe and the game-birds this mesoptyle plumage shows, in
different species, every gradation between feathers having a
well-developed main shaft and aftershaft, and those which are
mere umbeflifdrm tufts.
As development proceeds and the contour feathers make their
appearance they thrust the mesoptyle feathers out of their
follicles— the pockets in the skin in. which they were rooted-
end these will often be found adhering to the tips of the contour
feathers for many weeks after the bird has left the nest. This
occurs because the development of the contour feather begins
before that of the mesoptyles has completed.
The plumage in nestling birds is still futher complicated by the
fact that it may be almost, or entirely, composed of pre-plumulae;
that is to say, of down-feathers which are later succeeded by
adult down-fedJurt. This is the case among the aedpitrins
birds for example, and thereby it differs entirely from that of
the owls, which develop neither pre-plumulae nor adult down,
The cormorants are, so far as is known, the only birds which
have a nestling plumage composed entirely of pre-plumulae.
In variety and brilliancy the colours of birds are not surpassed
by those of any other group of animals. Yet the pigments to
which these colours are due are but few. in number,
while a large number of the most resplendent hues ^jj lf ,, of
are produced by structural peculiarities of the *****
colourless homy surface of the feathers, and hence
are known as subjective or optical colours.
The principal colour pigments are (a) mdanin pigments,
derived possibly from the haemoglobin of the blood, but more
probably from the blood plasma, and (6) Upochromt or " fat "
pigments, which are regarded as reserve products; though in the
case of birds it is exceedingly doubtful whether they have this
si gn ifi ca nce.
The mdanin pigments (joanmanin) occur in the form of
granules and give rise to the Mack, brown and grey tones;
or they may combine with those of the lipochrome series.
The lipochrome pigments (zoonerythrin and xoexanthiu) tend
to be diffused throughout the substa nc e of the feather, and give
rise respectively to the red and yellow colours.
228
FEATHER
The first row of the series i» formed by the major coverts; these,
like the primaries, have their free-edges directed toward* the tip of
the wing, and hence are said to have a distal overlap. The next row
is formed by the median coverts. These, on the forearm, commonly
overlap as to the outer half of the row distally, and as to the inner
half proximally. On the hand this series is incomplete. Beyond the
median are four or five rows of coverts known as the minor coverts.
These may have either a proximal or a distal overlap. The remaining
rows of small feathers are known as the marginal coverts, and they
always have a distal overlap. „...., t t ...._«_
The three or four large quilMike feathers borne by the thumb
form what is known as the ''bastard-wing," ala spuria.
The coverts of the under follow an arrangement similar to that of
the upper surface, but the minor coverts are commonly but feebly
developed, leaving a more or less bare space which is covered by the
great elongation of the marginal series.
One noteworthy fact about the coverts of the under side of the
wing is that all save the major and median coverts have what answers
to the dorsal surfaces of the feather turnwJ towards the body, and
what answers to the ventral surface of the feather turned towards
the under surface of the wing. In the major and median coverts,
however, the ventral surfaces of these feathers are turned ventral-
wards, that is to say, in the extended wing they, like the remiges,
have the ventral surfaces turned downwards or towards the body
in the closed wing.
But the most remarkable fact in connexion with the pterylosis
of the wing b the fact that in all, save the Passerine and Galhform
types, and some few other isolated exceptions, the secondary series
of remiges appears always to lack the Afth remex, counting from the
wrist inwards, inasmuch as, when such wings are examined, there is
always found, in the place of the fifth remex, a pair of major coverts
only, while throughout the rest of the series each such pair of coverts
embraces a quill.
This extraordinary fact was fir*t discovered by the French
naturalist Z. Gerbe, and was k Covered by R- S. Wray.
Neither of these, however, was abti to offer any explanation thereof.
This, however, has since been attempted* *imuti aneouAl y, by P. C.
Mitchell and W. P. Pycraft. Tin- idrmcr has apily coined the word
diastataxic to denote the gap in the scfk*. and rvtaxic to denote
such wings as have an uninterrupted iarfbi of qui Da. While both
authors agree that there is no evidence of any mm in the number
of the qutils in diastataxic winps, they differ in the interpretation
as to wnich of the two conditions is the more primitive and the
means by which the gap has been brought about.
According to Mitchell the diastataxic is the more primitive
condition, and he has conclusively shown a way in which diastataxic
wings may become eutaxic. Pycraft on the other hand contends
that the diastataxic wing has been derived from the eutaxic type,
and has produced evidence showing, on the one hand, the method
by which this transition is effected, and on the other that by which
the diastataxic wing may again recover the eutaxic condition,
though in this last particular the evidence adduced by Mitchell is
much more complete. The matter is^ however, one of considerable
difficulty, but is well worth further investigation.
The wings of struthious birds differ from those of the Carinatae t
just described, in many ways. All are degenerate and quite useless
as organs of flight. In some cases indeed they have become reduced
to mere vestiges.
Those of the ostrich and Rhea are the least degraded.
In the ostrich ankylosis has prevented the flexion of the hand at
the wrist joint so that the quills— primaries and secondaries — form
an unbroken series of about forty in number. Of these sixteen
belong to the primary or metacarpo-digital series, a number exceeding
that of any other bird. What the significance of this may be with
regard to the primitive wing it is impossible to say at present.. The.
coverts, in their disposition, bear a general resemblance to those of
Carinate wings; but they differ on account of the great length of the
feathers and the absence bf any definite overlap.
The wing of the South American Rhea more nearly resembles
that of flying birds since the hand can be flexed at the wrist joint,
and the primaries are twelve ia number, as in grebes, and some storks,
for example.
The coverts, as in the African ostrich, are remarkable for their
great length, those representing the major scries being as long as the
remiges, a fact probably due to the shortening of the latter. They
are not, however, arranged in quincunx, as is the rule among the
Carinatae, but in parallel, transverse rows, in which respect they
resemble the owls.
In both ostrich and Rhea, as welt as in all the other stnithious
birds, the under surface of the wing is entirely bare.
The wing of the cassowary, emeu and apteryx has undergone
complete degeneration; so much so that only a vestige of the hand
remains.
Remiges in the cassowary are represented by a few spine-like
shafts — three primaries and two secondaries. These are really
hypertrophied calami. This is shown by the fact that in the nestling
these remiges have a normal calamus, rhachis and vane; but as
development proceeds the rhachis with its vane sloughs off, while the
calamus becomes enormously lengthened and solid.
In the emeu the wing is less atrophied than in the cassowary,
but is not yet completely degenerate. Altogether seventeen ranges
are represented, of which seven correspond to primaries. Since
however, these feathers have each an af tershaft as long as the mail
shaft— like the rest of the body feathers— it may be that they aaswei
not to remiges, but to major coverts.
The wing of apteryx, like that of the cassowary, has become
extremely reduced. The remiges are thirteen in number, four d
which answer to primaries. These feathers are specially interesting
inasmuch as they retain throughout life a stage corr esp o n di n g re
that seen in the very young cassowary, the calamus being greatly
swollen, and supporting a very degenerate rhachis and vane.
The penguins afford another object-lesson in degeneration of thii
kind. Here the wing has become transformed into a paddle, clothed
on both aides with a covering of small, close-set feathers. A poUes
ia wanting, as in the cassowary, emeu and apteryx, while it u
impossible to say whether remiges are represen ted or not.
Authorities.— The following authors should be consulted for
further details on this subject: —
For General Reference as to Structure, Colour, Development and
Pterylosis.— H. Gadow, in Newton's Dictionary of Birds (1896);
W. P. Pycraft, " The Interlocking of the Barbs of Feathers," Natural
Science (1893).
On the Colours of Feathers.— J. L. Bonhote, " On Moult and Colour
Change in Birds," Ibis (1900) ; A. H. Church, " Researches or
Turacin, an Animal Pigment containing Copper," Phil. Trans.
clix. (1870), pt. ii. ; H. Gadow, "The Coloration of Feathers as affected
by Structure," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1682); Newbegin, Colour in Natun
ii8o8) ; R. M. Strong, " The Development of Color in the Definitive
•eather," BulL Mus. Zool. Harvard College, vol. xl.
On Moulting.— J. Dwight, "The Sequences of Plumage am!
Moults of the Passerine Birds of New York," Annals N.Y.Acad. Sci,
vol. xiii. (1900); W.E. De Winton, " On the Moulting of the King
Penguin/* Proc. Zool. Soc. (1898-1899); W. P. Pycraft, " On some
Points in the Anatomy of the Emperor and Adelie Pepgrnos," Report
National Antarctic Expedition, vol. ii. (1907).
On Development of Embryonic, Nestling and Adult Feathers.— T. H.
Studer. " Die Entwicklung der Federn," Inaug.-Diss. (Bern. 1873) ;
" Beitrage sur Entwickl. der Feder," Zeitsck. f. viss. Zool., Bd. xxx. ;
W. P. Pycraft, "A Contribution towards our Knowledge of the
Morphology of the Owls," Trans. Linn. Soc. (1898V ; W. P. Pycra/r
" A Contribution towards our Knowledge of the Pterytograpriy of
the Megapodii," Report WilUy's Zoological Results, pt. iv. 6900);
W. P. Pycraft. " Nestling Buds. and some of the Problems they
Present/' British Birds (1907).
On Pterylosis. — H. Gadow, " Remarks on the Numbers and on the
Phylogenetic Development of the Remiges of Birds," Proc Zool. Soc.
(1888); Z. Gerbe, " Sur les plumes du vol et leur mue," Bull. See.
Zool. France, vol. ii. (1877): J. G. Goodchild, " The Cubital Coverts
of the Euornithae in relation to Taxonomy," Proc, Roy. Pays,
Edinb. vol. x. (1890-1891) ; Meijere, " Ober die Fedcrn der Vogcl, H
Morphol. Jahrb. xxiii. (1895) I P. C. Mitchell, " On so-called * Qumto-
cubitalism ' in the Wing of Birds," Journ. Linn. Soc Zool. vol.
xxvii. (1899); "On the Anatomy of the Kingfishers, with special
reference to the Conditions known as Eutaxy and Diastataxy,"
Ibis (1901); C. L. Nitzsch, " Pterytography, Ray Soc. (1867);
W. P. Pycraft, M Some Facts concerning the so-called * Aquinro-
cubitalism ' of the Bird's Wing," Journ. Linn. Soc vol. xxvii. ;
CJ. Sundevall, " On the Wings of Birds," Ibis (1886) ; R. S. Wray,
" On some Points in the Morphology of the Wings of Birds," Proc
Zool. Soc (1887). (W.P. P.)
Commercial Applications of Feathers.— The chief purposes for
which feathers become commercially valuable may be compre-
hended under four divisions:— (1) bed and upholstery feathers;
(2) quills for writing; (3) ornamental leathers; and (4) mis-
cellaneous uses of feathers.
Bed and Upholstery Feathers.— -The qualities which render
feathers available for stuffing beds, cushions, &c. v axe Bghtn^s.
elasticity, freedom from matting and softness. These are
combined in the most satisfactory degree in the feathers of the
goose and of several other allied aquatic birds, whose bodies
are protected with a warm downy covering. Goose feathers
and down, when plucked In spring from the living bird, are most
esteemed, being at once more elastic, cleaner and less liable to
taint than those obtained from the bodies of killed geese. The
down of the eider duck, Anas moUissimc, h valued above all
other substances for lightness, softness and elasticity ; but it
has some tendency to mat, and is consequently more used for
quilts and in articles of clothing than unmixed for stuffing beds.
The feathers of swans, ducks and of the common domestic fowl
are also largely employed for beds ; but in the case of the latter
bird, which is of course non-aquatic, the feathers are harsher
FEATHERSTON&-FEATLEY
229
ud less downy than are (hue of Um natatorial birds generally.,
feathers which posses* strong or stiff shafts cannot without
some preliminary preparation be used for sluAng purposes, as
the stiff points they present would not only be highly unoomfort-
ible, bat would also pierce and cause Ihe escape of the feathers
from aay covering in which they might be enclosed. The barbs
are therefore stripped or cut from these feathers, and when so
prepared they, in common with soft feathers and downs, undergo
a careful process of drying and cleaning, without which they
would acquire an offensive smell, readily attract damp, and
harbour vermin. The drying is generally done in highly heated
apartments or stoves, and subsequently the feathers are smartly
beaten with a stick, and shaken in a sieve to separate all dust
and smaJJ debris.
Quills for Writing, — The eailiest period at which the use of
quill feathers for writing purposes is recorded is the 6th century;
and from that time till the introduction of steel pens in the early
part of the inch century they formed the principal writing
implements of civilised communities. It has always been
from the goose that quills have been chiefly obtained, although
the swan, crow, eagle, owl, hawk and turkey all have more or
las been laid under contribution. Swan quills, indeed are
better and more costly than are those from the goose, and for
ine lines crow quills have been much employed. Only the
foe outer wing feathers of the goose are useful for writing, and
of these the second and third are the Jjest, while left-wing quills
are also generally more esteemed than those of the right wing,
fraa the fact that they curve outward and away from the
vritcr using them. Quills obtained in spring, by plucking or
otherwise, from living birds are by far the best, those taken
from dead geese, more especially if fattened, being comparatively
worthless. To take away the natural greasiness to remove the
M.perficial and internal pellicles of skin, and to give the necessary
qualities o£ hardness and elasticity, quills require to undergo
seme, processes of preparation. The essential operation consists,
in heating them, generally in a fine sand-bath, to from 130° to
i3o* F. according to circumstances,, and scraping them under
pressure while still soft from beat, whereby the outer skin b
removed and the inner shrivelled up. If the heating has been
properly effected, the quills are found on cooling to have become
hard, elastic and somewhat brittle While the quills are soft
asd hot, lozenge-shaped patterns, ornamental designs, and names
are easily and permanently impressed on them by pressure
*:th suitable instruments or designs in metal stamps.
Ornamental Feathers.— Feathers do not appear to have been
each used, in Europe at least, for ornamental purposes till the
dose of the 13th century'. They are found in the conical caps
■era in England during the reigns of Edward III. and Richard
IL; but not till the period of Henry V. did they take their
place as a part of military costume. Towards the close of the
15th century the fashion of wearing feathers in both civil and
inllitary life was carried to an almost ludicrous excess. In the
tiaie of Henry VHX they first appeared in the bonnets of ladies;
and during Elizabeth's reign feathers began to occupy an impor-
tant place as head-dress ornaments of women. From that
use down to the present, feathers of endless variety have con-
Cured to be leading articles of ornamentation in female bead-
attire; but, except for military plumes, they have long ceased
to be worn in ordinary male costume. At the present day, the
feathers of numerous birds are, in one way or another, turned
to account by ladies for the purpose of personal ornament.
Ostrich feathers, however, hold, as they have always held, a
pre-eminent position among ornamental feathers; and the
ouxkh is the only bird which may be said to be reared exclusively
f ar the sake of its feathers. Ostrich farming is one of the estab-
lished industries of South Africa, and is also practised in Kordofan
aad other sercl-desert regions of North Africa, in Argentina,
and in Arizona and California in North America. The feathers
are generally plucked from the living animal — a process which
does not appear to cause any great inconvenience. In the male
hLrd, the long feathers of the rump and wings are white, and the
short feathers of the body are jet black; while the rump and
wing feathers of the female are white tinged with a dusky grey,
the general body colour being the latter hue. The feathers
of the male are consequently much more valuable than those
of the female, and they are separately classified in commerce.
The art of the plumassier embraces the cleaning, bleaching,
dyeing, curling and making up of ostrich and other plumes and
feathers. White feathers are simply washed in bundles in hot
soapy water, nm through pure warm water, exposed to sulphurous
fumes for bleaching, thereafter blued with indigo solution,
rinsed in pure cold water, and hung up to dry. When dry the
shafts are pared or scraped down to give the feathers greater
flexibility, and the barbs are curled by drawing them singly
over the face of a blunt knife or by the cautious application of a
heated iron. Dull-coloured feathers are usually dyed black.
Feathers which are dyed light colours are first bleached by
exposure in the open air. Much ingenuity is displayed in the
making up of plumes, with the general resuh of producing
the appearance of full, rich, and long feathers from inferior
varieties and from scraps and fragments of ostrich feathers;
and so dexterously can factitious plumes be prepared that
only an experienced person is able to detect the fabrication.
In addition to those of the ostrich, the feathers of certain
other birds form articles of steady commercial demand. Among
these are the feathers of the South American ostrich, Rhea
atneric&na, the marabout feathers of India obtained from
Lcptopiilos or gala and X. javenica, the aigrettes of the heron,
the feathers of the various species of birds of paradise, and of
numerous species of humming-birds. Swan-down and the skins
of various penguins and grebes and of the albatross are used,
like fur, for muffs and collarettes.
The Chinese excel in the preparation of artificial flowers and
other ornaments from bright natural-coloured or dyed feathers;
and the French also skilfully work ragmenls of feathers into
bouquets of artificial flowers, imitation butterflies, &c.
Miscellaneous Applications of Feathers.— Quills of various
sizes are extensively employed as holders for the sable and
camel hair brushes used by artists, &c. Feather brushes and
dusters are made from the wing-feathers of the domestic fowl
and other birds; those of a superior quality, under the name
of vulture dusters, being really made of American ostrich
feathers. A minor application of feathers is found in thedress*
ing of artificial fly-hooks for fishing. As steel pens came into
general use it became an object of considerable importance
to find applications for the supplanted goose-quills, and a large
field of employment for them was found in the preparation of
toothpicks. (J. Pa; W. P. P.)
FBATHERSTOHE, an urban district In the Osgoldcross
parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
6 m. £. of Wakefield on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway.'
Pop. (xooi) 12,003. The industrial population is employed in
large collieries in the vicinity; and here, on the 7th of September
1893, serious riots during a strike resulted in the destruction
of some of the colliery works belonging to Lord Masham, and
were not quelled without military intervention and some blood*
shed.
FEATLEY (or Faikclougii) DANIEL (1582-1645), English
divine, was born at Charlton, Oxfordshire, on the 15th of March
1583. He was a scholar of Corpus Chrlsti College, Oxford, and
probationer fellow in 1602, after which he went to France as
chaplain to the English ambassador. For some years he was
domestic chaplain to George- Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury,
and held also the rectories of Lambeth (1610), Allhallows, Bread
Street (e. 1622), and Acton (1627), this last after leaving the
archbishop's service in 1625 His varied activities included a*
" scholastick duel " with James I. in 1625, and the publication
of (x) the report of a conference with some Jesuits in 1624, (2)
a devotional manual entitled Ancilla Pietatis (1626), (3) Mystica
Claris, a Key opening divers Difficult Texts of Scripture in jo
Sermons (1636). He was appointed provost of Chelsea College
in 1630, and in 1641 was one of the sub-committee " to settle
religion." In the course of this work he had a disputation with
four Baptists at Southwark which he commemorated in his book
23°
FEBRONIANISM
KaTapaxTUiTal Karamvarol, The Dippers dipt or the Anabaptists
duckt and plunged over head and ears (164s). He sat in the
Westminster Assembly 1643, and was the last of the Episcopal
members to remain. For revealing its proceedings he was.
expelled and imprisoned. He died at Chelsea on the 17th of
April 1645.
FEBRONIANISM, the name given to a powerful movement
within the Roman Catholic Church in Germany, in the latter
part of the 18th century, directed towards the " nationalizing "
of Catholicism, the restriction of the monarchical power usurped
by the papacy at the expense of the episcopate, and the reunion
of the dissident churches with Catholic Christendom. It was
thus, in its main tendencies, the equivalent of what in France
is known as Gallicanism (?.«.). The name is derived from
the pseudonym of " Justinus Febronius " adopted by Johann
Nikolaus von Hontheim (q.v.), coadjutor bishop of Treves' (Trier) ,
in publishing his work De statu ecdesiae et legitima potestate
Romani ponlificis. This book, which roused a vast amount of
excitement and controversy at the time, exercised an immense
influence on opinion within the Roman Catholic Church, and the
principles it proclaimed were put into practice by the rulers of
that Church in various countries during the latter part of the
x8th and the beginning of the 19th century.
The main propositions defended by " Febronius " were as
follows. The constitution of the Church is not, by Christ's
institution, monarchical, and the pope, though entitled to a
certain primacy, is subordinate to the universal Church. Though
as the " centre of unity " he may be regarded as the guardian
and champion of the ecclesiastical law, and though he may
propose laws, and send legates on the affairs of his primacy, his
sovereignty (principatus) over the Church is not one of jurisdic-
tion, but of order and collaboration (ordinis et consociationis).
The Roman (ultramontane) doctrine of papal infallibility is not
accepted " by the other Catholic Churches *' and, moreover,
" has no practical utility." The Church is based on the one
episcopacy common to all bishops, the pope being only primus
inter pares. It follows that the pope is subject to general councils,
in which the bishops are his colleagues (conjudices), not merely
his consul tors; nor has he the exclusive right to summon such
councils. The decrees of general councils need not be confirmed
by the pope nor can they be altered by him; on the other hand,
appeal may be made from papal decisions to a general council.
As for the rights of the popes in such matters as appeals, reserva-
tions, the confirmation, translation and deposition of bishops,
these belong properly to the bishops in provincial synods, and
were usurped by the papacy gradually as the result of a variety of
causes, notably of the False Decretals. For the health of the
Church it is therefore necessary to restore matters to their condi-
tion before the False Decretals, and to give to the episcopate its
due authority. The main obstacle to this is not the pope himself,
but the Curia, and this must be fought by all possible means,
especially by thorough popular education (primum adversus
abusutn ecclesiasticoe potestatis remedium) % and by the assembling
of national and provincial synods, the neglect of which is the
main cause of the Church's woes. If the pope will not move
in the matter, the princes, and notably the emperor, must act in
co-operation with the bishops, summon national councils even
against the pope's will, defy his excommunication, and in the
last resort refuse obedience in those matters over which the
papacy has usurped jurisdiction.
It will be seen that the views of Febronius had but little
originality. In the main they were those that predominated
in the great general councils of Constance and Basel in the 15th
century; but they were backed by him with such a wealth of
learning, and they fitted so well into the intellectual and political
conditions of the time, that they found a widespread acceptance.
The book, indeed, was at once condemned at Rome (February
1764), and by a brief of the 21st of May the pope commanded
all the bishops of Germany to suppress it. The papal condemna-
tion met with a very mixed reception; in some dioceses the order
to prohibit the book was ignored, in others action upon it was
postponed pending an independent examination, in yet others
(nine in all) it was at once obeyed "for political reasons,"
though even in these the forbidden book became the " breviary
of the governments." The Febronian doctrine, in fact, exactly
fitted the views of the German bishops, which were by no means
disinterested. It must be remembered that the bishops were
at this time great secular princes rather than Catholic prelates;
with rare exceptions, they made no pretence of carrying out
their spiritual duties; they shared to the full in the somewhat
shallow "enlightenment" of the age. As princes of the Empire
they had asserted their practical independence of the emperor;
they were irked by what they considered the unjustifiable
interference of the Curia with their sovereign prerogatives, and
wished to establish their independence of the pope also. In
the ranks of the hierarchy, then, selfish motives combined
with others more respectable to secure the acceptance of the
Febronian position. Among secular rulers the welcome given
to it was even less equivocal. Even so devout a sovereign as
Maria Theresa refused to allow " Febronius " to be forbidden
in the Habsburg dominions; her son, the emperor Joseph II.„
applied the Febronian principles with remorseless thoroughness.
In Venice, in Tuscany, in Naples, in Portugal, they inspired
the vigorous efforts of M enlightened despots " to reform the
Church from above; and they gave a fresh impetus to the move-
ment against the Jesuits, which, under pressure of the secular
governments, culminated in the suppression of the Society
by Pope Clement XIV. in 1773. " Febronius," too, inspired
the proceedings of two notable ecclesiastical assemblies, both
held in the year 1786. The reforming synod which met at
Pistoia under the presidency of the bishop, Scipione de' Rkci,
is dealt with elsewhere (see Pistoia). The other was the so-
called congress of Ems, a meeting of the delegates of the four
German archbishops, which resulted, on the 25th of August,
in the celebrated "Punctation of Ems," subsequently ratified
and issued by the archbishops. This document was the outcome
of several years of controversy between the archbishops and
the papal nuncios, aroused by what was considered the un-
justifiable interference of the latter in the affairs of the German
dioceses. In 1769 the three archbishop-electors of Mairut,
Cologne and Treves (Trier) had drawn up in thirty articles
their complaints against the Curia, and after submitting them
to the emperor Joseph II., had forwarded them to the new
pope, Clement XIV. These articles, though " Febronius " was
prohibited in the archdioceses, were wholly Febronian in tone ;
and, indeed, Bishop von Hontheim himself took an active part
in the diplomatic negotiations which were their outcome. In
drawing up the " Punctation " he took no active part, but it
was wholly inspired by his principles. It consisted of XXIII,
articles, which may be summarized as follows. Bishops have,
in virtue of their God-given powers, full authority within theii
dioceses in all matters of dispensation, patronage and the like;
papal bulls, briefs, &c, and the decrees of the Roman Congrcg.v
lions are only of binding force in each diocese when sanctioned
by the bishop; nunciatures, as hitherto conceived, are to cease;
the oath of allegiance to the pope demanded of bishops sinc<
Gregory VII.'s time is to be altered so as to bring it int<
conformity with episcopal rights; annates and the fees payabN
for the pallium and confirmation are to be lowered and, in th<
event of the pallium or confirmation being refused, Gerrnai
archbishops and bishops are to be free to exercise their offio
under the protection of the emperor; with the Church tribunal
of first and second instance (episcopal and metropolitan) th
nuncios are not to interfere, and, though appeal to Rome i
allowed under certain " national M safe-guards, the opinion i
expressed that it would be better to set up in each archdioccs
a final court of appeal representing the provincial synod; final!;
the emperor is prayed to use his influence with the pope to secur
the assembly of a national council in order to remove the gricv
ances left unredressed by the council of Trent.
Whether this manifesto would have led to a reconstitutio
of the Roman Catholic Church on permanently Febronian lin<
must for ever remain doubtful. The French Revolution intc
vened; the German Church went down in the storm; and 1
FEBRUARY^-FJBCHNBIt
*3I
1803 the secuierixetions carried out by nrder of the First Consul
pot anetid to the temporal ambaieiisotiu prelates. Fcbrojrianitm
indeed, survived. Karl Theodor voa Dslnerg , prince primou of
ibe Confederation of the Rhine, upheld its principles throughout
the Na p ol eon ic epoch and hoped to establish them in the new
Germany to be created by the congress of Vienna. He sent
to thai assembly, as representative of the German Church,
Bishop von Wcatenbcrg, who in his diocese of Constance had
not hesitated to apply Febronian principles in reforming, on
his own authority, the services and discipline o£ the Church.
But the times were not favourable for such experiment*. The
tide of reaction after the Revolutionary turmoil was setting
strongly in the direction of traditional authority, in religion as
in politics; and that ukramontane movement which, before
the century was ended, was to dominate the Church, was already
showing signs of vigorous life. Moreover, the great national
German Church of which Dalberg had a vision— with himself
as primate — did not appeal to the German princes, tenacious
of their newly acquired status as European powers. One by
one these entered into concordats with Rome, and Febromanisis
from an aggressive policy subsided into a speculative opinion.
As such it survived strongly, especially in the universities <Bonn
especially had been, from its foundation in 1774, very Febronian),
and 'it reasserted itself vigorously in the attitude of many of
the most learned German prelates and professors towards the
question of the definition of the dogma of papal infallibility in
1870W It was, in fact, against the Febronian position that the
decrees of the Vatican Council were deliberately directed, and
their promulgation marked the triumph of the ultramontane
view (see Vatican Council, Ultramonxamism, Papacy). In
Germany, indeed, the struggle against the papal monarchy was
carried on for a while by the governments on the so-called
Kuiimrkampf, the Old Catholics representing militant Febronian*
ism. The latter, however, since Bismarck " went to Canossa,"
havesunk into a respectable but comparatively obscure sect, and
Febronianiam, though it still has some hold on opinion within the
Church in the chapters and universities of the Rhine provinces, is
practically extinct in Germany. Its revival under the guiseof so-
called Modernism drew from Pope Pius X. in 1008 the scathing
condemnation embodied in the encyclical Paseendi gregis.
AuTHoaiTiES.— See Justinus Febronius, Do statu tulosiae et
legitime poUstae Romani pontificis (Bullion!, 1765). second and
enlarged edition, with new prefaces addressed to Pope Clement
XIII.. to Christian kings and princes, to the bishops of the Catholic
Church, and to doctors of theology and canonlaw; three additional
volumes, published in 1770, 1772 and 1774 at Frankfort, are devoted
to vindications of the original work against the critics. In the
Reouo dot deux mondes for Jury 1901 (tome xvi. p. 266) is an Interest-
ing article under the title of " L'Ahemagfie CathoHque." from the
papal point of view, by Georges Goyau. For the congress of Ems
see Herxog-Hauck, RoaUtuyUcpaiio (Leipzig, 189*), s.v. " Emser
Kongress. Further references are given in the article on Honthcim
<«,*?. (W. A. P.)
FEBRUARY, the second month of the modern calendar.
In ordinary years it contains 28 days; but in bissextile or leap
year, by the addition of the intercalary day, it consists of 29 days.
This month was not in the Romulian calendar. In the reign of
Numa two months were added to the year, namely, January
at the beginning, and February at the end; and this arrange-
ment was continued until 452 B.C., when the decemvirs placed
February after January. TTie ancient name of Februarius was
derived from fobruate % to purify, or from Fcbrua, the Roman
festival of general expiation and lustration, which was celebrated
during the Latter part of this month. In February also the
Lupercalia were held, and women were purified by the priests
of Pan Lyceus at that festival. The Anglo-Saxons called this
month Sprout-Kale from the sprouting of the cabbage at this
season Later it was known as Sdmonatk, because of the return
of the sun from the low latitudes The most generally noted days
of February are the following:— the 2nd, Candlemas day, one
of the fixed quarter days used in Scotland; the 14th, St Valen-
tine's day; and the 24th, St Matthias. The church festival of
St Matthias was formerly observed on the 25th of February in
bissextile years, but it is now invariably celebrated on the 24 th.
FI»y9ftV ALBXAJTDRH FBstPtelC <x$*s- ), French
actor* was bora in Paris, and after the usual apprenticeship -in
the provinces and in several Parisian theatres in small parts,
was called to the Comedie Francaise in i860, where he made his
debut as Philip II. in Don Juan d'Autrickt. He soon became
the most popular leading man in Paris, not only in the classical
repertoire, but in contemporary novelties. In 1894 he toured
the principal cities of Europe, and, in 1895, of America. He
was also a composer of light music for the piano, and published
several books of varying merit. He married Mdlle HarviUe,
daughter of one of his predecessors at the Comtdie Francaise
herself a well-known actress.
F&CAM P, a seaport and bathing resort of northern France,
in the department of Seine-Inferieure, t8 m. N.N.E. of Havre
on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 15,87a. The town, which
is situated on the English Channel at the mouth of the small
river Fecamp, consists almost entirely of one street upwards of
2 m. in length. It occupies the bottom and sides of a narrow
valley opening out towards the sea between high cliffs. The most
important building is the abbey church of La Trinite, dating
for the most part from 1175 to 1225. The central tower and
the south portal (13th century) are the chief features of its
simple exterior; in the interior, the decorative work, notably
the chapel-screens and some fine stained glass, is remarkable.
The hotel-de*ville with a municipal museum and library occupy
the remains of the abbey buildings (18th century). The church
of St £tienne (x$th century) and the Benedictine liqueur
distillery, 1 a modem building which also contains a museum, are
of some interest. A tribunal and chamber of commerce, a board
of trade-arbitrators and a nautical school, are among the public
institutions. The port consists of an entrance channel nearly
400 yds. long leading to a tidal harbour and docks capable of
receiving ships drawing 26 ft. at spring-tide, 19 ft. at neap-tide.
Fishing for herring and mackerel is carried on and the town
equips a large fleet for the codbanks of Newfoundland and
Iceland The chief exports are oil-cake, flint, cod and Benedic-
tine liqueur. Imports include coal,timber, tar and hemp. Steam
sawing, metal-founding, fish-salting, shipbuilding and repairing,
and the manufacture of ship's-biscuits and fishing-nets are among
the industries.
The town of Fecamp grew up round the nunnery founded in
658 to guard the relic of the True Blood which, according to the
legend, was found in the trunk of a fig-tree drifted from Palestine
to this spot, and which still remains the most precious treasure
of the church. The original convent was destroyed by the North*
men, but was re-established by Duke William Longsword as a
house of canons regular, which shortly afterwards was converted
into a Benedictine monastery. King Richard I greatly enlarged
this, and rebuilt the church. The town achieved some prosperity
under the dukes of Normandy, who improved its harbour, but
after the annexation of Normandy to France it was overshadowed
by the rising port of Havre.
FBCHNRR, GUSTAV THEODOR (1801-1887), German expert,
mental psychologist, was born on the 19th of April 1801 at
Gross-Sarchen, near Muskau, in Lower Lusatia, where his father
was pastor. He was educated at Sorau and Dresden and at the
university of Leipzig, in which city he spent the rest of his life.
In 1834 he was appointed professor of physics, but in 1839
contracted an affection of the eyes while studying the phenomena
of colour and vision, and, after much suffering, resigned. Subse-
quently recovering, he turned to the study of mind and the
relations between body and mind, giving public lectures on the
subjects of which his books treat. He died at Leipzig on the 18th
of November 1887. Among his works may be mentioned:
Das Bikklcin 00m Leben nack dem Tode (1836, 5th ed., 1003),
which has been translated into English; Namta, oder iibcr das
SeeUnleben der Pjhnten (1848, 3rd ed., 1003); ZcndaHsia, oder
1 The liqueur is said to have been manufactured by the Benedictine
monks of the abbey as far back as 1510; since the Revolution
it hai been produced commercially by a secular company. The
familiar legend D. (X M.(Deo Optimo Maximo) on the bottles preserves
the memory of its original maker*
*3*
FECHTER— FECKENHAM
fiber die Dinge des Himmets und des /enseits (1851, «nd ed.
by Lasswits, {90 1); Vber die pkysikaUscht und pkilosopkiscke
Alomenkkre (1853, 2nd ed., 1864); Elemente der Psychopkysik
(i860, 2nd ed., 1889); Vorschule der Asthelik (1876, and ed.,
1898); Die Tagesansickt gegenilber der Nachtansicht (1879).
He also published chemical and physical papers, and translated
chemical works by J. B. Blot and L. J. Thenard from the French.
A different but essential side of his character is seen in his
poems and humorous pieces, such as the Vergleithende Anatomic
der Engel (1825), written under the pseudonym of " Dr Mises."
Fechner's epoch-making work was his Elemente der Psyckopkysik
(i860). He starts from the Splnozbtic thought that bodily
facts and conscious facts, though not reducible or 2 to the other,
are different udes of one reality. His originality lies in trying
to discover an exact mathematical relation between them.
The most famous outcome of his inquiries is the law known
as Weber's or Fechner's law which may be expressed as follow*:—
" In order that the intensity of a sensation may increase in arith-
metical progression, the stimulus must increase in geometrical
progression." Though holding good within certain limits only,
the law has been found immensely useful. Unfortunately, from
the tenable theory that the intensity of a sensation increases by
definite additions of stimulus, Fechner was led on to postulate
a unit of sensation, so that any sensation s might be regarded
as composed of * units. Sensations, he argued, thus being
representable by numbers, psychology may become an " exact "
science, susceptible of mathematical treatment. His general
formula for getting at the number of units in any sensation is
s«c log r, where s stands for the sensation, a for the stimulus
numerically estimated, and c for a constant that must be separ-
ately determined by experiment in each particular order of sensi-
bility. This reasoning of Fechner's has given rise to a great mass
of controversy, but the fundamental mistake in it is simple.
Though stimuli are composite, sensations are not. "Every
sensation," says Professor James, " presents itself as an indivisible
unit; and it is quite impossible to read any clear meaning into
the notion that they are masses of units combined." Still, the
idea of the exact measurement of sensation has been a fruitful
one, and mainly through his influence on Wundt, Fechner was
the father of that " new " psychology of laboratories which
investigates human faculties with the aid of exact scientific
apparatus. Though he has had a vast influence in this special
department, the disciples of his general philosophy are few. His
world-conception is highly animistic. He feels the thrill of life
everywhere, in plants, earth, stars, the total universe. Man
stands midway between the souls of plants and the souls of stars,
who are angels. God, the soul of the universe, must be conceived
as having an existence analogous to men. Natural laws are
just the modes of the unfolding of God's perfection. In his last
work Fechner, aged but full of hope, contrasts this joyous
" daylight view " of the world with the dead, dreary " night
view" of materialism. Fechner's work in aesthetics is also
important. He conducted experiments to show that certain
abstract forms and proportions are naturally pleasing to our
senses, and gave some new illustrations of the working of aesthetic
association. Fechner's position in reference to predecessors
and contemporaries is not very sharply defined. He was
remotely a disciple of Schelling, learnt much from Herbait
and Wcisse, and decidedly rejected Hegel and the monadism
of Lotze.
See W. Wundt, G.JTh. Fechner (Leipzig, 1901); A. Ehas, " Zum
n GrenzSoU, — " "~
Andcnken G. Th. Fechner*,"
1888; J. E. Knntxe,
G. Th. Fechner (Leipzig, 1892); Karl Lasswitz, G, Th. Fechner
(Stuttgart, 1896 and 1902); £. B. Titchener, Experimental Psy-
~ -. .. ^.
. , .. . „. „ (L-_.
trans.. 1895), pp. 601 foil.; H. Hoffdin?, Hist, of Hod. Phil. (Eng.
' ' "i; Liebe, Feekmrs Metaphytik, im
(5. St.)
FECHTER, CHARLES ALBERT (1824-1879), Anglo-French
actor, was born, probably in London, on the 23rd of October
1824, of French parents, although his mother was of Piedmontese
and his father of German extraction. The boy would probably
^tt»l» . „ w --. - . . - - "^
chology (New York. 1905); G. F. Stout, Manual of Psychology
(1898), bk. ii. ch. vh\; R. Falckenbcrg, Hist, of Mod. Phil. (Eng.
trans., 1895), pp.601 foil.; H. Hr* J " ' * " * — " "
trans., i960), vol. ii. pp. 524 folL
l/mriss aargesUltt (1903).
have devoted himself to a sculptor's life but for the accident
of a striking success made in some private theatricals. The
result was an engagement in 1841 to play in a travelling company
that was going to Italy. The tour was a failure, and the com-
pany broke up; whereupon Fechter returned home and worked
assiduously St sculpture. At the same time he attended classes
at the Conservatoire with the view of gaining admission to the
Comedie Francaise. Late in 1844 he won the grand medal of
the Academie des Beaux-Arts with a piece of sculpture, and was
admitted to make his deout at the Gomea'ie Francaise as Seide
in Voltaire's Mahomet and Valere m Moliere's Tcrtufi. He
acquitted himself with credit; but, tired of the small parts he
found himself condemned to play, returned again to his sculptor's
studio in 1846. In that year he accepted an engagemeot to
play with a French company in Berlin, where he made his first
decisive success as an actor. On his return to Paris in the
following year he married the actress Eleonore Rabat (d. 1895).
Previously he had appeared for some months in London, in a
season of French classical plays given at the St James's theatre.
In Paris for the next ten years he fulfilled a series of successful
engagements at various theatres, his chief triumph being his
creation at the Vaudeville on the 2nd of February 1852 of the
part of Armand Duval in La Dame aux commas* For nearly
two years (1857-1858) Fechter was manager of the Odeon,
where he produced Tartuje and other classical plays. Having
received tempting offers to act in English at the Princess's
theatre, London,, be made a diligent study of the language, and
appeared there on the 27th of October i860 in an English
version of Victor Hugo's Ruy Bias. This was followed by The
Corsica* Brothers and Don Ctsar da Baton; and on the 20th of
March 1861 be first attempted Hamlet. The result was an
extraordinary triumph, the play running for 115 nights. This
was followed by Othello, in which he played alternately the Moor
and Iago. In 1863 he became lessee of the Lyceum theatre,
which he opened with The Duke's Motio) this was followed
by The King's Butterfly, The Mountebank (in which his son Paul,
a boy of seven, appeared), The Roadside Inn, The Master *f
Ratenswood, The Corsica* Brothers (in the original French version,
in which he had created the parts of Louis and Fabian dei
Franchi) and The Lady of Lyons. After this he appeared at
the Adelphi (1868) as Obenreizer in No Thoroughfare, by Charles
Dickens and Wilkie Collins, as Edmond Dantes in Monk Cristo,
and as Count de Leyrac in Black and White, a play in which the
actor himself collaborated with Wilkie Collins. In 1870 he
visited the United States, where (with the exception of a visit
to London in 187 2) he remained till his death. His first appear-
ance in New York was at Niblo's Garden in the title role of
Ruy Bias. He played in the United States between 1870 and
1876 in most of the parts in which he had won his chief triumphs
in England, making at various times attempts at management,
rarely successful, owing to his ungovernable temper. The last
three years of his life were spent in seclusion on a farm which
he had bought at Rockland Centre, near Quakcxtown, Pennsyl-
vania, where he died on the 5th of August 1879. A bust of the
actor by himself is in the Garrick Club, London.
FECKENHAM, JOHN (c. 1515-1584), English ecclesiastic,
last abbot of Westminster, was born at Feckenham, Worcester-
shire^ ancestors who, by their wills, seem to have been substantial
yeomen. The family name was Howman, but, according to
the English custom, Feckenham, on monastic profession, changed
it for the territorial name by which he is always known. Learn-
ing his letters first from the parish priest, he was sent at an
early age to the claustral school at Evesham and thence, in his
eighteenth year, to Gloucester Hall, Oxford, as a Benedictine
student. After taking his degree in arts, he returned to the
abbey, where he was professed; but he was at the university
again in 1537 and took his B.D. on the nth of June i539-
Returning to Evesham he was there when the abbey was sur-
rendered to the king (27th of January 1540) ; and then, with a
pension of £10 a year, he once more went back to Oxford, but
soon after became chaplain to Bishop Bell of Worcester and
then setved Bonner in that same capacity from 1543 to 1549-
FEDCHENKO—FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
*33
In 1 544 Bonner gave him the riving of Sofflmll; and FdCkenbmn
established a reputation as a preacher and a disputant of keen
mtellect but unvarying Charity. About 1549 Creamer sent
aim tovtbe Tower of London, and while there " he was borrowed
out of prison" to take part in seven publk disputations against
Hooper, Jewel and others. Released by Queen Mary (5th of
September 1553), he returned to Bonner and became prebendary
of St Paul's, rector of Finchley, then of Greenford Magna,
chaplain and confessor to' the queen, and dean of St Paul's
(10th of March 1554). He took part, with much charity and
nuldnesa, in the Oxford disputes against Cranmer, Latimer and
Ridley; but he had no liking for the fierce bigotry and bloody
measures then in force against Protestants. Feckenham used
*D his influence with Mary '* to procure pardon of the faults or
alligation of the punishment for poor Protestants " (Fuller),
and he was sent by the queen to prepare Lady Jane Grey for
death. When Elizabeth was sent to the Tower (18th of March
1554), Feckenham interceded for her Kfe and liberty, even at
the cost of displeasing the queen.
The royal abbey of Westminster having been restored to its
primitive- use, Feckenham was appointed abbot, and the old
Kfe began again within its hallowed walls on the 21st of November
1556. The abbey school was reopened and the shrine' of St
Edward restored. On the accession of Elisabeth Feckenham
consistently opposed all the legislation for changes is religion,
and, when the hour of trial came, be refused the oath of
supremacy, rejecting also Elisabeths offer to remain with his
monks at Westminster if he would conform to the new laws.
The abbey was dissolved (1 sth of July 1550), and within a year
Feckenham was sent by Archbishop Parker to the Tower (30th
el May 1560), according to Jewel, "for having obstinately refused
attendance on public worship and everywhere declaiming and
raffing against that religion which we now profess " (Parker
Society, first series, p. 70). Henceforth, except for some brief
periods when he was a prisoner at large, Feckenham spent the
rest of bis life In confinement either in some recognised prison,
or in the more distasteful and equally rigorous keeping of the
bishops of Winchester and Ely. After fourteen years' confine-
ment, he was released on bail and lived in Hotbern, where his
benevolence was shown by all manner of works of charity.
" He relieved the poor wheresoever he came, so that flies flock
not thicker to spilt honey than beggars constantly crowd about
mm " (Fuller). He set up a public aqueduct In Holborn, and a
hospice for the poor at Bath; he distributed every day to the
sick the milk of twelve cows, took careof orphans, andencouraged
manly sports on Sundays among the youth of London by giving
prise* In 1577 he was committed to the care of' Cox of Ely
with strict rules for his treatment; and the bishop (1578) could
find no fault with him except that " he was a gentle person
but in the popish religion too, too obstinate." In 1580 he was
removed to Wisbeach Castle* and there exercised such an influence
of charity and peace among hfs fellow-prisoners that was re-
membered when, in after years, the notorious Wisbeach Stirs
broke out under the Jesuit Weston. Even here Feckenham
found a means of doing publk good; at Ms own cost he repaired
the road and set up a market cross In the town. After twenty-
four yean of suffering for Ins conscience he died in prison and
was buried in an unknown grave in the parish church at Wis-
beach on the 1 6th of October 1584.
The fullest account of Feckenham is to be found in E. Tauntofl's
Eaghsk Black Monk* cf Si Btm&a (London, 1697), vol. i. pp.
160-223. (E. Tm.)
FBDCHBHKO, ALEXIS PAVLOYICH (1844-1873), Russian
naturalist and traveller, well known for his explorations in
central Asia, was born at Irkutsk, In Siberia, on the ?tb of
February 1844; and, after attending the gymnasium of his
native town, proceeded to the university of Moscow, for the
study mote especially of neology and geology. In r868 be
travelled through Turkestan, the district of the lower Syr-Darya
and Samarkand; and shortly after his return he set out for
Khokand, where he visited a large portion of territory till then
Soon after his return to Europe he perished on Mont
Blanc while enffaged in an exploring tour in Switzerland, on the
15th of September 1873.
Accounts of the exploration* and discoveries of Fedchenloo have
been published by the Russian government,— ha Jourtuys m
Turkestan in 1874. /" <*< Khanal ofKhokand in 1875, and Botanical
DiseamHes in 1876. See Petermann's MitiheUungen (1 872-1 874).
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT (Lat. focdus, a league), a form of
government of which the essential principle is that there is a
union of two or more states under one central body for certain
permanent common objects. In the most perfect form ot
federation the states agree to delegate to a supreme federal
government certain powers or functions inherent in themselves
in their sovereign or separate capacity, and the federal govern-
ment, in turn, in the exercise of those specific powers acts directly,
not only on the communities making up the federation, but on
each individual citizen. So far as concerns the residue of powers
unallotted to the central or federal authority, the separate states
retain unimpaired their individual sovereignty, and the citizens
of a federation consequently owe a double allegiance, one to
the state, and the other to the federal government. They live
under two sets of laws, the laws of the state and the laws of the
federal government (J. Bryce, Studies in History and Juris-
prudence, li. 400). The word '* confederation," as distinct from
" federation " has been sometimes, though not universally,
used to distinguish from such a federal state (BundesslaaO
a mere union of states {Stdalenbund) for mutual aid, and the,
promotion of interests common to all (see Confederation).
The history of federal government practically begins with
Greece. This, however, is due to the fact that the Greek federa-
tions are the only ones of which we have any detailed information.
The obvious importance, especially to scattered villages or tribes,
of systematic joint action in the face of a common danger makes
it reasonable to infer that federation in its elementary forms
was a widespread device. This view is strengthened by what we
can gather of the conditions obtaining in such districts as Aetolia,
Acarnania and Samnium, as in modern times among primitive
peoples and tribes. The relatively detailed information which
we possess concerning the federal governments of Greece makes
it necessary to pay special attention to them.
In ancient Greece the most striking tendency of political
development was the maintenance of separate city states, each
striving for absolute autonomy, though all spoke practically
the same language and shared to some extent in the same
traditions, interests and dangers. This centrifugal tendency is
most marked in the cases of the more important states, Athens,
Sparta, Argos, Corinth, but Greek history is full of examples of
small states deliberately sacrificing what must have been obvious
commercial advantage for the sake of a precarious autonomy. .
Such examples as existed of even semi-federal union were very
loose in structure, and the selfishness of the component units
was the predominant feature. Thus the Spartan hegemony in
the Peloponnese was not really a federation except in the broadest
sense. The states did, it is true, meet occasionally for discussion,
but their relation, which had no real existence save in cases of
immediate common danger, was really that between a paramount
leader and unwilling and suspicious allies. The Athenian empire
again was a thinly disguised autocracy. The synod (see Delian
League) of the "allies" soon degenerated into a mere form;
of comprehensive united policy there was none, at all events after
the League had achieved its original purpose of expelling the
Persians from Europe.
None the less it Is possible, even in the early days of political
development in Greece, to find some traces of a tendency towards
united action. Thus the unions of individual villages, known as
synoedsms, such as took place in Attica and Elis in early times
were partly of a federal character: they resulted in the establish-
ment of a common administration, and no doubt in some degree
of commercial and military unity. On the other hand, it is likely
that these unions lacked the characteristic of federation in that
the units could hardly be described as having any sovereign
power: at the most they had some municipal autonomy ss in the
case of the Cleisthenic demes. The union was rather national
than federal. Again the Amphictyonic unions had one of the
234-
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
characteristic elements of federation* namely that they were free
sovereign states combining for a particular purpose with an
elaborate system of representation (see Ampkictyony). But
these unions, at all events in historic times, were mainly concerned
with religion, and the authority of the councils did not seriously
affect the autonomy of the individual states.
Thus among the city-states as well as among scattered villages
the principle of cohesion was not unknown. On the other hand
the golden mean between an easily dissoluble relationship, more
like an alliance than a federation, and a national system resulting
from synoecism was practically never attained in early Greek
history. There are, however, examples in Greece proper, and
one, Lycia in Asia Minor, of real federal unions. The chief
Greek federations were those of Thessaly, Boeotia, Acarnania,
Olynthus, Arcadia, Aetolia, Achaea, the most important as well
as the most complete in respect of organization being the Aetolian
League and the Achaean League.
1. The Thessalian League originated in the deliberate choice
by village aristocracies of a single monarch who belonged from
time to lime to several of the so-called Heracleid families. Soon
after the Persian War this monarchy (dynasty of the Aleuadae,
Herod, v. 63 and vii. 6) disappeared, and in 424 we find Athens
in alliance with a sort of democratic federal council representing
to koiv6v (krraiuw (cf. Thuc. i. 102, ii. 22, iv. 78), and probably
composed of delegates from the towns. The local feudal nobles,
however, seem to have put an end to this government by council,
and a dictator (lagus) was appointed, with authority over the
whole military force of the federation. Three such officers,
Lycophron, Jason and Alexander, all of Pherae, endeavoured
vainly to administer the collective affairs of the federation, the
last by means of a revived republican council. The final failure
of this scheme coincided with the disappearance of Thessaly
as a sovereign state (see Thessaly).
2. The form and the history of the Boeotian federation
are treated fully under Boeotia (q.v.). It may probably have
originated in religious associations, but the guiding power
throughout was the imperial policy of Thebes, especially during
its short-lived supremacy after 379 B.C.
3. The federation of Acarnania is of peculiar interest as being
formed by scattered villages or tribes, without settled, still less
fortified, habitation. , In the early part of the 4th century a
noivbv rdv 'Axapv&Mutv met at Stratus (Xen. Hell. iv. 6. 4). Late
in the same century towns began to form, without, however,
disturbing the federation, which existed as late as the 2nd century
B.C., governed by a representative council (/toi>Xd) # and a common
assembly (koiv6v) at which any citizen might be present.
4. The foundation of the Olynthian federation was due to
the need of protection against the northern invaders (see Olyn-
thus). It was in many respects based on liberal principles, but
Olynthus did not hesitate to exercise force against recalcitrants
such as Acanthus.
5. The 4th century Arcadian league, which was no doubt a
revival of an older federation, was the result of the struggle for
supremacy between Thebes and Sparta. The defeat of Sparta
at Leuctra removed the pressure which had kept separate the
Arcadian tribes, and r6 Koivbv rCsv 'kpicaSww was established in
the new city, Megalopolis {q.v., also A&cadia).
6 and 7. The Aetolian and Achaean leagues (see Aetolia,
and Achaean League) were in all respects more important than
the preceding and constitute a new epoch in European politics.
Both belong to a period in Greek history when the great city
states had exhausted themselves in the futile struggle against
Macedon and Rome, and both represent a conscious popular
determination in the direction of systematic government. This
characteristic is curious in the Aetolian tribes which were famous
in all time for habitual brigandage; there was, however, among
them the strong link of a racial feeling. The governing council
(rd tcoivdv rCtv ALtwKjv) was the permanent representative
body; tbere was also a. popular assembly (raHurw?UKor),
partly of a primary, partly of a representative kind, any one
being free to attend, but each stale having only one official
representative and one vote. Of ail the federal governments of
Greece, this league was the moat certainly democratic in constitu-
tion. There was a complete system of federal officers, at the head
of whom was a Strategus entrusted with powers both military
and civil. This officer was annually elected, and, though the chief
executive authority, was strictly limited in the federal delibera-
tions to presidential functions (cf. Livy xxxv. 35, " ne praetor,
quum de bello consuluisset, ipse sententiam diceret "). The
Achaean League was likewise highly organized; joint action
was strictly limited, and the individual cities bad sovereign
power over internal affairs. Tbere were federal officers, all the
military forces of the cities were controlled by the league, and
federal finance was quite separate from city finance.
8. Of the Lycian federation, its origin and duration, practically
nothing is known. We know of it in 18&-168 B.C. as dependent on
Rhodes, and, from 168 till the time when the emperor Claudius
absorbed it in the provincial system, as an independent state
under Roman protection. The federation was a remarkable
example of a typical Hellenic development among a non-Hellenic
people. Strata (p. 665) informs us that the federation, composed
of twenty-three cities, was governed by a council («oo>6r
avvtSptor} which assembled from time to time at that city which
was most convenient for the purpose in hand. The cities were
represented according to size by one, two or three delegates,
and bore proportionate shares in financial responsibility. The
Lycian league was, therefore, in this respect rather national than
federal
Of ancient federal government outside Greece we know very
little. The history of Italy supplies a few examples, of which the
chief is perhaps the league of the cities of Latium (q.v.; see also
Etrukia).
See E. A. Freeman, Federal Government m.Cruce and R*m* (and
ed., 1893, J. B. Bury), and works quoted in the special articles.
Among the later European confederations the Swiss republic
is one of the most interesting. As now constituted it consists
of twenty-two sovereign states or cantons. The government
is. vested in two legislative chambers, a senate or council of
state (Sl&ndtrat), and a national council (Naiicnalrai), consti-
tuting unitedly the federal assembly. The executive council
(Bundtsrat) of seven members elects the president and vice-
, president for a term of three years (see Switzerland; Goier*-
ment). Before the French Revolution the German empire was a
complex confederation, with the states divided into electoral
colleges, consisting — (1) of the ecclesiastical electors and of the
secular electors, including the king of Bohemia; (2) of the
spiritual and temporal princes of the empire next in rank to the
electors; and (3) of the free imperial cities. The emperor was
elected by the first college alone. This imposing confederation
came to an end by the conquests of Napoleon ; and the Confedera-
tion of the Rhine was established in 1806 with the French
emperor as protector. But in 1815 the Germanic confederation
(Deutschtr Bund) was established by the congress of Vienna,
which in its turn has been displaced by the present German
empire. This, in its new organization, conferred on Germany the
long-coveted unity and coherence the lack of which had been a
source of weakness. The constitution dates, in its latest form,
from the treaties entered into at Versailles in 187 x. A fedcraticxt
was then organized with the king of Prussia as president, under
the hereditary title of German emperor. Delegates of the various
federated governments form the Bundesrath; the Reichstag, or
popular assembly, is directly chosen by the people by universal
suffrage; and the two assemblies constitute the federal parlia-
ment. This body has power to legislate for the whole empire in
reference to all matters connected with the army, navy, postal
service, customs, coinage, &c, all political laws affecting citizens,
and all general questions of commerce, navigation, passports, efce.
The emperor represents the federation in all international
relations, with the chancellor as first minister of the empire, and
has power, with consent of the Bundesrath, to declare war in
name of the empire.
The United States of America more nearly resembles the Swiss
confederacy, though retaining marks of its English origin. The
original thirteen states were colonies wholly independent of each
FEDERALIST PARTY
*35
By the Articles of Confederation tad Perpetual Union
adopted by the Continental Congress in 1777, and in effect in
1781-1780, the states bound themselves in a league of common
defence, By the written Constitution, drafted in 1787 and in
operation since 17*9, a stronger and more centralised union was
established— in theory a federal republic formed by the voluntary
combination of sovereign states. A common citiaenship wss
recognized for the whole union; but the federal government was
to exercise only such power* as were expressly delegated to it
(Amendment of 1791). The powers of the central government
are entrusted to three distinct authorities— executive, legislative
and judicial The president, elected for a term of four years by
electors chosen for that purpose by each state, is the executive
head of the republic. The vice-president, ax ejficio president
of the Senate, assumes the presidency in case of resignation or
death. Legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting of
two Houses: a Senate, composed of two members elected by each
state for a term of six yean; and a. House of Representatives,
ronsisting of representatives in numbers proportionate to the.
population of each state, holding then* seats for two yean. The
supreme judicial authority is vested in a Supreme Court, which
consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices, ail appointed
for life by the president, subject to confirmation by the Senate,
The rrtfflsinn of responsible constitutional government by
Great Britain to her chief colonies, under a governor or viceregal
representative of the crown, has been followed in British North
America, by the union of the Canadian, maritime and Pacific
provinces under a federal government—with a senate, the
members of which are nominated by the crown, and a house of
commons elected by. the different provinces according to their
relative population. The governor-general is appointed by the
crown for a term of five years, and represents the sovereign in all
matters of federal government* The lieuUnant-governors of the
nroviscee are nominated by him; and all .local legislation is
carried on by the provincial parliaments. The remarkable
federation, of the Dominion of Canada which was thus originated
presented the unique feature of a federal .union of provinces
practically exercising sovereign rights in relation to aH local
self-government, .and sustaining a constitutional au tono my ,
while cherishing the colonial relationship to Great Britain*
The Commonwealth of Australia (ff.t.), proclaimed in tool, is
another interesting example of self-governing states federating
into a united whole. There is, however, a striking difference to be
observed in the powers of the federal governments of Canada and
Australia. The federal parliament of Canada has jurisdiction
ever aU matters not specially assigned to the local legislatures,
while the federal parliament of Australia has only such juris-
diction as is expressly vested in it or is not expressly withdrawn
from the local legislatures. This jurisdiction is undoubtedly
extensive, comprising among others, power to legislate concerning
trade and industry, criminal law, taxation, quarantine, marriage
and divorce, Wrights and measures, legal tender, copyrights and
patents, and naturalization and aliens. There was also an early
attempt to federate the South African colonies, and an act was
passed for that purpose (South African Act 1&77), but it expired
on the iSth of August 188a, without having been brought into
effect by the sovereign in council; in 1908, however, the Closer
Union movement (see South Airica) ripened, and in 1009 a
federating Act was successfully passed.
See also Bluntschli, The Theory of the StoUi W. Wilson, The Stole;
Wbeaton, International Law,
FEDERALIST PARTY, in American politics, the party that
organized the national government of the United States under
the constitution of 1787. It may be regarded as, in various
important respects* the lineal predecessor of the American Whig
and Republican parties. The name Federalis t s (see Axn-
Fedkxausts) was first given to those who championed the
adoption of the Constitution. They brought to the support of
that instrument " the areas of intercourse and wealth " (Libby),
the influence of the commercial towns, the greater planters, the
army officers, creditors and property-holders generally,— in short,
of interests that had felt the evils of the weak government of the
Confederation,— and also of some few true nationalists {fas,
because there was as yet no general national feeling), actuated by
political principles of centralization independently of motives of
expediency and self-interest. Most of the Federalists of 1787-
1788 became members of the later Federalist Party.
The Federalist Party, which may be regarded as definitely
organised practically from 1701, was led, leaving Washington
aside, by Alexander Hamilton (9.*.) and John Adams. A
nationalisation of the new central government to the full extent
warranted by a broad construction of the powers granted to it by
the constitution, and a correspondingly strict construction of the
powers reserved to the states and the titisens, were the basic
principles of Hamilton's policy. The friends of individual liberty
and local government naturally found in the assumption by the
central government of even the minimum of its granted powers
constant stimulus to their fears (see Democratic Pasty);
while the financial measures of Hamilton — whose wish for
extreme centralisation was nowise satisfied by the government
actually created In 1787 — were calculated to force an immediate
and firm assumption by that government, to the limit, of every
power it could be held to possess. To the Republicans (Demo-
cratic Republicans) they seemed intended to cause a usurpation
of powers ungranted. Hence these measures became the issues
on which the first American parties were formed. Their effect
was supplemented by the division into French and British
sympathizers; the Republicans approving the aims and condon-
ing the excesses of the French Revolution, the Federalists siding
with British reaction against French democracy. The Federalists
controlled the government until 1801. They, having the great
opportunity of initiative, organised it in all it* branches, giving
it an administrative machinery that in the main endures to-day;
established the doctrine of national neutrality toward European
conflicts (although the variance of Federalist and. Republican
opinion on this point was largely factitious); and fixed the
practice of a liberal construction of the Constitution, 1 — not only
by Congress, but above all by the United States Supreme Court,
which, under the lead of John Marshall (who had been appointed
chief-justice by Pres. John Adams), impressed enduringly on the
national system large portions of the Federalist doctrine. These
are the great claims of the party to memory. After x8oz it
never regained power. In attempts to do so, alike in national
and in state politics, it impaired its morale by internal dissension,
by intrigues^ndby inconsistent factious opposition to Democratic
measures on grounds of ultra-strict construction. It took up,
too, the Democratic weapon of states' rights, and in New England
carried sectionalism dangerously near secession in 1808, and in
18 x *-i8x4,during the movement, in opposition to the war of 1819*
which culminated in the Hartford Convention (see Hartford).
It lost, more and more, its influence and usefulness, and by 1817
was practically dead as a national party, although in Massa-
chusetts it lingered in power until 1823. It is sometimes said that
Federalism died because the Republicans took over its principles
of nationality. Rather it fell because its great leaders, John
Adams and Alexander Hamilton, became bitter enemies;
because neither was even distantly comparable to Jefferson as a
party leader; because the party could not hold the support of
its original commercial, manufacturing and general business
dements; because the party opposed sectionalism to a growing
nationalism on the issues that ended in the war of 1812; and,.
above all, because the principles of the party's leaders (e.g. of
Hamilton) were out of harmony, in various respects, with
American ideals. Their conservatism became increasingly a
reactionary fear of democracy} indeed, it is not a strained
construction of the times to regard the entire Federalist period
from the American point of view as reactionary— a reaction
against the doctrines of natural rights, mdrvidualism, and states'
rights, and the financial looseness of the period of the War of
Independence and the succeeding years of the Confederation.
The Federalists were charged by the Republicans with being
aristocrats and monarchists, and it is certain that their leaders
* Even the Democratic party has generally been liberal ; although
less so in theory (hardly less so in practice) than its opponents.
23 6
FEDERICI— FEHMIC COURTS
(who were really a very remarkable body of men) distrusted
democratic government; that their Sedition Law was outrageous
fa itself, and (as well as the Alien Law) bad as a party measure;
that in disputes with Great Britain they were true English Tories
when contrasted with the friendly attitude toward America held
by many English Liberals; and that they persisted in New
England as a pro-British, aristocratic social-cult long after they
lost effective political influence. In short, the country was already
thoroughly democratic in spirit, while Federalism stood for
obsolescent social ideas and was infected with political "Tory-
ism " fatally against the times.
Besides the standard general histories see O. G. Libby, Geographical
Distribute* of the Vale oj the Thirteen States on Ike Federal Constitu-
tion, 1787-1788 (Madison, Wis., 1894); the Memoirs of Oliver
Wolcott (ed. by Gibbs); C. D. Hazen, Contemporary American
Opinion of the French Revolution (" J.H.U. Studies," Baltimore. 1807) • .
Henry Adams, Documents relating to New England Federalism, 1800-
1815 (Boston, 187S); A. E. Morse, The Federalist Party in Massm-
chustlts (Princeton, N.J.. 1909) ; and the biographies and writings
of George Cabot. Fisher Ames, Gouverneur Morris, Tohn Jay, Rulus
King, Timothy Pickering, Theodore Sedgwick; C. C Pinckney and
J* A. Bayard.
FEDERICI, CAMILLO (1749-1802), Italian dramatist and
actor, was born at Garessio, a small town in Piedmont, on the
9th of April x 749. His real name was Giovanni Battista Viassolo,
and that by which he is now known and which he transmitted
to his children was taken from the title of one of his first pieces,
Camilla t Federico. He was educated at Turin, and showed
at an early age a great fondness for literature and especially
for the theatre. The praises bestowed on his early attempts
determined his choice of a career, and he obtained engagements
with several companies both as writer and actor. He made a
happy marriage in 1777, and soon after left the stage and
devoted himself entirely to composition. He settled at Padua,
and the reputation of his numerous comedies rapidly spread in
Italy, and for a time seemed to eclipse that of his predecessors.
Most of his pieces were of the melodramatic class, and he too
often resorted to the same means of exciting interest and curiosity.
He caught, however, something of the new spirit which was
manifesting itself in German dramatic literature in the works
Of Schiller, Inland and Kotzebue, and the moral tone of his
plays is generally healthy. Fortune did not smile upon him;
but he found a helpful friend in a wealthy merchant of Padua,
Francis Barisan, for whose private theatre he wrote many pieces.
He was attacked in 1791 with a dangerous malady which dis-
abled him for several years, and he had the misfortune to see
his works, in the absence of any copyright law, published by
others without his permission. At length, in 1802, he undertook
to prepare a collected edition; but of this four volumes only
were completed when he was again attacked with illness, and
died at Padua (December 23).
The publication of his works was completed in Iiyolumes in 1816.
Another edition in 26 volumes was published at Florence in 1826-
1827. A biographical memoir of Foderiri by Neymar appeared at
Venice in 1838.
FEE, an estate in land held of a superior lord on condition
of the performance of homage or service (see Feudalism). In
English law " fee " signifies an estate of inheritance (i.e. an
estate descendable to the heirs of the grantee so long as there
are any in existence) as opposed to an estate lor life. It is
divisible into three species: (t) fee simple; (2) conditional fee;
(3) fee tail. (See Estate.) A fee farm rent is the rent reserved
on granting a fee farm, i.e. land in fee simple, to be held by the
tenant and his heirs at a yearly rent. It is generally at least
one-fourth of the value of the land at the time of its reservation.
(Sec Rent.)
The word " fee " has also the sense of remuneration for services,
especially the honorarium paid to a doctor, lawyer or member
of any other profession. It is also used of a fixed sum paid for
the right to enter for an examination, or on admission to member-
ship of a university or other society. This sense of the word is
taken by the New English Dictionary to be due to a use of " fee "
in its feudal sense, and to represent a sum paid to the holder
of an office " in fee."
The etymology of the Med. tat*, feudum, feodum or /ess*, of
its French equivalent^, and English " fee," in Scots law " feu "
(q.v.), is extremely obscure. (See -the New English Dictionary,
s.9. " Fee.") There is a common Teutonic word represented
in Old English as fooh or feo, in Old High German as fchu,
meaning property in the shape of cattle (cf. modem Ger. Viek,
Dutch set). The old Aryan pihu gives Sanskrit poc*, Lat.
pecus, cattle, whence petunia, money. The O. Eng. fcek, in
the sense of money, possibly survives in " fee," honorarium,
though this is not the view of the New English Dictionary. The
common explanation of the Med. Lat. feudum or feodum, of
which Ducange {Glossarium, s.v.) gives an example from a
constitution of the emperor Charles the Fat of the year 884, is
that it is formed from the Teutonic Jehu, property, and 3d,
wealth (cf. Allodium and Udal). ' This would apparently
restrict the original meaning to movable property, while the
early applications of feudum are to the enjoyment of something
granted in return for service (beneficium). Another theory
takes the origin to befthu alone, in a particular sense of wages,
payment for services. This leaves the d- of feudum unexplained.
Some have taken the. origin to be a verbal form feudare^feum
dare. Another theory finds the source in the O. High Ger. fehdn,
to eat, feed upon, " take for one's enjoyment."
FEHUMG, HBRMAMf VOW (18x2-2885), German 'chemist,
was born at Lttbeck on the 9th of June 181 9. With the intention
of taking up pharmacy he entered Heidelberg University about
1835, and after graduating went to Giessen as priparateur to
Liebig, with whom he elucidated the composition of paraldehyde
and metaldehyde. In 1839 on Liebig's recommendation he was
appointed to the chair of chemistry in the polytechnic at Stutt-
gart, and held it till within three years of hh death, which
happened at Stuttgart on the xst of July 1885. His earlier
-work included an investigation of succinic acid, and the pre-
paration of phenyl cyanide (benzonitrile), the simplest nit rile
of the aromatic series,* but later his time was mainly occupied
with questions of technology and public health rather than with
pure chemistry. Among the analytical methods worked up by
him the best known is that for the estimation- of sugars by
" Fehling's solution," which consists of a solution of cupric
sulphate mixed with alkali and potassium-sodium tartrate
(feochellesalt). He was a contributor to the Handwdrtcrbuck
of Liebig, Wfthler and FOggendorff, and to the Graham-Otto
Textbook of Chemistry , and for many years was a member of the
co mmit tee of revision of the Pharmacopoeia Gcrmanica.
FEHMARH, an island of Germany, belonging to the Prussian
province of Schleswig-Holstefn, in the Baltic, separated from
the north-east corner of Holstein by a strait known as the
Fehmam-Sund, less than a quarter of a mile in breadth. It is
a gently undulating tract of country, about 120 sq. m. in area,
bare of forest but containing excellent pasture-land, and rears
cattle in considerable numbers. Pop. 10,000.
FEHMIC COURTS (Ger. Femgerichte, or Vekmgerickte, of
disputed origin, but probably, according to J. Grimm, from
O. High Ger. feme or feime, a court of justice), certain tribunals
which, during the middle ages, exercised a powerful and some-
times sinister jurisdiction in Germany, and more especially in
Westphalia. Their origin is uncertain, but is traceable to the
time of Charlemagne and in all probability to the old Teutonic
free courts. They were, indeed, also known as free courts
(Preigcrichte), a name due to the fact that all free-bom men
were eligible for membership and also to the fact that they
claimed certain exceptional liberties. Their jurisdiction they
owed to the emperor, from whom they received the power of
life and death (Blutbann) which they exercised in his name.
The sessions were often held in secret, whence the names of
secret court (heimliches Gtricht, Stillgericht, &c); and these
the uninitiated were forbidden to attend, on pain of death.
which led to the designation forbidden courts (terbotene Gcric&t*)]
Legend and romance have combined to exaggerate the sinister
reputation of the Fehmic courts; but modern historical research
has largely discounted this, proving that they never employed
torture, that their sittings were only sometimes secret, and tha.»
FEHRBELLIN— FEIJfcO Y MONTENEGRO
their meeting-places were always well known. They were, in
fact, a survival of an ancient and venerable German institution;
ind if, during a certain period, they exercised something like a
reign of terror over a great part of Germany, the cause of this
Uy in the sickness of the times, which called for some powerful
organization to combat the growing feudal anarchy. Such an
organization the Westphalian free courts, With their discipline
of terror and elaborate system of secret service, were well cal*
colated to supply. Everywhere else the power of life and death,
originally reserved to the emperor alone, had been usurped by
the territorial nobles; only in Westphalia, called "the Red
Earth " because here the imperial blood-ban was still valid,
wwc capital sentences passed and executed by the Febmic courts
in the emperor's name alone.
Tne system, though ancient, began to become of importance
oaly after the division of the duchy of Saxony on the fall of
Henry the Lion, when the archbishop of Cologne, duke of West*
phalia from 1180 onwards, placed himself as representative of
the emperor at the head of the Fehme. The organization now
rapidly spread. Every free man, born in lawful wedlock, and
neither excommunicate nor outlaw, was eligible for membership.
Princes and nobles were initiated; and in 1429 even the emperor
Stpsmund himself became " a true and proper Freischiffe of the
Holy Roman Empire." By the middle of the 14th century these
FmsckSJfen (Latin scobini), sworn associates of the Fehme, were
scattered in thousands throughout the length and breadth of
Germany, known to each other by secret signs and pass-words,
and all of them pledged to serve the summons of the secret
coerts and to execute their judgment.
The organization of the Fehme was elaborate, The head of
each centre of jurisdiction (Freistuhl), often a secular or spiritual
prince, sometimes a civic community, was known as the Slukl-
kar, the archbishop of Cologne being, as stated above, supreme
ever all (Obersistuhlkerr). Tne actual president of the court was
the Freigraf (free count) chosen for life by the StuMkerr from
among the Freiuhdffcn, who formed the great body of the
initiated. Of these the lowest rank were the Frtmbeien or F rei-
frvnen, charged with the maintenance of order in the courts and
the duty of carrying out the commands of the Freigraf. The
immense development of the Febnv? is explained by the privileges
of the Freisckdfen; for they were subject to no jurisdiction but
those of the Westphalian courts, whether as accused or accuser
they had access to the secret sessions, and they shared in the
discussions of the general chapter as to the policy of the society.
At tbeir initiation these swore to support the Fehme with all their
powers, to guard its secrets, and to* bring before its tribunal
anything within its competence that they might discover.
They were then initiated into the secret signs by which members
recognized each other, and were presented with a rope and with
a knife on which were engraved the mystic letters S.S.G.G.,
supposed to mean Slrick, Stein, Grci, GrUn (rope, stone, grass,
green).
The procedure of the Fehmic courts was practically that of
the ancient German courts generally. The place of session,
known as the Freistukl (free seat), was usually a hillock, or
Mae other well-known and accessible spot. The Freigraf and
Sdkdjfcn occupied the bench, before which a table, with a sword
and rope upon it, was placed. The court was held by day and,
ssJess the session was declared secret, all freemen, whether
initiated or not, were admitted. The accusation was in the old
German form; but only a Freuchdfe could act as accuser.
If die offence came under the competence of the court, i.e. was
punishable by death, a summons to the accused' was issued under
tn* seal of the Freigraf. This was not usually served on him
personally, but was nailed to his door, or to some convenient
place where he was certain to pass. Six weeks and three days'
grace were allowed, according to the old Saxon law, and the
samnaons was thrice repeated. If the accused appeared, the
accuser stated the case, and the investigation proceeded by the
examination of witnesses as in an ordinary court of law. The
iedgnaent was put into execution on the spot if that was possible.
The secret court, from whose procedure the whole institution
*37
has acquired its evil reputation, was closed to all but the initiated,
although these were so numerous as to secure quasi-publicity;
any one not a member on being discovered was instantly put
to death, and the members present were bound under the same
penalty not to disclose what took place. Crimes of a serious
nature, and especially those that were deemed unfit for ordinary
judicial investigatton— -such as heresy and witchcraft— fell
within its jurisdiction, as also did appeals by persons condemned
in the open courts, and likewise the cases before those tribunals
in which the accused had not appeared. The accused if a
member could dear himself by ins own oath, unless he had re-
vealed the secrets of the Fehme. If he were one of the uninitiated
it was necessary for him to bring forward witnesses to his inno-
cence from among the initiated, whose number varied according
to the number on the side of the accuser, but twenty-one in favour
of innocence necessarily secured an acquittal. The only punish-
ment which the secret court could inflict was death. If the
accused appeared, the sentence was carried into execution at
once; if he did not appear, it was quickly made known to the
whole body, and the PreischBjfe who was the first to meet the
condemned was bound to put him to death. This was usually
done by hanging, the nearest tree serving for gallows. A knife
with the cabalistic letters was left beside the corpse to show that
the deed was not a murder.
That an organization of this character should have, outlived
its usefulness and issued in intolerable abuses was inevitable,
With the growing power of the territorial sovereigns and the
gradual improvement of the ordinary process of justice, the
functions of the Fehmic courts were superseded. By the action
of the emperor Maximilian and of other German princes they
were, in the 16th century, once more restricted to Westphalia,
and here, too, they were brought under the jurisdiction of the
ordinary courts, and finally confined to mere police duties.
With these functions, however, but with the old forms long
since robbed of their impressivenesa, they survived into the
19th century. They were finally abolished by order of Jerome
Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, in 1811. The last Freigraf died
fa 1835.
AtrtHOiiTiES, — ™h Wifcand, Dm FtmgttuM Wtstjokns Ctaxawk
l8-25> and «l., Malic, 1993); L* Trow, Sanimtuiii war^icilrj igir
Vrkundm far dit GrsrhkJtte d*r FrmzsrLkl* {Hanflvcr, |H2G)rF. P.
Uscnei\ $ii /m- «ud htimlkhtn Cerkkie Wtsifnirnj f Frankfort,
l8_p) ; HL G. van Wachtcr. Beiiragt ztir deuiithen €mh^ inibeimtdttt
, . . tUs datts£kcn Sirafredtts {Tttbmgtn, »*4S)l O* WichtO",
FmmrkMu atid Ihxmprozfstt in DtuticJikMd ptutlgarL L8&2);
T. Lindner, Dk fVms ftfQiutcr and Padcrbom. T888h F. Thudi-
chum. Ftmrfridd und Jmruuition (G le*scn. I8S9J whmc theory
concerning the origin of iW Ftkwe u combated in T> Lindner »
Der m&blicht Ur sprung d& Femprukie aus dtr tnquisUwn {PuJtr-
born. 1 KgoK Far worb* on inJivMnal aspect* kv furltur Dahlmann-
Wafts, QucUenkundt fed, Lcipiiff, 1006), p. 401; also it. nipple*
mtni'iry vol. (1907), p- 78.
FEHRBELLIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia,
on the Rhine, 40 m. N.W. from Berlin on the railway to Neu-
Ruppin. Pop. (1905) 1602. It has a Protestant and a Roman
Catholic church and some small industries, among them that
of wooden shoes. Fehrbellin is memorable in history as the scene
of the famous victory gained, on the 18th of June 1675, by the
great elector, Frederick William of Prussia, over the Swedes
under Field-Marshal Wrangtl. A monument was erected in
1879 on the field of battle, near the village, of Hakenberg, to
commemorate this great feat of arms.
See A. von Witzlebea snd P. Hassel, Zum Toojahriptn Cedenktqg
era FehrbeUin (Berlin, 1875); C. Scllo, "Fehrbellin, in Deutsche
ZeUschrift fur Gtsckichtswisscnsfhaflen, vii. ; M. jahns, " Der Grosse
Kurfttrst bei Fehrbellin, &c," in HohenzolUrn Jahrbnch, i.
FEIJ60 Y MONTENEGRO, BENITO JBR6NIH0 (1676-1764)!,
Spanish monk and scholar was born at Santa Maria de MeKas,
near Orense, on the 8th of October 1676. At the age of twelve
he entered the Benedictine order, dex'Oted himself to study,
and waged war against the superstition and ignorance of his
countrymen in the Teatro crltico (17 26-1739) and the Cartas
eruditas (1742-1760). These exposures of a retrograde system
called forth embittered protests from narrow-minded patriots
like Salvador Jose Maner, and others; but the opposition was
238
FETCH— FBLIX (POPES)
futile, tnd Feijoo't services to the cause of knowledge were
universally recognized long before his death, which took plate
at Oviedo on the 26th of September 1764. He was not a great
genius, nor a writer of transcendent merit; his name is con*
nected with no important discovery, and his style is undis-
tinguished. B ut he uprooted many popular errors, a wakened an
interest in scientific methods, and is justly regarded as the
initiator of educational reform in Spain.
FBITH, RHUNV1S (1753-1824), Dutch poet, was born of an
aristocratic family at Zwolle, the capital of the province Over-
ijssel, on the 7th of February x 753. He was educated at Harder*
wijk and at the university of Leiden, where he took his degree in
1770. In 177 2 he settled at his birthplace, and married. In 1780,
in his twenty-seventh year, he became burgomaster of Zwolle.
He built a luxurious villa, which he named Boschwijk, in the Out-
skirts of the town, and there he lived in the greatest comfort.
His first important production was Julia, in 1783, a novel written
In emulation of Werlker, and steeped in WeUschmen and despair.
This was followed by the tragedy of Tkirsa (1784); Ferdinand
and Constant** (1785), another Wertkar novel; and The Patriots
(1784), a tragedy. Bilderdijk and other writers attacked his
morbid melancholy, and Johannes Kinker (1764-1845) parodied
his novels, but his vogue continued. In 1791 he published a
tragedy of Lady Jane Grey; in 1792 a didactic poem, The Crave,
In four cantos; in 1793 Ina de Castro; in 1706 to 18x4 five
volumes of Odes and Miscellaneous Poems; and in 1802 Old Age,
in six cantos. He died at Zwolle on the 8th of February 2824.
His works were collected (Rotterdam, 11 vols.) in 1824, with a
biographical notice by N. G. van Kampen.
WEjtK, GYORQY (1 766-1851), Hungarian author, was born on
the 23rd of April 1766, at Keszthely, in the county of Zala. He
studied philosophy at Pest, and theology at Pressburg; eventu-
ally, in 1808, he obtained a theological professorship at Pest
University. Ten years later (x8 18) he became chief director of the
educational circle of Raab, and in 1824 was appointed librarian
to the university of Pest. Fejer's works, which are nearly all
written either in Latin or Hungarian, exceed one hundred and
eighty in number. His most important work, Codex diplomatics
Hungariae ecclesiasticus ac chilis, published from 1829 to 1844,
in eleven so-called tomes, really exceeds forty volumes. It
consists of old documents and charters from a.d. 104 to the end
of 1439, and forms an extraordinary monument of patient in-
dustry. This work and many others relating to Hungarian
national history have placed Fejer in the foremost rank of Hun-
garian historians. He died on the 2nd of July 1851. His latest
works were A Kunok eredete (The Origin of the Huns), and A
folilikai forradalmak okai {Tke Causa of Political Revolutions),
both published in 1850. The latter production, on account of
its liberal tendencies, was suppressed by the Austrian govern-
ment.
See Magyar IrSk: &*trajt-pijtem*ny(Pe*t, 1856), and A magyar
lomtdrUnet vdelaia (Pest, 1861).
FELAnTTX, or Fklakichb, a town of Spain, in the south-east
of the island of Majorca, Balearic Islands; about 5 m. inland
from its harbour, Puerto Colon. Pop. (1900) 11,294. A range
of low hills intervenes between Felanitx and the Mediterranean;
upon one summit, the Puig de San Sebastian, stands a Moorish
castle with a remarkable series of subterranean vaults. From
the 3rd century B.C., and possibly for a longer period, earthenware
water-coolers and other pottery have been manufactured in the
town, and many of the vessels produced are noteworthy for their
beauty of form and antiquity of design. There is a thriving
trade in wine, fruit, wheat, cattle, brandy, chalk and soap.
FELDK1RCH, a small town in the Austrian province of the
Vorarlberg, some 20 m. S. of the S. end of the Lake of Constance.
It is situated in a green hollow, on the 111 river, between the two
narrow rocky gorges through which it flows out into the broad
valley of the Rhine. Hence, though containing only about
4000 inhabitants (German-speaking and Romanist), the town
is of great military importance, since it commands the entrance
into Tirol from the west, over the Arlberg Pass (5912 ft.), and
has been the scrne of many conflicts, the last In 1709, when the
French, under Oudioot and Mastena, were driven back by the
Austrians under Hotxe and Jellachich. It is a picturesque little
town, overshadowed by the old castle of Schattenburg (now a
poor-house), built about xaoo by the count of Montfort, whose
descendant in 1375 sold it to the Habsburgs, The town contains
many administrative offices, and is the residence of a suffragan
bishop, who acts as vicar-general of the. diocesan, the bishop of
Brixen. Among the principal buildings are the parish church,
dating from X487, and possessing a " Descent from the Cross "
(1521), which has been attributed to Holbein, the great Jesuit
educational establishment called "Stella Matutina," and a
Capuchin convent and church. There is a considerable amount
of transit trade at Feldlurch, which by rail is 11 m. from Buchs
(Switzerland), through the principality of Liechtenstein, 24 m.
from Bregenz, and 99} m. from Innsbruck by tunnel beneath
the Arlberg Pass. The town also possesses numerous industrial
establishments, such as factories for cotton-spinning, weaving,
bell-founding, dyeing, (W. A. B. C.)
FEUBIEH, ANDRE (16x9-1695), sieur des Avauxet de Javercy,
French architect and historiographer, was born at Chartrcs in
May 1610. At the age of fourteen he went to Paris to continue
his studies; and in 1647 he was sent to Rome in the capacity
of secretary of embassy to the Marquis de MarueiL His resi-
dence at Rome he turned to good account by diligent study of its
ancient monuments, by examination of the literary treasures of
its libraries, and by cultivating the acquaintance of men eminent
in literature and in art, with whom he was brought into contact
through his translation of Cardinal Barberini's Life of Pius V.
Among his friends was Nicholas Pousain, whose counsels were
of great value to him. On his return to France he married, and
was ultimately induced, in the hope of employment and honours,
to settle in Paris. Both Fouquet and Colbert in their turn recog-
nised his abilities; and he was one of the first members (1063) of
the Academy of Inscriptions. Three years later Colbert procured
him the appointment of historiographer to the king. In 1671
he was named secretary to the newly-founded Academy of
Architecture, and in 1673 keeper of the cabinet of antiques in
the palace of Brion. To these offices was afterwards added by
Louvois that of deputy controller-general of roads aad bridges.
Ftiibien found time in the midst of his official duties for study
and research, and produced many literary works. Among these
the best and the most generally known is the EtUretiens sur la
vies et sur Us outrages des plus exceUents pcintres anciens e%
modernes, which appeared in successive livraisons, the first in
1666, and the fifth in 1688. It was republished with several
additions at Amsterdam in 1706, and again at Trevoux in 1725.
FeKbien wrote also Origin* de la pesnture (1660), Principe* de
I'arckiteeture, de la sculpture, de la peinture, &c (1676-1600),
and descriptions of Versailles, of La Trappe, and of the pictures
and statues of the royal residences. Amo. g other literary works,
he edited the Conferences of the Academy of Painting, and trans-
lated the Castle of Ike Soul from the Spanish of St Theresa. His
personal character commanded the highest esteem, agreeing
with the motto which be adopted— -Bene faetre et vera dicer*.
He died in Paris on the xith of June 1695.
His son, Jean Francois Fclibien (c. 1658-1733), was also an
architect who left a number of works on his subject; and a
younger son, Michel Felibicn (c 1666-17 19), was a Benedictine
of Saint Germain-des-Pres whose fame rests on his Hist tire de
Cabbaye royale de S. Denys en France, aad also his VHistoire
de la vitte de Paris in 5 vols.,- a work indispensable to the student
of Paris.
FELIX, the name of five popes.
Felix I., pope from January 269 until his death in January 374.
He has been claimed as a martyr, and as such his name is given in
the Roman calendar and elsewhere, but his title to this honour is
by no means proved, and he has been probably confused with
another bishop of the same name. He appears in connexion wit h
the dispute in the church of Antioch between Paul of Samosata,
who had been deprived of his bishopric by a council of bishops for
heresy, and his successor Dommra. Paul refused to give way, and
in 372 the emperor Aureiian was asked to dedde between the
FELIX— FELIXSTOWE
239
rivals. He ordered the church building to be given to the bishop
vbo was " recognized by the bishops el Italy and of the city of
Rome " (Felix). See Eusebius, HiM. Ecc. vii. 30.
Feux II., antipope, was in 356 raised from the archdeaconate
el Rome to the papal chair, when Liberius was banished by the
emp* ror Constantius for refusing to subscribe the sentence of
condemnation against Athanasius. His election was contrary to
the wishes both of the clergy and of the people, and the consecra-
tion ceremony was performed by certain prelates belonging to the
court. In 357 Constantius, at the urgent request of an influential
deputation of Roman ladies, agreed to the release 0/ Liberius on
condition that he signed the semi-Arian creed. Constantius also
issued an edict to the effect that the two bishops should rule
conjointly, but Liberius, on his entrance into Rome. in the follow-
mg year, was received by all classes with so much enthusiasm
that Felix found it necessary to retire at once from Rome.
Regarding the remainder of his life little is known, and the
accounts handed down are contradictory, but he appears to have
spent the most of it in retirement at his estate near Porto. He
(Led in 365.
Felix III., pope, was descended from one of the most in-
fluential families of Rome, and was a direct ancestor of Gregory
lie Great. He succeeded Simplicity in the papal chair on the
tad of March 483. His first act was to repudiate the Henolicon,
a deed of union, originating, it is supposed, with Acacius,
patriarch of Constantinople, and published by the emperor Zcno
with the view of allaying the strife between the Jtfonophysitcs
iod their opponents in the Eastern church. He also addressed a
Writer of remonstrance to Acacius; but the latter proved re-
fractory, and sentence of deposition was passed against him. As
Ac2cius, however, bad the support of the emperor, a schism
srose between the Eastern and Western churches, which lasted
far 34 years. Felix died in 492.
Tzisx IV., pope, a native of Bencventum, was, on the death of
John in 526, raised to the papal chair by the emperor Tbeodoric
:o opposition to t he wishes of the clergy and people. His election
was followed by serious riots. To prevent a recrudescence of
these, Felix, on his, death-bed, thought it advisable to nominate
lis own successor. His choice fell upon the archdeacon Boniface
'pope as Boniface II.). But this proceeding was contrary to all
tradition and roused very serious opposition. Out of two old
buildings adapted by him to Christian worship, Felix made the
cijurch of SS. Cosimo and Damiano, near the Via Sacra. He died
h September 530.
Fexjx V., the name taken by Amadeus (1383-1451), duke of
^avoy, when he was elected pope in opposition to Eugenius IV. in
1439. Amadeus was born at Charabcry on the 4th of December
j 3^3. and succeeded his father, Amadeus VII., as count of Savoy
in 1391. Having added largely to his patrimonial possessions he
berame very powerful, and in 14 16 the German king Sigismund
rrcted Savoy into a duchy; after this elevation Amadeus added
Piedmont to his dominions. Then suddenly, in 1434, the duke
retired to a hermitage at Ripaillc, near Tlipnon, resigning his
ixhy to his son Louis (d. 1465), although he seems to have taken
vflje part in its subsequent administration. It is said, but some
hstorians doubt the story, that, instead of leading a life of
-'xxticism, he spent his revenues in furthering his own luxury
15 i enjoyment. In 1439, when Pope Eugenius IV. was deposed
>y the council of Basel, Amadeus, although not in orders, was
ibosen as his successor, and was crowned in the following year as
Fdix V. In the stormy conflict between the rival popes which
?otiowed, the German king, Frederick IV., after some hesitation
tided with Eugenius, and having steadily lost ground Felix
renounced his claim to the pontificate in 1449 in favour of
Nicholas V., who had been elected on the death of Eugenius.
He induced Nicholas, however, to appoint him as apostolic
ricar-genera! in Savoy, Piedmont and other parts of his own
dominions, and to make him a cardinal., Amadeus died at
Geneva on the 7th of January 1451.
FELIX, a missionary bishop from Burgundy, sent into East
AngHa. by Honorius of Canterbury (630-63 1). Under King
Stgebert his mission was successful, and he became first bishop of
East Angh'a, with a see at Duirwicb, where he died and was
buried, 647-648. It is noteworthy that the Irish monk Furseus
preached in East Anglia at the same time, and Bede notices the
admiration of Felix for Aidan.
See Bede, Uist. Ecd. (Plummet), il. 15, fit. 18, ao, 95; Saxon
Chronicle (Earie and Plumroer), a*. 636.
FELIX, of Urgella (fl. 8th century), Spanish bishop, the friend of
Elipandus and the propagator of his views in the great Adoptian
Controversy (see Adopti anisic).
FBUX, of Valois (1127-1*12), one of the founders of the
monastic order of Trinitarians or Redemptionists, was born in
the district of Valois, France, on the 19th of April 1 1 27. In early
manhood he became a hermit in the forest of Galeresse, where he
remained till bis sixty-first year, when his disciple Jean de Matha
(1 160-1013) suggested to him the idea of establishing an order of
monks who should devote their lives to the redemption of Chris-
tian captives from the Saracens. They journeyed to Rome about
the end of 1197, obtained the sanction of the pope, and on their
return to France founded the monastery of Cerfroi in Picardy.
Felix remained to govern and propagate the order, •while Jean
de Matha superintended the foreign journeys. A subordinate
establishment was also founded by Felix in Paris near a chapel
dedicated to St Mathurin, on which account his monks were also
called St Mathurina. He died at Cerfroi on the 4th of November
1 a 1 2, and was canonized.
FELIX, ANTOKIUS, Roman procurator of Judaea (a.d. 51-60),
in succession to Ventidius Cumanus. He was a freedman either
of the emperor Claudius — according to which theory Josephus
(Antiq. xx. 7) calls him Claudius Felix— or more probably of the
empress Antonia. On entering his province he induced Drusilla,
wife of Azizus of Horns (Emesa), to leave her husband and live
with him as his wife. His cruelly and licentiousness, coupled^
with his accessibility to bribes, led to a great increase of crime in"
Judaea. To put down the Zealots he favoured an even more
violent sect, the Sicarii (" Dagger-men "), by whose aid he
contrived the murder of the high-priest Jonathan. The period of
his rule was marked by internal feuds and disturbances, which he
put down with severity. The apostle Paul, after being appre-
hended in Jerusalem, was sent to be judged before Felix at
Cacsarca, and kept in custody for two years (Acts xxiv.). On
returning to Rome, Felix was accused of having taken advantage
of a dispute between the Jews and Syrians of Caesarea to slay and
plunder the inhabitants, but through the intercession of his
brother, the freedman Pallas, who had great influence with the
emperor Nero, he escaped unpunished.
Sec Tacitus. Annals, xx. 54, Hist. v. 9; Suetonius, Claudius, 28:
E. SchUrcr, History of the Jewish People (1890-1891); artide in
Hastings' Diet, of Ike Bible (A. Robertson) ; commentaries on the
Acts of the Apostles; Sir W. M. Ramsay, St Paul the Traveller;
Carl v. Wetzsacker, Apostolic Age (Eng. trans.. 1894); art. Jaws.
F&LIX, LI A (1830- ), French actress, was the third
sister and the pupil of the great Rachel. She had hardly been
given any trial when, by chance, she was called on to create the
leading woman's part in Lamartine's Tous saint Louverture at
the Porte St Martin on the 6th of April 1850. The play did not
make a hit, but the young actress was favourably noticed, and
several important parts were immediately entrusted to her.
She soon came to be recognized as one of the best comediennes
in Paris. Rachel took Lia to America with her to play second
parts, and on returning to Paris she played at several of the
principal theatres, although her health compelled her to retire
for several years. When she reappeared at the Gai£te* in the
title-role of Jules Barbier's Jeanne a" Arc she had an enormous
success.
FELIXSTOWE, a seaside resort of Suffolk, England; fronting
both to the North Sea and to the estuary of the Orwell, where
there arc piers. Pop. of urban district of Felixstowe and Walton
(1901), 581;. It is 85 m. N.E. by E. from London by a branch
line from Ipswich of the Great Eastern railway; and is in
the Woodbridge parliamentary division of the county. It
has good golf links, and is much frequented by visitors for its
bracing climate and sea-bathing. There is a small dock and
phosphate of lime is extensively dug in the neighbourhood and
340
•sported for use as manure. The neighbouring Village of Walton,
a short distance inland, receives many visitors. The vicinity
has yielded numerous Roman remains, and there was a Roman
fort in the neighbourhood (now destroyed by the sea), forming part
of the coast defence of the Litus Saxonicum in the 4th century.
FELL, JOHN (1625-1686), English divine, son of Samuel Fell,
dean of Christ Church, Oxford, was born at Longworth m Berk-
shire and received his first education at the free school at Thamein
Oxfordshire. In 1636 he obtained a studentship at Christ Church,
and in 1640 he was specially allowed by Archbishop Laud on
account of his " known desert," when wanting one term's resi-
dence, to proceed to his degree of B. A. He obtained his M.A. in
1643 and took holy orders (deacon 1647, priest 1649). During
the Civil War he bore arms for the king and held a commission
as ensign. In 1646 he was deprived of his studentship by the par-
liamentary visitors, and during the next few years he resided
chiefly at Oxford with his brother-in-law, Dr T. Willis, at
whose house opposite Morton College he and his friends AUestree
and Dolbcn kept up the service of the Church of England
through the Commonwealth.
At the Restoration Fell was made prebendary of Chichester,
canon of Christ Church (July 27, 1660), dean (Nov. 30), master
of St Oswald's hospital, Worcester, chaplain to the king, and
D.D> He filled the office of vice-chancellor from 1666 to 1660,
and was consecrated bishop of Oxford, in 1676, retaining his
deanery in commendam. Some years later he declined the
primacy of Ireland. Fell showed himself a most capable and
vigorous administrator in his various high employments, and
a worthy disciple of Archbishop Laud. He restored in the
university the good order instituted by the archbishop, which
in the Commonwealth had given place to anarchy and a general
disregard of authority. He ejected the intruders from his
college or else " fixed them in loyal principles." " He was the
most zealous man of his time for the Church of England," says
Wood, " and none that I yet know of did go beyond him in the
performance of the rules belonging thereunto." He attended
chapel four times a day, restored to the services, not without some
opposition, the organ and surplice, and insisted on the proper
academical dress which had fallen into disuse. He was active
in recovering church property, and by his directions a children's
catechism was drawn up by Thomas Marshall for use in his
diocese. " As he was among the first of our clergy," says
Burnet, " that apprehended the design of bringing fn popery,
so he was one of the most zealous against it." He was forward
in making converts from the Roman Catholics and Noncon-
formists. On the other hand, it is recorded to his honour that
he opposed successfully the incorporation of Titus Oates as
D.D. in the university in October 1679; and according to the
testimony of William Nichols, his secretary, he disapproved
of the Exclusion Bill. He excluded the undergraduates, whose
presence had been irregularly permitted, from convocation.
He obliged the students to attend lectures, Instituted reforms
in the performances of the public exercises in the schools, kept
the examiners up to their duties, and himself attended the
examinations. He encouraged the students to act plays. He
entirely suppressed " coursing," i.e. disputations in which the
rival parties " ran down opponents in arguments," and which
commonly ended in blows and disturbances. He was an excellent
disciplinarian and possessed a special talent for the education of
young men, many of whom he received into his own family and
watched over their progress with paternal care. Tom Browne,
author of the Dialogues of the Dead, about to be expelled from
Oxford for some offence, was pardoned by Fell on the condition
of his translating extempore the 33rd epigram from Martial:—
" Non amo te, Sabidi, nee possum dicere quarc;
Hoc tantum possum dicere, non amo te.
To which he immediately replied with the well-known lines?—
" I do not love you, Dr Fell,
But why, I cannot tell,
But this I know full well,
I do not love you; Dr Fell.'* *
» J. T. Browne, Works (9th ed. by J. Drake), iv. 99-100; T. Forde,
Virtus redaaa (1661), xo6.
FELL, JOHN
Delinquents, however, ^weve not always treated thus mildly
by Fell, and Acton Cremer, for the crime of courting a wife
while only a bachelor of arts, was set as an imposition the
translation into English of the whole of Scheffer's history of
Laplan<L As vice-chancellor, Fell himself visited the drinking
taverns and ordered out the students. In the university elec-
tions he showed great energy in suppressing corruption.
Fell's building operations almost rivalled the plans of the
great ecclesiastical architects of the middle ages. In his own
college he completed in 1665 the north side of Wolsey's great
quadrangle, already begun by his father 'but abandoned during
the Commonwealth; he rebuilt in 1672 the east side of the
Chaplain's quadrangle " with a straight passage under it leading
from the cloister into the field," occupied now by the new
Meadow Buildings; the lodgings of the canon of the 3rd stall
in the passage uniting the Tom and Peckwatcr quadrangles
(c. 1674); a long building joining the Chaplain's quadrangle
on the east side in 1677-1678; and lastly the great tower gate,
begun in June i68x on the foundation laid by Wolsey and
1 finished in November 1682, to which the bell "great Tom,"
after being recast, was transferred from the cathedral in 1683.
In 1670 he planted and laid out the Broad Walk. He spent large
sums of his own on these works, gave £500 for the restoration
of Banbury church, erected a church at St Oswald's, Worcester,
and the parsonage house at Woodstock at his own expense, and
rebuilt Cuddesdon palace. Fell disapproved of the use of St
Mary's church for secular purposes, and promoted the building
of the Sheldonian theatre by Archbishop Sheldon. He was
treasurer during its construction, presided at the formal opening
on the 9th of July 1669, and was nominated with Wren curator
in July 1670. In the theatre was placed the University Press,
the establishment of which had been aiavourite project of Laud,
which now engaged a large share of Fell's energy and attention,
and which as curator he practically controlled: " Were it not
you ken Mr Dean extraordinarily well/' writes Sir L. Jenkins
to J. Williamson in 1672, " it were impossible to imagine how
assiduous and drudging he is about his press."* He sent for
type and printers from Holland, declaring that " the foundation
of all success must be laid in doing things well, which I am sure
will not be done with English letters." Many works, including
a Bible, editions of the classics and of the early fathers, were
produced under his direction and editing, and his press became
noted not only in England but abroad He published annually
one work, generally a classical author annotated by himself,
which he distributed to all the students of his college on New
Year's day. On one occasion he surprised the Press in printing
surreptitiously Aretino's Postures, when he seised and destroyed
the plates and impressions. Ever "an eager defender and
maintainor of the university and its privileges," he was hostile
to the Royal Society, which he regarded as a possible rival, and
in 1686 he gave an absolute refusal to Obadiah Walker, after-
wards the Roman Catholic master of University College, though
licensed by James II., to print books, declaring he would as soon
" part with his bed from under him " as his press. He conducted
it on strict business principles, and to the criticism tKa t more
great works were not produced replied that they would not sell.
He was, however, not free from fads, and his new spelling (of
which one feature was the substitution of « for y in such words
as eUs, daks, maiest) met with great disapproval.
Fell also did much to encourage learning in the university.
While still a young man at Christ Church he had shown both his
zeal and his charity by reading gratuitously with the poor and
neglected students of the college. He bore himself a high
, reputation as a Grecian, a Latinist and a philologist, and he found
time, in spite of his great public employments, to bring out with
the collaboration of others his great edition of St Cyprian ia
1682, an English translation of The Unity a/ ike Church in s68x,
editions of Nemesius of Emesa (it 1), of Aratus and of Erato*.
stkencs (1672), Theocritus (1676), Alcinous on Plato. (1677).
St Clement's Epistles to the Corinthians (1677), Atkenogoras (168*)
Clemens AUxandrinus (1683), St TheophUus of AnUoch (1684)*
» Cat. of State Pap. Don., 1672, p. 478, and 1670, p. *&
FELL, JOHN
CnmmaUea reborns sive institutumes logieae (1673 and '1685),
ud a critical edition of the New Testament in 1675. The first
volumes of JCrriM* Anglicarum scriptores and of Historiae
Britannicae, &c were compiled under his patronage in 1684.
He had the MSS. of St. Augustine in the Bodleian and other
libraries at Oxford generously collated for the use of the Bene-
dictines at Paris, then preparing a new edition of the father.
Fell spent such large sums in his building, in his noble patron-
age of learning, and in charities, that sometimes there was little
left for his private use. Occasionally in his schemes he showed
greater seal than prudence. He was the originator of a mission
to India which was warmly taken up by the East India Company.
Ke undertook himself to train as missionaries four scholars at
Oxford, procured a set of Arabic types, and issued from these
the Gospels and Acts in the Malay language in 1677. But this
was scarcely the best method of communicating the gospel to
the natives of India, and the mission collapsed. He affected
to despise public opinion, and was masterful and despotic in
his dealings with others, especially with those upon whom he
vas conferring favours. Having generously undertaken at his
own charge to publish a Latin version of Wood's History and
Antiquities of the University of Oxford, with the object of present-
ing the history of the university in a manner worthy of the great
subject to European readers, and of extending its fame abroad,
be arrogated to himself the right of editing the work. " He
could correct, alter, dash out what he pleased. . . .He was a
peat man and carried all things at hb pleasure." In particular
he struck out all the passages which Wood had inserted in praise
of Hobbes, and substituted some disparaging epithets. He
called the philosopher's Leviathan " monstrosissimus " and
" publico damno notissimus." To the printed remonstrance of
Hobbes, Fell inserted an insulting reply in the History to " irri-
tabile tilud ct vanissimum Malmesburiense animal," and to the
complaint of Wood at this usage answered only that Hobbes
" was an old man, had one foot in the grave; that he should mind
his latter, end, and not trouble the world any more with his
papers." In small things as in great he loved to rule and direct.
" Let not Fell," writes R. South to R. Bathurst, " have the
fingering and altering of them (ue. his Latin verses), for I think
that, bating the want of siquidems and quinetiams, they ace as
good as his Worship can make." Wood styles him " a valdc vult
person," He was not content with ruling his own college, but
desired to govern the whole university. He prevented Gilbert
Ironside, who '* was not pliable to his humour," from holding
the office of vice-chancellor. He "endeavoured to carry all
things by a high hand; scorn 'd in the least to court the Masters
vhen he had to have anything pass'd the convocation. Severe
to other colleges, blind as to his own, very partiall and with
food words, and flatterers and tell-tales could get anything out
of him." According to Bishop Burnet, who praises his char-
acter and his administration, Fell was " a little too much heated
in the matter of our disputes with the dissenters." " He had
ranch zeal for reforming abuses, and managed it perhaps with
too much heat and in too peremptory a way." " But," he adds,
" we have so little of that among us that no wonder if such men
are cen sur e d by those who love not such patterns nor such severe
task-masters." And Wood, whose adverse criticism must be
discounted a little on account of the personal dispute, — after
declaring that Fell " was exceeding partial in his government
even to corruption; went thro' thick and thin; grasped at all
yet did nothing perfect or effectually; cared not what people
said of him, was in many things very rude and in most pedantic
and pedagogical," — concludes with the acknowledgment, " yet
still aimed at the public good." Roger North, who paid Fell
a visit at Oxford, speaks of him in terms of enthusiasm: —
" The great Dr Fell, who was truly great in all his circumstances,
capacities, undertakings and learning, and above all for his
superabundant public spirit and goodwill. . . .0 the felicity of
that age and place when his authority swayed 1 "
In November 1684, at the command of the king, Fell deprived
Locke, who had incurred the royal displeasure by '.is friendship
with Shaftesbury, and was suspected as the author of certain
241
seditious pamphlets, of his studentship at Christ Church, sum-
marily and without hearing his defence. Fell had in former
years cultivated Locke's friendship, had kept up a correspond-
ence with him, and in 1663 had written a testimonial in his
favour; and the ready compliance of one who could on occasion
offer a stout resistance to any invasion of the privileges of the
university has been severely criticised. It must, however, be
remembered in extenuation that the legal status of a person on
the foundation of a collegiate body had not then been decided
in the law-courts. With regard to the justice of the proceeding
Fell had evidently some doubts, and he afterwards expressed
bis regret for the step which he was now compelled to take.
But such scruples, however strong, would, with a man of Fell's
political and religious opinions, yield immediately to an order
from the sovereign, who possessed special authority in this case
as a visitor to the college; and such subservience, however
strange to modern notions, would probably only be considered
natural and proper at that period.
Fell, who had never married, died on the xoth of July 1686,
worn out, according to Wood, by his overwhelming public
duties. He was buried in the divinity chapel in the cathedral,
below the seat which he had so often occupied when living, where
a monument and an epitaph, now moved elsewhere, were placed
to his memory. "His death," writes John Evelyn, "was an
extraordinary lossc to the poore church at this time"; but for
himself Fell was fortunate in the time of his departure; for a
few months more of life would have necessitated a choice, most
painful to a man of his character and creed, between fidelity
to his sovereign and to his church. With all his faults, which
were the defects which often attend eminent qualities such as
his, Fell was a great man, " the greatest governor," according
to Speaker Onslow, " that has ever been since his time in either
of the universities," and of his own college, to which he left
several exhibitions for the maintenance of poor scholars, he
was a second founder. He was a worthy upholder of the Laudian
tradition at Oxford, an enlightened and untiring patron of
learning, and a man of exemplary morals and great piety which
remained unsullied in the midst of a busy life and much contact
with the world. A sum of money was left by John Cross to
perpetuate Fell's memory by an annual speech in his praise, but
the Felii laudes have been discontinued since 1866. There are
two interesting pictures of Fell at Christ Church, one where he
is represented with his two friends Allestree and Dolben, and
another by Vandyck. The statue placed on the N.E. angle of
the Great Quadrangle bears no likeness to the bishop, who is
described by Hearne as a " thin grave man."
Besides the learned works already mentioned Fell wrote the
lives of his friends Dr Henry Hammond (1661), Richard Allestree,
prefixed to his edition of the latter's sermons (1684), and Dr
Thomas Willis, in Latin. His Seasonable advice to Protestants
showing the necessity of maintaining the Established Religion in
opposition to Popery was published in x 6S8. Some of his sermons,
which Evelyn found dull, were printed, including Character of
the Last Dales, preached before the king, 1675, and a Sermon
preached before the House of Peers Dec. 22, 1686. The Interest
of England slated (1659), advocating the restoration of the king, 1
and The Vanity of Scoffing (1674), are also attributed to him.
Fell probably had some share in the composition of The Whole
Duty of Man, and in the subsequent works published under the
name of the author of The Whole Duty, which included Reasons
of the Decay of Christian Piety, The Ladies Calling, The Gentle-
man's Calling, The Government of the Tongue, The Art of Content-
ment, and The Lively Oracles given us, all of which were published
in one volume with notes and a preface by Fell in 1684.
Authorities.— Wood's Athenae Oxonimses and Fasti (ed. Bliss);
Wood's Life and Times, ed. by A. Clark; Burnet's Hist, of His Own
Time. ed. 1833; J. Welch, Alumni Wesimonasteriensts; Thomas
Hearne, Collections, ed. by C. E. Doble and others; History of the
Univ. of Oxford (1814); Christ Church, by Rev. H. L. Thompson;
«,„._;_t,t„ »_,__ ,"L *«,- /w... -o^<- ir rn-y, Mag*****
given to the
Fortnightly Review, Itx. 689 (May 1896); MacmiOan's Magazine
(Aug. 1875), A Specimen of the several sorts of Letter git
1 F. Mascres, Tracts of the Civil War, U. 673.
2a
2+2
FELI^-FELLER
Unseersity by Dr J. F(ctt) (169s); &*" «** Q**rk** aw- vi. a, and
ser. vu. 166; Calendars of State Paters, Dom. Series (1660-1675).
Fell's books and papers were bequeathed by his nephew Henry Jones
to the Bodleian library. A few of his letters are to be found in
Add. MSS. Brit. Mus. 11046, and some are printed in Life of
Janus II., by Ch. J. Fox, Appendix; Cent. A/«f. 77. p. 633;
Academy, 8, p. 141; Athenaeum for 1887 (2), p. 311; J. Gutch,
Collectanea Curiosa, I 269; and in Col. of State Papers, Dom.
Series. ' (r\C.Y.)
PELL (1) (Through the 0. Fr./«/, from Low Lit. fello, felon),
savage, ruthless, deadly; only used now in poetry. (2) (Of
Scandinavian origin, cf. Danish field, probably connected with
a Teutonic root appearing in German fels, rock), a hill, as in
the names of mountains in the Lake District in England, e.g.
Sea wf ell; also a lofty moorland down. (3) (A word common
to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. fell, and Dutch vcl, cognate with
Lat. pellis, skin), the pelt or hide of an animal, with the hair
or wool and skin; also used of any thick shaggy covering, like
a matted fleece. (4) To cause to " fall," a word common to
Teutonic languages and akin to the root of the Lat. fatlcre and
Gr. vfaXkeiv, to cause to stumble, to deceive. As a substantive
" fell " is used of a flat seam laid level with the surface of the
fabric; also, in weaving, of the end of the web.
FELLAH (pi. Fellahin), Arabic for " ploughman " or " tiller,"
the word used in Arabic-speaking countries to designate
peasantry. It is employed especially of the peasantry of Egypt,
" Fellahin " in modern English usage being almost equivalent
to " Egyptians." In Egypt the name is applied to the peasantry
as opposed to the Arabs of the desert (and even those who have
settled on the land), the Turks and the townsfolk. Fellah is
used by the Arabs as a term of reproach, somewhat like the
English "boor," but rather implying a slavish disposition;
the fellahin, however, are not ashamed of the name and may
pride themselves on being of good fellah descent, as a " fellah
of a fellah." They may be classified as Hamito- Semites, and
preserve 4o some extent the blood of the ancient Egyptians.
They form the bulk of the population of Egypt and are mainly
Mahommedan, though some villages in Upper Egypt are almost
exclusively Copt (Christian). Their hybridism is well shown by
their great divergence of colour, fellahin in the Delta being
sometimes lighter than Arabs, while in Upper Egypt the pre-
vailing complexion is dark brown. The average fellah is some-
what above medium height, big-boned, of clumsy but powerful
build, with head and face of fine oval shape, cheek-bones high,
forehead broad, short flattish nose with wide nostrils, and black
but not woolly hair. The eyebrows arc always straight and
smooth, never bushy. The mouth is thick-lipped and large but
well formed. The eyes arc large and black, and are remarkable
for the closeness of the eyelashes. The women and girls are
particularly noted for their graceful and slender figures and
their fine carriage, due to the custom of carrying burdens, especi-
ally water-jars, on their heads. The men's heads are usually
shaved. The women arc not as a rule closely veiled: they
generally paint the lips a deep blue, and tattoo a floral device
on the chin, sometimes on the forehead and other parts of the
body. All but the poorest wear necklaces of cheap pearls,
coins or gilt disks. The men wear a blue or brown cotton shirt,
linen drawers and a plain skull-cap, or on occasion the tarbusb
or fez, round which sometimes a turban is wound ; the women
wear a single cotton smock. The common fellah's home is a
mere mud hut, roofed with durra straw. Inside are a few mats,
a sheepskin, baskets and some earthenware and wooden vessels.
He lives almost entirely on vegetables, millet bread, beans,
lentils, dates and onions. But some of the sheikhs are wealthy,
and have large houses built of crude brick and whitewashed with
lime, with courtyard, many apartments and good furniture.
The fellah is laborious in the fields, and abominates absence from
his occupations, which generally means loss of money to him.
Military service on the old oriental plan was both ruinous and
distasteful to him; hence voluntary mutilations to avoid con-
scription were formerly common and the ingrained prejudice
against military service remains. Trained by British officers
the fellahin make, however, excellent soldiers, as was proved in
the Sudan campaigns of 1 800-98. The fellah is intelligent, cheer.
ful and sober, and as hospitable as his poverty allows. (See
Copts and Egypt.)
FELLENBERO, PHIUPP EMANUEL VON (1771-1844),
Swiss educationist, was born on the 271b of June 1771 at Bern,
in Switzerland. His father was of patrician family, and a man
of importance in his canton, and his mother was a grand-
daughter of the Dutch admiral Van Tromp. From his mother
and from Pfeffel, the blind poet of Colour, he received a better
education than falls to the lot of most boys, while the intimacy
of his father with PestaJozzi gave to his mind that bent which
it afterwards followed. In 1790 he entered the university of
Tiibingen, where he distinguished himself by his rapid progress
in legal studies. On account of his health he afterwards under-
took a walking tour in Switzerland and the adjoining portions
of France, Swabia and Tirol, visiting the hamlets and farm-
houses, mingling in the labours and occupations of the peasants
and mechanics, and partaking of their rude fare and lodging.
After the downfall of Robespierre, he went to Paris and remained
there long enough to be assured of the storm impending over
his native country. This he did his best to avert, but his warn-
ings were disregarded, and Switzerland was lost before any
efficient means could be taken for its safety. Fellenberg; who
had hastily raised a levy en masse, was proscribed; a price was
set upon his head, and he was compelled to fly into Germany.
Shortly afterwards, however, he was recalled by his countrymen,
and sent on a mission to Paris to remonstrate against the rapacity
and cruelty of the agents of the French republic But in this
and other diplomatic offices which he held for a short time, he
was witness to so much corruption and intrigue that his mind
revolted from the idea of a political life, and he returned home
with the intention of devoting himself wholly to the education
of the young. With this resolution he purchased in 1790 the
estate of Hofwyl, near Bern, intending to make agriculture the
basis of a new system which he had projected, for elevating the
lower and rightly training the higher orders of the state, and
welding them together in a closer union than had hitherto been
deemed attainable. For some time he carried on his labours in
conjunction with Pestalozzi, but incompatibility of disposition
soon induced them to separate. The scheme of Fellenberg at
first excited a large amount of ridkule, but gradually it began
to attract the notice of foreign countries; and pupils, some of
them of the highest rank, began to flock to him from every
country in Europe, both for the purpose of studying agri-
culture and to profit by the high moral training which he
associated with his educational system. For forty-five years
Fellenberg, assisted by his wife, continued his educational
labours, and finally raised his institution to the highest point
of prosperity and usefulness. He died on the 21st of November
1844.
See Hamm, FelUnberr's Leben und Wirken (Bern, 1845): and
Schoni, Der Stifter von Hofwyl, Leben und Wirken FcllfnberY*.
FELLER, FRANCOIS XAVIER OB (1735-1802), Belgian
author, was born at Brussels on the xSth of August 1735. In
1752 he entered a school of the Jesuits at Reims, where he
manifested a great aptitude for mathematics and physical
science. He commenced his novitiate two years afterwards,
and in testimony of his admiration for the apostle of India added
Xavier to his surname. On the expiry of his novitiate he became
professor at Luxembourg, and afterwards at Liege. In 1764 he
was appointed to the professorship of theology at Tyrnau in
Hungary, but in 1771 he returned to Belgium and continued to
discharge his professorial duties at Litfge till the suppression of
the Jesuits in 1 7 73. The remainder of his life he devoted to study,
travel and literature. On t he invasion of Belgium by the French
in 1794 he went to Paderborn, and remained there two years,
after which he took up his residence at Ratisbon, where he died
on the 23rd of May 1802.
Feller's works exceed 120 volumes. In 1773 he published, under
the assumed name Flexier de Reval (an anagram of Xavier dc
Feller), his CaUchisme fhilosophique; and his principal work.
Diclionnaite historique et UtUraire (published in 1781 at Liege in 8
volumes, and afterwards several times reprinted and continued
FELLING—FELONY
243
down to 184B), appeared under the same name. Among hie other
works the most important arc Cours de morale chritienne et de littira-
iurt religieuse and his Coup d'atil sur congris d'Ems. The Journal
histcriqne et liittrdrt, published at Luxembourg and Liege from
1774 to 1794 in 70 volumes, was edited and in great part written by
bun.
FELLING, an urban district in the Jarrow parliamentary
division of Durham, England, forming an eastern suburb of
Gateshead. Fop. (1901) 22,467. Its large industrial population
is employed in the neighbouring collieries and the various
attendant manufactures.
FELLOE, the outer rim of a wheel, to which the spokes are
attached. The word is sometimes spelled and usually pronounced
" felly." It is a Teutonic word, in 0. Eng. fclg, cognate with
Dutch veJge, Ger. Felge; the original Teutonic root from which
these arc derived probably meant " to fit together."
FELLOW, properly and by origin a partner or associate, hence
a companion, comrade or male, as in " fellow-man," " fellow-
countryman," &c. The word from the 15th century has also
been applied, generally and colloquially, to any male person,
often in a contemptuous or pitying sense. The Old English
ftolage meant a partner in a business, i.e. one who lays (lag)
money or property (fioh, fee) together for a common purpose.
The word was, therefore, the natural equivalent for socius, a
member of the foundation of an incorporated college, as Eton, or
a college at a university. In the earlier history of universities
both the senior and junior members of a college were known as
u scholars," but later, as now, " scholar " was restricted to those
members of the foundation still in statu p* pillar i, and " fellow "
to those senior graduate members who have been- elected to the
foundation by the corporate body, sharing in the government and
receiving a fixed emolument out of the revenues of the college.
It is in this sense that " fellow " Is used at the universities of
Oxford and Cambridge and Trinity, Dublin. At these universities
the college teaching is performed by those fellows who are also
"tutors." At other universities the term is applied to the
members of the governing body or to the holders of certain sums
of money for a fixed number of years to be devoted to special
study or research. By analogy the word is also used of the
members of various learned societies and institutions.
FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1 799-1860), British archaeologist,
was bom in August 1700 at Nottingham, where his family had
an estate. When fourteen he drew sketches to illustrate a trip to
the ruins of Newstead Abbey, which afterwards appeared on the
Lille-page of Moore's Life 0/ Lord Byron. In 1820 he settled in
London, where be became an active member of the British
Association. In 1827 he discovered the modern ascent of Mont
Blanc After the death of his mother in 1832 he passed the
greater portion of his time in Italy, Greece and the Levant.
The numerous sketches he executed were largely used in illustrat-
ing Child* Harold. In 1838 he went to Asia Minor, making
Smyrna his headquarters. His explorations in the interior and
the south led him to districts practically unknown to Europeans,
and he thus discovered ruins of a number of ancient cities. He
entered Lycia and explored the Xanthus from the mouth at
Patara upwards. Nine miles from Patara he discovered the ruins
of Xanthus, the ancient capital of Lycia, finely situated on hills,
and abounding in magnificent remains. About 15 m. farther up
he came upon the ruins of Tlos. After taking sketches of the
most interesting objects and copying a number of inscriptions, he
returned to Smyrna through Caria and Lydia. The publication
of A Journal written during an Excursion in Asia Minor (London,
XS39) roused such interest that Lord Palmcrslon, at the request
of the British Museum authorities, asked the British consul at
Constantinople to get leave from the sultan to ship a number
of the Lycian works of art Late in 1839 Fellows, under the
auspices of the British Museum, again set out for Lycia, accom-
panied by George Scharf, who assisted him in sketching. This
second visit resulted in the discovery of thirteen ancient cities,
and in 1841 appeared An Account of Discoveries in Lycia, being
o Journal kept during a Second Excursion in Asia Minor. A
third visit was made late in 1841, after Fellows had obtained
ajt>ma« by personal application at Constantinople. He shipped
a number of works of art for England, and in the fourth and
most famous expedition (1844) twenty-seven cases of marbles
were despatched to the British Museum. His chief discoveries
were at Xanthus, Pinara, Patara, Tlos, Myra and Olympus. In
1844 he presented to the British Museum his portfolios, accounts
of his expeditions, and specimens of natural history illustrative
of Lycia. In 1845 he was knighted "as an acknowledgment
of his services in the removal of the Xanthian antiquities to
this country." He paid his own expenses in all his journeys and
received no public reward. Fellows was twice married. He
died in London on the 8th of November 1 S60.
In addition to the works ab-vi? mtwckSfied, Felltm* published the
following: The Xanthian Marbtea; Ihrie Acquisition end Trattt-
mission to England (1843), a refutation of futa statements iliai tad
been published; An Account of iiu Am it Trophy AfoHttm&ti acetatcd
at Xanthus (1848): a cheap cdi(jnn of his two Jifur/uiis, Entitled
Travels and Researches in Asm Minor, par(i£atariy in the Province,
of Lycia (1832); and Coins of .-I vriVrrjt Lycia brfvr* the Rrirn of
Alexander; unth an Essay on tht Relative Dates of tk* Lycian Mottn-
ments in the British Museum (1 855). Sec C. Brown 1 * Lives of Notlini-
hamshire Worthies (1882), pp. 351-353, and Joum, of #ev. 6tv£<
Soc. 1861.
FELO DE SE (M.L. a felon, i.e. murderer, of himself), one who
commits murder upon himself. The technical conditions of
murder apply to this crime; e.g., " if one commits any unlawful
malicious act, the consequence of which is his own death, as if
attempting to kill another he runs upon his antagonist's sword,
or shooting at another the gun bursts and kills himself," he is a
felo de se. The horror inspired by this crime led to the revolting
punishment of an " ignominious burial on the highway, with a
stake driven through the body." This was abolished by an act of
1823, which ordered the burial of the body of a person found to be
felo de se within 24 hours after the coroner's inquest, between the
hours of 9 and 1 2 at night, and without Christian rites of sepulture.
This act was again superseded in 1S82 by the Interments (Felo
de se) Act, which permits the interment of any felo de se in the
churchyard or other burial ground of the parish or place in
which by the law or custom of England he might have been
interred but for the verdict. The interment is carried out in
accordance with the Burial Laws Amendment Act 18S0 (see
Burial and Burial Acts). The act does not authorize the
performance of any of the rites of Christian burial, but a special
form of service may be used. Formerly the goods and chattels,
but not the land, of a felo de se were forfeited to the crown, but
such forfeitures were abolished by the Forfeiture Act 1870.
(See also Suicide.)
FELONY (0. Fr. fclofiie, from felon, a word meaning " wicked,"
common to Romanic languages, cf. Italian fello, fellone, the
ultimate origin of which is obscure, but is possibly connected
cither with Lat. fed, gall, or fallen, to deceive. The English
" fell " cruel or fierce, is also connected; and the Greek dnj\vs,
an impostor, has also been suggested). Legal writers have sought
to throw light on the nature of felony by examining the supposed
etymology of the word. Coke says it is crimen animofelleo ptr-
petraium [a crime committed with malicious or evil intent (fee
lohn)]. Spelman connects it with the word fee, signifying fief
or feud; and felony in this way would be equivalent to prelium
feudi, an act for which a man lost or gave up his fee (see Stephen's
Commentaries, vol. iv. p. 7). And acts involving forfeiture were
styled felonies in feudal law, although they bad nothing of a
criminal character about them. A breach of duty on the part
of the vassal, neglect of service, delay in seeking investiture,
and the like were felonies: so were injuries by the lord against
the vassal. Modern writers are now disposed to accept Coke's
definition. In English law, crimes are usually classified as
treason, felony, misdemeanour and summary offence. Some
writers — and with some justice — treat treason merely as a grave
form of felony and it is so dealt with in the Juries Detention Act
1897. But owing to legislation in and since the time of William
and Mary, the procedure for the trial of most forms of treason
differs from that of felony. The expression summary offence
is ambiguous. Many offences which are at common law or by
statute felonies, or misdemeanours indictable at common law
or by statute, may under certain conditions be tried by a court
244
FELSITE
of summary jurisdiction (?.».), and many merely statutory
offences which would ordinarily be punishable summarily may
at the election of the accused be tried by a jury on indictment
(Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879, s. 17).
The question whether a particular offence is felony or mis-
demeanour can be answered only by reference to the history
of the offence and not by any logical test. For instance, killing
a horse in an unlicensed place is still felony under & statute of
1786. But most crimes described as felonies are or have been
capital offences at common law or by statute, and have also
entailed on the offender attaint and forfeiture of goods. A few
felonies were not punishable by death, e.g. petty larceny and
mayhem. Where an offence i& declared a felony by statute,
the common law punishments and incidents of trial attach,
unless other statutory provision is made (Blackstone, Com-
mentaries, iv. 04).
The chief common law felonies are: homicide, rape, larceny
(i.e. inordinary language, theft), robbery (i.e. theft with violence) ,
burglary and kindred offences. Counterfeiting the coin has
been made a felony instead of being treason, and forgery of
most documents has been made a felony instead of being, as it
was at common law, a misdemeanour. At the beginning of the
19th century felony was almost equivalent to capital crime;
but during that century capital punishment was abolished as to
all felonies, except wilful murder, piracy with violence (7 W. IV.
& z Vict. c. 88, s. 2) and offences against the Dockyards,
&c, Protection Act 177a; and by the Forfeiture Act 1870, a
felon no longer forfeits land or goods on conviction, though
forfeiture on outlawry is not abolished. The usual punishment
for felony under the present law is penal servitude or imprison-
ment with or without hard labour. " Every person convicted
of any felony for which no punishment is specially provided by
the law in force for the time being is liable upon conviction
thereof to be sentenced to penal servitude for any period not
exceeding seven years, or to be imprisoned with or without
hard labour for any term not exceeding two years " (Stephen,
Dig. Cr. Law (6th ed.), art 18, Penal Servitude Act 1891). A
felon may not be fined or whipped on conviction nor put under
recognizance to keep the peace or be of good behaviour except
under statutory provision. (See Offences against the Person Act
1861, ss. 5. 71.)
The result of legislative changes is that at the present time
the only practical distinctions between felony and misdemeanour
are: —
1. That a private person may arrest a felon without judicial
authority and that bail on arrest is granted as a matter of discre-
tion and not as of right. Any one who has obtained a drove
of oxen or a flock of sheep by false pretences may go quietly
on his way and no one, not even a peace officer, can apprehend
him without a warrant, but if a man offers to sell another a bit
of dead fence supposed to have been stolen, he not only may
but is required to be apprehended by that person (Greaves,
Criminal Law Consolidation Acts), (See Asjlest, Bail.)
a. That on an indictment for felony counts may not be joined
for different felonies unless they form part of the same transaction.
(See Indictment.)
3. That on a trial for felony the accused has a right peremp-
torily to challenge, or object to, the jurors called to try him, up
to the number of twenty. (See Jury.)
4. That a felon cannot be tried in absentia, and that the jury
who try him may not separate during the trial without leave of
the court, which may not be given in cases of murder.
5. That a special jury cannot be empanelled to try a felony.
6. That peers charged with felony are tried in a special manner.
(See Pierage.)
7. That the costs of prosecuting all felonies (except treason
felony) are paid out of public funds: and that a felon may be
condemned to pay the costs of his prosecution and to compen-
sate op to £100 for any loss of property suffered by any person
through or by means of the felony. In the Criminal Code Bills
of 1878-1880 it was proposed to abolish the term felony alto-
gether: and in the Queensland Criminal Code 1899 ^ e lerm
" crime " is substituted, and within its connotation are included
not only treason and piracy but also perjury.
8. That a sentence of a felon to death, or to penal servitude
or imprisonment with hard labour or for over twelve months,
involves loss of and disqualification for certain offices until the
sentence has been served or a free pardon obtained. (Forfeiture
Act 1870.)
It is a misdemeanour (i.) to compound a felony or to agree
for valuable consideration not to prosecute or to show favour
in such prosecution; (ii.) to omit to inform the authorities of a
felony known to have been committed (see Misprision), and,
(iii.) not to assist in the arrest of a felon at the call of an officer
of the law. (See Criminal law; Misdemeanour; Misprision.)
FELSITE, in petrology, a term which has long been generally
used by geologists, especially in England, to designate fine-
grained igneous rocks of add (or subacid) composition. As a
rule their ingredients are not determinable by the unaided eye,
but they are principally felspar and quartz as very minute
particles. The rocks are pale-coloured (yellowish or reddish as
a rule), hard, splintery, much jointed and occasionally nodular.
Many fclsites contain porphyritic crystals of clear quartz in
rounded blebs, more or less idiomorphic felspar, and occasionally
biotite. Others are entirely fine-grained and micro- or cryp to-
crystalline. Occasionally they show a fluxions! banding; they
may also be spherulilic or vesicular. Those which carry porphy-
ritic quartz are known as quartz-felsitcs; the term soda-felsitcs
has been applied to similar fine-grained rocks rich in soda-felspar.
Although there are few objections to the employment of
felsite as a field designation for rocks having the above char-
acters, it lacks definiteness, and has been discarded by many
penologists as unsuited for the exact description of rocks,
especially when their microscopic characters are taken into con-
sideration. The felsites accordingly are broken up into "granite-
porphyries/' " orthophyres " and "x>rthoclase-porphyrics,"
" felsitic-rhyolites," " kcratophyres,-" " granophyrcs," " micro-
granites," &c. But felsite or microfelsite is still the generally
accepted designation for that very fine-grained, almost crypto-
crystalline substance which forms the ground-mass of so many
rhyolites, dacites and porphyries.
In the hand specimen it is a dull, lustreless, stony-looking
aggregate. Under the microscope even with high powers and
the very thinnest modern sections, it often cannot be resolved
into its components. In places it may contain determinable
minute crystals of quartz; less commonly it may show grains
which can be proved to be felspar, but usually it consists of an
ultra-microscopic aggregate of fibres, threads and grains, which
react to polarized light in a feeble and Indefinite manner.
Spherulitic, spotted, streaky and fluidal structures may appear
in it, and many different varieties have been established on such
characters as these but without much validity.
Its association with the acid rocks, its hardness, method of
weathering and chemical composition, indicate that it is an
intermixture of quartz and acid felspar, and the occasional
presence of these two minerals in well-denned grains confirms
this. Moreover, in many dikes, while the ground-mass is
microcrystalline and consists of quartz and felspar near the centre
of the mass, towards the margins, where it has been rapidly
chilled by contact with the cold surrounding rocks, it is felsitic.
The very great viscosity of acid magmas prevents their molecules,
especially when cooling takes place suddenly, from arranging
themselves to form discrete crystals, and is the principal cause
of the production of felsitic ground-masses. In extreme cases
these conditions hinder crystallization altogether, and glassy
rocks result Some rocks are felsitic in parts but elsewhere
glassy; and it is not always clear whether the felsite is an original
substance or has arisen by the devitrification of primary glass.
The presence of periitic structure in some of these felsites points
to the latter conclusion, and the results of an examination of
ancient glasses and of artificial glass which has been slowly
cooled are in accordance with this view. It has been argued that
felsite is a eutectic mixture of quartz and felspar, such that when
solidification takes place and the excess of felspar (or quarts) has;
FELSPAR— FELT
24S
crystallized out it remains Iqmd tiD the temperature has fallen
to its freezing point, and then consolidates simultaneously.
This may be so, but analyses show that it has not always the
same composition and consequently that the conditions which
determine its formation are not quite simple. Felsitic rocks are
sometimes silicified and have their matrix replaced by granular
aggregates of cloudy quartz, (J S. F.)
FELSPAR, or Feldspar, a name applied to a group of mineral
silicates of much importance as rock-constituents. The name,
taken from the Ger. Pddspalk, was originally written with a
u d " but in 1 704 it was written " felspar " by R. Kirwan, on the
assumption that it denoted a mineral of the " fels " rather than
of the " field/' and this corrupted form is now in common use in
England. By some of the earlier mineralogists it was written
"fdtspor," from the Swedish form flillspat.
The felspar - group is divided into two subgroups according
to the symmetry of the crystals. Although the crystals of all
felspars present a general resemblance in habit, they are usually
regarded as belonging to two systems, some felspars being mono-
dink and others anorthic. ■ Figures of the crystals are given in
the articles on the different species. Two cleavages are gener-
ally well marked. In the monoclinic or monosymmetrk fel-
spars these, being parallel to the basal pinacoid and clino*
pinacoid, necessarily make an angle of oo°, whence the name
ortfaodase applied to these minerals; whilst in the anorthic
or asymmetric felspars the corresponding angle is never exactly
90 , and from this obliquity of the principal cleavages they are
termed plagiodase (see Orthoclase and Placjoglase). There
are consequently two series of felspars, one termed orthodastic
or orthotomous, and the other plagioclastic or clinotomous.
F. E. Mallard suggested that all felspars axe really asymmetric,
and that orthoclase presents only a pseudo-monosymmetric
habit, due to twinning. Twin-crystals are very common in all
the felspars, as explained under their respective headings.
The two divisions of the felspar-group founded on differences
of crystalline symmetry axe subdivided according to chemical
composition. All the felspars are silicates containing aluminium
with some other metallic base or bases, generally potassium,
sodium or calcium, rarely barium, but never magnesium or iron.
The monoclinic series includes common potash-felspar or ortho-
clase (EAlSiiOi) and hyalophane, a rare felspar containing
barium (KaBaALjSiiO«). • The anorthic series includes at one
end the soda-felspar albite (NaAlSWfc) and at the other ex-
tremity the lime-felspar anorthite (CaAliSijOt). It was sug-
gested by G. Tschermak in 1864 that the other plagioclastie
felspars areisomerphous mixtures in various proportion of albite
(Ab) and anorthite (An). These intermediate members are the
bine-soda felspars known as oligodase, andesine, labradorite and
bytownite. There are also placed in the anorthic class a potash-
felspar called microcline, and a rare aoda-potash-felspax known
as anorthodase.
The specific gravity of the felspars has been shown by G.
Tschermak and V. Geldschmidt to vary according Co their
chemical composition, rising steadily from 0*57 in orthoclase to
2-?5 in anorthite. All the felspars have a hardness of 6 to 6*5,
being therefore rather less hard than quartz. Pure felspar is
colourless, but the mineral is usually white, yellow, red or green.
Certain felspars are used as ornamental stones on .account of
their colour (see Amazon Stone). Other felspars are prised for
their pearly opalescence (see Moonstone), or for their play of
iridescent colours (see Labradorite), or for their spangled
appearance, like aventurine (see Sun-stone).
Felspar is much used in the manufacture of porcelain by reason
of its fusibility. In England the material employed is mostly
orthoclase from Scandinavia, often known as " Swedish spar. 11
The high translucency of " ivory porcelain " depends on the
large proportion of felspar in the body. • The mineral is also
an important constituent of most ceramic glares. The melting
points of felspars have been investigated by Prof. J. Joly , Prof. C.
A. Doelter y Cisterich and especially by A. L. Day and E. T.
Allen in the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institute at
Washington.
Among the applications of felspar is that of pure orthoclase
in the manufacture of artificial teeth.
Felspar readily suffers chemical alteration, yielding kaolin (q.v.).
The turbidity of orthoclase is usually due to partial kaolinixation.
Secondary mica is also a common result of alteration, and among
other products are pinite, epidote, saussurite, chlorite, wollas-
tonite and various zeolites.
See Albite, Amazon Stone, Andesine, Anorthite. Bytownite,
Labrai)OUte > Microclinb,Moonstone,Ougoclase,Orthoclasb >
Plagioclase, Sun-stone.
FELSTED, or Felstead, a village of Essex, England, between
Dunmow and Braintree, and 10 m. from Chelmsford - $ with a
station on the Great Eastern railway. Febted is only note-
worthy by reason of its important public school, dating back to
its foundation as a grammar school in 1564 by Richard xst
Baron Rich, who as lord chancellor and chancellor of the court
of augmentations had enriched himself with the spoil of the
adjoining abbey and priory of Little Leez at the dissolution
of the monasteries. It became a notable educational centre for
Puritan families in the 17th century, numbering a hundred or
more pupils, under Martin Holbeach (1600-1670), headmaster
from 1627-1649, and his successors C. Glasscock (from 1650 to
1600), and Simon Lydiatt (1600 to 1702). John Wallis and
Isaac Barrow were educated here, and also four sons of Oliver
Cromwell, Robert, Oliver, Richard (the Protector), and Henry.
Another era of prosperity set in under the headmastershlp of
William Trivett (1745-1830) between 1778 and 1704; but under
his successors W J. Carless /from 1704 to 1813) and E. Squire
(from 1 8 13 to 1829) the numbers dwindled As the result of the
discovery by T. Surridge (headmaster, 1835-1850), from research
among the records, that a larger income was really due to the
foundation, a reorganization took place by act of parliament,
and in 1851, under the headmastership of Rev. A. H. Wratulaw,
the school was put under a new governing body (a revised scheme
coming into operation in 1876). The result under Rev. W. S.
Grignon (1823-1007), the headmaster from 1856 to 1875, who
may be considered almost the second founder, was the rapid
devdopment of Felsted into one of the regular public schools
of the modern English type. New buildings on an elaborate
scale arose, the numbers increased to more than 200, and a
complete transformation took place, which was carried on under
his successors D. S. Ingram (from 1875 to 1800), H. A. Dalton
(to 1006), and F. Stephenson, under whom large extensions to
the buildings and playing-fields were made.
See John Sargeaunt, History of FtUted School (1880); and Alumni
FdsUdiaises, by R. J. Beevor, E. T. Roberts and others (1903).
FBLT (cognate with Ger. Fib, Du viU, Swed. and Dan. Jill;
the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. fiUrwt,
" filter "), a fabric produced by the " matting " or " fdting "
together of fibrous maroriah such as wools, hairs, furs, Ac Most
textile fibres (see Fibres) possess the quality of matting to tome
extent, but wools, furs and some few hairs are the only fibres
which can be fdted satisfactorily. It is probable that the quality
of fdting must be attributed to the scale structure and wa vines!
of the wools, furs and hairs referred to. When it is desired
to incorporate non-fdting fibres in fdt cloths, wool must be
employed to " carry " them.
There are two distinct classes of felts, vis. woven or " thread-
structure " felts, and " fibre " or true fdts. In the manufacture
of thread-structure fdts, wools possessing the quality of fdting
in a high degree are naturally selected, carefully scoured so that
the fdting quality Is not seriously damaged, spun into woollen
yarn possessing the necessary fibre arrangement and twist,
woven into cloth of such a character that subsequently satis-
factory shrinking or fdting may be effected, and finally scoured,
milled in the stocks of machine of both, dyed and finished on the
lines of an ordinary woven fabric; The lighter styles of woven
fdts may be composed of a single doth only, but for the heavier
styles two or more cloths are woven, one on top of the other,
at one and the same time, arrangements being made to stitch
the cloths together during the weaving operation.
Fibre fdts are exceedingly interesting from the historical
point of view. It is now generally admitted that the art of
246
FELTHAM— FELTON
weaving preceded that of spinning, and it must further be eon-
ceded that the art of felting preceded that of weaving, so that the
felt fabric is probably one of the oldest of the Various styles of
recognized fabrics. The inhabitants of the middle and northern
regions of Asia seem to have employed felt from time immemorial,
as clothing and also as a covering for their habitations. Most
of the dimi™ 1 writers refer to it and some of them actually
describe its manufacture. Felt was also largely employed by
the ancients for their hats, outer garments, and sometimes as
a species of armour.
Fibre felts may be divided into three classes, viz. ordinary
felts; hat felts; and impregnated felts. As all felts are based
upon the ordinary felt, the process of manufacture of this will
first be described. Of the wools employed the principal are:—
East Indian, German or mid-European, New Zealand cross-
breds, and Australian, Cape and Buenos Aires merinos. Vege-
table fibres and silk are also employed, but wool must be used to
" carry " them; thus a good felting wool may be made to carry
its own weight of cotton, hemp, &c. Hairs and furs arc princi-
pally used in the hat felts. The average loss upon the wool from
the raw state to the finished felt is 40 to 50%. The order of
the manufacturing processes is as follows.'— miring, willowing,
teasing, scribbling and carding. It is interesting to note that
it is not usual to scour felting wools. This is not because they
are really clean— some are dirty— but because the felting pro-
perty is liable to be interfered with in the scouring operation.
Some wools, however, must be scoured to ensure satisfactory
working in the machines. From the card the wool is delivered
as a gossamer-like film from 50 to 60 in. wide on to an endless
sheet from 30 to 60 yds. long, upon which the felt is built up
film upon film until the required thickness — perhaps 4 in. — is
obtained. To harden this somewhat tender sheet of felt it is
now passed through an ironing process, effected by cither steam-
heated rollers — to which a rotatory and vibratory motion is given
—playing upon the continually drawn-through cloth; or a huge
vibrating flaUiron, to which the cloth is automatically fed, held
in position and then wound up while the following length to be
treated is drawn under the iron. Soaping, fulling or " felting "
and the ordinary finishing operations — including dyeing and
printing if desirable — now follow, so that ultimately a strong
firm fabric is turned out. It must be admitted, however, that
the strength is much greater lengthwise than cross-wise, owing
to the parallelization of the fibres induced in the scribbling and
r^H«ng operations. Of course, the true felting or contraction
occurs in the fulling or felting stock, the fabric being perpetually
" hammered " m the presence of fulling agents such as soap,
fuller's earth, &c, for a considerable time. The reduction in
width, length and thickness is remarkable. This may be con-
trolled within certain limits. The principal styles of ordinary
fibre-felts are— linings for coats, furniture and rubber shoes;
saddlery, seatings for carriages and pews; carpets, surrounds
and under-felts for carpets; mantles, dresses and table-cloths;
feb-slippers; mattress felts; chest-preservers, and shoulder*
pads, steam-engine packing, motor-car and anti-vibration
felts, shipbuilding felts; drawing-roller felts and gun-wad
felts.
Hat felts may be divided into two classes, viz. those made from
wool and fur respectively. Wool "bodies" used for the lower
quality hats are manufactured in the same way as ordinary felts,
but the " shape " upon which the film issuing from the carder is
built up takes the form of a double cone and thus approximates
to the shape of the two hats ultimately formed. The shape is
further controlled and developed in the fulling or felting opera-
tion. In the fur hat felts an air-blast is employed to carry the
finely separated fibres on to the shape required, upon which
shape the fibres are held in position by suction until the required
thickness is obtained. The structure is then further developed
and " stiffened/' i.e. impregnated with certain stiffening agent:
according to requirements. If desirable the exterior fibres blown
on to any shape may be of a different material from the body
fabric.
Impregnated felts are simply felts made in the ordinary way
but subsequently impregnated with certain agents which give
a special quality to the fabric. Messrs McNeill & Co., of London,
were the originators of " asphaited-felt " for roofing and, among
other styles, place on the market sheathing felt, inodorous felt,
dry hair felt, foundation felt, &c , &c. A later development,
however, is the impregnated iron-felt manufactured by Messrs
Mitchells, Ashworth, Siansheld & Co., of Waterfoot, near Man-
chester, who not only produce from 70 to 80 % of the ordinary
felts manufactured in Great Britain, but also place on the
market several specialties of which this " iron-felt " a largely
used in the construction of bridges, &&, and as a substitute for
rubber, it being apparently more durable. (A. F B.)
FELTHAM. or Felltham, OWEN (d. 1668), English moralist,
was the son of Thomas Feltham or Felltham of Mutford in Suffolk.
The date of his birth is given variously as 1602 and 1609, Hs is
famous chiefly as the aut hor of a volume entitled Resohes, Dtvinc,
Moral and Political, containing one hundred short and pithy
essays. To later issues of the Resolves Feltham appended
Lusoria, a collection of forty poems. Hardly anything is known
of his life except that T. Randolph, the adopted " son" of Ben
Jonson, addressed a poem of compliment to him, and became bis
friend, and that Feltham attacked Ben Jonson in an ode shortly
before the aged poet's death, but contributed a flattering elegy to
the Jons onus Virbius in 1638. Early in life Feltham visited
Flanders, and published observations in 1652 under the title of
A Brief Character of ike Low Countries. He was a strict high-
churchman and a royalist; he even described Charles I. as
" Christ the Second." Hallam stigmatized Feltham as one of
our worst writers. He has not, indeed, the elegance of Bacon,
whom he emulated, and he is often obscure and affected; but
bis copious imagery and genuine penetration give his reflections
a certain charm. To the middle classes of the 17th century
he seemed a heaven-sent philosopher and guide, and was only
less popular than Francis Quarks the poet.
Eleven editions of the Resolves appeared before 1700. Later
editions by James dimming (London, 1806, much garbled, has
account of Feltham'* life and writings), and Smeaton in " Temple
Classics " series (London, 1904).
FELTON, CORNELIUS CONWAY (1807-1862), American
classical scholar, was born on the 6th of November 1807, in West
Newbury, Massachusetts. He graduated at Harvard College in
1827, having taught school in the winter vacations of his sopho-
more and junior years. After teaching in the Livingstone high
school of Geneseo, New York, for two years, he became tutor at
Harvard in 1830, university professor of Greek in 1832, and
Eliot professor of Greek literature in 1834. In i860 he succeeded
James Walker as president of Harvard, which position he held
until his death, at Chester, Pennsylvania, on the 26th of February
1862. Dr Felton edited many classical texts. His annotations
on Wolf's text of the Iliad (1833) are especially valuable,
Greece, Ancient and Modern (2 vols., 1867), forty-nine lectures
before the Lowell Institute, is scholarly, able and suggestive of
the author's personality. Among his miscellaneous publications
are the American edition of Sir William Smith's History of
Greece (1855) , translations of Menzel's German Literature (1840),
of Munk's Metres of the Greens and Romans ( 1844), and of Guyot*s
Earth and Man (1849) , and Familiar Letters from Europe (1865)
FELTON, JOHN (e. 1505-1628), assassin of the 1st duke of
Buckingham, was a member of an old Suffolk family established
at Playford. The date of his birth and the name of his father are
unknown, but his mother was Eleanor, daughter of William
Wright, mayor of Durham. He entered the army, and served
as lieutenant in the expedition to Cadiz commanded by Sir
Edward Cecil in 1625. His career seems to have been ill-starred
and unfortunate from the beginning. His left hand was early
disabled by a wound, and a morose temper rendered him un-
popular and prevented his advancement Every application made
to Buckingham for his promotion was refused, on account of an
enmity, according to Sir Simonds D'Ewcs, which existed between
Felton and Sir Henry Hungate, a favourite of Buckingham To
his personal application that he could not live without a captaincy
Buckingham replied harshly " that he might hang." Whether he
FELTRE, MORTO DA— FENCING
*47
took part in the expedition to Rhe in 1627 js uncertain, but there
is ao doubt that he continued to be refused promotion, and
that even his scanty pay earned during the Cadis adventure was
not received. Exasperated by his ill-treatment, his discontent
sharpened by poverty, and his haired of Buckingham intensified
by a study of the Commons " Remonstrances " of the previous
June, and by a work published by Egiesham, the physician of
James I , in which B uckingham was accused of potsoni ng the king,
Fell on determined to effect his assassination. He bought a
tenpenny knife on Tower Hill, and on his way through Fleet
Street he left his name in a church to be prayed for as " a man
much discontented in mind." He arrived at Portsmouth at
9 o'clock in the morning of the 23rd of August i6a8, and immedi-
ately proceeded to No. 10 High Street, where Buckingham was
lodged. Here mingling with the crowd of applicants and un-
noticed he stabbed the duke, who immediately fell dead. Though
escape would have been easy he confessed the deed and was
seized and conveyed to the Tower, his journey thither, such was
the unpopularity of the duke, being accompanied by cries of
14 God bless thee " from the people Charles and Laud desired he
should be racked, bul the illegal torture was prevented by the
judges. He was tried before the king's bench on the 27th of
November, pleaded guilty, and was hanged the next day, his
body being exposed in chains subsequently at Portsmouth.
FELTRE, MORTO DA, Italian pointer of the Venetian school,
who worked at the close of the 1 51 h century and beginning of the
16th. His real name a ppears to have been Pictro Luzao; he is also
known by the name Zaralo or Zarollo, cither from the place of his
death or because his father, a surgeon, was in Zara during the
son's childhood* whether be was termed Morlo (dead) from his
joyless temperament is a disputed point He may probably
have studied painting first in Venice, bul under what master is
uncertain. At an early age he went to Rome, and investigated
the ancient, especially the subterranean remains, and thence to
Pozzuoli, where he painted from the decorations of antique crypts
or " grotte." The style of fanciful arabesque which he formed foe
himself from these studies gained the name of " grottcscho,"
whence comes the term "grotesque", not, indeed, that Morlo
was the first painter of arabesque in the Italian Renaissance, for
art of this kind had, apart from his influence, been fully developed,
both in painting and in sculpture, towards 1480, but he may have
powerfully aided its diffusion southwards His works were
received with much favour in Rome. He afterwards went to
Florence, and painted some fine grotesques in the Palazzo
Pubblico. Returning to Venice towards 1505, he assisted
Giorgione in painting the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, and seems to
have remained with him till 15 11, If we may trust Ridolfi,
Morto eloped with the mistress of Giorgione, whose grief at this
transaction brought him to the grave; the allegation, however,
is hardly reconcilable with other accounts. It may have been
in 151 5 that Morto returned to his native Fcllre, then in a very
ruinous condition from the ravages of war in 1509 There he
executed various works, including some frescoes, still partly
extant, and considered to be almost worthy of the hand of
Raphael, in the loggia beside San Stcfano. Towards the age of
forty-five, Morto, unquiet and dissatisfied, abandoned painting
and took to soldiering in the service of the Venetian republic
Be was made captain of a troop of two hundred men, and fighting
valorously, he is said to have died at Zara in Dalmatia, in 1519
This story, and especially the date of it, are questionable there
is some reason to think that Morto was painting as late as 1522
One of his pictures is in the Berlin museum, an allegorical subject
of " Peace and War." Andrea Feltrini was his p upil and assistant
as a decorative painter,
FELTRE (anc Fellria), a town and episcopal see of Vcnctia,
Italy, in the province of Belluno, 20 m. W S.W of it by rail,
situated on an isolated hill, 885 ft. above sea-level. Pop (1001)
5468 (town), 15,243 (commune) The cathedral has a fine poly-
gonal apse of the i6lh century The Palazzo del Consiglio, now
a theatre, is attributed to Palladio. At one end of the chief
square of the town, the Piazza Maggiore, is the cistern by which
tfr town is supplied with water, and a. lar^e fountain. There
are some remains of the medieval castle. The ancient Feltria,
which lay on the road (Via Claudia) from Opitergium to Triden>
turn, does not seem to have been a place of any importance undet
the Romans. . Vitlorino dei Rambaldoni da Fellre (1378-1446)
was a famous educator and philosopher of his time.
FELUCCA (an Italian word; in forms like the Span. Jahtca,
Fr fchuque, it appears in other languages; it is probably ol
Arabic origin, cf. folk, a ship, and falaka, to be round, the
modern Arabic form is falnkah), a type of vessel used in the
Mediterranean for coasters or fishing-boats. It is a long, low
and narrow undecked vessel, built for speed, and propelled by
oars or sails. The sails are lateen-shaped and carried on one of
two masts placed far forward (see Boat).
FEMALE^ the correlative of " male," the sex which performs
the function of conceiving and bearing as opposed to the beget*
ting of young. The word in Middle English is femdU > adopted
from the French from the Lai. Jemdla, which is a diminutive,
and in classical Latin used strictly as such, of/emtito, a woman.
The present termination in English is due to a connexion in
ideas wiih " male." . In various mechanical devices, where two
corresponding parts work wiihin the other, the receiving part u
often known as the " female," as for example in the " male"
and " female screw " The O. Fr feme, modern Jemme, occurs in
legal phraseology in /erne covert, a married woman, i.e. one
protected or covered by a husband, and in /erne sole, one not so
protected, a widow or spinster (see Women and Husband and
Wife)
FEMERELL, properly Fumireix (from O. R. fvmeroUle,
Lat jumu4, smoke), the old English term given to the lantern
in the ridge of a hall roof for the purpose of letting out the smoke
of the fire kindled on a central hearth.
FENCING. If by " fencing "—the art of fence, ».e. o! defence
or offence— were meant generally the dexterous use of the sword,
I he subject would be wide indeed; as wide, in fact, as. the history
of the sword (q.v.) itself But, in its modern acceptation, the
meaning of the word has become considerably restricted. The
scope of investigation must therefore be confined to one land of
swordsmanship only* to that which depends on the regulatco\
artificial conditions of " single combat." It is indeed this play,
hemmed in by many restrictions, which we have come to mean
more specially by " fencing." It differs, of course, in many
respects, from what may be called the art of fighting in the light
of nature But as its restrictions are among the very elements
which work to the perfection of the play, it is undoubtedly in
the history of swordsmanship as applied to duelling (see DuEt)
that we shall trace the higher development of the art.
It may be said that the history of fencing, therefore, would be
tantamount to the history of private duelling. Now, this is an
ethical subject, one, again, which would carry the investigation
too far; and it need not be taken up farther back than the
middle of the 16th century, when, on the disuse of the medieval
wager of battle, the practice of private duelling began to take
an assured footing in a warlike society. It is curious to mark
that the first cultivation of refined cunning in fence dates from
that period, which corresponds chronologically with the general
disuse of armour, both in bailie and in more private encounters
II is still more curious to note that, in order to fit himself to
meet what was an illegal but aristocratic obligation, the gallant
of those days had to appeal to a class of men hitherto little
considered, to those plebeian adepts, in fact, who for generations
had cultivated skill in the use of hand weapons, on foot and
without armour Thus it came to pass thai the earliest masters
of fence in all countries, namely, the masters of the art of con*
ducting skilfully what was esse mi ally considered as an honourable
encounter, were almost invariably to be found among a some-
what dishonoured gentry — gladiators, free companions, pro*
fessional champions, more or less openly recognised, or bravoes
of the most uncompromising character.
In Germany, which may be considered the cradle of systematic
I swordsmanship, these teachers of the sword had, as early as the
15th century, formed themselves into gilds, among which the
best known were the Marxbrudcr K ot the Associates of St Marcus
248
FENCING
of Lowenbcrg, who had their headquarters at Frankfort, and
branches in all the more important towns. Similarly, in Spain
and in northern Italy, professional swordsmen were at various
times allowed to form themselves into recognized or at least
tolerated associations.
In England " swordmen " had been looked upon with especial
disfavour by the powers that were, until Henry VIII., who
was a great lover of all manly exercises, found it likewise
advisable to turn their obnoxious existence to a disciplined and
profitable channel by regularizing their position. The most re-
doubtable masters were allowed to form themselves into a
company, with powers to increase their numbers with suitable
and duly tried men, in imitation of the world-famed German
MarxbrUder or Marcusbrllder. Under these conditions they
were granted the lucrative monopoly of teaching the art of fight
in England. The enormous privileges that the king, in course of
time, conferred on his Corporation of Masters of Defence very
soon enabled it to put down or absorb all the more ferocious of
independent swashbucklers, and thereby to impart to the pro-
fession a moderate degree of respectability under the coat of
arms granted by the royal heralds: gules a sword pendant
argent.
It was in the midst of such corporations and in the fighting
dens of independent swordsmen, therefore, that sprouted the
first buds of systematic swordsmanship. Among the pro*
fessional fencers, curiously and happily for the historian, there
seem to have been a few with a literary turn of mind.
The oldest manuscripts of fence belong to Italy and Germany.
They deal with the methods of carrying out single combats on
foot, with any of the most generally accepted weapons— long
sword and short sword, dagger and every kind of knives, mace,
long and short staff, axes, &c.,— and with the tricks of wrestling
recommendable therefor. Among the most comprehensive in
their scope may be mentioned // Fior di battalia di Maestro Fiore
dei Libtri da Premariaco; a work which, although illustrated
with truly Italian taste and grace, shows, as far as its fighting
style is concerned, unmistakable marks of German influence.
The text of the MS. bears the date 14 10, but the writer was known
to be flourishing as a master of fence as early as 1383. * A reprint
of this invaluable codex has been published, under the care of
Francesco Donati, by the Istitulo ltaliano & Arti Graficke.
Another is the better known Thalkofer's Fccht Buck, gtrickOiche
und andere Zweyk&npft darsteUend (1467), a reprint of which,
with its 368 plates in facsimile, was brought out by Gustave
Hergsell in Prague. The oldest printed book is likewise German :
ErgrUndung dor ritterlicher Kunst der Fecklcrei, von Andreas
Paumfeindt, Freifeckter mm Wien (1516). This work, which is
exceedingly rare, is a very complete exponent of the ways of
wielding long and short blades to the utmost of their lethal
capacity. It was reproduced (under various titles, very confus-
ing to the bibliographer) in Frankfort, Augsburg, Strassburg,
and finally done into French under the name of La Noble science
desjbueurs d'ipic, published in Paris and Antwerp, 1535
Following the Germans, the oldest printed books of fence are
Italian. The first French book on the sword is known to be a
translation from the German. Curiously enough, the second, and
one of the most notable, Le Trail* de Vtpte settle, mere de toutcs
armes, of the Sieur de St Didier, published in Paris in 1573, can
be shown to be a transparent adaptation of two Italian treatises,
the TraUato di scienza d* arme of Camillo Agrippa, and Grassfs
Ragione di adoperar sicuramente forme, &c
It is about this time, namely, the latter half of the 1 6th century,
that swordsmanship pure and simple may be said to find its
origin, for then a great change is perceptible in the nature and
tendency of fence books, they dissociate themselves from
indecorous wrestling tricks, and approximate more and more
to the consideration of what we understand by swordsmanship.
The older works expounded the art of fighting generally; taught
the reader a number of valuable, if not "gentlemanlike,"
dodges for overcoming an adversary at all manner of weapons'.
now the lucubrations of fence-masters deal almost exclusively
with the walking sword, that is, the duelling weapon— with the
rapier in fact, both with and without its lieutenant, the
dagger.
It must be remembered that at this period private duelling
and cavalier quarrelsomeness amounted to a perfect mania.
The fencing master was no longer merely a teacher of efficacious,
if rascally, tricks; he was becoming a model of gallant deport-
ment, in many cases he was even a recognized arbiter on
matters of honour. He was often a gentleman himself* at all
events he posed as such.
Although the Germans were always redoubtable adepts at
the rougher games of swordsmanship, it is in Italy that is to be
found development of that nimbler, more regulated, more
cunning, better controlled, kind of play which we have learned
to associate with the term " fencing." It was from Italy that
the art of fence first spread over Europe: not from Spain, as
it has been asserted by many writers. The Italians— if we take
their early books as evidence, and the fact that their phraseology
was adopted by all Europe — were the first to perceive (as soon
as the problem of armour-breaking ceased to be the most im-
portant one in fight) the superior efficiency of the point. They
accordingly reduced the breadth of their sword, modified the
hilt portion thereof to admit of readier thrust action, and
relegated the cut to quite a secondary position in their system.
With this lighter weapon they devised in course of time that
brilliant cunning play known as rapier fence.
The rapier was ultimately adopted everywhere by men of
courtly habit; but, in England at least, it was not accepted
without murmur and vituperation from the older fighting class of
swordsmen, especially from the members and admirers of the
English Corporation of Defence Masters. As a body Englishmen
were as conservative then as they arc now. They knew the
value of what they had as their own, and distrusted innovations,
especially from foreign quarters. The old sword and the buckler
were reckoned as your true English weapons: they always went
together— in fact sword and buckler play in the z6th century was
evidently held to be as national a game as boxing came to be in a
later age. Many are the allusions in contemporary dramatic
literature to this characteristic national distrust of continental
innovations. There is the well-known passage in Porter's play,
The Two Angry Women of Abingdon, for instance: ** Sword and
buckler fight," says a sturdy Briton (in much the same tone of
disgust as a British lover of fisticuffs might now assume when
talking of a French " Mounseer's " foil play), ** begins to grow
out of use. I am sorry for it. I shall never see good manhood
again. If it be once gone, this poking fight with rapier and dagger
will come up. Then the tall man (that is, a courageous man and
a good sword-and-buckler man) will be spitted like a cat or a
rabbit!" The long-sword, that is, the two-hander, was also an
essentially national weapon. It was a right-down pleasing and
sturdy implement, recalling in good steel the vernacular quarter-
staff of old. It required thews and sinews, and, incidentally,
much beef and ale. The long-sword man looked perhaps with
even greater disfavour than the smaller swashbuckler upon the
new-fangled " bird-spit." "Tut, man," says Justice Shallow,
typical laudator of the good bygone days, on hearing of the
ridiculous Frenchman's skill with his rapier, " I could have told
you more. In these times you stand on distance, your passes,
stoccadoes, and I know not what; 'tis the heart, Master Page,
'tis here, 'tis here. I have seen the time, with my long-sword, I
would have made you four tall fellows skip like rats."
Now, sword-and-buckler and long-sword play was no doubt a
manly pursuit and a useful. But, as an cvery-day companion,
the long-sword was incongruous to a fastidious cavalier, and,
again, the buckler, indispensable adjunct to the broad swashing
blade of home production, was hardly more suitable. In
Elizabethan days it soon became obvious that the buckler was
inadmissible as an item of gentlemanly attire. It was accordingly
left to the* body attendant; and the gallant took kindly to the
fine rapier of Milanese or Toledan make. On the other hand, it is
not difficult to understand the rapid popularity gained among the
gentry by this nimble rapier, so much reviled by the older fighting
men. The rapier, in fact, came in with the taste for " cavaliero "
FENCING
*49
style, and nay be looked upon as Its fit outward symbol already
in the days of Queen Mary. In Elizabeth's reign it was firmly
established as your only gentlemanlike weapon.
The rapier was decidedly a foreigner; yet it suited the
Elizabethan age, for it was decorative as well as practical. Its
play was picturesque, mntastic—almost euphuistk, one might
ay— in comparison with the matter-of-fact hanger of older days.
Its phraseology had a quaint, rich, southern smack, which
connoted outlandish experience and gave those conversant with
its intricate distinctions that marvellous character* at once
precious and ruffling, which was so highly appreciated by the
cavalier youth of the time. The rapier in its heyday was an
admirable weapon to look at, a delicious one to wield. And,
besides, in proper hands, it was undoubtedly one that was most
conclusive. It was, in short, as elegant and deadly as its prede-
cessors were sturdy and brutal.
By the time that the moat perfect, namely, the Italian, rapier
fence came to be generally taught in England— that is, during the
hst third of Elisabeth's reign— the theory of swordsmanship, as
applied to a single combat, after having passed through many
phases of Imperfection, was already tolerably simple and practical
(The exact story of its evolution may be found in a work now
included in Bonn's Libraries, Schools and Misters of Fence.)
What may be considered as one of the cardinal actions of regu-
lated sword-play on foot, namely, the lunge, had already been
dBCovcred. Although agreat many movements which, according
to modern notions, would be considered not only unnecessary but
actually pernicious, still formed part of the system, it may be
doubted whether, considering the character of the weapon,
anything very much better could be devised, even in our present
state of knowledge.
For it must be remembered that the evolution of the forms of
the sword and of the theories concerning its most efficient use
are closely connected. It is, in fact, sometimes difficult to
decide whether the change in the shape of the weapon was the
remit of a development of a theory; or whether new theories
were elaborated to fit alterations in these shapes due to fashion or
any other reason.
When systematic fence came over to England it was already
much simplified (it should be noted that improvement in the
art, from its earliest days down to the present time, seems always
to have been in the direction of simplification); yet, for more
than a century from the appearance of the first real treatise,
simplification never reached that point which would render
impossible a belief in the undoubted efficacy of those " secret
thrusts," of that " universal parry," of those ineluctable passes,
which every master professed to teach. These precious secrets
remain long, among a certain shady class of swordsmen, an object
of untiring study, carried on with much the same faith and zest
as the quest of the alchemist for his powder of projection, or of the
Merchant Adventurer for El Dorado. There can, of course, be no
such thing as an insuperable pass, a secret thrust or parry; every
attack can be parried, every parry can be deceived by suitable
movements. Yet there was some justification for the belief in
the existence of secrets of swordsmanship in days when, as a rule,
lessons of fence were given in jealous privacy; constant practice
at one particular pass, especially with the long rapier, which
required a great deal of muscular strength, might render any
peculiarly fierce, sudden and audacious stroke excessively
dangerous to one who did not happen to have opposed that stroke
before. Undoubtedly there was little in Elizabethan fencing-
schools of what we understand in modern days by loose-play
between the pupils; practice was almost invariably conducted
between scholar and teacher in private; and thus the
opportunities for watching or testing any particular fencer's play
were few. Such an opportunity would, as a rule, only occur on
occasions of an earnest fight; and the possessor of a specially
handy thrust (if it came off at all) would of course take good care
that his opponent should not live to ponder over the secret.
The secret, such as it was, remained. In this guise it was
inevitable that an almost superstitious belief in " secret foynes,"
in the boUe secrete of certain practised duellists, should arise.
Be that as it may, there is no doubt that towards the end of
the 16th century there were many free-lances in the field of arms
who professed to teach, in exchange for much gold, strokes that
were not to be parried. From one truculent personage, whom
Braatome mentions, Tappa the Milanese, you could learn how to
cut (if it so took your fancy) both eyes out of your adversary's
face with a rimeerso tondo, or circular " reverse of the point"
From Caixo, another Italian teacher, at one time much favoured
by the French court, lessons were to be had in the special art of
ham-stringing. Caixo's boUe secrete seems to have been nothing
more nor less than a /aba nance, that is, a left-handed drawing
cut, at the inside of the knee. But, as practised and taught by
him, it was infallible. This stroke has come down to us as 1$
coup de Jarnac—a. stroke, be it said, which, notwithstanding its
bad name, was quite as fair as any in rapier fence. One Le
Flamand, a French master in Paris, was reputed the inventor of a
jerky time-thrust at the adversary's brows, which was a certainty.
This special foyne, which was merely an imbrocata at the head,
has become legendary in the fencing world as la boUe de Never*.
English fencers have their own legends about " the very butcher
of a silk button," and this brings us to the first writer on the
rapier in England, Vincenxio Saviolo, the great expounder of that
Italianated fence which was so obnoxious to the old masters,
withal so much admired of Elizabethan courtiers; the man, in
short, who—there seems to be much internal evidence to show it
— was Shakespeare's fencing master.
Vincenxio was not the only foreign master of note established
in London during the latter part of Elizabeth's reign. One,
Signor Rocco, had, we hear, a very gorgeously appointed
academy in Warwick Lane, near St Paul's, where he coined
money rapidly at the expense of gulls and gallants alike. But
this man came to grief ultimately in an encounter with the long-
sword with an old-fashioned English master of defence. Another
popular teacher was a certain " Geronimo " ; but he also met
with a melancholy and premature end by the hands of oneCheefe,
" a tall man in his fight and natural English," says George Silver,
the champion of the Corporation of Masters of Defence. Saviolo,
however, seems to have remained unconqucred. In his work
( Vincentio Saviolo, his practise, in two bookes, the first intreating
of the use of the Rapier and Dagger, the second of Honor and
honorable quarrels, London. Printed by John Wolfe, 1595)
ate expounded in a most typical manner the principles of rapier
play.
The fencing phraseology of Elizabethan times is highly
picturesque, but with difficulty intelligible in the absence of
practical demonstration. Without going into technical details
it may be pointed out that the long Elizabethan rapier, however
admirably balanced it might otherwise be, was still too heavy to
admit of quick parries with the blade itself. Thrusts, as a rule,
had to be avoided by body movements, by ducking, or by a
vault aside (incartota), or beaten away with the left hand, the
hand being protected with a gauntlet or armed with a dagger.
In fact, one may say that the chief characteristic of Elizabethan
sword-play was the concerted action of the left hand parrying
while the right delivered the attack. Benvolio's description of
Tybalt's fight is graphic: —
" With piercing steel he tilts at bold Mercutb's breast.
Who, all as hot. turns deadly point to point,
And with a martial scorn, with one hand beats
Cold death aside, and with the other
Send* it back to Tybalt, whose dexterity
Retorts it . . ."
Of these body movements, in Saviolo's days, the most approved
were: the incartota, just mentioned; the pass (the " passado,"
in the mining Anglo-Italian jargon), that is, passing of one
foot in front of the other whilst delivering the attack; the botta
lunga, or lunge; and the caricado, which was a far-reaching
combination of the two. Of systematic sword movements there
were six: stocata, a thrust delivered withnailsupwards; imbrocata,
with nails down; punta-rcversa, any thrust delivered from the
left side of the body; mandritlo, a cut from the right; rinxerso,
one from the left; stramatone, a right-down blow with the point
of the sword.
250
FENCING
The new art of fence, as systematized by the principles of
rapier play, was on the whole already accepted in England
during the last decade of the 16th century, and was, as we know,
destined to endure. Nevertheless, there were still many partisans
of the older school: lovers of the national short-sword and the
buckler. Their tenets are to be found embodied, in very strenu-
ous language, by the George Silver mentioned above, a member,
it would seem, of the now dwindling company of Masters of
Defence, in his small work: Paradoxe of Defence, wherein is
proved the true ground of fight to be in the short ancient weapons, etc.
Printed in London, 1509. (The work has been reprinted by
Messrs George Bell & Sons.)
The Italians were undoubtedly the leaders in sword-play;
but, towards the beginning of the 17th century, the Spaniards
developed a peculiar school of their own, which for a short while
was all the mode in England as well as in France. The last trace,
be it stated, of that school is now extinct. Yet the Spaniard of
cavalier days was undoubtedly a formidable duellist; that was
no doubt owing to the quality of the man, not of his art. The
Italian's fence was artistic; the Spaniard's dexterity was essen-
tially scientific. In Spain were to be found typically those
" Captains of Complements," who not only understood in their
most intricate mazes the proper " dependencies " for the cartel,
but also the mathematical certainties for the "tcason demon-
strative/* These Spanish books are marvellously pedantic;
one may as well say it, frankly ridiculous. Spanish masters in-
structed their scholars on mathematical lines, with the help of
diagrams drawn on the floor within a circle, the radius of which
bore certain cryptic proportions to length of human arms and
Spanish swords. The circle was inscribed in squares and inter-
sected by sundry chords bearing occult but, it was held, incon-
trovertible relations to probabilities of strokes and parries.
The scholar was to step from certain intersections to certain
others. If this stepping was correctly done the result was a fore-
gone victory. "A villain," exclaims Mercutio, indignantly,
" who fights by the book of arithmetic." Elizabethan comedies
bring us many an echo of its great expounder of mathematical
swordsmanship, the magnificent Carranza, the primer inventor
de la Ciencia de las Armas, the writer of treatises so abstruse on
" the first and second cause," in questions of honour and sword-
ing, that they have never been quite understood to this day.
Perhaps the most curious matter in connexion with the
Spanish fence is that the most splendid treatise of the sword
published in the French language is in reality purely Spanish
(we have seen that the first was German, and the second an
adaptation of Italian treatises/. This third work, Acadimie de
V ipfe de Cirard Thibault, d'Anvcrs, etc., is indeed a monument;
one of the biggest books ever printed, and beyond compare the
biggest book of fence. It was issued in 162$ by the Leiden
Elzevirs, and took fifteen years to complete. Nine reigning
princes and a vast number of private gentlemen subscribed to
meet its stupendous expenses.
This work was spoken of as a " monument." It may, in some
respects, be looked upon as the funeral monument of the old
rapier fence; for soon after that period rose an entirely new
school, one adapted to the use of a less portentous weapon, the
small-sword of French pattern; a school destined to endure,
and to lead to the perfection of our modern cscrime.
The evolution of this new school is an instance of the influence
of fashion upon the shape of the sword, and hence upon theories
concerning its use. The French school of fencing may be said
to owe its origin to the adoption, under Louis XIV., of the short
court-sword in place of the over-long wide-hiked rapier of the
older style. With a weapon of such reduced dimensions, of such
reduced weight, the advantage of the dagger as a fencing adjunct
at once ceased to be felt. The dagger, last Gothic remnant,
disappeared accordingly; and there arose rapidly a new system
of play, in which most of the defensive actions were performed
by the blade alone; in which, at the same time (the reduction
in the size and weight of the weapon rendering the efficiency of
the edge almost nugatory in comparison with that of the point),
all cutting action was ultimately discarded. I
It is from that date, namely, from the last third of the 17th
century, that the sword, as a fighting implement, becomes
differentiated into two very different directions. The military
weapon becomes the back-sword or sabre; the walking com-
panion and duelling weapon becomes what we now understand
by the small-sword. Two utterly different kinds of fence are
practised: one, that of the back-sword; the other, what we
would now call foil-play.
The magnificent old cut and thrust rapier still flourished, it
is true, in parts of Italy and Spain; but by the end of the 17th
century it had already become an object of ridicule in the
eyes of all persons addicted to ban ton— And it must be
remembered that bon ton, on the Continent everywhere and
even in England, at that time, was French ton. The walking
sword, fit for a gentleman's side, was therefore the small-sword
of Versailles pattern. Its use had to be learnt from French
masters of deportment; the old magniloquent Italo-Spantsh
rapier jargon was forgotten; French terms, barbarized into
carte, tierce, sogoon, flanquonade, and so forth, were alone under-
stood. In fact, French fencing became as indispensable an
accomplishment to the Georgian gentlemen as the fine Itnlianaied
foyning had been to the Elizabethan.
The new French sword-play was, it must be owned, very neat,
quiet, precise, and, if anything, even more deadly than the old
fence. It was perfect as a decorous mode of fight, and as well
suited to the lace nifties, to the high perruque and the red heels
of the " beau " as the long cup-hiked rapier had been to the
booted and spurred " cavalier." The essence of its play was
nimbleness of wrist ; it required quickness of spirit rather than
muscular vigour. It is to be noted, however, that the same sort
of popular opposition met the invasion of French fencing, in
post-Restoration days, that had been offered to the new-fangled
Italian rapier a century earlier. During the Parliamentary
period the rapier and its attendant dagger had practically dis-
appeared; they were not true warlike weapons, their chief
virtue was for duelling or sudden encounters. But the stout
English back -sword survived; and with it a very definite school
of back-sword play. Under Charles II., the amusement of stage
or prize-fighting with swords had become a la mode. Courteous
assaults at many weapons, of course rebated, had been frequent
functions under the auspices of the Corporation of Masters of
Defence during the second half of the 16th century; it is (be it
remarked) in such sword-matches on the scaffold that we find
the origin of our modern prize-fights at fisticuffs. The first
instance known of a challenge at sharps on the fighting stage is
seen in a cartel sent by George Silver and Toby his son, as
champions of the Corporation of Masters of Defence, to the ob-
noxious " Signors " Saviolo and Gcronimo. As a matter of fact,
the fatter, having apparently no wish to improve the*'r excellent
social position or to risk forfeiting it, declined this invitation to
a public trial of skill. But the idea was right martial and pleasing
to the English mind, and the fashion of prize-fighting took the
firm hold it retained on Engtish minds till stringent legislation,
not so very long ago, was brought to bear upon it. Be it as it
may, this prize-fighting with swords endured until middle
Georgian days; when, under the impetus given to fistic displays
then by the renowned Figg (who was at one and the same time
the most formidable of English fencers and the first on the long
list of English pugilistic champions), back-swording became
relegated to the provinces, and ultimately dwindled into our
bastard " single-stick."
Fencing, in its restricted sense of purely thrusting play, was
always an " academic " art in England. The first great advocate
and exponent of the new small-sword fence, as taught by the new
French school, was Sir William Hope of Balcotny, at one time
deputy governor of Edinburgh Castle, who wrote a great number
of quaint treatises of great interest to the "operative '* as well as
to the "speculative" fencer. Yet, oddly enough, Sir William
Hope was instrumental in endeavouring to push through parlia-
ment a bill for the establishment of a court of honour, the office
of which was to have been the deciding of honourable quarrels,
whenever possible, without appeal to fencing skill. The House,
FENCING
*5»
however, feting ft the time exdtcd and *usy «m the question
of the untoo of Scotland and England, the bill never became act.
To resume: since it began to be practised as a regulated art
one may ssy broadly that sword play has already passed through
four main phases. The first belongs to the early Tudor days
of sword and buckler encounters, whereof, if the best theoretical
treatises appeared in Italy, the sturdiest practical exponents
were most probably found in the British Isles. Then came the
age of the rapier, coeval with the general disuse of the buckler.
There may be discerned the dawn of fencing proper, which will
fully arise when, in Caroline times, the outrageous length of
the tucke will at last be sufficiently reduced no longer to require
the dagger as a helpmate. The third was the age of the small-
sword. With its light, elegant and deadly practice we enter a
new atmosphere, so to speak, on fencing ground. Suppleness of
wrist and precision of fingering replace the ramping and traver-
sing, the heavy forcing play, of the Elizabethan. If the rapier
age was well exemplified by Vincent Saviolo, this one was
typified, albeit perhaps at a time when it was already somewhat
on the wane, by the admirable Angel© Tremamondo slatcvolti.
In the early days of the small-sword age men still fenced m
play as they fought in earnest. But presently there appeared
on the scene (during the last years of the i8lh century) an implc*
rnent destined to revolutionise the art and hopelessly to divide
the practice of the school from that of the held: that was the
fencing mask. Before this invention, small-sword play in the
master's room was perforce comparatively cautious, correct,
sure and above all deliberate. The long, excited, argumentative
phrases of modern assaults were unknown; and so was the
almost inevitably consequent scrimmage. But under the pro-
taction of the fencing mask a new school of foil-play was evolved,
one in which swiftness and inveteracy of attack and parry, of
riposte, remise, counter-riposte and reprise, assumed an all-im-
portant character. With the new style began to assert itself
that utter recklessness of " chance hits " which in our days so
markedly differentiates foil-practice from actual duelling. And
this brings us to the fourth phase, the fencing art, to what may
be called the age of the foil.
If anything were required to demonstrate that foil-play has
nowadays passed into the state of what may be called fine art
in athleticism, it would be found in the rise of the method which
French masters particularize as lejeu du terrain, as duelling play
in fact; a pby which differs as completely from academic foil-
feacicg at cross-country riding in an unknown district from
the haute Hale of horsemanship in the manege. By fencing,
nowadays, that is by foil-play, we have come to mean not simply
fighting for hits, but a strictly regulated game which, being quite
conventional, does not take accidental hits into consideration
at alL This game requires for its perfect display a combination
of artificial circumstances, such as even floors, featherweight
weapons, and an unconditional acceptance of a number of
traditional conventions. ' Now, for the more utilitarian purposes
of duelling, the major part of the foil fencer's special achievement
and brilliancy has to be uncompromisingly sacrificed in the pres-
ence of the brutal fact that thrusts in the face, or below the waist,
do count, insomuch as they may kill; that accidental hits in the
arm or the fog cannot be disregarded, for they may, and generally
do, put a premature stop to the bout. The " rub on the green "
must be accepted, perforce, and indeed often plays as important
a part in the issue of the game as the player's skill The fact,
however, that in earnest encounters all conventionalities which
determine the value of a hit vanish, does not in any way justify
the notion, prevalent among many, that a successful hit justifies
any method of planting the same; and that the mere discarding
of all convention in practical sword-play is sufficient to convert
a bad fencer into a dangerous duellist.
It is the recognition of this fact (which, oddly enough, only
came to be generally admitted, and not without reluctance,
by the masters of the art during the last quarter of the ioth
century) which has led to the elaboration of the modified system
of small-sword fence now known as tpte play. The new system,
after passing through various rather extravagant phases of its
own, gradually returned to the main principle of sound foil-play,
but shorn of all futile conventions as to the relative values of hiis.
In tpie play a hit is a hit, whether correctly delivered or reckless,
whether intentional or the result of mere chance, and must, at
the cost of much caution and patience, be guarded against.
Per contra the elaboration by the devotees of the tpie of a really
practical system of fence, that is, one applicable to trials in
earnest, has reacted upon the teaching of foil-play by the best
masters of the present day— a teaching which, without ceasing
to be academical up to a certain point, takes now cognisance of
the necessity of defending every part of the body as sedulously
as the target of the breast, and, moreover, of warding the many
possibilities of chance hits in contretemps.
In both plays— in the highly refined, complicated and brilliant
fence of the first-class " foil," as well as in the simpler and more
cautious operations of the practised duellist — the one golden rule
remains, that one so quaintly expressed by M. Jourdains
mattre d'armes in Mohere's comedy: " Tout le secret des armes no
consiste qu'en deux chose*, a donner et a ne point reccvoir."
The point most usually lost sight of by sanguine and self-
reliant scorners of conventionalities is that, although with the
sword it may be comparatively easy at any time " to give," it is
by no means easy to make sure of " giving without receiving."
The mutual simultaneous Mfc—the toup-douUe—'it, in fact, the
dread pitfall of all sword-play. For. this reason, in courteous
bouts, a hit has no real value, not only when it is actually
cancelled by a counter, but when it is delivered in such a way aa
to admit of a counter. In short, the experience of ages and the
careful consideration of probabilities have given birth to the
various make-believes and restrictions that go to make sound
foil-play. These restrictions are destined to act in the same
direction as the warning presence of a sharp point instead of a
button; and thus, as f ar aa possible, to prevent those mutual
hits — the contretemps of the old masters — which mar the greater
number of assaults. The proper observance of those conventions,
other things being equal, distinguishes the good from the in-
different swordsman, the man who uses his head from him who
rushes blindly where angels fear to tread. So much for foil-
play.
In modern sword-play, on the other Hand, is seen the usual
tendency of arts which have reached their climax of complication
to return to comparative simplicity. With reference to actual
duelling, it is a recognized thing that it would be the height of
folly to attempt, sword in band, the complex attacks, the fuU-
length lunges, the neat but somewhat weak parries of the foil; so
much so, that many have been led to assert that, for its ultimate
practical purpose (which logically is that of duelling), the
refined art of the foil, requiring so many years of assiduous and
methodical work, is next to useless. It is alleged, as a proof, that
many successful duellists have happened to be indifferent
performers on the fencing floor. Some even maintain that a few
weeks' special work in that restricted— very restricted— play,
which alone can be considered safe on the field of honour, will
produce as good a practical swordsman as any who have walked
the schools for years. Nothing can be further from the truth:
were it but on the ground that the greater includes the less; that
the fott-feocer of standing who can perform with ease and
accuracy all the intricate movements of the assault, who has
trained bis hand and eye to the lightning speed of the well-
handled foil, must logically prove more than a match for the more
purely practical but less trained devotees of the tpie de combat.
The only difference for him in the two plays is that the latter is
incomparably slower in action, simpler; that it demands above
all things patience and caution; and especially that, instead of
protecting his breast' only, the ipet fencer must beware of the
wfly attack, or the chance hit, at every part of his body, especially
at his sword-hand.
The differen c e which flHM exists between the French and
Italian schools of small-sword fence — by no means so wide, in
point of theory, as popularly supposed— is mainly due to the
dissimilarity of the weapons favoured by the two countries,
The qutuons, which are retained to this day in the Italian
25*
FENDER— FENELON
jwretto and sfado, conduce to a freer use of wrist-play and a
straight arm. I1ie French, on the other hand, having long ago
adopted the plain grip both for fieurcl and tpte, nave come to
rely more upon finger-play and a semi-bent arm. Both schools
have long laid claims to an overwhelming superiority, on theo-
retical ground, over their rivals—claims which were unwarrant-
able. Indeed, of later days, especially since the evolution of a
special " duelling play," the two schools show a decided tendency,
notwithstanding the difference in the grip of the weapons, towards
a mutual assimilation of principles.
As a duelling weapon— as one, that is to say, the practice of
which under the restrictive influence of conventions could
become elaborated into an art — the sabre (see Sabke-fenong)
returned to favour in some countries at the close of the
Napoleonic wars. Considered from the historical point of view,
the modern sabre, albeit now a very distant cousin of the small-
sword, is as direct a descendant as the latter itself of the old cut-
and-thrust rapier. It is curious, therefore, to note that, just as
the practice of the " small " or thrusting sword gave rise to two
rival schools, the French and the Italian, that of the sabre or
cutting sword (it can hardly be called the broadsword, the blade,
for the purposes of duelling play, having been reduced to
slenderest proportions) became split up into two main systems,
Italian and German. And further it is remarkable that the
leading characteristics of the latter should still be, in a manner,
" severity " and steadfastness; and that the former, the Italian,
should rely, as of yore, specially upon agility and insidious
cunning.
Concerning the latter-day evolution of that special and still
more conventional system of fence, the SckUtger or Hau-rapier
play favoured by the German student, from that of the ancestral
rapier, the curious will find a critical account in an article
entitled " Schlagerei " which appeared in the Saturday Review,
Stb of December 1885.
See also the separate articles on Cane-Fencing (canne);
£pee-de-Combat; Foil-Fencing; Sabre-Fencing; and
Single-stick.
AuTHflftmGS.— The bibliography of fencing is a copious subject;
bi l it ha* beta very completely dealt t^ith in the following works:
£1 .-<■<* dijflisdJoria, in the "Fencing, Boning and Wrestling"
volume of the itujmmton library (Longman*): A Bibliography of
Fentint end Pmdlint. by Carl A> Thimrn. t/nhn Lane). For Frencn
works more e^pi* Lilly : !-•* Biblitrgtapkii de fafwime, by Vigtant
Taxii, Moiterof j: and Ma Collect fart d'tictime, by trie same (Paris,
2uantin)> For Italian book*: Bibtiogrttfiti generatr della sckerma,
iy Celli (Fircaaa, Niccolflii. For Spfa nnd Portugal: Libros
de pjwnma tspaftoiei y pcrt^urset, by L*yuina (Madrid, Los
Huerlanos), Itoth M, Vigcant s and Cat v. GelEi's works deal with
the subject fieoerally; but their crimes are only critical, or even
tolerably accurate, in the case of bucks belonging to their own
countries. Concerning the history of the art, Egerton Castle's
Schools and Masters of Fence (George Bell); Hutton's The Sword
and the Centuries (Grant Richards) ; and Letainturier-Fradin's Lex
Joucurs d'ipie d trovers Us Ages (Paris, Flammarion) cover the ground,
technically and ethically. As typical exponents of the French and
Italian schools respectively may be mentioned here: La Thkorie de
rescrime, by Prevost (Paris, de Brunhof) (this is the work which was
adopted in the Badminton volume on Fencing), and TraUato teorico-
pratico della scherma, by Parise (Rome, Voghcra). (E. Ca.)
FENDER, a metal guard or defence (whence the name) for a
fire-place. When the open hearth with its logs burning upon dogs
or andirons was replaced by the closed grate, the fender was
devised as a finish to the smaller fire-places, and as a safeguard
against the dropping of cinders upon the wooden floor, which was
now much nearer to the fire. Fenders are usually of steel, brass
or iron, solid or pierced. Those made of brass in the latter part of
the i8ih and the earlier part of the 19th centuries are by far the
most elegant and artistic - They usually had three claw feet, and
the pierced varieties were often cut into arabesques or con-
ventional patterns. The lyre and other motives of the Empire
style were much used during the prevalence of that fashion. The
modern fender is much lower and is often little more than a kerb;
it is now not infrequently of stone or marble, fixed to the floor.
FBNBLON. BERTRAND OB SAUGNAC, seigneur de la Mothc
(1 523-1 589), French diplomatist, came of an old family of
Perigord. After serving in the army he was sent ambassador to
England in 1568. At the request of Charles IX. he endeavoured
to excuse to Elizabeth the massacre of St. Bartholomew as a
necessity caused by a plot which had been laid against the life of
the king of France. For some time after the death of Charles I X.
Fenelon was continued in his office, but he was recalled in 1575
when Catherine de* Medici wished to bring about a marriage
between Elizabeth and the duke of Alencon, and thought that
another ambassador would have a better chance of success in the
negotiation. In 1 58a Fenelon was charged with a new mission to
England, then to Scotland, and returned to France in x 583. He
opposed the Protestants until the end of the reign of Henry III.,
but espoused the cause of Henry IV. He died in 15S0. His
nephew in the sixth degree was the celebrated archbishop of
Cambrai.
Fenelon U the author nf a number of writW?*, among which
those of general importance are Mimoirti touckuni I'Angleierre et
la Suisse, oh Sommuirc de la nitficiation faiie en Angleterre, fan
l$7l (containing a number of the irTtcr* r>\ Chark j and his mother,
relating to Queen F-lixabcth, Queen Mary and the Bartholomew
massacre), published in the Mtmoitet of Castcl nau (Paris, 1659);
Negotiation* dt la htothe Fintlon ei de Mkhtt, fun' ie Maweissikre, en
Angleterre', and Dipickts dcM.de la Mothe FincUn, Instructions a«
sieur de la if <j*tujtc rt v Ixnh contained in the td;ti>>a of Castelnau's
Mimoires, published at Brussels in 1731, The ■ orrespondence of
Fenelon was published at Paris, in i^D-iSif. in 7 vols. 8vo.
Sec " Lettrcs dc Catherine de" Modicis. edit '.-'J. by Hector de la
Ferriere (l8tfo tcq.) in the CfltfsrifflB 4c thcuntcnls r tidiii sur Fkistoir*
dt France.
FENELON, FRANCOIS DE SAUGNAC DB LA MOTHE (1651-
171 5)/ French writer and archbishop of Cambrai, was bom at
the chateau of Fenelon in Perigord on the 6th of August 1651.
His father, Pons, comte de Fenelon, was a country gentleman of
ancient lineage, large family and small estate. Owing to his
delicate health the boy's early education was carried on at home;
though he was able to spend some time at the neighbouring
university of Cahors. In 1666 he came to Paris, undercharge
of his father's brother, Antoine, marquis de Fenelon, a retired
soldier of distinction, well known for his religious zeaL Three
years later he entered the famous theological college of Saint
Sulpice. Here, while imbibing the somewhat mystical piety
of the house, he had an excellent chance of carrying on his
beloved classical studies; indeed, at one time he proposed to
couple sacred and profane together, and go on a missionary
journey to the Levant. " There 1 shall once more make the
Apostle's voice heard in. the Church of Corinth. I shall stand
on that Areopagus where St. Paul preached to the sages of this
world an unknown God. But I do not scorn to descend thence
to the Piraeus, where Socrates sketched the plan of his republic.
I shall mount to the double summit of Parnassus; I shall revel
in the joys of Tempe." Family opposition, however, put an end
to this attractive prospect. Fenelon remained at Saint Sulpice
till 1679, when he was made " superior " of a " New Catholic "
sisterhood in Paris — an institution devoted to the conversion of
Huguenot ladies. Of his work here nothing is known for certain.
Presumably it was successful; since in the winter of 1685, just
after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, Fenelon was put
at the head of a number of priests, and sent on a mission to the
Protestants of Saintonge, the district immediately around the
famous Huguenot citadel of La Rochelle. To Fenelon such
employment was clearly uncongenial; and if he was rather
too ready to employ unsavoury methods — such as bribery and
espionage — among his proselytes, his general conduct was kindly
and statesmanlike in no slight degree. But neither in his actions
nor in his writings is there the least trace of that belief in liberty
of conscience ascribed to him by 18th-century philosophers.
Tender-hearted he might be in practice; but toleration he declares
synonymous with " cowardly indulgence and false compasssion."
Meanwhile the marquis de Fenelon had introduced his nephew
into the devout section of the court, dominated by Mrne de
Maintenon. He became a favourite disciple of Bossuct, and at
the bishop's instance undertook to refute certain metaphysical
errors of Father Malebranche. Followed thereon an independent
philsophical Treatise on the Existence of God, wherein Fenelon
rewrote Descartes in the spirit of St Augustine. More import ant
FfeNELON
253
plea for greater simplicity and naturalness in the pulpit, and
urged preachers to take the scriptural, natural style of Boesuct
as their model, rather than the coldly analytic eloquence of his
great rival, Bourdaloue. Still more important was his Treatise
m the Education of Girls, being the first systematic attempt
ever made to deal with that subject as a whole. Hence it was
probably the most influential of all Fenelon's books, and guided
French ideas on the question all through the i&th century. It
holds a most judicious balance between the two opposing parties
of the time. On the one side were the prickuseSt enthusiasts
for the " higher " education of their sex; on the other were
the heavy Philistines, so often portrayed by Mohere, who
thought that the less girls knew the better they were likely to
be. Fenelon sums up in favour of the cultivated bouse- wife;
his first object waa to persuade the mothers to take charge of
their girls themselves, and fit them to become wives and mothers
in their turn.
The book brought its author more than literary glory. In
1689 Fenelon was gazetted tutor to the duke of Burgundy,
eldest son of the dauphin, and eventual heir to the crown. The
character of this strange prince has been drawn once for ?U by
Saint-Simon. Shortly it may be said that he was essentially a
mass of contradictions — brilliant, passionate to the point of mania,
but utterly weak and unstable, capable of developing into a
saint or a monster, but quite incapable of becoming an ordinary
human being, Fenelon assailed him on the religious side, and
managed to transform him into a devotee, exceedingly affection-
ate, earnest and religious, but woefully lacking in tact and
common sense. In justice, however, it should be added that
his health was being steadily undermined by a mysterious
internal complaint, and that Fenelon's tutorship came to an end
on his disgrace in 1 697 , before the pupil was fifteen. The abiding
result of his tutorship is a code of carefully graduated moral
lessons — the Fables, the Dialogues of the Dead (a series of imagin-
ary conversations between departed heroes), and finally Tili-
maque, where the adventures of the son of Ulysses in search of
a father are made into a political novel with a purpose. Not,
indeed, that Fenelon meant his book to be the literal paper
Constitution some of his contemporaries thought it. Like other
Utopias, it is an easy-going compromise between dreams and
possibilities. Its one object was to broaden Burgundy's mind,
and ever keep before his eyes the " great and holy maxim that
kings exist for the sake of their subjects, not subjects for the sake
of kings." Here and there Fenelon carries his philanthropy to
lengths curiously prophetic of the age of Rousseau — fervid
denunciation of war, belief in nature and fraternity of nations.
And he has a truly 18th-century belief in the all-efficiency of
institutions. Mentor proposes to ** change the tastes and habits
of the whole people, and build up again from the very found-
ations.** Fenelon is on firmer ground when he leads a reaction
against the " mercantile system " of Colbert, with its crushing
restrictions on trade; or when he sings the praises of agriculture,
in the hope of bringing back labour to the land, and thereby
ensuring the physical efficiency of the race. Valuable and far-
lighted as were these ideas, they fitted but ill into the scheme
cf a romance. Seldom was Voltaire wider of the mark than when
he called THtmaque a Greek poem in French prose. It is too
mofivi, too full of ingenious contrivances, to be really Greek.
As, in Fenelon's own opinion, the great merit of Homer was. his
" amiable simplicity," so the great merit of TtUmaque is the art
that gives to each adventure its hidden moral, to each scene
some sly reflection on Versailles. Under stress of these pre-
occupations, however, organic unity of structure went very much
to the wall, and TUtmaque is a grievous offender against its
author's own canons of hterary taste. Not that h altogether
lost thereby. There is a curious richness in this prose, so full
of rhythm and harmony, that breaks at every moment into
verse, as it drags itself along its slow and weary way, half-
fainting under an overload of epithets. And although no single
feature of the book is Greek, there bangs round it a moral
fragrance only to be called forth by one who had fulfilled the
vow of his youth, and learnt to breathe, as purely as on " the
double summit of Parnassus," the very essence of the antique.
TtUmaque was published in 1609. ' Four years before, Fenelon
had been appointed archbishop of Cambrai, one of the richest
benefices in France. Very soon afterwards, however, came the
great calamity of his life. In the early days of his tutorship he
had met the Quietist apostle, Mine Guyon (7. v.), and had been
much struck by some of her ideas. These he developed along lines
of his own, where Christian Neoplatonism curiously mingles with
theories of chivalry and disinterestedness, borrowed from the
prteieuses of his own time. His mystical principles are set out
at length in his Maxims of the Saints, published in 1697 (see
Quietism). Here he argues that the more love we have for
ourselves, the less we can spare for our Maker. Perfection lies
in getting rid of self-hood altogether— in never thinking of our-
selves, or even of the relation in which God stands to us. The
saint does not love Christ as his Redeemer, but only as the
Redeemer of the human race. Bossuet (q.v.) attacked this position
as inconsistent with Christianity. Flnelon promptly appealed
to Rome, and after two years of bitter controversy his book was
condemned by Innocent XII. in 1600. As to the merits of the
controversy opinion will always be divided. On the point of
doctrine all good judges agree that Fenelon was wrong; though
many still welcome the obiter dictum of Pope Innocent, that
Flnelon erred by loving God too much, and Bossuet by loving
his neighbour too little. Of late years, however, Bossuet has
found powerful defenders; and if they have not cleared his
character from reproach, they have certainly managed to prove
that Fenelon's methods of controversy were not much better
than his. One of the results of the quarrel was Fenelon's banish-
ment from court; for Louis XIV. had ardently taken Bossuet 'a
side, and brought all the batteries of French influence to bear on
the pope. Immediately on the outbreak of the controversy,
Fe'nelon was exiled to his qUocese, and during the last eighteen
years of his life he was only once allowed to leave it
To Cambrai, accordingly, ail his energies were now directed.
Even Saint-Simon allows that his episcopal duties were perfectly
performed. Tours of inspection, repeated several times a year,
brought him into touch with every corner of his diocese. It was
administered with great strictness, and yet on broad and liberal
lines. There was no bureaucratic fussiness, no seeking after
popularity; but every man, whether great or small, was treated
exactly as became his station in the world. And Saint-Simon
bears the same witness to his government of his palace. There he
lived with all the piety of a true pastor, yet with all the dignity of a
great nobleman, who was still on excellent terms with the world.
But his magnificence made no one angry, for it was kept up
chiefly for the sake of others, and was exactly proportionate to
his place. With all its luxuries and courtly ease, bis house
remained a true bishop's palace, breathing the strictest discipline
and restraint And of all this chastened dignity the archbishop
was himself the ever-present, ever-inimitable model— in all that
he did the perfect churchman, in all the high-bred noble, in, all
things, also, the author of Tiltmaque.
The one great blot on this ideal existence was his persecution of
the Jansenists (see Jansenism). His theories of life were very
different from theirs; and they had taken a strong line against
his Maxims of the Saints, holding that visionary theories of
perfection were ill-fitted for a world where even the holiest could
scarce be saved. To suppress them, and to gain a better market
for his own ideas, he was even ready to strike up an alliance with
the Jesuits, and force on a reluctant France the doctrine of papal
infallibility. His time was much better employed in fitting his
old pupil, Burgundy, for a kingship that never came. Louis XIV.
seldom allowed them to meet, but for years they corresponded;
and nothing is more admirable than the mingled tact and firmness
with which Fenelon spoke his mind about the prince's faults.
This exchange of letters became still more frequent in 1711,
when the wretched dauphin died and left Burgundy heir-
apparent to the throne. Fe'nelon now wrote a seriesof memorable
criticisms on the government of Louis XIV., accompanied by
projects of reform, not always quite so wise For his practical
254
FENESTELLA— FENIANS
political service was to act as an alarm-bell. Much more clearly
than most men, he saw that the Bourbons were tottering to their
fall, but how to prevent that (all he did not know.
Not that any amount of knowledge would have availed. In
171 2 Burgundy died, and with him died all his tutor's hopes of
reform. From this moment his health began to fail, though he
mustered strength enough to write a remarkable Letter to Ike
French A eademy in t he autum n of x 7 r*. This is really a series of
general reflections on the literary movement of his time. As in
bis political theories, the critical element is much stronger than
the constructive. Finelon was feeling his way away from the
rigid standards of Boileau to " a Sublime so simple and familiar
that all may understand it." But some of his methods were
remarkably erratic; he was anxious, for instance, to abolish
verse, as unsuitcd to the genius of the French. In other respects,
however, he was far before his age. The 1 7th century has treated
literature as it treated politics and religion; each of the three
was cooped up in a water-tight compartment by itself. Fe"nelon
was one of the first to break down these partition-walls, and
insist on viewing all three as products of a single spirit, seen at
different angles,
A few weeks after the Letter was written, Finelon met with a
carriage-accident, and the shock proved too much for his en-
feebled frame. On the 7th of January 1 7 1 5 he died at the age of
63. Ever since, his character has been a much-discussed enigma.
Bossuct can only be thought of as the high-priest of authority
and common-sense; but Fenelon has been made by turns into a
sentimentalist, a mystical saint, an 18th-century philosophe,
an ultramontane churchman and a hysterical hypocrite. And
each of these views, except the last, contains an element of truth.
More than most men, Finelon u wanders between two worlds —
one dead, the other powerless to be born." He came just at a
time when the characteristic ideas of the 17th century — the ideas
of Louis XIV., of Bossuet and Boileau — had lost their savour,
and before another creed could arise to take their place. Hence,
like most of those who break away from an established order, he
seems by turns a revolutionist and a reactionary. Such a man
expresses his ideas much better by word of mouth than in the
cold formality of print; and Fenelon's contemporaries thought
far more highly of his conversation than his books. That
downright, gossiping German princess, the duchess of Orleans,
cared little for the Maxims; but she was enraptured by their
author, and his " ugly face, all skin and bone, though he laughed
and talked quite unaffectedly and easily." An observer of very
different mettle, the great lawyer d'Agucsseau, dwells on the
"noble singularity, that gave him an almost prophetic air. Yet
he was neither passionate nor masterful. Though in reality be
governed others, it was always by seeming to give way; and he
reigned in society as much by the attraction of his manners as
by the superior virtue of his parts. Under his hand the most
trifling subjects gained a new importance; yet he treated the
gravest with a touch so light that he seemed to have invented the
sciences Tather than learnt them, for he was always a creator,
always original, and himself was imi table of none." Still better is
Saint-Simon's portrait of Finelon as he appeared about the time
of his appointment to Cambrai— tall, thin, well-built, exceedingly
pale, with a great nose, eyes from which fire and genius poured in
torrents, a face curious and unlike any other, yet so striking and
attractive that, once seen, it could not be forgotten. There were
to be found the most cpntradictory qualities in perfect agreement
with each other — gravity and courtliness, earnestness and gaiety,
t he man of learning, the noble and the bishop. But all centred in
an air of high-bred dignity, of graceful, polished seemliness and
wit— it cost an effort to turn away one's eyes.
Authorities.— The best complete edition of Finelon was brought
out by the abbl Gosselin of Saint Sulpice (10 vols., Paris, 1851).
Gosselin also edited the Histoire de FineUm, by Cardinal Bauseet
U vols., Paris, 1850). Modern authorities are Fenelon & Cambrai
(Paris, 1885), by Emmanuel de Broglie; Finelon, by Paul Janet
(Paris, 1892); Bossuet el Finelon, by L. Crousle (a vols., Paris, 1894) :
J. Lemattre, Fttulon (1910). In English therearc: Fenelon, his Friendt
and Enemies* by EL K. Sanders (1901); and Francois de Fenelon,
by Lord St Cyres (1906); see also the Quarterly Review tor January
19X», and M. Masson, Finelon el Madame Cuyon (1907). (St. C.)
FENESTELLA, Roman historian and encyclopaedic writer
flourished in the reign of Tiberius. If the notice in Jerome h
correct, be lived from 5a B.C. Ioa.d. 19 (according to others 35 b.c-
a.d. 36). Taking Varro for his model, Fenestella was one of ib<
chief representatives of the new style of historical writing which,
in the place of the brilliant descriptive pictures of Livy, discuss**:
curious and out-of-the-way incidents and customs of political anc
social life, including literary history. He was the author of ar
Annates, probably from the earliest times down to his own days
The fragments indicate the great variety of subjects discussed
the origin of the appeal to the people (provocalio); the use oJ
elephants in the circus games; the wearing of gold rings; tb<
introduction of the olive tree; the material for making the toga
the cultivation of the soil; certain details as to the lives of Ciien
and Terence. The work was very much used (mention is made 01
an abridged edition) by Pliny the elder, Asconius Pedianus (tb<
commentator on Cicero), Nonius, and the philologists
Fragments in H. Peter, Historicorum Romanorum fragmente
883); see also monographs by L. Mercklin (1844) and J. Poetr
1849); M. Schanz, GeschickU der rem. LiU. cd. 2 (1001); Teuffcl
[!
Hist, of Roman Literature, p. 259- A work published under the name ol
L. Fenestella {De magistratibus et sacerdoliis Romanorum, 15 10) v
really by A. D. Fiocchi, canon and papal secretary, and was subsc
quently published as by him (under the latinized form of his name
Floccus), edited by Aegidius Witaius (1561).
FENESTRATION (from 0. Fr. feneslre, modern fenfire, Lat,
fenestra, a window, connected with Gr. <t>aivw, to show), an
architectural term applied to the arrangement of windows on the
front of a building; more especially when, in the absence of
columns or pilasters separating them, they constitute its chid
architectural embellishment. The term " fenestra! " is given to a
frame or " chassis " on which oBed paper or thin cloth was
strained to keep out wind and rain when the windows were not
glazed.
FENIANS, or Fenian Brotherhood, the name of a modern
Irish-American revolutionary secret society, founded in America
by JohnO'Mahony (1816-1877) in 1858. The name was derived
from an anglicized version of fiann, fiinne, the legendary band
of warriors in Ireland led by the hero Find Mac Cumaill (sec
Finn Mac Cool; and Celt: Celtic Literature; Irish); and it
was given to his organization of conspirators by O'Mahcmy, who
was a Celtic scholar and had translated Keating*s History of
Ireland in 1857. After the collapse of William Smith O'Brien's
attempted rising in 1848, O'Mahony, who was concerned in it,
escaped abroad, and since 1852 had been living in New York.
James Stephens, another of the "men of 1848," had established
himself in Paris, and was in correspondence with O'Mahony
and other disaffected Irishmen at home and abroad. A dub
called the Phoenix National and Literary Society, with Jeremiah
Donovan (afterwards known as O'Donovan Rossa) among its
more prominent members, had recently been formed at Skib-
bcreen; and under the influence of Stephens, who visited it in
May 1858, it became the centre of preparations for armed re-
bellion. About the same time O'Mahony in the United Slates
established the "Fenian Brotherhood," whose members bound
themselves by an oath of " allegiance to the Irish Republic, now
Virtually established," and swore to take up arms when called
upon and to yield implicit obedience to the commands of their
superior officers. The object of Stephens, O'Mahony and other
leaders of the movement was to form a great league of Irishmen
in all parts of the world against British rule in Ireland. The
organization was modelled on that of the French Jacobins at the
Revolution; there was a "Committee of Public Safety" in
Paris, with a number of subsidiary committees, and affiliated
clubs; its operations were conducted secretly by unknown and
irresponsible leaders; and it had ramifications in every part of
the world, the " Fenians," as they soon came to be generally
called, being found in Australia, South America, Canada, and
above all in the United States, as well as in the large centres
of population in Great Britain such as London, Manchester
and Glasgow. It is, however, noteworthy that Fcnianism
never gained much hold on the tenant-farmers or agricultural
labourers in Ireland, although the scurrilous press by which it
FENIANS
*S5
wis supported preached a savage vendetta against the land-
owners, who were to be shot down " as we shoot robbers and
rats."' The movement was denounced by the priests of the
Catholic Church.
It was, however, some few years after the foundation of the
Fenian Brotherhood before it made much headway, or at all
events before much was heard of it outside the organisation
itself, though it is probable that large numbers of recruits had
enrolled themselves in its " circles." The Phoenix Club con-
spiracy in Kerry was easily crushed by the government, who
hid accurate knowledge from an informer of what was going on.
Some twenty ringleaders were put on trial, including Donovan,
and when they pleaded guilty were, with a single exception,
treated with conspicuous leniency. But after a convention held
at Chicago under O'Mahony's presidency in November 1863
the movement began to show signs of life. About the same t imc
the Irish People, a revolutionary journal of extreme violence, was
started in Dublin by Stephens, and for two years was allowed
without molestation by the government to advocate armed
rebellion, and to appeal for aid to Irishmen who had had military
training in the American Civil War. At the close of that war in
1S65 numbers of Irish who had borne arms flocked to Ireland,
and the plans for a rising matured. The government, well served
as usual by informers, now took action. In September 1865 the
Irish People was suppressed, and several of the more prominent
Fenians were sentenced to terms of penal servitude; Stephens,
through the connivance of a prison warder, escaped to France.
The Habeas Corpus A a was suspended in the beginning of i860,
and a considerable number of persons were arrested. Stephens
issued a bombastic proclamation in America announcing an
imminent general rising in Ireland; but he was himself soon
afterwards deposed by his confederates, among whom dissension
had broken out A few Irish-American officers, who landed at
Cork in the expectation of commanding an army against England,
were locked up in gaol; some petty disturbances in Limerick
and Kerry were easily suppressed by the police.
In the United States, however, the Fenian Brotherhood, now
onder the presidency of W. R, Roberts, continued plotting.
They raised money by the issue of bonds in the name of the
" Irish Republic," which were bought by the credulous in the
expectation of their being honoured when Ireland should be
" a nation once again." A large quantity of arms was purchased,
and preparations were openly made for a raid into Canada, which
the United States government took no steps to prevent It was
indeed believed that President Andrew Johnson was not indis-
posed to turn the movement to account in the settlement of the
Alabama claims. The Fenian " secretary for war " was General
T. W. Sweeny (1820-1893), who temporarily (Jan. X865-N0V.
1866) was struck off the American army list. The command
of the expedition was entrusted to John O'Neill, who crossed the
Niagara river at the head of some 800 men on the xst of June
1 866, and captured Fort Erie. But large numbers of his men
deserted, and at Ridgeway the Fenians were routed by a battalion
of Canadian volunteers. On the 3rd of June the remnant sur
rendered to the American warship " Michigan "; and the tardy
issue of President Johnson's proclamation enforcing the laws
of neutrality brought the raid to an ignominious end; the
prisoners were released, and the arms taken from the raiders
were, according to Henri Le Caron, " returned to the Fenian
organization, only to be used for the same purpose some four
years later." In December 1 867 , John O'Neill beca me president
of the Brotherhood in America, which in the following year held
a great convention in Philadelphia attended by over 400 properly
accredited delegates, while 6000 Fenian soldiers, armed and in
uniform, paraded the streets. At this convention a second in-
vasion of Canada was determined upon; while the news of the
OerkenweH explosion in London (see below) was a strong in-
centive to a vigorous policy Le Caron (9.9.), who, while acting
as a secret agent of the English government, held the position
of " inspector-general of the Irish Republican Army," asserts
tint he " distributed fifteen thousand stands of arms and almost
* Waiiam O'Connor Morris, Ireland i79S-iSg8 t p. 195.
three million rounds of ammunition In the care of the many
trusted men stationed between Ogdensburg and St Albans," in
preparation for the intended raid. It took place in April 1870,
and proved a failure not less rapid or complete than the attempt
of 1866. The Fenians under O'Neill's command crossed the
Canadian frontier near Franklin, Vt., but were dispersed by a
single volley from Canadian volunteers; while O'Neill himself
was promptly arrested by the United States authorities acting
under the orders of President Grant.
Meantime in Ireland, after the suppression of the Irish People,
disaffection had continued to smoulder, and during the latter
part of 1866 Stephens endeavoured to raise funds in America
for a fresh rising planned for the following year. A bold move
on the part of the Fenian " circles " in Lancashire had been
concerted in co-operation with the movement in Ireland. An
attack was to be made on Chester, the arms stored in the castle
were to be seized, the telegraph wires cut, the rolling stock on
the railway to be appropriated for transport to Holyhead, where
shipping was to be seized and a descent made on Dublin before (he
authorities should have time to interfere. This scheme was
frustrated by information given to the government by the in*
former John Joseph Corydon, one of Stephens's most trusted
agents. Some insignificant outbreaks in the south and west of
Ireland brought " the rebellion of 1867 " to an ignominious close.
Most of the ringleaders were arrested, but although some of them
were sentenced to death none was executed. On the nth of
September 1867, Colonel Thomas J. Kelly, "deputy central
organizer of the Irish Republic," one of the most dangerous of
the Fenian conspirators, was arrested in Manchester, whither
he had gone from Dublin to attend a council of the English
" centres," together with a companion, Captain Deasy. A plot
to effect the rescue of these prisoners was hatched by Edward
O'Meaher Condon with other Manchester Fenians; and on the
1 8th of September, while Kelly and Deasy were being conveyed
through the city from the court-house, the prison van was
attacked by Fenians armed with revolvers, and in the scuffle
police-sergeant Brett, who was seated inside the van, was shot
dead. Condon, Allen, Larkin, Maguire and O'Brien, who had
taken a prominent part in the rescue, were arrested. All five
were sentenced to death; but Condon, who was an American
citizen, was respited at the request of the United Slates govern-
ment, his sentence being commuted to penal servitude for life,
and Maguire was granted a pardon. Allen, Larkin, and O'Brien
were hanged on the 23rd of November for the murder of Brett.
Attempts were made at the time, and have since been repeated,
to show that these men were unjustly sentenced, the contention
of their sympathizers being, first, that as " political offenders "
they should not have been treated as ordinary murderers; and,
secondly, that as they bad no deliberate intention to kill the
police-sergeant, the shot that caused his death having been fired
for the purpose of breaking open the lock of the van, the crime
was at worst that of manslaughter. But even if these pleas rest
on a correct statement of the facts they have no legal validity,
and they afford no warrant for the title of the " Manchester
martyrs " by which these criminals are remembered among the
more extreme nationalists in Ireland and America. Kelly and
Deasy escaped to the United States, where the former obtained
employment in the New York custom-bouse.
In the same month, November 2867, one Richard Burke, who
had been employed by the Fenians to purchase arms in Birming-
ham, was arrested and lodged in Clerkenwell prison in London.
While he was awaiting trial a wall of the prison was blown down
by gunpowder, the explosion causing the death of twelve persons,
and the maiming of some hundred and twenty others. This
outrage, for which Michael Barrett suffered the death penalty,
powerfully influenced W. E. Gladstone in deciding that the
Protestant Church of Ireland should be disestablished as a con-
cession to Irish disaffection. In 1870, Michael Davitt (q.v.) was
sentenced to fifteen years' penal servitude for participation in
the Fenian conspiracy; and before he was released on ticket of
leave the name Fenian had become practically obsolete, though
the " Irish Republican Brotherhood " and other organisations
25&
FENNEL—FENS
In Ireland and abroad carried on the same tradition and pursued
the same policy in later yean. In 1879, John Devoy, a member
of the Fenian Brotherhood, promoted a " new departure " in
America, by which the " physical force party " allied itself with
the " constitutional movement " under the leadership of C. S.
Parnell (q.v.); and the political conspiracy of the Fenians was
combined with the agrarian revolution inaugurated by the Land
League.
See William O'Connor Morris, Ireland from 1798 to 2898 (London,
1808) ; Two Centuries of Irish History, §691-1870, edited by R. Barry
O'Brien (London, 1907) ; Henri Le Caron, Twenty-five Years in the
Secret Service (London, 1 892) ; Patrick J . P. Tynan, The Irish National
Invineibles and their Times (London, 1696): lust in M'Carthy, A
History of our own Times (4 vols., London, 1880). (R. J. M.)
FENNEL, Foeniculum wlgare (also known as F. capillaceum),
a perennial plant of the natural order Umbelliferac, from a to
3 or (when cultivated) 4 ft. in height, having leaves three or four
times pinnate, with numerous linear or awl-shaped segments,
and glaucous compound umbels of about 15 or 30 rays, with
no involucres, and small yellow flowers, the petals incurved at
the tip. The fruit is laterally compressed, five-ridged, and has a
large single resin-canal or " vitta " under each furrow. The plant
appears to be of south European origin, but is now met with in
various parts of Britain and the rest of temperate Europe, and
in the west of Asia. The dried fruits of cultivated plants from
Malta have an aromatic taste and odour, and are used for the
preparation of fennel water, valued for its carminative properties.
It is given in doses of 1 to 2 or., the active principle being a
volatile oil which is probably the same as oil of anise. The
shoots of fennel are eaten blanched, and the seeds are used for
flavouring. The fennel seeds of commerce are of several sorts.
Sweet or Roman fennel seeds are the produce of a tall perennial
plant, with umbels of 25-30 rays, which is cultivated near Nismes
in the south of France; they are elliptical and arched in form,
about I in. long and a quarter as broad, and are smooth exter-
nally, and of a colour approaching a pale green. Shorter and
straighter fruits are obtained from the annual variety of F.
vtdgare known as F. Panmorium (Panmuhuri) or Indian fennel,
and are employed in India in curries, and for medicinal purposes.
Other kinds are the German or Saxon fruits, brownish-green in
colour, and between 1 and J in. in length, and the broader but
smaller fruits of the wild or bitter fennel of the south of France.
A variety of fennel, F. dulce, having the stem compressed at the
base, and the umbel 6-8 rayed, is grown in kitchen-gardens for
the sake of its leaves.
Giant fennel is the name applied to the' plant Ferula communis,
a member of the same natural order, and a fine herbaceous plant,
native in the Mediterranean region, where the pith of the stem
is used as tinder. Hog's or sow fennel is the species Peucedanum
officinale, another member of the Umbelliferae.
FENNER, DUDLEY (r. 1558-1587), English puritan divine,
was born in Kent and educated at Cambridge University.
There he became an adherent of Thomas Cartwright (1535-1603),
and publicly expounded his prcsbyterian views, with the result
that he was obliged to leave Cambridge without taking his degree.
For some months he seems to have assisted the vicar of Cran-
brook, Kent, but it is doubtful whether he received ordination.
He next followed Cartwright to Antwerp, and, having received
ordination according to rite of the Reformed church, assisted
Cartwright for several years in preaching to the English con-
gregation there. The leniency shown by Archbishop Grindal to
puritans encouraged him to return to England, and he became
curate of Cranbrook in 1 583. In the same year, however, he was
one of seventeen Kentish ministers suspended for refusing to sign
an acknowledgment of the queen's supremacy and of the authority
of the Prayer Book and articles. He was imprisoned for a time,
but eventually regained his liberty and spent the remainder of
his life as chaplain in the Reformed church at Middleburgh.
A list of his authentic works is given in Cooper's Athenae Canto-
brigienses (Cambridge, 1858-1861). They rank among the best
expositions of the principles of puritantsm.
FENNY STRATFORD, a market town in the Buckingham
parliamentary division of Buckinghamshire, England, 48 m.
N.W. by N. of London on a branch of the London & North-
western railway. Pop. of urban district (1001), 4709. It lies
in an open valley on the west (left) bank of the Ouzel, where the
great north-western road from London, the Roman Walling
Street, crosses the stream, and is x m. E. of Bletchley, an im-
portant junction on the main line of the North- Western railway.
The church of St Martin was built («. 1 730) on the site of an older
church at the instance of Dr Browne Willis, an eminent antiquary
(d. 1760), buried here; but the building has been greatly enlarged.
A custom instituted by Willis on St Martin's Day (November
nth) includes a service in the church, the firing of some small
cannon called the " Fenny Poppers,*' and other celebrations.
The trade of the town is mainly agricultural.
FENRIR, or Feneis, in Scandinavian mythology, a water*
demon in the shape of a huge wolf. He was the offspring of Loki
and the giantess Angurboda, who bore two other children,
Midgard the serpent, and Hel the goddess of death. Fenrir grew
so large that the gods were afraid of him and had him chained up.
But be broke the first two chains. The third, however, was
made of the sound of a cat's footsteps, a man's beard, the roots
of a mountain, a fish's breath and a bird's spittle. This magic
bond was too strong for him until Ragnarok (Judgment Day),
when he escaped and swallowed Odin and was in turn slain by
Vidar, the lalter's son.
FENS, 1 a district in the east of England, possessing a distinctive
history and peculiar characteristics. It. lies west and south of
the Wash, in Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire and
Norfolk, and extends over more than 70 m. in length (Lincoln to
Cambridge) and some 35 m. in maximum breadth (Stamford to
Brandon in Suffolk), its area being considerably over half a
million acres. Although low and flat, and seamed by innumerable
water-courses, the entire region is not, as the Roman name of
M etaris Aestuarium would imply, a river estuary, but a bay of the
North Sea, silted up, of which the Wash is the last remaining
portion. Hydrographically, the Fens embrace the lower pans
of the drainage-basins of the rivers Witham, Welland, Nene
and Great Ouse; and against these streams, as against the
ocean, they are protected by earthen embankments, 10 to 15 ft.
high. As a rule the drainage water is lifted off the Fens into
the rivers by means of steam-pumps, formerly by windmills.
General History. — According to fairly credible tradition, the
first systematic attempt to drain the Fens was made by the
Romans. They dug a catchwater drain (as the artificial fcnland
water-courses are called), the Caer or Car Dyke, from Lincoln to
Ramsey (or, according to Stukeley, as far as Cambridge), along
the western edge of the Fens, to carry off the precipitation of the
higher districts which border the fcnland, and constructed
alongside the Welland and on the seashore earthen embankments,
of which some 150 m. survive. Mr S. H. Miller is disposed to
credit the native British inhabitants of the Fens with having
executed certain of these works. The Romans also carried
causeways over the country. After their departure from
Britain in the first half of the 5th century the Fens fell into
neglect; and despite the preservation of the woodlands for the
purposes of the chase by the Norman and early Plantagenct
kings, and the unsuccessful attempt which Richard dc Rulos,
chamberlain of William the Conqueror, made to drain Deeping
Fen, the fenland region became almost everywhere waterlogged,
and relapsed to a great extent into a state of nature. In addition
to this it was ravaged by serious inundations of the sea, for
example, in the years 1178, 1248 (or 1250), 1288, 1322, 1335,
1467, 1571. Yet the fenland was not altogether a wilderness of
reed-grown marsh and watery swamp. At various spots, more
particularly in the north and in the south, there existed islands of
firmer and higher ground, resting generally on the boulder clays or
the Glacial epochs and on the inter- Glacial gravels of the Palaeo-
lithic age. In these isolated localities members of the monastic
1 The word " fen," a general term for low marshy land or bog, »
common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch ven or 90m, Ger. Fenne r
Fehn, Goth, fani, mud ; the Indo-European root is sees in Gr. w^Xo*.
mud. Lat. palus, marsh. The word bog " is from the Irish or
Gaelic bogach, formed from Celtic bog, soft, and meaning therefore
soft, swampy ground.
FENS
«57
eiders (especially at t later date the Cistercians) began to settle
after about the middle of the 7th century. At Medeshampstearf
(i*. Peterborough), Ely, Crowland, Ramsey, Tborney, Spald-
ing, Peakirk, Swineshead, Tattershall, Kirkstead, Bardney,
Sempringham, Bourne and numerous other places, they made
settlements and built churches, monasteries and abbeys. In
spite of the incursions of the predatory Northmen and Danes in
the at h and xoth centuries, and of the disturbances consequent
upon the establishment of the Camp of Refuge by Hcreward the
Wake .in the fens of the Isle of Ely in the nth century, these
scattered outposts continued to shed rays of civilisation across
the lonely Fenland down to the dissolution of the monasteries In
the reign of Henry VIII. Then they, too, were partly overtaken
by the fate which befell the rest of the Fens; and it was only in
the end of the 1 St hand the beginning of the 19th century that the
complete drainage and reclamation of the Fen region was finally
effected. Attempts on a considerable scale were indeed made to
reclaim them in the 17th century, and the work as a whole forms
oae of the most remarkable chapters of the industrial history of
England. Thus, the reclamation of the Witham Fens was taken
sp by Sir Anthony Thomas, the earl of Lindsey, Sir William
KJ'lb'grew, King Charles L, and others in ioji and succeeding
yeara; and that of the Deeping or Welland Fens in 1638 by Sir
W. Ayloff, Sir Anthony Thomas and other " adventurers," after
one Thomas Lovell had ruined himself in a similar attempt in the
reign of Queen Eliaabcth. The earl of Lindsey received 24,000
acres for his work. Charles I., declaring himself the " under-
taker " of the Holland Fen, claimed 8000 out of its a j,ooo acres
as his share.
A larger work than these, however, was the drainage of the
fens of the Nene and the Great Ouse, comprehending the wide
tract known as the Bedford level This district took name from
the agreement of Francis, earl of Bedford, the principal land-
holder, and thirteen other adventurers, with Charles I. in 1634, to
drain the level, on condition of receiving 95,000 acres of the
reclaimed land. A partial attempt at drainage had been made
(1478-1490) by John Morton, when bishop of Ely,whoconstructed
Morton's Learn, from Peterborough to the sea, to cany the
waters of the Nene, but this also proved a failure. An act was
passed, moreover, in 1602 for effecting its reclamation; and Lord
Chief-Justice Popham (whose name is preserved in Popham's
Eau, S.E. of Wisbech}' and a company of Londoners began the
work in 1605; but the first effectual attempt was that of 1634.
The work was largely directed by the Dutch engineer Cornelius
Vermuyden, who had begun work in the Fens in 162 x, and was
r night rd in 1628.
Three years after the agreement of the earl of Bedford and his
partners with the king, after an outlay of £100,000 on the
part of the company, the contract was annulled, on the fraudu-
lent plea that the works were insufficient; and an offer was
made by King Charles to undertake its completion on condition
of receiving 57,000 acres in addition to the amount originally
agreed on. This unjust attempt was frustrated by the breaking
out of the civil war; and no further attempt at drainage was
made until 1649, when the parliament reinstated the earl of
Bedford's successor in his father's rights. After an additional
outlay of £300,000, the adventurers received 95,000 acres of
reclaimed land, according to the contract, which, however, fell
far short of repaying the expense of the undertaking. In 1664 a
royal charter was obtained to incorporate the company, which
still exists, and carries on the concern under a governor, 6
bailifis, 20 conservators, and a commonalty, each of whom must
possess x 00 acres of land in the level, and has a voice in the election
of officers. The conservators must each possess not less than 280
acres, the governor and bailiffs each 400 acres. The original
adventurers had allotments of land according to their interest of
the original 95,000 acres; but Charles II., on granting the
charter, took care to secure to the crown a lot of 12,000 acres out
of the 95,000, which, however, is held under the directors,
whereas the allotments are not held in common, though subject
to the laws of the corporation. The level was divided in 1697 into
three parts, called the North, Middle, and South Levels— the
second being separated from Urn others by the Nene and OH
Bedford rivers.
These attempts failed owing to the determined opposition of
the native fenmen (" stilt-walkers "), whom the drainage and
appropriation of the unenclosed fenlands would deprive of
valuable and long-enjoyed rights of commonage, turbary (turf-
cutting), fishing, fowling, &c. Oliver Cromwell is said to have put
himself at their head and succeeded in stopping all the operations.
When be became Protector, however, he sanctioned Vermuyden's
plans, and Scottish prisoners taken at Dunbar, and Dutch
prisoners taken by Blake in his victory over Van Tromp, were
employed as the workers. Vermuyden's system, however, was
exclusively Dutch; and while perfectly suited to Holland it did
not meet all the necessities of East Anglia. He confined His
attention almost exclusively to the inland draining and embank-
ments, and did not provide sufficient outlet for the waters them-
selves into the sea.
Holland and other Fens on the west side of the Witham were
finally drained in 1767, although not without much rioting and
lawlessness; and a striking account of the wonderful improve-
ments effected by a generation later is recorded in Arthur Young's
General View of the Agriculture of the County of Lincoln (London,
1 799). The East, West and Wildmore Fens on the east side of the
Witham were drained in 1801-1807 by John Rennie, who carried
off the precipitation which fell on the higher grounds by catch-
water drains, on the principle of the Roman Car Dyke, and
improved the outfall of the river, so that it might the more easily
discharge the Fen water which flowed or was pumped into it.
The Welland or Deeping Fens were drained in 1794, 1801, 1824,
1837 and other years. Almost the only portion of the original
wild Fens now remaining is Wicken Fen, which lies east of the
river Cam and south-east of the Isle of Ely.
The Fen Rivers.— The preservation of the Fens depends in an
intimate and essential manner upon the preservation of the
rivers, and especially of their banks. The Witham, known
originally as the Grant Avon, also called the Lindis by Leyland
(Itinerary, vol. vii. p. 41), and in Jean Ingelow's High Tide ontha
Lincolnshire Coast, is some 80 m. long, and drains an area of 1079
sq. m. It owes its present condition to engineering works carried
out in the years 1763-1704, 1865, 1881, and especially in t88o-
1884, In 1500 the river was dammed immediately above Boston
by a large sluice, the effect of which was not only to hinder free
navigation up to Lincoln (to which city sea-going vessels used to
penetrate in the 14th and 15th centuries), but also to choke the
channel below Boston with sedimentary matter. The sluice, or
rather a new structure made in 1764-1766, remains; but the
river below Boston has been materially improved (1880-1884),
first by the construction of a new outfall, 3 m. in length, whereby
the channel was not only straightened, but its current carried
directly into deep water, without having to battle against the
often shifting sandbanks of the Wash; and secondly, by the
deepening and regulation of the river-bed up to Boston. The
Welland, which is about 70 m. long, and drains an area of 760 sq.
m., was made to assume its present shape and direction in 1620,
1638, 1650, 1794, and 1835 and following years. The most
radical alteration took place in 1794, when a new outfall was
made from the confluence of the Glen (30 m. long) to the Wash, a
distance of nearly 3 m. The Nene, 90 m. long, and draining an
area of some 1077 sq. m., was first regulated by Bishop Morton,
and it was further improved in 1631, 1721, and especially, under
plans by Rennie and Telford, in 1827-1830 and 183a. The work
done from 172 1 onward consisted in straightening the lower
reaches of the stream and in directing and deepening the outfall.
The Ouse (q.v.) or Great Ouse, the largest of the fenland rivers,
seems to have been deflected, at some unknown period, from a
former channel connecting via the Old Croft river with the Nene,
into the Little Ouse below Lit tic port; and the courses of the two
streams are now linked together by an elaborate network of
artificial drains, the results of the great engineering works
carried out in the Bedford Level in the 17th century. The old
channel, starting from Earith, and known as the Old West river,
carries only a small stream until, at a point above Ely, it joins the
25 8
FENS
Cam. The salient features of the plan executed by Vermuyden 1
for the carl of Bedford in the years 1632-1653 were as follows:
taking the division of the area made in 1607-1698 into (i.) the
North Level, between the river Welland and the river Nene; (ii.)
the Middle Level, between the Nene and the Old Bedford river
(which was made at this time, i.t. 1630); and (iii.) the South
Level, from the Old Bedford river to the south-eastern border of
the fenland. In t he North Level the Welland was embanked, t he
New South Eau, Peakirk Drain, and Shire Drain made, and the
existing main drains deepened and regulated. In the Middle
Level the Nene was embanked from Peterborough to Cuyhirn,
Map of the Pent
also the Ouse from Earith to Over, both places at the south-west
edge of the fenland; the New Bedford river was made from
Earith to Denver, and the north side of the Old Bedford river and
the south side of the New Bedford river were embanked, a long
narrow " wash," or overflow basin, being left between them;
several large feeding-drains were dug, including the Forty Foot or
Vcrmuyden's Drain, the Sixteen Foot river, BevilTs river, and the
Twenty Foot river; and a new outfall was made for the Nene,
and Denver sluice (to dam the old circuitous Ousc) constructed.
In the South Level Sam's Cut was dug and the rivers were
embanked. Since that period the mouth of the Ouse has been
straightened above and below King's Lynn (1795-1821), a new
straight Cut made between Ely and Littleport, the North Level
Main Drain and the Middle Level Drain constructed, and the
1 The principles upon which he proceeded are set forth in his
Discourse touching the Draining of the Great Fennes (1642), reprinted
in Fenland Notes and Queries (1898), pp. 26-38 and 81-S7.
meres of Ramsey, Whittlesey (1851-1853), &c, drained aad
brought under cultivation. A considerable barge traffic is
maintained on the Ouse below St Ives, on the Cam up to Cam-
bridge, the Lark and Little Ouse, and the network of navigable
cuts between the New Bedford river and Peterborough. The
Nene, though locked up to Northampton, and connected from
that point with the Grand Junction canal, is practically unused
above Wansford, and traffic is small except below Wisbech.
The effect of the drainage schemes has been to lower the level
of the fenlands generally by some 18 in., owing to the shrinkage of
the peat consequent upon the extraction of so much of its
___^ contained water; and this again has tended, on the one
jg^^l hand, to diminish the speed and erosive power of the
fenland rivers, and, on the other, to choke up their
respective outfalls with the sedimentary matters which
they themselves sluggishly roll seawards.
"£^jfeS^--^1 Tke Mm*.— From this it will be plain that tnc Wash
— L ~^ Rr ^ a -- = -* (q. v .) is being silted up by riverine detritus. The forma-
tion of new dry land, known at first as " marsh/' goes
on, however, but slowly. During the centuries since
the Romans are believed to have constructed the sea-
banks which shut out the ocean, it is computed that
an area of not more than 60,000 to 70,000 acres has
been won from the Wash, embanked, drained and
brought more or less under cultivation. The greatest
gain has been at the direct head of the bay, between
the Welland and the Great Ouse, where the average
annual accretion is estimated at xo to 11 fineal feet.
On the Lincolnshire coast, farther north, the average
annual gain has been not quite 2 ft.; whilst on the
opposite Norfolk coast it has been little more than 6 in.
annually. On the whole, some 35,000 acres were enclosed
in the 17th century, about 19,000 acres during the 18th,
and about 10,000 acres during the 19th century.
The first comprehensive scheme for regulating the
outfall channels and controlling the currents of the
Fen rivers seems to be that proposed by Nathaniel
Rinderley in 1751. His idea 1 was to link the Nene with
the Ouse by means of a new cut to be made through the
marshland, and guide the united stream through a
further new cut "under Wotten and Wolvcrton
through the Marshes till over against Inglestfaorp 01
Snetsham, and there discharge itself immediately into
the Deeps of Lyn Channel." In a similar way the
Witham, " when it has received the Welland from
Spalding," was to be carried " to some convenient place
over against Wrangle or Friskney, where it may be dis-
charged into Boston Deeps." This scheme was still
further improved upon by Sir John Rennie, who, in a
report which he drew up in 1839, recommended that the
outfalls of all four rivers should be directed by means
of fascined channels into one common outfall, and that
the land lying between them should be enclosed as
rapidly as it consolidated. By this means he esti-
mated that 150,000 acres would be won to cultivation.
But beyond one or two abortive or half-hearted attempts,
e.g. by the Lincolnshire Estuary Company in 1851, and in
1876 and subsequent years by the Norfolk Estuary Company,
no serious effort has ever Been made to execute either of these
schemes.
Climate— The annual mean temperature, as observed at Boston,
in the period 1864-1885, is 48-7* F.; January, 36-5*; July,
628°; and as observed at Wisbech, for the period 1861-1875,
49- 1°. The average mean rainfall for the seventy-one years
1 830-1900, at Boston, was 22-9 in.; at Wisbech for the fifteen
years 1860-1875, H # a in., and for the fifteen years 1866-1880,
26-7 in.; and at Maxcy near Peterborough, 2 17 for the nine-
teen years 1882-1900. Previous to the drainage of the Fens,
ague, rheumatism, and other ailments incidental to a damp
1 Set forth in The Present State of the Navigation of Iko Towns of
Lyn, Wisbeach, Spalding and Boston (2nd ed., London, 1851), pp. &a
acq.
FENTON, EDWARD— FENTON, ELIJAH
cfimate were widely prevalent, but at ihe present day the Fen
country is as healthy as the rest of England; indeed, there is
reason to believe that it is conducive to longevity.
Historical Notes.— The earliest inhabitants of this region of
whom we have record were the British tribes of the Iceni con-
federation; the Romans, who subdued them, called them
Concent or Coritani. In Saxon times the inhabitants of the
Fens were known {e.g. to Bcde) as Gyrvii, and are described as
traversing the country on stilts. Macaulay, writing of the year
x68o, gives to them the name of Breedlings, and describes them
as " a half-savage population . . . who led an amphibious life,
sometimes wading, sometimes rowing, from one islet of firm
ground to another." In the end of the xSth century those who
dwelt in. the remoter parts were scarcely more civilized, being
known to their neighbours by the expressive term of " Slodgers."
These rude fen-dwellers have in all ages been animated by a
tenacious love of liberty. Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, the
worthy foe of the Romans; Hereward the Saxon, who defied
William the Conqueror; Cromwell and his Ironsides, are repre-
sentative of the fenman's spirit at its best. The fen peasantry
showed a stubborn defence of their rights, not only when they
resisted the encroachments and selfish appropriations of the
u adventurers " in the 17th century, in the Bedford Level, in
Deeping Fen, and in the Witham Fens, and again in the iSth
century, when Holland Fen was finally enclosed, but also in the
Peasants' Rising of 1381, and in the Pilgrimage of Grace in the
reign of Henry VIII. So long as the Fens were unenclosed and
thickly studded with immense " forests " of reeds, and innumer-
able marshy pools and " rows " (channels connecting the pools),
they abounded in wildfowl, being regularly frequented by various
specks of wild duck and geese, garganies, polchards, shovelers,
teals, widgeons, peewits, terns, grebes, coots, water-hens, water-
raua, red-shanks, lapwings, god- wits, whimbrels, cranes, bitterns,
herons, swans, ruffs and reeves. Vast numbers of these were
taken in decoys 1 and sent to the London markets. At the same
time equally vast quantities of tame geese were reaped in the
Fens, and driven by road* to London to be killed at Michaelmas.
Their down, feathers and quills (for pens) were also a considerable
source of profit. The Fen waters, too, abounded in fresh-water
ah, especially pike, perch, bream, tench, rod, dace, roach, eels
and stick knacks The Witham, on whose banks so many
monasteries stood, was particularly famous for its pike; as
Ycre certain of the monastic waters in the southern part of the
Fens for their eels. The soil of the reclaimed Fens is of excep-
tional fertility, being almost everywhere rich in humus, which is
capable not only of producing very heavy crops of wheat and
ether corn, but also of fattening live-stock with peculiar ease.
Lincolnshire oxen were famous in Elisabeth's time, and are
specially singled out by Arthur Young,' the breed being the
shorthorn. Of the crops peculiar to the region it must suffice to
mention the old British dye-plant woad, which is still grown on a
small scale in two or three parishes immediately south of Boston;
hemp, which was extensively grown in the 18th century, but is
not now planted; and peppermint, which is occasionally grown,
1 1. at Deeping and Wisbech. In the second half of the 19th
century the Fen country acquired a certain celebrity in the world
c4 sport from the encouragement it gave to speed skating.
Whenever practicable, championship and other racing meetings
are held, chiefly at Litlleport and Spalding. The little village
o: Welney. between Ely and WisbecR, has produced some of the
most notable of the typical Fen skaters, e.g. " Turkey " Smart
and " Fish " Smart.
Apart from fragmentary ruins of the former monastic buildings
of Crowland, Rirkstead and other places, the Fen country of
Lincolnshire (division of Holland) is especially remarkable for
the tiae and beauty of its parish churches, mostly built of
Bamach rag from Northamptonshire. Moreover, in the posses-
1 For descriptions of these see Oldfield, Appendix, pp. 2-4. of
A Topographical and Historical Account of Wamfieet (London, 1829) ;
acd Miller and Skertchly, The Fenland. pp. 369-375-
* See De Foe's account in A Tour through the Eastern Counties,
1722 (i734-«7»5)-
* Gcnerol View, pp. 174-104 and 288-304,
. *59
sion of such buildings as Ely cathedra! and the parish church
of King's Lynn, other parts of the Fens must be considered
only less rich in ecclesiastical architecture. Using these fine
opportunities, the Fen folk' have long cultivated the science
of campanology.
Dialed.— Owing to the comparative remoteness of their
geographical situation, and the relatively late period at which
the Fens were definitely enclosed, the Fenmen have preserved
several dialectal features of a distinctive character, not the least
interesting being their close kinship with the classical English
of the present day. Professor E. E. Freeman {Longman's
Magazine, 1875) reminded modern Englishmen that it was a
native of the Fens, "a Bourne man, who gave the English
language its present shape." This was Robert Manning, or
Robert of Brunne, who in or about 1303 wrote The Handlynge
Synne. Tennyson's dialect poems, The Northern Farmer, &c,
do not reproduce the pure Fen dialect, but rather the dialect of
the Wold district of rru'd LJtitoltiAhire.
Ai - ■ iinicr-i jas._ — SU VVitJfert Dugdjk, Pfiifory nf Jmbanking and
Drm/iitrt (*od ed . London, 1771)* \W. Histoid*. A I/iitoriceJ Account
of tkt iirtut In ft iLynn. 1*94); W, Chapman. Faets and Remarks
rchtm fo iht Witham and tht HVtfW (frifton, ittou): & Wells,
Ilvttry and Drainorr of ihf Crtai Lr*rt of ike Fens (2 vols., London,
182* and iSm); I - Thomp+on, History #f Boston (Boston. 1856);
Ba'- U in L»i k* m, Pn fieri on the Drainage vf the Fens, read before the
Sociccy of Engineers, 3*d November i^6a ^ K. and A» Goodman.
Handbook of Fen Skating (London, iS8j); Moore, Associated
Ari'u lec t :. rat St * i rtu t ' Reports a nd Pa pert f 1 803 ) ; Fenland Notes
ani Qutrtti. and Lintel* 1 hire Nates and Queries, passim; W. H.
VVI1.-1 1 it. A History of the Poms vf Sv**tk Lrnt(dnjkirr, pp. 333 et seq.
(2nd cdL, U«,tti>i\ i8y7). Variuu* phatc* of Fen life, mostly of the
Cast, arc describe J in C barks, KingA-y's llrreward the Wake (Cam-
ri 1 Boft) j Baring Gould'* Cktap-Jatk 7i'to (London, 1893);
ManviMr Frnn» Ditto' the Fens (Londan. IBS?): and J. T. BealSy's
A *Jn ,J ike Fen (London. I * 3 j \J. T. BbJ
FENTON, EDWARD (d. 1603), English navigator, son of
Henry Fenton and brother of Sir Geoffrey Fenton (0. r.), was a
native of Nottinghamshire. In 1 577 he sailed, in command of
the " Gabriel," with Sir Martin Frobishcr*s second expedition
for the discovery of the north-west passage, and in the following
year he took part as second in command in Frobisher's third
expedition, his ship being the " Judith." He was then employed
in Ireland for a time, but in 1582 he was put in charge of an
expedition which was to sail round the Cape of Good Hope to the
Moluccas and China, his instructions being to obtain any know-
ledge of the north-west passage that was possible without
hindrance to his trade. On this unsuccessful voyage he got
no farther than Brazil, and throughout he was engaged in
quarrelling with his officers, and especially with his lieutenant,
William Hawkins, the nephew of Sir John Hawkins, whom he had
in irons when he arrived back in the Thames. In 1 588 he had
command of the " Mary Rose," one of the ships of the fleet that
was formed to oppose the Armada. He died fifteen years after-
wards.
FENTON, ELIJAH (1683-1730), English poet, was bom at
ShcHon near Neweastle-undcr-Lyme, of an old Staffordshire
family, on the 15th of May 1683. He graduated from Jesus
College, Cambridge, m 1704, but was prevented by religious
scruples from taking orders. He accompanied the earl of Orrery
to Flanders as private secretary, and on returning to England
became assistant in a school at Headlcy, Surrey, being soon
afterwards appointed master of the free grammar school at
Scvenoaks in Kent. In 1710 he resigned his appointment in the
expectation of a place from Lord Bolingbroke, but was dis-
appointed. He then became tutor to Lord Broghill, son of his
patron Orrery. Fenton is remembered as the coadjutor of
Alexander Tope in ras translation of the Odyssey. He was re-
sponsible for the first, fourth, nineteenth and twentieth books, for
which he received £300. He died at East Hampstead, Berkshire,
on the 16th of July 1730. He was buried in the parish church,
and his epitaph was written by Pope.
Fenton also published Oxford and Cambridge Miscellany Poems
(1707); Miscellaneous Poems (17.17); Mariamne. a tragedy 07*3)5
an edition (1725) of Milton's poems, and one of Waller (1729) with
elaborate notes. Sec \V. \V. Lloyd, Elijak Fenton, his roelry and
Friends (1894X
260
FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY— FEOFFMENT
FENTON, SIR GEOFFREY (c. 1539-1608), EngUsh writer and
politician, was the son of Henry Fenton, oi Nottinghamshire.
He was brother of Edward Fenton the navigator. He is said
to have visited Spain and Italy in his youth; possibly he went
to Paris in Sir Thomas Hoby's train in 1566, for be was living
there In 1567, when he wrote Certaine tragicall discourses written
oute of Frencke and Latin. This book is a free translation of
Francois de Belleforest's French rendering of Matteo Bandello's
Novelle. Till 1579 Fenton continued his literary labours,
publishing iionophylo in 1573, Golden epistles gathered out of
Guevarae*s vorkes as other authors . . . 1575, and various re-
ligious tracts of strong protestant tendencies. In 1 579 appeared
the Hist or ie of Guicciardini, translated out of French by G. F.
and dedicated to Elizabeth. Through Lord Burghley he ob-
tained, in 1580, the post of secretary to the new lord deputy of
Ireland, Lord Grey de Wilton, and thus became a fellow worker
with the poet, Edmund Spenser. From this time Fenton
abandoned literature and became a faithful if somewhat un-
scrupulous servant of the crown. He was a bigoted protestant,
longing to use the rack against " the diabolical! secte of Rome,"
and even advocating the assassination of the queen's most
dangerous subjects. He won Elizabeth's confidence, and the
hatred of all his fellow-workers, by keeping her informed of
every one's doings in Ireland. In 1587 Sir John Perrot arrested
Fenton, but the queen instantly ordered his release. Fenton
was knighted in 1589, and in 1590-1591 he was in London as
commissioner on the impeachment of Perrot. Full of dislike
oi the Scots and of James VI. (which he did not scruple to utter),
on the latter'* accession Fenton's post of secretary was in danger,
but Burghley exerted himself in his favour, and in 1604 it was
confirmed to him for life, though be had to share it with Sir
Richard Coke. Fenton died in Dublin on the 19th of October
x6o8, and was buried in St Patrick's cathedral. He married in
June 1585, Alice, daughter of Dr Robert Weston, formerly
lord chancellor of Ireland, and widow of Dr Hugh Brady, bishop
of Meath, by whom he had two children, a son, Sir William Fenton,
and a daughter, Catherine, who in 1603 married Richard Boyle,
xst earl of Cork.
Bibliography. — Hari Soc. publications, vol. iv., Visitation of
Nottinghamshire, 1871; Roy. Hist. MSS. Comm. (particularly
Hatfield collection); Calendar of State papers. Ireland (very full),
domestic, Carew papers; Lismore papers, ed. A. B. Grosart (1886-
1888); Certaine tragicail Discourses, ed. R. L. Doualas (a vols.,
1898), Tudor Translation series, vols, xix., xx. (inirod.),
FENTON, LAVINIA (1708-1760), English actress, was prob-
ably the daughter of a naval lieutenant named Beswick, but
she bore the name of her mother's husband. Her first appear-
ance was as Monimia in Otway's Orphans, in 1726 at the Hay-
market. She then joined the company of players at the theatre
in Lincoln's Inn Fields, where her success and beauty made her
the toast of the beaux. It was in Gay's Beggar's Opera, as Polly
Peachum, that Miss Fenton made her greatest success. Her
pictures were in great demand, verses were written to her and
books published about her, and she was the most talked-of person
in London. Hogarth's picture shows her in one of the scenes,
with the duke of Bolton in a box. After appearing in several
comedies, and then in numerous repetitions of the Beggar* s Opera,
she ran away with her lover Charles Paulet, 3rd duke of Bolton,
a man much older than herself, who, after the death of his wife
in 1 751, married her. Their three children all died young. The
duchess survived her husband and died on the 24th of January
176a
FENTON, a town of Staffordshire, England, on the North
Staffordshire railway, adjoining the cast side of Stoke-on-Trent,
in which parliamentary and municipal borough it is included.
Pop. (1891) 16,998; (1901) 22,742. The manufacture of earthen-
ware common to the district (the Potteries) employs the bulk
oi the large industrial population.
FENUGREEK, in botany, Trigonella Foenum-graecum (so
called from the name given to it by the ancients, who used it as
fodder for cattle), a member of a genus of leguminous herbs very
similar in habit and in most of their characters to the species of
the genus Uedicago. The leaves are formed of three obovate
leaflets, the middle one of which is stalked; the flowers are
solitary, or in clusters of two or three, and have a campanulate,
5 -deft calyx; and the pods are many-seeded, cylindrical or
flattened, and straight or only slightly curved. The genus is
widely diffused over the south of Europe, West and Central
Asia, and the north of Africa, and is represented by several
species in Australia. Fenugreek is indigenous to south-eastern
Europe and western Asia, and is cultivated in the Mediterranean
region, parts of central Europe, and in Morocco, and largely
in Egypt and in India. It bears a sickle-shaped pod, containing
from zo to 20 seeds, from which 6% of a fetid, fatty and bitter
oil can be extracted by ether. In India the fresh plant is em-
ployed as an esculent. The seed is an ingredient in curry
powders, and is used for flavouring cattle foods. It was formerly
much esteemed as a medicine, and is still in repute in veterinary
practice.
FENWICK, SIR JOHN (c. 164 5- 1697), English conspirator,
was the eldest son of Sir William Fenwick, or Fenwicke, a
member of an old Northumberland family. He entered the army,
becoming major-general in 1688, but before this date he had been
returned in succession to his father as one of the members of
parliament for Northumberland, which county he represented
from 1 67 7 to 1687. He was a strong partisan of King James II . ,
and in 1685 was one of the principal supporters of the act of
attainder against the duke of Monmouth; but he remained in
England when William III. ascended the throne three years
later. He began at once to plot against the new king, for which
he underwent a short imprisonment in 1689. Renewing his
plots on his release, he publicly insulted Queen Mary in 1691,
and it is practically certain that he was implicated in the schemes
for assassinating William which came to light in 1695 and 1606.
After the seizure of his fellow-conspirators, Robert Charnock
and others, he remained in hiding until the imprudent conduct
of his friends in attempting to induce one of the witnesses against
him to leave the country led to his. arrest in June in 1696. To
save himself he offered to reveal all he knew about the Jacobite
conspiracies; but his confession was a farce, being confined to
charges against some of the leading Whig noblemen, which were
damaging, but not conclusive. By this time his friends had
succeeded in removing one of the two witnesses, and in these
circumstances it was thought that the charge of treason must
fail. The government, however, overcame this difficulty by
introducing a bill of attainder, which after a long and acrimonious
discussion passed through both Houses of Parliament. His wife
persevered in her attempts to save his life, but her efforts were
fruitless, and Fenwick was beheaded in London on the 28th of
January 1697, with the same formalities as were usually observed
at the execution of a peer. By his wife, Mary (d. x 708) , daughter
of Charles Howard, 1st earl of Carlisle, he had three sons and one
daughter. Macaulay says that " of all the Jacobites, the most
desperate characters not excepted, he (Fenwick) was the only
one for whom William felt an intense personal aversion "; and
it is interesting to note that Fenwick's hatred of the king is said
to date from the time when he was serving in Holland, and was
reprimanded by William, then prince of Orange.
FEOFFMENT, in English law, during the feudal period, th<
usual method of granting or conveying a freehold or fee. For the
derivation of the word see Fief and Fes. The essential element*
were livery of seisin (delivery of possession), which consisted ir
formally giving to the feoffee on the land a clod or turf, or 1
growing twig, as a symbol of the transfer of the land, and words b)
the feoffor declaratory of his intent to deliver possession to th<
feoffee with a " limitation " of the estate intended to be trans
f erred. This was called livery in deed. Livery in lam was mad<
not on but in sight of this land, the feoffor saying to the feoffee
" I give you that land; enter and take possession." Livery 11
law, in order to pass the estate, had to be perfected by entry b]
the feoffee during the joint lives of himself and the feoffor. I
was usual to evidence the feoffment by writing in a charter o
deed of feoffment; but writing was not essential until th
Statute of Frauds; now, by the Real Property Act 1845, 1
conveyance of real property is void unless evidenced by deed, am
FERDINAND
261
thus feoffments have been rendered unnecessary and superfluous.
All corporeal hereditaments were by that act declared to be in
pv.nl as well as litery, i.e. they could be granted by deed without
Every. A feoffment might be a tortious conveyance, ix. if a
person attempted to give to the feoffee a greater estate than he
himself had in the land, he forfeited the estate of which he was
seised. (See Conveyancing; Real Peopmty.)
FBRDDfAND (Span. Fernando or Hernando; ItaL Ferdi-
nand* or FerranU\ in O. H. Ger. Herinand, i.e. " brave in the
host ," from O. H. G. Heri, "army/ 1 A.S. here, Mod. Ger. H<er,and
the Goth, nanfyjan, " to dare "), a name borne at various times by
many European sovereigns and princes, the more important of
whom are noticed below in the following order: emperors, kings
of Naples, Portugal, Spain (Castile, Leon and Aragon) and the
two Sicilies; then the grand duke of Tuscany, the prince of
Bulgaria, the duke of Brunswick and the elector of Cologne.
FEBDISAMD I. (1503-1564), Roman emperor, was born at
AkaUL de Henares on the 10th of March 1503, his father being
Philip the Handsome, son of the emperor Maximilian I., and his
mother Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, king and
queen of Castile and Aragon. Philip died in 1 506 and Ferdinand,
educated in Spain, was regarded with especial favour by his
maternal grandfather who wished to form a Spanish-Italian
kingdom for his namesake. This plan came to nothing, and the
same fate attended a suggestion made after the death of Maxi-
milian in 15x9 that Ferdinand, and not his elder brother Charles,
afterwards the emperor Charles V., should succeed to the imperial
throne. Charles, however, secured the Empire and the whole of
the lands of Maximilian and Ferdinand, while the younger
brother was perforce content with a subordinate position. Yet
some provision must be made for Ferdinand. In April 1521 the
emperor granted to him the archduchies and duchies of upper
and lower Austria, Carinthia, Styria and Carniola, adding soon
afterwards the county of Tirol and the hereditary possessions of
the Habsburgs in<south~western Germany. About the same time
the archduke was appointed to govern the duchy of Wurttemberg,
which bad come into the possession of Charles V. ; and in May
152 1 he was married at Linz to Anna (d. 1547), a daughter of
Ladislaos, king of Hungary and Bohemia, a union which had been
arranged some years before by the emperor Maximilian. In 1521
also he was made president of the council of regency (Reichs-
refimenJ), appointed to govern Germany during the emperor's
absence, and the next five years were occupied with imperial
business, in which he acted as his brother's representative, and in
the government of the Austrian lands.
In Austria and the neighbouring duchies Ferdinand sought at
first to stqmress the reformers and their teaching, and this was
possibly one reason why he had some difficulty in quelling
risings in the districts under his rule after the Peasant*' War
broke oat in 1524. But a new field was soon opened for his
ambition. In August 1526 his childless brother-in-law, Louis II.,
king of Hungary and Bohemia, was killed at the battle of
Mohacs, and the archduke at once claimed both kingdoms, both
by treaty and by right of his wife. Taking advantage of the
divisions among his opponents, he was chosen king of Bohemia in
October x 526, and crowned at Prague in the following February,
but in Hungary he was less successful. John Zapolya, supported
by the national party and soon afterwards by the Turks, offered
a sturdy resistance, and although Ferdinand was chosen king at
Pressburg in December 1526, and after defeating Zapolya at
Tokay was crowned at Stuhlweissenburg in November 1527, he
was unable to take possession of the kingdom. The Bavarian
Witteisbachs, incensed at not securing the Bohemian throne, were
secretly intriguing with his foes; the French, after assisting
spasmodically, made a formal alliance with Turkey in 1535; and
Zapolya was a very useful centre round which the enemies of the
Habsburgs were not slow to gather. A truce made in 1533 was
soon broken, and the war dragged on until 1538, when by the
treaty of Grosswardein, Hungary was divided between the
claimants. The kingly title was given to Zapolya, but Ferdinand
was to foDow him on the throne. Before this, in January 1 531, he
had been chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at Cologne,
and his coronation took place a few days later at Aix-la-Ghapeile.
He had thoroughly earned this honour by his loyalty to his
brother, whom he had represented at several diets. la religious
matters the king was now inclined, probably owing to the Turkish
danger, to steer a middle course between the contending parties,
and in 1532 he agreed to the religious peace of Nuremberg,
receiving in return from the Protestants some assistance for the
war against the Turks. In 1534, however, his prestige suffered a
severe rebuff. Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and his associates had
succeeded in conquering Wurttemberg on behalf of its exiled
duke, Ulrich (g.v.), and, otherwise engaged, neither Charles nor
Ferdinand could send much help to their lieutenants. They
were consequently obliged to consent to the treaty of Cadan
made in June 1534, by which the German king recognized
Ulrich as duke of Wurttemberg, on condition that be held his
duchy under Austrian suzerainty.
In Hungary the peace of 1538 was not permanent When
Zapolya died in July 1540 a powerful faction refused to admit
the right of Ferdinand to succeed him, and put forward his young
son John Sigismund as a candidate for the throne. The cause of
John Sigismund was espoused by the Turks and by Ferdinand's
other enemies, and, unable to get any serious assistance from the
imperial diet, the king repeatedly sought to make peace with the
sultan, but his envoys were haughtily repulsed. In 1544,
however, a short truce was made. This was followed by others,
and in 1547 one was concluded for five years, but only on con-
dition that Ferdinand paid tribute for the small part of Hungary
which remained in his hands. The struggle was renewed in 1551
and was continued in the same desultory fashion until 1562, when
a truce was made which lasted during thercmainderof Ferdinand's
lifetime. During the war of the league of Schmalkalden in 1546
and 1547 the king had taken the field primarily to protect
Bohemia, and after the conclusion of the war he put down a
rising in this country with some rigour. He appears during
these years to have governed his lands with vigour and success,
but in imperial politics he was merely the representative and
spokesman of the emperor. About 1546, however, he began to
take up a more independent position. Although Charles had
crushed the league of Schmalkalden he had refused to restore
Wurttemberg to Ferdinand; and he gave further offence by
seeking to secure the succession of his son Philip, afterwards king
of Spain, to the imperial throne. Ferdinand naturally objected,
but in x 551 his reluctant consent was obtained to the plan that, on
the proposed abdication of Charles, Philip should be chosen king
of the Romans, and should succeed Ferdinand himself as emperor.
Subsequent events caused the scheme to be dropped, but it had a
somewhat unfortunate sequel for Charles, as during the short war
between the emperor and Maurice, elector of Saxony, in 1553
Ferdinand's attitude was rather that of a spectator and mediator
than of a partisan. There seems, however, to be no truth in the
suggestion that he acted treacherously towards his brother, and
was in alliance with his foes. On behalf of Charles he negotiated
the treaty of Passau with Maurice in 1552, and in 1555 after the
conduct of imperial business had virtually been made over to him,
and harmony had been restored between the brothers, he was
responsible for the religious peace of Augsburg. Early in 1558
Charles carried out his intention to abdicate the imperial throne,
and on the 24th of March Ferdinand was crowned as bis successor
at Frankfort. Pope Paul IV. would not recognize the new
emperor, but his successor Pius IV. did so in 1559 through the
mediation of Philip of Spain. The emperor's short reign was
mainly spent in seeking to settle the religious differences of
Germany, and in efforts to prosecute the Turkish war more
vigorously. His hopes at one time centred round the council of
Trent which resumed its sittings in 1562, but he was unable to
induce the Protestants to be represented. Although he held
firmly to the Roman Catholic Church he sought to obtain
tangible concessions to her opponents; but he refused to
conciliate the Protestants by abrogating the clause concerning
ecclesiastical reservation in the peace of Augsburg, and all his
efforts to bring about reunion were futile. He did indeed secure
the privilege of communion in both kinds from Pius IV. for the
*64
FERDINAND II. AND IV. (NAPLES)
and of the Albanian chief, Skanderbeg, who chivalrously came
to the aid of the prince whose father had aided him, he triumphed
over his enemies, and by 1464 had re-established his authority
in the kingdom. In 1478 he allied himself with Pope Sixtus IV.
against Lorenzo de' Medici, but the latter journeyed alone to
Naples when he succeeded in negotiating an honourable peace
with Ferdinand. In 1480 the Turks captured Otranto, and
massacred the majority of the inhabitants, but in the following
year it was retaken by his son Alphonso, duke of Calabria. His
oppressive government led in 1485 to an attempt at revolt on
the part of the nobles, led by Francesca Coppola and Antonello
Sanseverino and supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; the rising
having been crushed, many of the nobles, notwithstanding
Ferdinand's promise of a general amnesty, were afterwards
treacherously murdered at his express command. In 1493
Charles VIII. of France was preparing to invade Italy for the
conquest of Naples, and Ferdinand realized that this was a greater
danger than any he had yet faced. With almost prophetic
instinct he warned the Italian princes of the calamities in store
for them, but his negotiations with Pope Alexander VI. and
Ludovico il Moro, lord of Mian, having failed, he died in
January 1494, worn out with anxiety. Ferdinand was gifted
with great courage and real political ability, but his method of
government was vicious and disastrous. His financial adminis-
tration was based on oppressive and dishonest monopolies, and
he was mercilessly severe and utterly treacherous towaids his
enemies.
Authorities. — Codiee Aragonese, edited by F. Trinehcra (Naples,
866-1874); P. Giaanonc, Istoria Chili' dH Rtcntf di flqpsfr; T.
Uvini, De testis return Neajvi. ab Aragonia (Naples, t$88); s de
JUmondi, Histoire aes ripuUtques italienm . vols. v. ,im I v 1 . r I'm- . Is,
1838); P.Villari,Jlf(u:&ww//t,pp.6o-64(Ensit. tran,l r l-nmloii r ih ji);
for the revolt of the nobles in 1485 see Cam i Ho Pno, La Conj>iura
dei Baroni (first published Rome, 1565; inaijy subitum t editions),
written in the Royalist interest. (L- V.*)
FERDINAND II. (1460-1496), king of Naples, was the grand-
son of the preceding, and son of Alphor^u EL Alphonso finding
bis tenure of the throne uncertain on account of the approaching
invasion of Charles VIII. of France and the general dissatis-
faction of his subjects, abdicated in his son's favour in 1495, but
notwithstanding this the treason of a party in Naples rendered
U impossible to defend the city against the approach of
Charles VIII. Ferdinand fled to Ischia; but when the French
king left Naples with most of his army, in consequence of the
formation of an Italian league against him, he returned, defeated
the French garrisons, and the Neapolitans, irritated by the
conduct of their conquerors during the occupation of the city,
received him back with enthusiasm; with the aid of the great
Spanish general Gonzalo de Cordova he was able completely to
rid his state of its invaders shortly before his death, which
occurred on the 7th of September 1496.
For authorities see under Ferdinand I. of Naples; for the
exploits of Gonialo de Cordova see H. P. del Pulcar, CrSnica del
gran capilano don Gontalo de Cordoba (new ed., Madrid, 1834).
. FERDINAND IV. (1751-1825), king of Naples (HI. of Sicily,
and L of the Two Sicilies), third son of Don Carlos of Bourbon,
king of Naples and Sicily (afterwards Charles III. of Spain),
was born in Naples on the 12th of January 1751. When bis
father ascended the Spanish throne in 1759 Ferdinand, in accord-
ance with the treaties forbidding the union of the two crowns,
succeeded him as king of Naples, under a regency presided over
by the Tuscan Bernardo Tanucci. The latter, an able, ambitious
man, wishing to keep the government as much as possible in his
own hands, purposely neglected the young king's education,
and encouraged him in his love of pleasure, his idleness and his
excessive devotion to outdoor sports. Ferdinand grew up
athletic, but ignorant, ill-bred, addicted to the lowest amuse-
ments; he delighted in the company of the laaarom (the most
degraded class of the Neapolitan people), whose dialect and
habits he affected, and he even sold fish in the market, haggling
over the price.
His minority ended in 1767, and his first act was the expulsion
of the Jesuits. The following year he married Maria Carolina,
daughter of the empress Maria Theresa, By the marriage con-
tract the queen was to have a voice in the council of state after
the birth of her first son, and she was not slow to avail herself
of this means of political influence. Beautiful, clever and
proud, like her mother, but cruel and treacherous, her ambition
was to raise the kingdom of Naples to the position of a great
power; she soon came to exercise complete sway over her stupid
and idle husband, and was the real ruler of the kingdom. Tanucci,
who attempted to thwart her, was dismissed in 1777, and the
Englishman Sir John Acton (1736), who in 1779 was appointed
director of marine, succeeded in so completely winning the
favour of Maria Carolina, by supporting her in her scheme to
free Naples from Spanish influence and securing a rapprochement
with Austria and England, that he became practically and after-
wards actually prime minister. Although not a mere grasping
adventurer, he was largely responsible for reducing the internal
administration of the country to an abominable system of
espionage, corruption and cruelty. On the outbreak of the
French Revolution the Neapolitan court was not hostile to the
movement, and the queen even sympathized with the revolu-
tionary ideas of the day. But when the French monarchy was
abolished and the royal pair beheaded, Ferdinand and Carolina
were seized with a feeling of fear and horror and joined the first
coalition against France in 1793. Although peace was made
with France in 1796, the demands of the French Directory,
whose troops occupied Rome, alarmed the king once more, and
at his wife's instigation he took advantage of Napoleon's absence
in Egypt and of Nelson's victories to go to war. He marched
with his army against the French and entered Rome (29th of
November), but on the defeat of some of his columns he hurried
back to Naples, and on the approach of the French, fled on board
Nelson's ship the " Vanguard " to Sicily, leaving his capital in
a state of anarchy. The French entered the dty in spite of the
fierce resistance of the laaaroni, who Were devoted to the king,
and with the aid of the nobles and bourgeois established the
Parthcnopacan Republic (January 1799). When a few weeks
later the French troops were recalled to the north of Italy,
Ferdinand sent an expedition composed of Calabrians, brigands
and gaol-birds, under Cardinal Ruffo, a man of real ability,
great devotion to the king, and by no means so bad as he has
been painted, to reconquer the mainland kingdom. Ruffo was
completely successful, and reached Naples in May. His army
and the lazzaroni committed nameless atrocities, which he
honestly tried to prevent, and the Parthenopaean Republic
collapsed.
The savage punishment of the Neapolitan Republicans is
dealt with in more detail under Naples, Nelson and Caracctolo,
but it is necessary to say here that the king, and above all the
queen, were particularly anxious that no mercy should be shown
to the rebels, and Maria Carolina made use of Lady Hamilton,
Nelson's mistress, to induce him to execute her own spiteful
vengeance. Her only excuse is that as a sister of Marie Antoin-
ette the very name of Republican or Jacobin filled her with
loathing. The king returned to Naples soon afterwards, and
ordered wholesale arrests and executions of supposed Liberals,
which continued until the French successes forced him to agree
to a treaty in which amnesty for members of the French party
was included. When war broke out between France and Austria
in 1805, Ferdinand signed a treaty ot neutrality with the former,
but a few days later he allied himself with Austria and allowed
an Anglo-Russian force to land at Naples. Hie French victory
at AusterUtz enabled Napoleon to despatch an army to southern
Italy. Ferdinand with his usual precipitation fled to Palermo
(23rd of January 1806), followed soon after by his wife and son,
and on the 14th of February the French again entered Naples.
Napoleon declared that the Bourbon dynasty had forfeited the
crown, and proclaimed his brother Joseph king of Naples and
Sicily. But Ferdinand continued to reign over the latter king-
dom under British protection. Parliamentary institutions of a
feudal type had long existed in the island, and Lord William
Bentinck (q.v.), the British minister, insisted on a reform of the
constitution on English and French lines. The king indeed
practically abdicated his power, appointing his son Francis
FERDINAND I. (PORTUGAL)— FERDINAND I. (CASTILE) 265
tf, and the queer, at BentincVs instance, ins eifled to
Austria, where she died in 1814.
. After the fall of Napoleon, Joachim Murat, who had succeeded
Joseph Bonaparte as king of Naples in 1808, was dethroned, and
Ferdinand returned to Naples. By a secret t rcaty he had bound
himself not to advance further in a constitutional direction than
Austria should at any time approve; but, though on the whole
he acted in accordance with Metlernich's policy of preserving
the status qup 9 and maintained with but slight change Murat 's
laws and administrative system, he took advantage of the
situation to abolish the Sicilian constitution, in violation of his
oath, and to proclaim the union of the two states into the king-
dom of the Two Sicilies (December xath, 1816). He was now
completely subservient to Austria, an Austrian, Count Nugent,
being even made commander-in-chief of the army; and for four
years he reigned as a despot, every tentative effort at the ex-
pression of liberal opinion being ruthlessly suppressed. The
result was an alarming spread of the influence and activity of
the secret society of the Carbonari (ft.), which In lime affected
a large part of the army. In July 1890 a military revolt broke
out under General Fepe, and Ferdinand was terrorized into
subscribing a constitution on the model of the impracticable
Spanish constitution of 181 a. On the other hand, a revolt in
Sicily, in favour of the recovery of its independence, was sup-
pressed by Neapolitan troops.
The success of the military revolution at Naples seriously
alarmed the powers of the Holy Alliance, who feared that it
might spread to other Italian states and so lead to that general
European conflagration which it was their main preoccupation
to avoid (see Europe : History). After long diplomatic negotia-
tions, it was decided to hold a congress ad hoc at Troppau
( October 1820). The main results of this congress were the issue
of the famous Troppau Protocol, signed by Austria, Prussia
and Russia only, and an invitation to King Ferdinand to attend
the adjourned congress at Laibach (1821), an invitation of
which Great Britain approved " as implying negotiation " (see
Tkoppau, Laibach, Congresses of). At Laibach Ferdinand
played so sorry a part as to provoke the contempt of those whose
policy it was to re-establish him in absolute power. He had
twice sworn, with gratuitous solemnity, to maintain the new
constitution; but he was hardly out of Naples before he re-
pudiated his oaths and, in letters addressed to all the sovereigns
of Europe, declared his acts to have been null and void. An
attitude so indecent threatened to defeat the very objects of the
reactionary powers, and Gentz congratulated the congress that
these sorry protests would be buried in the archives, offering
at the same time to write for the king a dignified letter in which
be should express his reluctance at having to violate his oaths
io the face of irresistible force I But, under these circumstances,
Met t enrich had no difficulty in persuading the king to allow an
Austrian army to march into Naples " to restore order."
The campaign that followed did little credit cither to the
Austrian* or the Neapolitans. The latter, commanded by
Genera! Pepe (f.v.)i who made no attempt to defend the difficult
defies of the Abruzzi, were defeated, after a half-hearted struggle
&t Rieti (March 7th, 1821), and the Austrians entered Naples.
The parliament was now dismissed, and Ferdinand inaugurated
aa era of savage persecution, supported by spies and informers,
against the Liberals and Carbonari, the Austrian commandant
ia vain protesting against the savagery which his presence alone
rendered possible.
Ferdinand died on the 4th of January 1825. Few sovereigns
have left behind so odious a memory. His whole career is one
long record of perjury, vengeance and meanness, unredeemed by
a single generous act, and his wife was a worthy helpmeet and
actively co-operated in his tyranny.
Bibliography.— The standard authority on Ferdinand's reigi
Pictro Colietia's Storia del Reamedi Napoli (and ed.. Florence. 1848),
•rhich. although heavily written and not free from party passion,
» reliable and accurate ; L. Conforti, Napoli net 1790 (Naples. 1886) ;
G. Pepe. Uemorie (Paris, 1847). a most valuable book; C. Auriol,
Lm France, t'AntUUrre. et Naples (Paris, T906); for the Sicilian
period and the British occupation. G. Bianco, La Sicilta durante
raceupauom Jnglese (Palermo, 1903), which contains many new
documents of importance; Freiherr A. von Hclfert has attempted
the impossible task of whitewashing Queen Carolina in his Kdnitin
Karolina oon Neapel undSicilien (Vienna, 1878), and Maria KaroltM
•on Otsterrekh (Vienna, 1884); he has also written a useful life of
FabHsio Ruffo (Italian edit., Florence, 1885); for the Sicilian
revolution of 1820 see G. Blanco's La Rwolutione in SicUia del 1820
(Florence, 1905) , and M. Amari's Carteggio (Turin, 1 896). (L. V. *)
FERDINAND I., king of Portugal (1345-1383), sometimes
referred to as el Centil (the Gentleman), son of Pedro I. of
Portugal (who is not to be confounded with his Spanish con-
temporary Pedro the Cruel), succeeded bis father in 1367. On
the death of Pedro of Castile in 1369, Ferdinand, as great-
grandson of Sancbo IV. by the female line, laid claim to the
vacant throne, for which the kings of Aragon and Navarre, and
afterwards the duke of Lancaster (married in 1370 to Constance,
the eldest daughter of Pedro), also became competitors. Mean-
while Henry of Trastamara, the brother (illegitimate) and con-
queror of Pedro, had assumed the crown and taken the field.
After one or two indecisive campaigns, all parties were ready to
accept the mediation of Pope Gregory XI. The conditions of the
treaty, ratified in 137 1, included a marriage between Ferdinand
and Leonora of Castile. But before the union could take place
the former had become passionately attached to Leonora Tellez,
the wife of one of his own courtiers, and having procured a
dissolution of her previous marriage, he lost no time in making
her his queen. This strange conduct, although it raised a serious
insurrection in Portugal, did not at once result in a war with
Henry; but the outward concord was soon disturbed by the
intrigues of the duke of Lancaster, who prevailed on Ferdinand
to enter into a secret treaty for the expulsion of Henry from his
throne. The war which followed was unsuccessful; and peace
was again made in 1373. On the death of Heniy in 1379, the
duke of Lancaster once more put forward his claims, and again
found an ally in Portugal; but, according to the Continental
annalists, the English proved as offensive to their companions
in arms as to their enemies in the field; and Ferdinand made
a peace for himself at Badajoz in 1382, It being stipulated that
Beatrix, the heiress of Ferdinand, should marry King John
of Castile, and thus secure the ultimate union of the crowns.
Ferdinand left no male issue when he died on the 22nd of October
1383, and the direct Burgundian line, which had been in possession
of the thronesince the days of Count Henry (about 1 1 1 2) , became
extinct. The stipulations of the treaty of Badajoz were set
aside, and John, grand-master of the order of A viz, Ferdinand's
illegitimate brother, was proclaimed. This led to a war which
lasted for several years.
FERDINAND I., EI Magna or "the Great," king of Castile
(</. 1065), son of Sancho of Navarre, was put in possession of
Castile in 1028, on the murder of the last count, as the heir of his
mother Elvira, daughter of a previous count of Castile. He
reigned with the title of king. He married Sancha, sister and
heiress of Bermudo, king of Leon. In 1038 Bermudo was killed
in battle with Ferdinand at Tamaron, and Ferdinand then took
possession of Leon by right of his wife, and was recognized in
Spain as emperor. The use of the title was resented by the
emperor Henry IV. and by Pope Victor II. in 1055, as implying
a claim to the headship of Christendom, and as a usurpation
on the Holy Roman Empire. It did not, however, mean more
than that Spain was independent of the Empire, and that the
sovereign of Leon was the chief of the princes of the peninsula.
Although Ferdinand had grown in power by a fratricidal strife
with Bermudo of Leon, and though at a later date he defeated
and killed his brother Garcia of Navarre, he ranks high among
the kings of Spain who have been counted religious. To a large
extent he may have owed his reputation to the victories over
the Mahommcdans, with which he began the period of the great
reconquest. But there can be no doubt that Ferdinand was.
profoundly pious. Towards the close of his reign he sent a special
embassy to Seville to bring back the body of Santa Justa. The
then king of Seville, Moladhid, one of the small princes who
had divided the caliphate of Cordova, was himself a sceptic and
poisoner, but he stood in wholesome awe of the power of the
266
FERDINAND II- V. (SPAIN)
Christian king. He favoured the embassy in every way, and
when the body of Santa Justa could not be found, helped the
envoys who were also aided by a vision seen by one of them in
a dream, to discover the body of Saint Isidore, which was
reverently carried away to Leon. Ferdinand died on the feast
of Saint John the Evangelist, the 24th of June 1065, in Leon,
with many manifestations of ardent piety— having laid aside
his crown and royal mantle, dressed in the frock of a monk and
lying on a bier, covered with ashes, which was placed before the
altar of the church of Saint Isidore.
FERDINAND II., king of Leon only (d. 1188), was the son
of Alpbonso VII. and of Berenguela, of the house of the counts
of Barcelona. On the division of the kingdoms which had
obeyed his father, he received Leon. His reign of thirty years
was one of strife marked by no signal success or revere. lie
had to contend with his unruly nobles, several of whom he put
to death. During the minority of his nephew Alphoru»o VIII of
Castile he endeavoured to impose himself on the kingdom as
regent. On the west he was in more or less constant strife with
Portugal, which was in process of becoming an independent
kingdom. His relations to the Portuguese house mu*t have
suffered by his repudiation of his wife Urraca, daughter of
Alphonso I. of Portugal. Though he took the king of Portugal
prisoner in 1180, he made no political use of his success. He
extended his dominions southward in Esiremadura at the ex-
pense of the Moors. Ferdinand, who died in 11 88, left the
reputation of a good knight and hard fighter, but did not display
political or organizing faculty.
FERDINAND III., El Santo or "the Saint," king of Castile
(1190-1252), son of Alphonso IX. of Leon, and of Bcrcngaria,
daughter of Alphonso V1H. of Castile, ranks among the greatest
of the Spanish kings. The marriage of his parents, who were
second cousins, was dissolved as unlawful by the pope, but the
legitimacy of the children was recognized. Till 1217 he lived
with bis father in Leon. In that year the young Ling of Castile,
Henry, was killed by accident. Bcrengaria sent for her son
with such speed that her messenger reached Leon before the news
of the death of the king of Castile, and when he came to her she
renounced the crown in his favour. Alphonso of Leon considered
himself tricked, and the young king had to begin his reign by a
war against his father and a faction of the Casiilian nobles.
His own ability and the remarkable capacity of his mother
proved too much for the king of Leon and his Casiilian allies.
Ferdinand, who showed himself docile to the influence of Bcrcn-
garia, so long as she lived, married the wife she found for him,
Beatrice, daughter of the emperor Philip (of Hohenstaufcn), and
followed her advice both in prosecuting the war against the Moors
and in the steps which she took to secure his peaceful succession
to Leon on the death of his father in 1231. After the union of
Castile and Leon in that year he began the scries of campaigns
which ended by reducing the Mahommcdan dominions in Spain
to Granada. Cordova fell in 1 236, and Seville in 1 248- The
king of Granada did homage to Ferdinand, and undertook to
attend the cortes when summoned. The king was a severe
persecutor of the Albigcnscs, and his formal canonization was
due as much to his orthodoxy as to bis crusading by Pope
Clement X. in 167 1. He revived the university first founded
by his grandfather Alphonso VIII., and placed it at Salamanca.
By his second marriage with Joan (d. 1279), daughter of Simon,
of Dammartin, count of Ponthieu, by right of his wife Marie,
Ferdinand was the father of Eleanor, the wife of Edward 1. of
England.
FERDINAND IV.. El Emplazado or "the Summoned," king
of Castile (<f. 1312), son of Sancho El Bravo, and his wife
Maria de Molina, is a figure of small note in Spanish history.
His strange title is, given him in the chronicles on the strength
of a story that he put two brothers of the name of Carvajal'to
death tyrannically, and was given a time, a plaso, by thvm in
which to answer for his crime in the next world. But the tale
is not contemporary, and is an obvious copy of the story told
of Jacques de Molay, grand-master of the Temple, and Philippe
Le Bel. Ferdinand IV. succeeded to the throne when a boy of
lix. His minority was a time of anarchy. He owed his escape
from the violence of competitors and nobles, partly to the tact
and undaunted bravery of his mother Maria de Molina, and
partly 10 the loyalty of the citizens of Avila, who gave him,
refuge within their walls. As a king he proved ungrateful to his
mother, and weak as a ruler. He died suddenly in his tent at
Jaen when preparing for a raid into the Moorish territory of
Granada, on the 7th of September 131 2.
FERDINAND I., king of A r agon (1373-1*16), called "of
Antequcra," was the son of John I. of Castile by his wife Eleanor,
daughter of the third marriage of Peter IV. of Aragon. His
surname " of Antequcra " was given him because he was besieg-
ing that town, then in the hands of the Moors, when he was told
that the cortes of Aragon had elected him king in succession to his
uncle Martin, the last male of the old line of Wilfred the Hairy.
As infante of Castile Ferdinand had played an honourable part.
When his brother Henry HI. died at Toledo, in 1406, the cortes
was sitting, and the nobles offered to make him king in preference
to his nephew John. Ferdinand refused to despoil his brother's
infant son, and even if he did not act on the moral ground he
alleged, his sagacity must have shown him that he would be at
the mercy of the men who had chosen him in such circumstances.
As co-regent of the kingdom with Catherine, widow of Henry III.
and daughter of John of Gaunt by his marriage with Constance,
daughter of Peter the Cruel and Maria de Paditla, Ferdinand
proved a good ruler. He restrained the follies of his sister-in law,
ami kept the realm quiet, by firm government, and by prosecuting
the war with the Moors. As king of Aragon his short reign of
two years left him little time to make his mark. Having been
bred in Castile, where the royal authority was, at least in theory,
absolute, he showed himself impatient under the checks imposed
on him by the fueros, the chartered rights of Aragon and Cata-
lonia. He particularly resented the obstinacy of the Barcelonese,
who compelled the members of his household to pay municipal
taxes. His most signal act as king was to aid in closing the
Great Schism in the Church by agreeing to the deposition of the
antipope Benedict XIV., an Aragon esc. He died at Ygualada
in Catalonia on the 2nd of April 1416.
FERDINAND V. of Castile and Leon, and II. of Aragon
(1452-1516), was the son of John I. of Aragon by his second
marriage with Joanna Henriqucz, of the family of the hereditary
grand admirals of Castile, and was born at Sos in Aragon on the
1 6th of March 1452. Under the name of "the Catholic" and
as the husband of Isabella, queen of Castile, he played a great
part in Europe. His share in establishing the royal authority
in all parts of Spain, in expelling the Moors from Granada, in the
conquest of Navarre, in forwarding the voyages of Columbus,
and in contending with France for the supremacy in Italy, is
dealt with elsewhere (see Spain: History). In personal char-
acter he had none of the attractive qualities of his wife. It may
fairly be said of him that he was purely a politician. His marri-
age in 1460 to his cousin Isabella of Castile was dictated by the
desire to unite his own claims to the crown, as the head of the
younger branch of the same family, with hers, in case Henry IV.
should die childless. When the king died in 1474 be made an
ungenerous attempt to procure his own proclamation as king
without recognition of the rights of his wife. Isabella asserted
her claims firmly, and at all times insisted on a voice in the
government of Castile. But though Ferdinand had sought a
selfish political advantage at his wife's expense, he was well aware
of her ability and high character. Their married life was dignified
and harmonious; for Ferdinand had no common vices, and
their views in government were identical. The king cared for
nothing but dominion and political power. His character
explains the most ungracious acts of his life, such as his breach
of his promises to Columbus, his distrust of Ximenez and of the
Great Captain. He had given wide privileges to Columbus on
the supposition that the discoverer would reach powerful king-
doms. When islands inhabited by feeble savages were dis-
covered, Ferdinand appreciated the risk that they might become
the scat of a power loo strong to be controlled, and took
measures to avert the danger. He feared that Ximinex and th«
FERDINAND VI.— VII. (SPAIN)
267
Greti Captain would become too independent, and watched
them in the interest of the royal authority. Whether he ever
boasted, as he is said to have boasted, that he had deceived
Louis XIL of France twelve times, is very doubtful, but it is
certain tint when Ferdinand made a treaty, or came to an
understanding with any one, the contract was generally found
to contain implied meanings favourable to himself which the
other contracting party had not expected. The worst of his
character was prominently shown after the death of Isabella
in 1504. He endeavoured to lay hands on the regency of Castile
in the name of his insane daughter Joanna, and without regard
to the claims of her husband Philip of Habsburg. The hostility
of the CastUian nobles, by whom he was disliked, baffled him
for a time, but on Philip's early death he reasserted his authority.
His second marriage with Germaine of Foix in 1 505 was appar-
ently contracted in the hope that by securing an heir male be
might punish his Habsburg son-in-law. Aragon did not recog*
one the right of women to reign, and would have been detached
together with Catalonia, Valencia and the Italian states if he
had had a son. This was the only occasion on which Ferdinand
allowed passion to obscure his political sense, and lead him into
acts which tended to undo his work of national unification. As
king of Aragon he abstained from inroads on the liberties of his
subjects which might have provoked rebellion. A few acts of
illegal violence are recorded of him — as when hclnvited a notorious
demagogue of Saragossa to visit him in the palace, and caused
the man to be executed without form of trial. Once when presid-
ing over the Aragonese cortes he found himself sitting in ft
thorough draught and ordered the window to be shut, adding
is a lower voice, " If it is not against the fueros" But his ill-will
did not go beyond such sneers. He was too intent on building
up a great state to complicate his difficulties by internal troubles.
His arrangement of the convention of Guadalupe, which ended
(he fierce Agrarian conflicts of Catalonia, was wise and profitable
to the country, though it was probably dictated mainly by a wish
to weaken the landowners by taking away their feudal rights.
Ferdinand died at Madrigalejo in Estremadura on the 23rd of
February 1516.
The lives of the kings of this name before Ferdinand V. are con-
tained in the chronicles, and in the A nates de Aragon of Zuriu. and
the History of Spain by Mariana. Both deal at length with the
He of Ferdinand V. Prescott's History of the Reign of Ferdinand
ud ItabeUa, in any of its numerous editions, gives a full life of him
vnh copious references to authorities.
FERDINAND VI„ king of Spain (1713*1750)* second son of
Philip V., founder of the Bourbon dynasty, by his first marriage
tith Maria Louisa of Savoy, was bom at Madrid on the 23rd
tf September 1713. His youth was depressed. His father's
second wife, Elisabeth Famese, was a managing woman, who
ind do affection except for her own children, and who looked
npoQ her stepson as an obstacle to their fortunes. The hypo-
chondria of his father left Elizabeth mistress of the palace.
Ferdinand was married in 1720 to Maria Magdalena Barbara,
daughter of John V. of Portugal. The very homely looks of his
*i/e were thought by observers to cause the prince a visible
^ock when he was first presented to her. Yet he became deeply
attached to his wife, and proved in fact nearly as uxorious as his
Inker. Ferdinand was by temperament melancholy, shy and
datrusiful of his own abilities. When complimented on his
looting, he replied, " It would be hard if there were not some-
dung I could do." As king he followed a steady policy of neu*
tnlity between France and England, and refused to be tempted
ty the offers of either into declaring war on the other. In his
Ke he was orderly and retiring, averse from $aking decisions,
taugh not incapable of acting firmly, as when he cut short the
dangerous intrigues of his able minister Ensenada by dismiss-
ing and imprisoning him. Shooting and music were his only
Potties, and he was the generous patron of the famous singer
FarineUi (9.9.), whose voice soothed his melancholy. The death
Jf his wife Barbara, who had been devoted to him, and who care-
fully abstained from political intrigue, broke his heart. Between
"*date of her death in 1758 and his own on the loth of August
t)59 be fell into a slate of prostration in which he would not
even dress, but wandered unshaven, unwashed and in a night-
gown about his park. The memoirs of the count of Fernan
Nunez give a shocking picture of his death-bed.
A good account of the reign and character of Ferdinand VI. wHl
be found in vol. iv. of Coxr s Idemoirs of the Kings of Spain of the
House of Bourbon (London. 1815). See also Vida de Carlos III., by
1 he count of Fernan Nunez, ed. M. Morel Fatio and Don A. Paz y
Melia (1808). ""
FERDINAND VII.. king of Spain (1784-1*33), the eldest son
of Charles IV., king of Spain, and of his wife Maria Louisa of
Panna, was born at the palace of San lldefonso near Balsain in
the Somosierra hills, on the 14th of October 1784. The events
with which he was connected were many, tragic and of the widest
European interest. In his youth he occupied the painful position
of an heir apparent who was carefully excluded from all share in
government by the jealousy of his parents, and the prevalence
of a royal favourite. National discontent with a feeble govern-
ment produced a revolution in 1808 by which he passed to the
throne by the forced abdication of his father. Then be spent
yean as the prisoner of Napoleon, and returned in 1814 to find
that while Spain was fighting for independence in his name a new
world had been born of foreign invasion and domestic revolution.
He came back to assert the ancient doctrine that the sovereign
authority resided in his person only. Acting on this principle he
ruled frivolously, and with a wanton indulgence of whims. In
1820 his misrule provoked a revolt, and he remained in the hands
of insurgents till he was released by foreign intervention in 1823.
When free, he revenged himself with a ferocity which disgusted
his allies. In his last years he prepared a change in the order of
succession established by his dynasty in Spain, which angered
a large part of the nation, and made a civil war inevitable.
W« have to distinguish the part of Ferdinand VII. in all these
transactions, in which other and better men were concerned.
It can confidently be said to have been uniformly base. He had
perhaps no right to complain that he was kept aloof from all
share hi government while only heir apparent, for this was the
traditional practice of his family. But as heir to the throne
he had a right to resent the degradation of the crown he was to
inherit, and the power of a favourite who was his mother's lover.
If he bad put himself at the head of a popular rising he would
have been followed, and would have had a good excuse. His
course was to enter on dim intrigues at the instigation of his first
wife, Maria Antonktta of Naples. After her death in 1806 he
was drawn into other intrigues by flatterers, and, in October
1807, was arrested for the conspiracy of the Escorial. The
conspiracy aimed at securing the help of the emperor Napoleon.
When detected, Ferdinand betrayed bis associates, and grovelled
to his parents. When his father's abdication was extorted by a
popular riot at Aranjues in March 1808, he ascended the throne-
not to lead his people manfully, but to throw himself into the
hands of Napoleon, in the fatuous hope that the emperor would
support him. He was in his turn forced to make an abdication
and imprisoned in France, while Spain, with the help of England,
fought for its life. At Valancay, where he was sent as a prisoner
of state, he sank contentedly into vulgar vice, and did not scruple
to applaud the French victories over the people who were suffer-
ing unutterable misery in his cause. When restored in March
1814, on the fall of Napoleon, he had just cause to repudiate the
impracticable constitution made by the cortes without his
consent. He did so, and then governed like an evil-disposed
boy— indulging the merest animal passions, listening to a small
camarilla of low-bom favourites, changing his ministers every
three months, and acting on the impulse of whims which were
sometimes mere buffoonery, but were at times lubricous, or
ferocious. The autocratic powers of the Grand Alliance, though
forced to support him as the representative of legitimacy in Spain,
watched his proceedings with disgust and alarm. " The king,"
wrote Gents to the hospodar Caradja on the xst of December
1814, " himself enters the houses of his first ministers, arrests
them, and hands them over to their cruel enemies "; and again,
on the 14th of January r8t$, " The king ha3 so debased himself
that he has become no more than the leading police agent and
gaoler of his country. 11 When at last the inevitable revolt came
268 FERDINAND II. (SICILY)— FERDINAND III. (TUSCANY)
in i8*o he grovelled to the insurgents as he had done to his parents,
descending to the meanest submissions while fear was on him,
then intriguing and, when detected, grovelling again. When at
the beginning of 1823, as a result of the congress of Verona, the
French invaded Spain, 1 " invoking the Cod of St Louis, for the
sake of preserving the throne of Spain to a descendant of Henry
IV., and of reconciling that fine kingdom with Europe," and in
May the revolutionary party carried Ferdinand to Cadiz, he
continued to make promises of amendment till he was free.
Then, in violation of his oath to grant an amnesty, he revenged
himself for three years of coercion by killing on a scale which
revolted his " rescuers," and against which the duke of
Angouleme, powerless to interfere, protested by refusing the
Spanish decorations offered him for his services. During his
last years Ferdinand's energy was abated. He do longer changed
ministers every few months as a sport, and be allowed some of
them to conduct the current business of government. His habits
of life were telling on him. He became torpid, bloated and
horrible to look at. After his fourth marriage in 1839 with Maria
Christina of Naples, be was persuaded by his wife to set aside
the law of succession of Philip V., which gave a preference to all
the males of the family in Spain over the females. His marriage
bad brought him only two daughters. When well, he consented
to the change under the influence of his wife. When ill, he was
terrified by priestly advisers, who were partisans of his brother
Don Carlos. What his final decision was is perhaps doubtful.
His wife was mistress by his deathbed, and she could put the
words she chose into the mouth of a dead man — and could move
the dead hand at her will. Ferdinand died on the 29th of Sep-
tember 1833. It had been a frequent saying with the more zealous
royalists of Spain that a king must be wiser than bis ministers,
for be was placed on the throne and directed by God. Since
the reign of Ferdinand VII. no one has maintained this un-
qualified version of the great doctrine of divine right.
King Ferdinand VII. kept a diary during the troubled years
1820-1823, which has been published by the count de Casa Valencia.
FERDINAND II. (1810-1859), king of the Two Sicilies, son of
Francis I., was born at Palermo on the 12th of January 1810.
In his early years he was credited with Liberal ideas and be was
fairly popular, his free and easy manners having endeared him
to the lunaroni. On succeeding his father in 1830, he published
an edict in which he promised to " give his most anxious atten-
tion to the impartial administration of justice," to reform the
finances, and to " use every effort to heal the wounds which had
afflicted the kingdom for so many years "; but these promises
seem to have been meant only to lull discontent to sleep, for
although he did something for the economic development of
the kingdom, the existing burden of taxation was only slightly
lightened, corruption continued to flourish in all departments
of the administration, and an absolutism was finally established
harsher than that of all his predecessors, and supported by even
more extensive and arbitrary arrests. Ferdinand was naturally
shrewd, but badly educated, grossly superstitious and possessed
of inordinate self-esteem. Though be kept the machinery of
his kingdom fairly efficient, and was a patriot to the extent of
brooking no foreign interference, he made little account of the
wishes or welfare of his subjects. In 1832 he married Cristina,
daughter of Victor Emmanuel I., king of Sardinia, and shortly
after her death in 1836 he took for a second wife Maria Theresa,
daughter of archduke Charles of Austria. After his Austrian
alliance the bonds of despotism were more closely tightened, and
the increasing discontent of his subjects was manifested by
various abortive attempts at insurrection; in 1837 there was a
rising in Sicily in consequence of the outbreak of cholera, and in
1843 the Young Italy Society tried to organize a general rising,
which, however, only manifested itself in a scries of isolated out-
breaks. The expedition of the Bandiera brothers (o.v.) in 1844,
although it had no practical result, aroused great ill-feeling owing
to the cruel sentences passed on the rebels. In January 1848
a rising in Sicily was the signal for revolutions all over Italy and
Europe; it was followed by a movement in Naples, and the king
1 Louis XVUI.'s speech from the throne, Jan. 28, 1823.
granted a constitution which he swore to observe. A dispute,
however, arose as to the nature of the oath which should be taken
by the members of the chamber of deputies, and as neither the
king nor the deputies would yield, serious disturbances broke
out in the streets of Naples on the 15th of May; so the king,
making these an excuse for withdrawing his promise, dissolved
the national parliament on the' 13th of March 1849. He retired
to Gaeta to confer with various deposed despots, and when the
ncw3 of the Austrian victory at Novara (March 1849) reached
him, he determined to return to a reactionary policy. Sicily,
whence the Royalists had been expelled, was subjugated by
General Filangieri (9.0.), and the chief cities were bombarded,
an expedient which won for Ferdinand the epithet of " Ring
Bomba." During the last years of his reign espionage and
arbitrary arrests prevented all serious manifestations of dis-
content among his subjects. In 1851 the political prisoners of
Naples were calculated by Mr Gladstone in his letters to Lord
Aberdeen (1851) to number 15,000 (probably the real figure was
nearer 40,000), and so great was the scandal created by the pre-
vailing reign of terror, and the abominable treatment to which
the prisoners were subjected, that in 1856 France and England
made diplomatic representations to induce the king to mitigate
his rigour and proclaim a general amnesty, but without success.
An attempt was made by a soldier to assassinate Ferdinand in
1856. He died on the 22nd of May 1856, just after the declara-
tion of war by France and Piedmont against Austria, which was
to result in the collapse of his kingdom and his dynasty. He
was bigoted, cruel, mean, treacherous, though not without a
certain bonhomie; the only excuse that can be made for bim
is that with his heredity and education a different result could
scarcely be experted.
Set C&rrtipttndrme respecting the Affairs of Naples and Sicily,
1848- 1 H4Q. pftitKud /u both Houses of Parliament by Command of
Her Mnjtity, 4th Mqy 1*49; Two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen, by
tht Hint" Mom W I. fhlstone, 1st ed., 1851 (an edition published
in ib\i jii-l 1 he Mjt<^t|m nt editions contain an Examination of the
Ofiu ini Rtpiy nt tht jV f ti f . 4 , tan Government) : N. Nisco, Ferdinando It.
il tm *f£»n (Njple*. jfgaj ; H. Rem&en Whitehouse, The CoUapie of
the Kingdom of No pit i (New York, 1899); R. de Cesarc. La Cad u la
d' un Regno, vol. 1. (CiiU di Castello, 1900), which contains a great
deal of fresh information, but is badly arranged and not always
reliable. (L. V. # )
FERDINAND III. (1760-1824), grand duke of Tuscany, and
archduke of Austria, second son of the emperor Leopold II..
was born on the 6th of May 1769. On his father becoming
emperor in 1700, he succeeded him as grand duke of Tuscany.
Ferdinand was one of the first sovereigns to enter into diplomatic
relations with the French republic (1793); and although, a few
months later, he was compelled by England and Russia to join
the coalition against France, he concluded peace with that
power in 179s. and by observing a strict neutrality saved his
dominions from invasion by the French, except for a temporary
occupation of Livorno, till 1799, when he was compelled to vacate
his throne, and a provisional Republican government was estab-
lished at Florence. Shortly afterwards the French arms suffered
severe reverses in Italy, and Ferdinand was restored to his
territories; but in 1801, by the peace of Luntville, Tuscany
was converted into the kingdom of Etruria, and he was again
compelled to return to Vienna. In lieu of the sovereignty of
Tuscany, he obtained in 1802 the electorship of Salzburg, which
he exchanged by the peace of Pressburg in 1805 for that of WGrz-
burg. In 1806 he was admitted as grand duke of Wurzburg to the
confederation of the Rhine. He was restored to the throne of
Tuscany after the abdication of Napoleon in 18 14 and was re-
ceived with enthusiasm by the people, but had again to vacate
his capital for a short time in 1815, when Murat proclaimed war
against Austria. The final overthrow of the French supremacy
at the battle of Waterloo secured him, however, in the un-
disturbed possession of his grand duchy during the remainder
of his life. The restoration in Tuscany was not accompanied by
the reactionary excesses which characterized it elsewhere, and
a large part of the French legislation was retained. His
prime minister was Count V. Fossombroni (q.v.). The mild
rule of Ferdinand, his solicitude for the welfare of his subjects.
FERDINAND (BULGARIA)— FERDINAND (COLOGNE) 269
his enlightened patronage of art and science, his encouragement
of commerce, and bis toleration render him an honourable ex-
ception to the generality of Italian princes. At the same time
Us paternal despotism tended to emasculate the Tuscan char-
acter. He died in June 1834, and was succeeded by his son
Leopold ILfos.).
Bibuogkafhy.—A. von Reumont, GeuhickU Teseanas (Gotha,
1877); and "Federico Manfredini e la politica Toacana nei priim
anmdi Ferdinando III." (in the Archivio Storico Italiano, 1877);
EramfT, Enkenot Ferdinand III., Crosshertog von Toskona (Sali-
burr, 1871) ; C. Ttvaroni, L Italia durante it dominie franuse % ii. 1-44
(Turin, 1889), and L' Italia durante U dominie auttriata, ii. I-18
(Turin, 1805). See also under Fossomdroni; Vtnoaio; and
Camoni, umo.
FERDINAND, MAXIMIUAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA,
king of Bulgaria (1861- ), fifth and youngest son of Prince
Augustus of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was born on the 26th of
February 1861. Great care was exercised in his education, and
every encouragement given to the taste for natural history which
he exhibited at an early age. In 1879 he travelled with his
brother Augustus to Brazil, and the results of their botanical
observations were published at Vienna, 1881-1888, under the
title of Itinera Principum S. Coburgi. Having been appointed
10 a lieutenancy in the and regiment of Austrian hussars, he
■as holding this rank when, by unanimous Vote of the National
Assembly, he was elected prince of Bulgaria, on the 7th of July
1887, >n succession to Prince Alexander, who had abdicated on
the 7th of September preceding. He assumed the government
on the 14th of August 1887, for Russia for a long time refused
10 acknowledge the election, and he was accordingly exposed to
frequent military conspiracies, due to the influence or attitude
of that power. The firmness and vigour with which be met all
-iteznpts at revolution were at length rewarded, and his election
•as confirmed in March 1896 by the Porte and the great powers.
On the 20th of April 1893 be married Marie Louise dc Bourbon
(i 1899), eldest daughter of Duke Robert of Parma, and in May
following the Grand Sobranye confirmed the title of Royal High-
ness to the prince and bis heir. • The prince adhered to the
Roman Catholic faith, but his son and heir, the young Prince
Boris, was received into the Orthodox Greek Church on the
14th of February 1896. Prince Boris, to whom the tsar
Nicholas III. became godfather, accompanied his father to
Russia in 1898, when Prince Ferdinand visited St Petersburg
iod Moscow, and still further strengthened the bond already
anting between Russia and Bulgaria. In 1908 Ferdinand
named Eleanor (b. i860), a princess of the house of Rcuss.
Later in the year, in connexion with the Austrian annexation
d Bosnia-Herzegovina and the crisis with Turkey, he proclaimed
the independence of Bulgaria, and took the title of king or tsar.
(See Bulgaxia, and Europe: History.)
FERDINAND, duke of Brunswick (1721-1792). Prussian
Sacral field marshal, was the fourth son of Ferdinand Albert,
duke of Brunswick, and was born at WolfcnbUltcl on the 12th
of January 1721. He was carefully educated with a view to a
military career, and in his twentieth year be was made chief of a
ttvly-raised Brunswick regiment in the Prussian service. He
»-» present in the battles of Mollwitz and Chotusilz. In suc-
cession to Margrave Wilhelm of Brandenburg, killed at Prague
O744), Ferdinand received the command of Frederick the
Great's Uibgarde battalion, and at Sohr (1745) he distinguished
tonstlf so greatly at the head of his brigade that Frederick
*rote of him, " Ie Prince Ferdinand s'est surpassc." The height
*tich he captured was defended by his brother Ludwig as an
officer of the Austrian service, and another brother of Duke
Ferdinand was killed by his side in the charge. During the ten
years' peace he was in the closest touch with the military work
of Frederick the Great, who supervised the Instruction of the
guard battalion, and sought to make it a model of the whole
Prussian army. Ferdinand was, moreover, one of the most
intimate friends of the king, and thus he was peculiarly fitted
to the tasks which afterwards felt to his lot. In this time he
became successively major-general and lieutenant-general. In
the nist campaign of tjie Seven Years* War Ferdinand com-
manded one of the Prussian columns which converged upon
Dresden, and in the operations which led up to the surrender of
the Saxon army at Pima (1736)1 *nd at the battle of LobosiU,
he led the right wing of the Prussian infantry. In 1757 be was
present, and distinguished himself, at Prague, and be served also
in the campaign of Rossbach. - Shortly after this he was ap-
pointed to command the allied forces which were being organized
for the war in western Germany. He found this army dejected
by a reverse and a capitulation, yet within a week of his taking
up the command he assumed the offensive, and thus began the
career of victory which made his European reputation as a
soldier. His conduct of the five campaign* which followed (see
Seven Yeabs' Wan) was naturally influenced by the teachings
of Frederick, whose pupil the duke had been for so many yean.
Ferdinand, indeed, approximated more closely to Frederick in
bis method of making war than any other general of the time,
Yet his task was In many respects fax more difficult than that of
the king* Frederick was the absolute master of his own homo-
geneous army, Ferdinand merely the commander of a group el
contingents, and answerable to several princes for the troops
placed under his control. The French were by no means despi-
cable opponents in the field, and their leaders, if not of the first
grade, were cool and experienced veterans. In 1758 he fought
and won the battle of Crefeld, several marches beyond the
Rhine, but so advanced a position he could not well maintain,
and he fell back to the Lippe. He resumed a bold offensive in
1759, only to be repulsed at Bergen (near Frankfort-on-Main).
On the 1st of August of this year Ferdinand won the brilliant
victory of Minden (o.»-)- Vclltnghausen, Wilhelmsthal, War*
burg and other victories attested the increasing power of Ferdi-
nand in the following campaigns, and Frederick, hard pressed in
the eastern theatre of war, owed much of his success in an almost
hopeless task to the continued pressure exerted by Ferdinand in
the west. In promoting him to be a field marshal (November
1758) Frederick acknowledged his debt in the words, " Je n'ai
fait que ce que je dois, mon cher Ferdinand." After Minden,
King George II. gave the duke the order of the Garter, and the
thanks of the British parliament were voted on the same occasion
to the " Victor of Minden." After the war he was honoured by
other sovereigns, and he received the rank of field marshal and
a regiment from the Austria ns. • During the War of American
Independence there was a suggestion, which came to nothing, of
offering him the command of the British forces. He exerted
himself to compensate those who had suffered by the Seven
Years' War, devoting to this purpose most of the small income he
received from his various offices and the rewards given to him
by the allied princes. The estrangement of Frederick and
Ferdinand in 1706 led to the duke's retirement from Prussian
service, but there was no open breach between the old friends^
and Ferdinand visited the king in 1772, 1777, 1779 and 1782*
After 1766 he passed the remainder of his life at his castle of
Veschelde, where he occupied himself in building and other im-
provements, and became a patron of learning and art, and a
great benefactor of the poor. He died on the 3rd of July 1792.
The merits, civil and military, of the prince were recognized by
memorials not only in Prussia and Hanover, but also in Denmark,
the states of western Germany and England. The Prussian
memorials include an equestrian statue at Berlin (1863).
See E. v. L. Knesebeck. Ferdinand, Hereof, ton Braunschweig und
L&neburg, wahrend des Siebenjdkrigen Knegs (a vols., Hanover,
165771858); Von Westphalen, Gesduchte der FeldtUge des Henogs
(Magdeburg. 1796; Nuremberg. 1798); also the QZuvrcs of Frederick
the Great, passim, and authorities for the Seven Years' War.
FERDINAND (1577-1650), elector and archbishop of Cologne,
son of William V., duke of Bavaria, was born on the 7th of
October 1 577. Intended for the church, he was educated by the
Jesuits at the university of Ingolstadt, and in 1595 became
coadjutor archbishop of Cologne. He became elector and arch-
bishop in 1612 on .he death of his uncle Ernest, whom he also
succeeded as bishop of Liege, Munster and Hildesheim. He
270
FERENTINO— FERGHANA
endeavoured resolutely to root out heresy in the lands under his
rule, and favoured the teaching of the Jesuits in every possible
way. He supported the league founded by his brother Maxi-
milian I., duke of Bavaria, and wished to involve the leaguers
in a general attack on the Protestants of north Germany. The
cool political sagacity of the duke formed a sharp contrast to
the impetuosity of the archbishop, and he refused to accede to
his brother's wish; but, in spite of these temporary differences,
Ferdinand sent troops and money to the assistance of the league
when the Thirty Years 1 War broke out in 1610. The elector's
alliance with the Spaniards secured his territories to a great
extent from the depredations of the war until the arrival of
the Swedes in Germany in 1630, when the extension of the area
of the struggle to the neighbourhood of Cologne induced him
to enter into negotiations for peace. Nothing came of these
attempts until 1647, when he joined his brother Maximilian in
concluding an armistice with France and Sweden at Ulm. The
elector's later years were marked by a conflict with the citizens
of Liege; and when the peace of Westphalia freed him from his
enemies, he was able to crush the citizens and deprive them of
many privileges. Ferdinand, who had held the bishopric of
Padcrborn since 1018, died at Arnsberg on the 13th of September
1650, and was buried in the cathedral at Cologne.
Sec L. Ennen, Frankreuh und der Niederrhein oder Geschichtc von
Sladt Und Kursladi Kdln seU dcmjojdhrit*n Kriqp, Band i. (Cologne,
I855-1856).
FERENTINO (anc. Ferentinum, to be distinguished from
Fercntum or Fercntinum in Etruria), a town and episcopal see
of Italy, in the province of Rome, from which it is 48 m.
E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 7957 (town), 12,279 (commune). It
is picturesquely situated on a hill 1290 ft. above sea-level, and
still possesses considerable remains of ancient fortifications.
The lower portion of the outer walls, which probably did not
stand free, is built of roughly hewn blocks of a limestone which
naturally splits into horizontal layers; above this in places is
walling of rectangular blocks of tufa. Two gates, the Porta
Sanguinaria (with an arch with tufa voussoirs), and the Porta
S. Maria, a double gate constructed entirely of rectangular blocks
of tufa, are preserved. Outside this gate is the tomb of A.
Quinctilius Priscus, a citizen of Ferentinum, with a long inscrip-
tion cut in the rock. See Th. Mommsen in Corp. Inscrip, Lot. x.
(Berlin, 1883), No. 5853.
The highest part of the town, the acropolis, fs fortified also;
it has massive retaining walls similar to those of the lower town.
At the eastern corner, under the present episcopal palace, the
construction is somewhat more careful. A projecting rectan-
gular terrace has been erected, supported by walls of quadri-
lateral blocks of limestone arranged almost horizontally; while
upon the level thus formed a building of rectangular blocks of
local travertine was raised. The projecting cornice of this
building bears two inscriptions of the period of Sulla, recording
its construction by two censors (local officials); and in the in-
terior, which contains several chambers, there is an inscription
of the same censors over one of the doors, and another over a
smaller external side door. The windows lighting these chambers
come immediately above the cornice, and the wall continues
above them again. The whole of this construction probably
belongs to one period (Mommsen, op. cii. No. 5837 seq.). The
cathedral occupies a part of the level top of the ancient acropolis;
it was reconstructed on the site of an older church in 1099-1118;
the interior was modernized in 1693, but was restored to its
original form in 1903. It contains a fine canopy in the " Cosma-
toque " style (sec Relatione id levari estguili dot? ufficb tecnico
Per la conservazione dci monumenii di Rome a proancia, Rome,
1903, x 75 **!•)• The Gothic church of S. Maria Maggiore, in the
lower town (i3th-i4th century), has a very fine exterior; the
interior, the plan of which is a perfect rectangle, has been spoilt
by restoration. There are several other Gothic churches in the
town.
Fercntinum was the chief town of the Hernici; it was captured
from them by the Romans in 364 B.C. and look no part in the
rising of 306 B.C. The inhabitants became Roman citizens after
195 B.C., and the place later became a mmmcipium. It lay just
above the Via Latina and, being a strong place, served for the
detention of hostages. Horace praises its quietness, and it does
not appear much in later history. (T. As.)
See further Ashby, Rom. Mitteil. xxiv. (1909)*
FERBNTUM, or Ferentinum, an ancient town of Etruria,
about 6 m. N. of Viterbo (the ancient name of which is unknown)
and 3 J m. E. of the Via Cassia. It was the birthplace (32 ad.) of
the emperor Otbo, was destroyed in the nth century, and is now
entirely deserted, though it retains its ancient name. It occupied
a ridge running from east to west, with deep ravines on three
sides. There are some remains of the city walls, and of various
Roman structures, but the most important ruin is that of the
theatre. The stage front is still standing; it is pierced by seven
openings with flat arches, and shows traces of reconstruction.
The necropolis was on the hill called Talonc on the north-east.
Sec G. Dennis. Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883),
i. 156; Notisie detli scavi, 1900, 401 ; 190a, 84; 1905, 31.
FERETORY (from Lat. feretrum, a bier, from fcrre, to bear),
in architecture, the enclosure or chapel within which the
" fercter ° shrine, or tomb (as in Henry VII. 'a chapel), was
placed.
FERGHANA, or Fergana, a province of Russian Turkestan,
formed in 1876 out of the former khanate of Khokand. It i%
bounded by the provinces of Syr-darya on the N. and N.W.,
Samarkand on the W. f and Semiryechcnsk on the N.E., by
Chinese Turkestan (Kashgaria) on the E., and by Bokhara and
Afghanistan on the S. Its southern limits, on the Pamirs, were
fixed by an Anglo-Russian commission in 2885, from Zor-kui
(Victoria Lake) to the Chinese frontier; and Shignan, Roshan
and Wakhan were assigned to Bokhara in exchange for part of
Darvaz (on the left bank of the Panj), which was given to
Afghanistan. The area amounts to some 53,000 sq. m., of which
1 7,600 sq. m. are on the Pamirs. The most important part of
the province is a rich and fertile valley (1200-1500 ft.), opening
towards the S.W. Thence the province stretches northwards
across the mountains of the Tian-shan system and southwards
across the Alai and Trans- Alai Mts., which reach their highest
point in Peak Kaufmann (23,000 ft.), in the latter range. The
valley owes its fertility to two rivers, the Naryn and the Kara-
darya, which unite within its confines, near Namangan, to form
the Syr-darya or Jaxartcs. These streams, and their numerous
mountain affluents, not only supply water for irrigation, but
also bring down vast quantities of sand, which is deposited
alongside their courses, more especially alongside the Syr-darya
where it cuts its way through the Khojent-Ajar ridge, forming
there the Karakchikum. This expanse of moving sands, cover-
ing an area of 750 sq. m., under the influence of south-west winds,
encroaches upon the agricultural districts. The climate of this
valley is dry and warm. In March the temperature reaches
68° F., and then rapidly rises to 95° in June, July and August.
During the five months following April no rain falls, but it begins
again in October. Snow and frost (down to — 4 F.) occur in
December and January.
Out of some 3,000,000 acres of cultivated land, about two-
thirds are under constant irrigation and the remaining third
under partial irrigation. The soil is admirably cultivated, the
principal crops being wheat, rice, barley, maize, millet, lucerne,
tobacco, vegetables and fruit. Gardening is conducted with a
high degree of skill and success. Large numbers of horses,
cattle and sheep are kept, and a good many camels are bred.
Over 17,000 acres are planted with vines, and some 350,000
acres are under cotton. Nearly z ,000,000 acres are covered wj th
forests. The government maintains a forestry farm atMarghelan,
from which 120,000 to 200,000 young trees are distributed free
every year amongst the inhabitants of the province.
Silkworm breeding, formerly a prosperous industry, has
decayed, despite the encouragement of a state farm at New
Marghelan. Coal, iron, sulphur, gypsum, rock-salt, lacustrine
salt and naphtha arc all known to exist, but only the last two
are extracted. Some seventy or eighty factories are engaged
in cotton cleaning; while leather, saddlery, paper and cutlery
FERGUS FALLS— FERGUSON, ADAM
271
aic the principal products of the domestic industries. A con-
siderable trade is carried on with Russia; raw cotton, raw silk,
tobacco, hides, sheepskins, fruit and cotton and leather goods are
exported, and manufactured wares, textiles, tea and sugar are
imported and in part re-exported to Kashgaria and Bokhara,
The total trade of Ferghana reaches an annual value of nearly
£3,500,000. A new impulse was given to trade by the extension
(1809) of the Tranacaspian railway into Ferghana and by the
opening of the Orenburg-Tashkent railway (1006). The routes
to Kashgaria and the Pamirs ore mere bridle-paths over the
mountains, crossing them by lofty posses. For instance, the
passes of Kara-kaiyk (14400 ft-) ««* Tcnghis-bai (t 1,200 ft.),
both passable all the year round, lead from Marghelan to Kara*
leghin and the Pamirs, while Kashgar is reached via Osh and
Gulcfaa, and then over the passes of Tcrck-davan (19,205 ft.;
open all the year round), Taldyk (1 1,500 ft.), Archat (r 1,600 ft.),
and Shart-davan (14,000 ft.). Other passes leading out of the
valley are the Jiptyk (12460 ft.), S. of Khokand; the Isfairam
( 1 2,000 ft.), leading to the glen of the Surkhab, and the Kavuk
(13.000 ft.), across the Alai Mis.
The population numbered 1,571,243 in 1807 .and of that number
707.13a were women and 286,360 were urban. In 1006 it was
estimated at 1,706,500. Two-thirds of the total are Sarta and
Uzbegs (of Turkic origin). They live mostly in the valley;
while the mountain slopes above it arc occupied by Kirghiz,
partly nomad and pastoral, partly agricultural and settled.
Trie other races are Tajiks, Kashgarians, Kipchaks, Jews and
Gypsies. The governing classes are of course Russians, who
constitute also the merchant and artisan classes. But the
merchants of West Turkestan are called all over central Asia
Andijan is, from the town of Andijan in Ferghana. The great
mass of the population are Mussulmans (1,030,115 in 1897).
Tins province is divided into five districts, the chief towns of
which are New Marghelan, capital of the province (8077 in-
habitants in 1897), Andijan (49,682 in 1000), Khokand (86,704
in 1000), Namangan (61,006 in 1897), and Osh (37i397 in
1900); but Old Marghelan (42,855 in 1900) and Chust (13,686
in 1897) are also towns of importance. * For the history, sec
Kjiokamt. (P.A.K.; J.T.Bs.)
FERGUS FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Otter Tail
county, Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Red river, 170 m. N.W. of
Minneapolis. Pop. (1800) 3772; (1900) 6072, of whom 2x31
were foreign-born; (1905) 6692; (1910) 6887. A large part
of the population is of Scandinavian birth or descent. Fergus
Falls is served by the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific
railways. Situated in the celebrated " park region " of the state,
the city possesses great natural beauty, which has been enhanced
by a system of boulevards and well-kept private lawns. Lake
AKce, in the residential district, adds to the city's attractions.
The city has a public library, a county court house, St Luke's
hospital* the G. B. Wright memorial hospital, and a city hall.
It is the seat of a state hospital for the insane (1887) with about
1600 patients, of a business college, of the Park Region Luther
College (Norwegian Lutheran, 1892), and of the North-western
College (Swedish Lutheran; opened in 1901). It has one of
the wiest water-powers in the state. Flour is the principal
product ; among others are woollen goods, foundry and machine-
shop products, wooden ware, sash, doors and blinds, caskets,
shirts, wagons and packed meats. The city owns and operates
its water-works and Hs electric-lighting plant. Fergus Falls was
settled about 1859 and was incorporated in 1863.
FERGUSON, ADAH (17*3-1816), Scottish philosopher and
historian, was born on the 20th of June 1723, at Logicrail,
Perthshire. He was educated at Perth grammar school and the
aarversity of St Andrews. In 1745, owing to his knowledge of
Gaelic, he was appointed deputy chaplain of the 43rd (afterwards
the 42nd) regiment (the Black Watch), the licence to preach
being granted him by special dispensation, although he hap* not
completed the required six years of theological study. At the
battle of Fontenoy (1745) Ferguson fought in the ranks through-
out the day, and refused to leave the field, though ordered to
do so by his colonel He continued attached to the regiment till
1 754, when, disappointed at not obtaining a living, he abandoned
the clerical profession and resolved to devote himself to literary
pursuits. In January 1757 he succeeded David Hume a*
librarian to the faculty of advocates, but soon relinquished thb
office on becoming tutor in the family of Lord Bute.
In 1759 Ferguson was appointed professor of natural philo-
sophy in the university of Edinburgh, and in 1764 was trans-
ferred to the chair of M pneumatics " (mental philosophy) " and
moral philosophy." In 1 767, against Hume's advice, he published
his Essay on the History of CMl Society, which was well received
and translated into several European languages. In 1776
appeared his (anonymous) pamphlet on the American revolution
in opposition to Dr Price's Observations on the Nature of Civil
Liberty, in which he sympathised with the views of the British
legislature. In 1778 Ferguson was appointed secretary to the
nmission which endeavoured, but without success, to
negotiate an arrangement with the revolted colonies. In 1783
appeared his History of tke Progress and Termination of the
Roman Republic, it was very popular, and went through several
editions. Ferguson was led to undertake this work from a con-
viction that the history of the Romans during the period of their
greatness was a practical illustration of those ethical and political
doctrines which were the object of his special study. The history
is written in an agreeable style and a spirit of impartiality, and
gives evidence of a conscientious use of authorities. The in-
fluence of the author's military experience shows itself in certain
portions of the narrative. Finding himself unequal to the labour
of teaching, he resigned his professorship in 1765, and devoted
himself to the revision of hb lectures, which he published (1792)
under the title of Principles of Moral and Political Science.
When in his seventieth year, Ferguson, intending to prepare
a new edition of the history, visited Italy and some of the prin-
cipal cities of Europe, where he was received with honour by
learned societies. - From 1795 he resided successively at the old
castle of Neidpath near Peebles, at Hallyards on Manor Water
and at St Andrews, where he died on the 22nd of February 1816.
In his ethical system Ferguson treats man throughout as a
social being, and illustrates his doctrines by political examples.
As a believer in the progression of the human race, he placed the
principle of moral approbation in the attainment of perfection.
His speculations were carefully criticised by Cousin (see his
Cours oVhistoire de la philosophic morale an dix-huiliemc siicle,
pt. iL, 1830-1840);—" Wo find in his method the wisdom and
circumspection of the Scottish school, with something more
masculine and decisive in the results. The principle of perfection
is a new one, at once more rational and comprehensive than
benevolence and sympathy, which in our view places Ferguson
as a moralist above all his predecessors." By this principle
Ferguson endeavours to reconcile all moral systems. With
Hobbcs and Hume he admits the power of self-interest or utility,
and makes it enter into morals as the law of self-preservation.
Hutchison's theory of universal benevolence and Smith's Idea
of sympathy he combines under the law of society. But, as these
laws are the means rather than the end of human destiny, they
arc subordinate to a supreme end, and this supreme end is per-
fection. In the political part of his system Ferguson follows
Montesquieu, and pleads the cause of well-regulated liberty and
free government. His contemporaries, with the exception of
Hume, regarded his writings as of great importance; in point of
fact they are superficial. The facility of their style and the
frequent occurrence of would-be weighty epigrams blinded his
critics to the fact that, in spite of his recognition of the import-
ance of observation, he made no real contribution to political
theory (see Sir Leslie Stephen, English Thought in the Eighteenth
Century, x. 89-90).
The chief authority for Ferguson's life is the Biographical Sketch
by John Small (1864); see also Public Characters (1790-1800):
GtnHemou't A/ofosiiM, i. (i8f6mpp.) : W. R. Chambers's Biographical
Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen', memoir by Principal Lee in early
editions of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica; J. McCeth, Tie Scottish
Philosophy CxSjS) ; articles in Dictionary of National Biography and
Edinburgh Renew (January 1867) ; Lord Henry Cockburn, Memorials
ofhisTtmeMsto.,
FERGUSON, J.— FERGUSON, SIR S.
FERGUSON, JAMES (1710-1776), Scottish mechanician and
astronomer, was born near Rothiemay in Banffshire on the 25th
of April 1710, of parents in very humble circumstances. He
first learned to read by overhearing his father teach his elder
brother, and with the help of an old woman was " able/' be says
in his autobiography, " to read tolerably well before his father
thought of teaching him." After receiving further instruction
in reading from his father, who also taught him to write, he was
sent at the age of seven for three months to the grammar school
at Keith. His taste for mechanics was about this time accident-
ally awakened on seeing his father making use of a lever to
raise a part of the roof of his house— an exhibition of seeming
strength which at first " excited his terror as well as wonder."
In 1 7 20 he was sent to a neighbouring farm to keep sheep, where
in the daytime he amused himself by making models of mills
and other machines, and at night in studying the stars. After-
wards, as a servant with a miller, and then with a doctor, he met
with hardships which rendered his constitution feeble through
life. Being compelled by his weak health to return home, he
there amused himself with making a clock having wooden wheels
and a whalebone spring. When slightly recovered he showed
this and some other inventions to a neighbouring gentleman,
who engaged him to clean his clocks, and also desired him to
make his house his home. He there began to draw patterns for
needlework, and his success in this art led him to think of
becoming a painter. In 1734 he went to Edinburgh, where he
began to take portraits in miniature, by which means, while
engaged in his scientific studies, he supported himself and hb
family for many years. Subsequently he settled at Inverness,
where he drew up his Astronomical Roitda for showing the
motions of the planets, places of the sun and moon, &c, and in
1743 went to London, which was his home for the rest of his life.
He wrote various papers for the Royal Society, of which be
became a fellow in 1763, devised astronomical and mechanical
models, and in 1748 began to give public lectures on experimental
philosophy. These he repeated in most of the principal towns
in England. His deep interest in his subject, his clear explana-
tions, his ingeniously constructed diagrams, and his mechanical
apparatus rendered him one of the most successful of popular
lecturers on scientific subjects. It is, however, as the inventor
and improver Of astronomical and other scientific apparatus,
and as a striking instance of self-education, that he claims a
place among the most remarkable men of science of his country.
During the latter years of his life he was in receipt of a pension
of £50 from the privy purse. He died in London on the 17th of
November 1776.
Ferguson's principal publications are Astronomical Tclhs ft 763);
Lectures on Select Subjects (ut edU 1761 , edited by Sir David Brevier
in 1805); Astronomy explained upon Sir Iiaac Wanton's principles
(1756, edited by Sir Davidi Brewster in 1611) ; and StUcl Mechanical
Exerctses, with a Short Adcnatt cj the Life of the Author, written
by himself (1773). This autobiography is incfurhM in a Lift by E.
Henderson, LL.D. (lit cd., 1867 ; 2nd, 1870J , which atto contains i full
description of Ferguson's principal invention*! acorn annicd with
illustrations. See also The Story itfihe rcoijni Bay Fhitesophtr, by
Henry May new (1857).
FERGUSON, ROBERT (c. 1637-1714), British conspirator
and pamphleteer, called the " Plotter," was a son of William
Ferguson (d. 1699) of Badifurrow, Aberdeenshire, and after
receiving a good education, probably at the university of Aber-
deen, became a Presbyterian minister. ' According to Bishop
Burnet he was, cast out by the Presbyterians; but whether this
be so or not, he soon made his way to England and became vicar
of Godmersham, Kent, from which living he was expelled by
the Act of Uniformity in 1662. Some years later, having gained
meanwhile a reputation as a theological controversialist and
become a person of importance among the Nonconformists, he
attracted the notice of the earl of Shaftesbury and the party
which favoured the exclusion of the duke of York (afterwards
King James II.) from the throne, and he began to write political
pamphlets just at the time when the feeling against the Roman
Catholics was at its height. In 1680 he wrote " A Letter to a
Person of Honour concerning the ' Black Box/ " in which he
supported the claim of the duke of Monmouth to the crown
against that of the duke of York; returning to the subject after
Charles II. had solemnly denied the existence of a marriage
between himself and Lucy Waters. He took an active part ia
the controversy over the Exclusion Bill, and claimed to be the
author of the whole of the pamphlet " No Protestant Plot "
(1681), parts of which are usually ascribed to Shaftesbury.
Ferguson was deeply implicated in the Rye House Plot, although
he asserted that he had frustrated both this and a subsequent
attempt to assassinate the king, and he fled to Holland with
Shaftesbury in 1682, returning to England early in 1683. For
his share in another plot against Charles II. he was declared an
outlaw, after which he entered into communication with Argyll,
Monmouth and other malcontents. Ferguson then took a leading
part in organizing the rising of 1685. Having overcome Mon-
mouth's reluctance to take part in this movement, he accom-
panied the duke to the west of England and drew up the manifesto
against James IL, escaping to Holland after the battle of Sedge-
moor. He landed in England with William of Orange in 1688,
and aided William's cause with his pen; but William and his
advisers did not regard him as a person of importance, although
bis services were rewarded with a sinecure appointment in the
Excise. Chagrined at this treatment, Ferguson was soon in
correspondence with the exiled Jacobites. He shared in all the
plots against the life of William, and after his removal from
the Excise in 1692 wrote violent pamphlets against the govern-
ment. Although he was several times arrested on suspicion, be
was never brought to trial. He died in great poverty in X7U,
leaving behind him a great and deserved reputation for treachery.
It has been thought by Macaulay and others that Ferguson led
the English government to believe that he was a spy in their
interests, and that his frequent escapes from justice were due
to official connivance. In a proclamation issued for his arrest
in 1683 he is described as M a tall lean man, dark brown hair,
a great Roman nose, thin-jawed, heat in his face, speaks in the
Scotch tone, a sharp piercing eye, stoops a little in the shoulders."
Besides numerous pamphlets Ferguson wrote: History of tkt
Revolution (1706); Qualifications requisite in a Minister of Slate
(17x0); and part of the History of all the Mobs, Tumults and
Insurrections in Great Britain (London, 171 5).
See James Ferguson, Robert Ferguson, the Plotter (Edinburgh, 1887),
which gives a favourable account of Ferguson.
FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL (1810-1886), Irish poet and anti-
quary, was born at Belfast, on the xoth of March 1810. He
was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, was called to the Irish
bar in 1838, and was made Q.C. in 1859, but in 1867 retired
from practice upon his appointment as deputy-keeper of the
Irish records, then in a much neglected condition. He was
an excellent civil servant, and was knighted in 1878 for his
services to the department. His spare time was given to general
literature, and in particular to poetry. He had long been a
leading contributor to the Dublin University Magatine and to
Blackwood, where he had published his two .literary master-
pieces, " The Forging of the Anchor," one of the finest of modern
ballads, and the humorous prose extravaganza of " Father Tom
and the Pope." He published Lays of the Western Cad in 1865.
Poems in 1880, and in 1872 Congal, a metrical narrative of the
heroic age of Ireland, and, though far from ideal perfection,
perhaps the most successful attempt yet made by a modern Irish
poet to revivify the spirit of the past in a poem of epic propor-
tions. Lyrics have succeeded better in other hands; many of
Fergusons pieces on modern themes, notably his " Lament for
Thomas Davis " (1845), are, nevertheless, excellent. He was an
extensive contributor on antiquarian subjects to the Transactions
0/ the Royal Irish Academy, and was elected its president in
1882. His manners were delightful, and his hospitality was
boundless. He died at Howth on the 9th of August 1886. His
most important antiquarian work, Ogham Inscriptions in Ireland,
Wales, Scotland, was published in the year after his death.
See Sir Samuel Ferguson in the Ireland of his Day (1806), by his
wife, Mary C. Ferguson ; also an article by A. P. Graves in 4 Treasury
of Irtsh Poetry in the English Tongue (1900), edited by Stopford
Brooke and T. W. Rolleston.
FERGUS60N, J,— FERGUSSON, SIR W.
IT, JAMBS (r8o*~x886), Scottish writer on archi-
tecture, was bora at Ayr on the 32nd of January 1808. His
father was an army surgeon. After being educated first at the
Edinburgh high school, and afterwards at a private school at
Hoonslow, James went to Calcutta as partner in a mercantile
house. Here be was attracted by the remains of the ancient
architecture of India, little known or understood at that time.
Tbe successful conduct of an indigo factory, as he states in his
own account, enabled him in about ten years to retire from
business and settle in London. The observations made on
Indian architecture were first embodied in his book on The
Rxk-cvt Temples of India, published in 1845. The task of analys-
ing the historic and aesthetic relations of this type of ancient
buildings led him further to undertake a historical and critical
comparative survey of the whole subject of architecture in The
Handbook of Architecture, a work which first appeared in 1855.
This did not satisfy him, and the work was reissued ten years
later in a much more extended form under the title of The History
0/ Architecture. The chapters on Indian architecture, which had
been considered at rather disproportionate length in the Hand-
Mt, were removed from the general History, and the whole of
this subject treated more fully in a separate volume, The History
tf Indian ami Eastern Architecture, which appeared in 1876, and,
iltnoogh complete in itself, formed a kind of appendix to The
History of Architecture. Previously to this, in 1862, he issued
his History of Modern Architecture, in which the subject was
continued from the Renaissance to the present day, the period
of " modern architecture " being distinguished as that of re-
vivals and imitations of ancient styles, which began with the
Renaissance. The essential difference between this and the
ipontaaeously evolved architecture of preceding ages Fergusson
ni the first dearly to point out and characterize. His treatise
on The True Principles of Beauty in Art, an early publication,
is a most thoughtful metaphysical study. Some of his essays
on special points in archaeology, such as the treatise on The
Uok in which Light was introduced into Greek Temples, included
Uteories which have not received general acceptance. His real
■onument is his History of Architecture (later edition revised by
R. Phent Spiers), which, for grasp of the whole subject, compre-
hensiveness of plan, and thoughtful critical analysis, stands
Quite alone in architectural literature. He received the gold
nedal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1871.
Among his works, besides those already mentioned, are: A
tnputd New System of Fortification (1849), Palaces of Nineveh
«4 Persepolis restored (1851), Mausoleum at HoJicarnassus
rt&rei (1862), Tree and Serpent Worship (1868), Rude Stone
Amounts in all Countries (1872), and The Temples of the Jews
t*d the other Buildings in the Hot am Area at Jerusalem (1878).
The sessional papers of the Institute of British Architects in-
clude papers by him on The History of the Pointed Arch,
Architecture of Southern India, Architectural Splendour of the
City of Beejapore, On the Erechikeum and on the Temple of
Mom at Ephesus.
Although Fergusson never practised architecture he took a
ben interest in all the professional work of his time. He was
tdviser with Austen Layard in the scheme of decoration for the
Assyrian court at the Crystal Palace, and indeed assumed in
1856 the dutiea of general manager to the Palace Company, a
post which he held for two years. In 1847 Fergusson had pub-
lished an " Essay on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem," in*
which he had contended that tbe " Mosque of Omar " was the
featictl church built by Constantine the Great over the tomb
of our Lord at Jerusalem, and that it, and not the present church
of the Holy Sepulchre, was the genuine burial-place of Jesus.
The burden of this contention was further explained by the
publication in i860 of his Notes on the Site of the Holy Sepulchre
* Jmtsalem; and The Temples of the Jews and the other Buildings
w the Haram Area at Jerusalem, published in 1878, was a still
tunpleter elaboration of these theories, which are said to have
«eo the origin of the establishment of the Palestine Exploration
w&. His manifold activities continued till his death, which
took place in London on the oth of January x886.
X. 5*
273
PERGU8SOH, ROBERT (1750-1774), Scottish poet, son of Sir
William Fergusson, a clerk In the British Linen Company, was
born at Edinburgh on the 5th of September 1750, Robert was
educated at the grammar school of Dundee, and at the university
of St Andrews, where he matriculated in 1765. His father died
while he was still at college; but a bursary enabled him to com-
plete his four years of study. He refused to study for the church,
and was too nervous to study medicine as his friends wished.
He quarrelled with his uncle, John Forbes of Round Lichnot,
Aberdeenshire, and went to Edinburgh, where he obtained
employment as copying clerk in a lawyer's office. Jn this humble
occupation he passed the remainder of his life. While at college
be had written a clever elegy on Dr David Gregory, and in 1771
be began to contribute verses regularly to Ruddiman's Weekly
Magazine. He was a member of the Cape Club, celebrated by him
in his poem of " Auld Reekie." " The Knights of the Cape "
assembled at a tavern in Craig's Close, in the vicinity of the
Cross; each member had a name and character assigned to him,
which he was required to maintain at all gatherings of the order.
David Herd (1732-1810), the collector of the classic edition of
Ancient and Modern Scottish Songs (1776), was sovereign of tbe
Cape (in which he was known as " Sir Scrape ") when Fergusson
was dubbed a knight of the order, with the title of " Sir Pre-
centor," in allusion to his fine voice. Alexander Runciman, the
historical painter, his pupil Jacob More, and Sir Henry Raeburn
were all members. The old minute books of the club abound
with pencilled sketches by them, one of the most interesting of
which, ascribed to Runciman's pencil, is a sketch of Fergusson
in his character of " Sir Precentor."
Fergusson's gaiety and wit made him an entertaining com*
panion, and he indulged too freely in the convivial habits of the
time. After a meeting with John Brown of Haddington ho
became, however, very serious, and would read nothing but his
Bible. A fall by which his head was severely in j ured aggravated
symptoms of mental aberration which had begun to show
themselves; and after about two months' confinement in toe
old Darien House — then the only public asylum in Edinburgh—
the poet died on the 16th of October 1774.
Fergussons' poems were collected in the year before his death.
The Influence of his writings on Robert Burns is undoubted.
His " Leith Races " unquestionably supplied the model for the
" Holy Fair." Not only is the stanza the same, but the Mirth
who plays the part of conductor to Fergusson, and the Fun who
renders a like service to Burns, are manifestly conceived on the
same model "The Mutual Complaint of Plainstanes and
Causey " probably suggested " The Brigs of Ayr "; " On seeing
a Butterfly in the Street " has reflections in it which strikingly
correspond with " To a Mouse "; nor will a comparison of " The
Farmer's Ingle " of the elder poet with " The Cottar's Saturday
Night " admit of a doubt as to the influence of the city-bred
poet's muse on that exquisite picturing of homely peasant life,
Burns was himself the first to render a generous tribute to the
merits of Fergusson; on his visit to Edinburgh in 1787 he sought
out the poet's grave, and petitioned the authorities of the
Canongate burying-ground for permission to erect the memorial
stone which is preserved in the existing monument. Tbe date
there assigned for his birth differs from the one given above,
which rests on the authority of his younger sister Margaret.
The first edition of Fergusson's poems was published by Rqddiman
at Edinburgh in 1773, and a supplement containing additional poems,
in 1770. A second edition appeared in 1785. There are later editions.
by Robert Chambers (1850) and Dr A. B. Grosart (1851). A life of
Fergusson is included in Dr David Irving's Lores of the Scottish Poets,
and in Robert Chambers's Lews of Illustrious and Distinguished
FBRGU8S0N, SIR WILLIAM. Bart. (1808-1877), British
surgeon, the son of James Fergusson of Lochmaben, Dumfries-
shire, was born at Prestonpans, East Lothian, on the aeth of
March 1808. After receiving his early education at Lochmaben
and the high school of Edinburgh, he entered the university
of Edinburgh with the view of studying law, but soon after*
wards abandoned his intention and became a pupil of the.
anatomist Robert Knox (1791-1802). whose demonstrator he was
274
FERINGHI— FERMANAGH
appointed at the age of twenty. la 1836 he succeeded Robert
Liston as surgeon to the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and coming
to London in 1840 as professor of surgery in King's College,
and surgeon to King's College Hospital, he acquired a command*
ing position among the surgeons of the metropolis. He revived
the operation for deft-palate, which for many years had fallen
into disrepute, and invented a special mouth-gag for the same.
He also devised many other surgical instruments, chief among
which, and still in use to-day, are his bone forceps, lion forceps
and vaginal speculum. In 1866 he was created * baronet.
He died in London on the 10th of February 1877. As a surgeon
Ferguson's greatest merit is that of having introduced the
practice of " conservative surgery," by which he meant the
excision of a joint rather than the amputation of a limb. He
made his diagnosis with almost intuitive certainty; as an
operator be was characterized by self-possession in the most
critical circumstances, by minute attention to details and by
great refinement of touch, and he relied more on his mechanical
dexterity than on complicated instruments. He was the aut nor
of The Progress of A natomy and Surgery in the Nineteenth Century
(1867), and of a System of Practical Surgery (184a), which went
through several editions.
FERINGHI. or Fekinghee, a Frank (Persian, Farangi). This
term for a European is very old in Asia, and was originally used
in a purely geographical sense, but now generally carries a hostile
or contemptuous significance. The combatants on either side
during the Indian Mutiny called each other Feringhies and
Pandies.
FBR1SHTA, MAHOMED KASIH (c. 1570-*. 161 1), Persian
historian, was born at Astrabad, on the shores of the Caspian
Sea. While he was still a child his father was summoned away
from his native country into Hindostan, where he held high office
in the Deccan; and by his influence the young Ferishta received
court promotion. In 1580 Ferishta removed to Bijapur, where
be spent the remainder of his life under the immediate protection
of the shah Ibrahim Adil II., who engaged him to write a history
of India. At the court of this monarch be died about 1 61 1 . In
the introduction to his work a risumi is given of the history of
Hindostan prior tothe times of the Mahommedan conquest, and
also of the victorious progress of the Arabs through the East.
The first ten books are each occupied with a history of the kings
of one of the provinces; the eleventh book gives an account of
the Mussulmans of Malabar; the twelfth a history of the Mussul-
man saints of India; and the conclusion treats of the geography
and climate of India. Ferishta is reputed one of the most trust-
worthy of the Oriental historians, and his work still maintains
a high place as an authority. Several portions of it have been
translated into English; but the best as well as the most com-
plete translation is that published by General J. Briggs under
the title of The History of the Rise of the Mahometan Power in
India (London, 1829, 4 vols. 8vo). Several additions were
made by Briggs to the original work of Ferishta, but he omitted
the whole of the twelfth book, and various other passages which
had been omitted in the copy from which he translated.
FERMANAGH, a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster,
bounded N. W. by Donegal, N.E. by Tyrone, E. by Monaghan
and S.W. by Cavan and Leitrim. The area is 457.369 acres or
about 715 sq. m. The county is situated mostly in the basin
of the Erne, which divides the county into two nearly equal
sections. Its surface is hilly, and its appearance (in many parts)
somewhat sterile, though in the main, and especially in the
neighbourhood of Lough Erne, it is picturesque and attractive.
The climate, though moist, is healthy, and the people are gener-
ally tall and robust. The chief mountains arc Cuilcagh (a 188 ft.),
partly in Leitrim and Cavan, Belmore (1312), Glenkeel (1223),
North Shean (1135), Tappahan (1110), Carnmore (1054).
Tossett or Toppid and Turaw mountains command extensive
prospects, and form striking features in the scenery of the county.
But the most distinguishing features of Fermanagh are the
Upper and Lower Loughs Erne, which occupy a great extent of
Its surface, stretching for about 45 m. from S.E. to N.W. These
lakes are expansions of the river Erne, which enters the couaty
from Cavan at Wattle Bridge. It passes Belturbet, the Loughs
Erne, Enniskillen and Bellcek, on its way to the Atlantic, into
which it descends at BaUyshannon. At Bellcek it forms a con-
siderable waterfall and is here well known to sportsmen for its
good salmon fishing. Trout are taken in most of the loughs,
and pike of great size in the Loughs Erne. There are several
mineral springs in the county, some of them chalybeate, others
sulphurous. At Belcoo, near Enniskillen, there is a famous well
called Daragh Phadric, held in repute by the peasantry for its
cure of paralytic and other diseases; and 4 m. N.W. of the same
town, at a place called " the Daughton," are natural caves of
considerable sue.
This county includes in the north an area of the gneiss that is
discussed under county Donegal, and, west of Omagh, a meta-
morphic region that stretches in from the central axis of Tyrone.
A fault divides the latter from the mass of red-brown Old Red
Sandstone that spreads south nearly to Enniskillen. Lower
Carboniferous sandstone and limestone occur on the north of
Lower Lough Erne. The limestone forms fine scarps on the
southern side of the lake, capped by beds regarded as the
Yoredale series. The scenery about the two Loughs Macnean
is carved out in similarly scarped hills, rising to 2188 ft. in Cuil-
cagh on the south. The " Marble Arch " cave near Florence-
court, with its emerging river, is a characteristic example of
the subterranean waterways in the limestone. Upper Lough
Erne is a typical meandering lake of the limestone lowland, with
outliers of higher Carboniferous strata forming highlands north-
east and south-west of it.
With the exception of the pottery works at Belleek, where
iridescent ware of good quality is produced, Fermanagh has no
distinguishing manufactures. It is chiefly an agricultural
county. The proportion of tillage to pasture is roughly as 1 to
2). Cattle and poultry are the principal classes of live stock.
Oats and potatoes are the crops most extensively cultivated.
The north-western division of the Great Northern railway passes
through the most populous portion of the county, one branch
connecting Enniskillen with Clones, another connecting Ennis-
killen with Londonderry via Omagh, and a third connecting
Bundoran Junction with Bundoran, in county Donegal The
Sligo, Leitrim & Northern Counties railway connects with the
Great Northern at Enniskillen, and the Clogher Valley light
railway connects southern county Tyrone with the Great
Northern at Maguiresbridge.
The population (74.170 in 1891; 65,430 in 1001; almost
wholly rural) shows a decrease among the most serious of the
county populations of Ireland. It includes 55% of Roman
Catholics and about 35% of Protestant Episcopalians. Ennis-
killen (the county town, pop. 5412) is the only town of import-
ance, the rest being tittle more than villages. The principal are
Lisnaskeajrvi nestown( formerly Lowt herstown) .Maguiresbridge,
Tempo, Newtownbutler, Bellcek, Derrygonnelly and Kesh, at
which fairs are held. Garrison, a fishing station on the wild
Lough Melvin, and Pettigo, near to the lower Lough Erne, are
market villages. Fermanagh returns two members to parlia-
ment, one each for the north and south divisions. It comprises
eight baronies and nineteen civil parishes. The assizes are held
at Enniskillen, quarter sessions at Enniskillen and Newtown-
butler. The headquarters of the constabulary are at Enniskillen.
Ecclesiastically it belongs to the Protestant and Roman
Catholic dioceses of Clogher and Kilmore.
By the ancient Irish the district was called Ptor-magh-Eonagh,
or the " country of the lakes " (lit. " the mountain-valley marsh
district "); and also Magh-uire, or " the country of the waters."
A large portion was occupied by the Guarii, the ancestors of the
MacGuires or Maguires, a name still common in the district.
This family was so influential that for centuries the county was
called after it Maguire's Country, and one of the towns still
existing bears its name, Maguiresbridge. Fermanagh was
formed into a county on the shiring of Ulster in 1585 by Sir
John Perrot, and was included in the well-known scheme of
colonization of James I., the Plantation of Ulster. In 1689
battles were fought between William ill's army and the Irish
FERMAT— FERMENTATION
275
under McCarthy (for James IT.), Lisnaskea (26th July) and
Newtowabutler (30th July). The chief place of interest to the
antiquary is Devenish Island in Lough Erne, about i\ m. N.W.
from Enaiskilkn (0.*.), with its ruined abbey, round tower and
cross. In various places throughout the county may be seen the
ruins of several ancient castles, Danish imlhs or encampments,
sad tumuli, in the last of which urns and stone coffins have
sometimes been found. The round tower on Devenish Island
is one of the 6nest examples in the country.
FERMAT, HERRB OB (1601-1665), French mathematician,
was bom 00 the 17th of August 1601, at Beaumom-de-Lomagne
near Moniauban. While still young, he, along with Blaise
Pascal, made tome discoveries in regard to the properties of
numbers, on which he afterwards built his method of calculating
probabilities. He discovered a simpler method of quadrating
parabolas than that of Archimedes, and a method of finding the
greatest and the smallest ordinate* of curved lines analogous
to that of the then unknown differential calculus. His great
work Do maximis tt minimis brought him into conflict with Rene
Descartes, but the dispute was chiefly due to a want of ex-
plidtnets in the statement of Fermat (see Infinitesimal Cal-
culus). His brilliant researches in the theory of numbencntitle
him to rank as the founder of the modern theory. They origin-
ally took the form of marginal notes in a copy of Sachet's
DUpkamha, and were published in 1670 by his son Samuel, who
incorporated them in a new edition of this Greek writer. Other
theorems were published in his Optra Vario, and in John Wallis's
Cvmmcrtittmepistolicum (1658). Hedied in the belief that he had
found a relation which every prime number must satisfy, namely
a*-+i — a prime. This was afterwards disproved by Leonhard
Euler for the case when »«■ 5.. Format's Theorem, it pis prime
and a is prime to p then a^ l -i is divisible by p, was first given
in a letter of 1640. Fermat' s Problem is that x"+7*«s* is in>
p os si b le for integral values of x, y and s when n is greater Lhan a.
Fermat was for some time councillor for the parliament of
Toulouse, and in the discharge of the duties of that office he was
distinguished both for legal knowledge and for strict integrity
of conduct. Though the sciences were the principal objects of
his private studies, he was also an accomplished general scholar
and an excellent linguist. He died at Toulouse on the 12th of
January 1665. He left a son, Samuel de Fermat (1630-1690)
who published translations of several Greek authors and wrote
certain books on law in addition to editing his father's works..
The Opera maihematica of Fermat were published at Toulouse, in
a vohu folio, 1670 and 1679. The first contain* the M Arithmetic
of Dioaliaatus," with notes and additions. The second includes a
" Method for the Quadrature of Parabolas," and a treatise " on
Marima and Minima on Tangents, and on Centres of Gravity,"
containing the same solutions of a variety of problems as were after-
wards incorporated into the more extensive method of fluxions by
Newton and Leibnitz. In the same volume are treatises on "Ceo-
«etric Loci, or Spherical Tangencies," and on the " Rectification of
Curves," besides a restoration of " Apollonius's Plane Loci," together
with the author's correspondence addressed to Descartes, Pascal,
Roberval, Huygens and others. The (Stores of Fermat have been
re-edited by P. Tannery and C. Henry (Paris, 1891-1804).
See Paal Tannery, ' Sur la date des principals decouvertes de
Fermat," in the Bulletin Darboux (1883); and " Les Manuscritt de
F ermat ," in the Annates de lafaculti des lettres de Bordeaux,
FERMENTATION. The process of fermentation in the pre-
paration of wine, vinegar, beer and bread was known and
practised in prehistoric times. The alchemists used the terms
fermentation, digestion and putrefaction indiscriminately; any
reaction in which chemical energy was displayed in some form
or other — such, for instance, as the effervescence occasioned by
the addition of an acid to an alkaline solution — was described
as a fermentation (LaL fervcre, to boil); and the idea of the
" Philosopher's Stone " setting up a fermentation in the common
metals and developing the essence or germ, which should trans-
mute them into silver or gold, further complicated the concep-
tion of fermentation. As an outcome of this alchemical doctrine
the process of fermentation was supposed to have a purifying and
elevating effect on the bodies which had been submitted to its
influence. Basil Valentine wrote that when yeast was added to
wort " an internal inflammation is communicated to (he liquid.
so that it raises in ftself, and thus the segregation and separation
of the feculent from the clear takes place." Jobann Becher,
in t66o, first found that alcohol was formed during the fermenta-
tion of solutions of sugar; he distinguished also between
fermentation and putrefaction. In 1697 Georg Siahl admitted
that fermentation and putrefaction were analogous processes,
but that the former was a particular case of the latter.
The beginning of definite knowledge on the phenomenon of
fermentation may be dated from the time of Antony Leeuwen-
hoek, who in 1680 designed a microscope sufficiently powerful
to render yeast cells and bacteria visible; and a description of
these organisms, accompanied by diagrams, was sent to the
Royal Society of London. This investigator jnst missed a great
discovery, for he did not consider the spherical forms to be living
organisms but compared them with starch granules. It was not
until 1803 that L. J. Theuard stated that yeast was the cause of
fermentation, and held it to be of an animal nature, since it con-
tained nitrogen and yielded ammonia on distillation, nor was
it conclusively proved that the yeast cell was the originator of
fermentation until the researches of C. Cagnlard de la Tour,
T. Schwann and F. KQtalng from 1836 to 1839 settled the point.
These investigators regarded yeast as a plant, and Meyer gave
to the germs the systematic name of " Saccharomyces " (sugar
fungus). In 1830-1840 J. von Liebig attacked the doctrine that
fermentation was caused by micro-organisms, and enunciated
his theory of mechanical decomposition. He held that every
fermentation consisted of molecular motion which hi transmitted
from a substance in a state of chemical motion-— that is, of 'de-
composition— to other substances, the elements of which are
loosely held together. It is dear. from Liebig's publications
that be first regarded yeast as a lifeless, dbuminoid mass; but,
although later he considered they were living cells, he would
never admit that fermentation was a physiological process, the
chemical aspect being paramount in the mind of this distinguished
investigator.
In 1857 Pasteur decisively proved that fermentation wis a phy-
siological process, for he showed that the yeast which produced
fermentation was no dead mass, as assumed by Liebig, but
consisted of living organisms capable of growth and multiplica-
tion. His own words are: " The chemical action of fermenta-
tion is essentially a correlative phenomenon of a vital act,
beginning and ending with it. I think that there is never any
alcoholic fermentation without there being at the same lime
organization, development and multiplication of globules, or
the continued consecutive life of globules already formed."
Fermentation, according to Pasteur, was caused by the growth
and multiplication of unicellular organisms out of contact with
free oxygen, under which circumstance they acquire the power
of taking oxygen from chemical compounds in the medium in
which they are growing. In other words " fermentation is life
without air, or life without oxygen." This theory of fermenta-
tion was materially modified in 1892 and 1894 by A. J. Brown,
who described experiments which were in disagreement with
Pasteur's dictum. A. J. Brown writes: "If for the theory
* life without air ' is substituted the consideration that yeast cells
can use oxygen in the manner of ordinary aerobic fungi, and
probably do require it for the full completion of their life-
history, but that the exhibition of their fermentative functions
is independent of their environment with regard to free
oxygen, it will be found that there is nothing contradictory
in Pasteur's experiments to such a hypothesis."
Liebig and Pasteur were in agreement on the point that fer-
mentation is intimately, connected with the presence of yeast
in the fermenting liquid, but their explanations concerning the
mechanism of fermentation were quite opposed. According to
M. Traube (1858), the active cause of fermentation is due to the
action of different enzymes contained in yeast and not to the
yeast cell itself* As will be seen later this theory was confirmed
by subsequent researches of £. Fischer and £. Buchner.
In 1879 C. Nageli formulated his well-known molecular-
physical theory, which supported Liebig's chemical theory on
the one hand and Pasteur's physiological hypothesis on the
2jb
FERMENTATION
other: " Fermentation is the transference of the condition of
motion of the molecules, Atomic groups and atoms of the various
compounds constituting the living plasma, to the fermenting
material, in consequence of which equilibrium in the molecules
of the latter is destroyed, the result being their disintegration."
He agreed with Pasteur that the presence of living cells is essen-
tial to the transformation of sugar into alcohol, but dissented
from the view that the process occurs within the cell. This
investigator held that the decomposition of the sugar molecules
takes place outside the cell wall. In 1894 and 1895, Fischer, in a
remarkable series of papers on the influence of molecular structure
upon the action of the enzyme, showed that various species of
yeast behave very differently towards solutions of sugars. For
example, some species hydrolyse came sugar and maltose, and
then carry on fermentation at the expense of the simple sugars
(hexoses) so formed. Saccharomyus Marxianus will not hydro-
lyse maltose, but it does attack cane sugar and ferment the pro-
ducts of hydrolysis. Fischer next suggested that eiuymes can
only hydrolyse those sugars which possess a molecular structure
in harmony with their own, or to use his ingenious analogy,
" the one may be said to fit into the other as a key fits into a
lock." The preference exhibited by yeast cells for sugar mole-
cules is shared by mould fungi and soluble enzymes in their
fermentative actions. Thus, Pasteur showed that PenuiUium
gloucum, when grown in an aqueous solution of ammonium
racemate, decomposed the dextro-lartrate, leaving the Laevo-
tartrate, and the solution which was originally inactive to
polarized light became dextro-rotatory. Fischer found that
the enzyme "invertase," which is present in yeast, attacks
methyl-d-glucoside but not methyl-J-glucoside.
In 1897 Buchner submitted yeast to great pressure, and
isolated a nitrogenous substance, enxymic in character, which
he termed " zymase." This body is being continually formed
in the yeast cell, and decomposes the sugar which has diffused
into the cell. The freshly-expressed yeast juice causes concen-
trated solutions of cane sugar, glucose, laevulose and maltose to
ferment with the production of alcohol and carbon dioxide, but
not milk-sugar and mannose. In this respect the plasma
behaves in a similar manner towards the sugars as does the
living yeast cell. Pasteur found that, when cane sugar was
fermented by yeast, 49*4% of carbonic acid and 51-1% of
alcohol were produced; with expressed yeast juice cane sugar
yields 47% of carbonic acid and 47*7% *f alcohol. According
to Buchner the fermentative activity of yeast-cell Juice is not
due to the presence of living yeast cells, or to the action of living
yeast protoplasm, but K is caused by a soluble enzyme. A.
Macfadyen, G. H. Morris and S. Rowland, in repeating Buchner's
experiments, found that zymase possessed properties differing
from all other enzymes, thus: dilution with twice its volume
of water practically destroys the fermentative power of the yeast
juice. These investigators considered that differences of this
nature cannot be explained by the theory that it is a soluble
enzyme, which brings about the alcoholic fermentation of sugar.
The remarkable discoveries of Fischer and Buchner to a great
extent confirm Traube's views, and reconcile Liebig'* and
Pasteur's theories. Although the action of zymase may be
regarded as mechanical, the enzyme cannot be produced by
any other than living protoplasm.
Pasteur's important researches mark an epoch in the technical
aspect of fermentation. His investigations on vinegar-making
revolutionized that industry, and be showed bow, instead of
waiting two or three months for the elaboration of the process,
the vinegar could be made in eight or ten days by exposing the
vats containing the mixture of wine and vinegar to a tempera-
ture of 20° to 25° C, and sowing with a small quantity of the
acetic organism. To the study of the life-history of the butyric
and acetic organisms we owe the terms "anaerobic" and
"aerobic." His researches from i860 and onwards on the
then vexed question of spontaneous generation proved that,
in all cases where spontaneous generation appeared to have
taken place, some defect or other was in the experiment. Al-
though the direct object of Pasteur was to prove a negative,
yet it was on these experiments that sterilization as known to
us was developed. It is only necessary to bear in mind the great
part played by sterilization in the laboratory, and pasteuriza-
tion on the fermentation industries and in the preservation
of food materials. Pasteur first formulated the idea that bacteria
are responsible for the diseases of fermented liquids; the corol-
lary of this was a demand for pure yeast. He recommended that
yeast should be purified by cultivating it in a solution of sugar
containing tartaric add, or, in wort containing a small quantity
of phenoL It was not recognized that many of the diseases of
fermented liquids are occasioned by foreign yeasts; moreover,
this process, as was shown later by Hansen, favours the develop-
ment of foreign yeasts at the expense of the good yeast.
About this time Hansen, who had long been engaged in re-
searches on the biology of the fungi of fermentation, demon-
strated that yeast free from bacteria could nevertheless occasion
diseases in beer. This discovery was of great importance to the
zy mo-technical industries, for it showed that bacteria are not
the only undesirable organisms which may occur in yeast.
Hansen set himself the task of studying the properties of the
varieties of yeast, and to do this he had to cultivate each variety
in a pure state. Having found that some of the commonest
diseases of beer, such as yeast turbidity and the objectionable
changes in flavour, were caused not by bacteria but by certain
species of yeast, and, further, that different species of good
brewery yeast would produce beers of different character, Hanson
argued that the pitching yeast should consist only of a single
species— namely, that best suited to the brewery in question.
These views met with considerable opposition, but in 1800
Professor E. Duclaux stated that the yeast question as regards
low fermentation has been solved by Hansen's investigations.
He emphasized the opinion that yeast derived from one cell was
of no good for top fermentation, and advocated Pasteur's
method of purification. But in the course of time, notwith-
standing many criticisms and objections, the reform spread from
bottom fermentation to top. fermentation breweries on the
continent and in America. In the United Kingdom the employ-
ment of brewery yeasts selected from a single cell has not come
into general use; it may probably be accounted for in a great
measure by conservatism and the wrong application of Hansen's
theories.
Pure Cultivation of Yeasts.— -The methods which were first
adopted by Hansen for obtaining pure cultures of yeast were
similar in principle to one devised by J. Lister for isolating a
pure culture of lactic acid bacterium. Lister determined the
number of bacteria present in a drop of the liquid under examina-
tion by counting, and then diluted this with a sufficient quantity
of sterilized water so that each drop of the mixture should con-
tain, on an average, less than one bacterium. A number of flasks
containing a nutrient medium were each inoculated with one
drop of this mixture; it was found that some remained sterile,
and Lister assumed that the remaining flasks each contained
a pure culture. This method did not give very certain results,
for it could not be guaranteed that the growth in the inoculated
flask was necessarily derived from a single bacterium. Hansen
counted the number of yeast cells suspended in a drop of liquid
diluted with sterilized water. A volume of the diluted yeast
was introduced into flasks containing sterilized wort, the degree
of dilution being such that only a small proportion of the flasks
became infected. The flasks were then well shaken, and the yeast
cell or cells settled to the bottom, and gave rise to a separate
yeast speck. Only those cultures which contained a single yeast
speck were assumed to be pure cultivations. By this method
several races of Sacchcramyales and brewery yeasts were
isolated and described.
The next important advance was the substitution of solid for
liquid media; due originally to Schroter. R. Koch subsequently
improved the method. He introduced bacteria into liquid
sterile nutrient gelatin. After being well shaken, the liquid
was poured into a sterile glass Petrie dish and covered with a
moist and sterile bell-jar. It was assumed that each separate
speck contained a pure culture. Hansen pointed out that this
FERMENTATION
277
wis by no means the case, for it is more difficult to separate the
oils from each other in the gelatin than in the liquid. To obtain
an absolutely pore culture with certainty it is necessary, even
when the gelatin method is employed, to start from a single cell.
To effect this some of the nutrient gelatin containing yeast cells
is placed on the under-surface of the cover-glass of the moist
chamber. Those cells are accurately marked, the position of
which is such that the colonies, to which they give rise, can grow
lo their full size without coming into contact with other colonies.
The growth of the marked cells is kept under observation for
three or four days, by which time the colonies will be large
enough 10 be taken out of the chamber and placed in flasks.
The contents of the flasks can then be introduced into larger
(tasks, and finally into an apparatus suitable for making enough
yeast for technical purposes. Such, in brief, are the methods
devised by that brilliant investigator Hansen; and these
methods have not only been the basis on which our modern
knowledge of the SacckaromyceUs is founded, but arc the only
means of attack which the present-day observer has at his
disposal.
From the foregoing it will be seen that the- term fermentation
has now a much wider significance than when it was applied
to such changes as the decomposition of must or wort with the
production of carbon dioxide and alcohol. Fermentation now
includes all changes in organic compounds brought about by
ferments elaborated in the living animal or vegetable cell. There
are two distinct types of fermentation: (x) those brought about
by living organisms (organised ferments), and (a) those brought
about by non-living or unorganized ferments (enzymes). The
first class include such changes as the alcoholic fermentation
»f sugar solutions, the acetic add fermentation of alcohol, the
lactic acid fermentation of milk sugar, and the putrefaction of
animal and vegetable nitrogenous matter. The second class
iadode all changes brought about by the agency of enzymes,
nch a the action of diastase on starch, mvertase on cane sugar,
giucase on maltose, ftc The actions are essentially hydroly tic
Rubgicai Aspect of Yeast.— The Saocharomycetes belong to
that division of the Thallophyta called the Hjrpbomycetes or
Fosgi (?•%). Two great divisions axe recognised in the Fungi:
(l) the Fkyamycdet or Algal Fungi, which retain a definitely
Rnal method of reproduction as well as asexual (vegetative)
■cihods, and (n.) the Mycomyuta, characterized by extremely
mherd or very doubtful sexual reproduction. The Mycomy-
ttto may be divided as follows: (A) forms bearing both
amangia and conidia (see Fungi), (B) forms bearing conidia
uly.'.f. the common mushroom. Division A comprises (a)
tj* true AscowtyceUs, of which the moulds Eurotium and Peni-
nQram are examples, and (6) the Hcmuuci, which includes the
tost*. The gradual disappearance of the sexual method of
^production, as we pass upwards in the fungi from the points
°< their departure from the Algae, is an important fact, the last
traces of sexuality apparently disappearing in the aacomycetes.
With certain rare exceptions the Saccharomycetcs have three
methods of asexual reproduction:—
»• The moat common.— The formation of buds which separate
to form new cells. A portion of the nucleus of the parent cell
males its way through the extremely narrow neck into the
daughter cell. This method obtains when yeast is vigorously
fermenting a saccharine solution.
*• A division by fission followed by Endogenous spore
formation, characteristic of the ScbiaosaccharoDycetes. Some
*#Qes show fermentative power.
i- Eadospowe formation, the conditions for which arc as
foU°*s: (1) suitable temperature, (a) presence of air, (j)
Presence of moisture, (4) young and vigorous cells, (5) a food
*pply in the case of one species at least is necessary, and is in
so case prejudicial. In some cases a sexual act would appear
to precede spore formation. In most cases four spores axe formed
within the cell by free formation. These may readily be
*<n after appropriate staining.
In some of the true Ascorny cctcs, such as PcniciUium glaucum,
the conidia if grown in saccharine solutions, which they have
the power of fermenting, develop single cell yeast-like forms,
and do not— at any rate for a time— produce again the char-
acteristic branching mycelium. This is known as the Torula
condition. It is supposed by some that Saccharomyccs is a very
degraded Ascomycete, in which the Torula condition has become
fixed.
The yeast plant and its allies arc saprophytes and form no
chlorophyll Their extreme' reduction in form and loss- of
sexuality may be correlated with the saprophytic habit, the
proteids and other organic material required for the growth and
reproduction being appropriated ready synthesized, the plant
having entirely lost the power of forming them for itself, as
evidenced by the absence of chlorophyll. The beer yeasi
<5. eeraisiac, is never found wild, but the wine yeasts occur
abundantly in the soil of vineyards, and so are always present on
the fruit, ready to ferment the expressed juice.
Chemical Aspect of Alcoholic Fermtntalion. — Lavoisier was
the first investigator to study fermentation from a quantitative
standpoint. He determined the percentages of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen in the sugar and in the products of fermentation, and
concluded that sugar ra fermenting breaks up into alcohol,
carbonic acid and acetic acid. The elementary composition of
sugar and alcohol was fixed in 1815 by analyses made by Cay-
Lussac, Thenard and de Saussurc. The first-mentioned chemist
proposed the following formula to represent the change which
takes place when sugar is fermented >—
GH„Os - aCO. + aC,H«0.
Sugar. Carbon dioxide. Alcohol
This formula substantially holds good to the present day,
although a number of definite bodies other than carbon dioxide
and alcohol occur in small and varying quantities, according
to the conditions of the fermentation and the medium fermented.
Prominent among these are glycerin and succinic acid. In this
connexion Pasteur showed that xoo parts of cane sugar on in-
version gave 105-4 parts of invert sugar, which, when fermented,
yielded 51*1 parts alcohol, 49*4 carbonic acid, 0-7 succinic add,
3-2 glycerin and i-o unestimated. A. Bechamp and E. Dudaux
found that acetic acid is formed in small quantities during
fermentation; aldehyde has also been detected. The higher
alcohols such as propyl, isobutyl, amyl, capryl, oenanthyl and
caproyl, have been identified; and the amount of these vary
according to the different conditions of the fermentation. A
number of esters arc also produced. The characteristic flavour
and odour of wines and spirits is dependent on the proportion of
higher alcohols, aldehydes and esters which may be produced.
Certain yeasts exercise a reducing action, forming sulphur-
etted hydrogen, when sulphur is present. The " stinking fer-
mentations" occasionally experienced in breweries probably
arise from this, the free sulphur being derived from the hops.
Other yeasts are stated to form sulphurous acid in must and
wort. Another fact of considerable technical importance is,
that the various races of yeast show considerable differences in
the amount and proportion of fermentation products other than
ethyl alcohol and carbonic acid which they produce. From
these remarks it will be dear that to employ the most suitable
kind of yeast for a given alcoholic fermentation is of funda-
mental importance in certain industries. It is beyond the scope
of the present article to attempt to describe the different forms
of budding fungi (Saccharomyccs), mould fungi and bacteria
which are capable of fermenting sugar solutions. Thus, six
species isolated by Hansen, Saccharomyccs ccrnisiae, S. Pas-
teurianus I., 1 II., III., and S. cllipsoidcus, contained invcrtasc
and maltase, and can invert and subsequently ferment cane sugar
and maltose. S. cxiguus and 5. Ludwigii contain only invertase
and not maltase, and therefore ferment cane sugar but not
maltose. 5. apiculalus (a common wine yeast) contains neither
of these enzymes, and only ferments solutions of glucose or
laevulose.
Previously to Hansen's work the only way of differentiating
1 Hansen found there were three species of spore-bearing Saecham*
mycetes and that these could be subdivided into varieties. Thus,
S, urcPisio4 I., J. cererism II.. S. Paskutiamu 1., &c
278
FERMO— FERNANDEZ, A.
yeasts was by studying morphological differences with the aid
of the microscope. Max Reess distinguished the species accord-
ing to the appearance of the cells thus, the ellipsoidal cells were
designated Saccharomytes tUipsoidcus, the sausage-shaped
Sacckaromyccs Pasteuriauus t and so on. It was found by
Hansen that the same species of yeast can assume different
shapes; and it therefore became necessary to determine how
the different varieties of yeast could be distinguished with
certainty. The formation of spores in yeast (first discovered
by T. Schwann in 1839) was studied by Hansen, who found that
each species only developed spores between certain definite
temperatures. The time taken for spore formation varies greatly;
thus, at 52* F., S. cererisiae takes 10, S. Pasteurianus L and IL
about 4, S. Pasteurianus III. about 7, and S. dlipsoideus about
4} days. The formation of spores is used as an analytical
method for determining whether a yeast is contaminated with
another species, — for example: a sample of yeast is placed on a
gypsum or porcelain block saturated with water; if in ten days
at a temperature of 52 F. no spores make their appearance, the
yeast in question may be regarded as S. cererisiae, and not
associated with 5. Pasteurianus or S. eUipsoideus.
The formation of films on fermented liquids is a well-known
phenomenon and common to all micro-organisms. A free still
surface with a direct access of air are the necessary conditions.
Hansen showed that the microscopic appearance of film cells
of the same species of Saccharomycetes varies according to the
temperature of growth; the limiting temperatures of film for-
mation, as well as the time of its appearance for the different
species, also vary.
In the zymo-technical industries the various species of yeast
exhibit different actions during fermentations. A well-known
instance of this is the " top " and " bottom " brewery fermen-
tations (see Brewing). In a top fermentation — typical of
English breweries— the yeast rises, in a bottom fermentation,
as the phrase implies, it settles in the vessel. Sometimes a
bottom yeast may for a time exhibit signs of a top fermentation.
It has not, however, been possible to transform a typical top yeast
into a permanent typical bottom yeast. There appear to be
no true distinctive characteristics for these two types. Their
selection for a particular purpose depends upon some special
quality which they possess; thus for brewing certain essentials
are demanded as regards stability, clarification, taste and smell;
whereas, in distilleries, the production of alcohol and a high
multiplying power in the yeast are required. Culture yeasts
have also been successfully employed in the manufacture of wine
and cider. By the judicious selection of a type of yeast it is
possible to improve the bouquet, and from an inferior must
obtain a better wine or cider than would otherwise be produced.
Certain add fermentations are of common occurrence. The
Bacterium acidi lacti described by Pasteur decomposes milk
sugar into lactic acid. Bacillus amyicbacter usually accom-
panies the lactic add organism, and decomposes lactic and other
higher adds with formation of butyric add. Moulds have been
isolated which occasion the formation of citric add from glucose.
The production of acetic acid from alcohol has received much
attention at the hands of investigators, and it has an important
technical aspect in the manufacture of vinegar. The pheno-
menon of nitrification (see Bacteriology, Agriculture and
Manure), i.c. the formation of nitrites and nitrates from am-
monia and its compounds in the soil, was formerly hdd to be a
purely chemical process, until Schloesing and Miintz suggested
in 1877 that it was biological. It is now known that the action
takes place in two stages; the ammonium salt is first oxidized
to the nitrite stage and subsequently to the nitrate. (J. L. B.)
FERMO (ana Fifmum Piccnum), a town and archiepiscopal
see of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Ascoli Piceno, on a
hill with a fine view, 1046 ft. above sea-level, on a branch from
Porto S. Giorgio on the Adriatic coast railway. Pop. (1001)
town, 16,577, commune 20,542. The summit of the hill was
occupied by the citadel until 1446. It is crowned by the
cathedral, reconstructed in 1227 by Giorgio da Co mo; the fine
facade and campanile of this period still remain, and the side
portal is food; the beautiful rose-window over the main done
dates from 1 348. In the porch are several good tombs, induding
one of 1366 by Tura da Imola, and also the modem monument
of Giuseppe Colucd, a famous writer on the antiquities of
Piccnum. The interior has been modernized. The building is
now surrounded by a garden, with a splendid view. Against the
aide of the hill was built the Roman theatre; scanty traces of
an amphitheatre also exist. Remains of the dty wall, of rect-
angular blocks of hard limestone, may be seen just outside the
Porta S. Francesco; whether the walling under the Casa Porti
belongs to them is doubtful. The medieval battlemented walls
superposed on it are picturesque. The church of S. Francesco
has a good tower and choir in brickwork of 1240, the rest having
been restored in the 17th century. Under the Dominican
monastery is a very large Roman reservoir in two storeys, belong-
ing to the imperial period, divided into many chambers, at least
24 on each level, each 30 by 20 ft, for filtration (see G. de Minicis
in AnnaliddT Istituto, 1846^.46; 1858, p. 125). The piazza, con-
tains the Palazzo Comunale, restored in 1446, with a statue of
Pope Sixtus V. in front of it. The Biblioteca Comunale contains
a collection of inscriptions and antiquities. Porto S. Giorgio
has a fine castle of 1269, blocking the valley which leads to
Fcrmo.
The ancient Firmum Piccnum was founded as a Latin colony
in 264 B.C., after the conquest of the Picentes, as the local head-
quarters of the Roman power, to which it remained faithf uL.
It was originally governed by five quaestors. It was made a
colony with full rights after the battle of Philippi, the 4th legion
being settled there. It lay at the junction of roads to Pausulae,
Urbs Salvia and Asculum, being connected with the coast road by
a short branch road from Castrilnm Firmanum (Porto S. Giorgio).
In the xoth century it became the capital of the Uarckia Firmana.
In xxoo it became a free dty, and remained independent until
1550, when it became subject to the papacy. (T. Aa>)
FBRMOY, a market town in the east riding of Co. Cork,
Ireland, in the north-east parliamentary division, 21 m. by
road N.E. of Cork, and 14 m. £. of Mallow by a branch of the
Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(ioox) 6126. It is situated on the river Blackwater, which
divides the town into two parts, the larger of which- is on the
southern bank, and there the trade of the town, which is chiefly
in flour and agricultural produce, is mainly carried on. The
town has several good streets and some noteworthy buildings.
Of the latter, the most prominent are the military barracks on
the north bank of the river, the Protestant church, the Roman
Catholic cathedral and St Colman's Roman Catholic college.
Fcrmoy rose to importance only at the beginning of the 19th
century, owing entirely to the devotion of John Anderson, a
dtizen, on becoming landlord. The town is a centre for salmon
and trout fishing on the Blackwater and its tributary the
Funshion. The neighbouring scenery is attractive, especially
in the Glen of Araglin, once famed for its ironworks.
FERN (from O. Eng. fearu, a word common to Teutonic
languages, d. Dutch varen, and Ger. Farn; the Indo-European
root, seen in the Sanskrit parno, a feather, shows the primary
meaning; d. Gr. mptr, feather, sripb, fern), a name often
used to denote the whole botanical class of Pteridophytes,
induding both the true ferns, Filicales, by far the largest group
of this class in the existing flora, and the fern-like plants,
Equisctales, Sphenophyllales, Lycopodiales (see Pimudophyta).
FERNANDEZ, ALVARO, one of the leading Portuguese ex-
plorers of the earlier 15th century, the age of Henry the Navi-
gator. He was brought up (as a page or esquire) in the household
of Prince Henry, and while still " young and audacious '* took
an important part in the discovery of " Guinea." He was a
nephew of Joto Goncalvez Zarco, who had rediscovered the
Madrira group in Henry's service (1418-1420), and had become
part-governor of Madeira and commander of Funchal; when
the great expedition of 1445 sailed for West Africa he was
entrusted by his Uncle with a specially fine earavd, under par-
ticular injunctions to devote himself to discovery, the roost
cherished object of his princely master, so constantly thwarted.
■FERNANDEZ, D.~ FERNANDINA
279
Fernandes^as * pioneer, outstripped allothcrscrvantsof theprince
at this time. After ▼biting the mouth of the Senegal* rounding
Cape Verde, and landing in Gorce (?), be pushed on to the " Cape
of Masts " (Cabo dos Matos, or Mastos, so called from its tall
spindle-palms), probably between Cape Verde and the Gambia,
the most southerly point till then attained. Next year (1446) he
returned, and coasted on much farther, to a bay one hundred
tod ten leagues " south " (ie. S.S.E.) of Cape Verde, perhaps
in the neighbourhood of Konakry and the Los Islands, and but
little short of Sierra Leone. This record was not broken till
1461, when Siena Leone was sighted and named. A wound,
received from a poisoned arrow in an encounter with natives,
now compelled Fernandez to return to Portugal, where he was
received with distinguished honour and reward by Prince Henry
and the regent.of the kingdom, Henry's brother Pedro.
See Gomes Eannes de Azurara, Chronica de . . . Guini, chs.
Ixxv.. lxxxvii.; Joao de Barros, Asia, Decade I., bk. i. chs. xiii., xiv.
FERNANDEZ. DIEGO, a Spanish adventurer and historian
of the 1 6th century. Born at Palencia, he was educated for the
church, but about 154s be embarked for Peru, where he served
in the royal army under Alonzo dc Alvarado. Andres Hurtado
de Mendoza, marquess of Caficte, who became viceroy of Peru in
1655, bestowed on Fernandez the office of chronicler of Peru,
and in this capacity he wrote a narrative of the insurrection of
Francisco Hernandez Giron, of the rebellion of Gonxalo Pizarro,
and of the administration of Pedro de la Gasca. The whole work,
under the title Primera y scgunda parte de la Uisloria del Piru,
was published at Seville in 1571 and was dedicated to King
Philip II. It is written in a clear and intelligible style, and with
more art than is usual in the compositions of the time. It gives
copious details, and, as he had access to the correspondence
and official documents of the Spanish leaders, it is, although
necessarily possessing bias, the fullest and most authentic record
existing of the events it relates.
A notice of the work wilt be found in W. H. Prcscott's History of
ike Conquest of Peru (new cd., London, 1903).
FERNANDEZ, JOHN {Joao, Joam), Portuguese traveller of the
1 5th century. He was perhaps the earliest of modern explorers
in the upland of West Africa, and a pioneer of the European
slave- and gold-trade of Guinea. We first hear of him (before
1445) 9* a captive of the Barbary Moors in the western Medi-
terranean; while among these he acquired a knowledge of
Arabic, and probably conceived the design of exploration in the
interior of the continent whose coasts the Portuguese were now
unveiling. In 1445 be volunteered to stay in Guinea and gather
what information he could for Prince Henry the Navigator;
with tins object he accompanied An tarn Goncalvcc to the
- River of Gold " (Rio d'Ouro, Rio de Oro) in 23° 40' N., where
he landed and went inland with some native shepherds. He
stayed seven months in the country, which lay just within
Moslem Africa, slightly north of Pagan Ncgroland (W. Sudan);
be was taken off again by Antam Goncalvez at a point farther
down the coast, near the " Cape of Ransom " (Cape Mirik), in
so* 2*' 14'; and his account of his experiences proved of great
interest and value, not only as to the natural features, climate,
fauna, and flora of the south-western Sahara! but also as to the
racial affinities, language, script, religion, nomad habits, and
trade of its inhabitants. These people— though Mahommedans,
j a certain trade in slaves, gold, &c, with the Bar-
(especially with Tunis), and classed as "Arabs,"
k," and M Tawny Moors "-—did not then write or speak
Arabic In 1446 and 1447 John Fernandez accompanied other
expeditions to the Rio d'Ouro and other parts of West Africa
in the service of Prince Henry. He was personally known to
Gomes Eannes de Azurara, the historian of this early period of
Portuguese expansion; and from Asmara's language it is dear
that Fernandez 1 revelation of unknown lands and races was fully
appreciated at home.
See Azurara, Chronica de . . . Guini, chs. sxiz., nodi., xxxiv.,
xx xv., t xxvii.. Ixxviit., *c., xci., xdii.
FERNANDEZ, JUAN (ft. c. 1570), Spanish navigator and dis-
While navigating the coasts of South America it
to him that the south winds constantly prevailing
■ear the shore, and retarding voyages between Peru and Chile,
might not exist farther out at sea. His idea proved correct, and
by the help of the trade winds and some currents at a distance
from the coast he sailed with such rapidity (thirty days) from
Callao to Chile that he was apprehended on a charge of sorcery.
His inquisitors, however, accepted his natural explanation of
the marvel. During one of his voyages in 1563 (from Lima to
Valdivia) Fernandez discovered the islands which now bear his
name. He was so enchanted with their beauty and fertility that
he solicited the concession of them from the Spanish government.
It was granted in 1572. but a colony which he endeavoured to
establish at the largest of them (Isla Mas-a-Tierra) soon broke
up, leaving behind the goats, whose progeny were hunted by
Alexander Selkirk. In 1574 Fernandez discovered St Felix and
St Ambrose islands (in 27° S., 83° 7' W.); and in 1576, while
voyaging in the southern ocean, he is said to have sighted not
only Easter Island, but also a continent, which was probably
Australia or New Zealand if the story (rejected by most critics,
but with reservations as to Easter Island) is to be accepted.
See J. L. Arias, Memoir recommending to Ike king Ike conversion
of the new discovered islands (in Spanish, lOOQ; Eng. trans., 1773);
Ulloa, Relation del Viaje. bk. ti. ch. iv.; Alexander Dalrymplc, An
Historical Collection of the several Voyages and Discoveries in the
South Pacific Ocean (London, 1769-1 771); Freville, Voyages de la
Ma dn Sud par Us Espagnols.
FERNANDEZ, LUCAS, Spanish dramatist, was born at Sala-
manca about the middle of the 1 5th century. Nothing is known
of his life, and he is represented by a single volume of plays,
Farsas y iglogas al mode y estilo pastoril (1514). In his secular
pieces— a comedia and two farsas— -be introduces few personages,
employs the simplest possible action, and burlesques the lan-
guage of the uneducated class; the secular and devout elements
are skilfully intermingled in bis two Farsas del naseimiento de
Nucstro Scnor Jcsucristo. But the best of his dramatic essays
is the Auto de la Pasidn, a devout play intended to be given on
Maundy Thursday. It is written in the manner of Enema, with
less spontaneity, but with a sombre force to which Enema
scarcely attained.
Fernandez' plays were reprinted by the Spanish Academy In 1867.
FERNANDINA, a city, a port of entry, and the county-seat of
Nassau county, Florida, U.S.A., a winter and summer resort,
in the N.E. part of the state, 36 m. N.E. of Jacksonville, on
Amelia Island (about as m. long and from ) m. to 1} m. wide),
which is separated from the mainland by an arm of theses, known
as Amelia river and bay. Pop. (1000) 3145; (1005, state census),
4059 (2957 negroes); (1910) 348a. Femandina is served by the
Seaboard Air Line railway, and by steamship lines connecting
with domestic and foreign ports; its harbour, which has the
deepest water on the E. coast of Florida, opens on the N. to
Cumberland Sound, which was improved by the Federal govern-
ment, beginning in 1879, reducing freight rates at Femandina
by 25 to 40%. Under an act of 1907 the channel of Femandina
harbour, 1300 ft. wide at the entrance and about s m. long, was
dredged to a depth of 20 to 24 ft. at mean low water with a
width of 400 to 600 ft. The " inside " water-route between
Savannah, Georgia and Femandina is improved by the Federal
government (1892 sqq.) and has a 7-f t. channel. The principal
places of interest are " Amelia Beach," more than ao ro. long
and aoo ft. wide, connected with the city by a compact shell road
nearly 2 m. long and by electric line; the Amelia Island light-
house, in the N. end of the island, established in 1836 and re-
built in 1880; Fort Clinch, at the entrance to the harbour;
Cumberland Island, in Georgia, N. of Amelia Island, where land
was granted to General Nathanael Greene after the War of
American Independence by the state of Georgia; and Dunge-
ness, the estate of the Carnegie family. Ocean City, on Amelia
Beach, is a popular pleasure resort. The principal industries
are the manufacture of lumber, cotton, palmetto fibres, and
cigars, the canning of oystgrs, and the building and repair of
railway cars. The foreign exports, chiefly lumber, railway ties,
cotton, phosphate rock, and naval stores, were valued at
19*346,704 in 1907; and the imports in 1907 at $1 16,514.
The harbour of Femandina was known to the early explorers
*8o
FERNANDO DE NORONHA— FERNANDO PO
of Florida, and it was here that Dominic dc Gourgues landed
when he made his expedition against the Spanish at San Mateo
in 1568. An Indian mission was established by Spanish priests
later in the same century, but it was not successful. When
Georgia was founded, General James Oglethorpe placed a military
guard on Amelia Island to prevent sudden attack upon his
colony by the Spanish, and the first blood shed in the petty
warfare between Georgia and Florida was the murder of two
unarmed members of the guard by a troop of Spanish soldiers
and Indians in 1739. The first permanent settlement was made
by the Spanish in 1808, at what is now the village of Old Fernan-
dina, about x m. from the dty. The island was a centre for
smuggling during the period of the embargo and non-importation
acts preceding the war of j8x a. This was the pretext for General
George Matthews (1738-1812) to gather a "band of adventurers
at St Mary's, Georgia, invade the island, and capture Fernandina
in 18x2. In the following year the American forces were with*
drawn. In 18 17 Gregor MacGregor, a filibuster who had aided
the Spanish provinces of South America in their revolt against
Spain, fitted out an expedition in Baltimore and seized Fer-
nandina, but departed soon" after. Later in the same year
Louis Aury, another adventurer, appeared with a small force
from Texas, and took possession of the place in the name of the
Republic of Mexico. In the following year Aury was expelled
by United States troops, who held Fernandina in trust for
Spain until Florida was finally ceded to the United States in
1 8a 1. Fernandina was first incorporated in 1859. In 1861
Fort Clinch was seized by the Confederates, and Fernandina
harbour was a centre of blockade running in the first two years
of the Civil War. In 1862 the place was captured by a Federal
naval force from Port Royal, South Carolina, commanded by
Commodore S. F. Du Pont.
FERNANDO DB NORONHA [Fern&o it N.) t an island in the
South Atlantic, 125 m. from the coast of Brazil, to which country
it belongs, in 3 50^ S., 32° 25' W. It is about 7 m. long and 1}
wide, and some other islets lie adjacent to it. Its surface is
rugged, and it contains a number of rocky hills from 500 to
700 ft. high, and one peak towering to the height of 1089 ft. It
is formed of basalt, trachyte and phonolite, and the soil is very
fertile. The climate is healthy. It is defended by forts, and
serves as a place of banishment for criminals from Brazil. The
next largest island of the group is about a mile in circumference,
and the others are small barren rocks. The population is about
2000, all males, including some 1400 criminals, and a garrison
of x 50. Communication is maintained by steamer with Pernam-
buco. The island takes name from its Portuguese discoverer
(1503), the count of Noronha.
FERNANDO PO, or Fernando P60, a Spanish island on the
west coast of Africa, in the Bight of Biafra, about 20 m. from
the mainland, in 3 1 2' N. and 8° 48' E. It is of volcanic origin,
related to the Cameroon system of the adjacent mainland, is the
largest island in the Gulf of Guinea, is 44 m. long from N.N.E.
to S.S.W., about 20 m. broad, and has an area of about 780 sq. m.
Fernando Po is noted for its beautiful aspect, seeming from a
short distance to be a single mountain rising from the sea, its
sides covered with luxuriant vegetation. The shores are steep
and rocky and the coast plain narrow. This plain is succeeded
by the slopes of the mountains which occupy the rest of the
island and culminate in the magnificent cone of Clarence Peak
or Pico de Santa Isabel (native name Owassa). Clarence Peak,
about 10,000 ft. high, 1 is in the north-central part of the bland.
In the south Musolo Mt. attains a height of 7400 ft. There are
numerous other peaks between 4000 and 6000 ft. high. The
mountains contain craters and crater lakes, and are covered, most
of them to their summits, with forests. Down the narrow inter-
vening valleys rush torrential-streams which have cut deep beds
through the coast plains. The trees most characteristic- of the
forest are oil palms and tree ferns, but there are many varieties,
including ebony, mahogany and the African oak. The under-
growth is very dense; it includes the sugar-cane and cotton
and indigo plants. The fauna includes antelopes, monkeys,
1 The heights given by explorers vary from 9200 to 10,800 ft.
lemurs, the civet cat, porcupine, pythons and green tree-snakes,
crocodiles and turtles. The climate is" very unhealthy in the
lower districts, where malarial fever is common. The mean
temperature on the coast b 78° Fahr. and varies little, but in
the higher altitudes there b considerable daily variation. The
rainfall b very heavy except during November-January, which
b considered the dry season.
The inhabitants. number about 25,000. In addition to about
500 Europeans, mostly Spaniards and Cubans, they are of two
classes, the Bubis or Bube (formerly also called Ediya), who
occupy the interior, and the coast dwellers, a mixed Negro race,
largely descended from slave ancestors with an admixture of
Portuguese and Spanish blood, and known to the Bubis as
"Port os " — a corruption of Portuguese. The Bubis are of
Bantu stock and early immigrants from the mainland. Physic-
ally they are a finely developed race, extremely jealous of their
independence and unwilling to take service of any kind with
Europeans. They go unclothed, smearing their bodies with a
kind of pomatum. They stick pieces of wood in the lobes of their
ears, wear numerous armlets made of ivory, beads or grass, and
always wear hats, generally made of palm leaves. Their weapons
are mainly of wood; stone axes and knives were in use as late
as 1858. They have no knowledge of working iron. Their
villages are built in the densest parts of the forest, and care b
taken to conceal the approach to them. The Bubb are sports-
men and fishermen rather than agriculturists. The staple foods
of the islanders generally are millet, rice, yams and bananas.
Alcohol b distilled from the sugar-cane. The natives possess
numbers of sheep, goats and fowb.
The principal settlement b Port Clarence (pop. 1500), called
by the Spaniards Santa Isabel, a safe and commodious harbour
on the north coast. In its graveyard are buried Richard Lander
and several other explorers of West Africa. Port Clarence u
unhealthy, and the seat of government has been removed to
Basile, a small town 5 m. from Port Clarence and over 1000 ft.
above the sea. On the west coast are the bay and port of San
Carlos, on the east coast Concepcion Bay and town. The chief
industry until the close of the 19th century was the collection of
palm-oil, but the Spaniards have since developed plantations '
of cocoa, coffee, sugar, tobacco, vanilla and other tropical plants.
The kola nut b also cultivated. The cocoa plantations are of
most importance. The amount of cocoa exported in 1905 was ;
1800 tons, being 370 tons above the average export for toe pre- {
ceding five years. The total value of the trade of the island
(1900-1005) was about £250,000 a year.
History. — The bland was discovered towards the dose of the
1 5th century by a Portuguese navigator called Fernio do Po, who,
struck by its beauty, named it Formosa, but it soon came to be \
called by the name of its discoverer.' A Portuguese colony was
established in the bland, which together with Annobon was
ceded to Spain in 1778. The first attempts of Spain to develop '
the bland ended disastrously, and in 1827, with the consent of
Spain, the administration of the island was taken over by Great :
Britain, the British " superintendent " having a Spanish com-
mission as governor. By the British Fernando Po was used as
a naval station for the ships engaged in the suppression of the
slave trade. The British headquarters were named Port Clarence
and the adjacent promontory Cape William, in honour of the '
duke of Clarence (William IV.) . In 1844 the Spaniards reclaimed -
the island, refusing to sell their rights to Great Britain. They
did no more at that time, however, than hoist the Spanish flag, >
appointing a British resident, John Beecroft, governor. Beecroft, 1
who was made British consul in 1840, died in 1854. During the 1
Britbh occupation a considerable number of Sierra Lconians,
West Indians and freed slaves settled in the island, and English 1
became and remains the common speech of the coast peoples. I
In 1858 a Spanish governor was. sent out, and the Baptist 1
missionaries who had laboured in the island since 1843 were 1
compelled to withdraw. They settled in Ambas Bay on the ■
9 Some authorities maintain that another Portuguese seaman.
Lopes Gonsalvcs, was the discoverer of the island. The year* 1 460. '
147 1 and 148$ are variously given as those of the date of the discovery. 1
FERNEL— FEROZEPUR
281
neighbouring mainland (see Cakzkoon). The Jesuits who suc-
ceeded the Baptists were also expelled, but mission and educa-
tional work is now carried on by other Roman Catholic agencies,
and (since 1870) by the Primitive Methodists. In 1870 the'
Spanish government recalled its officials, but a few years later,
when the partition of Africa was being effected, they were re-
placed and a number of Cuban political prisoners were deported
thither. Very little was done to develop the resources of the
island until after the loss of the Spanish colonies in the West
Indies and the Pacific, when Spain turned her attention to her
African possessions. Stimulated by the success of the Portu-
guese cocoa plantations in the neighbouring island of St Thomas,
the Spaniards started similar plantations, with some measure of
success. The strategical importance and commercial possi-
bilities of the island caused Germany and other powers to ap-
proach Spain with a view to its acquisition, and in xooo the
Spaniards gave France, in return for territorial concessions on
the mainland, the right of pre-emption over the island and her
other West African possessions.
The administration of the island is in the hands of a governor-
general, assisted by a council, and responsible to the ministry
of foreign affairs at Madrid- The governor-general has under his
authority the sub-governors of the other Spanish possessions
in the Gulf of Guinea, namely, the Muni River Settlement,
Corisco and Annobon (see those articles). None of these
possessions is self-supporting.
See E. d'AImonte, " Someras Notas . . . de la isla de Fernando
Poo y de la Guinea continental espaftola," in Bol. Real. Soc. Ceog. of
Madrid O902) ; and a further article in the Riv. Gtog,. Col. of Madrid
(1906); E. L. Vtlchcs, " Fernando Poo y la Guinea espanola," in
the Bol. Real. Soc. Geog. (1001); San Javier, Tres Anosen Fernando
Po* (Madrid, 1875); O. Baumann, tine africaniscke Tropeninsel:
Fernando P60 und die Bube (Vienna, 1888); Sir H. H. Johnston.
George CrenfeJl and the Congo . . . and Notes on Fernando Po
(London, 1908); Mary H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa, ch. Ui.
iLoaidoa. 1897); T. J. Hutchinson, sometime British Consul at
Fernando Po, Impressions of Western Africa, chs. xii. and xiii.
(London, 1858), and Ten Years' Wanderings among, the Ethiopians,
chs. xvii. and xvfii. (London, 1861). For the Bubi language eee
T. Clarke. The Adeeyah Vocabulary (1841). and Introduction to the
Femwmdia* Tongue (1848). Consult also Wanderings in West Africa
(1863) and other books written by Sir Richard Burton as the result
of his consulship at Fernando Po, 1861-1865, and the works cited
uaiier Muni River Settlements.
KERNEL, JEAN FRANCOIS (1407-1558), French physician,
was bora at Clermont in 1497, and after receiving his early
education at his native town, entered the college of Sainte-Barbe,
Paris. At first he devoted himself to mathematical and astro-
aoszrical studies; his Cosmothcoria (1528) records a determination
of a degree of the meridian, which he made by counting the re*
volutions of his carriage wheels on a journey between Paris and
Amiens. But from 1 534 he gave himself up entirely to medicine,
in which he graduated in 1530. His extraordinary general
erudition, and the skill and success with which he sought to
revive the study of the old Greek physicians, gained him a great
reputation, and ultimately the office of physician to the court.
Re practised with great success, and at his death in 1558 left
behind him an immense fortune. He also wrote Monalo-
xpkscrium, sive astrolabii genus, generalis horarii structura tl
mssts (1526); De proportionibus (1528); De evacuandi ration*
(1545); &* a bdUis reruns causis (1548); and Medicina ad
HenruvmII.(isSA).
FERNIE, an important city in the east Kootenay district of
E riush Columbia. Pop. about 4000. It is situated on the Crow's
Nest branch of the Canadian Pacific railway, at the junction of
Coal Creek with the Elk river, and owes its importance to the
extensive coal mines in its vicinity. There are about 500 coke
evens in operation at Femie, which supply most of the smelting
plants in southern British Columbia with fuel.
FEKMOW, KARL LUDWIO (1763-1808), German art-critic
and archaeologist, was born in Pomerania on the 19th of
November 1763. His father was a servant in the household of
the lord of Blumenhagen. At the age of twelve he became
derk to a notary, and was afterwards apprenticed to a druggist.
While serving his time he had the misfortune accidentally to
shoot a young man who came to visit him; and although through
the intercession of his master he escaped prosecution, the un-
toward event weighed heavily on his mind, and led him at the
close of his apprenticeship to quit his native place. He obtained
a situation at Lilbeck, where he had leisure to cultivate his
natural taste for drawing and poetry. Having formed an
acquaintance with the painter- Cars tens, whose influence was an.
important stimulus and help to him, he renounced his trade of
druggist, and set up as a portrait-painter and drawing-master.
At Ludwigalus,t he fell in love with a young girl, and followed
her to Weimar; but failing in his suit, he went next to Jena.
There he was introduced to Professor Reinhold, and in his house
met the Danish poet Baggesen. The latter invited him to accom-
pany him to Switzerland and Italy, a proposal which he eagerly
accepted (1704) for the sake of the opportunity of furthering his
studies in the fine arts. On Baggesen's return to Denmark,
Fernow, assisted by some of his friends, visited Rome and made
somciStay there. He now renewed his intercourse with Carstens,
who had settled at Rome, and applied himself to the study of
the history and theory of the fine arts and of the Italian language
and literature. Making rapid progress, he was soon qualified to
give a course of lectures on archaeology, which was attended
by the principal artists then at Rome. Having married a Roman
lady, he returned in 1802 to Germany, and was appointed in the
following year professor extraordinary of Italian literature at
Jena. In 1804 he accepted the post of librarian to Amelia,
duchess-dowager of Weimar, which gave him the leisure he
desired for the purpose of turning to account the literary and
archaeological researches in which he had engaged at Rome.
His most valuable work, the Rdmiscke Studies appeared in 3
vols. (1806-1808). Among his other works arc — Das Leben
des KilnstUrs Carstens (1806), Ariosto's Lcbenslauf (1809), and
Francesco Pttrarca (1818). Fernow died at Weimar, December 4,
z8o8.
A memoir of his life by Johanna Schopenhauer, mother of the
philosopher, Arthur Schopenhauer, appeared in 1810, and a complete
edition of his works in 1829.
FEROZEPUR, or Fikozpds, a town and district of British
India, in the Jullundur division of the Punjab. The town is a
railway junction connecting the North- Western and Rajputana
railways, and is situated about 4 m. from the present south
bank of the Sutlej. • Pop. (1901) 49,341. The arsenal is the
largest in India, and Ferozepur fo the headquarters of a brigade
in the 3rd division of the northern army corps. British rule was
first established at Fcrozepur in 1835, when, on the failure of
heirs to the Sikh family who possessed it, a small territory 86 m.
in extent became an escheat to the British government, and the
present district has been gradually formed around this nucleus.
The strategic importance of Fcrozepur was at this time very
great; and when, in 1839, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry)
Lawrence took charge of the station as political officer, it was the
outpost of British India in the direction of the Sikh power.
Ferozepur accordingly became the scene of operations during the
first Sikh War. The Sikhs crossed the Sutlej in December 1845,
and were defeated successively at Mudki, Ferozepur, Aliwal and
Sobraon; after which they withdrew into their own territory,
and peace was concluded at Lahore. At the time of the mutiny
Ferozepur cantonments contained two regiments of native
infantry and a regiment of native cavalry, together with the 6xst
Foot and two companies of European artillery. One of the
native regiments, the 57th, was disarmed; but the other, the
45th, broke into mutiny, and, after an unsuccessful attempt
to seize the magazine, which was held by the Europeans, pro-
ceeded to join the rebel forces in Delhi. Throughout the mutiny
Ferozepur remained in the hands of the English.
Ferozepur has rapidly advanced in material prosperity of late
years, and is now a very important seat of commerce, trade being
mainly in grain. The main streets of* the city are wide and well
paved, and the whole is enclosed by a low brick walL Great im-
provements have been made in the surroundings of the city.
The cantonment lies 2 m. to the south of the city, and is con-
nected with it by a good metalled road.
282
FEROZESHAH— FERRAR
The District of Feiozepuk comprises an area of 4302 sq. m.
The surface is level, with the exception of a few sand-hills in the
south and south-east. The country consists of two distinct tracts,
that liable to annual fertilizing inundations from the Sutlej,
known as the bhel, and the rohi or upland tract. The only river
is the Sutlej, which runs along the north-western boundary.
The principal crops are wheat, barley, millet, gram, pulses, oil-
seeds, cotton, tobacco, &c. The manufactures are of the
humblest kind, consisting chiefly of cotton and wool-weaving,
and are confined entirely to the supply of local wants. The
Lahore and Ludhftna road runs for 51 m. through the district,
and forms an important trade route. The North-Western, the
Southern Punjab, and a branch of the Rajputana-Malwa rail-
ways serve the district. The other important towns and seats
of commerce are Fazilka (pop. 8505), Dharmkot (6731), Moga
(6725), and Muktsar (6389). Owing principally to the dryness
of its climate, Ferozepur has the reputation of being an excep-
tionally healthy district. In September and October, however,
after the annual rains, the people suffer a good deal from remit-
tent fever. In 1901 the population was 058,072. Distributaries
of the Sirhind canal water the whole district.
FEROZESHAH, a village in the Punjab, India, notable as the
scene of one of the chief battles in the first Sikh War. The battle
immediately succeeded that of Mudki, and was fought on. the
21st and 22nd of December 1845. During its course Sir Hugh
Gough, the British commander, was overruled by the governor-
general, Lord Hardinge, who was acting as his second in com-
mand (see Sikh Wars). At the end of the first day's fighting
the British had occupied the Sikh position, but had not gained
an undisputed victory. On the following morning the battle
was resumed, and the Sikhs were reinforced by a second army
under Tej Singh; but through cowardice or treachery Tcj Singh
withdrew at the critical moment, leaving the field to the British.
In the course of the fight the British lost 694 killed and 1721
wounded, the vast majority being British troops, while the Sikhs
lost too guns and about 5000 killed and wounded.
FERRAND, ANTOINE FRANCOIS CLAUDE, Comtk (1751-
1825), French statesman and political writer, was born in Paris
on the 4th of July 1751, and became a member of the parlement
of Paris at eighteen. He left France with the first party of
emigrants, and attached himself to the prince of Cond6; later
he was a member of the council of regency formed by the comtc
de Provence after the death of Louis XVI. . He lived at Regens-
burg until 1801, when he returned to France, though he still
sought to serve the royalist cause. In 18 14 Ferrand was made
minister of state and postmaster-general. He coudt.l signed
the act of sequestration of Napoleon's property, and introduced
a bill for the restoration of the property of the emigrants,
establishing a distinction, since become famous, between royalists
of la ligne droite and those of la ligne courbe. At the second
restoration Ferrand was again for a short time postmaster-
general. He was also made a peer of France, member of the
privy council, grand-officer and secretary of the orders of Saint
Michel and the Saint Esprit, and in 1816 member of the Academy,
He continued his active support of ultra-royalist views until his
death, which took place in Paris on the x 7 th of January 1825. .
Besides a large number of political pamphlets, Ferrand is the
author of VEsprit de I'kisUnre, ou Lettres d'un pere & son fits sur la
manihe d'itudter I'kistoire (4 vols., 1802), which reached seven
editions, the last number in 1826 having prefixed to it a biographical
sketch of .the author by bis nephew Hericart de Thury; £hge
historique de Madame Elisabeth de France (1814); (Euvrts drama-
tiques (1817); TkSorie des revolutions rapprochie des tenements qui
en ont £U I'origine, le dtveloppement, ou la suite (4 vols., 1817); and
Histoire des trots dimembremenls de la Pologne, pour faire suite &
I'Histoire de V anarch* de Pologne par Rulkiere (3 vols., 1820).
FERRAR, NICHOLAS (1502-1637), English theologian, was
born in London in 1502 and educated at Clare Hall, Cambridge,
graduating in 16 10. He was obliged for some years to travel for
his health, but on returning to England in 1618 became actively
connected with the Virginia Company. When this company
was deprived of its patent in 1623 Ferrar turned his attention
to politics, and was elected to parliament. But be soon decided
to devote himself to a religious life; he purchased the i
of Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire, where be organized a
small religious community. Here, in 1626, he was ordained a
deacon by Laud, and declining preferment, he lived an austere,
almost monastic life of study and good works. He died on the
4th of December 1637, and the house was despoiled and the
community broken up ten years later. There are extant a
number of " harmonies " of the Gospel, printed and bound by
the community, two of them by Ferrar himself. One of the
latter was made for Charles I. on his request, after a visit in
1633 to see the " Arminian Nunnery at Little Gidding, " which
had been the subject of some scandalous— and undeserved—
criticism.
FERRAR, ROBERT (d. 1555), bishop of St David's and
martyr, born about the end of the 15th century of a Yorkshire
family, is said to have been educated at Cambridge, whence he
proceeded to Oxford and became a canon regular of St Augustine,
He came under the influence of Thomas Gerrard and Lutheran
theology, and was compelled to bear a faggot with Anthony
Dalaber and others in 1528. He graduated B.D. in 1533, accom-
panied Bishop Barlow on his embassy to Scotland in 1535, *nd
was made prior of St Oswald's at Nostell near Pontefract. At
the dissolution he surrendered his priory without compunction
to the crown, and received a liberal pension. For the rest of
Henry's reign his career is obscure; perhaps he fled abroad on
the enactment of the Six Articles. He certainly married, and
is said to have been made Cranmer's chaplain, and bishop of
Sodor and Man; but he was never consecrated to that see.
After the accession of Edward VI., Ferrar was, probably
through the influence of Bishop Barlow, appointed chaplain to
Protector Somerset, a royal visitor, and bishop of St David's
on Barlow's translation to Bath and Wells in 1548. He was
the first bishop appointed by letters patent under the act passed
in 1547 without the form of capitular election; and the service
performed at his consecration was also novel, being in English;
be also preached at St Paul's on the nth of November dad
only as a priest and not as a bishop, and inveighed against vest-
ments and altars. At St David's he had trouble at once with his
singularly turbulent chapter, who, finding that he was out of
favour at court since Somerset's fall in 1 549, brought a long list of
fantastic charges against him. He had taught his child to whistle,
dined with his servants, talked of " worldly things such as bak-
ing, brewing, enclosing, ploughing and mining," preferred walking
to riding, and denounced the debasement of the coinage. He
seems to have been a kindly, homely, somewhat feckless person
like many an excellent parish priest, who did not conceal his
indignation at some of Northumberland's deeds. He had voted
against the act of November 1549 for a reform of the canon law,
and on a later occasion his nonconformity brought him into
conflict with the Council; he was also the only bishop who
satisfied Hooper's test of sacramental orthodoxy. The Council
accordingly listened to the accusations of Ferrar's chapter, and
in z 552 he was summoned to London and imprisoned on a charge
of praemunire incurred by omitting the king's authority in a
commission which he issued for the visitation of his diocese.
, Imprisonment on such a charge under Northumberland might
have been expected to lead to liberation under Mary. But Ferrar
had been a monk and was married. Even so, it is difficult to see
on what legal ground he was kept in the queen's bench prison
after July 1553; for Mary herself was repudiating the royal
authority in religion. Ferrar's marriage accounts for the loss
of his bishopric in March 1554, and his opinions for his further
punishment. As soon as the heresy laws and ecclesiastical
jurisdiction had been re-established, Ferrar was examined by
Gardiner, and then with signal indecency sent down to be tried
by Morgan, his successor in the bishopric of St David's. He
appealed from Morgan's sentence to Pole as papal legate, but in
vain, and was burnt at Cacrmarthcn on the 30th of March i$$$.
It was perhaps the most wanton of all Mary's acts of persecution ;
Ferrar had been no such protagonist of the Reformation as
Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper and Latimer; he had had nothing
to do with Northumberland's or Wyatt's conspiracy. He had
FERRARA— FERRARA-FLQRENCE, COUNCIL OF
283
taken no part in politics, and, so far as is known, had not said a
word or raised a hand against Mary. He was burnt simply
because he could not change his religion with the law and would
not pretend that he could; and his execution is a complete
refutation of the idea that Mary only persecuted heretics because
and when they were traitors.
See Dictionary of National Biography, xviii. 380-382, and authorities
there cited. Also Acts of the Privy Council (1550-1554) ; H. A. L.
Fisher. Political History of England, vol. vi. (A. F. P.)
FERRARA, a city and archiepiscopal see of Emilia, Italy,
capital of the province of Ferrara, 30 m. N.N.E. of Bologna,
situated 30 ft. above sea-level on the Po di Vomano, a branch
channel of the main stream of the Po, which is 3$ m. N. Pop.
(1901) 33,068 (town), 86,392 (commune). The town has broad
streets and numerous palaces, which date from the i6lh century,
when it was the seat of the court of the house of Este, and had,
it is said, 100,000 inhabitants.
The most prominent building is the square castle of the house
of Este, in the centre of the town, a brick building surrounded
by a moat, with four towers. It was built after 1385 and partly
restored in 1354; the pavilions on the top of the towers date
from the latter year. Near it is the hospital of S. Anna, where
Tasso was confined during his attack of insanity (1579-1586).
The Palazzo del Municipio, rebuilt in the 18th century, was the
earlier residence of the Este family. Close by is the cathedral
of S. Giorgio, consecrated in 1135, when the Romanesque lower
part of the main facade and the side facades were completed.
It was built by GugJiclmo degli Adclardi (d. 1146), who is buried
in it. The upper part of the main facade, with arcades of pointed
arches, dates from the 13th century, and the portal has recum-
bent lions and elaborate sculptures above. The interior was
restored in the baroque style in 1712. The campanile, in the
Renaissance style, dates from 1451-1493. but the last storey was
added at the end of the 16th century. Opposite the cathedral
is the Gothic Palazzo della Ragionc, in brick (1315-1326), now
the law-courts. A little way off is the university, which has
faculties of law, medicine and natural science (hardly 100
stadents in all); the library has valuable MSS., including part
of that of the Orlando Furioso and letters by Tasso. The other
churches are of less interest than the cathedral, though S.
Francesco, S. Benedetto, S. Maria in Vado and S. Crisleforo are
all good early Renaissance buildings. The numerous early Re-
naissance palaces, often with good terra-cotta decorations, form
qaile a feature of Ferrara; few towns of Italy have so many
erf them proportionately, though they arc mostly comparatively
saall in size. Among them may be noted those in the N.
quarter (especially the four at the intersection of its two main
streets), which was added by Ercole (Hercules) I. in 1492-1505,
from the plans of Biagio Rossetti, and hence called the " Addizione
ErcuJea," The finest of these is the Palazzo de' Diamanti, so
called from the diamond points into which the blocks of stone
with which it is faced are cut. It contains the municipal picture
gallery, with a large number of pictures of artists of the school
a Ferrara. This did not require prominence until the latter
tilf of the 15th century, when its best masters were Coslmo
Tora (1432-1405), Francesco Cossa (d. 1480) and Ercole dei
Roberti (d. 1496). To this period are due famous frescoes in the
Palazzo Schifanoia, which was built by the Este family; those of
the lower row depict the life of Bono of Este, in the central
row are the signs of the zodiac, and in the upper are allegorical
representations of the months. The vestibule was decorated
with stucco mouldings by Domenico'di Paris of Padua. The
balding also contains fine choir-books with miniatures, and a
coficcikm of coins and Renaissance medals. The simple house
of Ariosto, erected by himself after 1526, in which he died in
2 552, lies farther west. The best Fcrrarese masters of the i6tb
century of the Ferrara school were Lorenzo Costa (1460-1535),
aad Dosso Dossi (1470-1542), the most eminent of all, while
Beavenuto Tisi (Garofalo, 1481-1550) is somewhat monotonous
and insipid.
The origin of Ferrara is uncertain, and probabilities are against
the supposition that it occupies the site of the ancient Forum
Alie&i. It was probably a settlement formed by the inhabitants
of the lagoons at the mouth of the Po. It appears first in a
document of Aistulf of 753 or 754 as a city forming part of the
exarchate of Ravenna. After 984 we find it a fief of Tedakio,
count of Modena and Canossa, nephew of the emperor Otho L
It afterwards made itself independent, and in xxox was takes
by siege by the countess Matilda. At this time it was mainly
dominated by several great families, among them the Adelardi.
In 1146 Guglielmo, the last of the Adelardi, died, and his
property passed, as the dowry of his niece Marchesella, to
Azzolino d' Este. There was considerable hostility between the
newly entered family and the Salinguerra, but after considerable
struggles Azzo Novello was nominated perpetual podesta in
1242; in 1259 he took Ezzelino of Verona prisoner in battle.
His grandson, Obizzo II. (1264-1293), succeeded him, and the
pope nominated him captain-general and defender of the states
of the Church; and the house of Este was from henceforth
settled in Ferrara. Niccold III. (1393-1441) received several
popes with great magnificence, especially Eugene IV., who held
a council here in 1438. His son Bono received the fiefs of
Modena and Reggio from the emperor Frederick III. as first
duke in X452 (in which year Girolamo Savonarola was bom here),
and in 14 70 was made duke of Ferrara by Pope Paul II. Ercole I.
(147 1-1505) carried on a war with Venice and increased the
magnificence of the city. His son Alphonso I. married Lucrezia
Borgia, and continued the war with Venice with success. In
1509 he was excommunicated by Julius II., and attacked the
pontifical army in x 51 2 outside Ravenna, which he took. Gaston
de Foia fell in the battle, in which he was supporting Alphonso.
With the succeeding popes he was able to make peace. He was
the patron of Ariosto from 1518 onwards. His son Ercole II.
married Rcnata, daughter of Louis XIX of France; he too
embellished Ferrara during his reign (1534-1539). His son
Alphonso II. married Barbara, sister of the emperor Maxi-
milian 11. He raised the glory of Ferrara to its highest point,
and was the patron of Tasso and Guarini, favouring, as the
princes of his house had always done, the arts and sciences. He
had no* legitimate male heir, and in 1597 Ferrara was claimed as
a vacant fief by Pope Clement VIII., as was also Comacchio.
A fortress was constructed by him on the site of the castle of
Tedaldo, at the W. angle of the town. The town remained a
part of the states of the Church, the fortress being occupied by
an Austrian garrison from 1832 until 1859, when it became part
of the kingdom of Italy.
A considerable area within the walls of Ferrara is unoccupied
by buildings, especially on the north, where the handsome
Renaissance church of S. Cristoforo, with the cemetery,
stands; but modern times have brought a renewal of industrial
activity. Ferrara is. on the main line from Bologna to Padua
and Venice, and has branches to Ravenna and Poggio Rusco
(for Suzzara).
See G. Agnelli, Ferrara e Pomposa (Bergamo, 1902) ; E. G. Gardner,
Dukes and Poets oj Ferrara (London, 1904).
FERRARA-FLORENCE. COUNCIL OP (1438 ff.). The council
of Ferrara and Florence was the culmination of a series of futile
medieval attempts to reunite the Greek and Roman churches.
The emperor, John VI. Palaeologus, had been advised by his
experienced father to avoid all serious negotiations, as they had
invariably resulted in increased bitterness; but John, in view
of the rapid dismemberment of his empire by the Turks, felt
constrained to seek a union. The situation was, however, com*
plicated by the strife which broke out between the pope (Eugenius
IV.) and the oecumenical council of Basel. Both sides sent
embassies to the emperor at Constantinople, as both saw the
importance of gaining the recognition and support of the East,
for on this practically depended the victory in the struggle
between papacy and council for the supreme jurisdiction over
the church (see Councils). The Greeks, fearing the domination
of the papacy, were at first more favourably inclined toward
the conciliar party; but the astute diplomacy of the Roman
representatives, who have been charged by certain Greek writers
with the skilful use of money and of lies, won over the emperor.
284
FERRARI, GAUDENZIO
With a retinue of about 700 persons, entertained in Italy at the
pope's expense, he reached Ferrara early in March 1438. Here
a council had been formally opened in January by the papal
party, a bull of the previous year having promptly taken advan-
tage of the death of the Emperor Sigismund by ordering the
removal of the council of Basel to Ferrara; and one of the first
acts of the assemblage at Ferrara had been to excommunicate
the remnant at Basel. A month after the coming of the Greeks,
the Union Synod was solemnly inaugurated on the 9th of April
1438. After six months of negotiation, the first formal session
was held on the 8th of October, and on the 14th the real
issues were reached. The time-honoured question of thefilioque
was still in the foreground when it seemed for several reasons
advisable to transfer the council to Florence: Ferrara was
threatened by condottieri, the pest was raging; Florence
promised a welcome subvention, and a situation further inland
would make it more difficult for uneasy Greek bishops to flee
the synod.
The first session at Florence and the seventeenth of the union
council took place on the 26th of February 1439; there ensued
long debates and negotiations on the JUioque, in which Markos
Eugenikos, archbishop of Ephesus, spoke for the irreconcilable*;
but the Greeks under the leadership of Bessarion, archbishop
of Nicaea, and Isidor, metropolitan of Kiev, at length made a
declaration on the filioqus (4th of June), to which all save Markos
Eugenikos subscribed. On -the next topic of importance! the
primacy of the pope, the project of union nearly suffered ship-
wreck; but here a vague formula was finally constructed which,
while acknowledging the pope's right to govern the church,
attempted to safeguard as well the rights of the patriarchs.
On the basis of the above-mentioned agreements, as well as of
minor discussions as to purgatory and the Eucharist, the decree
of union was drawn up in Latin and in Greek, and signed on the
5th of July by the pope and the Greek emperor, and all the
members of the synod save Eugenikos and one Greek bishop
who had fled; and on the following day it was solemnly pub-
lished in the cathedral of Florence. The decree explains the
fdioque in a manner acceptable to the Greeks, but does not
require them to insert the term in their symbol; it demands
that celebrants follow the custom of their own church as to the
employment of leavened or unleavened bread in the Eucharist.
It states essentially the Roman doctrine of purgatory, and asserts
the world-wide primacy of the pope as the " true vicar of Christ
and the head of the whole Church, the Father and teacher of all
Christians "; but, to satisfy the Greeks, inconsistently adds that
all the rights and privileges of the Oriental patriarchs are to be
maintained unimpaired. After the consummation of the union
the Greeks remained in Florence for several weeks, discussing
matters such as the liturgy, the administration of the sacraments,
and divorce; and they sailed from Venice to Constantinople
in October.
The council, however, desirous of negotiating unions with the
minor churches of the East, remained in session for several years,
and seems never to have reached a formal adjournment. The
decree for the Armenians was published on the 22nd of November
1439; they accepted the filioqtu and the Athanasian creed,
rejected Monophysitism and Monothelittsm, agreed to the de-
veloped scholastic doctrine concerning the seven sacraments,
and conformed their calendar to the Western in certain points.
On the 26th of April 1441 the pope announced that the synod
would be transferred to the Lateran; but before leaving Florence
a union was negotiated with the Oriental Christians known as
Jacobites, through a monk named Andreas, who, at least as
regards Abyssinia, acted in excess of his powers. The Decrelum
Pro Jacob it is, published on the 4th of February 1442, is, like
that for the Armenians, of high dogmatic interest, as it summar-
izes the doctrine of the great medieval scholastics on the points
in controversy. The decree for the Syrians, published at the
Lateran on the 30th of September 1444, and those for the
Chaldeans (Nestorians) and the Maronites (Monothelites), pub-
lished at the last known session of the council on the 7th of
August I445> added nothing of doctrinal importance. Though
the direct results of these unions were the restoration of prestige
to the absolutist papacy and the bringing of Byzantine men of
letters, like Bessarion, to the West, the outcome was on the
whole disappointing. Of the complicated history of the
" United " churches of the East it suffices to say that Rome
succeeded in securing but fragments, though important frag-
ments, of the greater organizations. As for the Greeks, the union
met with much opposition, particularly from the monks, and was
rejected by three Oriental patriarchs at a synod of Jerusalem in
1443; and after various ineffective attempts to enforce it, the
fall of Constantinople in 1453 put an end to the endeavour. As
Turkish interests demanded the isolation of the Oriental
Christians from their western brethren, and as the orthodox
Greek nationalists feared Latinixation more than Mahommedan
rule, a patriarch hostile to the union was chosen, and a synod
of Constantinople in 1472 formally rejected the decisions of
Florence.
Authorities.— Hardouin, vol. 9; Mansi, vols. 3 1 A. 31 B. 35;
Sylvester Sguropulus (properly Syropulus), Vera Historic Unionis,
transl. R. Crcyghton (Hague, 1660); Cecconi, Studi storici sul
concilia di Firenu (Florence, 1869), (appendix); J. Zhiahman. Die
Unionsverhandlunten . . . bis turn C01u.il von Ferrara (Vienna.
1858); Gorski, of Moscow, 1847, The History of the Council of
Florence, trans, from the Russian by Basil Popoff, cd. by J. M.
Nealc (London, 1861); C. J. von HefeJe, Concilientesckkkte, vol. 7
(Freiburg i. B., 1874), 659-761, 793 ff., 814 ft\; H. Vast, Le Cardinal
Bessarion (Paris, 1878), 53-113; A. Warschauer, Uber die QueiUn
sur Ceschichte des Florentiner Cvncils (Brcslau, 1881), (Dissertation);
M. Creighton, A History of the Papacy during the Period of Ike Refor-
mation, vol. 2 (London, 1882), 173-194 (vivid); Knopfler, in Wetzer
and Welte's Kirchenlexikon, vol. 4 (2nd ed., Freiburg i. B., 1885).
1363-1380 (instructive) ; L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. 1
(London, 1891), 315 ft*.; F. Kattenbusch, Lehrbuch der vertleickenden
Confess ions kunde, vol. X (Freiburg i. B., 1892), 128 ff. ; N. Kalogeras,
archbishop of Patras, " Die Verhandlungen iwischen der orthodox-
katholischen Kirche und dem Konzil von Basel fiber die Wiedcr*
vercinigung der Kirchen " (Internationale Theologiscke Zeitstkrift),
vol. 1 (Bern, 1893, 39-57); t\ Tschackert ~ '
encyhlopddie, vol. 6 (3rd ed., Leipzig, I
1893, 39-57); P- Tschackert, in Hcrzog-Hauck. Real-
.... vol. 6 (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1899), 45-48 (good biblio-
graphy); Walter Norden, Das PapsUum und Bytanz: Dus Trennmtg
der betden MdckU und das Problem ikrer Wiedervereimgunr bis /40
(Berlin, 1903), 7x2 ft*. (W. W. R.*)
FERRARI, GAUDENZIO (1484-1549), Italian painter and
sculptor, of the Milanese, or more strictly the Piedmontese,
school, was born at Valduggia, Piedmont, and is said (very
dubiously) to have learned the elements of painting at Vercelli
from Girolamo Giovenone. He next studied in Milan, in the
school of Scotto, and some say of Luini; towards 1504 he
proceeded to Florence, and afterwards (it used to be alleged) to
Rome. His pictorial style may be considered as derived mainly
from the old Milanese school, with a considerable tinge of the
influence of Da Vinci, and later on of Raphael; in his personal
manner there was something of the demonstrative and fantastic.
The gentler qualities diminished, and the stronger intensified,
as he progressed. By 1524 he was at Varallo in Piedmont, and
here, in the chapel of the Sacro Monte, the sanctuary of the
Piedmontese pilgrims, he executed his most memorable work.
This is a fresco of the Crucifixion, with a multitude of figures,
no less than twenty-six of them being modelled in actual relief,
and coloured; on the vaulted ceiling are eighteen lamenting
angels, powerful in expression. Other leading examples are the
following. In the Royal Gallery, Turin, a " Pieta," an able early
work. In the Brera Gallery, Milan, " St Katharine miraculously
preserved from the Torture of the Wheel," a very characteristic
example, hard and forcible in colour, thronged in composition,
turbulent in emotion; also several frescoes, chiefly from the
church of Santa Maria della Pace, three of them being from the
history of Joachim and Anna. In the cathedra] of Vercelli, the
choir, the " Virgin with Angels and Saints under an Orange
Tree." In the refectory of San Paolo, the " Last Supper." In
tne church of San Cristoforo, the transept (in 1532-1535), a
series of paintings in which Ferrari's scholar Lanini assisted him;
by Ferrari himself are the " Birth of the Virgin," the " Annun-
ciation," the " Visitation," the " Adoration of the Shepherds
and Kings," the " Crucifixion," the * 4 Assumption of the Virgin,"
all full of life and decided character, though somewhat mannered.
FERRARI, GIUSEPPE— FERREIRA
285
IB the Louvre, " St Paul Meditating." In Vanllo, convent of the
Minorites (1507), a " Presentation in the Temple," and " Christ
among the Doctors/' and (after 1510) the " History of Christ,"
in twenty-one subjects; also an ancona in six compartments,
named the " Ancona di San Caudenaio." In Santa Maria di
Loreto, near Varallo (after 1527), an "Adoration." In the
church of Saronno, near Milan, the cupola (1535), a " Glory of
Angels," in which the beauty of the school of Da Vinci alternates
with bravura of foreshortenings in the mode of Correggio. In
Milan, Santa Maria delle Grasie(xs4 1), the " Scourgingof Christ,"
an M Ecce Homo " and a u Crucifixion." The " Scourging," or
else a " Last Supper," in the Passione of Milan (unfinished), is
regarded as Ferrari's latest work. He was a very prolific painter,
distinguished by strong expression, animation and fulness of
composition, and abundant invention; he was skilful in painting
horses, and his decisive rather hard colour is marked by a
partiality for shot tints in drapery. In general character, his
work appertains more to the 15th than the x6th century. His
subjects were always of the sacred order. Ferrari's* death took
place in Milan. Besides Lanini, already mentioned, Andrea
Solario, Giambattista della Cerva and Ferrao Stella were three
of his principal scholars. He is represented to us as a good man,
attached to his country and his art, jovial and sometimes
facetious, but an enemy of scandal. The reputation which he
enjoyed soon after his death was very great, but it has not fully
stood the test of time. Lomaaao went so far as to place him
seventh among the seven prime painters of Italy.
Sec G. Bordiga. two works concerning Gaudenwio Ferrari (182 1 and
1835); G. Colombo, Vita ed opere di Gaudentio Ferrari (1881);
Ethel Halsey, Gaudentio Ferrari (in the series Great Masters, 1904).
There was another painter nearly contemporary with Gaudensio,
Difendente Ferrari, alio of the Lombard school. His celebrity is by
no means equal to that of Gaudenzio; but Kugler (1887, as edited
by. Layard) pronounced him to be "a good and original colourist,
and the best artist that Piedmont has produced." (W. M. R.)
FERRARI, OIUSEPPB (18x2-1876), Italian philosopher,
historian and politician, was born at Milan on the 7th of March
18x2, and died in Rome on the 2nd of July 1876. He studied law
at Pa via, and took the degree of doctor in 1831. A follower of
Romagnosi (d. 1835) and Giovan Battista Vico (q.v.), his first
works were an article in the Biblioteca Italiana entitled " Mente
di Gian Domenico Romagnosi " (1835), and a complete edition
of the works of Vico, prefaced by an appreciation (1835). Find-
ing Italy uncongenial to his ideas, he went to France and, in
i$30, produced in Paris his Vico et VltalU, followed by La
NoteveUo Religion 4c Campanula and La Tkiork de femur.
On account of these works be was made Docteur-es-Iettres of the
Sorbonne and professor of philosophy at Rochefort (1840). His
views, however, provoked antagonism, and in 1842 he was
appointed to the chair of philosophy at Strassburg. After fresh
trouble with the clergy, he returned to Paris and published a
defence of his theories in a work entitled Idles sur la politique
de Platon el d'Aristote. After a short connexion with the college
at Bourges, he devoted himself from 1849 to 1858 exclusively to
writing. The works of this period are Les Philosopher Salaries,
U achieve! juge des revolutions do notre temps (1849), La Federa-
Hone repubblicana (1851), La Filosofia della rivoltaione (1851),
L Italia dopo U colpo di Stalo (1852), Histoire dot revolutions, ou
Guclfes et Gibelins (1858; Italian trans., 1871-1873). In 2859
he returned to. Italy, where he opposed Cavour, and upheld
federalism against the policy of a single Italian monarchy. In
spite of this opposition, he held chairs of philosophy at Turin,
Milan and Rome insuccession, and during several administrations
represented the college of Gavirate in the chamber. He was a
member of the council of education and was made senator on the
15th of May 1876. Amongst other works may be mentioned
Histoire de la raison d'itat, La China el V Europo, Corso d' istoria
degfi serittori polilici itaHani. A sceptic in philosophy and a
revolutionist in politics, rejoicing in controversy of all kinds, he
was admired as a man, as an orator, and as a writer.
See Marro Maechi, Aunuario istorico italiano (Milan, 1877);
Mazzoleni, Giuseppe Ferrari; Werner, Die ital. PkUosophie des 19.
Jahrh. vol. 3 (Vienna, 1885) ; Oberweg, History of Philosophy (Eng.
• . it 461 foU.).
FERRARI, PAOLO (1822*1889), Italian dramatist, was bom
at Modena. After producing some minor pieces, in 1852 he
made his reputation as a playwright with Goldoni e le sue sedici
commotio. Among numerous later plays his comedy Parini
la satira (1857) had considerable success. Ferrari may be
regarded as a follower of Goldoni, modelling himself on the
French theatrical methods. His collected plays were published
in 187 7-1 880,
FERREIRA, ANTONIO (1528-1569), Portuguese poet, was a
native of Lisbon; his father held the post of tscriv&o de fazenda
in the house of the duke of Coimbra at Setubal, so that he must
there have met the great adventurer Mendes Pinto. In 1547-
1548 he went to the university of Coimbra, and on the 16th of
July 1551 took his bachelor's degree. The Sonnets forming the
First Book in his collected works date from 1552 and contain the
history of his early love for an unknown lady. They seem to
have been written in Coimbra or during vacations in Lisbon;
and if some are dry and stilted, others, like the admirable
No. 45, are full of feeling and tears. The Sonnets in the Second
Book were inspired by D. Maria Pimentel, whom he afterwards
married, and they are marked by that chastity of sentiment,
seriousness and ardent patriotism which characterized the man
and the writer. Ferreira's ideal, as a poet, was to win " the
applause of the good," and, in the preface to his poems, he says,
" I am content with this glory, that I have loved my land and
my people." He was intimate with princes, nobles and the most
distinguished literary men of the time, such as the scholarly
Diogo de Tetve and the poets Bernardes, Caminha and Corte-
Real, as well as with the aged Sa de Miranda, the founder of the
classical school of which Ferreira became the foremost repre-
sentative.
The death in 1554 of Prince John, the heir to the throne, drew
from him, as from Camoens, Bernardes and Caminha, a poetical
lament, which consisted of an elegy and two eclogues, imitative
of Virgil and Horace, and devoid of interest. On the 14th of
July 1555 he took his doctor's degree, an event which was cele-
brated, according to custom, by a sort of Roman triumph, and
he stayed on as a professor, finding Coimbra with its picturesque
environs congenial to his poetical tastes and love of a country
life. The year 1557 produced his sixth elegy, addressed to the
son of the great Albuquerque, a poem of noble patriotism
expressed in eloquent and sonorous verse, and in the next year
he married. After a short and happy married life, his wife died,
and the ninth sonnet of Book 2 describes her end in moving
words. This loss lent Ferreira's verse an added austerity, and
the independence of his muse is remarkable when he addresses
King Sebastian and reminds him of his duties as well as his
rights. On the 14th of October 1567 he became Disembargador
da Casa do Cruel, and had to leave the quiet of Coimbra for Lisbon.
His verses tell how he disliked the change, and how the bustle of
the capital, -then a great commercial emporium, made him sad
and almost tongue-tied for poetry. The intrigues and moral
twists of the courtiers and traders, among whom he was forced
to live, hurt his fine sense of honour, and he felt his mental
isolation the more, because his friends were few and scattered
in that great dty which the discoveries and conquests of the
Portuguese had made the centre of a world empire. In 1569 a
terrible epidemic of carbunculous fever broke out and carried
off 50,000 inhabitants of Lisbon, and, on the 29th of November,
Ferreira, who had stayed there doing his duty when others fied,
fell a victim.
Horace was his favourite poet, erudition his muse, and his
admiration of the classics made him disdain the popular poetry
of the Old School (Escola Velha) represented by Gil Vicente.
His national feeling would not allow him to write in Latin or
Spanish, like most of his contemporaries, but his Portuguese is
as Latinised as he could make it, and he even calls his poetical
works Poemas Lusitanos. Sa de Miranda had philosophised in
the familiar redondilha, introduced the epistle and founded the
comedy of learning. It was the beginning of a revolution, which
Ferreira completed by abandoning the hendecasyllable for the
Italian decasyllabic, and by composing the noble and austere
286
FERREL'S LAW— FERRERS, HOUSE OF
Roman poetry of his letters, odes and elegies. It was all dose
of set purpose, for he was a reformer conscious of his mission
and resolved to carry it out. The gross realism of the popular
poetry, its lack of culture and its carelessness of form, offended
his educated taste, and its picturesqueness and ingenuity made
no appeal to him. It is not surprising, however, that though
he earned the applause of men of letters he failed to touch the
hearts of his countrymen. Ferreira wrote the Terentian prose
comedy Bristo, at the age of twenty-five (i553)» M» d dedicated
it to Prince John in the name of the university. It is neither
a comedy of character nor manners, but its vis arnica lies in its
plot and situations. The Cioso, a later product, may almost
be called a comedy of character. Castro is Ferreira's most con-
siderable work, and, in date, is the first tragedy in Portuguese,
and the second in modern European literature. Though
fashioned on the great models of the ancients, it has little plot or
action, and the characters, except that of the prince, are ill-
designed. It is really a splendid poem, with a chorus which
sings the sad fate of Ignez in musical odes, rich in feeling and
grandeur of expression. Her love is the chaste, timid affection
of a wife and a vassal rather than the strong passion of a mistress,
but Pedro is really the man history describes, the love-fettcrcd
prince whom the tragedy of Ignez's death converted into the cruel
tyrant. King Alfonso is little more than a shadow, and only
meets Ignez once, his son never; while, stranger still, Pedro and
Ignez never come on the stage together, and their love is merely
narrated. Nevertheless, Ferreira merits all praise for choosing
one of the most dramatic episodes in Portuguese history for his
subject, and though it has since been handled by poets of renown
in many differenc languages, none has been able to surpass the
old master.
The Castro was first printed in Lisbon in 1587, and it is included in
Ferreira's Pocmas, published in 1598 by his son. It has been trans-
lated by Musgrave (London, 1825), and the chorus 0/ Act I. appeared
again in English in the Savoy for July 1896. It has also been done
into French and German. The Briilo and Cioso first appeared
with the comedies of Sa dc Miranda in Lisbon in 1622. There is
a good modern edition of the Complete Works of Ferreira (2
vols., Paris, 1865). See Castilho's Antonio Ferrein. (3 vols., Rio,
1865). which contains a full biographical and critical study with
extracts. (E. Pa.)
FERREL'S LAW, in physical geography. " If a body moves
in any direction on the earth's surface, there is a deflecting force
arising from the earth's rotation, which deflects it to the right
in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemi-
sphere." This law applies to every body that is set in motion
upon the surface of the rotating earth, but usually the duration
of the motion of any body due to a single impulse is so brief,
and there are so many f fictional disturbances, that it is not easy
to observe the results of this deflecting force'. The movements
of the atmosphere, however, are upon a scale large enough to
make this observation easy, and the simplest evidence is obtained
from a study of the direction of the air movements in the great
wind systems of the globe. (See Meteorology.)
FERRERS, the name of a great Norman-English feudal house,
derived from Fcrricres-St-Hilaire, to the south of Bernay, in
Normandy. Its ancestor Walkelin was slain in a feud during
the Conqueror's minority, leaving a son Henry, who took part
in the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday survey his fief
extended into fourteen counties, but the great bulk of it was in
Derbyshire and Leicestershire, especially the former. He him-
self occurs in Worcestershire as one of the royal commissioners
for the survey. He established his chief seat at Tutbury Castle,
Staffordshire, on the Derbyshire border, and founded there a
Cluniac priory. As was the usual practice wi th the great Norman
houses, his eldest son succeeded to Ferrieres, and, according to
Stapleton, he was ancestor of the Oakham house of Ferrers,
whose memory is preserved by the horseshoes hanging in the hall
of their castle. Robert, a younger son of Henry, inherited his
vast English fief, and, for his services at the battle of the Standard
(1138), was created earl of Derby by Stephen. He appears to
have died a year after.
Both the title and the arms of the carls have been the subject
of much discussion, and they seem to have been styled mdifferv
ently earls of Derby or Nottingham (both counties then farming
one shrievalty) or of Tutbury, or simply (de) Ferrers. Robert,
the and earl, who founded Merevale Abbey, was father of William,
the 3rd earl, who began the opposition of his house to the crown
by joining in the great revolt of 1 1 73, when he fortified his castles
of Tutbury and Duffield and plundered Nottingham, which was
held for the king. On his subsequent submission his castles
were razed. Dying at the siege of Acre, x xoo, he was succeeded
by his son William, who attacked Nottingham on Richard's
behalf in 1194, but whom King John favoured and confirmed
in the earldom of Derby, x 109. A claim that he was heir to the
honour of Peveral of Nottingham, which has puzzled genealo-
gists, was compromised with the king, whom the earl thenceforth
stoutly supported, being with him at his death and witnessing
his will, with his brother-in-law the earl of Chester, and with
William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, whose daughter married
his son. With them also he acted in securing tbe succession
of the young Henry, joining in the siege of Mountsorrel and the
battle of Lincoln. But he was one of those great nobles who
looked with jealousy on the rising power of the king^s favourites.
In 1227 he was one of the earls who rose against him on behalf
of his brother Richard and made him restore the forest charters,
and in 1 237 he was one of the three counsellors forced on the king
by the barons. His influence had by this time been further
increased by the death, in 1232, of the earl of Chester, whose
sister, his wife, inherited a vast estate between the Kibble and
the Mersey. On his death in 1247, his son William succeeded
as 5th earl, and inherited through his wife her share of the great
possessions of the Marshals, earls of Pembroke. By his second
wife, a daughter of the earl of Winchester, he was father of
Robert, 6th and last earl. Succeeding as a minor in 1254,
Robert had been secured by the king, as early as 1249, as a
husband for his wife's niece, Marie, daughter of Hugh, count of
Angoulemc, but, in spite of this, he joined the opposition in
1263 and distinguished himself by his violence. He was one
of the five earls summoned to Simon de Montfort's parliament,
though, on taking the earl of Gloucester's part, be was arrested
by Simon. In spite of this he was compelled on the king's
triumph to forfeit his castles and seven years' revenues. In
1266 he broke out again in revolt on his own estates in Derby-
shire, but was utterly defeated at Chesterfield by Henry ** of
Almoin," deprived of his earldom and lands and imprisoned.
Eventually, in 1269, he agreed to pay £50,000 for restoration,
and to pledge all his lands save Chartley and Holbrook for its
payment . As he was not able to find the money, the lands passed
to the king's son, Edmund, to whom they had been granted on
his forfeiture.
The earl's son John succeeded to Chartley, a Staffordshire
estate long famous for the wild cattle in its chase, and was sum-
moned as a baron in 1299, though he had joined the baronial
opposition in 1297. On the death, in 1450, of the last Ferrers
lord of Chartley, the barony passed with his daughter to the
Devereux family and then to the Shirleys, one of whom was
created Earl Ferrers in 1 7 1 x. The barony has been in abeyance
since 1855.
The line of Ferrers of Groby was founded by William, younger
brother of the last earl, who inherited from his mother Margaret
dc Quinci her estate of Groby in Leicestershire, and some Ferrers
manors from his father. His son was summoned as a baron in
1300, but on the death of his descendant, William, Lord Ferrers
of Groby, in 1445, the barony passed with his granddaughter
to the Grey family and was forfeited with the dukedom of Suffolk
in 1554. A younger son of William, the last lord, married the
heiress of Tamworlh Castle, and his line was seated at Tamworth
till 1680, when an heiress carried it to a. son of the first Earl
Ferrers. From Sir Henry, a younger son of the first Ferrers of
Tamworth, descended Ferrers of Baddesley Clinton, seated there
in the male line till towards the end of the 19th century. The j
line of Ferrers of Wemme was founded by a younger son of
Lord Ferrers of Chartley, who married the heiress of Wemme, J
Co. Salop, and was summoned as a baron in her right; but it
FERRERS, EARL— FERRIER, J. F.
287
ended with thefr ion. There are doubtless male descendants
of this great Norman house still in existence.
Higham Ferrers, Northants, and Woodham Ferrers, Essex,
take their names from this family. It has been alleged that they
bore horseshoes for their arms in allusion to Ferriercs (*\*. iron-
works); but when and why they were added to their coat is a
moot point.
Sec Dugdale's Baronage; J- R. Plancbe's The Conqueror and his
Companions-, G. E. (T(okayne)'s Complete Peerage-, Chronicles
and Memorials (Rolls Series); T. Stapleton's Raluli Scaccarii Nor-
manni*. (J- H. R.)
FERRERS. LAURENCE SHIRLEY, 4TH Earl (1720-1760),
the last nobleman in England to suffer a felon's death, was born
on the r8th of August 2720. There was insanity in his family,
and from an early age his behaviour seems to have been eccentric,
and his temper violent, though he was quite capable of manag-
ing his business affairs. In 1758 his wife obtained a separation
from him for cruelty. The Ferrers estates were then vested
in trustees, the Earl Ferrers secured the appointment of an old
family steward, Johnson, as receiver of rents. This man faith-
fully performed his duty as a servant to the trustees, and did
not prove amenable to Ferrer's personal wishes. On the j8th
of January 1760, Johnson called at the earl's mansion at Staunton
Harold, Leicestershire, by appointment, and was directed to his
lordship's study. Here, after some business conversation, Lord
Ferrers shot him. In the following April Ferrers was tried for
murder by his peers in Westminster Hall. His defence, which
lie conducted in person with great ability, was a plea of insanity,
and it was supported by considerable evidence, but he was found
guilty. He subsequently said that he had only pleaded insanity
to oblige his family, and that he had himself always been ashamed
of such a defence. On the 5th of May 1760, dressed in a light-
coloured suit, embroidered with silver, he was taken in his own
carnage from the Tower of London to Tyburn and there hanged.
It has been said that as a concession to his order the rope used
•was of silk.
See Peter Burfee, Celebrated Trials connected with the Aristocracy
•« the. Relations of Private Life (London. 1B40); Edward Walfont,
Teles of our Great Families (London, 1877); Howell's State Trials
(I8r6). xix. 885-980.
FERRET, a domesticated, and frequently albino breed of
quadruped, derived from the wild polecat (Pulorius fodidus,
or P. pulorius), which it closely resembles in size, form, and
habits, and with which it interbreeds. It differs in the colour of
its fur, which is usually yellowish-white, and of its eyes, which
are pirJcy-red. The " polecat-ferret " is a brown breed, appar-
ently the product of the above-mentioned cross. The ferret
attains a length of about 14 in., exclusive of the tail, which
measures 5 in. Although exhibiting considerable lameness, it
seems incapable of attachment, and when not properly fed, or
when irritated, is apt to give painful evidence of its ferocity.
It is chiefly emptoyed in destroying rats and other vermin, and
in driving rabbits from their burrows. The ferret is remarkably
prolific, the female bringing forth two broods annually, each
numbering from six to nine young. It is said to occasionally
devour its young immediately after birth, and in this case
produces another brood soon after. The ferret was well known
to the Romans, Strabo stating that it was brought from Africa
into Spain, and Pliny that it was employed in his time in rabbit-
hunting, under the name Vivcrra; the English name is not
derived from this, but from Fr. furet, Late Lat. furo, robber.
The date of its introduction into Great Britain is uncertain,
but it has been known in England for at least 600 years.
The ferret should be kept in dry, clean, well-ventilated hutches,
and fed twice daily on bread, milk, and meat, such as rabbits'
and fowls' livers. When used to hunt rabbits it is provided with
a muzzle, or, better and more usual, a cope, made by looping
and knotting twine about the head and snout, in order to prevent
it killing its quarry, in which case it would gorge itself and go
to sleep in the hole. As the ferret enters the hole the rabbits
free before it, and are shot or caught by dogs as they break
ground. A ferret's hold on its quarry is as obstinate as that of
a bulldog, but can easily be broken by a strong pressure of
the thumb just above the eyes. Only full-grown ferrets are
" worked to " rats. Several are generally used at a time and
without copes, as rats are fierce fighters.
See Ferrets, by Nicholas Event t (London, 1897).
FERRI, CIRO (16J4-1680), Roman painter, the chief disciple
and successor of Pietro da Cortona. He was born in the Roman
territory, studied under Pietro, to whom he became warmly
attached, and, at an age a little past thirty, completed the paint-
ing of the ceilings and other internal decorations begun by his
instructor in the Pitti palace, Florence. He also co-operated
in or finished several other works by Pietro, both in Florence
and in Rome, approaching near to his style and his particular
merits, but with less grace of design and native vigour, and in
especial falling short of him in colour. Of his own independent
productions, the chief is an extensive series of scriptural frescoes
in the church of S. Maria Maggiore in Bergamo; also a painting
(rated as Fern's best work) of St Ambrose healing a sick person,
the principal altarpicce in thechurchof S. AmbrogiodellaMassima
in Rome. The paintings of the cupola of S. Agnesc in the same
capital might rank even higher than these; but this labour
remained uncompleted at the death of Ferri, and was marred by
the performances of his successor Corbellini. He executed also
a large amount of miscellaneous designs, such as etchings and
frontispieces for books; and he was an architect besides. Ferri
was appointed to direct the Florentine students in Rome, and
Gabbiani was one of his leading pupils. As regards style, Ferri
ranks as chief of the so-called Machinists, as opposed to the
school founded by Sacchi, and continued by Carlo Maratta.
He died in Rome—his end being hastened, as it is said/ by
mortification at his recognized inferiority to Bacciccia in colour.
FERRI, LUIGI (1826-1895), Italian philosopher, was bom at
Bologna on the 15th of June 1826. His education was obtained
mainly at the Ecole Normale in Paris, where his father, a painter
and architect, was engaged in the construction of the Theatre
Italicn. From his twenty-fifth year he began to lecture in* the
colleges of Evreux, Dieppe, Blois and Toulouse. Later, he was
lecturer at Annccy and Casal-Montferrat, and became head of
the education department under Mamiani in 1S60. Three years
later he was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the Istituto
di Pcrfezionamenlo at Florence, and, in 1871, was made professor
of philosophy in tho university of Rome. On the death of
Mamiani in 1S85 he became editor of the Filosofia ddle scuole
italiane, the title of which he changed to Rmsla Ualiana di
filosofia. He wrote both on psychology and on metaphysics, but
is known especially as a historian of philosophy. His original
work is eclectic, combining the psychology of his teachers, Jules
Simon, Saissct and Mamiani, with the idealism of Rosmiai and
Gioberti. Among his works may be mentioned Stttdii snlla
coscknza; 11 Fcnomcno udlc sue relation* eon /a sensasione;
Delia idea del vero\ Delia filosofia del dirilto prcsso Aristolile
(1885); // Cenio di Arislotile; La Pskologia di Pietro Pomponam
(1877), and, most important, Essoi surVhisloire dt la philosophize
en Italic au XIX' slide (Paris, 1869), and La Psychologic de
V association depuis Hobbcs jusqu'd nos jours.
FERRIER, ARNAUO DU (c. 1508-1585), French jurisconsult
and diplomatist, was born at Toulouse about x 508, and practised
as a lawyer first at Bourges, afterwards at Toulouse. Councillor
to the parlemcnl of the latter town, and then to that of Rennes,
he later became president of the parlement of Paris. He repre-
sented Charles IX n king of France, at the council of Trent in
j 562, but had to retire in consequence of the attitude he had
adopted, and was sent as ambassador to Venice, where he
remained till 1567, returning again in 1570. On his return to
France he came into touch with the Calvinists whose tenets
he probably embraced, and consequently lost his place in the
privy council and part of his fortune. As compensation, Henry,
king of Navarre, appointed him his chancellor. He died in the
end of October 1585.
See also E. FreW Un AntbdSsadeur IMral sous Charles JX el
Henri III, Arnaud du Ferrier (Paris, 1880).
FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK (1808-1864), Scottish
metaphysical writer, was born in Edinburgh on the z6th of
288
FERRIER, P.— FERRIER, S. E.
June 1808, the eon of John Ferrier, writer to the signet. His
mother was a sister of John Wilson (Christopher North). He was
educated at the university of Edinburgh and Magdalen College,
Oxford, and subsequently, his metaphysical tastes having
been fostered by his intimate friend, Sir William Hamilton,
spent some time at Heidelberg studying German philosophy.
In 1842 he was appointed professor of civil history in Edinburgh
University, and in x845professorof moral philosophy and political
economy at St Andrews. He was twice an unsuccessful candidate
for chairs in Edinburgh, for that of moral philosophy on Wilson's
resignation in 185a, and for that of logic and metaphysics in
1856, after Hamilton's death. He remained at St Andrews till
his death on the zith of June 1864. He married his cousin,
Margaret Anne, daughter of John Wilson. He had five children,
one of whom became the wife of Sir Alexander Grant
Ferrier's first contribution to metaphysics was a series of
articles in Blackwood's Mogatine (1838-1839), entitled An
Introduction to the Philosophy of Consciousness. In these he
condemns previous philosophers for ignoring in their psycho-
logical investigations the fact of consciousness, which is the
distinctive feature of man, and confining their observation
to the so-called " states of the mind." Consciousness comes
into manifestation only when the man has used the word " I "
with full knowledge of what it means. This notion he must
originate within himself. Consciousness cannot spring from
the states which are its object, for it is in antagonism to them.
It originates in the will, which in the act of consciousness puts,
the "I " in the place of our sensations. Morality, conscience,
and responsibility are necessary results of consciousness. These
articles were succeeded by a number of others, of which the
most important were The Crisis of Modern Speculation (1841),
Berkeley and Idealism (1842), and an important examination
of Hamilton's edition of Reid (1847), which contains a vigorous
attack on the philosophy of common sense. The perception of
matter is pronounced to be the ne plus ultra of thought, and
Reid, for presuming to analyse it, is declared to be a representa-
tionist in fact, although he professed to be an intuitionist. - A
distinction is made between the " perception of matter " and
" our apprehension of the perception of matter." Psychology
vainly tries to analyse the former. Metaphysic shows the
latter alone to be analysable, and separates the subjective
element, "our apprehension," from the objective element,
" the perception of matter," — not matter per se, but the percep-
tion of matter is the existence independent of the individual's
thought. It cannot, however, be independent of thought. It
must belong to some mind, and is therefore the property of the
Divine Mind. There, he thinks, is an indestructible foundation
for the a priori argument for the existence of God.
Ferrier's matured philosophical doctrines find expression in
the Institutes of Metaphysics (1854), in which he claims to have
met the twofold obligation resting on every system of philosophy,
that it should be reasoned and true. * His method is that of
Spinoza, strict demonstration, or at least an attempt at it.
All the errors of natural thinking and psychology must fall under
one or other of three topics. — Knowing and the Known, Ignor-
ance, and Being. These are all-comprehensive, and are therefore
the departments into which philosophy is divided, for the sole
end of philosophy is to correct the inadvertencies of ordinary
thinking.
The problems of knowing and the known are treated in the
" Epistcmology or Theory of Knowing." The truth that " along
with whatever any intelligence knows it must, as the ground
or condition of its knowledge, have some cognizance of itself,"
is the basis of the whole philosophical system. Object -r*subject,
thing-fine, is the only possible knowable. This leads to the
conclusion that the only independent universe which any mind
can think of is the universe in synthesis with some other mind
or ego.
The leading contradiction which is corrected in the " Agnoi-
ology or Theory of Ignorance " is this: that there can be an
ignorance of that of which there can be no knowledge. Ignorance
is a defect But there is no defect in not knowing what cannot
be known by any intelligence (e.g. that two and two make five),
and therefore there can be an ignorance only of that of which
there can be a knowledge, ue. of soine-object-fto-some-subject
The knowable alone is the ignorable. Ferrier lays special claim
to originality for this division of the Institutes.
The " Ontology or Theory of Being " forms the third and
final division. It contains a discussion of the origin of knowledge,
in which Ferrier traces all the perplexities and errors of philo-
sophers to the assumption of the absolute existence of matter.
The conclusion arrived at is that the only true real and inde-
pendent existences are minds-together-with-that-which-they-
apprehend, and that the one strictly necessary absolute existence
is a supreme and infinite and everlasting mind in synthesis with
all things..
Ferrier's works are remarkable for an unusual charm and sim-
plicity of style. These qualities are especially noticeable in the
Lectures on Creek Philosophy, one of the best introductions on the
subject in the English language. A complete edition of. his philo-
sophical writing* was published in 1875, with a memoir by t. L
Lushington; see also monograph by E. S. Haldane in the Famous
Scot* Series.
FERRIER, PAUL (1843- )• French dramatist, was born
at Montpellier on the 29th of March 1843. He had already
produced several comedies when in 2873 he secured real success
with two short pieces, Cha Vatocat and Les Incendies de Massou-
lard. Others of his numerous plays are Les Compensations (1876) ;
L'Art de tromper les fannies (2800), with M. Najac One of
Ferrier's greatest triumphs was the production with Fabrice
Carre* of Josiphine vendue par ses samrs (z886), an opera bouffe
with music by Victor Roger. His opera libretti include La
Marocaine (1879), music of J. Offenbach; Le Chevalier i'Har-
mental (1896) after the play of Dumas pere, for the music of
A. Messager; La Fille de Tabarin (1901), with Victorien Sardou,
music of Gabriel Picrne.
FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTONE (1782-2854). Scottish
novelist, born in Edinburgh on the 7th of September 1782, was
the daughter of James Ferrier, for some years factor to the duke
of Argyll, and at one time one of the clerks of the court of session
with Sir Walter Scott. Her mother was a Miss Coutts, the
beautiful daughter of a Forfarshire farmer. James. Frederick
Ferrier, noticed above, was Susan Ferrier's nephew.
Miss Ferrier's first novel, Marriage, was begun in concert with
a friend, Miss Clavering, a niece of the duke of Argyll; but this
lady only wrote a few pages, and Marriage, completed by Miss
Ferrier as early as 18 10, appeared in z8x8. It was followed in
2824 by The Inheritance, a better constructed and more mature
work; and the last and perhaps best of her novels, Destiny,
dedicated to Sir Walter Scott (who himself undertook to strike
the bargain with the publisher Cadell), appeared in 2831. All
these novels were published anonymously; but, with their
clever portraiture of contemporary Scottish life and manners,
and even recognizable caricatures of some social celebrities of
the day, they could not fail to become popular north of the Tweed.
" Lady MacLaughlan " represents Mrs Seymour Darner in dress
and Lady Frederick Campbell, whose husband, Lord Ferrier,
was executed in 2760, in manners. Mary, Lady Clark, well
known in Edinburgh, figured as " Mrs Fox " and the three maiden
aunts were the Misses Edmonstone. Many were the conjectures
as to the authorship of the novels. In the Nodes Ambrosianae
(November 2826), James Hogg is made to mention The In-
heritance, and adds, "which I aye thought was written by
Sir Walter, as weel's Marriage, till it spunked out that it was
written by a leddy." Scott himself gave Miss Ferrier a very
high place indeed among the novelists of the day. In his diary
(March 27, 2826), criticizing a new work which he had been
reading, he says, "The women do this better. Edgeworth,
Ferrier, Austen, have all given portraits of real society far
superior to anything man, vain man* has produced of the like
nature." Another friendly recognition of Miss Ferrier is to be
found at the conclusion of his Tales of my Landlord, where Scott
calls her his " sister shadow," the still anonymous author of
" the very lively work entitled Marriage" Lively, indeed, all
Miss Ferrier's works are,— written in dear, brisk English, and
FERROL— FERRULE
289
with an fhexhauttible fund of humour. It is true her books
portray the eccentricities, the follies, and foibles of the society in
which she lived, caricaturing with terrible exactness its hypocrisy,
boastfulness, greed, affectation, and undue subservience to public
opinion. Yet Miss Ferricr wrote less to reform than to amuse.
In this she is less like Miss Edgeworth than Miss Austen. Miss
Edgeworth was more of a moralist; her wit is not so involuntary,
her caricatures not always so good-natured. But Miss Austen
and Miss Ferricr were genuine humorists, and with Miss Ferrier
especially a keen sense of the ludicrous was always dominant.
Her humorous characters are always her best. It was no doubt
because she felt this that in the last year of her life she regretted
not having devoted her talents more exclusively to the service of
religion. But if she was not a moralist, neither was she a cynic;
and her wit, even where it is most caustic, is never uncharitable.
Miss Ferrier's mother died in 1797, and from that date she
kept bouse for her father until his death in 1820. She lived
quietly at Momingside House and in Edinburgh for more than
twenty years after the publication of her last work. The
pleasantest picture that we have of her is in Lockhart's de-
scription of her visit to Scott in May x8 3 x. She was asked there
to help to amuse the dying master of Abbotsford, who, when
he was not writing Count Robert of Paris, would talk as brilliantly
as ever. Only sometimes, before he had reached the point in a
narrative, " it would seem as if some internal spring had given
way." He would pause, and gaze blankly and anxiously round
him. M I noticed," says Lockhart, n the delicacy of Miss Ferricr
en such occasions. Her sight was bad, and she took care not to
use her glasses when he was speaking; and she affected to be also
troubled with deafness, and would say, ' Well, I am getting as
dull as a post; I have not heard a word since you said 90-and-
so/ — being sure to mention a circumstance behind that at which
he had really halted. He then took up the thread with his
habitual smile of courtesy— as if forgetting his case entirely in
the consideration of the lady's infirmity."
Miss Ferrier died on the 5th of November 1854, at her brother's
bouse in Edinburgh. She left among her papers a short un-
published article, entitled " Recollections of Visits to Ashesticl
and Abbotsford." This is her own very interesting account of
her long friendship with Sir Walter Scott, from the date of ber
first visit to him and Lady Scott at Ashestiel, where she went
with her father in the autumn of 181 1, to her last sad visit
to Abbotsford in 1831. It contains some impromptu verses
written by Scott in her album at Ashestiel
Miss Ferrier's letters to her sister, which contained much interesting
biographical matter, were destroyed at her particular request, but a
volume of ber correspondence with a memoir by her grand-nephew,
John Ferrier, was published in X898.
FERBOL [El FerroQ, a seaport of north-western Spain, in
the province of Corunna; situated 12 m. N.E. of the city of
Corunna. and on the Bay of Ferrol, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean.
Pop. (1000) 25,281. Together with San Fernando, near Cadis,
and Cartagena, Ferrol is governed by an admiral, with the
special title of captain-general; and it ranks beside these two
ports as one of the principal naval stations of Spain. The town
is beautifully situated on a headland overlooking the bay, and
as surrounded by rocky hills which render it invisible from the
sea. Its harbour, naturally one of the best in Europe, and the
largest in Spain except those of Vigo and Corunna, is deep,
capacious and secure; but the entrance is a narrow strait about
2 m. long, which admits only one vessel at a time, and is com-
manded by modern and powerfully armed forts, while the neigh-
bouring heights are also crowned by defensive works. Ferrol is
provided with extensive dockyards, quays, warehouses and
an arsenal; most of these, with the palace of the.captain-general,
the bull-ring, theatres, and other principal buildings, were built
or modernized between 187 s and 1005. The local industries are
mainly connected with the shipping trade, or the refitting of
warships. Owing to the lack of railway communication, and
the competition of Corunna at so short a distance, Ferrol is not
a first-class commercial port; and in the early years of the 20th
century its trade, already injured by the loss to Spain of Cuba
and Porto Rico in 1898, showed little prospect of improvement
The exports are insignificant, and consist chiefly of wooden
staves and beams for use as pit-props; the chief imports are
coal, cement, timber, iron and machinery. In 1004, 282 vessels
of 1 55,881 tons entered the harbour. In the same year the con*
struction of a railway to the neighbouring town of Betanzos
was undertaken, and in 1009 important shipbuilding operations
were begun.
Ferrol was a mere fishing village until 1 752, when Ferdinand VI.
began to fit it for becoming an arsenal. In 1700 the British
made a fruitless attempt to capture it, but on the 4th of
November 1805 they defeated the French fleet in front of the
town, which they compelled to surrender. On the 27th of
January 1809 it was through treachery delivered over to the
French, but it was vacated by them on the 22nd of July. On
the r 5th of July 1823 another blockade was begun by the French,
and Ferrol surrendered to them on the 27th of August.
FERRUCCIO. or Femucci, FRANCESCO (1489-1530),
Florentine captain. After spending a few years as a merchant's
clerk he took to soldiering at an early age, and served in the
Bandt Nere in various parts of Italy, earning a reputation as a
daring fighter and somewhat of a swashbuckler. When Pope
Clement VII. and the emperor Charles V. decided to reinstate
the Medici in Florence, they made war on the Florentine republic,
and Fcrrucck) was appointed Florentine military commissioner
at Empoli, where he showed great daring and resource by bis
rapid marches and sudden attacks on the Imperialists. Early
in 1530 Volterra had thrown off Florentine allegiance and
had been occupied by an Imperialist garrison, but Fcrruccio
surprised and recaptured the city. During his absence, however,
the Imperialists captured Empoli by treachery, thus cutting
off one of the chief avenues of approach to Florence. Fcrruccio
proposed to the government of the republic that he should
march on Rome and terrorize the pope by the threat of a sack
into m'iking peace with Florence on favourable terms, but
although the war committee appointed him commissioner-
general for the operations outside the city, they rejected his
scheme as too audacious. Ferrucdo then decided to attempt
a diversion by attacking the Imperialists in the rear and started
from Volterra for the Apennines, But at Pisa he was laid up
for a month with a fever— a misfortune which enabled the enemy
to get wind of his plan and to prepare for his attack. At the end
of July Fcrruccio left Pisa at the head of about 4000 men, and
although the besieged in Florence, knowing that a large part
of the Imperialists under the prince of Orange had gone to meet
Ferrucdo, wished to co-operate with the latter by means of a
sortie, they were prevented from doing so by their own traitorous
commander-in-chief, Malatesla Baglioni. Ferrucdo encountered
a much larger force of the enemy on the 3rd of August at Gavi-
nana; a desperate battle ensued, and at first the Imperialists
were driven back by Ferrucdo's fierce onslaught and the prince
of Orange himself was killed, but reinforcements under Fabrizio
Maramaldo having arrived, the Florentines were almost annihil-
ated and Ferrucdo was wounded and captured. Maramaldo
out of personal spite despatched the wounded man with his own
hand. This defeat sealed the fate of the republic, and nine days
later Florence surrendered. Ferrucdo was one of the great
soldiers of the age, and his enterprise is the finest episode of the
last days of the Florentine republic See also under Florence
and Medici.
Bibliography.— F. Sassetti, Vita di Francesco ?tmuc\ t written
in the x6th century and published in the Archioio storico, vol iv.
pt. ii. (Florence, 1853), with an introduction by C. Monzani: E.
Aloisi. La Battaglia di Cavinana (Bologna. 1881); cf. P. Villari's
criticism of the latter work, " Femiccio e Maramaldo," in hit Arte,
storia, t fitosofia (Florence. 1884) ; Cino Capponi, Storia deila r<-
pubblka di Firenu. vol. ii. (Florence, 1875).
FERRULE, a small metal cap or ring used for holding parts
of.a rod, &c, together, and for giving strength to weakened
materials,, or especially, when attached to the end of a stick,
umbrella, &c, for preventing wearing or splitting. The word
is properly vcrrel or verril, in which form it was used till the
18th century, and is derived through the 0. Fr. virdk. modern
$9°
ftro/t, from a Latin diminutive tiriolo of tiriae, bracelets. The
form in which the word is now known is due to the influence
of Latin ferrum, iron. " Ferrule " must be distinguished from
" ferule " or •' ferula," properly the Latin name of the " giant
fennel." From the use of the sulk of this plant as a cane or
rod for punishment, comes the application of the word to many
instruments used in chastisement, more particularly a short
flat piece of wood or leather shaped somewhat like the sole of a
boot, and applied to the palms of the hand. It is the common
form of disciplinary instrument in Roman Catholic schools;
the pain inflicted is exceedingly sharp and immediate, but the
effects are momentary and leave no chance for any dangerous
results. The word is sometimes applied to the ordinary cane as
used by schoolmasters.
PERRY, JULES FRANCOIS CAMILLE (1832-1803), French
statesman, was born at Saint Di6 (Vosgcs) on the 5th of April
1832. He studied law, and was called to the bar at Paris, but
soon went into politics, contributing to various newspapers,
particularly to the Temps. He attacked the Empire with great
violence, directing his opposition especially against Baron
Haussmann, prefect of the Seine. Elected republican deputy
for Paris in i860, he protested against the declaration of war
with Germany, and on the 6th of September 1870 was appointed
prefect of the Seine by the government of national defence.
In this position be had the difficult task of administering Paris
during the siege, and after the Commune was obliged to resign
(5th of June 1871). From 1872-1873 he was sent by Thiers
as minister to Athens, but returned to the chamber as deputy
for the Vosges, and became one of I he leaders of the republican
party. When the first republican ministry was formed under
W. H. Waddington on the 4ih of February 1870, he was one of
its members, and continued in the ministry until the 30th of
March 1885, except for two short interruptions (from the 10th of
November 1881 to the 30th of January 1882, and from the 29th
of July 1882 to the 21st of February 1883), first as minister
of education and then as minister of foreign affairs. He was
twice premier (1S80-1881 and 1883-1885). Two important
works are associated with his administration, the non-clerical
organization of public education, and the beginning of the
colonial expansion of France. Following the republican
programme he proposed to destroy the influence of the clergy
in the university. He reorganized the committee of public
education (law of the 27th of February 1880), and proposed
a regulation for the conferring of university degrees, which,
though rejected, aroused violent polemics because the 7th
article took away from the unauthorized religious orders the right
to teach. He finally succeeded in passing the great law of the
28th of March 1882, which made primary education in France
free, non-clerical and obligatory. In higher education the
number of professors doubled under his ministry. After the
military defeat of France by Germany in 1870, he formed the
idea of acquiring a great colonial empire, not to colonize it, but
for the sake of economic exploitation. He directed the negotia-
tions which led to the establishment of a French protectorate
in Tunis (1881), prepared the treaty of the 17th of December
1885 for the occupation of Madagascar; directed the exploration
of the Congo and of the Niger region; and above all he organized
the conquest of Indo-China. The excitement caused at Paris
by an unimportant reverse of the French troops at Lang-son
caused his downfall (30th of March 1885), but the treaty of
peace with China (oth of June 1885) was his work. He still
remained an influential member of the moderate republican
party, and directed the opposition to General Boulangcr. After
the resignation of President Grevy (2nd of December 1887),
he was a candidate for the presidency of the republic, but the
radicals refused to support him, and he withdrew in favour of
Sadi Carnot. The violent polemics aroused against him at this
time caused a madman to attack him with a revolver, and he
died from the wound, on the 17th of March 1803. The chamber
of deputies voted him a stale funeral.
See Edg. Zcvort, Uistoirc dt la Iroisiime RlpuHiQu; A. Rambaud,
JvUs Ftrry (Paris, 1903).
FERRY, JULES— FERSEN, F. A.
FERRY (from the same root as that of the verb " to fare,"
to journey or travel, common to Teutonic languages, cf. Gcr.
jakren: it is connected with the root of Gr. r6pos, way, and
Lai. portorc, to carry), a place where boats ply regularly across
a river or arm of the sea for the conveyance of goods and persons.
The word is also applied to the boats employed (ferry boats).
In a car-ferry or train-ferry railway cars or complete trains are
conveyed across a piece of water in vessels which have railway
lines hid on their decks, so that the vehicles run on and off them
on their own wheels. In law the right of ferrying persons or
goods across a particular river or strah, and of exacting a reason-
able toll for the service, belongs, like the right of fair and market,
to the class of rights known as franchises. Its origin must be
by statute, royal grant, or prescription. It is wholly unconnected
with the ownership or occupation of land, so that the owner
of the ferry need not be proprietor of the soil on cither side of
the water over which the right is exercised. He is bound to
maintain safe and suitable boats ready for the use of the public,
and to employ fit persons as ferrymen. As a correlative of
this duty he has a right of action, not only against those who
evade or refuse payment of toll when it is due, but also against
those who disturb his franchise by setting up a new ferry, so
as to diminish his custom, unless a change of circumstances, such
as an increase of population near the ferry, justify other means
of passage, whether of the same kind or not. See also Water
Rights.
FERSEN, FREDRIK AXEL, Count von (1710-1704).
Swedish politician, was a son of Lieutenaat-General Hans
Rcinhold Ferscn and entered the Swedish Life Guards in 1740,
and from 1743 to 1748 was in the French service (R*yai-S*itUis) t
where he rose to the rank of brigadier. In the Seven Years' War
Ferscn distinguished himself during the operations round Use-
dom and Wollin (1759), when he inflicted serious loss on the
Prussians. But it is as a politician that he is best known. At
the diet of 1755-1756 he was elected landtmarskalk, or manual
of the diet, and from henceforth, till the revolution of 1; 72,
led the Hat party (see Sweden: History). In 1756 he defca cd
the projects of the court for increasing the royal power; I ut,
after the disasters of the Seven Years' War, gravitated lows ids
the court again and contributed, by his energy and eloquence, to
uphold the tottering Hats for several years. On the accession of
the Caps to power in 1766, Ferscn assisted the court in its
struggle with them by refusing to employ the Guards to keep
order in the capital when King Adolphus Frederick, driven vo
desperation by the demands of the Caps, publicly abdicated, and
a seven days' interregnum ensued. At the ensuing diet of 1769,
when the Hats returned to power, Ferscn was again elected
marshal of the diet; but he made no attempt to redeem his
pledges to the crown prince Gustavus, as to a very necessary
reform of the constitution, which he had made before the elec-
tions, and thus involuntarily contributed to the subsequent
establishment of absolutism. When Gustavus III. ascended
the throne in 1772, and attempted to reconcile the two factions
by a composition which aimed at dividing all political power
between them, Ferscn said he despaired of bringing back, in a
moment, to the path of virtue and patriotism a people who
had been running riot for more than half a century in the wilder-
ness of political licence and corruption. Nevertheless he con-
sented to open negotiations with the Caps, and was the principal
Hat representative on the abortive composition committee.
During the revolution of August 1772, Ferscn remained a passive
spectator of the overthrow of the constitution, and was one of
the first whom Gustavus summoned to his side after his triumph.
Yet his relations with the king were never cordial. The old
party-leader could never forget that he had once been a power
in the state, and it is evident, from his Histarhka Skriftcr, how
jealous he was of Gustavus's personal qualities. There was a
slight collision between them as early as the diet of 1778; but
at the diet of 1786 Fcrsen boldly led the opposition against the
king's financial measures (see Gustavus III.) which were conse-
quently rejected; while in private interviews, if his own account
of them is to be trusted, he addressed his sovereign with
FERSEN, H. A.
291
outrageous insolence. At the met of 1789 Fersen marshaHed the
nobility around him for a combat 6 entrance against the throne
and that, too, at a time when Sweden was involved in two
dangerous foreign wars, and national unity was absolutely
indispensable. This tactical blunder cost him his popularity
and materially assisted the secret operations of the king. Ob-
struction was Fersen's chief weapon, and he continued to post-
pone the granting of subsidies by the house of nobles for some
weeks. But after frequent stormy scenes in the diet, which were
only prevented from becoming melees by Fersen's moderation,
or hesitation, at the critical moment, he and twenty of his friends
of the nobility were arrested (17th February 1789) and the
opposition collapsed. Fersen was speedily released, but hence-
forth kept aloof from politics, surviving the king two years.
He was a man of great natural talent, with an imposing presence,
and he always bore himself like the aristocrat he was. But his
haughtiness and love of power are undeniable, and he was perhaps
too great a party-leader to be a great statesman. Yet for seven-
teen years, with very brief intervals, he controlled the destinies
of Sweden, and his influence in France was for some time pretty
considerable. His H isttri ska Skrifler, which are a record of
Swedish history, mainly autobiographical, during the greater
part of the 18th century, is excellent as literature, but somewhat
unreliable as an historical document, especially in the later
parts.
See C. G. MaTmstrtm, Sterlges poNtiska Tlislcrui (Stockholm,
1855-1865): R. N. Bain, CuUavus III. (London. 1805): C. T.
Odhner, Sveriget polilisha Histeria under Cnstaf lll.s Reterint
(Stockholm. 1885. &c); F. A. Fersen, Itolaruto Shifter (Stockholm,
1867-1872). (R.N.B.)
FERSEN, HAHS AZELr Count von (1755-1810), Swedish
statesman, was carefully educated at borne, at the Carolinum
at Brunswick and at Turin. In 1779 he entered the French
military service {Royal-Botitrc), accompanied General Rocham-
beau to America as his adjutant, distinguished himself during
the war with England, notably at the siege of Yorktown, 1781,
and in 1785 was promoted to be colonel proprUiaire of the
regiment Royal-Suidois. The young nobleman was, from the
first, a prime favourite at the French court, owing, partly to
the recollection of his father's devotion to France, but princi-
pally because of his own amiable and brilliant qualities. The
queen, Marie Antoinette, was especially attracted by the grace
and wit of le beau Fersen, who had inherited his full share
of the striking handsomeness which was hereditary in the
family.
It is possible that Fersen would have spent most of his life at
Versailles, but for a hint from his own sovereign, then at Pisa,
that he desired him to join his suite. He accompanied Gustavus
III. in his Italian tour and returned home with him in 1784.
When the war with Russia broke out, in 1788, Fersen accom-
panied his regiment to Finland, but in the autumn of the same
year was sent to France, where the political horizon was already
darkening. It was necessary for Gustavus to have an agent
thoroughly in the confidence of the French royal family, and, at
the same time, sufficiently able and audacious to help them in
their desperate straits, especially as he had lost all confidence
in his accredited minister, the baron de Stael. With his usual
acumen, he fixed upon Fersen, who was at his post early in 1 700.
Before the end of the year he was forced to admit that the cause
of the French monarchy was hopeless to long as the king and
queen of Fiance were nothing bat captives in their own capital,
at the mercy of an irresponsible mob. He took a leading part
In the flight to Varennes. He found most of the requisite funds
at the last moment. He ordered the construction of the famous
carriage for six, in the name of the baroness von Korff, and kept
it in his hotel grounds, rue Matignon, that all Paris might get
accustomed to I he sight of it. He was t he coachman of the JS acre
which drove the royal family from the Carrousel to the Porte
Saint-Martin. He accompanied them to Bondy, the first stage
of their journey.
In August 1 701, Fersen was sent to Vienna to induce the em-
peror Leopold to accede to a new coalition against revolutionary
France, but he soon came to the conclusion that the Austrian
court meant to do nothing at all. At his own request, therefore,
he was transferred to Brussels, where he could be of more service
to the queen of France. In February 179a, at his own
mortal peril, he once more succeeded in reaching Paris with
counterfeit credentials as minister plenipotentiary to Portugal.
On the 13th he arrived, and the same evening contrived to steal
an interview with the queen unobserved. On the following day
he was with the royal family from six o'clock in the evening till
six o'clock the next morning, and convinced himself that a second
flight was physically impossible. On the afternoon of the sxst
he succeeded in paying a third visit to the Tuilcrics, stayed
there till midnight and succeeded, with great difficulty, in
regaining Brussels on the 27th. This perilous expedition, a
monumental instance of courage and loyalty, had no substantial
result. In 1797 Fersen was sent to the congress of Raslatt as
the Swedish delegate, but in consequence of a protest from the
French government, was not permitted to take part in it.
During the regency of the duke of Sudermanta (1792-1796)
Fersen, Okc all the other Gustavians, was in iisgracc; but, on
Gustavus IV. attaining his majority in 1796, he was welcomed
back to court with open arms, and reinstated in all his offices
and dignities. In 1801 he was appointed Riksmarskalk (* carl-
marshal). On the outbreak of the war with Napoleon, Fersen
accompanied Gustavus IV. to Germany to assist him in gaining
fresh allies. He prevented Gustavus from invading Prussia in
revenge for the refusal of the king of Prussia to declare war
against France, and during the rest of the reign was in semi-
disgrace, though generally a member of the government when
the king was abroad.
Fersen stood quite aloof from the revolution of 1809. (See
Sweden: History.) His sympathies were entirely with Prince
Gustavus, son of the unfortunate Gustavus IV., and he was
generally credited with the desire to see him king. When the
newly elected successor to the throne, the highly popular prince
Christian Augustus of Augustcnburg, died suddenly in Skane
in May 1810, the report spread that he had been poisoned, and
that Fersen and his sister, the countess Piper, were accessories.
The source of this equally absurd and infamous libel has never
been discovered. But it was eagerly taken up by the anti-
Gustavian press, and popular suspicion was especially aroused
by a fable called " The Foxes " directed against the Fersens,
which appeared in Nya Posten. When, then, on the 20th of
June x8io, the prince's body was conveyed to Stockholm, and
Fersen, in his official capacity as Riksmarskalk, received it at the
barrier and led the funeral cortege into the city, his fine carriage
and his splendid robes seemed to the people an open derision
of the general grief. The crowd began to murmur and presently
to fling stones and cry M murderer ! " He sought refuge in a
house in the Riddarhus Square, but the mob rushed after him,
brutally maltreated him and tore his robes to pieces. To quiet
the people and save the unhappy victim, two officers volunteered
to conduct him to the senate house and there place him in arrest.
But he had no sooner mounted the steps leading to the entrance
than the crowd, which had followed him all the way beating him
with sticks and umbrellas, made a rush at him, knocked him down,
and kicked and trampled him to death. This horrible outrage,
which lasted more than an hour, happened, too, in the presence
of numerous troops, drawn up in the Riddarhus Square, who
made not the slightest effort to rescue the Riksmarskalk from
his tormentors. In the circumstances, one must needs adopt
the opinion of Fersen's contemporary. Baron Gustavus Armfelt,
M One is almost tempted to say that the government wanted to
give the people a victim to play with, just as when one throws
something to an irritated wild beast to distract its attention.
The more 1 consider it all, the more I am certain that the mob
bad the least to do with it. . . . But in God's name what were
the troops about? How could such a thing happen in broad
daylight during a procession, when troops and a military escort
were actually present?" The responsibility certainly rests
with the government of Charles XIII., which apparently in«
tended to intimidate the Gustavians by the removal of one of
292
FESCA— FESCH
their principal leaders. ArmfcU escaped in time, so Fersen (ell
the victim.
See R. M. Klinckowstrom. he Comte de Fersen el la cow de France
(Paris, 1877; Eng. ed., London, 1902); Historia om Axel von
Fersens mord (Stockholm, 1844); R. N. Bain, Customs III., vol. ii.
(London, 1895); P. Gaulot, On Ami de la reine (Paris t 1892); F. F.
Custavus III., vol. ii.
\e (Paris. 1892); F. F.
Flach, Crefve Hans Axel von Fersen (Stockholm, 1 896) ; E. Teener,
Custaf Mauritz Armjelt, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1883- 1887). (R. N. B.)
FESCA, FREDERIC ERNEST (1789-1826), German violinist
and composer of instrumental music, was born on the 15th of
February 1 789 at Magdeburg, where he received his early musical
education. He completed his studies at Leipzig under Eberhard
Mailer, and at the early age of fifteen appeared before the public
with several conocrti for the violin, which were received with
general applause, and resulted in his being appointed leading
violinist of the Leipzig orchestra. This position he occupied till
1806, when he became concert- master to the duke of Oldenburg.
In 1808 he was appointed solo- violinist by King Jerome of West-
phalia at Casscl, and there he remained till the end of the French
occupation (1814), when he went to Vienna, and soon afterwards
to Carlsruhc, having been appointed concert-master to the grand-
duke of Baden. His failing health prevented him from enjoying
the numerous and well-deserved triumphs he owed to his art,
and in 1826 he died of consumption at the early age of thirty-
seven. As a virtuoso Fcsca ranks amongst the best masters
of the German school of violinists, the school subsequently of
Spohr and of Joachim. Especially as leader of a quartet he is
said to have been unrivalled with regard to classic dignity and
simplicity of style. Amongst his compositions, his quartets for
stringed instruments and other pieces of chamber music are the
most remarkable. His two operas, Canlemira and Omar and Leila,
were less successful, lacking dramatic power and originality.
He also wrote some sacred compositions, and numerous songs
and vocal quartets.
FESCENNIA, an ancient city of Etruria, which is probably
to be placed immediately to the N. of the modern Corchiano,
6 m. N.W. of Civita Castcllana (see £>lerii). The Via Amerina
traverses it. G. Dennis (Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, London,
1 88 j, i. 115 proposed to place it at the Riserva S. Silvcstro,
3 m. E. of Corchiano, nearer the Tiber, where remains of Etruscan
walls exist. At Corchiano itself, however, similar walls may be
traced, and the site is a strong and characteristic one— a triangle
between two deep ravines, with the third (west) side cut off by
a ditch. Here, too, remains of two bridges may be seen, and
several rich tombs have been excavated.
See A. Buglione, " Conte di Monalc," in Romiscke Mitteilungem
(1887), p. 21 seq.
FESCENN1NB VERSES (Fescennina carmine), one of the
earliest kinds of Italian poetry, subsequently developed into
the Satura and the Roman comic drama. Originally sung at
village harvest -home rejoicings, they made their way into the
towns, and became the fashion at religious festivals and private
gatherings — especially weddings, to which in later times they
were practically restricted. They were usually in the Saturnian
metre and took the form of a dialogue, consisting of an inter-
change of extemporaneous raillery. Those who took part in them
wore masks made of the bark of trees. At first harmless and
good-humoured, if somewhat coarse, these songs gradually out-
stripped the bounds of decency; malicious attacks were made
upon both gods and men, and the matter became so serious that
the law intervened and scurrilous personalities were forbidden
by the Twelve Tables (Cicero, De re publico, iv. 10). Specimens
of the Fesccnnincs used at weddings are the Epilhalamium of
Manlius (Catullus, lxi. 122) and the four poems of Claudian in
honour of the marriage of Honorius and Maria; the first, how-
ever, is distinguished by a licentiousness which is absent in the
latter. Ausonius in his Cento nuptial is mentions the Fesccnnincs
of Annianus Faliscus, who lived in the time of Hadrian. Various
derivations have been proposed for Fescennine. According to
Festus, they were introduced from Fesccnnia in Etruria, but
there is no reason to assume that any particular town was
specially devoted to the use of such songs. As an alternative
Fcstus suggests a connexion with Jascinum, cither because the
Fescennina were regarded as a protection against evil i nfl ue nc es
(see Munro, Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus, p. 76) or
because fascinum ( *- phallus), as the symbol of fettility, would
from early times have been naturally associated with harvest
festivals. H. Nettleship, in an article on " The Earliest Italian
Literature " (Journal of Philology, xi. 1882), in support of
Munro's view, translates the expression "verses used by
charmers," assuming a noun fescennus, connected with /as /ari.
The locus dassicus in ancient literature is Horace, Epistles* ii.
1. 139; aee also Virgil, Georgia, iL 385; Tibullus ii. 1. 55; E.
Hoffmann, " Die Fcsccnnincn/' in Rheinisches Museum, li. p. 320
(1896); ait. Latin Literature.
FESCH, JOSEPH (1 763-1839), cardinal, was born at Ajaccio
on the 3rd of January 1763. His father, a Swiss officer in the
service of the Genoese Republic, had married the mother of
Laetitia Bonaparte, after the decease of her first husband.
Fesch therefore stood almost in the relation of an uncle to the
young Bonapartes, and after the death of Lucien Bonaparte,
archdeacon of Ajaccio, he became for a time the protector and
patron of the family. In the year 1789, when the French
Revolution broke out, he was archdeacon of Ajaccio, and, like
the majority of the Corsicans, he felt repugnance for many of
the acts of the French government during that period; in parti-
cular he protested against the application to Corsica of the act
known as the " Civil Constitution of the Clergy " (July 1790).
As provost of the " chapter " in that city he directly felt the
pressure of events; for on the suppression of religious orders
and corporations, he was constrained to retire into private life.
Thereafter he shared the fortunes of the Bonaparte family
in the intrigues and strifes which ensued. Drawn gradually
by that family into espousing the French cause against Paoli
and the Anglophiles, he was forced to leave Corsica and to
proceed with Laetitia and her son to Toulon, in the early part
of the autumn of 1793. Failing to find clerical duties at that
time (the period of the Terror), be entered civil life, and served
in various capacities, until on the appointment of Napoleon
Bonaparte to the command of the French " Army of Italy "
he became a commissary attached to that army.* This part of
his career is obscure and without importance. His fortunes
rose rapidly on the attainment of the dignity of First Consul
by his former charge, Napoleon, after the coup d'ilat of Brumaire
(November 1799). Thereafter, when the restoration of the
Roman Catholic religion was in the mind of the First Consul,
Fesch resumed his clerical vocation and took an active part
in the complex negotiations which led to the signing of the
Concordat with the Holy See on the 15th of July 1801. His
reward came in the prize of the archbishopric of Lyons, on the
duties of which he entered in August 1802. Six months later
he received a still more signal reward for his past services, being
raised to the dignity of cardinal.
In 1804 on the retirement of Cacault from the position of
French ambassador at Rome, Fesch received that important
appointment. He was assisted by Chateaubriand, but soon
sharply differed with him on many questions. Towards the
close of the year 1804 Napoleon entrusted to Fesch the difficult
task of securing the presence of Pope Pius VII. at the forth-
coming coronation of the emperor at Notre Dame, Paris (Dee.
2nd, 1804). His tact in overcoming the reluctance of the pope
to be present at the coronation (it was only eight months after
the execution of the due d'Enghien) received further recognition.
He received the grand cordon of the Legion of Honour, became
grand-almoner of the empire and had a seat in the French
senate. He was to receive further honours. In 1S06 one of the
most influential of the German clerics, Karl von Dalberg, then
prince bishop of Regensburg, chose him to be his coadjutor
and designated him as his successor.
Events, however, now occurred which overclouded his pros-
pects. In the course of the years 1806- 180 7 Napoleon came
into sharp collision with the pope on various matters both
political and religious. Fesch sought in vain to reconcile the
two potentates. Napoleon was inexorable in his demands;
and Pius VIL refused to give way where the discipline and
FESSA— FESSLER
293
vital interests of Che church leaned to be threatened. The
emperor on several occasions sharply rebuked Fetch for what
he thought to be weakness and ingratitude. It is clear, however,
that the cardinal went as far at possible in counselling the
submission of the spiritual to the civil power. For a time he
was not on speaking terms with the pope; and Napoleon re-
called him from Rome.
Affairs came to a crisis in the year 3809, when Napoleon
issued at Vienna the decree of the 17th of May, ordering the
annexation of the papal stales to the French empire. In that
year Napoleon conferred on Fesch the archbishopric of Paris,
but he refused the honour. He, however, consented to take
part in an ecclesiastical commission formed by the emperor
from among the dignitaries of the Gallican Church, but in x8io
the commission was dissolved. The hopes of Fesch with respect
to Regensburg were also damped by an arrangement of the year
1810 whereby Regensburg was absorbed in Bavaria.
In the year x6n the emperor convoked a national council
of Gallican clerics for the discussion of church affairs, and
Fetch was appointed to preside over their deliberations. Here
again, however, be failed to satisfy the inflexible emperor and
was df"nH«"* to his diocese. The friction between uncle and
nephew became more acute in the following year. In June
s8x2, Pius VII. was brought from his first place of detention,
Savons, to Fontainebleau, where he was kept under surveillance
in the hope that he would give way in certain matters relating
to the Concordat and in other clerical affairs. Fesch ventured
to write to the aged pontiff a letter which came into the hands
of the emperor. His anger against Fesch was such that he
stopped the sum of 150,000 florins which had been accorded
to him. The disasters of the years 181 3-1813 brought Napoleon
to treat Pius VII. with more lenity and the position of Fesch
thus became for a time less difficult. On the first abdication
of Napoleon (April nth, 18x4) and the restoration of the Bour-
bons, he, however, retired to Rome where he received a welcome.
The events of the Hundred Days (March-June, 1815) brought
him back to France; he resumed his archiepiscopal duties at
Lyons and was further named a member of the senate. On
the second abdication of the emperor (June a and, 1815) Fesch
retired to Rome, where he spent the rest of his days in dignified
?*■» surrounded by numerous masterpieces of art, many of
which he bequeathed to the city of Lyons. He died at Rome
on the 13th of May 1839.
See J. B. Moxueigneur Lyonnet, Le Cardinal Ptstk (2 vols., Lyons,
1841); Ricard, Le Cardinal Fesch (Paris, 1893); H. Wclschingcr,
Le Pope tt V ember evr (Paris, 1905); F. Masaon, Napoleon tt sa
familU (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).
FESSA, a town and district of Persia in the province of Fan.
The town is situated in a fertile plain in 29 N. and 90 m. from
Shiraz, and has a population of about 5000. The district has
forty villages and extends about 40 m. north-south from Rum's
to NassXrabad and 16 m. east-west from Vastlabad to Deh
Dastch (Dastajah); it produces much grain, dates, tobacco,
opium and good fruit.
FESSENDEN. WILLIAM PITT (1806-1869), American states-
man and financier, was born in Boscawen, New Hampshire,
on the 16th of October 1806. After graduating at Bowdoin
College in 18*3, he studied law, and in 1827 was admitted to
the bar, eventually settling in Portland, Maine, where for two
years he was associated in practice with his rather, Samuel
Fessenden (1784-1869), a prominent lawyer and anti-slavery
leader. In 1832 and in 1840 Fessenden was a representative in
the Maine legislature, and in 1841-1843 was a Whig member of
the national House of Representatives. When his term in this
capacity was over, he devoted himself unremittingly and with
great success to the law. He became well known, also, as an
eloquent advocate of slavery restriction. In 1845-1846 and
1S53-1854 he again served in the state House of Representatives,
and in 1854 was chosen by the combined votes of Whigs
and Anti-Slavery Democrats to the United States Senate.
Within a fortnight after taking his seat be delivered a speech
in opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which at once
made him a force in Che congressional anti«tUvery contest.
From ihen on he was one of the most eloquent and frequent
debaters among his colleagues, and in 1859, almost without
opposition, he was re-elected to the Senate as a member of the
Republican party, in the organisation of which he had taken
an influential part. He was a delegate in 1861 to the Peace
Congress, but after the actual outbreak of hostilities he insisted
that the war should be prosecuted vigorously. As chairman
of the Senate Committee on Finance, his services were second
in value only to those of President Lincoln and Secretary Salmon
P. Chase in efforts to provide funds for the defence of the Union;
and in July 1864 Fessenden succeeded Chase as secretary of
the treasury. The finances of the country in the early summer
of 1864 were in a critical condition; a few days before leaving
office Secretary Chase had been compelled to withdraw from
the market $32,000,000 of 6% bonds, on account of the lack
of acceptable bids; gold had reached 285 and was fluctuating
between 225 and 250, while the value of the paper dollar had
sunk as low as 34 cents. It was Secretary Fcssenden's policy
to avoid a further increase of the circulating medium, and to
redeem or consolidate the temporary obligations outstanding.
In spite of powerful pressure the paper currency was not increased
a dollar during his tenure of the office. As the sales of bonds and
treasury notes were not sufficient for the needs of the Treasury,
interest-bearing certificates of indebtedness were issued to
cover the deficits; but when these began to depreciate the
secretary, following the example of his predecessors, engaged
the services of the Philadelphia banker Jay Cooke (q.v.) and
secured the consent of Congress to raise the balance of the
$400,000,000 loan authorized on the 30th of June 1864 by the
sale of the so-called " seven-thirty " treasury notes (i.e. notes
bearing interest at 7-3% payable in currency in three years or
convertible at the option of the holder into 6% 5-20 year gold
bonds). Through Cooke's activities the sales became enormous;
the notes, issued in denominations as low as S50, appealed to
the patriotic impulses of the people who could not subscribe
for bonds of a higher denomination. In the spring of 1865
Congress authorized an additional loan of $600,000,000 to be
raised in the same manner, and for the first time in four years
the Treasury was able to meet all its obligations. After thus
securing ample funds for the enormous expenditures of the
war, Fessenden resigned -the treasury portfolio in March 1865,
and again took his seat in the Senate, serving till his death.
In the Senate he again became chairman of the finance com-
mittee, and also of the joint committee on reconstruction.
He was the author of the report of this last committee (:866),
in which the Congressional plan of reconstruction was set forth
and which has been considered a state paper of remarkable
power and cogency. He was not, however, entirely in accord
with the more radical members of his own party, and this
difference was exemplified in his opposition to the impeachment
of President Johnson and subsequently in his voting for Johnson's
acquittal. He bore with calmness the storm of reproach from
his parly associates which followed, and lived to regain the
esteem of those who had attacked him. He died at Portland,
Maine, on the 6th of September 1869.
Sec Francis Fessenden, Life and PuUic Services of WiBiam Pin
Fessenden (2 vols., Boston, -1907).
FESSLER, I0NA2 AURELIUS (1756-1839), Hungarian
ecclesiastic, historian and freemason, was born on the 18th of
May 1756 at the village of Zurany in the county of Moson.
In 1773 he joined the order of Capuchins, and in 1779 was
ordained priest. He had meanwhile continued his classical
and philological studies, and his liberal views brought him into
frequent conflict with his superiors. In 1784, while at the
monastery of Modling, near Vienna, he wrote to the emperor
Joseph H., making suggestions for the better education of the
clergy and drawing his attention to the irregularities of the
monasteries. The searching investigation which followed
raised up against him many implacable enemies. In 1784 he
was appointed professor of Oriental languages and hermeneutics
in the university of Lemberg, when he took the degree of doctor
294
FESTA— FETIS
of divinity; and shortly afterwards he was released from his
monastic vows on the intervention of the emperor. In 1788 he
brought out his tragedy of Sidney, an cxposi of the tyranny of
James II. and of the fanaticism of the papists in England. This
was attacked so violently as profane and revolutionary that he
was compelled to resign his office and seek refuge in Silesia.
In Breslau he met with a cordial reception from G. W. Korn
the publisher, and was, moreover, subsequently employed by
the prince of Carolath-Sch&naich as tutor to his sons. In 1701
Fessler was converted to Lutheranism and next year contracted
an unhappy marriage, which was dissolved in 1802, when he
married again. In 1796 he went to Berlin, where he founded
a humanitarian society, and was commissioned by the free-
masons of that city to assist Fichte in reforming the statutes
and ritual of their lodge. He soon after this obtained a govern-
ment appointment in connexion with the newly-acquired
Polish provinces, but in consequence of the battle of Jena (1806)
he lost this office, and remained in very needy circumstances
until 1809, when he was summoned to St Petersburg by Alexander
I., to fill the post of court councillor, and the professorship of
oriental languages and philosophy at the Alexander-Nevski
Academy. This office, however, he was soon obliged to resign,
owing to his alleged atheistic tendencies, but he was subsequently
nominated a member of the legislative commission. In 181 5
he went with his family to Sarepta, where he joined the Moravian -
community and again became strongly orthodox. This cost
him the loss of his salary, but it was restored to him in 181 7.
In November 1820 he was appointed consistorial president of
the evangelical communities at Saratov and subsequently
became chief superintendent of the Lutheran communities in
St Petersburg. Fcsslcr's numerous works are all written in
German. In recognition of his important services to Hungary
as a historian, he was in 1831 elected a corresponding member
of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He died at St Petersburg
on the 15th of December 1839.
Fessler was a voluminous writer, and during his life exercised
great influence; but, with the possible exception of the hisicry
of Hungary, none of his books has any value now. He did not
pretend to any critical treatment of his materials, and most
of his historical works are practically historical novels. He did
much, however, to make the study of history popular. His
most important works are — Die Geschkhlcn der On gam u;:d
ikrer Landsassen (10 vols. Leipzig, 18x5-1825); Marcus
Aurclius (3 vols., Breslau, 1 790-1 792; 3rd edition, 4 vols., 1799);
Aristides and Themistoklcs (2 vols., Berlin, 1792; 3rd edition,
181 8); AUila, Kdnig der Hunnen (Breslau, 1704); Mathias
Corvinus (a vols., Breslau, 1 793-1 794); and Die drei grossen
Kdnige der H ungarn aus dem Arpadischcn Stamme (Breslau,
1808).
See Fessler's RiUkblkke avf seine sicbtigjdkrige PUgerschafl
(Breslau, 1824; 2nd edition, Leipzig, 1851).
TESTA, CONST ANZO (c. 1495-1545), Italian singer and
musical composer, became a member of the Pontifical choir in
Rome in 15x7, and soon afterwards maestro at the Vatican.
His motets and madrigals (the first book of which appeared in
1537) excited Dr Burney's warm praise in his History of Music;
and, among other church music, his Te Detm (published in
1 596) is still sung at important services in Rome. His madrigal,
called in English " Down in a flow'ry vale," is well known.
FESTINIOG (or Ffestiniog), a town of Merionethshire,
North Wales, at the head of the Fesliniog valley, 600 ft. above
the sea, in the midst of rugged scenery, near the stream Dwyryd,
31 m. from Conway. Pop. of urban district (ioox), 1 1,43 5-
There are many large slate quarries in this parish, especially
at Blaenau Festiniog, the junction of three railways, London &
North Western, Great Western and Festiniog, a narrow-gauge
line between Portmadoc and Dutfws. This light railway runs
at a considerable elevation (some 700 ft.), commanding a view
across the valley and lake of Tan y Bwlth. Lord Lyttelton's
letter to Mr Bower is a well-known panegyric on Festiniog.
Thousands of workmen arc employed in the slate quarries.
The Cynfaei falls are famous. Near are Bcddau gwyr Ardudvry
(the graves of the men of Ardudwy), memorials of a fight to
recover women of the Clwyd valley from the men of Ardudwy.
Near, loo, is a rock named " Hugh Lloyd's pulpit " (Lloyd lived
in the time of Charles I., Cromwell and Charles II.).
FESTOON (from Ft.Jeslon, Ital. festone, from a Late Lat./ofe,
originally a " festal garland," Lat. Jesium, feast), * wreath or
garland, and so in architecture a conventional arrangement of
flowers, foliage or fruit bound together and suspended by ribbons,
either from a decorated knot, or held in the mouths of lions,
or suspended across the bank of bulls' heads as in the Temple
of Vesta at Ti voli. The " motif " is sometimes known as a " swag."
It was largely employed both by the Greeks and Romans and
formed the principal decoration of altars, friezes and pands.
The ends of the ribbons are sometimes formed into bows or
twisted curves; when in addition a group of foliage or flowers
is suspended it is called a " drop." Its origin is probably dae
to the representation in stone of the garlands of natural flowers,
&c, which were hung up over an entrance doorway on fete days,
or suspended round the altar.
FESTUS (? Rurus or Ruftus), one of the Roman writers of
breviaria (epitomes of Roman history). The reference to the
defeat of the Goths at Noviodunum (a.d. 369) by the emperor
Valens, and the fact that the author is unaware of the constitution
of Valcntia as a province (which took place in the same year)
are sufficient indication to fix the date of composition. Mommsen
identifies the author with Rufius Festus, proconsul of Achaea
(366), and both with Rufius Festus Avienus (9.*.), the translator
of Aratus. But the absence of the name Rufius in the best MSS.
is against this. Others take him to be Festus of Tridentum,
magister memoriae (secretary) to Valens and proconsul of Asia,
where he was sent to punish those implicated in the conspiracy
of Thcodorus, a commission which he executed with such
merciless severity that his name became a byword. The work
itself (Bretiarium return gestarum populi Ronusni) is divided
into two parts— one geographical, the other historical The
chief authorities used are Livy, Eutropius and Floras. It is
extremely meagre, but the fact that the last part is based on the
writer's personal recollections makes it of some value for the
history of the 4th century.
Editions by W. Fdrster (Vienna, 1873) and C. Wagener (Prague,
1886); see also R. Jacobi, De Festi breviarH fontibus (BontK 1874),
and H. Peter, Die geschickUieke LiU. uber die rtmische Kaixencil, ii.
t*33 (1897), where the epitomes of Festus, Aurclius Victor and
utropius are compared.
FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPOUS, Roman grammarian, probably
flourished in the 2nd century aj>. He made an epitome of the
celebrated work De verborum tignificatu, a valuable treatise
alphabetically arranged, written by M. Verrius Flaocus, a
frcedman and celebrated grammarian who flourished in the
reign of Augustus. Festus gives the etymology as well as the
meaning of every word; and his work throws considerable light
on the language, mythology and antiquities of ancient Rome.
He made a few alterations, and inserted some critical remarks
of his own. He also omitted such ancient Latin words as had
long been obsolete ; these be discussed in a separate work now lost,
entitled Priscorum verborum cum exemplis. Of Flaccus's work
only a few.fragmcnts remain, and of Festus's epitome only one
original copy is in existence. This MS., the Codex Festi Farne-
sianus at Naples, only contains the second half of the work
(M-V) and that not in a perfect condition. It has been published
in facsimile by Thewrewk de Ponor (1890). At the close of
the 8th century Paulus Diaconus abridged the abridgment.
From his work and the solitary copy of the original attempts
have been made with the aid of conjecture to reconstruct the
treatise of Festus.
Of the early editions the best are those of T. Scatiger (1565) and
Fulvius Ureinus (1581); in modern times, those of C. 0. Mailer
O839. reprinted 1880} and de Ponor (1889); see J. E. Sandys,
History of Classical Scholarship, vol. i. (1906).
F&ns, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1 784-1871), Belgian composer
and writer on. music, was born at Mons in Belgium on the 25th
of March 1784, and was trained as a musician by his father, who
Mowed the same calling. His talent for composition manifested
FETISHISM
295
itself at the age of seven, and at nine years old he was in organist
at Sainte-Waudru. In 1800 he went to Paris and completed his
studies at the conservatoire under such masters as Boietdieu,
Rejr and Fradher. In 1806 he undertook the revision of the
Roman liturgical chants in the hope of discovering and estab-
lishing their original form. In this year he married, the grand*
daughter of the Chevalier de Keralio, and also began his
Bio%raphie unnerseBe des rnnsidens, the most important of his
works, which did not appear until 1634. In iSat he was
appointed professor at the conservatoire. In 1827 be founded
the Revue musical*, the first serious paper in France devoted
exclusively to musical matters. Feds remained in the French
capital till in 1833, at the request of Leopold I., he became
director of the conservatoire of Brussels and the king's chapel-
master. He also was the founder, and, till bis death, the con-
ductor of the celebrated concerts attached to the conservatoire
of Brussels, and he inaugurated a free series of lectures on
musical history and philosophy. He produced a large quantity
of original compositions, from the opera and the oratorio down
to the simple chanson. But all these are doomed to oblivion.
Although not without traces of scholars h ip and technical ability,'
they show total absence of genius. More important are his
writings on musk. They are partly historical, such as the
Cnriosilis hisloriquesde la musique (Paris, 1850), and the Histoire
unmrseUe de musique (Paris, 1869-1876); partly theoretical,
such as the MUhode des mithodes de piano (Paris, 1837), written
in conjunction with Moschcles. F6tis died at Brussels on. the
26th of March 1871. His valuable library was purchased by
the Belgian government and presented to the Brussels con-
servatoire, His work as a musical historian was prodigious
in quantity, and, in spite of many inaccuracies and some pre-
judice revealed in it, there can be no question as to its value for
th e stud ent.
FETISHISM* an ill-defined term, used in many different
senses: (a) the worship of inanimate objects, often regarded
as peculiarly African; (b) negro religion in general; (e) the
worship of inanimate objects conceived as the residence of spirits
not inseparably bound up with, nor originally connected with,
such objects; (ci) the doctrine of spirits embodied in, or attached
to, or conveying influence through, certain material objects
(Tylor); (e) the use of charms, which are not worshipped, but
derive their magical power from a god or spirit; (J) the use as
charms of objects regarded as magically potent in themselves.
A further extension is given by some writers, who use the term
as synonymous with the religions of primitive peoples, including
under it not only the worship of inanimate objects, such as the
sun, moon or stars, but even such phases of primitive philosophy
as totemism. Comt.e applied the term to denominate the view
of nature more commonly termed animism.
Derivation.— The word fetish (or fetich) was first used in
connexion with Africa by the Portuguese discoverers of the last
half of the 15th century; relics of saints, rosaries and images
were then abundant all over Europe and were regarded as
possessing magical virtue; they were termed by the Portuguese
feiticos (t*. charms). Early voyagers to West Africa applied
this term to the wooden figures, stones, &c, regarded as the
temporary residence of gods or spirits, and to charms. There
is no reason to suppose that the word fetiico was applied either to
an animal or to the local spirit of a river, hill or forest. Peitico
is sometimes interpreted to mean artificial, made by man, but
the original sense is more probably " magically active or artful."
The word was probably brought into general use by C.de Brosses,
author of Du culte des dieux fUiches (1760), but it is frequently
used by W. Bosnian in his Description of Guinea (1705), in the
sense of " the fake god, Bossura" 01 ." Bohsum," properly a
tutelary deity of an individual.
Definition. — The term fetish is commonly understood to mean
the worship of or respect for material, inanimate objects, con-
ceived as magically active from a virtue inherent in them,
temporarily or permanently, which does not arise from the fact
that a god or spirit is believed to reside in them or communicate
virtue to them. Taken in this sense fetishism is probably a
mark of decadence. There k no evidence of any such belief in
Africa or elsewhere among primitive peoples. It is only after
a certain grade of culture has-been attained that the belief in
luck appears; the fetish is essentially a mascot or object carried
for luck.
Ordinary Usage. — In the sense in which Dr Tylor uses the
term the fetish is (1) a " god-house " or (2) a charm derived from
a tutelary deity or spirit, and magically active in virtue of its
association with such deity or spirit. In the first of these senses
the word is applied to objects ranging from the unworked stone
to the pot or the wooden figure, and is thus hardly distinguishable
from idolatry, (a) The bohsum or tutelary deity of a particular
section of the community is derived from the local gods through
the priests by the performance of a certain series of rites. The
priest indicates into what object the bohsum will enter and
proceeds to the abode of the local god to procure the object in
question. After making an offering the object is carried to an
appropriate spot and a " fetish " tree set up as a shade for it,
which is sacred so long as the bohsum remains beneath it. The
fall of the tree is believed to mark the departure of the spirit.
A bohsum may also be procured through a dream; but in this
case, too, it is necessary to apply to the priest to decide whether
the dream was veridical, (b) The suhmon or tutelary deity of
an individual is not an object selected at random to be the
residence of the spirit. It is only procurable at the residence
of a Sasabonsum, a malicious non-human being. Various
ceremonies arc performed, and a spirit connected with the
Sasabonsum is finally asked to enter an object: This is then
kept for three days; if no good fortune results it is concluded
either that the spirit did not enter the object selected, or that
it Is disinclined to extend its protection. In either case the
ceremonies must be commenced afresh. Otherwise offerings and
even human sacrifices in exceptional cases are made to the suhmon.
It is commonly believed that the negro claims the power of
coercing his tutelary deity. This is denied by Colonel Ellis.
It is certain that coercion of deities is not unknown, but further
evidence is required that the negro uses it when his deity is
refractory.
The suhmon can, it is believed, communicate a part of has
powers to various objects in which he does not dwell; these are
also termed suhmon by the natives and may have given rise to
the belief that the practices commonly termed fetishism are not
animistic. These charms are many in number; offerings of
food and drink arc made, i.e. to the portion of the power of the
suhmon which resides in them. These charms can only be made
by the possessor of the suhmon.
On the Guinea Coast the spirit implanted in the object is
usually, if not invariably, non-human. Farther south on the
Congo the "fetish" is inhabited by human souls also. The
priest goes into the forest and cuts an image; when a party
enters a wood for this purpose they. may not mention the name
of any living being unless they wish him to die and his soul to
enter t he fetish. The right person having been selected, his name
is mentioned; and he is believed to die within ten days, his
soul passing into the nhissi. It isinto these figures that the nails
are driven, in order to procure the vengeance of the indwelling
spirit on some enemy: '
In many cases the fetish spirit, is believed to leave the " god-
house " and pass for the -time being into the body of the priest,
who manifests the phenomena of possession (?.«.). It is a
common error to suppose that the whole of African religion is
embraced in the practices connected with these tutelary deities;
so far from this being the case, belief in higher gods, not neces-
sarily accompanied with worship or propitiation, is common
in many parts of Africa, and there is no reason to suppose that
it had been derived in every case, perhaps not in any case, from
Christian or Mahommedan missionaries.
See A B. Ellis, Tshi-speaking Peoples, chs. vfi., vui. and xtt.\
Waits, Anthropologic det Naturvolher, ii. 174: R. E. Dennett in
Folklore, vol xvi.; R. H. Nassau, Fetickism in West Africa (too*);
also Tylor. Primitive Culture, it. 143, and M. H. Kineslcy, West
African Studies (2nd ed.. X901), where the term is used in a more
extended sense. (N.W.TJ
296
FETTERCAIRN— FEUCHTERSLEBEN
FBTTBRCAIRN, a burgh of barony of Kincardineshire,
Scotland, 4 J m. N.W. of Laurencekirk. Pop. of parish (1001)
1300. The chief structures include a public hall, library and
reading-room, and the arch built to commemorate the visit
of Queen Victoria in x 861. The most interesting relic, however,
is the market cross, which originally belonged to the extinct
town of Kincardine. To the S.W. is Balbegno Castle, dating
from 1509, and planned on a scale that threatened to ruin its
projector. It contains a lofty hall of fine proportions. Two
miles N. is Fasque, the estate of the Gladstones, which was
acquired in 1831 by Sir John Gladstone (1764-1851), the father
of W. £. Gladstone. The castle, which stands in beautiful
grounds, was built in 1800. Sir John Gladstone's tomb is in the
Episcopal church of St Andrew, which he erected and endowed.
In the immediate vicinity are the ruins of the royal castle of
Kincardine, where, according to tradition, Kenneth III. was
assassinated in 1005, although he is more generally said to have
been slain in battle at Monzievaird, near Crieff in Perthshire.
FETTERS AND HANDCUFFS, instruments for securing the
feet and hands of prisoners under arrest, or as a means of punish-
ment. The old names were manacles, shackbolts or shackles,
gyves and swivels. Until within recent times handcuffs were of
two kinds, the figure-8 ones which confined the hands close
together either in front or behind the prisoner, or the rings from
the wrists were connected by a short chain much on the model
of the handcuffs in use by the police forces of to-day. Much
improvement has been made in handcuffs of late. They are much
lighter and they are adjustable, fitting any wrist, and thus the
'one pair will serve a police officer for any prisoner. For the
removal of gangs of convicts an arrangement of handcuffs con-
nected by a light chain is used, the chain running through a ring
on each fetter and made fast at both ends by what are known
as end-locks. Several recently invented appliances arc used as
handcuffs, e.g. snaps, nippers, twisters. They differ from
handcuffs in being intended for one wrist only, the other portion
being held by the captor. In the snap the smaller circlet is
snapped to on the prisoner's wrist. The nippers can be instantly
fastened on the wrist. The twister, not now used in England as
being liable to injure prisoners seriously, is a chain attached to
two handles; the chain is put round the wrist and the two
handles twisted till the chain is tight enough.
Leg-irons are anklets of steel connected by light chains long
enough to permit of the wearer walking with short steps. An
obsolete form was an anklet and chain to the end of which was
attached a heavy weight, usually a round shot. The Spanish
used to secure prisoners in bilboes, shackles round the ankles
secured by a long bar of iron. This form of leg-iron was adopted
in England, and was much employed in the services during the
17 th and 1 8th centuries. An ancient example is preserved in
the Tower of London. The French marine still use a kind of
leg-iron of the bilbo type.
FEU, in Scotland, the commonest mode of land tenure. The
word is the Scots variant of " fee " {q.v.). The relics of the
feudal system still dominate Scots conveyancing. That system
has recognized as many as seven forms of tenure— ward, socage,
mortification, feu, blench, burgage, booking. Ward, the original
military holding, was abolished in 1747 (20 G. II. c. ao), as an
effect of the rising of 1745. Socage and mortification have long
since disappeared. Booking is a conveyance peculiar to the
borough of Paisley, but does not differ essentially from feu.
Burgage is the system by which land is held in royal boroughs.
Blench holding is by a nominal payment, as of a penny Scots, or
a red rose, often only to be rendered upon demand. In feu
holding there is a substantial annual payment in money or in
kind in return for the enjoyment of the land. Thecrown is the
first overlord or superior, and land is held of it by crown vassals,
but they in their turn may " feu " their land, as it is called, to
others who become their vassals, whilst they themselves are
mediate overlords or superiors; and this process of subinfeuda-
tion may be repeated to an indefinite extent. The Conveyancing
Act of 1874 renders any clause in a disposition against sub-
infeudation null and void. In England on the other hand, since
1200, when the statute Quia Emplores was passed, sub-infeudt-
tion is impossible, as the new holder simply effaces the grantor,
holding by the same title as the grantor himself. Casualties,
which are a feature of land held in feu, are certain payments
made to the superior, contingent on the happening of certain
events. The most important was the payment of an amount
equal to one year's feu-duty by a new holder, whether heir or
purchaser of the feu. Hie Conveyancing Act of 1874 abolished
casualties in all feus after that date, and power was given to
redeem this burden on feus already existing. If the vassal does
not pay the feu-duty for two years, the superior, among other
remedies, may obtain by legal process a decree of irritancy,
whereupon tinsel or forfeiture of the feu follows. Previously to
r832 only the vassals of the crown had votes in parliamentary
elections for the Scots counties, and this made in favour of sub-
infeudation as against sale outright. In Orkney and Shetland
land is still largely possessed as udal property, a holding derived
or handed down from the time when these islands belonged
to Norway. Such lands may be converted into feus at the will
of the proprietor and held from the crown or Lord Dundas. At
one time the system of conveyancing by which the transfer
of feus was effected was curious and complicated, requiring the
presence of parties on the land itself and the symbolical handing
over of the property, together with the registration of various
documents. But legislation since the middle of the x 9th century
has changed all that. The system of feuing in Scotland, as
contrasted with that of long leaseholds in England, has tended
to secure greater solidity and firmness in the average buildings
of the northern country.
See Erskine's Principles; Bell's Principles; Rankine, Law pf
Landownership in Scotland.
FEUCH&RES, SOPHIE; Baionne db (1705-1840), Anglo-
French adventuress, was born at St Helens, Isle of Wight, in
»795» the daughter of a drunken fisherman named Dawes.
She grew up in the workhouse, went up to London as a servant,
and became the mistress of the due de Bourbon, afterwards
prince de Conde. She was ambitious, and he had her well
educated not only in modern languages but, as her exercise
books— still extant — show, in Greek and Latin. He took her
to Paris and, to prevent scandal and to qualify her to be received
at court, had her married in 1818 to Adricn Victor de Feuche'rcs,
a major in the Royal Guards. The prince provided her dowry,
made her husband his aide-de-camp and a baron. The baroness,
pretty and clever, became a person of consequence at the court
of Louis XVIII. De Feuchercs, however, finally discovered
the relations between his wife and Condi, whom he had been
assured was her father, left her— he obtained a legal separation
in 1827 — and told the king, who thereupon forbade her appear-
ance at court. Thanks to her influence, however, Conde was
induced in 1829 to sign a will bequeathing about ten million
francs to her, and the rest of his estate— more than sixty-six
millions — to the due d'Aumale, fourth son of Louis Philippe.
Again she was in high favour. Charles X. received her at court ,
Talleyrand visited her, her niece married a marquis and her
nephew was made a baron. Conde, wearied by his mistress's
importunities, and but half pleased by the advances made bim
by the government of July, had made up his mind to leave
France secretly. When on the 27th of August 1830 he was
found hanging dead from his window, the baroness was suspected
and an inquiry was held, but the evidence of death being the
result of any crime appearing insufficient, she was not prosecuted.
Hated as she was alike by legitimatists and republicans, life
in Paris was no longer agreeable for her, and she returned to
London, where she died in December 1840.
FBUCHTEBSLBBEN, ERNST, Freiherr voh (1806-1849),
Austrian physician, poet and philosopher, was born in Vienna
on the 29th of April 1806; of an old Saxon noble family. He
attended the " Theresian Academy " in his native city, and in
1825 entered its university as a student of medicine. In 1833
he obtained the degree of doctor of medicine, settled in Vienna as
a practising surgeon, and in 1834 married. The young doctor
kept up his connexion with the university, where he lectured, and
FEUD— FEUDALISM
297
fe 1S44 was Appointed dean of the faculty of medicine. He
cultivated the acquaintance of Franz Grillparzer, Heinrich
Laube, and other intellectual lights of the Viennese world,
interested himself greatly in educational matters, and in 1848,
while refusing the presidency of the ministry of education,
accepted the appointment of under secretary of state in that
department. His health, however, gave way, and he died at
Vienna on the 3rd of September 1849. lie was not only a
clever physician, but a poet of fine aesthetical taste and a
philosopher. Among his medical works may be mentioned: Ober
das Hippokrasucke erste Buck von der Ditit (Vienna, 1835),
Ante und Publicum (Vienna, 1848) and Lekrbuck der UrtUkken
Stdenkunde (1845). His poetical works include CedickU (Stutt.
1836), among which is the well-known beautiful hymn, which
Mendelssohn set to music " Es ist bestimmi in Gotta Rat."
As a philosopher he b best known by his Zur DidteHk der Seek
(Dietetics of the soul] (Vienna, 2838), which attained great
popularity, and the tendency of which, in contrast to Hufeland's
biakrobiotik (On the Art of Prolonging Life), is to show the true
way of rendering life harmonious and lovely. This work had
by 1006 gone into fifty editions. Noteworthy also is his Beitrdge
xur LitUraiur-, Kunst-und Lebenstkeorie (Vienna, 1837-1841), and
an anthology, Gtist der deuisckm Klossiker (Vienna, 1851;
3rd ed. 1865-1866).
His collected works (with the exception of the purely medical ones)
were published in 7 vols, by Fr. Hcbbel (Vienna. 1851-1853). See
M. Neckcr, " Ernst von Feuchtersleben, der Freund Grillpaners,"
ia the Jahrbuch der Grillparzer GcsdUchoft, vol. iil (Vienna, 1893).
FEUD, animosity, hatred, especially a permanent condition of
hostilities between persons, and hence applied to a state of private
warfare between tribes, clans or families, a " vendetta." The word
appears m MkL Eng. as fede, which came through the O. Fr.
from the O. High Ger. fdndo, modern Fekde, The O. Teutonic
faiko, an adjective, the source oi/ekida t gives the O. Eng. fdh,
foe. " Fiend," originally an enemy (cf. Ger. Feind), hence the
enemy of mankind, the devil, and so any evil spirit, is probably
connected with the same source. The word/asV was of Scottish
usage, but in the x6th century took the lormfwdejewd in English.
The New Englisk Dictionary points ont that " feud, fee (LaU
feudum) could not have influenced the change, for it appears
fifty years later than the first instances of foode, &c, and was
only used by writers on feudalism." For the etymology of
" feud " (Jtudum) see Fee, and for its history see Feudalism.
FEUDALISM (from Late LaL feodum or feudum, a fee or
fiel; see Fts). In every case of institutional growth in history
two things are to be clearly distinguished from the beginning
for a correct understanding of the process and its results. One
of these is the change of conditions in the political or social
environment which made growth necessary. The other is the
already existing institutions which began to be transformed to
meet the new needs. In studying the origin and growth of
political feudalism, the distinction is easy to make. The all-
prevailing need of the later Roman and early medieval society
was protection— protection against the sudden attacks of
invading tribes or revolted peasants, against oppressive neigh-
bours, against the unwarranted demands of government officers,
or even against the legal but too heavy exactions of the govern-
ment itself. In the days of the decaying empire and of the
chaotic German settlement, the weak freeman, the small land-
owner, was exposed to attack in almost every relation of life
and on every side. The protection which normally it is the
business of government to furnish he could no longer obtain.
He must seek protection elsewhere wherever he could get it,
and pay the price demanded for it. This is the great social fact —
the failure of government to perform one of its most primary
duties, the necessity of finding some substitute in private life —
extending in greater or less degree through the whole formative
period of feudalism, which explains the transformation of
institutions that brought it into existence. Similar conditions
have produced an organization which may be called feudal, in
various countries, and in widely separated periods of history. I
While these different feudal systems have shown a general |
similarity of organisation, there has been also great variation
in their details, because they have started from different inslitu*
tions and developed in different ways. The feudal system
with which history most concerns itself is that of medieval
western Europe, and it is that which will be here described.
The institutions which the need of protection seised upon
when it first began to turn away from the state were twofold.
They had both long existed in the private, not public,
relations of the Romans, and they had up to this time
shown no tendency to grow. One of them related to
the person, to the man himself, without reference to property,
the other related to land. There are thus distinguished at the
beginning those two great sides of feudalism which remained to
the end of its history more or less distinct, the personal relation
and the land relation. The personal institution needs little
description. It was the Roman patron and client relationship
which bad remained in existence into the days of the empire,
in later times less important perhaps legally than socially, and
which had been reinforced in Gaul by very similar practices in
use among the Celts before their conquest. The description of
this institution which has come down to us from Roman sources
of the days when feudalism was beginning is not so detailed
as we could wish, but we can see plainly enough that it met a
frequent need, that it was called by a new name, the palrocinium,
and that it was firmly enough entrenched in usage to survive
the German conquest, and to be taken up and continued by
the conquerors. In its new use, alike in the later Roman and the
early German state, the landless freeman who could not support
himself went to some powerful man, stated his need, and offered
his services, those proper to a freeman, in return for shelter and
support. This transaction, which was called commendation, gave
rise in the German state to a written contract which related the
facts and provided a penalty for its violation. It created a
relationship of protection and support on one side, and of free
service on the other.
The other institution, relating to land, was that known to the
Roman law as the prccarium, a name derived from one of its
essential features through all its history, the prayer of the
suppliant by which the relationship was begun. The prccarium
was a form of renting land not intended primarily for income,
but for use when the lease was made from friendship for example,
or as a reward, or to secure a debt. Legally its characteristic
feature was that the lessee had no right of any kind against
the grantor. The owner could call in his land and terminate
the relation at any time, for any reason, or for none at alL
Even a definite understanding at the outset that the lease might
be enjoyed to a specified date was no protection. 1 It followed
of course that the heir had no right in the land which his father
held in this way, nor was the heir of the donor bound by his father's
act. The legal character of this transaction is summed up in a
well-known passage in the Digest i—tntcrdictum de prccariis
merito introductum est, quia nulla eo nomine juris civiltt actio
esset, magis enim ad donationes et bcneficU causam, quam ad
negotU contracti spectat precarii conditio. 1 This may be para-
phrased as follows.^— The precarium tenant may employ the
interdict against a third party, because be cannot use the
ordinary civil action, his holding being not a matter of business
but rather of favour and kindness. It should be noted that from
its very beginning the land relationship of feudalism was not
created primarily for the grantor's income, but that it emphasized
in the most striking way his continued ownership.
As used for protection in later Roman days the prccarium
gave rise to what was called the commendation of lands, palro-
cinium fundorum. The poor landowner, likely to lose all that
he had from one kind of oppression or another, went to the great
landowner, his neighbour, whose position gave him immunity
from attack or the power to prevent official abuses, and begged
to be protected. The rich man answered, I can only protect my
own. Of necessity the poor man must surrender to his powerful
neighbour the ownership of his lands, which he then received
back as a precarium— gaining, protection during his lifetime
1 Digest^ xliil 26. 12. * Ibid, xlili. 26. 14, and d. 17.
2$8
FEUDALISM
at the cost of his children, who were left without legal claim and
compelled to make the best terms they could. 1 Applied to this
use the precarium found extensive employment in the last age
of the empire. The government looked on the practice with
great disfavour, because it transferred large areas from the easy
access of the state to an ownership beyond its reach. The laws
repeatedly forbade it under increasing penalties, but clearly
it could not be stopped. The motive was too strong on both
tides—the need of protection on one side, the natural desire to
increase large possessions and means of self-defence on the other.
These practices the Frankish conquerors of Gaul found in
full possession of society when they entered into that province.
They seem to have understood them at once, and, like
much else Roman, to have made them their own with-
out material change. The palrocinium they were made
ready to understand by the existence of a somewhat
similar institution among themselves, the comitates, described
by Tacitus. In this institution the chief of the tribe, or of some
plainly marked division of the tribe, gathered about himself a
band of chosen warriors, who formed a kind of private military
force and body-guard. The special features of the institution
were the strong tic of faith and service which bound the man,
the support and rewards given by the lord, and the pride of
both in the relationship. The palrocinium might well seem, to
the German only a form of the comitalus, but it was a form which
presented certain advantages in his actual situation. The chief
of these was perhaps the fact that it was not confined to king or
tribal chief, but that every noble was able in the Roman practice
to surround himself with his organized private army. Probably
this fact, together with the more general fact of the absorption
in most things of the German in the Roman, accounts for the
substitution of the palrocinium for the comitalus which took
place under the Merovingians.
This change did not occur, however, without some modification
of the Roman customs. The comilatus made contributions of
its own to future feudalism, to some extent to its institutional
side, largely to the ideas and spirit which ruled in it. Probably
the ceremony which grew into feudal homage, and the oath of
fealty, certainly the honourable position of the vassal and his
pride in the relationship, the strong tie which bound lord and
man together, and the idea that faith and service were due on
both sides in equal measure, we may trace to German sources.
But wc must not forget that the origin of the vassal relationship,
as an institution, is to be found on Roman and not on German
soiL The comitalus developed and modified, it did not originate.
Nor was the feudal system established in any sense by the settle-
ment of the comitalus group oh the conquered land. The uniting
of the personal and the land sides of feudalism came long after
the conquest, and in a different way.
To the precarium German institutions offered no close parallel.
The advantages, however, which it afforded were obvious, and
this side of feudalism developed as rapidly after the conquest
as the personal. The new German noble was as eager to extend
the size of his lands and to increase the numbers of his dependants
as the Roman had been. The new German government furnished
no better protection from local violence, nor was it able any more
effectively to check the practices which were creating feudalism;
indeed for a long time it made no attempt to do so. Precarium
and palrocinium easily passed from the Roman empire to the
Frankish kingdom, and became as firmly rooted in the new
society as they had ever been in the old. Up to this point we
have seen only the small landowner and the landless man enter-
ing into these relations. Feudalism could not be established,
however, until the great of the land had adopted them for
themselves, and had begun to enter the clientage of others and
to hold lands by the precarium tenure. The first step towards
this result was easily and quickly taken. The same class con-
tinued to furnish the king's men, and to form his household and
body-guard whether the relation was that of the palrocinium or
the comitalus, and to be made noble by entering into it. It was
later that they became clients of one another, and in part at
1 Salvian, De gub. Dei. v. 8, ed. Halm. p. 62.
least as a result of their adoption of the precarium tenure. la
this latter step the influence of the Church rather than of the king
seems to have been effective. The large estates which pious
intentions had bestowed on the Church it was not allowed to
alienate. It could most easily make them useful to gain the
influence and support which it needed, and to provide for the
public functions which fell to its share, by employing the pre-
carium tenure. On the other side, the great men coveted the
wide estates of bishop and abbot, and were ready without
persuasion to annex portions of them to their own on the easy
terms of this tenure, not always indeed observed by the bolder,
or able to be enforced by the Church. • The employment of the
precarium by the Church seems to have been one of the surest
means by which this form of landholding was carried over
from the Romans to the Frankish period and developed into
new forms. It came to be made by degrees toe subject of
written contract, by which the rights of the holder were more
definitely defined and protected than had been the case in
Roman law. The length of time for which the holding should
last came to be specified, at first for a term of years and then for
life, and some payment to the grantor was provided for, not
pretending to represent the economic value of the land, but only
to serve as a mark of his continued ownership.
These changes characterize the Merovingian age of Frankish
history. That period had practically ended, however, before
these two institutions showed any tendency to join together
as they were joined in later feudalism. Nor had the king up
to that time exerted any apparent influence on the pr oc esses
that were going forward. Grants of land of the Merovingian
kings had carried with them ownership and not a limited right,
and the king's palrocinium had not widened in extent in the
direction of the later vassal relation. It was the advent of the
Carolingian princes and the difficulties which they had to over-
come that carried these institutions a stage further forward.
Making their way up from a position among the nobility to
be the rulers of the land, and finally to supplant the kings, the
Carolingians had especial need of resources from which to
purchase and reward faithful support. This need was greatly in-
creased when the Arab attack on southern Gaul forced them to
transform a large part of the old Frankish foot army into cavalry. 1
The fundamental principle of the Frankish military system, that
the man served at his own expense, was still unchanged. It
had indeed begun to break down under the strain of frequent
and distant campaigns, but it was long before it was changed as
the recognized rule of medieval service. If now, in addition
to his own expenses, the soldier must provide a horse and its
keeping, the system was likely to break down altogether. It
was this problem which led to the next step. To solve it the
early Carolingian princes, especially Charles Mattel, who found
the royal domains exhausted and their own inadequate, grasped
at the land of the Church. Here was enough to endow an army,
if some means could be devised to permit its use. This means
was found in the precarium tenure. Keeping alive, as it did, the
fact of the grantor's ownership, it did not in form deprive the
Church of the land. Recognizing that ownership by a small
payment only, not corresponding to the value of the land, it
left the larger part of the income to meet the need which had
arisen. At the same time undoubtedly the new holder of the
land, if not already the vassal of the prince, was obliged to
become so and to assume an obligation of service with a mounted
force when called upon.* This expedient seems to have solved
the problem. It gave rise to the numerous precariae trrbo regi: t
of the Church records, and to the condemnation of Charles
Mattel in the visions of the clergy to worse difficulties in the
future life than he had overcome in this. The most important
consequences of the expedient, however, were not intended or
perceived at the time. It brought together the two sides of
feudalism, vassalage and benefice, as they were now commonly
called, and from this age their union into what is really a single
• H. Brunner, Zeitsckr. der sav. Stift. fur Rrchtsgesckickte, Germ.
Abth. viii. 1-38 (1887). Also in his fionck ungc »i, 39-74 (1894).
* Sec F. Dahn, Konige der Cermantn, viii. a, 90 n.
FEUDALISM
299
fatttitiition wo rapid; 1 it emphasized military service as an
essential obligation of the vassal; and it spread the vassal
relation between individual proprietors and the sovereign widely
over the state.
In the period that followed, the reign of Charlemagne and the
later Carolingian age, continued necessities, military and civil,
forced the kings to recognise these new institutions more fully,
even when standing in a position between the government
and the subject, intercepting the public duties of the latter.
The incipient feudal baron had not been slow to take advantage
of the break-down of the old German military system. As in
the last days of the Roman empire the poor landowner had found
his only refuge from the exactions of the government in the
protection of the senator, who could in some way obtain exemp-
tions, so the poor Frank could escape the ruinous demands of
military service only by submitting himself and his lands to the
count, who did not hesitate on his side to force such submission.
Charlemagne legislated with vigour against this tendency, trying
to make it easier for the poor freeman to fulfil his military duties
directly to the state, and to forbid the misuse of power by the
rich, but he was not more successful than the Roman government
had been in a like attempt. Finally the king found himself
compelled to recognize existing facts, to lay upon the lord the
duty of producing his men in the field and to allow him to
appear as their commander. This solved the difficulty of military
service apparently, but with decisive consequences. 1 1 completed
the transformation of the army into a vassal army; it com-
pleted the recognition of feudalism by the state, as a legitimate
relation between different ranks of the people; and it recognized
the transformation in a great number of cases of a public duty
into a private obligation.
In the meantime another institution had grown up in this
Franco-Roman society, which probably began and certainly
assisted in another transformation of the same kind. This
is the immunity. Suggested probably by Roman practices,
possibly developed directly from them, it received a great
extension in the Merovingian period, at first and especially in
the interest of the Church, but soon of lay land-holders. By the
grant of an immunity to a proprietor the royal officers, the count
and his representatives, were forbidden to enter his lands to
exercise any public function there. The duties which the count
should perform passed to the proprietor, who now represented
the government for all his tenants free and unfrce. Apparently
no modification of the royal rights was intended by this
arrangement, but the beginning of a great change bad really
been made. The king might still receive the same revenues
and the same, services from the district held by the lord as
formerly, but for their payment a private person in his capacity
as overlord was now responsible. In the course of a long
period characterized by a weak central government, it was
toot difficult to enlarge the rights which the lord thus
obtained, to exclude even the king's personal authority from the
immunity, and to translate the duties and payments which the
tenant had once owed to the state into obligations which he
owed to his lord, even finally into incidents of his tenure. The
most important public function whose transformation into a
private possession was assisted by the growth of the immunity
was the judicial. This process had probably already begun in a
small way in the growth of institutions which belong to the
economic side of feudalism, the organization of agriculture
On the great estates. Even in Roman days the proprietor had
exercised a jurisdiction over the disputes of his unfrce tenants.
Whether this could by its own growth have been extended over
his free tenants and carried so far as to absorb a local court,
like that of the hundred, into private possession, is not certain.
It seems probable that it could. But in any case, the immunity
easily carried the development of private jurisdiction through
these stages. The lord's court took the place of the public
court in civil, and even by degrees in criminal cases. The
plaintiff, even if he were under another lord, was obliged to sue
in the court of the defendant's lord, and the portion of the fine
1 F. Dahn, Kdnigt dtr Ctrmantn, viiL a. 197.
for a breach of the peace which should have gone to the state
went in the end to the lord.
The transfer of the judicial process,' and of the financial and
administrative sides of the government as well, into private
possession, was not, however, accomplished entirely by the road
of the immunity. As government weakened after the strong
days of Charlemagne, and disorder, invasion, and the difficulty
of intercommunication tended to throw the locality more and
more upon its own resources, the officer who had once been the
means of centralization, the count, found success in the effort
for independence which even Charlemagne had scarcely overcome.
He was able to throw off responsibility to any central authority,
and to exercise the powers which had been committed to him as
an agent of the king, as if they were his own private possession.
Nor was the king's aid lacking to this method of dividing up the
royal authority, any more than to the immunity, for it became
a frequent practice to make the administrative office into a
fief, and to grant it to be held in that form of property by the
count. In this way the feudal county, or duchy, formed itself,
corresponding in most cases only roughly to the old administra-
tive divisions of the state, for within the bounds of the county
there had often formed private feudal possessions too powerful
to be forced into dependence upon the count, sometimes the
vice-comes had followed the count's example, and often, on the
other hand, the count had attached to his county like private
possessions of his own lying outside its boundaries. In time
the private lord, who had never been an officer of the state,
assumed the old administrative titles and called himself count
or viscount, and perhaps with some sort of right, for his position
in his territories, through the development of the immunity,
did not differ from that now held by the man who had been
originally a count.
In ibese two ways then the feudal system was formed, and
took possession of the state territorially, and of its functions in
government. Its earliest stage of growth was that of the private
possession only. Under a government too weak to preserve
order, the great landowner formed his estate into a little territory
which could defend itself. His smaller neighbours who needed
protection came to him for it. He forced them to become his
dependants in return under a great variety of forms, but especially
developing thereby the prtcarium land tenure and the pcirocinium
personal service, and organizing a private jurisdiction over bis
tenants* and a private army for defence. Finally he secured
from the king an immunity which excluded the royal officers
from his lands and made him a quasi-representative of the state.
In the meantime his neighbour the count had been following
a similar process, and in addition he had enjoyed considerable
advantages of his own. His right to exact military, financial
and judicial duties for the state he bad used to force men to
become his dependants, and then he had stood between them
and the state, freeing them from burdens which he threw with
increased weight upon those who still stood outside bis personal
protection. In ignorance of their danger, and later in despair
of getting public services adequately performed in any other
way, the kings first adopted for themselves some of the forms
and practices which had thus grown up, and by degrees recog-
nized them as legally proper for all classes. It proved to be
easier to hold the lord responsible for the public duties of all
his dependants because he was the king's vassal and by attaching
them as conditions to the benefices which he held, than to
enforce them directly upon every subject.
When this stage was reached the formative age of feudalism
may be considered at an end. When the government of the
state had entered into feudalism, and the king was as much
senior as king; when the vassal relationship was recognized
as a proper and legal foundation of public duties; when the two
separate sides of early feudalism were united as the almost
universal rule, so that a man received a fief because he owed a
vassal's duties, or looked at in the other and finally prevailing
way, that he owed a vassal's duties because he had received a
fief; and finally, when the old idea of the temporary character
of the prtcarium tenure was lost sight of* and the. right of the
298
FEUDALISM
at the cost of his children, who were left without legal claim and
compelled to make the best terms they could. 1 Applied to this
use the precarium found extensive employment in the last age
of the empire. The government looked on the practice with
great disfavour, because it transferred large areas from the easy
access of the state to an ownership beyond its reach. The laws
repeatedly forbade it under increasing penalties, but clearly
it could not be stopped. The motive was too strong on both
•ides—the need of protection on one side, the natural desire to
increase large possessions and means of self-defence on the other.
These practices the Frankish conquerors of Caul found in
full possession of society when they entered into that province.
They seem to have understood them at once, and, like
much else Roman, to have made them their own with-
out material change. The patrocinium they were made
ready to understand by the existence of a somewhat
similar institution among themselves, the c omit at us, described
by Tacitus. In this institution the chief of the tribe, or of some
plainly marked division of the tribe, gathered about himself a
band of chosen warriors, who formed a kind of private military
force and body-guard. The special features of the institution
were the strong lie of faith and service which bound the man,
the support and rewards given by the lord, and the pride of
both in the relationship. The patrocinium might well seem, to
the German only a form of the comitatus, but it was a form which
presented certain advantages in his actual situation. The chief
of these was perhaps the fact that it was not confined to king or
tribal chief, but that every noble was able in the Roman practice
to surround himself with his organized private army. Probably
this fact, together with the more general fact of the absorption
in most things of the German in the Roman, accounts for the
substitution of the patrocinium for the comitatus which took
place under the Merovingians.
This change did not occur, however, without some modification
of the Roman customs. The comitatus made contributions of
its own to future feudalism, to some extent to its institutional
side, largely to the ideas and spirit which ruled in it. Probably
the ceremony which grew into feudal homage, and the oath of
fealty, certainly the honourable position of the vassal and his
pride in the relationship, the strong tie which bound lord and
man together, and the idea that faith and service were due on
both sides in equal measure, we may trace to German sources.
But we must not forget that the origin of the vassal relationship,
as an institution, is to be found on Roman and not on German
soil. The comitatus developed and modified, it did not originate.
Nor was the feudal system established in any sense by the settle-
ment of the comitatus group oh the conquered land. The uniting
of the personal and the land sides of feudalism came long after
the conquest, and in a different way.
To the precarium German institutions offered no close parallel.
The advantages, however, which it afforded were obvious, and
this side of feudalism developed as rapidly after the conquest
as the personal. The new German noble was as eager to extend
the size of his lands and to increase the numbers of his dependants
as the Roman had been. The new German government furnished
no better protection from local violence, nor was it able any more
effectively to check the practices which were creating feudalism;
indeed for a long time it made no attempt to do so. Precarium
and patrocinium easily passed from the Roman empire to the
Frankish kingdom, and became as firmly rooted in the new
society as they had ever been in the old. Up to this point we
have seen only the small landowner and the landless man enter-
ing into these relations. Feudalism could not be established,
however, until the great of the land had adopted them for
themselves, and had begun to enter the clientage of others and
to hold lands by the precarium tenure. The first step towards
this result was easily and quickly taken. The same class con-
tinued to furnish the king's men, and to form his household and
body-guard whether the relation was that of the patrocinium or
the comitatus, and to be made noble by entering into it. It was
later that they became clients of one another, and in part at
1 Salvian, De gub. Dei, v. 8, cd. Halm, p. 6a.
least as a result of their adoption of the prtcarium tenure. la
this latter step the influence of the Church rather than of the king
seems to have been effective. The large estates which pious
intentions had bestowed on the Church it was not allowed to
alienate. It could most easily make them useful to gain the
influence and support which it needed, and to provide for the
public functions which fell to its share, by employing the pre-
carium tenure. On the other side, the great men coveted the
wide estates of bishop and abbot, and were ready without
persuasion to annex portions of them to their own on the easy
terms of this tenure, not always indeed observed by the bolder,
or able to be enforced by the Church. • The employment of the
precarium by the Church seems to have been one of the surest
means by which this form of landholding was carried over
from the Romans to the Frankish period and developed into
new forms. It came to be made by degrees the subject of
written contract, by which the rights of the holder were more
definitely defined and protected than had been the case in
Roman law. The length of time for which the holding should
last came to be specified, at first for a term of years and then for
life, and some payment to the grantor was provided for, not
pretending to represent the economic value of the land, but only
to serve as a mark of his continued ownership.
These changes characterize the Merovingian age of Frankish
history. That period had practically ended, however, before
these two institutions showed any tendency to join together
as they were joined in later feudalism. Nor had the king up
to that time exerted any apparent influence on the processes
that were going forward. Grants of land of the Merovingian
kings had carried with them ownership and not a United right,
and the king's patrocinium had not widened in extent in the
direction of the later vassal relation. It was the advent of the
Carolingiaa princes and the difficulties which they had to over-
come that carried these institutions a stage further forward.
Making their way up from a position among the nobility to
be the rulers of the land, and finally to supplant the kings, the
Carolingians had especial need of resources from which to
purchase and reward faithful support. This need was greatly in-
creased when the Arab attack on southern Gaul forced them to
transform a large part of the old Frankish foot army into cavalry.'
The fundamental principle of the Frankish military system, that
the man served at his own expense, was still unchanged. It
had indeed begun to break down under the strain of frequent
and distant campaigns, but it was long before it was changed as
the recognized rule of medieval service. If now, in addition
to his own expenses, the soldier must provide a horse and its
keeping, the system was likely to break down altogether. It
was this problem which led to the next step. To solve it the
early Carolingian princes, especially Charles Mattel, who found
the royal domains exhausted and their own inadequate, grasped
at the land of the Church. Here was enough to endow an army,
if some means could be devised to permit its use. This means
was found in the precarium tenure. Keeping alive, as it did, the
fact of the grantor's ownership, it did not in form deprive the
Church of the land. Recognizing that ownership by a small
payment only, not corresponding to the value of the land, it
left the larger part of the income to meet the need which had
arisen. At the same time undoubtedly the new holder of the
land, if not already the vassal of the prince, was obliged to
become so and to assume an obligation of service with a mount ed
force when called upon.* This expedient seems to have solved
the problem. It gave rise to the numerous precariae verbo regis,
of the Church records, and to the condemnation of Charle*
Mattel in the visions of the clergy to worse difficulties in the
future life than he had overcome in this. The most important
consequences of the expedient, however, were not intended or
perceived at the time. It brought together the two sides of
feudalism, vassalage and benefice, as they were now commonly
called, and from this age their union into what is really a single
' H. Brunner, Zeitschr. der sav, Stift. fir Rechtsgesckickte, Germ.
tt>th. viii. l-j8 (1887). Also in his fiorickungcn, 30-74 (1894).
* Sec F. Dahn, Kdnige der Germonen, viii. 2, 90 ft.
FEUDALISM
299
institution wis rapid; 1 it emphasised military service as so
essential obligation of the vassal; and it spread the vassal
relation between individual proprietors and the sovereign widely
over the state.
In the period that followed, the reign of Charlemagne and the
later Carolingian age, continued necessities, military and civil,
forced the kings to recognise these new ins t it u lions more fully,
even when standing in a position between the government
and the subject, intercepting the public duties of the latter.
The incipient feudal baron had not been slow to take advantage
of the break-down of the old German military system. As in
the last days of the Roman empire the poor landowner had found
bis only refuge from the exactions of the government in the
protection of the senator, who could in some way obtain exemp-
tions, so the poor Frank could escape the ruinous demands of
military service only by submitting himself and his lands to the
count, who did not hesitate on his side to force such submission.
Charlemagne legislated with vigour against this tendency, trying
to make it easier for the poor freeman to fulfil his military duties
directly to the state, and to forbid the misuse of power by the
rich, but he was not more successful than the Roman government
had been in a like attempt. Finally the king found himself
compelled to recognize existing facts, to lay upon the lord the
duty of producing his men in the field and to allow him to
appear as their commander. This solved the difficulty of military
service apparently, but with decisive consequences. 1 1 completed
the transformation of the army into a vassal army; it com-
pkted the recognition of feudalism by the stale, as a legitimate
relation between different ranks of the people; and it recognized
the transformation in a great number of cases of a public duty
into a private obligation.
In the meantime another institution had grown up in this
franco-Roman society, which probably began and certainly
assisted in another transformation of the same kind. This
is the immunity. Suggested probably by Roman practices,
possibly developed directly from them, it received a great
extension in the Merovingian period, at first and especially in
the interest of the Church, but soon of lay land-holders. By the
grant of an immunity to a proprietor the royal officers, the count
and his representatives, were forbidden to enter his lands to
exercise any public function there. The duties which the count
should perform passed to the proprietor, who now represented
the government for all his tenants free and unfree. Apparently
no modification of the royal rights was intended by this
arrangement, but the beginning of a great change had really
been made. The king might still receive the same revenues
and the same, services from the district held by the lord as
formerly, but for their payment a private person in his capacity
as overlord was now responsible. In the course of a long
period characterized by a weak central government, it was
not difficult to enlarge the rights which the lord thus
obtained, to exclude even the king's personal authority from the
immunity, and to translate the duties and payments which the
tenant had once owed to the state into obligations which he
owed to his lord, even finally into incidents of his tenure. The
most important public function whose transformation into a
private possession was assisted by the growth of the immunity
was the judicial. This process had probably already begun in a
Small way in the growth of institutions which belong to the
economic side of feudalism, the organization of agriculture
On the great estates. Even in Roman days the proprietor had
exercised a jurisdiction over the disputes of his unfree tenants.
Whether this could by its own growth have been extended over
tus free tenants and carried so far as to absorb a local court,
like that of the hundred, into private possession, is not certain.
It seems probable that it could. But in any case, the immunity
easily carried the development of private jurisdiction through
Ihese stages. The lord's court took the place of the public
court in tivfl, and even by degrees in criminal cases. The
plaintiff, even if he were under another lord, was obliged to sue
in the court of the defendant's lord, and the portion of the fine
1 F. Paha, Kfinige der Ctrmaatn, viii. 3, 197,
for a breach of the peace which should have gone to the state
went in the end to the lord.
The transfer of the judicial process, and of the financial and
administrative sides of the government as well, into private
possession, was not, however, accomplished entirely by the road
of the immunity. As government weakened after the strong
days of Charlemagne, and disorder, invasion, and the difficulty
of intercommunication tended to throw the locality more and
more upon its own resources, the officer who had once been the
means of centralisation, the count, found success in the effort
for independence which even Charlemagne had scarcely overcome.
He was able to throw off responsibility to any central authority,
and to exercise the powers which bad been committed to him as
an agent of the king, as if they were his own private possession.
Nor was the king's aid lacking to this method of dividing up the
royal authority, any more than to the immunity, for it became
a frequent practice to make the administrative office into a
fief, and to grant it to be held in that form of property by the
count. In this way the feudal county, or duchy, formed itself,
corresponding in most cases only roughly to the old administra-
tive divisions of the state, for within the bounds of the county
there had often formed private feudal possessions too powerful
to be forced into dependence upon the count, sometimes the
vice-comes had followed the count's example, and often, on the
other hand, the count had attached to his county Like private
possessions of his own lying outside its boundaries. In time
the private lord, who bad never been an officer of the state,
assumed the old administrative titles and called himself count
or viscount, and perhaps with some sort of right, for his position
in his territories, through the development of the immunity,
did not differ from that now held by the man who had been
originally a count.
In these two ways then the feudal system was formed, and
took possession of the state territorially, and of its functions in
government. Its earliest stage of growth was that of the private
possession only. Under a government too weak to preserve
order, the great landowner formed bis estate into a little territory
which could defend itself. His smaller neighbours who needed
protection came to him for it. He forced them to become his
dependants in return under a great variety of forms, but especially
developing thereby the prtcarium land tenure and the patrocinium
personal service, and organizing a private jurisdiction over his
tenants, and a private army for defence. Finally he secured
from the king an immunity which excluded the royal officers
from his lands and made him a quasi-representative of the state.
In the meantime his neighbour the count had been following
a similar process, and in addition he had enjoyed considerable
advantages of his own. His right to exact military, financial
and judicial duties for the state he had used to force men to
become his dependants, and then he had stood between them
and the state, freeing them from burdens which he threw with
increased weight upon those who still stood outside his personal
protection. In ignorance of their danger, and later in despair
of getting public services adequately performed in any other
way, the kings first adopted for themselves some of the forms
and practices which had thus grown up, and by degrees recog-
nized them as legally proper for all classes. It proved to be
easier to hold the lord responsible for the public duties of all
his dependants because he was the king's vassal and by attaching
them as conditions to the benefices which he held, than to
enforce them directly upon every subject.
When this stage was reached the formative age of feudalism
may be considered at an end. When the government of the
state had entered into feudalism, and the king was as much
senior as king; when the vassal relationship was recognized
as a proper and legal foundation of public duties; when the two
separate sides of early feudalism were united as the almost
universal rule, so that a man received a fief because he owed a
vassal's duties, or looked at in the other and finally prevailing
way, that he owed a vassal's duties because he had received a
fief; and finally, when the old idea of the temporary character
of the prtcarium tenure was lost sight of, and the. right of the
300
FEUDALISM
vassal'* heir to receive his father's holding was recognised as the
general rule — then the feudal system may be called full grown.
Not that the age of growth was really over. Feudal history
was always a becoming, always a gradual passing from one stage
to another, so long as feudalism continued to form the main
organization of society. But we may say that the formative
age was over when these features of the system had combined
to be its characteristic marks. What follows is rather a perfect ion
of details in the direction of logical completeness. To assign
any specific date to the end of this formative age is of course
impossible, but meaning by the end what has just been stated,
we shall not be far wrong if we place it somewhere near the
beginning of the ioth century.
Before we leave the history of feudal origins another word is
necessary. We have traced a dc6nite line of descent for feudal
institutions from Roman days through the Merovingian and
Carolingian ages to the xoth century. That line of descent can
be made out with convincing clearness and with no particular
difficulty from epoch to epoch, from the precarium and the
patrocinium, through the benefice and commendation, to the
fief and vassalage. But the definitencss of this line should not
cause us to overlook the fact that there was during these centuries
much confusion of custom and practice. All round and about
this line of descent there was a crowd of varying forms branching
off more or less widely from the main stem, different kinds of
commendation, different forms of precarium, some of which
varied greatly from that through which the fief descends, and
some of which survived in much the old character and under the
old name for a long time after later feudalism was definitely
established. 1 The variety and seeming confusion which reign
in feudal society, under uniform controlling principles, rule also
in the ages of beginning. It is easy to lose one's bearings by
over-emphasizing the importance of variation and exception.
It is indeed true that what was the exception, the temporary
offshoot, might have become the main line. It would then have
produced a system which would have been feudal, in the wide
sense of the term, but it would have been marked by different
characteristics, it would have operated in a somewhat different
way. The crowd of varying forms should not prevent us from
seeing that we can trace through their confusion the line along
which the characteristic traits and institutions of European
feudalism, as it actually was, were growing constantly more
distinct.* That is the line of the origin of the feudal system.
(See also Francs: Law and Institutions.)
The growth which we have traced took place within the
Frankish empire. When we turn to Anglo-Saxon England we
BmkM # * n< * * < ^ ercnt situation and a different result. There
SgLaA* precarium and patrocittium were lacking. Certain
forms of personal commendation did develop, certain
forms of dependent land tenure came into use. These do not
show, however, the characteristic marks of the actual line of
feudal descent. They belong rather in the varying forms around
that line. Scholars are not yet agreed as to what would have
been their result if their natural development had not been cut
off by the violent introduction of Frankish feudalism with the
Norman conquest, whether the historical feudal system, or a
feudal system in the general sense. To the writer it seems clear
that the latter is the most that can be asserted. They were forms
which may rightly be called feudal, but only in the wider meaning
in which we speak of the feudalism of Japan, or of Central Africa,
not in the sense of 12th-century European feudalism; Saxon
commendation may rightly be called vassalage, but only as
looking back to the early Frankish use of the term for many
varying forms of practice, not as looking forward to the later
and more definite usage of completed feudalism; and such use
of the terms feudal and vassalage is sure to be misleading. It
is better to say that European feudalism is not to be found in
England before the Conquest, not even in its beginnings. If
1 G. Waitz, Deutsche VerfassunrsgesckUhte, vi. 112 ff. (1896).
Most fully described in G. Seeliger, Die soziale u. poliiische Beaeutung
d. Grundherrschafl im JrHheren MitielalUr (1903).
• F. Dahn, K*nige t vtii. 2, 89-90; 95-
these had really been in existence it would require no argument
to show the fact. There is no trace of the distinctive marks of
Frankish feudalism in Saxon England, not where military
service may be thought to rest upon the land, nor even in the
rare cases where the tenant seems to some to be made responsible
for it, for between these cases as they are described in the original
accounts, legally interpreted, and the feudal conception of the
vassal's military service, there is a great gulf.
In turning from the origin of feudalism to a description of the
completed system one is inevitably reminded of the words with
which dc Quincey opens the second part of his essay
on style. He says: "It is a natural resource that JJ^ n
whatsoever we find it difficult to investigate as a **"""*
result, we endeavour to follow as a growth. Failing
analytically to probe its nature, historically we seek relief to our
perplexities by tracing its origin. . . . Thus for instance when
any feudal institution (be it Gothic, Norman, or Anglo-Saxon)
eludes our deciphering faculty from the imperfect records of its
use and operation, then we endeavour conjecturally to amend
our knowledge by watching the circumstances in which that
institution arose." The temptation to use the larger part of any
space allotted to the history of feudalism for a discussion of
origins does not arise alone from greater interest in that phase of
the subject. It is almost impossible even with the most dis-
criminating care to give a brief account of completed feudalism
and convey no wrong impression. We use the term " feudal
system " for convenience sake, but with a degree of impropriety
if it conveys the meaning " systematic." Feudalism in its most
flourishing age was anything but systematic. It was confusion
roughly organized. Great diversity prevailed everywhere,
and we should not be surprised to find some different fact or
custom in every lordship. Anglo-Norman feudalism attained a
logical completeness and a uniformity of practice which, in the
feudal age proper, can hardly be found elsewhere through so
large a territory; but in Anglo-Norman feudalism the exception
holds perhaps as large a place as the regular, and the uniformity
itself was due to the most serious of exceptions from the feudal
point of view — centralization under a powerful monarchy.
But too great emphasis upon variation conveys also a wrong
impression. Underlying all the apparent confusion of fact and
practice were certain fundamental principles and relationships,
which were alike everywhere, and which really gave shape to
everything that was feudal, no matter what its form might be.
The chief of these are the following: the relation of vassal and
lord; the principle that every holder of land is a tenant and not
an owner, until the highest rank is reached, sometimes even the
conception rules in that rank; that the tenure by which a thing
of value is held is one of honourable service, not intended to be
economic, but moral and political in character; the principle
of mutual obligations of loyalty, protection and service binding
together all the ranks of this society from the highest to the
lowest; and the principle of contract between lord and tenant,
as determining all rights, controlling their modification, and
forming the foundation of all law. There was actually in fact
and practice a larger uniformity than this short list implies,
because these principles tended to express themselves in similar
forms, and because historical derivation from a common source
in Frankish feudalism tended to preserve some degree of uni-
formity in the more important usages.
The foundation of the feudal relationship proper was the fief,
which was usually land, but might be any desirable thing, as an
office, a tevenue in money or kind, the right to collect a toll,
or operate a mill. In return for the fief, the man became the
vassal of his lord; he knelt before him, and, with his hands
between his lord's hands, promised him fealty and service; he
rose to his feet and took the oath of fealty which bound him to
the obligations he had assumed in homage; he received from
his lord ceremonial investiture with the fief. The faithful
performance of all the duties he had assumed in homage con-
stituted the vassal's right and title to his fief. So long as they
were fulfilled, he, and his heir after him, held the fief as his
property, practically and in relation to all under tenants as if
FEUDALISM
301
be were tbe owner. In the ceremony of Homage and investiture,
which is tbe creative contract of feudalism, the obligations
assumed by the two parties were, as a rule, not specified in
exact terms. They were determined by local custom. What
they were, however, was as well known, as capable of proof,
and as adequate a check on innovation by either party, as if
committed to writing. In many points of detail the vassal's
services differed widely in different parts of the feudal world.
We may say, however, that they fall into two classes, general
and specific The general included all that might come under
tbe idea of loyalty, seeking tbe lord's interests, keeping his
secrets, betraying the plans of his enemies, protecting his family,
&c. The specific services are capable of more definite statement,
and they usually received exact definition in custom and some-
times in written documents. Tbe most characteristic of these
was the military service, which included appearance in the
field on summons with a certain force, often armed in a specified
way, and remaining a specified length of time. It often included
also the duty of guarding tbe lord's castle, and of holding one's
own castle subject to the plans of the lord for the defence of his
fief. Hardly less characteristic was court service, which included
the duty of helping to form the court on summons, of taking
one's own cases to that court instead of to some other, and of
submitting to its judgments. Tbe duty of giving the lord advice
was often demanded and fulfilled in sessions of the court, and
in these feudal courts the obligations of lord and vassal were
enforced, with an ultimate appeal to war. Under this head
may be enumerated also the financial duties of the vassal,
though these were not regarded by the feudal law as of the nature
of tbe tenure, i*. failure to pay them did not lead to confiscation,
but they were collected by suit and distraint like any debt.
They did not have their origin in economic considerations, but
were either intended to mark the vassal's tenant relation, like
tbe relief, or to be a part of his service, like the aid, that is, he
was held to come to the aid of his lord in a case of financial as
of military necessity. The relief was a sum paid by the heir
for the lord's recognition of bis succession. The aids were paid
on a few ocrariom, determined by custom, where tbe lord was
put to unusual expense, as for his ransom when captured by the
enemy, or for the knighting of his eldest son. There was great
variety regarding the occasion and amount of these payments,
and in some parts of the feudal world they did not exist at all.
The most lucrative of the lord's rights were wardship and
marriage, but the feudal theory of these also was non-economic.
The fief fell into the hands of the lord, and he enjoyed its revenues
during the minority of the heir, because the minor could not
perform the duties by which it was held. The heiress must
marry m the lord wished, because he had a right to know that
the holder of the fief could meet the obligations resting upon
it Both wardship and marriage were, however, valuable rights
which the lord could exercise himself or sell to others. These
were by no means tbe only rights and duties which could be
described as existing in feudalism, but they are the most char-
acteristic, and on them, or some of them, as a foundation, the
whole structure of feudal obligation was built, however detailed
Ideally regarded, feudalism covered Europe with a network
of these fiefs, rising in graded ranks one above the other from
the smallest, the knight's fee, at the bottom, to the king at the
top, who was the supreme landowner, or who held tbe kingdom
from God. Actually not even in the most regular of feudal
countries, like England or Germany, was there any fixed grada-
tion of rank, titles or size. A knight might hold directly of the
king, a count of a viscount, a bishop of an abbot, or the king
himself of one of his own vassals, or even of a vassal's vassal,
and in return his vassal's vassal might hold another fief directly
of him. The case of the count of Champagne, one of the peers
of France, is a famous example. His great territory was held
only in small part of the king of France. He held a portion of
a foreign sovereign, the emperor, and other portions of the duke
of Burgundy, of two archbishops, of four bishops, and of the abbot
of St Denis. Frequently did great lay lords, as in this case,
hold lands by feudal tenure of ecclesiastics.
It is now possible perhaps to get some idea of the way in which
the government of a feudal country was operated. The early
German governments whose chief functions, military, judicial,
financial, legislative, were carried on by the freemen of the nation
because they were members of the body politic, and were per-
formed as duties owed to the community for its defence and
sustenance, no longer existed.* New forms of organization had
arisen in which indeed these conceptions had not entirely
disappeared, but in which the vast majority of cases a wholly
different idea of the ground of service and obligation prevailed.
Superficially, for example, the feudal court differed but little
from its Teutonic predecessor. It was still an assembly court.
Its procedure was almost the same as the earlier. It often
included the same classes of men. Saxon Witenagemot and
Norman Curia regis seem very much alike. But the members
of the feudal court met, not to fulfil a duty owed to the com-
munity, but a private obligation which they had assumed in
return for the fiefs they held, and in the history of institutions
it is differences of this sort which are the determining principles.
The feudal state was one in which, as it has been said, private
law bad usurped the place of public law. Public duty had become
private obligation. To understand the feudal state it is essential
to make clear to one's mind that all sorts of services, which men
ordinarily owe to the public or to one another, were translated
into a form of rent paid for the use of land, and defined and
enforced by a private contract. In every feudal country, however,
something of the earlier conception survived. A general military
levy wasoccasionally made. Something like taxation occasionally
occurred, though the government was usually sustained by the
scanty feudal payments, by the proceeds of justice and by the
income of domain manors. About the office of king more of
this earlier conception gathered than elsewhere in tbe state,
and gradually grew, aided not merely by traditional ideas, but
by the active influence of the Bible, and soon of the Roman law.
The kingship formed the nucleus of new governments as the
feudal system passed away.
Actual government in the feudal age was primitive and un-
differentiated. Its chief and almost only organ, for kingdom
and barony alike, was the curia—* court formed of the vassals.
This acted at once and without any consciousness of difference
of function, as judiciary, as legislature, in so far as there was
any in the feudal period, and as council, and it exercised final
supervision and control over revenue and administration.
Almost all the institutions of modem states go back to the
curia regis, branching off from it at different dates as the growing
complexity of business forced differentiation of function and
personnel. In action it was an assembly court, deciding all
questions by discussion and the weight of opinion, though its
decisions obtained their legal validity by the formal pronuncia-
tion of the presiding member, i.e. of the lord whose court It was.
It can readily be seen that in a government of this kind the
essential operative element was the baron. So long as the
government remained dependent on the baron, it remained
feudal in its character. When conditions so changed that govern-
ment could free itself from its' dependence on the baron, feudalism
disappeared as the organisation of society; when a professional
class arose to form the judiciary, when the increased circulation
of money made regular taxation possible and enabled the govern-
ment to buy military and other services, and when better means
of intercommunication and the growth of common ideas made
a wide centralisation possible and likely to be permanent.
Feudalism had performed a great service, during an age of
disintegration, by maintaining a general framework of govern-
ment, while allowing the locality to protect and care for itself.
When the function of protection and local supervision could be
resumed by the general government the feudal age ended. In
nearly all the states of Europe this end was reached during, or
by the close of, the 13th century.
At the moment, however, when feudalism was disappearing
as the organization of society, it gave rise to results which in a
sense continued it into after ages and even to our own day.
One of these results was the system of law which it created.
3©2
FEUERBACH. A.— FEUERBACH, L. A.
As feudalism passed from its age of supremacy into its age
of decline, its customs tended to crystallize into fixed forms.
At the same time a class of men arose interested in
g*f— these forms for their own sake, professional lawyers
mrrtrmts. or judg^ WQO wrote down for their own and others'
use the feudal usages with which they were familiar.
The great age of these codes was the 13th century, and especially
the second half of it. The codes in their turn tended still further
to harden these usages into fixed forms, and we may date from
the end of the 13th century an age of feudal law regulating
especially the holding and transfer of land, and much more
uniform in character than the law of the feudal age proper.
This was particularly the case in parts of France and Germany
where feudalism continued to regulate the property relations
of lords and vassals longer than elsewhere, and where the under-
lying economic feudalism remained in large part unchanged.
In this later pseudo-feudalism, however, the political had given
way to the economic, and customs which had once had no
economic significance came to have that only.
Feudalism formed the starting-point also of the later social
nobilities of Europe. They drew from it their titles and ranks
and many of their regulative ideas, though these were formed
into more definite and regular systems than ever existed in
feudalism proper. It was often the policy of kings to increase
the social privileges and legal exemptions of the nobility while
taking away all political power, so that it is necessary in the
history of institutions to distinguish sharply between these
nobilities and the feudal baronage proper. It is only in certain
backward parts of Europe that the terms feudal and baronage
in any technical sense can be used of the nobility of the 15th
century. (G. B. A.)
Bibliography. — For more detaikd tniormaiiofi tie reader is
referred to the articles English L*w; Fkahce: fand Law
and Institutions, Villbnagf; Manor; scutagsj K ight
Service; Hidb. For a general * ketch of Feudalism the chin -rs in
tome ii. of the Histoire genital* of Lavitsc and Rarctbaud th.» Id be
consulted. Other general works an? J. T. Abdy. Feudalism 1 1 B90):
Paul Roth. Feudalttdt und Untertkametband (Weimar, 186 . and
Ceschickte des Beneficiahoesens (185a); M* M. Kovalcv *!>->. < hmo-
miscke Entwickelung Europas (foc^); E* etc Lavclcye, Pe ' pro-
QritU et it ses formes primitive* fi&Qt) ; and The Oft gin of f> petty
«« Land, a translation by M. Asliky (to» the » U iM U . 11 . v .t u »cd de
Coulanges, with an introductory chapter by Professor W. J. Ashley.
Two other works of value are Sir H. S. Maine, Village Communities tn
the East and West (1876); and Leon Gautier, La ChevaUric (Paris,
1884; Eng. trans, by Henry Frith, Chivalry, London, 1891).
For feudalism in England see the various constitutional histories,
especially W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, vol. t. (ed.
1897). Very valuable also arc the writings of Mr J. H Round, of
Professor F. W. Mai t land and of Professor P. Vinogradov. A prong
Round's works may be mentioned Feudal England (189 ty
de MandeviUe (1802); and Studies on the Red Book of tk / < ««r
(1898). MaitUnd's Domesday Book and Beyond (Camb 1)7)
is indispensable; and the same remark applies to his History of
English Law before the time of Edward I. (Cambridge. 1805). written
in conjunction with Sir Frederick Pollock. Vinogradoff has illumin-
ated the subject in his Villainage inEngland (189a) and ish
Society in the lUk century (1908). See also J. F. Baldwin. The
Scutage and Knight Service in England (Chicago, 1897,, ixuuolf
Gncist, Add und Ritterschaft in England (1853) ; and F. Seebohm,
The English Village Community (1881).
For feudalism in France see N. D. Fustel de Coulanges, Histoire des
institutions politiques de Vancienne France (Les Origtnes du systeme
fiodal, 1890; Les Transformations de la royauti pendant Vipoque
carolingienne, 1892); A. Luc ha ire, Histoire des institutions monar-
ekiques de la France sous les premiers Capitiens, 987-1180 (2nd ed.,
1890); and Manuel des institutions francaises: pcriode des CofHiens
directs (1892); 1. Flach, Les Origtnes de Vancienne France (iSS(t~
1893) ; Paul Viollet. Droit public: Histoires des institutions politiques
et administratis de la France (1890-1898); and Henri Sec, Les
classes rurales et le rtgime domanial (1901).
For Germany see G. Waitr, Deutsche VerfassungsgeschiekU (Kid
and Berlin, 1844 foil.); H. Brunner, Crunds&ge der deutschen
RtchtsgeschichU (Leipiig, 1001); V. Meniel. DU Entsfehung des
Lebenswesens (Berlin, 1890); and G. L. von Maurer's works on the
early institutions of the Germans.
FEUERBACH, ANSELM (1820-1880), German painter, born
at Spires, the son of a well-known archaeologist, was the leading
classicist painter of the German 19th-century school. He was
the first to realize the danger arising from contempt of technique,
that mastery of craftsmanship was needed to express even the
loftiest ideas, and that an ill-drawn coloured cartoon can never
be the supreme achievement in art. After having passed through
the art schools of Dusseldorf and Munich, he went to Antwerp
and subsequently to Paris, where he benefited by the »*ai-twng
of Couture, and produced his first masterpiece, " Hafiz at the
Fountain" in 1852. He subsequently worked at Karlsruhe,
Venice (where he fell under the spell of the greatest school of
colourists), Rome and Vienna. He was steeped in classic
knowledge, and his figure compositions have the statuesque
dignity and simplicity of Greek art. Disappointed with the
reception given in Vienna to his design of " The Fail of the
Titans " for the ceiling of the Museum of Modelling, be went to
live in Venice, where he died in 1880. His works are to be found
at the leading public galleries of Germany; Stuttgart has his
"Iphigenia"; Karlsruhe, the "Dante at Ravenna"; Munich,
the " Medea "; and Berlin, " The Concert," his last important
picture. Among his chief works are also " The Battle of the
Amazons," " Pieti," " The Symposium of Plato," " Orpheus
and Eurydice " and " Ariosto in the Park of Ferrara,"
FEUERBACH, LUDWIO ANDREAS (1804-1872), German
philosopher, fourth son of the eminent jurist (see below), was born
at Landshut in Bavaria on the 28th of July 1804. He matricu-
lated at Heidelberg with the intention of pursuing an ecclesiastical
career. Through the influence of Prof. Daub he was led to
an interest in the then predominant philosophy of Hegel and,
in spite of his father's opposition, went to Berlin to study under
the master himself. After two years' disripkahip the Hegelian
influence began to slacken. " Theology," he wrote to a friend,
" I can bring myself to study no more. I long to take nature
to my heart, that nature before whose depth the faint-hearted
theologian shrinks back; and with nature man, man in his
entire quality." These words are a key to Feuerbach's develop-
ment. He completed his education at Erlangen with the study
of natural science. His first book, published anonymously,
Cedanken Uber Tod und UnsterblichkeU (1830, 3rd ed. 1876),
contains an attack upon personal immortality and an advocacy
of the Spinozistic immortality of reabsorption in nature. These
principles, combined with his embarrassed manner of public
speaking, debarred him from academic advancement After
some years of struggling, during which he published his Gesckicku
der neucren Philosophic (2 vols., 1833-1837, 2nd ed. 1844), and
AbUlard und Hcloise (1834, 3rd ed. 1877), be married in 1837
and lived a rural existence at Bruckberg near Nuremberg,
supported by his wife's share in a small porcelain factory. In
two works of this period, Pierre BayU (1838) and Pkilosophie
und Ckristentum (1839), which deal largely with theology, be
held that he had proved " that Christianity has in fact long
vanished not only from the reason but from the life of mankind,
that it is nothing more than a fixed idea " in flagrant contra-
diction to the distinctive features of contemporary civilization.
This attack is followed up in bis most important work, Das
Wesen des Christentums (1841), which was translated into
English (The Essence of Religion, by George Eliot, 1853, a&d ed.
1 881), French and Russian. Its aim may be described shortly
as an effort to humanize theology. He lays it down that man,
so far as he is rational, is to himself his own object of thought.
Religion is consciousness of the infinite. Religion therefore
is " nothing else than the consciousness of the infinity of the
consciousness; or, in the consciousness of the infinite, the
conscious subject has for his object the infinity of his own
nature." Thus God is nothing else than man: he is, so to speak,
the outward projection of man's inward nature. In part x of
his book he develops what he calls the " true or anthropological
essence of religion." Treating of God in his various aspects
" as a being of the understanding," '• as a moral being or law,"
" as love " and so on, Feuerbach shows that in every aspect God
corresponds to some feature or need of human nature. " If
man is to find contentment in God, he must find himself in God."
In part 2 he discusses the " false or theological essence of religion,"
t.e. the view which regards God as having a separate existence
over against man. Hence arise various mistaken beliefs, such
as the belief in revelation which not only injures the moral
FEUERBACH, P. J. A.
scute, but also " poisons, nay destroys, the drvinest feeling in
man, the sense of truth," and the belief in sacraments such as
the Lord's Supper, a piece of religious materialism of which " the
necessary consequences are superstition and immorality."
In spite of many admirable qualities both of style and matter
the Essence of Christianity has never made much impression
upon British thought. To treat the actual forms of religion
as expressions of our various human needs is a fruitful idea
which deserves fuller development than it has yet received;
but Feuerbach's treatment of it is fatally vitiated by his sub-
jectivism. Feuerbach denied that he was rightly called an
atheist, but the denial is merely verbal: what he calls " theism "
is atheism in the ordinary sense. Feuerbach labours under the
same difficulty as Fichte; both thinkers strive in vain to re-
concile the religious consciousness with subjectivism.
During the troubles of 1 848-1 849 Feuerbach's attack upon
orthodoxy made him something of a hero with the revolutionary
party; but he never threw himself into the political movement,
and indeed had not the qualities of a popular leader. During the
period of the diet of Frankfort he had given public lectures on
religion at Heidelberg. When the diet closed he withdrew to
Bruckberg and occupied himself partly with scientific study,
partly with the composition of his Theegonie (1857). In i860 be
was compelled by the failure of the porcelain factory to leave
Bruckberg, and he would have suffered the extremity of want
but for the assistance of friends supplemented by a public
subscription. His last book, GoUheil, Freikeil und UnsUrUichkeit,
appeared in 1 866 ( 2nd ed., 1 890). After a long period of decay he
died on the 13th of September 1872.
Feuerbach's influence has been greatest upon the anti-
Christian theologians such as D. F. Strauss, the author of the
Leben Jesu, and Bruno Bauer, who like Feuerbach himself had
passed over from Hegelianism to a form of naturalism. But
many of his ideas were taken up by those who, like Arnold Ruge,
had entered into the struggle between church and state in
Germany, and those who, like F. Engcls and Karl Marx, were
leaders in the revolt of labour against the power of capital. His
work was too deliberately unsystematic ("keine Philosophic ist
meine Philosophic ") ever to make him a power in philosophy.
He expressed in an eager, disjointed, but condensed and laboured
fashion, certain deep-lying convictions—that philosophy must
come back from unsubstantial metaphysics to the solid facts of
human nature and natural science, that the human body was no
less important than the human spirit (" Der Menach ist was er
isst ") and that Christianity was utterly out of harmony with the
age. His convictions gained weight from the simplicity, upright-
ness and diligence of his character; but they need a more
effective justification than he was able to give them.
His works appeared in 10 vols. (Leipzig, 1846-1866); his com-
Hartmann, Cesckichte d\ Metaphysik (Leipzig, 1899-1900), ii. 437-
444; F. Engcls, L. Feuerbach undd. Ausgangd. class. deulsch. Phitos.
Und ed., 1895). (H. St.)
FEUERBACH, PAUL JOHANH ANSELM, Rjttek von (1775-
i 8 33). German jurist and writer on criminal law, was born at
Hainichen near Jena on the 14th of November 1775. He received
his early education at Frankfort on Main, whither his family had
removed soon after his birth. At the age of sixteen, however,
he ran away from home, and, going to Jena, was helped by
relations there to study at the university. In spite of poor health
and the most desperate poverty, he made rapid progress. He
attended the lectures of Karl Leonhard Reinhold and Gottlieb
Hufcland, and soon published some literary essays of more than
ordinary merit In 1795 he took the degree of doctor in philo-
sophy, and in the same year, though he only possessed 150
thalers (£22 : 10s.), he married. It was this step which led him
to success and fame, by forcing him to turn from his favourite
studies of philosophy and history to that of law, which was
repugnant to him, but which offered a prospect of more rapid
advancement. His success in this new and uncongenial sphere
was soon assured. In 1796 he published Krilik 4a naUkrUehen
303
Reckts alt Prapddeulih a* mner Wlssenschaft der nalUrUchen
Reekie, which was followed, in 1708, by AnluHobbes, cder Uber die
Grenwen der burger lichen Gewatl, a dissertation on the limits of the
civil power and the right of resistance on the part of subjects
against their rulers, and by Philosophise!*, juristische Unter*
suckungen Uber das Verbrecken des Hockverralks. In 1799 he
obtained the degree of doctor of laws. Feuerbach, as the founder
of a new theory of penal law, the so-called " psychological-
coercive or intimidation theory," occupied a prominent place in
the history of criminal science. His views, which he first made
known in his Revision der Grundx&Ue und Grundbegriffe des
position pcmlichen Reekie (1709), were further elucidated and
expounded in the Bibliothek fur die petnlkke Recklswissensckafl
(x 800-1801), an encyclopaedic workproduccdin conjunction with
Karl L. W. G. Grolmann andLudwigHarschervon Almendingen,
and in his famous Lehrbuch des gemeinen in Deulsckland geltenden
pdnUcken Rechls (1801). These works were a powerful protest
against vindictive punishment, and did much towards the
reformation of the German criminal law. The Carolina (the
penal code of the emperor Charles V.) had long since ceased to be
respected. What in 1 $$ 2 was an inestimable blessing, as a check
upon the arbitrariness and violence of the effete German pro-
cedure, had in the course of time outlived its usefulness and
become a source of evils similar to those it was enacted to
combat. It availed nothing that, at the commencement of the
1 8th century, a freer and more scientific spirit had been breathed
into Roman law; it failed to reach the criminal law. The
administration of justice was, before Feuerbach's time, especi-
ally distinguished by two characteristics: the superiority of the
judge to all law, and the blending of the judicial and executive
offices, with the result that the individual was practically at the
mercy of bis prosecutors. This slate of things Feuerbach set
himself to reform, and using as his chief weapon the Revision der
Grundbegriffe above referred to, was successful in bis task. His
achievement in the struggle may be summed up as: nullum
crimen, .nutfa poena sine lege (no wrong and no punishment
without a remedy). In 1801 Feuerbach was appointed extra-
ordinary professor of law without salary, at the university of
Jena, and in the following year accepted a chair at Kiel, where he
! remained two years. In 1804 he removed to the university of
Landshut; but on being commanded by King Maximilian
Joseph to draft a penal code for Bavaria {Strafgeselzbuch far
das Kdnigreich Bayern), be removed in 1805 to Munich, where he
* was given a high appointment in the ministry of justice and was
ennobled in 1808. Meanwhile the practical reform of penal
legislation in Bavaria was begun under his influence in 1806 by
the abolition of torture. In 1808 appeared the first volume of his
Merkwilrditt CriminatfOUc, completed In 1811— a work of deep
interest for its application of psychological considerations to cases
of crime, and intended to illustrate the inevitable imperfection of
human laws in their application to individuals. In his Belrach-
tungen Uber das Gesxkworenengerickt (181 1) Feuerbach declared
against trial by jury, maintaining that the verdict of a jury was
not adequate legal proof of a crime. Much controversy was
aroused on the subject, and the author's view was subsequently
to some extent modified. The result of his labours was promul-
gated in 1813 as the Bavarian penal code. The influence of this
code, the embodiment of Feuerbach's enlightened views, was
immense. It was at once made the basis for new codes in
Wflrttembergand Saxe- Weimar; ft was adopted in its entirety
m the grand-duchy of Oldenburg; and it was translated into
Swedish by order of the king. Several of the Swiss cantons
reformed their codes in conformity with it Feuerbach had also
undertaken to prepare a civil code for Bavaria, to be founded on
the Code Napoleon. This was afterwards set aside, and the
Codex Maximilianus adopted as a basis. Bu t the project did not
become law. During the war of liberation (is 13-181 4) Feuerbach
showed himself an ardent patriot, and published several political
brochures which, from the writer's position, had almost the
weight of state manifestoes. One of these is entitled Vber
deulscke Freikeil und Vertrdung deutscke Volker durch Land-
sUtnde (1814). In 1814 Feuerbach was appointed second preai-
FEUILLANTS— FEUILLET, OCTAVE
be court of appeal at Bamberg, and three years later be
irst president of the court of appeal at Anspach. In
was deputed by the government to visit France,
and the Rhine provinces for the purpose of investigate
juridical institutions. As the fruit of this visit, he
1 his treatises Betracktungen iiber OffentlickkeU und
eit der Gcrecktigkeitspfiege (1821) and Ober dieGerickts-
% und das gerichtliche Verfahren Prankreiehs (1825). In
pleaded unconditionally for publicity in all legal pro-
In his later years he took a deep interest in the fate of
ge foundling Kaspar Hauser (q.v.), which had excited so
tcntion in Europe; and he was the first to publish a
ummary of the ascertained facts, under the title of
Hauser, cin Beispid tines Verbrecheni am Seelenleben
Shortly before his death appeared a collection of his
chriften (1833). Feuerbach, still in the full enjoyment of
ectual powers, died suddenly at Frankfort, while on his
he baths of Schwalbach, on the 29th of May 1833. In
( published the Leben und Wirken Ans. von Peuerbachs,
onsisting of a selection of his letters and journals, with
il notes by his fourth son Ludwig, the distinguished
tier.
0, for an estimate of Feuerbach's life and work. Mar-
1, in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, vol. vi.; and an " in
n " notice in Die allgemeine Zeitung (Augsburg), 15th Nov.
Professor Dr Karl Binding of Leipzig University.
LANTS, CLUB OF THE, a political association which
1 prominent part during the French Revolution. It
ided on the x6th of July 1791 by several members of
bin Club, who refused to sign a petition presented by
/, demanding the deposition of Louis XVL Among the
: members were B. Barere and £. J. Sicyes, who were
acd by other politicians, among them being Dupont de
i. The name of Fcuillants was popularly given to this
men, because they met in the fine buildings which had
upicd by the religious order bearing this name, in the rue
jnore, near the Place Venddme, in Paris. The members
lb preserved the title otAmis de la Constitution, as being a
t indication of the line they intended to pursue. This con-
opposing everything not contained in the Constitution;
opinion, the latter was in need of no modification, and
cd alike all those who were opposed to it, whether emigris
tins; they affected to avoid all political discussion, and
icmselves merely a " conservative assembly.' 1
.ttitudc they maintained after the Constituent Assembly
3 succeeded by the Legislative, but not many of the new
; became members of the club. With the rapid growth of
democratic ideas the Fcuillants soon began to be looked
■ reactionaries,- and to be classed with "aristocrats."
d, indeed, represent the aristocracy of wealth, for they
ay a subscription of four louis, a large sum at that time,
six livres for attendance. Moreover, the luxury with
hey surrounded themselves, and the restaurant which
1 annexed to their club, seemed to mock the misery of the
-ved proletariat, and added to the suspicion with which
re viewed, especially after the popular triumphs of the
June and the 10th of August 179a (see French
tion). A few days after the insurrection of the 10th of
the papers of the Feuillants were seized, and a list was
ri containing the names of -841 members proclaimed as
i. This was the death-blow of the dub. It had made an
, though a weak one, to oppose the-forward march of the
ion, but, unlike the Jacobins, had never sent out branches
provinces. The name of Fcuillants, as a party designa-
-vived the club. It was applied to those who advocated
f of " cowardly moderation," and feuiltantisme was
cd with aristocralie in the mouths of the sansculottes.
ct of separation of the FeuiUants from the Jacobins was
d in a pamphlet dated the 16th of July 1791, beginning with
Is, Lcs Membra de V assemble* nationals . . . (Peri*, 179O.
tutcs of the club were also published In Pans. See also
ird. Histoire politique de la Revolution fran&ise (Paris,
nd cd., p. 153.
FEUILLET, OCTAVB (1821-1890), French novelist and
dramatist, was born at Saint-Ld, Manche, on the xxth of August
1821. He was the son of a Norman gentleman of learning and
distinction, who would have played a great part in politics " sans
ses diables de nerfs," as Gui2ot said. This nervous excitability
was inherited, though not to the same excess, by Octave, whose
mother died in his infancy and left him to the care of the hyper-
sensitive invalid. The boy was sent to the lycec Louis-le Grand,
in Paris, where he achieved high distinction, and was destined for
the diplomatic service. In 1840 he appeared before his father
at Saint-L6, and announced that he had determined to adopt
the profession of literature. There was a stormy scene, and the
elder Feirillet cut off his son, who returned to Paris and lived as
best he could by a scanty journalism. In company with Paul
Bocage he began to write for the stage, and not without success;
at all events, he continued to exist until, three years after the
quarrel, his father consented to forgive him. Enjoying a liberal
allowance, he now lived in Paris in comfort and independence,
and he published his early novels, none of which is quite of
sufficient value to retain the modern reader. The health and
spirits of the elder M. Feuillet, however, having still further
declined, he summoned his son to leave Paris and bury himself
as his constant attendant in the melancholy chateau at Saint-Lo.
This was to demand a great sacrifice, but Octave Feuillet cheer-
fully obeyed the summons. In 1851 he married his cousin,
Mile Valerie Feuillet, who helped him to endure the mournful
captivity to which his filial duty bound him. Strangely enough,
m this exile — rendered still more irksome by sis-father's mania
for solitude and by his tyrannical temper— the genius of Octave
Feuillet developed. His first definite success was gained in the
year 1852, when he published the novel Bdlah and produced the
comedy La Crise, Both were reprinted from the Revue des deux
mondes, where many of his later novels also appeared. He
wrote books which have long held their place, La Petite Comtesse
(1857), Daliia (1857), and in particular that universal favourite,
be Roman d*un jeune Homme pautre (1858). He himself fell
into a nervous state in his M prison," but he was sustained by
the devotion and intelligence of his wife and ber mother. In
1857, having been persuaded to make a play of the novel of
Daliia, he brought out this piece at the Vaudeville, and enjoyed
a brilliant success; on this occasion be positively broke through
the eonsigne and went up to Paris to see his play rehearsed.
His father bore the shock of his temporary absence, and the
following year Octave ventured to make the same experiment
on occasion of the performance of Un Jeune Homme pauvre.
To his infinite chagrin, during this brief absence his father died.
Octave was now, however, free, and the famfly immediately
moved to Paris, where they took part in the splendid social
existence of the Second Empire. The elegant and distinguished
young novelist became a favourite at court; his pieces were
performed at Compiegne before they were given to the public,
and on one occasion the empress Eugenie deigned to play the
part of Mme de Pons in Les Portraits de la Marquise. Feuillet
did not abandon the novel, and in 1862 he achieved a great
success with Sibylle. His health, however, had by this time
begun to decline, affected by the sad death of his eldest son.
He determined to quit Paris, where the life was far too exciting
for his nerves, and to regain the quietude of Normandy. The
old chateau of the family had been sold, but he bought a house
called " Les Paillers " in the suburbs of Saint-Lo, and there he
lived, buried in his roses, for fifteen years. He was elected to
the French Academy in 1862, and in 1868 he was made librarian
of Fontainebleau palace, where he had to reside for a month
or two in each year. In 1867 he produced his masterpiece of
Monsieur de Cantors, and in 1872 he wrote Julia de Treatur,
which is hardly less admirable. His last years, after the sale
of " Les Paillers," were passed in a ceaseless wandering, the
result of the agitation of his nerves. He was broken by sorrow
and by ill-health, and when he passed away in Paris on the 29th
of December 1800, his death was a release. His last book was
Honneur d*artiste (1890). Among the too-numerous writings
of Feuillet, the novels have lasted longer than the dramas;
FEtHLLETON— FEVER
3<>5
of the former three or four seem detuned to retain their charm
as classics. He holds a place midway between the romanticists
and the realists, with a distinguished and lucid portraiture of
life which is entirely his own. He drew the women of the world
whom he saw around hhn with dignity, with indulgence, with
extraordinary penetration and clairvoyance. There is little
description in his novels, which sometimes seem to move on an
almost bare and colourless stage, but, on the other hand, the
analysis of motives, of emotions, and of " the fine shades " has
rarely been carried further. Few have written French with
greater purity than Feuillet, and his style, reserved in form and
never excessive in ornament, but full of wit and delicate anima-
tion, is in admirable uniformity with his subjects and his treat-
ment. It is probably in Sibytte and in Julia de Trecamr that he
can now be studied to most advantage, though Monsieur de
Cantors gives a greater sense of power, and though Le Roman
tfuKJcune komme pawn still preserves its popularity.
See also Sainte-Beuve, Nouveaux Lundis, vol. v.; F. Brunetierc,
ffffMM«i Essois sur la liuerature coniemporaine (1895). (E. C.)
FETJILXBTON (a diminutive of the Fr. fcuMet, the leaf of a
book), originally a kind of supplement attached to the political
portion of French newspapers. Its inventor was Benin the
elder, editor of the Dibals. It was not usually printed on a
separate sheet, but merely separated from the political part of the
newspaper by a line, and printed in smaller type. In French
newspapers it consists chiefly of non-political news and gossip,
literature and art criticism, a chronicle of the fashions, and
epigrams, charade* and other literary trifles; and its general
characteristics are lightness, grace and sparkle. The fcuillelon in
its French sense has never been adopted by English newspapers,
though in various modern journals (in the United States especi-
ally) the sort of matter represented by it is now included. But
the term itself has come into English use to indicate the instal-
ment of a serial story printed in one part of a newspaper.
FEUQUltRES, ISAAC MANASS&S DE PAS, Marquis de
(1500-1640), French soldier, came of a distinguished family of
which many members held high command in the civil wars of
the 16th century. He entered the Royal army at the age of
thirty, and soon achieved distinction. In 1626 he served in the
Valielline, andin 1 628- 1629 at the celebrated siege of La Rochelle,
where he was taken prisoner. In 1620 he was made Martchal
de Camp, and served in the righting on the southern frontiers
of France. After occupying various military positions in
Lorraine, he was sent as an ambassador into Germany, where
he rendered important services in negotiations with WaUcnstein.
In 1636 he commanded the French corps operating with the
duke of Weimar's forces (afterwards Turcnnc's "Army of
Weimar ")• With these troops he served in the campaigns of
1637 (in which he became lieutenant-general), 163S and 1639.
At the siege of Thionvillc (Diedcnhofen) he received a mortal
wound. His lettres inedilcs appeared (ed. Gallois) in Paris in
i$4S-
His son Antoine Manasses de Pas, Marquis de Feuquiercs
(1648-1711), was born at Paris in 1648, and entered the army
at the age of eighteen. His conduct at the siege of Lille in 1667,
where he was wounded, won him promotion to the rank of
captain. In the campaigns of 1672 and 1673 he served on the
staff of Marshal Luxemburg, and at the siege of Oudenarde
in the following year the king gave him command of the Royal
Marine regiment, which he held until he obtained a regiment
of his own in 1676. In 1688 he served as a brigadier at the siege
of Philipsburg, and afterwards led a ravaging expedition into
south Germany, where he acquired much booty. Promoted
Marickal de Camp, he served Under Catinat against the
Waldenses, and in the course of the war won the nickname of
the " Wizard." In 1692 he made a brilliant defence of Speierbach
against greatly superior forces, and was rewarded with the rank
of lieutenant-general. He bore a distinguished part in Luxem-
burg's great victory of Necrwinden or Landen in 1693. Marshal
Villcroi impressed him less favourably than his old commander
Luxemburg, and the resumption of war in 1701 found him in
disfavour in consequence. The rest of his life, embittered by
*6
the refusal of the marshal's baton, he spent in compiling hit
celebrated memoirs, which, coloured as they were by the personal
animosities of the writer, were yet considered by Frederick the
Great and the soldiers of the x8th century as the standard work
on the art of war as a whole. He died in 1711. The Memoires
sur la guerre appeared in the same year and new editions were
frequently published (Paris 171 1, 1725, 1735, &c, London 1736,
Amsterdam subsequently). An English version appeared in
London 1737, under the title Memoirs of Ike Marquis de Feu-
quiercs, and a German translation {Feuquiercs gekeime Nack-
richicn) at Leipzig 1732, 1738, and Berlin 1786. They deal in
detail with every branch of the art of war and of military service.
FfiVAL, PAUL HENRI CORENTIN (18x7-1887), French
novelist and dramatist, was born on the 27th of September 1817,
at Rennes in Brittany, and much of his best work deals with the
history of his native province. He was educated for the bar,
but after his first brief he went to Paris, where he gained a footing
by the publication of his " Club des phoques " (1841) in the
Revue de Paris. The Mystcres de Londres (1844), in which an
Irishman tries to avenge the wrongs of bis countrymen by
seeking the annihilation of England, was published under the
ingenious pseudonym " Sir Francis Trolopp." Others of his
novels are: Le Fits du diablc.(i$46)\ Les Companions du silence
(1857); Le Bossu (1858); Le Poisson d'or (1863); Lcs Habits
noirs (1863); Jean le diable (1868), and Les Compagnons du
trisor (1872). Some of his novels were dramatized, Le Bossu
(1863), in which he had M. Victorlcn Sardou for a collaborator,
being especially successful in dramatic form. His chronicles
of crime exercised an evil influence, eventually recognized by
the author himself. In his later years he became an ardent
Catholic, and occupied himself in revising his earlier works from
his new standpoint and in writing religious pamphlets. Reverses
of fortune and consequent overwork undermined his mental
and bodily health, and he died of paralysis in the monastery of
the Brothers of Saint John in Paris on the 8th of March 1887.
His son, Paul Feval (i860- ), became well known as a
novelist and dramatist. Among his works are Nouvelles (1890),
Maria Laura (1891), and Ckantepie (1896).
FEVER (Lat. jcbris, connected with fcrvere, to burn), a term
generally used to include all conditions in which the normal
temperature of the animal body is markedly exceeded for a.ny
length of time. When the temperature reaches* as high a point
as 106 F. the term hyperpyrexia (excessive fever) is applied,
and is regarded as indicating a condition of danger; while, if
it exceeds 107* or 108 for any length of time, death almost
always results. The diseases which are called specific fevers,
because of its being a predominant factor in them, arc discussed
separately under their ordinary names. Occasionally in certain
specific fevers and febrile diseases the temperature may attain
the elevation of no B -ii2° prior to the fatal issue. For the
treatment of fever in general, see Therapeutics.
Pathology. — Every rise of temperature is due to a disturbance
in the heat-regulating mechanism, the chief variable in which
is the action of the skin in eliminating heat (see Animal Heat).
Although for all practical purposes this mechanism works satis-
factorily, it is not by any means perfect, and many physiological
conditions cause a transient rise of temperature; e.g. severe
muscular exercise, in which the cutaneous eliminating mechanism
is unable at once to dispose of the increased amount of heat
produced in the muscles. Pathologically, the heat-regulating
mechanism may be disturbed in three different ways: 1st, by
mechanical interference with the nervous system; 2nd, by
interference with heat elimination; 3rd, by the action of various
poisons.
x. In the human subject, fever the result of mechanical inter'
ference with the nervous system rarely occurs, but it can readily
be produced in the lower animals by stimulating certain parts of
the great brain, e.g. the anterior portion of the corpus striatum.
This leads to a rise of temperature with increased heat production.
The high temperature seems to cause disintegration of cell
protoplasm and increased excretion of nitrogen and of carbonic
add. Possibly some of the cases of high temperature recorded
2a
3o6
FEYDEAU— FEZ
after injuries to the nervous system may be caused in this way;
but some may also be due to stimulation of vaso-constrictor
fibres to the cutaneous vessels diminishing heat elimination.
So lar the pathology of this condition has not been studied with
the same care that has been devoted to the investigation of the
third type of fever.
a. Fever may readily be produced by interference with heat
elimination. This has been done by submitting dogs to a
temperature slightly below that of the rectum, and it is seen in
man in Sunstroke. The typical nervous symptoms of fever
are thus produced, and the rate of chemical change in the tissues
is accelerated, as is shown by the increased excretion of carbonic
acid. The protoplasm is also injured and the proteids are broken
down, and thus an increased excretion of nitrogen is produced
and the cells undergo degenerative changes.
3. The products of various micro-organisms have a toxic
action on the protoplasm of a large number of animals, and
among the symptoms of this toxic action one of the most frequent
is a rise in temperature. While this is by no means a necessary
accompaniment, its occurrence is so general that the term Fever
has been applied to the general reaction of the organism to the
microbial poison. Toxins which cause a marked rise of tempera-
ture in men may cause a fall in other animals. It is not the
alteration of temperature which is the great index of the severity
of the struggle between the host and the parasite, but the death
and removal to a greater or lesser extent of the protoplasm of
the host. In this respect fever resembles poisoning with phos-
phorus and arsenic and other similar substances. The true
measure of the intensity of a fever is the extent of disintegration
of protoplasm, and this may be estimated by the amount of
nitrogen excreted in the urine. The increased disintegration
of protoplasm is also indicated by the rise in the excretion of
sulphur and phosphorus and by the appearance in the urine of
acetone, aceto-acetic and 0-oxybutyric acids (see Nutrition).
Since the temperature is generally proportionate to the intensity
of the toxic action, its height is usually proportionate to the
excretion of nitrogen. But sometimes the rise of temperature
is not marked, while the excretion of nitrogen is very decidedly
increased. When the temperature is sufficiently elevated, the
heat has of itself an injurious action on the protoplasm, and
tends to increase disintegration just as when heat elimination
is experimentally retarded. But the increase due to rise of
temperature is small compared to that produced by the de-
structive action of the microbial products. In the beginning
of a fever the activity of the metabolism is not increased to any
marked extent, and any increase is necessarily largely due to
the greater activity of the muscles of the heart and respiratory
mechanism, and to the muscular contractions which produce
the initial rigors. Thus the excretion of carbon dioxide — the
great measure of the activity of metabolism — is not usually
increased, and there is no evidence of an increased combustion.
In the later stages the increased temperature may bring about
an acceleration in the rate of chemical change; but this is
comparatively slight, less in fact than the increase observed on
taking muscular exercise after rest. The rise of temperature
is primarily due to diminished heat elimination. This
diminished giving off of heat was demonstrated by means of
the calorimeter by I. Rosenthal, while E. Maragliano showed
that the cutaneous vessels arc contracted. Even in the later
stages, until defervescence occurs, heat elimination is inadequate
to get rid of the heat produced.
The toxic action is manifested not only by the increased
disintegration of protoplasm, but also by disturbances in the
functions of the various organs. The activity of the digestive
glands is diminished and appetite is lost Food is therefore not
taken, although when taken it appears to be absorbed in un-
diminished quantities. As a result of this the patient suffers
from inanition, and lives largely on his own fats and proteids,
and for this reason rapidly emaciates. The functions of the
liver are also diminished in activity. Glycogen is not stored
in the cells, and the bile secretion is modified, the essential
constituents disappearing almost entirely in some cases. The
production .of urea is also interfered with, and the proportion
of nitrogen in the urine not in the urea increases. This is in part
due to the increased disintegration of proteids setting free
sulphur and phosphorus, which, oxidized into sulphuric and
phosphoric acids, combine with the ammonia which would other-
wise have been changed to urea. Thus the proportion of ammonia
in the urine is increased. Concurrently with these alterations
in the functions of the liver-cells, a condition of granular degenera-
tion and probably a state of fatty degeneration makes its ap-
pearance. That the functional activity of the kidneys is modified,
is shown by the frequent appearance of proteoses or of albumen
and globulin in the urine. Frequently the toxin acts very
markedly on the protoplasm of the kidney epithelium, and
causes a shedding of the cells and sometimes inflammatory
reaction. The muscles are weakened, but so far no satisfactory
study has been made of the influence of microbial poisons on
muscular contraction. A granular and fatty degeneration super-
venes, and the fibres waste. The nervous structures, especially
the nerve-cells, are acted upon, and not only is their functional
activity modified, but they also undergo structural changes of a
chroma tolytic nature. The blood shows two important changes —
first, a fall in the alkalinity due to the products of disintegration
of protoplasm; and, secondly, an increase in the number of
leucocytes, and chiefly in the polymorpho-nuclear variety. This
is best marked in pneumonia, where the normal number is often
increased twofold and sometimes more than tenfold, while it is
altogether absent in enteric fever.
An interesting general modification in the metabolism is the
enormous fall in the excretion of chlorine, a fall far in excess
of what could be accounted for by inanition, and out of all
proportion to the fall in the sodium and potassium with which
the chlorine is usually combined in the urine. The fevered
animal in fact stores chlorine in its tissues, though in what
manner and for what reason is not at present known.
Authorities. — Von Noorden, Lehrbuch der Pathologic des Stojf-
wechsels (Berlin, 1893); Metabolism and Practical Medicine, vol. 11.,
article "Fever by F. Kraus (1907); Dr A. Rabe, Die modemen
Fieberlheorien (Berlin, 1894); Dr G. B. Ughetti. Pas Fieber, Iran*,
by Dr R. Tcuschcr (Jena, 1895); D*" M. Lovit, " Die Lehre von
Fiebcr," VorUsungcn fiber allgcmeine Pathologic, erstes Heft Qena,
1897); Louis Guinon, " Dc la fievre," in Bouchard's Traiti de
pathologic ginfraU, t. Hi. 2nd partte (Paris, 1899); Sir J. B. Sander-
•on, " The Doctrine of Fever, in Allputt's System of Medicine, vol. L
p. 139 (London, 1896). (D. N. P.)
FEYDEAU, ERNEST-AIH& (1821-1873), French author, was
born in Paris, on the 16th of March 1821. He began his literary
career in 1844, by the publication of a volume of poetry, Let
Nationalcs. Either the partial failure of this literary effort, or
his marriage soon afterwards to a daughter of the economist
Blanqui, caused him to devote himself to finance and to
archaeology. He gained a great success with his novel Fanny
(1858), a success due chiefly to the cleverness with which it
depicted and excused the corrupt manners of a certain portion
of French society. This was followed in rapid succession by a
scries of fictions, similar in character, but wanting the attraction
of novelty; none of them enjoyed the same vogue as Fanny.
Besides his novels Feydcau wrote several plays, and he is also
the author of Histoire ginirale des usages funcbres el des sipvllurcs
des peuples onciens (3 vols., 1857-1861); Le Secret du bonkcur
(sketches of Algerian life) (2 vols., 1864); and VAllemagne en
1871 ( 1872), a clever caricature of German life and manners. He
died in Paris on the 27th of October 1873.
See Sainte-Beuvc, Causcries du Jundi, vol. xiv., and Barbey
d'Aurevilly, Les CEuvres et les homines au XIX' siede.
TEZ (Fds), the chief city of Morocco, into which empire it
was incorporated in 1 548. It lies in 34* 6' 3* N., 4 38' 15* W„,
. about 230 m. N.E. of Marrakesh, 100 m. E. from the Atlantic
and 85 m. S. of the Mediterranean; It is beautifully situated
in a deep valley on the Wad Fas, an affluent of the Wad Sebu,
which divides the town into two parts— the ancient town, Fas
el Bali, on the right bank, and the new, Fas el Jadid, on the lef L
Like many other Oriental cities, Fez from a distance appears
a very attractive place. It stretches out between low hills,
crowned by the ruins of ancient fortresses, and though then
FEZZAN
3°Z
is nothing imposing, there is something particularly impressive
in the sight of that white-roofed conglomeration of habitations,
broken only by occasional mosque towers or, on the outskirts,
by luxuriant foliage. Except on the south side the city is sur-
rounded by hills, interspersed with groves of orange, pomegranate
and other fruit trees, and large olive gardens.
From its peculiar situation Fex has a drainage superior to that
of most Moorish towns. When the town becomes very dirty, the
water is allowed to run down the streets by opening lids for the
purpose in the conduits and closing the ordinary exits, so that
it overflows and cleanses the pavements. The Fasis as' a rule
prefer to drink the muddy river water rather than that of the
pure springs which abound in certain quarters of the town. But
the assertion that the supply and drainage system are one is a
libel, since the drainage system lies below the level of the fresh
river water, and was organized by a French renegade, under
Mohammed XVI., about the close Of the x8th century. The
general dampness of the town renders it unhealthy, however,
as the pallid faces of the inhabitants betoken, but this is con-
sidered a mark of distinction and is jealously guarded.
Most of the streets are exceedingly narrow, and as the houses
are high and built in many cases over the thoroughfares these
are often very dark and gloomy, though, since wooden beams,
rough stones and mortar are used in building, there is less of
That ruined, half-decayed appearance so common in other
Moorish towns where mud concrete is the material employed.
As a commercial town Fez is a great depot for the trade of
Barbery and wares brought from the east and south by caravans.
The manufactures still carried on are those of yellow slippers
of the famous Morocco leather, fine white woollen and silk hoiks,
of which it Is justly proud, women's embroidered sashes, various
coarse woollen cloths and blankets, cotton and silk handkerchiefs,
silk cords and braids, swords and guns, saddlery, brass trays,
Moorish musical instruments, rude painted pottery and coloured
tiles. Until recent times the city had a monopoly of the manu-
facture of Fez caps, for it was supposed that the dye which
imparts the dull crimson hue of these caps could not be procured
elsewhere; they are now, however, made both in France and
Turkey. The dye fs obtained from the juice of a berry which
grows in large quantities near the town, and is also used in the
dyeing of leather. Some gold ornaments are made, the gold
being brought from the interior by caravans which trade regularly
with Timbuktu.
As in other capitals each trade has a district or street devoted
chiefly to its activities. Old Fez is the business portion of the
town, new Fez being occupied principally by government
quarters and the Jews' meQah. The tradesman usually sits
cross-legged in a corner of his shop with his goods so arranged
that he can reach most of them without moving.
In the early days of Mahommedan rule in Morocco, Fex was
the seat of learning and the empire's pride. Its schools of
religion, philosophy and astronomy enjoyed a great reputation
in Africa and also in southern Europe, and were even attended
by Christians. On the expulsion of the Moors from Spain,
refugees of all kinds flocked to Fez, and brought with them
some knowledge of arts, sciences and manufactures, and thither
flocked students to make use of its extensive libraries. But
its glories were brief, and though still " the university town "
of Morocco, it retains but a shadow of its greatness. lis library,
estimated by Gerhard Rohlfs in 1861 to contain 5000 volumes,
is open on Fridays, and any Moor of known respectability may
borrow volumes on getting an order and signing a receipt for
them. There are about x 500 students who read at the Karueein.
They pay no rents, but buy the keys of the rooms from the
last occupants, wiling them again on leaving.
The Karueein is celebrated as the largest mosque in Africa,
but it is by no means the most magnificent. On account of
the vast area covered, the roof, supported by three hundred
and sixty-six pillars of stone-, appears very tow. The aide chapel
for services for the dead contains twenty-four pillars. All
these columns support horse-shoe arches, on which the roof
is built, long vistas of arches being seen from each of the eighteen
doors of the mosque. The large lamp St stated to weigh 1763 lb>
and to have 500 lights, but it is very seldom lit. The total
number of lights in the Karueein is given as seventeen
hundred, and they are said to require 3} cwt. of oil for one
filling. The mosque of Mulai Idris, built by the founder of Fee
about the year 810, is considered so sacred that the streets
which approach its entrance are forbidden to Jews, Christians
or four-footed beasts. The sanctity of the shrine in particular
is esteemed very great, and this accounts for the crowds which
daily flock to it. The Tumiat door leading to it was once very
fine, but is now much faded. Opposite toil is a td uge for friend-
less sharifas— the female descendants of Mahomet— built by
Mohammed XVII.
It is believed that the foundation stone of Fez was hid in
808 by Idris : II. Since then its history has been chequered,
as it was successfully besieged no fewer than eight times In the
first five hundred years of its existence, yet only once knew
foreign masters, when in 1554 the Turks took possession of it
without a siege and held it for a short time. Fez became the
chief residence of the Filali dynasty, who obtained possession
of the town in 1649 (see further Morocco: History),
The population has been very varyingry estimated; probably
the inhabitants number under one hundred thousand, even when
the court is in residence.
See H. Gaillard. Unt Vitt* brisk*. Fh (Paris, 1005) ;C. Rene*
Leclcrc, " Le commerce ct riadastrio a Fez " 'w.&6USiiuum«nls col*
comiU afriqui Jraniaisc (1905).
FEZZAN (the ancient P hte & ni a, or country of the Gara-
mantes), a region of the Sahara, forming a 4< kaimakamlik '•
of the Ottoman vilayet of Tripoli <tf.v.). Its f rentiers, ill-defined,
run from Bonjem, within 50 m. of the Mediterranean on the
north, south-westward to the Akakus range of hills, which
separates Fezzan from Ghat, thence eastward for over 400 m.,
and then turn north and west to Bonjem again, embracing an
area of about 156,000 sq. m.
Physical Fro/iiref.— The general form of the country is
determined by the ranges of hills, including the Jebel-es-Suda
(highest peak about 4000 ft.), the Haruj-el-Aswad and the
Haruj-el-Abiad, which between 14* and io° E. and 27* and »g° N,"
form the northern edge of a broad desert plateau, and shot off
the northern region draining to the Mediterranean from the
depressions in which lie the oases of Fezzan proper in the south.
The central depression of Hofra (" ditch "), as it is called, lies
in about *6° N. It does not form a continuous fertile tract;
but consists of a monotonous sandy expanse somewhat more
thickly studded with oases than the surrounding wastes. The*
Hofra at it a lowest part is not more than 600 ft. above the sea-
level, and in this hollow is situated the capital Mursuk. It has
a general cast to west direction. North-west of the Hofra is
a long narrow valley, the Wadi-el-Gharbi, which trends north-
east and is the most fertile district of Fezxan, It contains several
perennial springs and lake-like basins. One of these basins, the
saline Bahr-el-Dud (" Sea of Worms "), has an extent of 600
sq. m., and is in places ad ft. deep. Southwards the Hofra rises
to a height of 2000 ft., and in this direction lies the oasis of
Catron, followed by Tejerrt on the Verge of the desert, which
marks the southern limit of the date and the northern of the dum
palm. Beyond Tejerri the Sahaian plateau rises continuously
to the Tibcsii highlands. (See further Tripoli.)
C/fwjflte.— The average temperature of Murzuk was found
by Rohlfs to be 70° F. Frost is not uncommon in the winter
months. The climate is a very regular one, and is in general
healthy, the dryness of the air in summer making the heat more
bearable than on the sea- coast. An almost perpetual blue
sky overhangs the desert, and the people of Fezzan are so
unaccustomed to and so ilUprcparcd for wet weather that/
as in Tuot and Tidikelt, they pray to be spared from rain.
Water is found almost everywhere at small depths.
Flora and F«*iw.— The datc+alm is the characteristic tree
of Fezzan, and constitutes the chief wealth of the land. Many
different kinds of date-palms are found in the oases: in that
.of Murauk alone more than 30 varieties are counted, the most
3©8
FEZZAN
esteemed being named the THIis, Tuati and Auregh, In all
Fezzan the date is the staple food, not only for men, but (or
camels, hones and dogs. Even the stones of the fruit axe
softened and given to the cattle. The huts of the poorer classes
are entirely made of date-palm leaves, and the more substantial
habitations consist chiefly of the same material. The produce
of the tree is small, 100 full-grown trees yielding only about
40 cwt. of dates. Besides the date there are numerous olive,
fig and almond trees. Various grains are cultivated. Wheat
and barley are sown in winter, and in spring, summer and autumn
several lands of durra, especially ksob and gafoli. Cotton
flourishes, is perennial for six or seven years, and gives large pods
of moderate length of staple.
There are no large carnivora in Fezzan. In the uninhabited
oases gazelles and antelopes are occasionally found. The most
important animal is the camel, of which there are two varieties,
the Tebu or Sudan camel and the Arabian, differing very much
in size, form and capabilities. Horses and cattle are not
numerous. Among birds are ostriches, falcons, vultures,
swallows and ravens; in summer wild pigeons and ducks are
numerous, but in winter they seek a warmer climate. There arc
no remarkable insects or snakes. A species of Artemia or brine
shrimp, about a quarter'of an inch in length, of a colour
resembling the bright hue of the gold fish, is fished for with
cotton nets in the " Sea of Worms," and mixed with dates and
kneaded into a paste, which has the taste and smell of salt
herring, is considered a luxury by the people of Fezzan.
Inhabitants.— The total population is estimated at between
50,000 and 80,000. The inhabitants are a mixed people, derived
from the surrounding Teda and Bornu on the south, Tuareg of
the plateaus on the west, Berbers and Arabs from the north.
The primitive inhabitants, called by their Arab conquerors
Berauna, are believed to have been of Negro origin. They no
longer persist as a distinct people. In colour the present
inhabitants vary from black to white, but the prevailing hue of
skin is a Malay-like yellow, the features and woolly hair being
Negro. The chief languages are the Kanuri or Bornu language
and Arabic. Many understand Targish, the Teda and the Hausa
tongues. If among such a mixed people there can be said to be
any national language, it is that of Bornu, which is most widely
understood and spoken. The people of Sokna, north of the Jcbcl-
es-Suda, have a peculiar Berber dialect which Rohlfs found to
be very closely allied to that of Ghadames. The men wear a haik
or baraka* like those of Tripoli, and a fez; short hose, and a
large loose shirt called mansarla, with red or yellow slippers,
complete their toilet. Yet one often sees the large blue or white
lobe of Bornu, and the lilkam or shawl-muffler of the Tuareg,
wound round the mouth to keep out the blown sand of the
desert The women, who so long as they are young have very
plump forms, and who are generally small, arc more simply
dressed, as a rule, in the barakan, wound round their bodies;
they seldom wear shoes, but generally have sandals made of
palm leaf. Like the Arab women they load arms and legs with
heavy metal rings, which are of silver among the more wealthy.
The hair, thickly greased with butter, soon catching the dust
which forms a crust over it, is done up in numberless little plaits
round the head, in the same fashion as in Bornu and the Hausa
countries. Children run about naked until they attain the age
of puberty, which comes very early, for mothers of ten or twelve
years of age are not uncommon. The Fczzani are of a gay
disposition, much given to music and dancing.
Towns and Trade. — Murzuk, the present capital, which is
in telegraphic communication with the town of Tripoli, lies in
the western corner of the Hofra depression, in as* 55' N. and 14°
10' E. It was founded about 1310, about which time the kasbah
or citadel was built. The Turks repaired it, as well as the town-
wall, which has, however, again fallen into a ruinous condition.
Murzuk, which had in 1006 some 3000 inhabitants, is cut in two
by a wide street, the dcudal. The citadel and most of the houses
are built of salt -saturated dried mud. Sokna, about midway
between Tripoli and Murzuk, situated on a great gravel plain
north of the Suda range, has a population of about 2500.
Carama (Jerma-el-Kedima), the capital under the Garamantes
and the Romans, was in the Wadi-cl-Gharbi. It was a flourishing
town at the time of the Arab conquest but is now deserted.
Among the ruins is a well-prc6crved stone monument marking
the southern limit of the Roman dominions in this part of Africa.
The modern Jerma is a small place a little north of the site of
Garama. Zuila, the capital under the Arabs, lies in a depression
called the Shcrguia east of Murzuk on the most direct caravan
route to Barca and Egypt. Of Traghen, the capital under the
Nesur dynasty, which was on the same caravan route and
between Zuila and Murzuk, Utile besides the ruined kasbah
remains.
Placed roughly midway between the countries of the central
Sudan and Tripoli, Fezzan serves as a depot for caravans crossing
the Sahara; its commerce is unimportant. Its most important
export is that of dates. Slave dealing, formerly the most lucrative
occupation of the people, is moribund owing to the stoppage of
slave raiding by the European governments in their Sudan
territories.
History.— -The country formed part of the territory of the
Garamantes, described by Herodotus as a very powerful people.
Attempts have been made to identify the Garamantes with the
Berauna of the Arabs of the 7th century, and to the period of
the Garamantes Duvcyrier assigns the remains of remarkable
hydraulic works, and certain tombs and lock sculptures-
indications, it is held, of a Negro civilization of ancient date
which existed in the northern Sahara. The Garamantes, whether
of Libyan or Negro origin, had certainly a considerable degree
of civilization when in the year 19 B.C. they were conquered by
the proconsul L. Cornelius Balbus Minor and their country added
to the Roman empire. By the Romans it was called Phazania,
whence the present name Fezzan. After the Vandal invasion
Phazania appears to have regained independence and to have
been ruled by a Berauna dynasty. At this time the people were
Christians, but in 666 the Arabs conquered the country and all
traces of Christianit y seem speedily to have disappeared. Subject
at first to the caliphs, an independent Arab dynasty, that of the
Beni Khattab, obtained power early in the 10th century. In
the 13th century the country came under the rule of the king of
Kanem (Bornu), but soon afterwards the Nesur, said to have
been a native or Berauna dynasty, were in power. More probably
the Nesur were hereditary governors originally appointed by
the rulers of Kanem. In the 14th century the Nesur were
conquered and dethroned by an Arab tribe, that of Kbonnan,
who reduced the people of Fezzan to a state of slavery, a position
from which they were rescued about the middle of the 16th
century by a sherif of Morocco, Montasir-b.-Mahommed, who
founded the dynasty of Beni Mahommed. This dynasty, which
came into frequent conflict with the Turks, who had about the
same time that Montasir secured Fezzan established themselves
in Tripoli, gradually extended its borders as far as Sokna in the
north. It was the Beni Mahommed who chose Murzuk as their
capital. They became intermittently tributary to the pasha
of Tripoli, but within Fezzan the power of the sultans was
absolute. They maintained a bodyguard of mamclukes, mostly
Europeans — Greeks, Genoese, or their immediate descendants.
The annual tribute was paid to the pasha either in money or
in gold, senna or slaves. The last of the Beni Mahommed sultans
was killed in the vicinity of Traghen in 181 1 by El-Mukkeni,
one of the lieutenants of Yuscf Pasha, the last sovereign but one
of the independent Karamanli dynasty of Tripoli. El-Mukkeni
now made himself sultan of Fezzan, and became notorious by
his slaving expeditions into the central Sudan, in which he
advanced as far as Bagirmi In 1831, Abd-el-Jelil, a chief of the
Walid-Sliman Arabs, usurped the sovereign authority. After a
troublous reign of ten years he was slain in battle by a Turkish
force under Bakir Bey, and Fezzan was added to the Turkish
empire. Towards the end of the 19th century the Turks, alarmed
at the increase of French influence in the neighbouring countries,
reinforced their garrison in Fezzan. The kaimakamlik is said
to yield an annual revenue of £6000 only to the Tripolitan
treasury.
FIACRE, SAINT— FIBRES
399
Awoama a.— The snost notable of the European traveller* who
have visited Feszan, and to whose work* reference should be made
(or more detailed information regarding it, are, taking them in the
order of date, as follows: F. Homemann, 1798; G. F. Lyon, 1819;
D. Denham, H. Clapperton and W. Oudney. 1823 ; J. Richardson,
1845; H. Barth, 1*50-1855: E. Vogel, 1854; H. Duveyrier, 1859-
1861; M. von Beurmana. 1862; C. Rohlfs, 1865; G. Nachtigal,
18^9; P. L. Montefl, 1893; H. Vncher, 1906. Nachtigal's Sahara
md Sudan, vol. L (Berlin. 1879), gathers irp much of the information
in earlier works, and a list of the Beni Mahommed sovereigns is
given in A- M. H. J. Stokvia, Manuel d'histoire, voL L (Leiden, 1888),
p. 471. Miss Tinni (q.v.), who travelled with Nachtigal as far as
Murruk. was shortly afterwards murdered at the Sbaraba wells
on the road to Ghat.
FIACRE, SAINT (Celt. Fiackro), an anchorite of the 7th century,
of aoble Irish descent. We have no information concerning his
life in his native country. His Ada, which have scarcely any
historical value, relate that he left Ireland, and came to France
with his companions. He approached St Faro, the bishop of
Menu, to whom- he made known his desire to live a life of
solitude in the forest. St Faro assigned him a spot called
Prodilus (Brodolium), the modem Breuil, in the province of Brie.
There St Fiacre built a monastery in honour of the Holy Virgin,
and to it added a small house for guests, to which he himself
withdrew. Here he received St Chillen (? Killian), who was
returning from a pilgrimage to Rome, and here he remained until
bis death, having acquired a great reputation for miracles.
His remains rested for a long time in the place which he had
sanctified. In 1568, at the time of the religious troubles, they
were transferred to the cathedral of Meaux, where his shrine
may still be seen in the sacristy. Various relics of St Fiacre were
giren to princes and great personages. His festival is celebrated
on the 30th of August. He is the patron of Brie, and gardeners
invoke him as their protector. French hackney-coaches received
the name of JUtcre from the Hotel St Fiacre, in the rue St Martin,
Paris, where one Sauvage, who was the first to provide cabs for
hire, kept his vehicles.
See Ada Sanctorum, August! vi 598-620; J. O'Hanlon, Lives of
At Irish Saints, viii. 431-^7 (Dublin, 1075-1904) ; J- C. O'Meagher,
" Saint Facie de la Brie," in Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,
jrd series, il I73-17&- (H. De.)
FIABS PRICES, in the law of Scotland, the average prices of
each of the different sorts of grain grown in each county, as
bed annually by the sheriff, usually after the verdict of a jury;
they serve as a rule for ascertaining the value of the grain due to
feudal superiors, to the clergy or to lay proprietors of teinds, to
landlords as a part or the whole of their rents and in all cases
where the price of grain has not been fixed by the parties. It is
not known when or how the practice of " striking the furs," as it
is called, originated. It probably was first used to determine the
value of the grain rents and duties payable to the crown. In
confirmation of this view it seems that at first the duty of the
theruts was merely to make a return to the court of exchequer of
the prices of grain within their counties, the court itself striking
the gars, and from an old case it appears that the fiars were
unick above the true prices, being regarded rather as punish-
ments to force the king's tenants to pay their rents than as the
proper equivalent of the grain they bad to pay. Co-existent,
however, with these fiars, which were termed sheriffs' fiars, there
was at an early period another class called commissaries' fiars, by
*hich the values of teinds were regulated. They have been
traced back to the Reformation, and were under the management
of the commissary or consistorial courts, which then took the
pUce of the bishops and their officials. They have now been long
out of use, but they were perhaps of greater antiquity than the
sheriffs' fiars, and the model upon which these were instituted.
In 1733 the court of session passed an Act of Sederunt for the
Purpose of regulating the procedure in fiars courts. Down to
that date the practice of striking the fiars was by no means
universal over Scotland; and even in those counties into which
it had been introduced, there was, as the preamble of the act puts
it, " a general complaint that the said fiars are struck and given
wt by the sheriffs without due care and inquiry into the current
^d just prices." The act in consequence provided that all
sheriffs should summon annually, between the 4th and the 20th
of February, a competent number of persons, living in the shire, of
experience in the prices of grain within its bounds, and that from
these they should choose a jury of fifteen, of whom at least eight
were to be heritors; that witnesses and other evidence as to the
price of grain grown in the county, especially since the zst of
November preceding until the day of inquiry, were to be brought
before the jury, who might also proceed on " their own proper
knowledge"; that the verdict was to be returned and the
sentence of the sheriff pronounced by the 1st of March; and
further, where custom or expediency recommended it, the sheriff
was empowered to fix fiars of different values according to the
different qualities of the grain. It cannot be said that this act
has remedied all the evils of which it complained. The propriety
of some of its provisions has been questioned, and the competency
of the court to pass it has been doubted, even by the court itself.
Its authority has been entirely disregarded in one county—
Haddingtonshire— where the fiars are struck by the sheriff alone,
without a jury; and when this practice was called in question the
court declined to interfere, observing that the fiars were better
struck in Haddingtonshire than anywhere else. The other
sheriffs have in the main followed the act, but with much variety
of detail, and in many instances on principles the least calculated
to reach the true average prices. Thus in some counties the
averages are taken on the number of transactions, without regard
to the quantities sold. In one case, in 1838, the evidence was so
carelessly collected that the second or inferior barley fiars were
as. 4d. higher than the first. Formerly the price was struck by
the boll, commonly the Linlithgowshire boll; now the imperial
quarter is always used.
The origin of the plural word fiars (fears, fcers, ficrs) is uncertain.
Tamieson, in his Dictionary, says that it comes from the Icelandic
fe, wealth; Paterson derives it from an old French word four, an
average; others connect it with the Latin forum (i.e. market).
The New English Dictionary accepts the two latter connexions. On
the general subject of fiars prices see Paterson's Historical Account
of the Fiars in Scotland (Edin., 185a); Connell, On Tithes; Hunter's
Landlord and Tenant.
FIBRES (or Fibehs, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra,
apparently connected either with JUum, thread, or finderc, to
split), the general term for certain structural components of
animal and vegetable tissue utilized in manufactures, and in
respect of such uses, divided for the sake of classification into
textile, paper-making, brush and miscellaneous fibres.
I. Textile Fibres are mostly products of the organic world,
elaborated in their elongated form to subserve protective functions
in animal life (as wool and epidermal hairs, &c) or as structural
components of vegetable tissues (flax, hemp and wood cells).
It may be noted that the inorganic world provides an exception to
this general statement in the fibrous mineral asbestos (q.v.),
which is spun or twisted into coarse textiles. Other silicates are
also transformed by artificial processes into fibrous forms, such
as " glass," which is fused and drawn or spun to a continuous
fibre, and various " slags " which, in the fused state, are trans-
formed into " slag wool." Lastly, we note that a number of
metals are drawn down to the finest dimensions, in continuous
lengths, and these are woven into cloth or gauze, such metallic
cloths finding valuable applications in the arts. Certain metals
in the form of fine wire are woven into textile fabrics used as
dress materials. Such exceptional applications are of insignifi-
cant importance, and wiQ not be further considered in this article.
The common characteristics of the various forms of matter
comprised in the widely diversified groups of textHe fibres are
those of the colloids. Colloidal matter is intrinsically devoid of
structure, and in the mass may be regarded as homogeneous;
whereas crystalline matter in its proximate forms assumes
definite and specific shapes which express a complex of internal
stresses. The properties of matter which condition its adaptation
to structural functions, first as a constituent of a living individual,
and afterwards as a textile fibre, are homogeneous continuity of
substance, with a high degree of interior cohesion, and associated
with an irreducible minimum of elasticity or extensibility. The
colloids show an infinite diversity of variations in these essential
properties: certain of them, and notably cellulose (q.v.), maintain
3«
FIBRES
cotton, wool, flax and jute, and it also Includes at the other
extreme the production of coarse textiles, such as twine and rope.
C. The fibres of still shorter dimensions are treated in various
ways for the production of a fabric in continuous length.
The distinction of type of manufacturing processes in which
the relatively short fibres are utilized, either as disintegrated
units or comminuted long fibres, follows the lines of division
into long and short fibres; the long fibres are worked into yarns
by various processes, whereas the shorter fibres are agglomerated
by both dry and wet processes to felted tissues or felts. It is
obvious, however, that these distinctions do not constitute rigid
dividing lines. Thus the principles involved in felting are also
applied in the manipulation of long fibre fabrics. For instance,
woollen .goods are dosed or shrunk by milling, the web being
subjected to a beating or hammering treatment in an apparatus
known as " the Stocks," or is continuously run through squeezing
rollers, in weak alkaline liquids. Flax goods are " closed " by
the process of beetling, a long-continued process of hammering,
under which the ultimate fibres are more or less subdivided, and
at the same time welded or incorporated together. As already
indicated, paper, which is a web composed of units of short
dimensions produced by deposition from suspension in water
and agglomerated by the interlacing of the component fibres in
all planes within the mass, is a species of textile. Further,
whereas the silks are mostly worked up in the extreme lengths
of the cocoon, there are various systems of spinning silk wastes
of variable short lengths, which are similar to those required for
spinning the fibres which occur naturally in the shorter lengths.
The fibres thus enumerated as commercially and industrially
important have established themselves as the result of a struggle
for survival, and each embodies typical features of ultility. There
are innumerable vegetable fibres, many of which are utilized in
the locality or region of their production, but are not available
for the highly specialized applications of modern competitive
industry to qualify for which a very complex range of require-
ments has to be met. These include primarily the factors of
production and trans p o rt summed up in cost of production,
together with the question of regularity of supply; structural
characteristics, form and dimensions, including uniformity of
ultimate unit and adaptability to standard methods of preparing
and spinning, together with tenacity and elasticity, lustre.
Lastly, composition, which determines the degree of resistance to
chemical disintegrating influences as well as subsidiary questions
of colour and relationship to colouring matters. The quest for
new fibres, as well as modified methods of production of those
already known, require critical investigation from the point of
view of established practice. The present perspective outline
of the group will be found to contain the elements of a grammar
of the subject. But those who wish to pursue the matter will
require to amplify this outlined picture by a study of the special
treatises which deal with general principles, as well as the separate
articles on the various fibres.
Analysis and Identification, — For the analysis of textile fabrics
and the identification of component fibre, a special treatise must
be consulted. The following general facts are to be noted as of
importance.
All animal fibres are effectively dissolved by 10% solution
of caustic potash or soda. The fabric or material is boiled in
this solution for xo minutes and exhaustively washed. Any
residue will be vegetable or cellulose fibre. It must not be for-
gotten that the chemical properties of the fibre substances are
modified more or less by association in combination with colour-
ing matters and mordants. These may, in many cases, be
removed by treatments which do not seriously modify the fibre
substances.
Wool is distinguished from silk by its relative resistance to the
action of sulphuric acid. The cold concentrated acid rapidly
dissolves silk as well as the vegetable fibres. The attack on wool
is slow, and the epidermal scales of wool make their appearance.
Tfa true silk* are distinguished from the wild silks by the action
of concentrated hydrochloric acid in the cold, which reagent
dissolves the former, but has only a alight effect on Tussore
silk. After preliminary resolution by these group reagents,
the fabric is subjected to microscopical analysis for the final
identification of its component fibres (see H. Schlichter, Journal
Soc. Chem. Ind., 1800, p. 241).
A scheme for the commercial analysis or assay of vegetable
fibres, originally proposed by the author, 1 and now generally
adopted, includes the following operations; —
1. Determination of moisture.
2. Determination of ash left after complete ignition.
3. Hydrolysis:
(a) loss, of weight after boiling the raw fibre with a z %
caustic soda solution for five minutes;
(6) loss after boiling for one hour.
4. Determination of cellulose: the white residue after
(a) boiling for five minutes with 1 % caustic soda,
(b) exposure to chlorine gas for one hour,
(c) boiling with basic sodium sulphite solution.
5. Mercerizing: the loss of weight after digestion with a
20 % solution of sodium hydrate for one hour in the cold.
6. Nitration: the weight of the product obtained after
digestion with a mixture of equal volumes of sulphuric
and nitric acids for one hour in the cold.
7. Add purification: treatment of the raw fibre with 20%
acetic add for one minute, the product being washed
with water and alcohol, and then dried.
8. Determination of the toUl carbon by combustion.
II. Papermaking.— The papermaking industry (see Papes)
employs as raw materials a large proportion of the vegetable
fibre products already enumerated, and, for the reasons incident-
ally mentioned, they may be, and are, employed in a large variety
of forms: in fact any fibrous material containing over 30%
" cellulose " and yielding ultimate fibres of a length exceeding
x mm. can be used in this industry. Most important staples are
cotton and flax; these are known to the paper-maker as " rag "
fibres, rags, i.e. cuttings of textile fabrics, new and old. being
their main source of supply. These are used for writing and
drawing papers. In the class of " printings M two of the most
important staples are wood pulp, prepared by chemical treatment
from both pine and foliage woods, and in England esparto cellu-
lose, the cellulose obtained from esparto grass by alkali treat-
ment; the cereal straws are also used and are resolved into
cellulose by alkaline boiling followed by bleaching. In the class
of " wrappings " and miscellaneous papers a large number of
other materials find use, such as various residues of manufactur-
ing and preparing processes, scutching wastes, ends of rovings
and yarns, flax, hemp and manila rope waste, adansonia bast,
and jute wastes, raw (cuttings) and manufactured (bagging).
Other materials have been experimentally tried, and would no
doubt come into use on their papermaking merits, but as a matter
of fact the actually suitable raw materials are comprised in the
list above enumerated, and are limited in number, through the
influence of a number of factors of value or utility.
III. Brush Fibres, (ft. — In addition to the textile industries
there arc manufactures which utilize fibres of both animal and
vegetable character. The most important of these is brush-
making. The familiar brushes of everyday use are extremely
diversified in form and texture. The supplies of animal fibres
are mainly drawn from the badger, hog, bear, sable, squirrel and
horse. These fibres and bristles cover a large range of effects.
Brushes required for cleansing purposes are composed of fibres
of a more or less hard and resilient character, such as horse hairs,
and other tail hairs and bristles. For painting work brushes
of soft quality are employed, graduating for fine work into the
extreme softness of the " camel hair " pencil. Of vegetable
fibres the following are used in this industry. The Caryota urens
furnishes the Kittul fibre, obtained from the base of the leaf
stalks. Piassava is obtained from the A Italea junijera, also from
the Leopoldina piassaba (Brazil). Palmyra fibre is obtained
from the Borassus fiabcliifer. These arc all members of the
natural order of the Palmaceae. Mexican fibre, or Istle, is
obtained from the agave. The fibre known as Whisk, largely
1 Col. Ind. Exhibition, 1886, Miscellaneous RiperU*
FIBRES
Plate I.
Fig. i.— Raw Silk. Bombyx mori. Filament of
bave, viewed in length.
^
V
&.
%
Fig. 3. — Artificial "Silk." Lustra-cellulose viscose
process, single fibres in transverse section. Nor-
mal type — polygon of 5 sides — with concave
sides due to contact of the component units of
textile filament.
Fig. 5. — Flax Stem. Linum iisilalissimum, trans-
verse section of stem, showing the bast fibres
occupying the central zone between wood and
exterior cortex.
Co
Fig. 2. — Raw Silk. Bombyx mori. Single fibres in
transverse section showing each fibre or "have"
as dual cylinder.
Fig. 4. — Wool Fibres. Australian merino viewed
in length. Surface imbrications — the structural
cause of true felting properties.
Fig. 6.— Ramie. Section of bast region. Showing
bast fibres bundles but only slightly occurring as
individuals and as coherent.
Plate II.
FIBRES
Fig. 7. — JUTE. Bast bundles. Section of bast region showing
agglomerated bundles of bast fibre, each bundle representing
a spinning unit or filament.
Fig. 8.— MAIZE STEM. Zea mats. Fibro-vascular bundle in
section typical of raonocotyledonous structure.
Flax.
Ramie*.
Jute.
Fig. q— COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate
fibres in the length. Portions selected to show typical
structural characteristics.
Jute. Flax.
Fig. 10— COTTON. FLAX. RAMIE. JUTE. Ultimate
fibres — transverse section. Note similarity of ramie to cotton
and jute to flax. Jute "fibre," a filament formed of compact
agglomerate of ultimate fibres, contrasts with flax, in which
ultimate fibres only slightly adherent — hence its divisibility
and ''drawing" quality under hackling and spinning treat-
ments.
Fig. ii.— ESPARTO. Cellulose. Ultimate fibres of paper
making pulp. Typical fusiform bast fibres, with scattered
serrated cells of cortex and hairs.
Fig. 12 —SECTION OF HAND-MADE PAPER. Ultimate
component fibres disposed in every plane. Proportion lying
at right angles and showing therefore normal transverse
section.
FIBRIN— FICHTE, J. G.
ued for darting benches, i» obtained from various spcriei
of die Gramineae; the " Mexican Whisk " from Epkampeas
wuervwa; and " Italian Whisk " from Andropov*. The coir
fibre mentioned above in connexion with coarse textiles is also
extensively used in brush-making. Aloe and Agave fibres in their
softer forms are also used for plasterers'* brushes. Many of the
whitewashes and cleansing solutions used in house decoration
are alkaline in character, and for such uses advantage is taken
of the specially resistant character of the cellulose group of
materials.
Stuffing and Upkolslcry.— Another important use for fibrous
materials is for filling or stuffing in connexion with the seats and
cushions in upholstery. In the large range of effects required,
a corresponding .number and variety of products find employ-
ment. One of the most important is the floss or seed-hair of the
Eriodendron an/ractuosum, known as Kapok, the use of which
in Europe was created by the Dutch merchants who drew their
supplies from Java. The fibre is soft, silky and elastic, and
maintains its elasticity in use. Many fibres when used in the
mass show, on the other hand, a tendency to become matted
and compressed in use, and to restore them to their original
state the fibre requires to be removed and subjected to a teasing
or carding process. This defect limits the use of other " flosses "
or seed hairs in competition with Kapok. Horse hair is exten-
sively used in this industry, as are also wool flocks, and other
short animal hairs and wastes.
Hats and Mailing. — For these manufactures a large range
of the fibrous products above described are employed} chiefly
in their natural or raw state.
Bibliography. — The list of works appended comprises only a
small fraction of the standard literature of the subject, but they are
sufficiently representative to enable the specialist, by referring to
them, to cover the subject-matter. F. H. Bowman, The Struct**
of the Wood Fibre (188s). The Structure of Cotton Fibre (i 882) ; Cross.
Bevan and King, Indian Fibres and Fibrous Substances (London,
1887); C. F. Cross, Report on Miscellaneous Fibres, Colonial Indian
Exhibition, 1886 (London, 1887); Cross and Bevan. Cellulose,
Researches on Cellulose, i. and ii. (London, 1895-1905) ; C. R. Dodge,
A Descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fibre Plants of the World (Report
No. Q. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1897}; von Hohmcl,
Die Uikroskoptederjechttisch verwendeten Faserstoffe (Leipzig, — *-*■
r Textile Fabrics (London, 1885);
j. J. Hutnmcf. The Dyeintof 1
Matthews. The Textile Fibres, their Physical, Microseo]
Chemical Properties (New York, 1904) ; H. Mullcr, Die PfUwzenfaser
(Braunschweig. 1877); H. Schlichtcr, " The Examination of Textile
Fibres and Fabrics" (Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1 890, 241 ) ; M. Vet Mart,
£iudes sur Us fibres vigetaJes textiles (Paris, 1876); Sir T. H.
Wardle, Silk and Wild Silks, original memoirs in connexion with
CoL Ind. Ex.. 1886. Jubilee Ex. Manchester. 1887; Sir G. Watt,
Dictionary of Economic Products of India (London, 1801) : VVicsncr,
Die Rahstojfe des Pfianzenreichs (Leipzig, 1873); O. N. Witt, Che-
mische Technologic der Cespinnstfascm (Braunschweig, 1888); Kev
Bulletin; The Journal of the Imperial Institute; The Journal of the
Society of Arts; W. I. Hannam. The Textile Fibres of Commerce
(London. 1902); J. Jackson, Commercial Botany, J. Zipser. Die
Textilen Rohmaterialien (Wicn, 1 805); F. Zetzsche, Die wichligsten
Faserstoffe der europdischen Industrte (Leipzig, 1 895). (C. F. C.)
FIBRIN, or Fibrine, a protein formed by the action of the
so-called fibrin-ferment on fibrinogen, a constituent of the blood-
plasma of all vertebrates. This change takes place when blood
leaves the arteries, and the fibrin thus formed occasions the
dotting which ensues (see Blood). To obtain pure coagulated
fibrin it is best to heat blood -plasma (preferably that of the horse)
to 56° C. The usual method of beating a blood-dot with twigs
and removing the 'filamentous fibrin which attaches itself to
them yields a very impure product containing haemoglobin and
much globulin; moreover, it is very difficult to purify. Fibrin
is a very voluminous, tough, strongly elastic, jelly-like substance;
when denaturalized by heat, alcohol or salts, it behaves as any
other coagulated albumin.
FICHTE, 1MMAMUBL HERMANN (originally Hartmann)
VON (1797-1879), German philosopher, son of J. G. Fichte,
was born at Jena on the 18th of July 1 797. Having held educa-
tional posts at Saarbrilckcn and Diisscldorf, in 1836 he became
extraordinary professor of philosophy at Bonn, and in 1840 full
professor. In 1842 he received a call to Tubingen, retired in
1867, and died at Stuttgart on the 8th of August 1S79. The
313
most important of his comprehensive writings are: System der
Ethik (1850-1853), Anthropologic (1856, 3rded. 1876), PsychologU
(1864-1873), Die theistische Wellansichl (1873). In 1837 he had
founded the Zeitschrift fiir Philosophic as an organ of his views,
more espedally on the subject of the philosophy of religion,
where he was in alliance with C. H. Weisse; but, whereas Weisse
thought that the Hegelian structure was sound in the main, and
that its imperfections might be mended, Fichte held it to be
incurably defective, and spoke of it as a " masterpiece of
erroneous consistency or consistent error." Fichte's general
views on philosophy seem to have changed considerably as he
advanced in years, and his influence has been impaired by certain
inconsistencies and an appearance of eclecticism, which is
strengthened by his predominantly historical treatment of
problems, his desire to include divergent systems within his own,
and his conciliatory tone. His philosophy is an attempt to
reconcile monism (Hegel) and individualism (Herbarl) by means
of theism (Leibnitz). He attacks Hegelianism for its pantheism,
its lowering of human personality, and imperfect recognition of
the demands of the moral consciousness. God, he says, is to be
regarded not as an absolute but as an Infinite Person, whose
nature it is that he should realize himself in finite persons.
These persons are objects of God's love, and he arranges the
world for their good. The direct connecting link between God
and man is the " genius," a higher spiritual individuality existing
in man by the side of his lower, earthly individuality. Fichte,
in short, advocates an ethical theism, and his arguments might
easily be turned to account by the apologist of Christianity. In
his conception of finite personality he recurs to something like
the monadism of Leibnitz. His insistence on moral experience
is connected with his insistence on personality. One of the tests
by which Fichte discriminates the value of previous systems is
the adcqualencss with which they interpret moral experience.
The same reason that made him depreciate Hegel made him
praise Krause (panenthcism) and Schleicrmacher, and speak
respectfully of English philosophy. It is characteristic of Fichte's
almost excessive receptiveness that in his latest published work,
Der ncucrc Spiritualismus (1878), he supports his position by
arguments of a somewhat occult or thcosophical cast, not unlike
those adopted by F. W. H. Myers. He also edited the complete
works and literary correspondence of his. father, induding-his
life.
See R. Eucken, " Zur Erinnerung I. H. F.," in Zeitschrift fir
PhUosophie, ex. (1897); C. C. Scherer, Die Golteslehre von J. H. F.
(1902) ; article by Karl Hartmann in Allegemeine deulsche Biographie
xlviii. (1904). Some of his works were translated by J. D. Morell
under the title of Contributions to Mental Philosophy (i860).
FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1762-1814), German philo-
sopher, was born at Rammenau in Upper Lusatia on the 19th
of May 1 762. His father, a ribbon-weaver, was a descendant of
a Swedish soldier who (in the service of Gustavus Adolphus)
was left wounded at Rammenau and settled there. The family
was distinguished for piety, uprightness, and solidity of character.
With these qualities Fichte himself combined a certain im-
petuosity and impatience probably derived from his mother,
a woman of a somewhat querulous and jealous disposition.
At a very early age the boy showed remarkable mental vigour
and moral independence. A fortunate accident which brought
him under the notice of a neighbouring nobleman, Freiherr von
Miltitz, was the means of procuring him a more excellent educa-
tion than his father's circumstances would have allowed. He
was placed under the care of Pastor Krebel at Niedcrau. After
a short stay at Meissen he was entered at the celebrated
school at Pforta, near Naumburg. In 1780 he entered the
university of Jena as a student of theology. He supported
himself mainly by private teaching, and during the years 1784-
1787 acted as tutor in various families of Saxony. In 1 787, after
an unsuccessful application to the consistory for pecuniary assist-
ance, he seems to have been driven to miscellaneous literary work.
A tutorship at Zurich was, however, obtained in the spring of
1788, and Fichte spent in Switzerland two of the happiest
years, of his life. He made several valuable " acquaintances,
3 H
among others Lavater and his brother-in-law Hartmann Rahn,
to whose daughter, Johanna Maria, he became engaged.
Settling at Leipzig, still without any fixed means of livelihood,
he was again reduced to literary drudgery. In the midst of
this work occurred the most important event of his life, his
introduction to the philosophy of Kant. At Scbulpforta he had
read with delight Lessing's Anti-Goezc, and during his Jena days
had studied the relation between philosophy and religion. The
outcome of his speculations, Apkorismen iiber Religion und
Deismus (unpublished, date 1700; Werke, i. 1-8), was a species
of Spinozistic determinism, regarded, however, as lying alto-
gether outside the boundary of religion. It is remarkable that
even for a time fatalism should have been predominant in his
reasoning, for in character he was opposed to such a view, and,
as he has said, " according to the man, so is the system of
philosophy he adopts/'
Fichte's Letters of this period attest the influence exercised
on him by the study of Kant. It effected a revolution in his
mode of thinking; so completely did the Kantian doctrine of
the inherent moral worth of man harmonize with his own
character, that his life becomes one effort to perfect a true
philosophy, and to make its principles practical maxims. At
first he seems to have thought that the best method for accom-
plishing his object would be to expound Kantianism in a popular,
intelligible form. He rightly felt that the reception of Kant's
doctrines was impeded by their phraseology. An abridgment
of the Krilik der Urthcihkraft was begun, but was left unfinished.
Fichte's circumstances had not improved. It had been
arranged that he should return to Ziirich and be married to
Johanna Rahn, but the plan was overthrown by a commercial
disaster which affected the fortunes of the Rahn family. Fichte
accepted a post as private tutor in Warsaw, and proceeded on
foot to that town. The situation proved unsuitable; the lady,
as Kuno Fischer says, " required greater submission and belter
French " than Fichte could yield, and after a fortnight's stay
Fichte set out for Konigsbcrg to sec Kant. His first interview
was disappointing; the coldness and formality of the aged
philosopher checked the enthusiasm of the young disciple,
though it did not diminish his reverence. He resolved to bring
himself before Kant's notice by submitting to him a workin which
the principles of the Kantian philosophy should be applied.
Such was the origin of the work, written in four weeks, the
Versucheiner Krilik alter Ojfenbarung (Essay towards a Critique
of all Revelation). The problem which Fichte dealt with in
this essay was one not yet handled by Kant himself, the relations
of which to the critical philosophy furnished matter, for surmise.
Indirectly, indeed, Kant had indicated a very definite opinion
on theology* from the Critique of Pure Reason it was clear that
for him speculative theology must be purely negative, while the
Critique of Practical Reason as clearly indicated the view that
the moral law is the absolute content or substance of any religion.
A critical investigation of the conditions under which religious
belief was possible was still wanting. Fichte sent his essay to
Kant, who approved it highly, extended to the author a warm
reception, and exerted his influence to procure a publisher.
After some delay, consequent on the scruples of the theological
censor of Halle, who did not like to sec miracles rejected, the
book appeared (Easter, 1792). By an oversight Fichte's name
did not appear on the title-page, nor was the preface given, in
which the author spoke of himself as a beginner in philosophy.
Outsiders, not unnaturally, ascribed the work to Kant, The
All genuine Uteratur-Zciluug went so far as to say that no one
who had read a line of Kant's writings could fail to recognize
the eminent author of this new work. Kant himself corrected
the mistake, at the same time highly commending the work.
Fichte's reputation was thus secured at a stroke.
The Critique of Revelation marks the culminating point of
Fichte's Kantian period. The exposition of the conditions under
which revealed religion is possible turns upon the absolute
requirements of the moral law in human nature. Religion itself
is the belief in this mora J law as divine, and such belief is a
practical postulate, necessary in order to add force to the law.
FICHTE, J. G.
It follows that no revealed religion, so far as matter or substance
is concerned, can contain anything beyond this law, nor can
any fact in the world of experience be recognized by us as super-
natural. The supernatural element in religion can only be the
divine character of the moral law. Now, the revelation of this
divine character of morality is possible only lo a being in whom
the lower impulses have been, or are, successful in overcoming
reverence for the law. In such a case it is conceivable that a
revelation might be given in order to add strength to the moral
law. Religion ultimately then rests upon the practical reason,
and expresses some demand or want of the pure ego. In this
conclusion we can trace the prominence assigned by Fichte to
the practical element, and the tendency to make the requirements
of the ego the ground for all judgment on reality. It was not
possible that having reached this point he should not press
forward and leave the Kantian position.
This success was coincident with an improvement in the
fortunes of the Rahn family, and the marriage took place at
Zurich in October 1793. Tlie remainder of the year he spent
at Zurich, slowly perfecting his thoughts on the fundamental
problems left for solution in the Kantian philosophy. During
this period he published anonymously two remarkable political
works, Zur tic kj order ung dcr Dcnkfrcihtil von den FUrsten Europas
and BeilrUgczur Beriehtigung dcr Urtkeile des Publicum* Hber die
franzSsische Revolution. Of these the latter is much the more
important. The French Revolution seemed to many earnest
thinkers the one great outcry of modern times for the liberty
of thought and action which is the eternal heritage of every
human being. Unfortunately the political condition of Germany
was unfavourable to the formation of an unbiassed opinion on
the great movement. The principles involved in it were lost
sight of under the mass of spurious maxims on social order
which had slowly grown up and stiffened into system. To
direct attention to the true nature of revolution, to demonstrate
how inextricably the right of liberty is interwoven with the very
existence of man as an intelligent agent, to point out the inherent
progressiveness of state arrangements, and the consequent
necessity of reform or amendment, such are the main objects
of the Bcitrilge; and although, as is often the case with Fichte,
the arguments are too formal and the distinctions too wire-
drawn, yet the general idea is nobly conceived and carried out.
As in the Critique of Revelation so here the rational nature of
man and the conditions necessary for its manifestation or realiza-
tion become the standard for critical judgment.
Towards the close of 1793 Fichte received an invitation to
succeed K. L. Reinhold as extraordinary professor of philosophy
at Jena. Tliis chair, not in the ordinary faculty, had become,
through Reinhold, the most important in the university, and
great deliberation was exercised in selecting his successor. It
was desired to secure an exponent of Kantianism, and none
seemed so highly qualified as the author of the Critique of Revela-
tion* Fichte, while accepting the call, desired to spend a year
in preparation; but as this was deemed inexpedient he rapidly
drew out for his students an introductory outline of his system,
and began his lectures in May 1 794. His success was instantaneous
and complete. The fame of his predecessor was altogether
eclipsed. Much of this success was due to Fichte's rare power
as a lecturer. In oral exposition the vigour of thought and
moral intensity of the man were most of all apparent, while
his practical earnestness completely captivated his hearers.
He lectured not only to his own class, but on general moral
subjects to all students of the university. These general
addresses, published under the title Best i mm ung des Celehricn
(Vocation of the Scholar), were on a subject dear to Fichte's
heart, the supreme importance of the highest intellectual culture
and the duties incumbent on those who had received it. Their
tone is stimulating and lofty.
The years spent at Jena were unusually productive; indeed,
the completed Fichtcan philosophy is contained in the writings
of this period. A general introduction to the system is given
in the tractate Vber den Be gr iff dcr Wissenschaftslckre (On the
Notion of the Theory of Science), 1794, and the theoretical
FICHTE, J, G,
portion is worked out in the Grwmthge der gesmnmten Wissen-
schaftslehre (Foundation of the whole Theory of Science, 1704)
and Grundriss des EigenthUmlicken d. Wissenschaftslehre (Outline
of what is peculiar in the Theory oi Science, 1794). To these
were added in 1797 a First and a Second Introduction to the
Tkeory of Science, and an Essay towards a new Exposition of the
Theory of Science. The Introductions arc masterly expositions.
The practical philosophy was given in the Grundlage des
NaturrccMs (1706) and System der SUtenUhre (1798). The hat
is probably the most important of all Fichte's works; apart
from it, his theoretical philosophy is unintelligible.
During this period Fichte's academic career had been troubled
by various storms, the last so violent as to put a dose to his
professorate at Jena. The first of them, a complaint against the
delivery of bis general addresses on Sundays, was easily settled.
The second, arising from Fichtc's strong desire to suppress the
Laadsmannsckaflen (students' orders), which were productive
of much harm, was more serious. Some misunderstanding
caused an outburst of ignorant ill-feeling on the part of the
students, who proceeded to such lengths that Fichle was com-
pelled to reside out of Jena. The third storm, however, was
the most violent. In 1708 Fichte, who, with F. I. Niethammer
(1 766-1848), had edited the Philosophical Journal since 1795,
received from his friend F. K. Forbcrg (1 770-1848) an essay
on the " Development of the Idea of Religion." With much
of the essay he entirely agreed, but he thought the exposition
in so many ways defective and calculated to create an erroneous
impression, that he prefaced it with a short paper On the Grounds
of our Belief in a Divine Government of the Universe, in which
God is defined as the moral order of the universe, the eternal
law of right which is the foundation of all our being. The cry
of atheism was raised, and the electoral government of Saxony,
followed by all the German slates except Prussia, suppressed
the Journal and confiscated the copies found in their universities.
Pressure was put by the German powers on Charles Augustus,
grand-duke of Saxc- Weimar, in whose dominions Jena university
was situated, to reprove and dismiss the offenders. Fichte's
defences {Appellation an das Publicum gegen die Anhlage des
Alkeismus, and Gerichlliche Verantwortung der Herausgeber der
pkU. Zeitsckrift, 1709), though masterly, did not make it easier
for the liberal-minded grand-duke to pass the matter over, and
sn unfortunate letter, in which he threatened to resign in case
of reprimand, turned the scale against him. The grand-duke
accepted his threat as a request to resign, passed censure, and
extended to him permission to withdraw from his chair at Jena;
nor would he alter his decision, even though Fichte himself
endeavoured to explain away the unfortunate letter.
Berlin was the only town in Germany open to him. His
residence there from 1709 to 1806 was unbroken save for a
course of lectures during the summer of 1805 at Erlangen, where
he had been named professor. Surrounded by friends, including
Schlegel and Schleicrmacher, he continued his literary work,
perfecting the Wissenschaftslehre. The most remarkable of the
works from this period are— (t) the Bestimmung des Meusckeu
(Vocation of Man, x8oo), a book which, for beauty of style,
richness of content, and elevation of thought, may be ranked
with the Meditations of Descartes; (2) Der geschlossene Uandels-
staot, 1800 (The Exclusive or Isolated Commercial Stale), a very
remarkable treatise, intensely socialist in tone, and inculcating
organised protection; (3) Sonncnktarer Bcricht an das grdsscre
Publicum tiber die neueste Philosophic, 1801. In 1801 was also
written the Darstettung der Wissenschaftslehre, which was not
published till after his death. In 1804 a set of lectures on the
Wissenschaftslehre was given at Berlin, the notes of which were
published in the Nachgclassene Wcrke, vol. ii. In 1804 were
also delivered the noble lectures entitled Grundziige des gegen-
vQrtigcn Zeil alters (Characteristics of the Present Age, 1804),
containing a most admirable analysis of the AufkMrung, tracing
the position of such a movement of thought in the natural
evolution of the general human consciousness, pointing out
its inherent defects, and indicating as the ultimate goal of progress
the life of reason in its highest aspect as a belief in the divine
3^5
order of the universe. The philosophy of history sketched in
this work has something of value with much that is fantastic
In 1805 and 1806 appeared the Wesen des Gdekrten (Nature of
the Scholar) and the Anvrcisungtum seligen Lcben oier Religions'
lehre (Way to a Blessed Life), the latter the most important
work of this Berlin period. In it the union between the unite
self-consciousness and the infinite ego or God is handled in an
almost mystical manner. The knowledge and love of God is
the end of life; by this means only can we attain blessedness
(Scligheit), for in God alone have we a permanent, enduring object
of desire. The infinite God is the all; the world of independent
objects is the result of reflection or self-consciousness, by which
the infinite unity is broken up. God is thus over and above the
distinction of subject and object; our knowledge is but a reflex
or picture of the infinite essence. Being is not thought.
The diasters of Prussia in 1 806 drove Fichte from Berlin.
He retired first to Stargard, then to Konigsbexg (where he
lectured for a time), then to Copenhagen, whence he returned
to the capital in August 1807. From this time his published
writings arc practical in character; not till after the appearance
of the NachgeUssene Werke was it known in what shape his final
speculations had been thrown out. We may here note the order
of these posthumous writings as being of importance for tracing
the development of Fichte's thought. From the year 1806 we
have the remarkable Bcricht tibcr die Wissenschaftslehre {Werke,
vol. viii.), with its sharp critique of Schelling; from 18x0 we
have the Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns, published in 1817, of
which another treatment is given in lectures of 18 13 (Nackget.
Wcrkey vol. i.). Of the Wisscnschaflsldire we have, in 181 2-1813,
four separate treatments contained in the Nachget. Werke. As
these consist mainly of notes for lectures, couched in uncouth
phraseology, they cannot be held to throw much light on Fichte's
views. Perhaps the most interesting are the lectures of 1812
on Transcendental Logic (Nach. Werke t i. 106-400).
From 1 8 1 2 we have notes of two courses on practical philosophy,
Rcchtsiehre {Nock. Werke t vol. ii.) and SUtenUhre {ib. vol. Hi.),
A finished work in the same department is the Staatslehre,
published in 1820. This gives the Fichtcan Utopia organized
on principles of pure reason; in too many cases the proposals
are identical with principles of pure despotism.
During these years, however, Fichte was mainly occupied
with public affairs. In 1807 he drew up an elaborate and
minute plan for the proposed new university of Berlin. In
1 807-1808 he delivered at Berlin, amidst danger and discourage-
ment, his noble addresses to the German people {Reden an die
dtutsche Nation). Even if we think that in these pure Teason
is sometimes overshadowed by patriotism, we cannot but recog-
nize the immense practical value of what he recommended as
the only true foundation for national prosperity.
In 1810 he was elected rector of the new university fovnded
in the previous year. This post he resigned in 18x2, mainly on
account of the difficulties he experienced in his endeavour to
reform the student life of the university.
In 1813 began the great effort of Germany for national in-
dependence. Debarred from taking an active part, Fichte
made his contribution by way of lectures. The addresses on
the idea of a true war (Obcr den Begriff eincs wahrhaften Kriegs,
forming part of the Staatslehre) contain a very subtle contrast
between the positions of France and Germany in the war.
In the autumn of 18x3 the hospitals of Berlin were filled with
sick and wounded from the campaign. Among the most devoted
in her exertions was Fichtc's wife, who, in January 1814, was
attacked with a virulent hospital fever. On the day after she
was pronounced out of danger Fichte was struck down.. He
lingered for some days in an almost unconscious state, and died
on the 27th of January 1814.
The philosophy of Fichte, worked out in a series of writings,
and falling chronologically into two distinct periods, that of Jena
and that of Berlin, seemed in the course of its development to
undergo a change so fundamental that many critics have sharply
separated and opposed to one another an earlier and a later phase.
The ground of the modification, further, has been sought and -
apparently found in quite external influences, principally that of
yi6
FICHTE, J. G.
Seedling's Naturphilosophie, to some extent that of Schteiermacher.
But as A rule most of those who have adopted this view have done
so without the full and patient examination which the matter
demands; they have been misled by the difference in tone and
style between the earlier and later writings, and have concluded that
underlying this was a fundamental difference of philosophic con-
ception. One only, Erdmann, in his EntwicUung d. deuL Spck.
sett Kant, i 29, seems to give full references to justify his opinion,
and even he, in his later work, Grundriss der Gesch, der Philos.
(ed. 3), {311, admits that the difference is much less than he had
at the first imagined. He certainly retains his former opinion,
but mainly on the ground, in itself intelligible and legitimate, that, so
far as Fichte's philosophical reputation and influence are concerned,
attention may be limited to the earlier doctrines of the Wissen-
sckaflslekre. This may be so, but it can be admitted neither that
Fichte's views underwent radical change, nor that the Wissenschafts-
tehre was ever regarded as in itself complete, nor that Fichte was
unconscious of the apparent difference between his earlier and later
utterances. It is demonstrable by various passages in the works
and letters that he never looked upon the Wissenschaflslehre as con-
taining the whole system; it is clear from the chronology of his
writings that the modifications supposed to be due to other thinkers
were from the first implicit in his theory; and if one fairly traces
the course of thought in the early writings, one can see how he
was inevitably led on to the statement of the later and, at first sight,
divergent views. On only one point, the position assigned in the
Wissenschaflslehre to the absolute ego, is there any obscurity; but
the relative passages are far from decisive, and from the early work,
Neue DarsteUung der Wissenchaftslehre, unquestionably to be in-
cluded in the Jena period, one can see that from the outset the
doctrine of the absolute ego was held in a form differing only in
statement from the later theory.
Fichte's system cannot be compressed with intelligibility. We
shall here note only three points: — (a) the origin in Kant; (b) the
fundamental principle and method of the Wissenschaftslehrei (c) the
connexion with the later writings. The most important works for
(a) are the " Review of Aencsidcmus," and the Second Introduction
to the Wissensckaflslekre; for {b) the great treatises of the Jena
period: for (c) the Tlialsachen des Bewusstseyns of 1810.
(a) The Kantian system had for the first time opened dp a truly
fruitful line of philosophic speculation, the transcendental con-
sideration of knowledge, or the analysis of the conditions under
which cognition is possible. To Kant the fundamental condition
was given in the synthetical unity of consciousness. The primitive
fact under which might be gathered the special conditions of that
synthesis which we call cognition was this unity. But by Kant
there was no attempt made to show that the said special conditions
were necessary from the wry nature of consciousness itself. Their
necessity was discovered and proved in a manner which might be
called empirical. Moreover, while Kant in a quite similar manner
pointed out that intuition had special conditions, space and time,
he did not show any link of connexion between these and the primi-
tive conditions of pure cognition. Closely connected with this
remarkable defect in the Kantian view — lying, indeed, at the founda-
tion of it — was the doctrine that the matter of cognition is altogether
given, or thrown into the form of cognition from without. So
strongly was this doctrine emphasized by Kant, that he seemed to
refer the matter of knowledge to the action upon us of a non-ego
or Ding-an-sick, absolutely beyond consciousness. While these
hints towards a completely intelligible account of cognition were
ijiven by Kant, they were not reduced to system, and from the way
jn which the elements of cognition were related, could not be so
reduced. Only in the sphere of practical reason-, where the intelligible
nature prescribed to itself its own laws, was there the possibility of
systematic deduction from a single principle.
The peculiar position in which Kant had left the theory of cog-
nition was assailed from many different sides and by many writers,
specially by Schultze (Acnesidemus) and Maimon. To the criticisms
of the latter, in particular, Fichte owed much, but his own activity
went far beyond what they supplied to him. To complete Kant s
work, to demonstrate that all the necessary conditions of knowledge
can be deduced from a single principle, and consequently to expound
the complete system of reason, that is the business of the Wissen-
tckaftslekre. By it the theoretical and practical reason shall be
«hown to coincide; for while the categories of cognition and the
whole system of pure thought can be expounded from one principle,
the ground of this principle is scientifically, or to cognition, in-
explicable, and is made conceivable only in the practical philosophy.
The ultimate basis for the activity of cognition is given by the will.
Even in the practical sphere, however, Fichte found that the contra-
diction, insoluble to cognition, was not completely suppressed,
and he was thus driven to the higher view, which is explicitly stated
in the later writings though not, it must be confessed, with the
precision and scientific clearness of the Wissensckaflslekre.
(b) What, then, is this single principle, and how does it work
itself out into system? To answer this one must bear in mind
what Fichte intended by designating all philosophy Wissenschafts-
lehre, or theory of science. Philosophy is to him the rethinking of
actual cognition, the theory of knowledge, the complete, systematic
exposition of the principles which lie at the basis of all reasoned
8
cognition. It traces the necessary acta by which the cognitive
consciousness comes to be what it is, both in form and in content.
Not that it is a natural history, or even a phenomenology of con-
sciousness; only in the later writings did Fichte adopt even the
genetic method of exposition; it is the complete statement of the
pure principles of the understanding in their rational or necessary
order. But if complete, this Wissensckaflslekre must be able to
deduce the whole organism of cognition from certain fundamental
axioms, themselves unproved and incapable of proof; only thus
can we have a system of reason. From these primary axioms the
whole body of necessary thoughts must be developed, and, as
Socrates would say, the argument itself will indicate the path of
the development.
Of such primitive principles, the absolutely necessary conditions
of possible cognition, only three are thinkable— one perfectly un-
conditioned both in form and matter; a second, unconditioned in
form but not, in matter; a third, unconditioned in matter but not
in form. Of these, evidently the first must be the fundamental; to
some extent it conditions the other two, though these cannot be
deduced from it or proved by it. The statement of these principles
forms the introduction to Wissenschaflslehre.
The method which Fichte first adopted for stating these axioms
Is not calculated to throw full light upon them, and tends to ex-
aggerate the apparent airiness andunsubstantiality of his deduction.
They may be explained thus. The primitive condition of all in-
telligence is that the ego shall posit, affirm or be aware of itself.
The ego is the ego; such is the first pure act of conscious intelligence,
that by which alone consciousness can come to be what it is. It
is what Fichte called a Deed-act (Thathoudlung); we cannot be
aware of the process, — the ego is not until it has affirmed itself, —
but we are aware of the result, and can see the necessity of the act
by which it is brought about. The ego then posits itself as real.
What the ego posits is real. But in consciousness there is equally
§ivcn a primitive act of opj-positing, or contra-positing, formally
istinct from the act of position, but materially determined, in so
far as what is op-posited must be the negative of that which was
posited. The non-ego — not, be it noticed, the world as we know
it — is op-posed in consciousness to the ego. The ego is not the
non-ego. How this act of op positing is possible and necessary,
only becomes clear in the practical philosophy, and even there the
inherent difficulty leads to a higher view. But third, we have now
an absolute antithesis to our original thesis. Only the ego is real,
but the non-ego is posited in the ego. The contradiction is solved
in a higher synthesis, which takes up into itself the two opposite*.
The ego and non-ego limit one another, or determine one another;
and, as limitation is negation of part of a divisible quantum, in this
third act, the divisible ego is op-posed to a divisible non-ego.
From this point onwards the course proceeds by the method
already made clear. We progress by making explicit the oppositions
contained in the fundamental synthesis, by uniting these opposite*,
analysing the new synthesis, and so on, until we reach an ultimate
pair. Now, in the synthesis of the third act two principles may be
distinguished: — (1) the non-ego determines the ego; (2) the ego
determines the non-ego. As determined the ego is theoretical, as
determining it is practical; ultimately the opposed principles must
be united by showing how the ego is bot h determining and determined.
It is impossible to enter here on the steps by which the theo-
retical ego is shown to develop into the complete system of cognitive
categories, or to trace the deduction of the processes (productive
imagination, intuition, sensation, understanding, judgment, reason)
by which the quite indefinite non-ego comes to assume the appear-
ance of definite objects in the forms of time and space. All this
evolution is the necessary consequence of the determination of
the ego by the non-ego. But it is clear that the non-ego cannot
really determine the ego. There is no reality beyond the ego itself.
The contradiction can only be suppressed if the ego itself opposes
to itself the non-ego, places it as an Anstoss or plane on which its
own activity breaks and from which it is reflected. Now, this op-
positing of the Anstoss is the necessary condition of the practical ego,
of the will. K the ego be a striving power, then of necessity a
limit must be set by which its striving is manifest. But how can
the infinitely active ego posit a limit to its own activity? Here
we come to the crux of Fichte's system, 'which is only partly cleared
up in the Rechtslehre and Siltenfehre. If the ego be pure activity,
free activity, it can only become aware of itself by positing some
limit. We cannot possibly have any cognition of how such an act
is possible. But as it is a free act, the ego cannot be determined
to it by anything beyond itself; it cannot t>c aware of its own free
dom otherwise than as determined by other free egos. Thus in the
Rechtslehre and Sillenlehre, the multiplicity of egos is deduced, and
with this deduction the first form of the Wissenschaflslehre appeared
to end.
(c) But in fact deeper questions remained. We have spoken of
the ego as becoming aware of its own freedom, and have shown how
the existence of other egos and of a world in which these egos may
act are the necessary conditions of consciousness of freedom. But
all this is the work of the ego. All that has been expounded follows
if the ego comes to consciousness. We have therefore to consider that
the absolute ego, from which spring all the individual egos, is not
subject to these conditions, but freely determines itself to 1
FICHTELGEBIRGE— FICINO
3i7
Hew btlfeahtotet* ego to be conceived? As early as 1797 Fichte
had begun to tee that the ultimate basis of his system was the
absolute ego, is which is no difference of subject and object ; in 1800
the BesUntmung das tienschen defined this absolute ego as the
infinite moral wiH of the universe, God, in whom are all the in-
dividual egos, from whom they have sprang. 1c lay in the nature
of the thing that more precise utterances should be given on this
subject, and these we find in the Thaisochon dts Btumsstsoyns and in
all the later lectures. God in them is the absolute Life, the absolute
One, who becomes conscious of himself by seU-diremption into the
individual egos. The individual ego is only possible as opposed to a
noo-ego, to a world of the senses; thus God, the infinite will, mani-
fests himself in the individual, and the individual has over against
him the non-ego or thing. *' The individuals do not make part of
the being of the one Kfe, but are a pure form of its absolute freedom."
** The indrvidual is not conscious of himself, but the Life is conscious
of itself in individual form and as an individual." In order that
the Life may act, though it is not necessary that it should act, in-
dhriduatualjon is necessary. M Thus," says Fichte, ** we reach a
final conclusion. Knowledge b not mere knowledge of* itself, but
of being, and of the one being that truly is, viz. God. . . .This one
possible object of knowledge at never known in its purity, but ever
broken into the various forms of knowledge which are and can be
shown to be necessary. The demonstration of the necessity of these
forms is philosophy or Wissenschaflsiehre** (Thais. das Bewuss.
Wcrhe, ii. 68s). This ultimate view b expressed throughout the
lectures (in the NachgeL War he) in uncouth and mystical language.
It will escape no one (1) how the idea and method of the Wissen-
sdt'Wrhrr pre-ni^ tin- wv '— ♦»- ht«- Hegelian dialectic, and
(a) haw completely the whole philosophy of Schopenhauer is con-
tained ta the liter writing* of i-n-hie. It is not to the credit of
historians that Schopenhauer's debt should have been allowed to
pas- n with w Little notice.
BiftMOGSAPHYr— Fichte> complete work* were puMtehed by bis
son J. H. Fiebrc. SammtluM \Vrrkt [8 vols., Berlin, 1845-1^6),
with Nachgeiatmu Werkt (3 vol**. Dona, 1834-1835}; alio Leban
und Bticfvtckid (2 volt., IS vh *'d. 1S62}. Among translations jue
those of William Smith , Ponder Writings of FichU t vriik Memoir
(2 vols** London* 1848-^49, 41b ed. 1889); A E. Kroner, portions
of the IViittxstJufukiin (St una of Knowledge. Philadelphia. 1M68;
edV London , 1889), the NajtOfrtsM (Science of Rights, litto; «d.
London. I83n°j : uf the Votlrsungen d. d. Beihmtrtung d. Gtkktlen
{The Vocation tfsht StJular, by W, SmJ th h 1847] 1 Destination oj Afiin,
by Mr* P\ Sinnett; Disamrs a la tiatum alUnusttt/e, French by Lton
Philippe {(095), with preface by F. Picavet, and a biographical
The number of critical works is very large. Besides the histories
.. . ... ..... m ^
of post-Kantian philosophy by Erdmann, ,
arkabry good), Micbetet, Biedermann and others, see a Wm.
ortlage (whose account
. _ n and others, see Wm.
Basse, Fichte und stint Bestehuug am Geganwart dts deutschen Volkes
(Halle, 1848-1849); J. H. Lowe, Die PHtosopkie Fichtes (Stuttgart.
186a); Kuno Fischer. Geschuhtt d. neutren Philosophic (1869, 1884,
1890) ; Ludwig Noacfc, Fichte nach seinem Leben, Lehren und Wirhen
(Leipzig, 1862); R. Adamson, Fichu (1881, in Knight's " Philo-
•ocJucaT Classic* "); Oscar Beaaow, Zu Ficktas Lthre sen Nicht-Icn
(Bern, 1898): E. a Burmann, Bit TrunscendenUlphilosophia
Fichttt nmd Schillings (Upsala, 1890-1892); M. Carriere. Fichtes
Gei sUs ansmictelung tn die Reden uber d. BesUntmung das GetehrUn
(1894) ;.C C Everett, Fichu's Science of Knowledge (Chicago, 1884) ;
O. Pnoderer, /. G. FichUs Leteusbild aims dautschm Denkers und
Patrician (Stuttgart, 1877); T. Wotschke, FichU und Erigena
(1896): W. Kabtts, Studien tar EntwichelungsgeschichU der FtchU>
'sc&cn Wissenschaftslehre aus der Kantischen Philosophic (1902);
£. Lask, Fichus Jdealismus und die CtschichU (190?); X. Leon,
La PmmJas. da FichU (1902); M. Wiener, J. G. Ftcktts Lehrt worn
Wasan nmd Jnkali dor GasckuhU (1906).
On Fichte's social philosophy see, e.g.. F. Schmidt-Warneck,
Die Sbciologit FichUs (Berlin, 1884); W. Windelband, Fichtes Idee
des deutschan SlaaUs (1890); M. Weber, FichUs Sotioiismus und sein
VerhdJtnis our Marx'schen Doctrin (1900); S. H. Gutman, 7. G.
Fichus Sosiolpddogoph (1907); H. Liodau, JohasmG. Fichu und der
sSacsalumts &900)- (R.A0.; X.)
FJCHTBLGEBIRGE, a mountain group of Bavaria, forming
the centre ttoax which various mountain ranges proceed, — the
Elstergebirge, linking it to the Eragebirge, in a NJE., the Franken-
wald in a N.W., and the Bfihmerwald in a S.E. direction. The
streams to which it gives rise flow towards the four cardinal
points,— <-*. the Eger eastward and the Saale northward, both
to the Elbe; the Weisser Main westward to the Rhine, and the
Naab southward to the Danube. The chief points of the mass
are the Schneeberg and the Ochsenkopf, the former having a
height of 3448, and the latter of 3356 ft. The whole district
is pretty thickly populated, and there is great abundance of
wood, as well as of iron, vitriol, sulphur, copper, lead and many
kinds of marble. The inhabitants are employed chiefly in the
iron mines, at forges and blastfurnaces, and in charcoal burning
and the manufacture of blacking from firewood. Although
surrounded by railways and crossed by the lines Numnberg-
Eger and Regensburg-Oberkotzau, the Fichtelgebirge, owing
principally to its raw climate and bleakness, is not much visited
by strangers, the only important points of interest being Alex-
andrrsbad (a delightfully situated watering-place) and the
granite labyrinth of Luisenburg.
See A. Schmidt, Fumrer dunk das Fuhkdgebirge (1809); Daniel.
D tutsc U and j and Meyer, Ceisaersattons-Ltxtkon (1904).
FICIXO, MARSIIJO (1433-1499), Italian philosopher and
writer, was born at Figline, in the upper Arno valley, in the year
1433. His father, a physician of some eminence, settled in
Florence, and attached himself to the person of Cosimo de'
MedkL Here the young Majsilio received his elementary
education in grammar and Latin literature at the high school
or studio pubblico. While still a boy, he showed promise of
rare literary gifts, and distinguished himself by his facility in
the acquisition of knowledge. Not only literature, but the
physical sciences, as then taught, had a charm for him; and he
is said to have made considerable progress in medicine under
the tuition of his lather. He was of a tranquil temperament,
sensitive to musk and poetry, and debarred by weak health
from joining in the more active pleasures of his fellow-students.
When he had attained the age of eighteen or nineteen years,
Cosimo received him into his household, and determined to make
use of his rare disposition for scholarship in the development
of a long-cherished project. During the session of the council
for the union of the Greek and Latin churches at Florence in
1430, Cosimo had made acquaintance with Gemistos Plethon,
the Neo-Platonic sage of Mistra, whose discourses upon Plato
and the Alexandrian mystics so fascinated the learned society
of Florence that they named him the second Plato. It bad been
the dream of this man's whole life to supersede both forms of
Christianity by a semi-pagan theosophy deduced from the
writings of the later Pythagoreans and Platonists. When,
therefore, he perceived the impression he had made upon the
first citizen of Florence, Gemistos suggested that the capital
of modern culture would be a fit place for the resuscitation of the
once so famous Academy of Athens, Cosimo took this hint.
The second half of the 15th century was destined to be the age
of academies in Italy, and the regnant passion for antiquity
satisfied itself with any imitation, however grotesque, of Greek
or Roman institutions. In order to found his new academy
upon a firm basis Cosimo resolved not only to assemble men of
letters for the purpose of Platonic disputation at certain regular
intervals, but also to appoint a hierophant and official expositor
of Platonic doctrine. He hoped by these means to give a certain
stability to his projected institution, and to avoid the super-
ficiality of mere enthusiasm. The plan was good; and with
the. rare instinct for character which distinguished him, he
made choice of the right man for his purpose in the young
Marsilio.
Before he had begun to learn Greek, Marsilio entered upon the
task of studying and elucidating Plata. It is known that at
this early period of bis life, while be was yet a novice, he wrote
voluminous treatises on the great philosopher, which he after-
wards, however, gave to the flames. In the year 1459 John
Argyropoulos was lecturing on the Greek language and literature
at Florence, and Marsilio became his pupil. He was then about
twenty-three years of age. Seven years later he felt himself a
sufficiently ripe Greek scholar to begin the translation of Plato,
by which bis name is famous in the history of scholarship, and
which is still the best translation of that author Italy can boast.
The MSS. on which he worked were supplied by his patron
Cosimo de' Medici and by Amerigo Benci. While the translation
was still in progress Ficino from time to time submitted its
pages to the scholars, Angelo Poliziano, Cristoforo Latodino,
Demetrios Chalchondylas and others; and since these men
were all members of the Platonic Academy, there can be no
doubt that the discussions raised upon the text and Latin
version greatly served to promote the purpose of Cosima'a
3«8
FICINO
foundation. At last the book appeared in 148a, the expenses of
the press being defrayed by the noble Florentine, Filippo Valori.
About the same time Marsilio completed and puhlished his treatise
on the Platonic doctrine of immortality (Tkeologia Plalonica
de immorUditale animae), the work by which his claims to take
rank as a philosopher must be estimated. This was shortly
followed by the translation of Plotinus into Latin, and by a
voluminous commentary, the former finished in i486, the latter
in 1401, and both published at the cost of Lorenzo dc' Medici
just one month after his death. As a supplement to these
labours in the field of Platonic and Alexandrian philosophy,
Marsilio next devoted his energies to the translation of Dionysius
the Areopagite, whose work on the celestial hierarchy, though
recognized as spurious by the Neapolitan humanist, Lorenzo
Valla, had supreme attraction for the mystic and uncritical
intellect of Ficino.
It is not easy to vahie the services of Marsilio Fidno at their
proper worth. As a philosopher, he can advance no claim to
originality, his laborious treatise on Platonic theology being
little better than a mass of ill-digested erudition. As a scholar,
he failed to recognize the distinctions between different periods
of antiquity and various schools of thought. As an exponent
of Plato he suffered from the fatal error of confounding Plato
with the later Platonists. It is true that in this respect he did
not differ widely from the mass of his contemporaries. Lorenzo
Valla and Angelo Poliziano, almost alone among the scholars of
that age, showed a true critical perception. For the rest, it was
enough that an author should be ancient to secure their admira-
tion. The whole of antiquity seemed precious in the eyes of its
discoverers; and even a thinker so acute as Pico di Mirandola
dreamed of the possibility of extracting the essence of philo-
sophical truth by indiscriminate collation of the most divergent
doctrines. Ficino was, moreover, a firm believer in planetary
influences. He could not separate his philosophical from his
astrological studies, and caught eagerly at any fragment of
antiquity which seemed to support his cherished delusions.
It may here be incidentally mentioned that this superstition
Drought him into trouble with the Roman Church. In 1489
he was accused of magic before Pope Innocent VIII., and had to
secure the good offices of Francesco Soderini, Ermolao Barbaro,
and the archbishop Rinaldo Orsini, in order to purge himself of
a most perilous imputation. What Ficino achieved of really solid,
was his translation. The value of that work cannot be denied;
the impulse which it gave to Platonic studies in Italy, and through
them to the formation of the new philosophy in Europe, is
indisputable. Fidno differed from the majority of his contempor-
aries in this that, while he felt the influence of antiquity no less
strongly than they did, he never lost his faith in Christianity,
or contaminated his morals by contact with paganism. For him,
as for Petrarch, St Augustine was the model of a Christian student.
The cardinal point of his doctrine was the identity of religion and
philosophy. He hdd that philosophy consists in the study of
truth and wisdom, and that God alone is truth and wisdom, —
so that philosophy is but religion, and true religion is genuine
philosophy. Religion, indeed, is common to all men, but its
pure form is that revealed through Christ; and the teaching
of Christ is sufficient to a man in all drcumstances of life. Yet
it cannot be expected that every man should accept the faith
without reasoning; and here Fidno found a place for Platonism.
He maintained that the Platonic doctrine was providentially
made to harmonize with Christianity, in order that by its means
speculative intellects might be led to Christ. The transition
from this point of view to an almost superstitious adoration
of Plato was natural; and Fidno, we know, joined in the hymns
and celebrations with which the Florentine Academy honoured
their great master on the day of his birth and death. Those
famous festivals in which Lorenzo de' Medid delighted had
indeed a pagan tone appropriate to the sentiment of the Re-
naissance; nor were all the worshippers of the Athenian sage so
true to Christianity as his devoted student.
Of Ficino's personal life there is but little to be said. In order
that he might have leisure for uninterrupted stndy, Cosimo de'
Medid gave htm a house near S. Maria Nuova in Florence, and
a little farm at Montcvecchio, not far from the villa of CareggL
Ficino, like nearly all the scholars of that age in Italy, delighted
in country lie At Montevecchio he lived contentedly among
his books, in the neighbourhood of his two friends, Pico at
Querceto, and Poliziano at Fiesole, cheering his solitude by
playing on the lute, and corresponding with the most illustrious
men of Italy. His letters, extending over the years 1474-1494,
have been published, both separately and in his collected works.
From these it may be gathered that nearly every living scholar
of note was included in the list of his friends, and that the
subjects which interested him were by no means confined to
his Platonic sudies. As instances of his dose intimacy with
illustrious Florentine families, it may be mentioned that he
held the young Francesco Gufcdardini at the font, and that
he helped to cast the horoscope of the Casa Strozzi in the Via
Tornabuoni.
At the age of forty Ficino took orders, and was honoured
with a canonry of S. Lorenzo. He was henceforth assiduous
in the performance of his duties, preaching in his cure of Novoli,
and also in the cathedral and the church of the Angeli at Florence.
He used to say that no man was better than a good priest, and
none worse than a bad one. His life corresponded in all points
to his principles. It was the life of a sincere Christian and a real
sage, — of one who found the best fruits of philosophy in the
practice of the Christian virtues. A more amiable and a more
harmless man never lived; and this was much in that age of
discordant passions and lawless licence. In spite of his weak
health, he was indefatigably industrious. His tastes were of the
simplest; and while scholars like Filelfo were intent on ex-
tracting money from their patrons by flattery and threats, he
remained so poor that he owed the publication of all his many
works to private munificence. For his old patrons of the house
of Media Fidno always cherished sentiments of the liveliest
gratitude. Cosimo he called his second father, saying that Fidno
had given him life, but Cosimo new birth, — the one had devoted
him to Galen, the other to the divine Plato, — the one was physician
of the body, the other of the soul. With Lorenzo he lived on
terms of familiar, affectionate, almost parental intimacy. He had
seen the young prince grow up in the palace of the Via Larga,
and had helped in the development of his rare intellect. In later
years he did not shrink from uttering a word of warning and
advice, when he thought that the master of the Florentine
republic was too much inclined to yield to pleasure. A character-
istic proof of his attachment to the house of Medid was furnished
by a yearly custom which he practised at his farm at Monte-
vecchio. He used to invite the contadini who had served
Cosimo to a banquet on the day of Saints Cosimo and Damiano
(the patron saints of the Medid), and entertained them with
music and singing. This affection was amply returned. Cosimo
employed almost the last hours of his life in listening to Fitino's
reading of a treatise on the highest good; while Lorenzo, in
a poem on true happiness, described him as the mirror of the
world, the nursling of sacred muses, the harmonizer of wisdom
and beauty in complete accord. Ficino died at Florence in
1400.
Besides the works already noticed, Fidno composed a treatise
on the Christian religion, which was first given to the world in
1476, a translation into Italian of Dante's De monarchic, a life
of Plato, and numerous essays on ethical and semi-philosophical
subjects. Vigour of reasoning and originality of view were not
his characteristics as a writer; nor will the student who has
raked these dust-heaps of miscellaneous learning and old-
fashioned mysticism discover more than a few sentences of
genuine enthusiasm and simple-hearted aspiration to repay his
trouble and reward his patience. Only in familiar letters,
prolegomena, and prefaces do we find the man Fidno, and learn
to know his thoughts and sentiments undouded by a mist of
d tat ions; these minor compositions have therefore a certain
permanent value, and will continually be studied for the light
they throw upon the learned circle gathered round Lorenzo in
the golden age of humanism.
FTCKSBUfcG— FICTIONS
3»9
Tfceatttdent nay be referred for further information to the follow-
ing works i— MonUX Fidni opera (Basileae, >57*)J MoreUti Fktni
rila. auctore Corsio fed. Bandim, Pisa, 1771) ; Roscoe's Life 0$
Loreneo do' Medxti; Pasquale Villa ri, La Storia di Girolamo Savo-
narola (Firenre, Le Monnier, 1859); Von Reurtiont, Lorenzo de*
Media (Leipzig, 1874)- 0- A. S.)
FICKSBURQ, a town of Orange Free State no m. by rail
£. by N. of Blocmfontein. Pop. ( 1004) 1954, of whom 1021 were
whiles The town is situated near the north bank of the Cajedon
river and is the capital of one of the finest agricultural and stock-
raising regions of the province. It has direct railway communica-
tion with Natal and an extensive trade. In the neighbourhood
are petroleum wells and a diamond mine. In the fossilized ooae
of the Wondcrkop, a table mountain of the adjacent Wittcbergea,
axe quantities of petrified fish.
FICTIONS, or legal fictions, in law, the term used for false
averments, the truth of which is not permitted to be called in
question. English law as well as Roman law abounds m fictions.
Sometimes they are merely the condensed expression of a rule
of law,— eg., the fiction of English law that husband and wife
were one person, and the fiction of Roman law that the wife
was the daughter of the husband. Sometimes they must be
regarded as reasons invented in order to justify a rule of law
according to an implied ethical standard. Of this sort seems to be
the fiction or presumption that every one knows the law, which
reconciles the rule that ignorance is no excuse for crime with
the moral commonplace that it is unfair to punish a man for
violating a law of whose existence he was unaware. Again,
some fictions are deliberate falsehoods, adopted as true for the
purpose of establishing a remedy not otherwise attainable. Of
this sort are the numerous fictions of English law by which the
different courts obtained jurisdiction in private business, removed
inconvenient restrictions in the law relating to land, &c.
What to the scientific jurist is a stumbling-block is to the older
writers on English law a beautiful device for reconciling the strict
letter of the law with common sense and justice. Blackstone,
in noticing the well-known fiction by which the court of king's
bench established its jurisdiction in common pleas (via. that the
defendant was in custody of the marshal of the court), says,
" These fictions of law, though at first they may startle the
student, he will find upon further consideration to be highly
beneficial and useful; especially as this maxim is ever invariably
observed, that no fiction shall extend to work en injury; its
proper operation being to prevent a mischief or remedy an
inconvenience that might result from the general rule of law.
So true it is that in faction* juris semper subsistit aeqnHos.* 9
Austin, on the other hand, while correctly assigning as the
cause of many fictions the desire to combine the necessary
reform with some show of respect for the abrogated law, makes
the following harsh criticism as to others: — " Why the plain
meanings which I have now stated should be obscured by the
fictions to which I have just adverted I cannot conjecture.
A wish on the part of the authors of the fictions to render the law
as umeognoscible as may be is probably the cause which Mr
Bentham would assign. I judge not, I confess, so uncharitably;
I rather impute such fictions to the sheer imbecility (or, if you
will, to the active and sportive fancies) of their grave and vene-
rable authors, than to any deliberate design, good or evil."
Bentham, of course, saw in fictions the instrument by which
the great object of his abhorrence, judiciary law, was produced.
It was the means by which judges usurped the functions of
legislators. " A fiction of law," he says, " may be defined as
a wilful falsehood, having for its object the stealing legislative
powers by and for hands which could not or durst not openly
claim it, and but for the delusion thus produced could not
exercise it." A partnership, he says, was formed between the
kings and the judges against the interests of the people.
" Monarchs found force, lawyers fraud; thus was the capital
found " (Historical Preface to the second edition ef the Fragment
em Government)}
1 In the same essay Bentham notices the comparative rarity of
fiction* in Scots law. As to fiction ia particular, compared with the
Sir H. Maine (Ancient Law) supplies the historical element
which is always lacking in the explanations of Austin and
Bentham. Fictions form one of the agencies by which, in pro-
gressive societies, positive law is brought into harmony with
public opinion. The others are equity and statutes. Fictions
in this sense include, not merely the obvious falsities of the
English and Roman systems, but any assumption which conceals
a change of law by retaining the old formula after the change has
been made. It thus includes both the case law of the English and
the Responsa Prudentum of the Romans. " At a particular stage
of social progress they are invaluable expedients for overcom-
ing the rigidity of law; and, indeed, without one of them, the
fiction of adoption, which permits the family tie to be artificially
created, It is difficult to understand how society would ever have
escaped from its swaddling clothes, and taken its first steps
towards civilization."
The bolder remedial fictions of English law have been to a
large extent removed by legislation, and one great obstacle to
any reconstruction of the legal system has thus been partially
removed. Where the real remedy stood in glaring contrast to
the nominal rule, it has been openly ratified by statute. In
ejectment cases the mysterious sham litigants have disappeared.
The bond of entail can be broken without having recourse to
the collusive proceedings of fine and recovery. Fictions have
been almost entirely banished from the procedure of the
courts. The action for damages on account of seduction, which
is stul nominally an action by the father for loss of his
daughter's services, is perhaps the only fictitious action now
remaining.
Fictions which appear in the form of principles are not so
easily dealt with by legislation. To expel them formally from
the system would require the re-enactment of vast portions of
law. A change in legal modes of speech and thought would be
more effective. The legal mind instinctively seises upon concrete
aids to abstract reasoning. Many hard and revolting fictions
must have begun their career as metaphors. In some cases the
history of the change may still almost be traced. The conception
that a man-of-war is a floating island, or that an ambassador's
house is beyond the territorial limits of the country in which, he
resides, was originally a figure of speech designed to set a rule
of law in a striking light. It is then gravely accepted as true
in fact, and other rules of law are deduced from ft. Its beginning
is to be compared with such phrases as M an Englishman's house
is his castle," which have had no legal offshoots and still remain
mere figures of speech.
Constitutional law is of course honeycombed with fictions.
Here there is hardly ever anything like direct legislative change,
and yet real change is incessant. The rules defining the sovereign
power and fixing the authority of its various members are in most
points the same as they were at the last revolution,— in many
points they have been the same since the beginning of parlia-
mentary government. But they have long ceased to be true in
fact; and it would hardly be too much to say that the entire
series of formal propositions called the constitution is merely a
series of fictions. The legal attributes of the king, and even of
the House of Lords, arc fictions. If we could suppose that the
effects of the Reform Acts had been brought about, not by legisla-
tion, but by the decisions of law courts and the practice of House
of Commons committees— by such assumptions as that freeholder
includes lease-holder and that ten means twenty— we should
have in the legal constitution of the House of Commons the same
kind of fictions that we find in the legal statement of the attributes
of the crown and the House of Lords. Here, too, fictions have
been largely resorted to for the purpose of supporting particular
work done by it in English law, the use made of it by the Scottish
lawyers is next to nothing. No need have they had of any such
dnmsy instrument. They have two others " of their own making,
by which things of the same sort have been done with much less
trouble. Nobue eAcium gives them the creative power of legislation;
this and the word desuetude together the anmhilative." And he
notices aptly enough that, while the English lawyers declared that
James 11. had abdicated the throne (which everybody knew to be
take), the Scottish lawyers boldly said he had forfeited it.
$20
theories,— popular or monarchical,— and such have flourished
even more vigorously than purely legal fictions.
FIDDES, RICHARD (1671-1725), English divine and historian,
was bom at Hunmanby and educated at Oxford. He took
orders, and obtained the living of Halsham in Holderness in
1696. Owing to ill-health he applied for leave to reside at
Wickham, and in 17 12 he removed to London on the plea of
poverty, intending to pursue a literary career. In London he
met Swift, who procured him a chaplaincy at Hull. He also
became chaplain to the earl of Oxford. After losing the Hull
chaplaincy through a change of ministry in 1714,. he devoted
himself to writing. His best book is a Life of Cardinal WoUcy
(London, 1724), containing documents which are still valuable
for reference; of his other writings the Prefatory Epistle contain-
ing some remarks to be published on Homer* s Iliad (London, 1714)1
was occasioned by Pope's proposed translation of the Iliad,
and his Theologia speculativa (London, 1718), earned him the
degree of D.D. at Oxford. In his own day he had a considerable
reputation as an author and man of learning.
FIDDLE (O. Eng. filkele, fidel, &c, Fr. viiU, mole, vioton;
M. H. Ger. tideU, mod. Gcr. Fiedel), a popular term for the violin,
derived from the names of certain of its ancestors. The word
fiddle antedates the appearance of the violin by several centuries,
and in England did not always represent an instrument of the same
type. The word has first been traced in x 205 in Layamon's Brut
(7002), " of harpe, of salteriun, of fithele and of coriun." In
Chaucer's time the fiddle was evidently a well-known instrument:
" For him was lever have at his beddes hed
A twenty bokes, clothed in black or red.
Of Aristotle and his Philosophic,
Than robes riche or fidel or sautric."
{Prologue, v. 298.)
The origin of the fiddle is of the greatest interest; it will be
found inseparable from that of the violin both as regards the
instruments and the etymology of the words; the remote
common ancestor is the ketkarah of the Assyrians, the parent of
the Greek dthara. The Romans are responsible for the word
fiddle, having bestowed upon a kind of cithara— probably then
in its first transition— the name of fidiculae (more rarely fidicula),
a diminutive form of fides. In Alain de Lille's De pianctu
naturae against the word lira stands as equivalent vioel, with
the definition "lira est quoddam genuC dtharae vel fitola
alioquin de reot. Hoc instrumentum est multum vulgare."
This is a marginal note in writing of the 13th century. 1
Some of the transitions horn fidicula to fiddle are made evident
in the accompanying table:
FIDDES— FIELD, C. W.
Latin ....
Medieval Latin
French
Provencal .
Spanish
Old High German .
Middle High German
German
Italian
Dutch
Danish
Anglo-Saxon
Old English
fidiculae
vitula, fitola.
viele, vielle. viole.
viula.
viguela, vihuela, vigolo.
vidcle.
fiedel, violine.
viola, vtolino.
vedcl.
fiddcl.
fithele.
fithele. fythal, fithd,
fythylle. fidel.
fidyllc, (south) vilhde.
For the descent of the guitar-fiddle, the first bowed ancestor
of the violin, through many transitions from the dthara, see
Cithara, Guitar and Guitar-Fiddle.
In the minnesinger and troubadour fiddles, of which evidences
abound during the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, are to be
observed the structural characteristics of the violin and its
ancestors in the course of evolution. The prindpal of these are
first of all the shallow sound-chest, composed of belly and back,
almost flat, connected by ribs (also present in the cithara),
with incurvations more or less pronounced, an arched bridge,
a finger-board and strings (varying in number) , vibrated by means
1 See C. E. H. de Coussemaker, Memoirs sur Hucbald (Paris, 1841).
Tnm Joins ROUaaaa'a CcvAfcfcJc 4u
Minnesinger Fiddle. Germany.
of a bow. The central rose sound-holes of stringed instruments
whose strings are plucked by fingers or plectrum have given
place to smaller lateral sound-
holes placed on each side of
the strings. It is in Germany, 1
where contemporary drawings
of fiddles of the 13th and 14th
centuries furnish an authorita-
tive due, and in France, that
the development may best be
followed. The. German minne-
singer fiddle with sloping
shoulders was the prototype of
the viols, whereas the guitar-
fiddle produced the violin
through the intermediary of the
Italian bowed Lyra. 13th Century, from the Manesse
The fiddle of the Carolingian MSS.
epoch,— such, for instance, as
that mentioned by Otfrid of Wdssenburg* in his Harmony of Ike
Gospels (c. 868),
" Sih thar ouch a! ruarit
This organo fuarit
Lira job fidula," Ac-
was In all probability still an instrument whose strings were
plucked by the fingers, a dthara in transition. (K. S.)
FIDENAB, an andent town of Latium, situated about 5 m.
N. of Rome on the Via Salaria, which ran between it and the
Tiber. It was for some while the frontier of the Roman territory
and was often in the hands of VeiL It appears to have fallen
under the Roman sway after the capture of this town, and is
spoken of by dassical authors as a place almost deserted in their
time. It seems, however, to have had some importance as a post
station. The site of the arx of the andent town is probably to be
sought on the hill on which lies the Villa Spada, though no traces
of early buildings or defences are to be seen: pre-Roman tombs
are to be found in the cliffs to the north. The later village lay at
the foot of the hill on the eastern edge of the high-road, and
its curia, with a dedicatory inscription to M. Aurelius by the
Senatus Fidenatium, was excavated in 1880. Remains of other
buildings may also be seen.
See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 17.
FIDUCIARY (Lat. fiduciarius, one in whom trust, fiducia, is
reposed), of or belonging to a position of trust, especially of one
who stands in a particular relationship of confidence to another.
Such relationships are, in law, those of parent and child, guardian
and ward, trustee and cestui que trust, legal adviser and client,
spiritual adviser, doctor and patient, &c. In many of these the
law has attached special obligations in the case of gifts made to the
" fiduciary," on whom is laid the onus of proving that no " undue
influence" has been exercised. (See Contract; Children,
Law Relating to; Infant; Trust.)
FIEF, a feudal estate in land, land held from a superior (see
Feudalism). The word is* the French form , which is represented
in Medieval Latin t*fcudum or feodum, and in English as " fee "
or " feu " (see Fee) . The A.Fr. feoff er, to invest with a fief or fee,
has given the English law terms" feoffee " and " feoffment " (?.».).
FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892), American capitalist,
projector of the first Atlantic cable, was born at Stockbridge,
Massachusetts, on the 30th of November 1810. He was a brother
of David Dudley Field. At fifteen he became a clerk in the store
of A. T. Stewart & Co., of New York, and stayed there three
years; then worked for two years with his brother, Matthew
Dickinson Field, in a paper-mill at Lee, Massachusetts; and in
1840 went into the paper business for himsdf at West field,
Massachusetts, but almost immediately became a partner in
E. Root & Co., wholesale paper dealers in New York City, who
failed in the following year. Field soon afterwards formed with a
'See the Manesse MSS. reproduced in part by F. H. Ton dcr
Hagen, HeldenbUder (Leipzig and Berlin, 1855) and Bildersaal.
The fiddles are reproduced in J. Ruhlmann's Geschuhte der Begem-
instrumenle (Brunswick, 1882), plates.
' See Schiller's Thesaurus anltq. Tent, voL L p. 379*
FIELD, D. D.— FIELD, F.
32i
brother-m-taw the firm of Cyrus W. Field ft Co., and in 1853 had
accumulated S* 59,000, paid of the debts of the Root company
and retired from active business, leaving his name and $100,000
with the concern. In the same year be travelled with Frederick
E. Church, the artist, through South America. In 1854 he
became interested, through his brother Matthew, a civil engineer,
in the project of Frederick Newton Cisborne (18 24-1892) for a
telegraph across Newfoundland; and he was attracted by the
idea of a trans-Atlantic telegraphic cable, as to which he con-
sulted S. F. B. Morse and Matthew F. Maury, head of the National
Observatory at Washington: With Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor
(1806-1882), Marshall Owen Roberts (1814-1880) and Chandler
White, he formed the New York, Newfoundland ft London
Telegraph Company, which procured a more favourable charter
than Gisborne's, and had a capital of $1,500,000. Having
secured all the practicable landing rights on the American side
of the ocean, he and John W. Brett, who was now his principal
colleague, approached Sir Charles Bright (9.9.) in London, and in
December 1856 the Atlantic Telegraph Company was organized
by them in Great Britain, a government grant being secured of
£14,000 annually for government messages, to be reduced to
£10,000 annually when the cable should pay a 6% yearly
dividend; similar grants were made by the United States
government. Unsuccessful attempts to lay the cable were made
in August 1857 and in June 1858, but the complete cable was
hid between the 7th of July and the 5th of August 1858; for a
time messages were transmitted, but in October the cable became
useless, owing to the failure of its electrical insulation. Field,
h o we v er, did not abandon the enterprise, and finally in July
i860, after a futile attempt in the previous year, a cable was
hid and brought successfully into use. From the Congress of the
United States he received a gold medal and a vote of t hanks, and he
received many other honours both at home and abroad. Im877he
bought a controlling interest in the New York Elevated Railroad
Company, controlling the Third and Ninth Avenue lines, of
which he was president in 1877-1880. He worked with Jay
Gould for the completion of the Wabash railway, and a 1 the time of
his greatest stock activity bought The New York Evening Express
and The Mail and combined them as The Mail and Express,
which be controlled for six years. In 1879 Field suffered
financially by Samuel J. Ti Wen's heavy sales (during Field's
absence in Europe) of " Elevated " stock, which forced the price
down from 200 to 164; but Field lost much more in the great
" Manhattan squeeze " of the 24th of June 1887, when Jay
Gould and Russell Sage, who had been supposed to be his
backers in an attempt to bring the Elevated stock to 200,
forsook him, and the price fell from 156) to 114 in half an hour.
Field died in New York on the 12th of July 189a.
See the biography by hi* daughter, Isabella (Field) Tudson, Cyrus
W. Field, His Life and Work (New York, 1896) : H. M. Field. History
*4 be Atlantic Telegraph (New York. 1866); and Charles Bright,
The Story of the Atlantic Cable (New York. 1903).
FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (1805-1804), American lawyer and
law reformer, was born in Haddam, Connecticut, on the 13th
of February 1805. He was the oldest of the four sons of the
Rev. David Dudley Field (1781-1867), a well-known American
clergyman and author. He graduated at Williams College in
1825, and settled in New York City, where he studied law, was
admitted to the bar In 1828, and rapidly won a high position in
bis profession. Becoming convinced that the common law in
America, and particularly in New York state, needed radical
changes in respect to the unification and simplification of its
procedure, be visited Europe in 1836 and thoroughly investigated
the courts, procedure and codes of England, France and other
countries, and then applied himself to the task of bringing about
in the United Slates a codification of the common law procedure.
For more than forty years every moment that he could spare from
his extensive practice was devoted to this end. He entered upon
his great work by a systematic publication of pamphlets and
articles in journals and magazines in behalf of his reform, but
for some years he met with a discouraging lack of interest. He
ftppecred personally before successive legislative committees, and
in 1846 published a pamphlet, " The Reorganization of the
Judiciary/' which had its influence in persuading the New York
State Constitutional Convention of that year to report in favour of
a codification of the laws. Finally in 1 84 7 he was appointed as the
head of a state commission to revise the practice and procedure.
The first part of the commission's work, consisting of a code of
civil procedure, was reported and enacted in 1848, and by the 1st
of January 1 850 the complete code of civil and criminal procedure
was completed, and was subsequently enacted by the legislature.
The basis of the new system, which was almost entirely Field's
work, was the abolition of the existing distinction in forms of pro-
cedure between suits in law and equity requiring separate actions,
and their unification and simplification in a single action. Eventu-
ally the civil code with some changes was adopted in twenty-lour
states, and the criminal code in eighteen, and the whole formed
a basis of the reform in procedure in England and several of her
colonies. In 1857 Field became chairman of a state commission
for the reduction into a written and systematic code of the
whole body of law of the state, excepting those portions already
reported upon by the Commissioners of Practice and Pleadings.
In this work he personally prepared almost the whole of the
political and civil codes. The codification, which was completed
in February 1865, was adopted only in small part by the state,
but it has served as a model after which most of the law codes of
the United Slates have been constructed. In 1866 he proposed
to the British National Association for the Promotion of Social
Science a revision and codification of the laws of all nations. For
an international commission of lawyers he prepared Draft Out-
lines of an International Code (1872), the submission of which
resulted in the organization of the international Association for
the Reform and Codification of the Laws of Nations, of which he
became president. I n politics Field was originally an ant i-slavery
Democrat, and he supported Van Buren in the Free Soil campaign
of 1 848. He gave his support to the Republican party in z 856 and
to the Lincoln administration throughout the Civil War. After
1876, however, he returned to the Democratic party, and from
January to March 1877 served out in Congress the unexpired term
of Smith Ely, elected mayor of New York City. During his
brief Congressional career he delivered six speeches, all of which
attracted attention, introduced a bill in regard to the presidential
succession, and appeared before the Electoral Commission in
Tildcn's interest. He died in New York City on the 13th of
April 1894.
Part of his numerous pamphlets and addresses were collected ia
his Speeches, Arguments and Miscellaneous Papers (3 vols., 1884-
1890). Sec also the Life of David Dudley Field (New York, 1898),
by Rev. Henry Martyn Field.
FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895), American poet, was born at
St Louis, Missouri, on the 2nd of September 1850. He spent
his boyhood in Vermont and Massachusetts; studied for short
periods at Williams and Knox Colleges and the University of
Missouri, but without taking a degree; and worked as a jour-
nalist on various papers, finally becoming connected with the
Chicago Nods. A Little Booh of Profitable Tales appeared in
Chicago in 1889 and in New York the next year; but Field's
place in later American literature chiefly depends upon his poems
of Christmas-time and childhood (of which " Little Boy Blue n
and " A Dutch Lullaby " are most widely known), because of
their union of obvious sentiment with fluent lyrical form. His
principal collections of poems are: A Little Book of Western
Verse (1889); A Second Book of Verse (1892); With Trumpet
and Drum (1892); and Love Songs of Childhood (.'894). Field
died at Chicago on the 4th of November 1895.
His works were collected in ten volumes (1896), at New York.
His prose Love-affairs of a Bibliomaniac (1896) contains a Memoir
by his brother Roswell Martin Field (b. 1851). See also Slasoa
Thompson, Eugene Field: a study in heredity and contradiction*
(2 vols., New York, 1901).
FIELD, FREDERICK (1 801- 1885), English divine and biblical
scholar, was born in London and educated at Christ's hospital
and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship
in 1824. He took orders in 1828, and began a dose study of
patristic theology. Eventually he published an emended and
322
annotated text of Chrysostom's HomUku in Matthaenm (Cam-
bridge, 1830), and some years later Jie contributed to Pusey's
BiUiothtea Palrum (Oxford, 1838- 1870), a similarly treated text
of Chrysostom's homilies on Paul's epistles. The scholarship
displayed in both of these critical editions is of a very high order.
In 1830 he had accepted the living of Great Saxham, in Suffolk,
and in 1842 he was presented by his college to the rectory of
Reepham in Norfolk. He resigned in 1863, and settled at
Norwich, in order to devote his whole time to study. Twelve
years later he completed the Origenis Hexaplorum quae supersunl
(Oxford, 1867-1875), now well known as Field's HcxapUi, a text
reconstructed from the extant fragments of Origen's work of
that name, together with materials drawn from the Syro-hexaplar
version and the Septuagint of Holmes and Parsons (Oxford,
1798-1827). Field was appointed a member of the Old Testa-
ment revision company in 1870.
FIELD. HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907), American author
and clergyman, brother of Cyrus Field, was born at Stockbridge,
Massachusetts, on the 3rd of April 1822; he graduated at
Williams College in 1838, and was pastor of a Presbyterian
church in St Louis, Missouri, from 1842 to 1847, and of a Con-
gregational church in West Springfield, Massachusetts, from
1850 to 1854. The interval between his two pastorates he spent
in Europe. From 1854 to 1898 he was editor and for many years
he was also sole proprietor of The Evangelist, a New York
periodical devoted to the interests of the Presbyterian church.
He spent the last years of his life in retirement at Stock-
bridge, Mass., where he died on the 26th of January 1007.
He was the author of a series of books of travel, which achieved
unusual popularity. His two volumes descriptive of a trip
round the world in 1873-1876, entitled From the Lakes of Kil-
larney to the Golden Horn ( 1 876) and From Egypt to Japan ( 1877) ,
are almost classic in their way, and have passed through more
than twenty editions. Among his other publications arc The
Irish Confederates and the Rebellion of 1798 (1850), The
History of the Atlantic Telegraph (t866), Faith or Agnosticism f
the Field-tngersoU Discussion (t888), Old Spain and New Spain
(1888), and Life of David Dudley Field (1898).
He is not to be confused with another Henry Maktyn Field,
the gynaecologist, who was born in 1837 at Brighton, Mass., and
graduated at Harvard in 1859 and at the College of Physicians
and Surgeons in New York City in 1862; he was professor of
Materia Medica and therapeutics at Dartmouth from 1871 to
1887 and of therapeutics from 1887 to 1893.
FIELD, JOHN (1 782-1837), English musical composer and
pianist, was born at Dublin in 1782. He came of a musical
family, his lather being a violinist, and his grandfather the
organist in one of the churches of Dublin. From the latter the
boy received his first musical education. When a few years
later the family settled in London, Field became the favourite
pupil of the celebrated Clementi, whom he accompanied to
Paris, and later, in 1802, on his great concert lour through France,
Germany and Russia. Under the auspices of his master Field
appeared in public in most of the great European capitals,
especially in St Petersburg, and in that city he remained when
Clementi returned to England. During his slay with the great
pianist Field had to suffer many privations owing to dementi's
all but unexampled parsimony; but when the latter left Russia
his splendid connexion amongst the highest circles of the capital
became Field's inheritance. His marriage with a French lady
of the name of Charpentier was anything but happy, and had
soon to be dissolved. Field made frequent concert tours to the
chief citiesof Russia, and in 1820 settled permanently in Moscow.
In 1831 he came to England for a short time, and for the next
four years led a migratory life in France, Germany and Italy,
exciting the admiration of amateurs wherever he appeared in
public. In Naples he fell seriously ill. and lay several months in
the hospital, till a Russian family discovered him and brought
him back to Moscow. There he lingered for several years till
his death on.the nth of January 1837. Field's training and the
cast of his genius were not of a kind to enable him to excel in
the larger forms of instrumental music, and bis seven concent
FIELD, H. M.— FIELD, S. J.
for the pianoforte are now forgotten. Neither do his quartets
for strings and pianoforte hold tbeir own by the side of those
of the great masters. Bui. his "nocturnes," a form of music
highly developed if not actually created by him, remain all but
unrivalled for their tenderness and dreaminess of conception,
combioed with a continuous flow of beautiful melody. They
were indeed Chopin 's models. Field's execution on the pianoforte
was nearly allied to the nature of his compositions, beauty and
poetical charm of touch being one of the chief characteristics
01 bis style. Moscheles, who beard Field in 1831, speaks of his
" enchanting legato, bis tenderness and elegance and bis beautiful
touch."
FIELD, MARSHALL (1835-1006), American merchant, was
born at Conway, Massachusetts, on the 18th of August 1835.
Reared on a farm, be obtained a common school and academy
education, and at the age of seventeen became a clerk in a dry
goods store at Pittsheld, Mass. In 1856 he removed to Chicago,
where he became a clerk in the large mercantile establishment
of Cooley, Wadsworth & Company. In i860 the firm was re-
organized as Cooley, FarweU & Company, and he was admitted
to a junior partnership. In 1865, with Potter Palmer (1826-
1902) and Levi Z. Leilcr (1834- 1904), he organized the arm of
Field, Palmer & Leiter, which subsequently became Field,
Leiter & Company, and in 1881 on the retirement of Leiter
became Marshall Field & Company. Under Field's management
the annual business of the firm increased from $13,000,000 in
187 1 to more than $40,000,000 in 189s* when it ranked as one of
the two or three largest mercantile establishments in the world.
He died in New York city on the 16th of January 1906. He had
married, for the second time, in the previous year. Field's
public benefactions were numerous; notable among them being
his gift of land valued at $300,000* and of $100,000 in cash to the
University of Chicago, an endowment fund of $1,000,000 to
support the Field Columbian Museum at Chicago, and a bequest
of $8,000,000 to this museum.
FIELD. NATHAN (1 587-1633), English dramatist and actor,
was baptized on the 17th of October 1587. His father, the
rector of Cripplegate, was a Puritan divine, author of a Godly
Exhortation directed against play-acting, and bis brother
Thcophilus became bishop of Hereford. Nat. Field early
became one of the children of Queen Elizabeth's chapel, and in
that capacity he played leading parts in Ben J prison's Cynthia's
Revels (in 1600), in the Poetaster (in 1601), and in Epicaent (in
1608), and the title role in Chapman's Bussy d' Atnbois (in 1606).
Ben Jonson was his dramatic model, and may have helped his
career. The two plays of which he was author were probably
both written before 16x1. They are boisterous, but well-con-
si rue ted comedies of contemporary London life ; the earlier
one, A Woman is a Weathercock (printed 161 2), dealing with the
inconstancy of woman, while the second, Amends for Ladies
(printed 1618), was written with the intention, as the title
indicates, of retracting the charge. From Henslowe's papers
it appears that Field collaborated with Robert Daborae and
with Philip Massingcr, one letter from all three authors being a
joint appeal for money to free them from prison. In 1614
Field received £10 for playing before the king in Bartholomew
Fair, a play in which Jonson records his reputation as an actor
in the words "which is your Burbadge now?. . . Your best
actor, your Field?" He joined the King's Players some lime
before 1619, and his name comes seventeenth on the list prefixed
to the Shakespeare folio of 1623 of the " principal actors in all
these plays." He retired from the stage before 1625, and died
on the aoth of February 1633. Field was part author with
Massinger in the Fatal Dowry (printed 1632), and he prefixed
commendatory verses to Fletcher's Faithful Shepherdess.
His two plays were reprinted in J. P. Collier's Five Old Plays (1833),
in Hazliit's edition of Dodslefs Old Plays, and in Nero ami other
Plays (Mermaid scries, 1888), with an introduction by Mr A. W.
Verity.
FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (18 16-1809), American jurist,
was born at Haddam, Connecticut, on the 4th of November
1816. He was the brother of David Dudley Field, Cyrus W.
FIELD, W. V.— FIELD
3*3
Field siid Henry M. Field. At tbe age of thirteen for accom-
panied bis sister Emilia and her husband the Rev. Josiah Brewer
(the parents of the distinguished judge of the Supreme Court,
David J. Brewer) to Smyrna, Turkey, for the purpose of studying
Oriental languages, but after three years be returned to tbe
United States, and in 1837 graduated at Williams College at the
bead of his class. He then studied law in his elder brother's
office, and in 1841 he was admitted to the New York bar. He
was associated in practice there with his brother until 1848,
and early in 1849 removed to California, settling soon afterward
at Marysrille, of which place, in 1850, he became the first alcaide
or mayor. In tbe same year he was chosen a member of the first
state legislature of California, in which he drew up and secured
the enactment of two bodies of law known as the Civil and
Criminal Practices Acts, based on the similar codes prepared
by bis brother David Dudley for New York. In the former
act he embodied a provision regulating and giving authority
to tbe peculiar customs, usages, and regulations voluntarily
adopted by the miners in various districts of the state for the
adjudication of disputed mining claims. This, as Judge Field
truly says, " was the foundation of the jurisprudence respecting
■nines in the country," having greatly influenced legislation upon
this subject in other states and in the Congress of the United
States. He was elected, in 1857, a justice of the California
Supreme Court, of which he became chief justice in 1859, on the
resignation of Judge David S. Terry to fight the duel with the
United States senator David C. Broderick which ended fatally
for the bitter. Field held this position until 1863, wn « n be was
appointed by President Lincoln a justice of the United Stales
Supreme Court. In this capacity he was conspicuous for fearless
independence of thought and action in his opinion in the test
oath case, and in his dissenting opinions in the legal tender,
conscription and " slaughter house " cases, which displayed un-
usual legal learning, and gave powerful expression to his strict
constructionist theory of the implied powers of the Federal
constitution. Originally a Democrat, and always a believer
io states' rights, his strong Union sentiments caused him never-
theless to accept Lincoln's doctrine of coercion, and that, together
with his anti-slavery sympathies, ted him to act with the Re-
publican party during the period of the Civil War. He was a
member of the commission which revised the California code
in 1873 and of the Electoral Commission in (877, vol ing in favour
of Tilden. In 1880 he received sixty five votes on the first
ballot for the presidential nomination at the Democratic National
Convention at Cincinnati. In August 1 880. as a result of a ruling
in tbe course of the Sharon-Hill litigation, a notorious conspiracy
case, he was assaulted in a California railway station by Judge
David S. Terry, who in turn was shot and killed by a United.
States deputy marshal! appointed to defend Justice Field against
tbt carrying out of Terry's often-expressed threats. He retired
from the Supreme Court on the 1st of December 1897 after a
service of thirty -four years and six months, the longest in the
court's history, and died in Washington on the nth of April 1899.
Hi* Perianal Reminiscences of Early Days in California, originally
privately primed in 1878, wa» n»nul>li»hctl in 189 A with George C.
Gor ham's Story of the Attempted A summation of Justice Field.
FIELD, WILLIAM VENTBIS FIELD, Barom (1813-1907).
English judge, second son of Thomas Flint Field, of Fielden.
Bedfordshire, was born on the mi of August 181 j. He was
educated at King's school, Brvton, Somersetshire, and entered
the legal profession as a solicitor. In 1843. however, he ceased
to practise as such, and entered at the Inner Temple, being called
to tbe bar in 1850, after having practised for some time as a
special pleader. He joined the Western circuit, but soon ex-
changed it for the Midland. He obtained a large business as a
junior, and became a queen's counsel and bencher of his inn in
1864. As a Q.C. he had a very extensive common law practice,
and bad for some lime been the leader of the Midland circuit,
when in February 1875, on the retirement of Mr Justice Keating,
he was raised to the bench as a justice of the queen's bench.
Mr Justice Field was an excellent puisne judge of the type that
attracts but litlk public attention. He was a first-rate lawyer,
had a good knowledge of commercial matters, great shrewdness
and a quick intellect, while he was also painstaking and scrupu-
lously fair. When the rules of the Supreme Court 1883 came
into force in the autumn of that year, Mr Justice Field was so
well recognized an authority upon all questions of practice that
the lord chancellor selected him to sit continuously at Judges*
Chambers, in order that a consistent practice under the new
rules might as far as possible be established. This he did for
nearly a year, and his name will always, to a large extent, be
associated with the settling of the details of the new procedure,
which finally did away with the former elaborate system of
" special pleading." In r8oo be retired from the bench and was
raised to the peerage as Baron Field of Bakeham, becoming at
the same time a member of the privy council. In the House of
Lords he at first took part, not infrequently, in the hearing of
appeals, and notably delivered a carefully-reasoned judgment
in the case- of the Bank of England v. Vagtiano Brothers (5th of
March 1891), in which, with Lord Brarowell, he differed from the
majority of his brother peers. Before long, however, deafness
and advancing years rendered his attendances less frequent.
Lord Field died at Bognor on the 23rd of January 1907, and as
he left no issue the peerage became extinct.
FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf.
Ger Fcld, Dutch sett, possibly cognate with O.E./pAfc, tbe earth,
and ultimately with root of the Gr. *Xor6f , broad), open country
as opposed to woodland or to the town, and particularly and for
cultivation divided up into separate portions by hedges, banks,
stone walls, lie; also used in combination with words denoting
the crop grown on such a portion of land, such as corn-field,
turnip-field, &c. The word is similarly applied to a region with
particular reference to its products, as oil-field. gold-field, &c
For the " open " or " common field " system of agriculture in -
village communities see Commons. Generally with a reference to
their " wild " as opposed to their " domestic " nature " field " is
applied to many animals, such as the * field-mouse." There are
many applications of the word; thus from the use of the term for
the place where a battle is fought, and widely of the whole
theatre of war, come such phrases as to " take the field " for the
opening of a campaign, " in tbe field " of troops that are engaged
in the operations of a campaign. It is frequently used figura-
tively in this sense, of the subject matter of a controversy, and -
also appears in military usage, in field-fortification, tjeld*day and
1 he like A " field-officer " is one who ranks above acaptain and
below a general (see Ojticxrs); a field marshal is the highest
rank of general officer in the British and many European armies
(see Marshal)- " Field " is used in many games, partly with the
idea of an enclosed space, partly with the idea of the ground of
military operations, for the ground in which such games as
cricket, football, baseball and the like are played. Hence it is
applied to those players in cricket and baseball who are not " in,"
and " to field " is to perform the functions of such a player— to
stop or catch (he ball played by the '• in " side. M The -field " is
used in hunting. &c., for those taking part in the sport, and in
racing for all the horses entered for a race, and, in such ex-
pressions as " to back the field;" is confined to all the horses with
the exception of the " favourite." A common application of the
word is to a surface, more or less wide, as of the sky or sea, or of
such physical phenomena as ice or snow, and particularly of the
ground, of a special •' tincture." on which armorial bearings are
displayed (see Heraldry); it is thus used also of tbe " ground "
of a flag, thus the white ensign of tbe British navy has a red St
George's cross on a while " field." In scientific asage the word is
also used of tbe sphere of observation or of operations, and has
come to be almost equivalent to a department of knowledge. In •
physics, a particular application is that to the area whkh is
influenced by some agent, as in the magnetic or electric field*
The field of observation or view is the area within Which objects-
can be seen through any optical instrument at any one position.
A " field-glass " is the name given to a binocular glass used in the.
field (sec Binocular Instrument); the older form of field-glass.
was a small achromatic telescope with joints This terms is also
applied, in an astronomical telescope or compound microscope to-
32+
FIELDFARE— FIELDING
that one of the two lenses of the " eye-piece " which u next to the
object-glass; the other is called the " eye-glass."
FIELDFARE (O.E. fed o-for= {allow-later), a large species of
thrush, the Turdus pilaris of Linnaeus — well known as a regular
and common autumnal visitor throughout the British Islands and
a great part of Europe, besides western Asia, and even reaching
northern Africa. It is the Veldjakker and Veld-lyslcr of the Dutch,
the Wachholderdrossel and Kramtsvoget of Germans, the Lilorne of
the French, and the Cesena of Italians. This bird is of all
thrushes the most gregarious in habit, not only migrating in large
bands and keeping in flocks during the winter, but even commonly
breeding in society — 200 nests or more having been seen within a
very small space. The birch-forests of Norway, Sweden and
Russia are its chief resorts in summer, but it is known also to
breed sparingly in some districts of Germany. Though its nest
has been many times reported to have been fount! in Scotland,
there is perhaps no record of such an incident that is not open to
doubt; and unquestionably the missel-thrush (T.viscivorus) has
been often mistaken for the fieldfare by indifferent observers.
The head, neck, upper part of the back and the rump are grey;
the wings, wing-coverts and middle of the back are rich hazel-
brown; the throat is ochraceous; and the breast reddish-brown —
both being streaked or spotted with black, while the belly and
lower wing-coverts are white, and the legs and toes very dark-
brown. The nest and eggs resemble those of the blackbird
(T. merula) t but the former is usually built high up in a tree.
The fieldfare's call-note is harsh and loud, sounding like i'ckal-
t'ekat: its song is low, twittering and poor. It usually arrives in
Britain about the middle or end of October, but sometimes earlier,
and often remains till the middle of May before departing for its
northern breeding-places. In hard weather it throngs to the
berry-bearing bushes which then afford it sustenance, but in open
winters the flocks spread over the fields in search of animal food-
worms, slugs and the larvae of insects. In very severe seasons it
will altogether leave the country, and then return for a shorter
or longer time as spring approaches. From William of Paicrne
(translated from the French c. 1350) to the writers of our own day
the fieldfare has occasionally been noticed by British poets with
varying propriety. Thus Chaucer's association of its name with
frost is as happy as true, while Scott was more than unlucky in his
well-known reference to its " lowly nest " in the Highlands.
Structurally very like the fieldfare, but differing greatly in
many other respects, is the bird known in North America as the
" robin " — its ruddy breast and familiar habits reminding the
early British settlers in the New World of the household favourite
of their former homes. This bird, the Turdus migraiorius of
IJnnaeus, has a wide geographical range, extending from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Greenland to Guatemala, and,
except at its extreme limits, is almost everywhere a very abundant
species. As its scientific name imports, it is essentially a migrant,
and gathers in flocks to pass the winter in the south, though a few
remain in New England throughout the year. Yet its social
instincts point rather in the direction of man than of its own kind,
and it is not known to breed in companies, while it affects the
homesteads, villages and even the parks and gardens of the large
cities, where its fine song, its attractive plumage, and its great
services as a destroyer of noxious insects, -combine to make it
justly popular. (A. N.)
FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY (1787-1855),
commonly called Copley Fielding. English landscape painter (son
of a portrait painter), became at an early age a pupil of John
Varley. He took to water-colour painting, and to this. he con-
fined himself almost exclusively. In 18 10 he became an associate
exhibitor in the Water-colour Society , in 1813 a full member, and
in 183 1 president of that body. He also engaged largely in
teaching the art, and made ample profits. His death took place at
Worthing in March 1855. Copley Fielding was a painter of much
elegance, taste and accomplishment, and has always been highly
popular with purchasers, without reaching very high in originality
of purpose or of style: he painted in vast number all sorts of
views (occasionally in oil-colour) including marine subjects in
large proportion. Specimens of his- work are to be seen in the
water-colour gallery of the Victoria and Albert Museum, of dates
ranging from 1829 to 1850. Among the engraved specimens of
his art is the Annual of British landscape Scenery, published
in 1839. (W. M. R.)
FIELDING, HENRY (1 707-1 754), English novelist and play-
wright, was born at Sharpham Park, near Glastonbury, Somerset,
on the 22nd of April 1707. His father was Lieutenant Edmund
Fielding, third son of John Fielding, who was canon of Salisbury
and fifth son of the carl of Desmond. The earl of Desmond
belonged to the younger branch of the Denbigh family, who,
until lately, were supposed to be connected with the Hababurgs.
To this claim', now discredited by the researches of Mr J. Horace
Round (Studies in Peerage x 1002, pp. 2x6-249), is to be attributed
the famous passage in Gibbon's Autobiography which predicts for
Tom Jones—" that exquisite picture of human manners °—
a diuturnity exceeding that of the house of Austria. Henry
Fielding's mother was Sarah Gould, daughter, of Sir Henry
Gould, a judge of the king's bench. It is probable that the
marriage was not approved by her father, since, though she
remained at Sharpham Park for some time after that event,
his will provided that her husband should have nothing to do
with a legacy of £3000 left her in 1710. About this date the
Fieldings moved to East Stour. in Dorset. Two girls, Catherine
and Ursula, had apparently been born at Sharpham Park;
and three more, together with a son, Edmund, followed at East
Stour. Sarah, the third of the daughters, born November
1 7 10, and afterwards the author of David Simple and other
works, survived her brother.
Fielding's education up to his mother's death, which took
place in April 1 718 at East Stour, seems to have been entrusted
to a neighbouring clergyman, Mr Oliver of Motcombe, in whom
tradition traces the uncouth lineaments of " Parson Truiliber "
in Joseph Andrews. But he must have contrived, nevertheless,
to prepare his pupil for Eton, to which place Fielding went about
t his date, probably as an oppidan. Little is known of his school-
days. There is no record of his name in the college lists; but,
if we may believe his first biographer, Arthur Murphy, by no
means an unimpeachable authority, he left " uncommonly
versed in the Greek authors, and an early master of the Latin
classics," — a statement which should perhaps be qualified by
his own words to Sir Robert Walpole in 1 730:-*
" Tuscan and French are in my head ;
Latin 1 write, and Greek— f read."
But he certainly made friends among his dass-feUows— some of
whom continued friends for life. Winnington and Hanbury-
Williams were among these. The chief, however, and the most
faithful, was George, afterwards Sir George, and later Baron
Lyttekon of Frankley.
When Fielding left Eton is unknown. But in November 1725
we hear of him definitely in what seems like a characteristic
escapade. He was slaying at Lyme (in company with a trusty
retainer, ready to " beat, maim or kill " in his young master's
behalf), and apparently bent on carrying off, if necessary by force,
a local heiress, Miss Sarah Andrew, whose fluttered guardians
promptly hurried her away, and married her to some one else
(Athenaeum, 2nd June 1883). Her baffled admirer consoled
himself by translating part of Juvenal's sixth satire into verse
as "all the Revenge taken by an injured Lover/' After this
he must have lived the usual life of a young man about town,
and probably at this date improved the acquaintance of his
second cousin, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, to whom he in-
scribed his first comedy, Late in Several Masques, produced at
Drury Lane in February 1 7 28. The moment was not particularly;
favourable, since k succeeded Cibber's Protok'd Husband, andj
was contemporary with Gay's popular Beggar's Opera. Almost
immediately afterwards (March 16th) Fielding entered himself
as " Stud. Lit." at Leiden University. He was still there in
February 1720- But he had apparently left before the annual
registration of February 1730, when his name is absent from
the books (Macmillan's Magazine, April 1907); and in January
1730 he brought out a second comedy at the newly-opened
theatre in Goodman's Fields. Like its predecessor, the Templt
FIELDING
3*5
Baas' waa an essay In the vein of Congreve and Wycherley,
though, in a measure, an advance on J>*# in Several Masques,
With the Tempi* Beau Fielding's dramatic career definitely
begin*. His lather had married again; and his Leiden career
had been interrupted for lack of funds. Nominally, he was
entitled to an allowance of £**> a year; but thia (he was
accustomed to say) "any body might pay that would." Young,
hanrhomn anient and fond of pleasure, he began that career as
a hnncVto-mouth playwright around which so much kgend has
gathered— -and gathers. Having— in his own words— no choice
but to be a hackney coachman or a hackney writer, he chose the
pen; and his incHnations f as well as his opportunities, led him
to the stage. From 1730 to 1736 he rapidly brought out a large
number of pieces, most of which had merit enough to secure their
being acted, but not sufficient to earn a lasting reputation for
their author. His chief successes, from a critical point of view,
the Author's Farce (1730) and Tom Thumb (1730, 1731), were
burlesques; and he also was fortunate in two translations from
Moliere, the Mock Doctor (1734) and the Miser (1733). Of the
rest (with one or two exceptions, to be mentioned presently)
the names need only be recorded. They are The Cofee-House
Politician, a comedy (1730); The Letter Writers, a farce (173O •
The Grub-Street Opera, a burlesque (173O; The lottery, a farce
(173a); The Modem Husband, a comedy (1732); The Count
Garden Tragedy, a burlesque (i73«); The Old Debauchees, a
comedy (1733); Deborah; or, a Wife for you all, an after-piece
(i733)> the Intriguing Chambermaid (from Regnard), a two-act
comedy (1734); and Don Quixote in England, a comedy, which
had been partly sketched at Leiden.
Don Quixote was produced in 1734, and the list of plays may
he here interrupted by an event of which the date has only
recently been ascertained, namely, Fielding's first marriage.
This took place on the 28th of November 1734 at St Mary,
Charkombe, near Bath {Macmillan's Magazine, April 1007),
the lady being a Salisbury beauty, Miss Charlotte Cradock, of
whom be had been an admirer, if not a suitor, as far back as
1730. This is a fact which should be taken into consideration
in estimating the exact Bohemianism of his London life, for
there is no doubt that be was devotedly attached to her. After
a fresh farce entitled An Old Man taught Wisdom, and the com-
parative failure of a new comedy, The Universal Gallant, both
produced early in 173s, he seems for a time to have retired with
his bride, who came into £1500, to his old home at East Stour.
Around this rural seclusion fiction has freely accreted. He is
supposed to have lived for three years on the footing of a typical
18th-century country gentleman; to have kept a pack of
hounds; to have put bis servants into impossible yellow liveries;
and generally, by profuse hospitality and reckless expenditure,
to have made rapid duck and drake of Mrs Fielding's modest
legacy. Something of this is demonstrably false; much,
grossly exaggerated. In any case, he was in London as late as
February 1735 (the date of the " Preface " to The Universal
Gallant); and early in March 1736 he was back again managing
the Haymarket theatre with a so-called "Great Mogul's Company
of English Comedians."
Upon this new enterprise fortune, at the outset, seemed to
smile. The first piece (produced on the 5th of March) was
Pasquin, a Dramaiich Satire on the Times (a piece akin in its
plan to Buckingham's Rehearsal), which contained, in addition
to much admirable burlesque, a good deal of very direct criticism
of the shameless political corruption of the Walpole era. Its
Success was unmistakable; and when, after bringing out the
remarkable Fatal Curiosity of George Lillo, its author followed
up Pasquin by the Historical Register for the Year 17 j6, of which
the effrontery was even more daring than that of its predecessor,
the ministry began to bethink themselves that matters were
going too far. How they actually effected their object is obscure:
but grounds Jwere speedily concocted for the Licensing Act of
1737, which restricted the number of theatres, rendered the lord
chamberlain's licence an Indispensable preliminary to stage
representation, and— in a word— effectually put an end to
Fielding's career as a dramatist.
Whether, had that career been prolonged to its maturity,
the result would have enriched the theatrical repertoire with
a new species of burlesque, or reinforced it with fresh variations
on the " wit-traps " of Wycherley and Congreve, is one of those
inquiries that are more academic than profitable. What may
be affirmed is, that Fielding's plays, as we have them, exhibit
abundant invention and ingenuity; that they are full of humour
and high spirits; that, though they may have been hastily
written, they were by no means thoughtlessly constructed:
and that, in composing them, their author attentively considered
either managerial hints, or the conditions of the market. Against
this, one must set the fact that they are often immodest; and
that, whatever their intrinsic merit, they have failed to rival
in permanent popularity the work of inferior men. Fielding's
own conclusion was, " that he left off writing for the stage, when
he ought to have begun " — which can only mean that he himself
regarded his plays as the outcome of imitation rather than
expe ri e nc e. They probably taught him how to construct Tom
Jones; but whether he could ever have written a comedy at
the level of that novel, can only be established by a comparison
which it is impossible to make, namely, a comparison with
Tom Jones of a comedy written at the same age, and in similar
circumstances.
Tumble-Down Dich; or, Phaeton in ike Suds, Eurydice and
Eurydice hissed are the names of three occasional pieces which
belong to the last months of Fielding's career as a Haymarket
manager. By this date he was thirty, with a wife and daughter.
As a means of support, he reverted to the profession of his
maternal grandfather; and, in November 1737, he entered the
Middle Temple, being described in the books of the society as
" of East Stour in Dorset" That he set himself strenuously to
master his new profession, is admitted; though it is unlikely
that he had entirely discarded the irregular habits which had
grown upon him in his irresponsible bachelorhood. He also
did a good deal of literary work, the best known of which is
contained in the Champion, a " News- Journal " of the Spectator
type undertaken with James Ralph, whose poem of " Night "
is made notorious in the Dunciad. That the Champion was not
without merit is undoubted; but the essay-type was for the
moment out-worn, and neither Fielding nor his coadjutor could
lend it fresh vitality. Fielding contributed papers from the
15th of November 1739 to the xoth of June 1740. On the 20th
of June he was called to the bar, and occupied chambers in
Pump Court. It is further related that, in the diligent pursuit
of his calling, be travelled the Western Circuit, and attended
the Wiltshire sessions.
Although, with the Champion, he professed, for the time,
to have relinquished periodical literature, he still wrote at
intervals, a fact which, taken in connexion with his past reputa-
tion as an effective satirist, probably led to his being " unjustly
censured " for much that he never produced. But he certainly
wrote a poem " Of True Greatness " (1741); a first book of a
burlesque epic, the Vernoniad, prompted by Vernon's expedition
of 1739; a vision called the Opposition, and, perhaps, a political
sermon entitled the Crisis (1741). Another piece, now known
to have been attributed to him by his contemporaries {Hist,
MSS. Comm., Repi, 12, App. Pt. ix., p. 204), is the pamphlet
entitled An A pdogyfor the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews, a clever
but coarse attack upon the prurient side of Richardson's Pamela,
which had been issued in 1740, and was at the height of its
popularity. Shamela followed early in 1741. Richardson, who
was well acquainted with Fielding's four sisters, at that date
his neighbours at Hammersmith, confidently attributed it to
Fielding (Corr. 2804, iv. 286, and unpublished letter at South
Kensington); and there are suggestive points of internal evidence
(such as the transformation of Pamela* s "Mr B." into "Mr
Booby") which tend to connect it with the future Joseph
A ndrews. Fielding, however, never acknowledged it, or referred
to it; and a great deal has been laid to his charge that he never
deserved (" Preface " to Miscellanies, 1743).
But whatever may be decided in regard to the authorship of
Shamela, it is quite possible that it prompted the more memorable
3"*6
FIELDING
Joseph Andrews, which made Its appearance in February 1742,
and concerning which there is no question. Professing, on his
title-page, to imitate Cervantes, Fielding* set out to cover Pamela
with Homeric ridicule by transferring the heroine's embarrass-
ments to a hero, supposed to be her brother. Allied to this
purpose was a collateral attack upon the slipshod Apology of the
playwright Colley Cibber, with whom, for obscure reasons,
Fielding had long been at war. But the avowed object of the
book fell speedily into the background as its author warmed
to his theme. His secondary speedily became his primary
characters, and Lady Booby and Joseph Andrews do not interest
as now as much as Mrs Slipslop and Parson Adams— the latter
an invention that ranges in literature with Sterne's " Uncle
Toby " and Goldsmith's " Vicar." Yet more than these and
others equally admirable In their round veracity, is the writer's
penetrating outlook upon the frailties and failures of human
nature. By the time he had reached his second volume, he had
convinced himself that he had inaugurated a new fashion of
fiction; and in a " Preface " of exceptional ability, he announced
his discovery. Postulating that the epic might be " comic "
or " tragic," prose or verse, he claimed to have achieved what
he termed the " Comic Epos in Prose," of which the action was
"ludicrous" rather than "sublime," and the personages
selected from society at large, rather than the restricted ranks
of conventional high life. His plan, it will be observed, was
happily adapted to his gifts of humour, satire, and above all,
irony. That it was matured when it began may perhaps be
doubted, but it was certainly matured when it ended. Indeed,
except for the plot, which, in his picaresque first idea, had not
preceded the conception, Joseph Andrews has all the character*
istics of Tom Jones, even (in part) to the initial chapters.
Joseph Andrews had considerable success, and the exact sum
paid for it by Andrew Millar, the publisher, according to the
assignment now at South Kensington, was £183:1 is., one of
the witnesses being the author's friend, William Young, popularly
supposed to be the original of Parson Adams. It was with Young
that Fielding undertook what, with exception of " a very small
share " in the farce of Miss Lucy in Town (1742), constituted
his next work, a translation of the Plutus of Aristophanes,
which never seems to have justified any similar experiments.
Another of his minor works was a Vindication of the Dowager
Duchess of Marlborough (1742), then much before the public
by reason of the Account of her Life which she had recently put
forth. Later in the same year, Garrick applied to Fielding
for a play; and a very early effort, The Wedding Day, was
hastily patched together, and produced at Drury Lane in
February 1743 with no great success. It was, however, included
in Fielding's next important publication, the three volumes of
Miscellanies issued by subscription in the succeeding April.
These also comprised some early poems, some essays, a Lucianic
fragment entitled a Journey from this JVorld to the Next, and,
last but not least, occupying the entire final volume, the remark-
able performance entitled the History of the Life of the late Mr
Jonathan Wild the Great.
It is probable that, in its composition, Jonathan Wild preceded
Joseph Andrews. At all events it seems unlikely that Fielding
would have followed up a success in a new line by an effort so
entirely different in character. Taking for his ostensible hero
a well-known thief-taker, who had been hanged in 1725, he
proceeds to illustrate, by a mock-heroic account of his progress
to Tyburn, the general proposition that greatness without
goodness is no better than badness. He will not go so far as to
say that all " Human Nature is Newgate with the Mask on ";
but he evidently regards the description as fairly applicable to
a good many so-called great people. Irony (and especially Irony
neat) is not a popular form of rhetoric; and the remorseless
pertinacity with which Fielding pursues his demonstration is
to many readers discomforting and even distasteful. Yet — in
spite of Scott— Jonathan Wild has its softer pages; and as a
purely intellectual conception it is not surpassed by any of the
author's works.
His actual biography, both before and after Jonathan Wild,
is obscure. There are evidences that he laboured diligently
at his profession; there are also evidences of sickness and
embarrassment. He had become early a martyr to the malady
of his century— gout, and the uncertainties of a precarious
livelihood told grievously upon his beautiful wife, who eventually
died of fever in his arms, leaving him for the time so stunned and
bewildered by grief that his friends feared for his reason. For
some years his published productions were unimportant. He
wrote " Prefaces " to the David Simple of his sister Sarah in
1744 and 1747; and, in 1745-1746 and 1 747-1 748, produced
two newspapers in the ministerial interest, the True Petri*
and the Jacobite's Journal, both of which are connected with,
or derive from, the rebellion of 1745, and were doubtless, when
they ceased, the pretext of a pension from the public service
money {Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon, " Introduction "). In
November 1747 he married his wife's maid, Mary Daniel, at St
Bene't's, Paul's Wharf; and in December 1748, by the interest
of his old school-fellow, Lyttelton, he was made a principal justice
of peace for Middlesex and Westminster, an office which put him
in possession of a house in Bow Street, and £300 per annum
"of the dirtiest money upon earth " (ibid.), which might have
been more had he condescended to become what was known as
a " trading " magistrate.
For some time previously, while at Bath, Salisbury, Twicken-
ham and other temporary resting-places, he had intermittently
occupied himself in composing his second great novel, Tom Jones;
or, the History of a Foundling. For this,*in June x 748, Millar had
paid him £600, to which he added £100 more in 1749. In the
February of the latter year it was published with a dedication
to Lyttelton, to whose pecuniary assistance to the author during
the composition it plainly bears witness. In Tom Jones Fielding
systematically developed the " new Province of Writing " he
had discovered incidentally In Joseph Andrews. He paid closer
attention to the construction and evolution of the plot; he
elaborated the initial essays to each book which he had partly
employed before, and he compressed into his work the flower
and fruit of his forty years' experience of life. He has, indeed,
no character quite up to the level of Parson Adams, but his
Westerns and Partridges, his Allworthys and Blifils; have the
inestimable gift of life. He makes no pretence to produce " models
of perfection," but pictures of ordinary humanity, rather perhaps
in the rough than the polished, the natural than the artificial,
and his desire is to do this with absolute truthfulness, neither
extenuating nor disguising defects and shortcomings. One of the
results of this unvarnished naturalism has been to attract more
attention to. certain of the episodes than their inventor ever
intended. But that, in the manners of his time, he had chapter
and verse for everything he drew is clear. His sincere purpose
was, he declared, "to recommend goodness and innocence,"
and his obvious aversions are vanity and hypocrisy. The
methods of fiction have grown more sophisticated since his day,
and other forms of literary egotism have taken the place of his
once famous introductory essays, but the traces of Tom Jones
are still discernible in most of our manlier modern fiction.
Meanwhile, its author was showing considerable activity
in his magisterial duties. In May 1749, he was chosen chairman
of quarter sessions for Westminster; and in June he delivered
himself of a weighty charge to the grand jury. Besides other
pamphlets, he produced a careful and still readable Enquiry into
the Causes of the late Increase of Robbers, &c. ( 1 7 5 1) , which, among
its other merits, was not ineffectual in helping on the famous
Gin Act of that year, a practical result to which the " Gin Lane "
and " Beer Street " of his friend Hogarth also materially con-
tributed. These duties and preoccupations left their mark on
his next fiction, Amelia (1752), which is rather more taken up
with social problems and popular grievances than its forerunners.
But the leading personage, in whom, as in the Sophia Western
of Tom Jones, he reproduced the traits of his first wife, is certainly,
as even Johnson admitted, " the most pleasing heroine of all the
romances." The minor characters, too, especially Dr Harrison
and Colonel Bath, are equal to any in Tom Jones. The book
nevertheless shows signs, not of failure but of fatigue, perhaps
FIELDING— FIELDS
327
of haste—* drciimstence heightened by the absence of those
u prolegomenous " chapters over which the author had lingered
so lovingly in Tom Jones. In 1740 he bad been dangerously
ill, and his health was visibly breaking. The £1000 which Miliar
is said to have given for Amelia must have been painfully
earned.
Early in 175a his still indomitable energy prompted him to
start a third newspaper, the Covens Gordon Journal, which ran
from the 4th of January to the 95th of November. It is an in-
teresting contemporary record, and throws a good deal of light
on his Bow Street duties. But it has no great literary value,
and it unhappily involved him in harassing and undignified
hostilities with Smollett, Dr John Hill, Bonnell Thornton
and other of his contemporaries. To the following year belong
pamphlets on " Provision for the Poor," and the case of the
strange impostor, Elizabeth Canning (X754-I773)* 1 &y >7S4
his own case, as regards health, had grown desperate; and he
made matters worse by a gallant and successful attempt to break
up a " gang of villains and cut-throats," who had become the
terror of the metropolis. This accomplished, he resigned bis
office to his half-brother John (afterwards Sir John) Fielding.
But it was now too late. After fruitless essay both of Dr Ward 'a
specifics and the tar-water of Bishop Berkeley, it was felt that
bis sole chance of prolonging life lay in removal to a warmer
climate. On the a6th of June 1754 be accordingly left his little
country bouse at Fordhook, Ealing* for Lisbon, in the " Queen
of Portugal," Richard Veal muter. The ship, as often, was
tediously wind-bound, and the protracted discomforts of the sick
man and bis family are narrated at length in the touching
posthumous tract entitled the Journal 0/ a Voyage to Lisbon,
which, with a fragment of a comment on Bolingbroke's then
recently issued essays, was published in February 175s " for the
Benefit of his [Fielding's] Wife and Children." Reaching Lisbon
at last in August 1754, he died there two months later (8th
October), and was buried in the English cemetery, where a
monument was erected to him in 1830. Lugel Britannia pernio
nan darifovere natum is inscribed upon it.
His estate, including the proceeds of a fair library, only
covered his just debt* (Athenaeum, 35th Nov. 1905); but bis
family, a daughter by his first, and two boys and a girl by his
second wife, were faithfully cared for by his brother John, and
by his friend Ralph Allen of Prior Park, Bath, the Squire
Airworthy of Tom Jones, His will (undated) was printed in
the Athenaeum for the 1st of February 1800. There is but one
absolutely authentic portrait of him, a familiar outline by
Hogarth, executed from memory for Andrew Millar's edition
of his works in 276a. It is the likrnns of a man broken by ill-
health, and affords but faint indication of the handsome Harry
Fielding who in his salad days " warmed both hands before
the fire of life." Far too much stress, it is now held, has been laid
by his first biographers upon the unworsbipful side of his early
career. That he was always profuse, sanguine and mere or less
improvident, is as probable as that he was always manly, generous
and sympathetic But it is also plain that, in his later years,
be did much, as father, friend and magistrate, to redeem the
errors, real and imputed, of a too-youthful youth.
As a playwright and essayist his rank is not elevated. But
as a novelist bis place is a definite one. If the Spectator is to be
credited with foreshadowing the characters of the novel, Defoe
with its earliest form, and Richardson with its first experiments
in sentimental analysis, it is to Henry Fielding that we owe its
first accurate delineation of contemporary manners. Neglecting,
or practically neglecting, sentiment as unmanly, and relying
chiefly on humour and ridicule, he set out to draw life pre-
cisely as he saw it around him, without blanks or dashes.
He was, it may be, for a judicial moralist, too indulgent to some
of its frailties, but he was merciless to its meaner vices. For
reasons which have been already given, his high-water mark is
Tom Jones, which has remained, and remains, a model in its way
of the kind he inaugurated.
1 For a foil account of this celebrated case see HowcO, State Trials
(1*13), vol six.
An essay on Fielding's life and writings is prefixed to Arthur
Murphy's edition of his works (176a). and short biographies have
been written by Walter Scott and William Roscoe. There are also
lives by Watson (1807), Lawrence (1855), Austin Dobson (" Men of
Letters," 1883, 1907) and G. M. Godden (1900). An annotated
edition of the Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon is included in the
"World's Classics "(1907). (A. D.)
FIELDING. WILLIAM STEVENS (1848- ), Canadian
journalist and statesman, was bom in Halifax, Nova Scotia, on
the 24th of November 1848. From 1864 to 1884 he was one of
the staff of the Morning Chronicle, the chief Liberal paper of the
province, and worked at all departments of newspaper life. In
18S2 he entered the local legislature as Liberal member for
Halifax, and from 1884 to 1896 was premier and provincial
secretary of the province, but in the latter year became finance
minister in the Dominion administration of Sir Wilfrid Laurier,
and was elected to the House of Commons for Shclburne and
Queen's county. He opposed Confederation in 1864-1867, and as
late as 1886 won a provincial election on the promise to advocate
the repeal of the British North America Act His administration
as finance minister of Canada was important, since in 1897 he
introduced a new tariff, granting to the manufactures of Great
Britain a preference, subsequently increased; and later be
imposed a special surtax on German imports owing to unfriendly
tariff legislation by that country. In zoos he represented Canada
at the Colonial Conference in London.
FIELD-MOUSE, the popular designation of such mouse-like
British rodents as are not true or " house " mice. The term
thus includes the long-tailed field mouse, Uus (Micromys)
sylvalicus, easily recognised by its white belly, and sometimes
called the wood- mouse; and the two species of short-tailed
field-mice, Jdicrotus agrcstis and Evotomys glarealus, together with
their representatives in Skomer island and the Orkneys (see
Mouse and Volx).
FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD, the French Camp du drop
a" or, the name given to the place between Gulnes and Ardres
where Henry VIII. of England met Francis I. of France in June
1520. The most elaborate arrangements were made for the
accommodation of the two monarchs and their large retinues;
and on Henry's part especially no efforts were spared to make a
gneat impression in Europe by this meeting. Before the castle of
Gulnes a temporary palace, covering an area of nearly 12,000
sq. yds., was erected for the reception of the English king. It
was decorated in the most sumptuous fashion, and like the
chapel, served by thirty-five priests, was furnished with a
profusion of golden ornaments. Some idea of the size of Henry 'a
following may be gathered from the fact that in one month
2200 sheep and other viands in a similar proportion were con-
sumed. In the fields beyond the castle, tents to the number of
2800 were erected for less distinguished visitors, and the whole
scene was one, of the greatest animation. Ladies gorgeously
clad, and knights, showing by their dress and bearing their
anxiety to revive the glories and the follies of the age of chivalry,
jostled mountebanks, mendicants and vendors of all kinds.
Journeying from Calais Henry reached his headquarters at
Gulnes on the 4th of June 1530, and Francis took up bis residence
at Ardres. After Cardinal Wolsey, with a splendid train had
visited the French king, the two monarchs met at the ValDore, a
spot midway between the two places, on the 7th. Toe following
days were take up with tournaments, in which both kings took
part, banquets and other entertainments, and after Wolsey bad
said mass the two sovereigns separated on the 94th. This
meeting made a great impression on contemporaries, but its
political results were very smalL
The Ordounanco for the Field is printed by J. S. Brewer in the
Calendar «/ State Papers, Henry VIII. vol in. (1867). See also
J. S. Brewer, Reign <J Henry VIII. (1884).
FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881), American publisher
and author, was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the
31st of December 1817. At the age of seventeen he went to
Boston as clerk in a bookseller's shop. Afterwards he wrote
for the newspapers, and in 1835 he read an anniversary poem
•entitled " Commerce " before the Boston Mercantile Library
328
FIENNES— FIESCHI
Association. In 1839 he became junior partner in the publishing
and bookselling firm known alter 1846 as Ticknor & Fields, and
after 1868 as Fields, Osgood & Company. He was the publisher
of the foremost contemporary American writers, with whom he
was on terms of dose personal friendship, and he was the
American publisher of some of the best-known British writers of
his time, some of whom, also, he knew intimately. The first
collected edition of De Quincey's works (20 vols., 1850-1855) was
published by his firm. As a publisher he was characterized by a
somewhat rare combination of keen business acumen and sound,
discriminating literary taste, and as a man he was known for his
geniality and charm of manner. In 1862-1870, as the successor
of James Russell Lowell, he edited the Atlantic Monthly, In 187 1
Fields retired from business and from his editorial duties, and
devoted himself to lecturing and to writing. Of his books the
chief were the collection of sketches and essays entitled Under'
brush (1877) and the chapters of reminiscence composing Yester-
days with Authors (1871), in which he recorded his personal
friendship with Wordsworth, Thackeray, Dickens, Hawthorne
and others. He died in Boston on the 24th of April 1881.
His second wife, Annie Adams Fields (b. 1834), whom
he married in 1854, published Under the Olive (1880), a book
of verses; James T. Fields: Biographical Notes and Personal
Sketches (1882); Authors and Friends (1896); The Li/e and
Letters of Harriet Beecher Stowe (1897); and Orpheus (1000).
FIENNES, NATHANIEL (c. 1608-1669) English politician,
second son of William, xst Viscount Saye and Sele, by Elizabeth,
daughter of John Temple, of Stow in Buckinghamshire, was born
in 1607 or 1608, and educated at Winchester and at New College,
Oxford, where as founder's kin he was admitted a perpetual
fellow in 1624. After about five years' residence he left without
taking a degree, travelled abroad, and in Switzerland imbibed or
strengthened those religious principles and that hostility to the
Laudian church which were to be the chief motive in his future
political career. He returned to Scotland in 1639, and established
communications with the Covenanters and the Opposition in
England, and as member for Banbury in both the Short and
Long Parliaments he took a prominent part in the attacks upon
the church. He spoke against the illegal canons on the 14th of
December 1640, and again on the 9th of February 1641 on the
occasion of the reception of the London petition, when he argued
against episcopacy as constituting a political as well as a religious
danger and made a great impression on the House, his name being
added immediately to the committee appointed to deal with
church affairs. He took a leading part in the examination into
the army plot; was one of the commissioners appointed to attend
the king to Scotland in August 1641; and was nominated one
of the committee of safety in July 1642. On the outbreak of
hostilities he took arms immediately, commanded a troop of
horse in the army of Lord Essex, was present at the relief of
Coventry in August, and at the fight at Worcester in September,
where he distinguished himself, and subsequently at EdgehilL
Of the last two engagements he wrote accounts, viz. True and
Exact Rdation of both the Battles fought by . . .Earl of Essex . . .
against the Bloudy Cavaliers (1642). (See also A Narrative of the
Late Battle before Worcester taken by a Gentleman of the Inns of
Court from the mouth of Master Fiennes, 1642). In February
1643 Fiennes was sent down to Bristol, arrested Colonel Essex
the governor, executed the two leaders of a plot to deliver up the
dry, and received a commission himself as governor on the xst
of May 1643. On the arrival, however, of Prince Rupert on the
22nd of July the place was in no condition to resist an attack,
and Fiennes capitulated. He addressed to Essex a letter in his
defence (Thomason Tracts E. 6«, 26), drew up for the parliament
a Relation concerning the Surrender . . . (1643), answered by
Pry-one and Clement Walker accusing him of treachery and
cowardice, to which he opposed Col. Fiennes his Reply. ... He
was tried at St Albans by the council of war in December, was
pronounced guilty of having surrendered the place improperly,
and sentenced to death. He was, however, pardoned, and the
facility with which Bristol subsequently capitulated to the
parliamentary army induced Cromwell and the generals to
exonerate him completely. His military career nevertheless new
came to an end. He went abroad, and it was some time before he
reappeared on the political scene. In September 1647 he was
included in the army committee, and on the 3rd of January 1648
he became a member of the committee of safety. He was,
however, in favour of accepting the king's terms at Newport in
December, and in consequence was excluded from the House by
Pride's Purge. An opponent of church government in any form,
he was no friend to the rigid and tyrannical Presbyteriani&m of
the day, and inclined to Independency and Cromwell's party.
He was a member of the council of state in 1654, and in June
2655 he received the strange appointment of commissioner for
the custody of the great seal, for which he was certainly in no way
fitted. In the parliament of 1654 he was returned for Oxford
county and in that of 1656 for the university, while in January
1658 he was included in Cromwell's House of Lords. He was in
favour of the Protector's assumption of the royal title and urged
his acceptance of it on several occasions. His public career
doses with addresses delivered in his capacity as chief com-
missioner of the great seal at the beginning of the sessions of
January 20, 1658, and January 2, 1659, in which the religious
basis of Cromwell's government is especially insisted upon, the
feature to which Fiennes throughout his career had attached most
value. On the reassembling of the Long Parliament he was
superseded; he took no part in the Restoration, and died at
Newton Tony in Wiltshire on the x6th of December 1669.
Fiennes married (1), Elizabeth, daughter of the famous parlia-
mentarian Sir John Eliot, by whom he had one son, afterwards
3rd Viscount Saye and Sele; and (2), Frances, daughter of
Richard Whitehead of Tuderley, Hants, by whom he had three
daughters.
Besides the pamphlets already cited, a number of his speeches and
other political tracts were published (see Gen. Catalogue, British
Museum). Wood also attributed to him Monarchy Asserted (1660)
(reprinted in Somen Tracts, vi. 346 [ed. Scott]), but there seems no
reason to ascribe to him with Clement Walker the authorship of
Sprigge's Anglia Reduma.
FIERI FACIAS, usually abbreviated fi. fa. (LaL " that you
cause to be made "), in English law, a writ of execution after
judgment obtained in action of debt or damages. It is addressed
to the sheriff, and commands him to make good the amount
out of the goods of the person against whom judgment has been
obtained. (See Execution.)
FIESCHI, GIUSEPPE MARCO (1 790-1836), the chief con-
spirator in the attempt on the life of Louis Philippe in July
1835, was a native of Murato in Corsica. He served under
Murat, then returned to Corsica, where he was condemned to
ten years' imprisonment and perpetual surveillance by the
police for theft and forgery. After a period of vagabondage he
eluded the police and obtained a small post in Paris by means
of forged papers; but losing it on account of his suspicious
manner of living, he resolved to revenge himself on society.
He took lodgings on the Boulevard du Temple, and there, with
two members of the Sodet6 des Droits de l'Homme, Morey and
Pepin by name, contrived an " infernal machine," constructed
with twenty gun barrels, to be fired simultaneously. On the
28th of July 1835, as Louis Philippe was passing along the boule-
vard to the Bastille, accompanied by his three sons and a
numerous staff, the machine was exploded. A ball grazed the
king's forehead, and his horse, with those of the duke of Nemours
and of the prince de Joinville, was shot; Marshal Mortier was
killed, with seventeen other persons, and many were wounded;
but the king and the princes escaped as if by miracle. Fieschi
himself was severely wounded by the discharge of his machine,
and vainly attempted to escape. The attentions of the most
skilful physicians were lavished upon him, and his life was saved
for the stroke of justice. On his trial he named his accomplices,
displayed much bravado, and expected or pretended to expect
ultimate pardon. He was condemned to death, and was guillo-
tined on the 29th of February 1836. Morey and Pepin were
also executed, another accomplice was sentenced to twenty
years' imprisonment and one was acquitted. No less than
seven plots against the life of Louis Philippe had beex discovered
FIESCO— FIFE
3«9
by the police within the year, tad apologists were not wanting
in the revolutionary press for the crime of Fieschi.
See Prods do Fuseht, Prkidi desavie prioie, sa condemnation par
la Comr des Pairs et edits de sts complices Or volt., 1836); also P.
Thureau-Dangin, Hist, do la monarchic do JuHlel (vol. iv. ch. xii.,
1884).
FIESCO (de* Fiescbs), GIOVANNI L9I61 (c isaj-»S47),
count of Lavagna, was descended from one of the greatest
famines of Ligoria, first mentioned in the 10th century. Among
his ancestors were two popes (Innocent IV. and Adrian V.),
many cardinals, a king of Sicily, three saints, and many generals
and admirals of Genoa and other states. JSinibaldo Fiesco,
his father, had been a dose friend of Andrea poria (q*.), and
had rendered many important services to the Genoese republic
On bis death in 153 s Giovanni found himself at the age of
nine the head of the family and possessor of immense estates.
He grew up to be a handsome, intelligent youth, of attrac-
tive manners and very ambitious. He married Eleonora Cibd,
marchioness of Massa, in 1540, a woman of great beauty and
family influence. There were many reasons which inspired his
hatred of the Doria family; the almost absolute power wielded
by the aged admiral and the insolence of his nephew and heir
Giannettino Doria, the commander of the galleys, were galling
to hhn as to many other Genoese, and it is said that Giannettino
was the lover of Fiesco's wife. Moreover, the Fiesco belonged
to the French or popular party, while the Doria were aristocrats
and Imperialist*. When Fiesco determined to conspire against
Doria he found friends in many quarters. Pope Paul UL was
the first to encourage him, while both Pier Luigi Farnese, duke
of Parma, and Francis I. of France gave him much assistance
and promised him many advantages. Among his associates in
Genoa were his brothers Girolamo and Ottobuono, Verrina
and R. Sacco. A number of armed men from the Fiesco fiefs
were secretly brought to Genoa, and it was agreed that on the
and of January 1 547, during the interregnum before the election
of the new doge, the galleys in the port should be seised and the
city gates held. The first part of the programme was easily
carried out, and Giannettino Doria, aroused by the tumult,
rushed down to the port and was killed, but Andrea escaped
from the city in time. The conspirators attempted to gain
possession of the government, but unfortunately for them
Giovanni Luigi, while crossing a plank from the quay to one
of the galleys, fell into the water and was drowned. The news
spread consternation among the Fiesco faction, and Girolamo
Fiesco found few adherents. Tbey cane to terms with the
senate and were granted a general amnesty. Doria returned
to Genoa on the 4th thirsting for revenge, and in spite of the
amnesty he confiscated the Fiesco estates; Girolamo had shut
himself up, with Verrina and Sacco and other conspirators, in
his castle of Montobbia, which the Genoese at Dona's instiga-
tion besieged and captured. Girolamo Fiesco and Verrina were
tried, tortured and executed; all their estates were seised, some
of which, including Torrigtia, Doria obtained for himself. Otto-
buono Fiesco, who had escaped, was captured eight years after-
wards and put to death by Dona's orders.
There are many accounts of the conspiracy, of which perhaps the
best is contained in E. Petit '» Andrl Doria (Paris, 1887). chs. xf.
and aril, where all the chief authorities are quoted ; ace also Calligari,
La Congtura del Fiesco (Venice 1892), and Gavazso, Nuovi documents
suUacongittraddconte Fiesco (Genoa, 1886); E. Bcraabd-Brca, in his
SuOa congtura di Giovanni Luigi Fieschi, publishes many important
documents, while L Capelloni's Contiura del Fiesco, edited by
Otivieri, and A. Mascardrs Congtura del conte Giovanni Luigi de'
Fieschi (Antwerp, 1639) may be commended among the earlier
works. The Fiesco conspiracy has been the subject of many poems
and dramas, of which the most famous is that by Schiller. See also
u nder D oaiA, Andrea; Farwese. (L. V.*)
FIBSOLB (anc. Paesulae, 9.7.), a town and episcopal see
of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Florence, from which it
is 3 m. N.E. by electric tramway. Pop. (1901) town 4951,
commune 16,816. It is situated on a hill 970 ft. above sea-level,
and commands a fine view. The cathedral of S. Romolo is an
carry and simple example of the Tuscan Romanesque style;
it is a small basilica, begun in 1028 and restored in 1256. The
picturesque battlemented campanile belongs to 1213. The
tomb of the bishop Leonardo Salutatl (<L 1466). with a beautiful
portrait bust by the sculptor Mino da Fiesole (1431-1484),
is fine. The 13th-century Palazzo Pretorio contains a small
museum of antiquities. The Franciscan monastery commands
a fine view. The church of S. Maria Primerana has some works
of art, and S. Alessandro, which is attributed to the 6th century,
contains fifteen ancient columns of dpoQino. The inhabitants
of Fiesole are largely engaged in straw-plaiting.
Below Fiesole, between it and Florence, lies San Domenico
di Fiesole (485 ft.); in the Dominican monastery the painter,
Fra Giovanni Angelico da Fiesole (1387-1455), lived until he
went to S. Marco at Florence. Here, too, is the Badia di Fiesole,
founded in 1028 and re-erected about 1456-1466 by a follower
of Bruoelleschi. It is an irregular pile of buildings, in fine and
simple early Renaissance style; a small part of the original
facade of 1028 in black and white marble is preserved. The
interior of the Church is decorated with sculptures by pupils of
Deafderio da Settignano. The slopes of the hill on which Fiesole
stands are covered with fine villas. To the S.E. of Fiesole lies
Monte Ceceri (1453 ft.), with quarries of grey pietra sercno,
largely used in Florence for building. To the E. of this lies the
14th-century castle of Vindgliata restored and fitted up in the
medieval style.
FIFE, an eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. by the
Firth of Tay, E. by the North Sea, S. by the Firth of Forth,
and W. by the shires of Perth, Kinross and Clackmannan. The
Isle of May, Inchkeith, Inchcolm, Inchgarvie and the islet of
Oxcai belong to the shire. It has an area of 322,844, acres or
504. sq. m. Its coast-line measure 108 m. The Lomond Hills
to the S. and S.W. of Falkland, of which West Lomond is 17 13 ft.
high and East Lomond 1471 ft., Saline Hill (x 178 ft) to the N.W.
of Dunfermline, and Benarty (1 131 ft.) on the confines of Kinross
are the chief heights. Of the rivers the Eden is the longest;
formed on the borders of Kinross-shire by the confluence of
Beattie Bum and Carmore Burn, it pursues a wandering course
for 25 m. N.E., partly through the Howe, or Hollow of Fife, and
empties into the North Sea. There is good trout fishing in its
upper waters, but weirs prevent salmon from ascending it.
The Levcn drains the loch of that name and enters the Forth
at the town of Levcn after flowing eastward for 15 m. There
are numerous factories at various points on its banks. The
Ore, rising not far from Roscobie Hills to the north of Dunferm-
line, follows a mainly north-easterly course for 15 m. till it joins
the Leven at Windygatei The old loch of Ore which was an
expansion of its water was long ago reclaimed. Mot ray Water
finds its source in the parish of Kilmany, a few miles W. by N.
of Cupar, makes a bold sweep towards the north-east, and then,
taking a southerly, turn, enters the head-waters of St Andrews
Bay, after a course of 12 m. The p rind pal lochs are Loch
Fitty, Loch Gclly, Loch Glow and Loch Lindores; they are
small but afford some sport for trout, perch and pike. " Fresh-
water mussels " occur in Loch Fitty. There are no glens, and the
only large valley is the fertile Stratheden, which supplies part
of the title of the combined baronies of Stratheden (created
1836) and Campbell (created 1841).
Geology. — Between Dam head and Tayport on the northern side of
the lowTying Howe of Fife the higher ground is formed of Lower Old
Red Sandstone volcanic rocks, consisting of red and purple por-
phyriies and andesites and some coarse agglomerates, which, in the
neighbourhood of Auchtermuchty, arc rounded and conglomeratic.
These rocks have a gentle dip towards the S.S.E. They arc overlaid
unconformably by the soft red sandstones of the Upper Old Red
scries which underlie the Howe of Fife from Loch Leven to the
coast. The quarries in. these rocks in Dura Den arc famous for
fossil fishes. Following the Old Red rocks conformably arc the
Carboniferous formations which occupy the remainder of the county,
and are well exposed on the coast and in the numerous quarries.
The Carboniferous rocks include, at the base, the Calciferous Sand-
stone series of dark shales with thin limestones, sandstones and coals.
They arc best developed around Fife Ness, between St Andrews and
Elie, and again around Burntisland between Kirkcaldy and Inver-
keithing Bay. In the Carboniferous Limestone series, which comes
next in upward succession, are the valuable gas-coals and ironstones
worked in the coal-fields of Dunfermline, Saline, Oakley, Torryburn
Kirkcaldy and Markinch. The true Coal Measures He in the district
around Dysart and Leven, East Wemyss and Kinglassie, and they
33°
FIFE
are separated from the coal-bearing Carboniferous Limestone aeries
by the sandstones and conglomerate* of the Millstone Grit. Fourteen
1 of coal are found in the Dysart Coal Measure*, associated
with sandstones, shales and clay ironstones. Fife is remarkably rich
in evidences of former volcanic activity. Besides the Old Red
Sandstone volcanic rocks previously mentioned, there are many beds
of contemporaneous basaltic lavas and tuffs in the Carboniferous
rocks; Saline Hill and Knock Hill were the sites of vents, which at
that time threw out ashes; these interbedded rocks are well exposed
on the shore between Burntisland and Seafield Tower. There were
also many intrusive sheets of dolerite and basalt forced into tne
lower Carboniferous rocks, and these now play an important part
in the scenery of the county. They form the su mmits of the Lomond
Hills and Benarty, and they may be followed from Cult Hill by the
Cleish Hilts to Blairadam ; and again near Dunfermline, Burntisland,
Torryburn, Auchtertool and St Andrews. Later, m Permian times,
eastern Fife was the seat of further volcanic action, and great numbers
of " necks " or vents pierce the Carboniferous rocks; Largo Law is a
striking example. In one of these necks on the shore at Kincraig
Point is a fine example of columnar basalt ; the " Rock and Spindle
near St Andrews fa another. Last of all in Tertiary times, east and
west rifts in the Old Red Sandstone were filled by basalt dikes.
Glacial deposits, ridges of gravel and sand, boulder clay, &c, brought
from the N. W., cover much of the older rocks, and traces of old
raised beaches are found round the coast and in the Howe of Fife
In the 25-ft. beach in the East Neuk of Fife is an island sea-cliff with
Climate and Agriculture.— Since the higher hills all lie in the
west, most of the county is exposed to the full force of the east
winds from the North Sea, which often, save in the more sheltered
areas, check the progress of vegetation. At an elevation of 500 or
600 ft. above the sea harvests are three or four weeks later than
in the valleys and low-lying coast-land The climate, on the
whole, is mild, proximity to the sea qualifying the heat in summer
and the cold in winter. The average annual rainfall is 31 in.,
rather less in the East Neuk district and around St Andrews,
somewhat more as the hills are approached, late summer and
autumn being the wet season. The average temperature for
January is 38° F., for July 50-5°, and for the year 47-6*. Four-
fifths of the total area is under cultivation, and though the
acreage under grain is smaller than it was, the yield of each crop
is still extraordinarily good, oats, barley, wheat being the order
of acreage. Of the green crops most attention is given to turnips.
Potatoes also do well. The acreage under permanent pasture
and wood is very considerable. Cattle are mainly kept for feed-
ing purposes, and dairy farming, though attracting more notice,
has never been followed more than to supply local markets.
Sheep-farming, however, is on-the increase, and the raising of
horses, especially farm horses, is an important pursuit. They
are strong, active and hardy, with a large admixture, or purely,
of Clydesdale blood. The ponies, hunters and carriage horses so
bred are highly esteemed. The strain of pigs has been improved
by the introduction of Berkshires. North of the Eden the soil,
though generally thin, is fertile, but the sandy waste of Tents
Moor is beyond redemption. From St Andrews southwards all
along the coast the land is very productive. That adjacent to
the East Neuk consists chiefly of clay and rich loam. From
Leven to Inverkeithing it varies from a light sand to a rich
clayey loam. Excepting Strathedcn and Strathleven, which are
mostly rich, fertile loam, the interior is principally cold and stiff
clay or thin loam with strong clayey subsoiL Part of the Howe of
Fife is light and shingly and covered with heather. Some small
peat mosses still exist, and near Lochgelly there is a tract of
waste, partly moss and partly heath. The character of the farm
management may be judged by its results. The best methods are
pursued, and bouses, steadings and cottages are all in good order,
commodious and comfortable. Rabbits, hares, pheasants and
partridges are common in certain districts; roe deer are occasion-
ally seen; wild geese, ducks and teal haunt the lochs; pigeon-
houses are fairly numerous; and grouse and blackcock are
plentiful on the Lomond moors. The shire is well suited for
fox-hunting, and there are packs in both the eastern and the
western division of Fife.
Mining. — Next to Lanarkshire, Fife is the largest coal-
producing county in Scotland. The coal-field may roughly be
divided into the Dunfermline basin (including Halbeath, Loch-
gelly and Kelly), where the principal house coals arc found, and
the Wemyas or Dytart basin (including Methfl and the hinter-
land) , where gas-coal of the best quality is obtained. Coal is also
extensively worked at Cuirass, Carnock, Falfield, Donibristle,
Ladybank, Kilconquhar and elsewhere. Beds of ironstone,
limestone, sandstone and shale lie in many places contiguous to
the coal Blackband ironstone is worked at Lochgelly and
Oakley, where there are large smelting furnaces. Oil shale is
worked at Burntisland and Airdrie near Crail. Among the
principal limestone quarries are those at Charlestown, Burnt-
island and Cults. Freestone of superior quality is quarried at
Strathmiglo, Burntisland and Dunfermline. Whiostone of
unusual hardness and durability is obtained in nearly every
district. Lead has been worked in the Lomond Hills and copper
and zinc have been met with, though not in paying quantities.
It is of interest to note that in the trap tufa at Elie there have
been found pyropes (a variety of dark-red garnet), which are
regarded as the most valuable of Scottish precious stones and
are sold under the name of Elie rubies.
Other Industries.— The staple* manufacture is linen, ranging
from the finest damasks to the coarsest ducks and sackings. Its
chief seats are at Kirkealdyand Dunf ermline,but it is carried on at
many of the inland towns and villages, especially those situated
near the Eden and Leven, on the banks of which rivers, as well as
at Kirkcaldy, Dunfermline and Ceres, are found the bleaching-
greens. Kirkcaldy is famous for its oil-cloth and linoleum.
• Most of the leading towns possess breweries and tanneries, and
the largest distilleries arc at Cameron Bridge and Burntisland.
Woollen cloth is made to a small extent in several towns, and
fishing-net at Kirkcaldy, Largo and West Wemyss. Paper is
manufactured at Guardbridge, Markinch and Leslie; earthen-
ware at Kirkcaldy; tobacco at Dunfermline and Kirkcaldy;
engineering works and iron foundries are found at Kirkcaldy and
Dunfermline; and shipbuilding is carried on at Kinghorn,
Dysart, Burntisland, Inverkeithing and Tayport. From Inver-
keithing all the way round the coast to Newburgh there are
harbours at different points. Tbey are mostly of moderate
dimensions, the principal port being Kirkcaldy. The largest
salmon fisheries are conducted at Newburgh and the chief seat of
the herring fishery fav Anstruther, but most of the coast towns
take some part in the fishing either off the shore, or at stations
farther north, or in the deep sea.
Communications.— Tht North British railway possesses a
monopoly in the shire. From the Forth Bridge the main line
follows the coast as far as Dysart and then turns northwards to
Ladybank, where it diverges to the north-east for Cupar and the
Toy Bridge, From Thornton Junction a branch runs to Dun-
fermline and another to Mcthil, and here begins also the coast
line for Lcven, Crail and St Andrews which touches the main line
again at Lcurhars Junction; at Markinch a branch runs to
Leslie; at Ladybank there are branches to Mawcarse Junction,
and. to Newburgh and Perth; and at Leuchars Junction a loop
line runs to Tayport and Newport, joining the main at Wormit.
From the Forth Bridge the system also connects, via Dunferm-
line, with Alloa and Stirling in the W. and with Kinross and
Perth in the N. From Dunfermline there is a branch to Charles-
town, which on that account is sometimes called the port of
Dunfermline.
Population and Government.— Tht population was 100,365
in 180 1, and 318,840 in 1001, when 844 persons spoke Gaelic
and English and 3 Gaelic only. The chief towns are the
Anstruthers (pop. in 1 001, 4233), Buckhaven (8828), Burntisland
(4846), Cowdenbeath (7008), Cupar (4511), Dunfermline (25, 330},
Dysart (3562), Kelty (3086), Kirkcaldy (34,070), Leslie (3587).
Leven (5577), Lochgelly (5472). Lumphinnans ( 207 i) r Newport
(2869), St Andrews (7621), Tayport (3325) and Wemyss (2522).
For parliamentary purposes Fife is divided into an eastern
and a western division, each returning one member. It also
includes the Kirkcaldy district of parliamentary burghs (com-
prising Burntisland, Dysart, Kinghorn and Kirkcaldy), and the
St Andrews district (the two Anstruthers, Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny,
Pittenwcem and St Andrews); while Culross, Dunfermline
and Inverkeithing are grouped with the Stirling district As
FIFE— FIFTH MONARCHY MEN
32*
regards education the county is under school-board jurisdiction,
and in respect of higher education its equipment is effective.
St Andrews contains several excellent schools; at Cupar there is
the Bell-Baxter school; at Dunfermline and Kirkciady there are
high schools and at Anstruther there is the Waid Academy.
History. — In remote times the term Fife was applied to the
peninsula lying between the estuaries of the Tay and Forth
and separated from the rest of the mainland by the Ochil Hills.
Its earliest inhabitants were Picts of the northern branch and
their country was long known as Pictavia. Doubtless it was
owing to the fact that the territory was long subject to the rule
of an independent king that Fife itself came to be called distinct-
ively The Kingdom, a name of which the natives are still proud.
The Romans effected no settlement in the province, though it is
probable that they temporarily occupied points here and there.
In any case the Romans left no impression on the civilization of
the natives. With the arrival of the missionaries— especially
St Serf, St Kenneth, St Rule, St Adrian, St Moran and St Fillan—
and conversion of the Picts went on apace. Interesting memorials
of these devout missionaries exist in the numerous coast caves
between Dysart and St Andrews and in the crosses and sculptured
stones, some doubtless of pre-Christian origin, to be seen at various
places. The word Fife, according to Skene, seems to be identical
with the Jutland Pibh (pronounced Fife) meaning " forest,"
and was probably first used by the Frisians to describe the country
behind the coasts of the Forth and Tay, where Frisian tribes are
supposed to have settled at the close of the 4U1 century. The
next immigration was Danish, which left lasting traces in many
place-names (such as the frequent use of law for hill). An
ancient division of the Kingdom into Fife and Fothrif survived
for a period for ecclesiastical purposes. The line of demarcation
ran from Leven to the east of Cults, thence to the west of Collcssie
and thence to the east of Auchtermuchty. To the cast of this
line lay Fife proper. In 1426 the first shire of Kinross was
formed, consisting of Kinross and Orwell, and was enlarged to
Hs present dimensions by the transference from Fife of the
parishes of Portmoak, Cleish and Tullicbolc. .Although the
county has lain outside of the main stream of Scottish history,
its records are far from dull or unimportant. During the reigns
of the earlier Stuarts, Dunfermline, Falkland and St Andrews
were often the scene of solemn pageantry and romantic episodes.
Out of the seventy royal burghs in Scotland no fewer than
eighteen are situated in the shire. However, notwithstanding
the marked preference of the Stuarts, the Kingdom did not
hesitate to play the leading part in the momentous dramas of
the Reformation and the Covenant, and by the 18th century the
people had ceased to regard the old royal line with any but
sentimental interest, and the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745
evoked only the most lukewarm support.
See Sir Robert Sibbald, History of the Sheriffdoms of Fife and
Kinross; Rev. J. W. Taylor, Historical Anliqutties of Fife (1875):
A. H. Millar, Fife. Pictorial and Historical (Cupar, 1895) ! Sheriff
Aeneas Mackay. sketch of the History of Fife (Edinburgh. 1890).;
History of Fife and Kinross (Scottish County History scries) (Edin-
burgh, 1896); John Geddie, The Fringe of Fife (Edinburgh, 1894).
FIFE (Fr. fifre\ Med. Cer. ScJmeuerpfeiJ, FeUpfeijf\ Ital.
ottavino), originally the small primitive cylindrical transverse
flute, now the small Bb military flute, usually conoidal in bore,
used in a drum and fife band. The pitch of the fife lies between
that of the concert flute and piccolo. The fife, like the flute, is
an open pipe, for although the upper end is stopped by means
of a cork, an outlet is provided by the embouchure which is
never entirely closed by the lips. The six finger-holes of the
primitive flute, with the open end of the tube for a key-note,
gave the diatonic scale of the fundamental octave; the second
octave was produced by overblowing the notes of the funda-
mental scale an octave higher; part of a third octave was
obtained by means of the higher harmonics produced by using
certain of the finger-holes as vent-holes. The modem fife has,
in addition to the six finger-holes, 4, 5 or 6 keys. Mersenne
describes and figures the fife, which had in his day the compass
of a fifteenth. 1 The fife, which, he stales, differed from the
1 Harmonie unwcrscUe (Paris, 1636), bk. v. prop. 9, pp. 941-244.
German flute only in having a louder and more brilliant tone and
a shorter and narrower bore, was the instrument used by the
Swiss with the drum. The sackbut, or serpent, was used as its
bass, for, as Mersenne explains, the bass instrument could not
be made long enough, nor could the hands reach the holes,
although some flutes were actually made with keys and had the
tube doubled back as in the bassoon. 1
The words fife and the Fr. fifrt were undoubtedly derived from
the Cer. Pfetf, the fife being called by Practorius' Schweiserpfeiff
and Fetdpfeif, while Martin Agricola, 4 writing a century earlier
(1529), mention* the transverse flute by the names of Querchpfeiff
or Schweiserpfeiff, which Sebastian Virdung» writes Zwerckpfciff.
The Old English spelling was pkife, phiphe oxffyffe. The fife was in
use in England in the middle of the 16th century, for at a muster of
the citisens of London in 1540, droumes and ftynes are mentioned.
At the battle of St Quentin (1557) the list of the English army*
employed states that one trumpet was allowed to each cavalry troop
of too men, and adrum and fife to each hundred of foot. A drumme
and phife were also employed at one shilling per diem for the "Trayne
of Artillery." 1 This was the nucleus of the modern military band.
and may be regarded as the first step in its formation. In England
the adoption of the fife as a military instrument was due to the
initiative of Henry VIII., who sent to Vienna for ten good drums
and as many fifers.* Ralph Smith' gives rules for drummers and
fifers who, in addition to the duty of giving signals in peace and war
to the company, were expected to be brave, secret and ingenious,
and masters of several languages, for they were oft sent to parley
with the enemy and were entrusted with honourable but dangerous
* -------- ' 1 and fife formed part of the furniture
ties of the city ot London.* Queen
missions. In 1585 the drum and fife formed part of the furniture
_. g the companie . /.._ _!_, _ J „
Elizabeth (according to Michaud, Biogr. universeUe. tome xifi. p. 60)
for war among
had a peculiar taste for noisy music, and during meals had a concert
of twelve trumpets, two kettledrums, with fifes and drums. The
fife became such a favourite military instrument during the 16th
and 17th centuries in England that it displaced the bagpipe; it
was, however, in turn superseded early in the 1 8th century by the
hautboy (sec Oboe), introduced from France. In the middle of the
18th century the fife was reintroduced into the British army band
by the duke of Cumberland u in the Guards in 1745, commemorated
by William Hogarth's pictum of the " March of the Guards towards
Scotland in 1745." in which are seen a drummer and fifer; and by
Colonel Bedford into the royal regiment of artillery in 1748, at the
end of the war, when a Hanoverian fifer, John Ulnch, was brought
over from Flanders as instructor." In 1747 the 19th regiment,
known as Green Howards, also had the advantage of a Hanoverian
fifer as teacher, a youth presented by his colonel to Lieutenant-
Colonel Williams commanding the regiment at Bois-le-Duc. Drum
and fife bands in a short time became common in all infantry regi-
ments, while among the cavalry the trumpet prevailed.
For the acoustics, construction and origin of the fife see Flutb.
Illustrations of the fife may be seen in Cowdray's picture of an en-
campment at Portsmouth in 1548; in Sandfora's " Coronation
Procession of James II.," and in C. R. Day's Descriptive Catalogue,
pi. i. (F) (description No. 42, p. 27). (K. SO
FIFTH MONARCHY MSN, the name of a Puritan sect in
England which for a time supported the government of Oliver
Cromwell in the belief that it was a preparation for the " fifth
monarchy," that is for the monarchy which should succeed th*
Assyrian, the Persian, the Greek and the Roman, and during
which Christ should reign on earth with His saints for a thousand
years. These sectaries aimed at bringing about the entire aboli-
tion of the existing laws and institutions, and the substitution
of a simpler code based upon the law of Moses. Disappointed
at the delay in the fulfilment of their hopes, they soon began
to agitate against the government and to vilify Cromwell; but
the arrest of their leaders and preachers, Christopher Fcake,
John Rogers and others, cooled their ardour, and they were,
perforce, content to cherish their hopes in secret until after the
Restoration. Then, on the 6th of January i66z, a band of fifth
monarchy men, headed by a cooper named Thomas Veneer,
* For an illustration of one of these bass flutes see article Flutb,
fig. 2.
* Syntagma musicum (Wolfenbuttcl, 1618), pp. 40-41 of Reprint.
* Music* instrumentalts (Wittenberg, 1529).
* Musiea geeutschl tutd aussgetogen (Basel, 1511).
* See Sir S» D. Scott, The British Army, vol. ii. p. 306.
1 Sec H. G. Farmer, Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band (London,
*Id. * Id. * Stowe's Ckfonides, p. 702.
» Grose. Military Antiquities (London, 1601}, vol. U.
" Sec Colonel P. Forbes Macbeaa. M emoirs of the Royal Regiment of
Artillery.
332
FIG
who was one of thdr preachers, made an attempt to obtain
possession of London. Most of them were either killed or taken
prisoners, and on the 19th and 21st of January Venner and ten
others were executed for high treason. From that time the
special doctrines of the sect either died out, or became merged
in a milder form of millenarianism, similar to that which exists
at the present day.
For the proceedings of the sect tee S. R. Gardiner, History of
the Commonwealth and Protectorate, passim (London. 1 894-1901);
and for an account of the rising 01 1661 see Sir John Keresby,
Memoirs, 1634-1689, edited by J. J. Cartwright (London, 1875).
FIG, the popular name given to plants of the genus Ficus, an
extensive group, included in the natural order Moraceae, and
characterized by a remarkable development of the pear-shaped
receptacle, the edge of which curves inwards, so as to form a
nearly cjosed cavity, bearing the numerous fertile and sterile
flowers mingled on its surface. The figs vary greatly in habit , —
some being low trailing shrubs, others gigantic trees, among the
Figure 1.— Fruiting Branch of Fig, Ficus Carica; about | nat. size.
I. Unripe fruif cut lengthwise; about } nat. size. 2. Female
flower taken from l ; enlarged. 3. Ripe fruit cut lengthwise; about
| nat. size.
most striking forms of those tropical forests to which they are
chiefly indigenous. They have alternate leaves, and abound in a
milky juice, usually acrid, though in a few instances sufficiently
mild to be used for allaying thirsL This juice contains caout-
chouc in large quantity.
Ficus Carica (figure 1), which yields the well-known figs of
commerce, is a bush or small tree — rarely more than 18 or 20 ft.
high,— with broad, rough, deciduous leaves, very deeply lobed in
the cultivated varieties, but in the wild plant sometimes nearly
entire. The green, rough branches bear the solitary, nearly
sessile receptacles in the axils of the leaves. The male flowers are
placed chiefly in the upper part of the cavity, and in most
varieties are few in number. As it ripens, the receptacle enlarges
greatly, and the numerous single-seeded 'pericarps or true fruits
become imbedded in it. The fruit of the wild fig never acquires
the succulence of the cultivated kinds. The fig seems to be
indigenous to Asia Minor and Syria, but now occurs in a wild
state in most of the countries around the Mediterranean. From
the ease with which the nutritious fruit can be preserved, it
was probably one of the earliest objects of cultivation, as may
be inferred from the frequent allusions to it in the Hebrew
Scriptures. 1 From a passage in Herodotus the fig would seem to
have been unknown to the Persians in the days of the first Cyrus;
but it must have spread in remote ages over all the districts
around the Aegean and Levant. The Greeks are said to have
received it from Caria (hence the specific name); but the fruit so
improved under Hellenic culture that Attic figs became celebrated
throughout the East, and special laws were made to regulate
their exportation. From the contemptuous name given to in-
formers against the violation of those enactments, ovKxxb&rrai.
(ww, 4>alw), our word sycophant is usually derived. The
fig was one of the principal articles of sustenance among the
Greeks; the Spartans especially used it largely at their public
tables. From Hellas, at some prehistoric period, it was trans-
planted to Italy and the adjacent islands. Pliny enumerates
many varieties, and alludes to those from Ebusus (the modern
Iviza) as most esteemed by Roman epicures; while he describes
those of home growth as furnishing a large portion of the food of
the slaves, particularly those employed in agriculture, by whom
great quantities were eaten in the fresh state at the periods of
fig-harvest. In Latin myths the plant plays an important part.
Held sacred to Bacchus, it was employed in religious ceremonies;
and the fig-tree that overshadowed the twin founders of Rome in
the wolf's cave, as an emblem of the future prosperity of the race,
testified to the high value set upon the fruit by the nations of
antiquity. The tree is now cultivated in all the Mediterranean
countries, but the larger portion of our supply of figs comes from
Asia Minor, the Spanish Peninsula and the south of France.
Those of Asiatic Turkey are considered the best. The varieties
are extremely numerous, and the fruit is of various colours, from
deep purple to yellow, or nearly white. The trees usually bear
two crops, — one in the early summer from the buds of the last
year, the other in the autumn from those on the spring growth;
the latter forms the chief harvest. Many of the immature
receptacles drop off from imperfect fertilization, which circum-
stance has led, from very ancient times, to the practice of
caprification.* Branches of the wild fig in flower are placed over
the cultivated bushes. Certain hymenopterous insects, of the
genera Blastopkaga and Sycophaga, which frequent the wild fig,
enter the minute orifice of the receptacle, apparently to deposit
their eggs; conveying thus the pollen more completely to the
stigmas, they ensure the fertilization and consequent ripening of
the fruit. By some the nature of the process has been quest ioned,
and the better maturation of the fruit attributed merely to the
stimulus given by the puncture of the insect, as in the case of the
apple; but the arrangement of the unisexual flowers in the fig
renders the first theory the more probable. In some districts a
straw or small twig is thrust into the receptacle with a similar
object. When ripe the figs are picked, and spread out to dry in
the sun, — those of better quality being much pulled and extended
by hand during the process. Thus prepared, the fruit is packed
closely in barrels, rush baskets, or wooden boxes, for commerce.
The best kind, known as clemi, are shipped at Smyrna, where the
1 Of these the case of the Barren Fig-tree (Mark. xi. 12-14, 20-21 :
compare Matt. xxi. 18-20), which Jesus cursed and which then
withered away, has been much discussed among theologians. The
difficulty is in Mark xi. 13: " And seeing a fig-tree afar off having
leaves, he came, if haply he might find anything thereon; and when
he came to it he found nothing but leaves, for the time of figs was
not yet." These last words obviously raise the question whether
the expectation of Jesus of finding figs, and his cursing of the tree
on finding none, were not unreasonable. Many ingenious solutions
have been propounded, by suggested emendations of the text and
otherwise, for which consult M Clintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia
of Biblical Literature (sub " Fig ") and the Encyclopaedia Biblioa
("Fig-tree"); the former demurs to the unreasonableness, and
contends that the appearance of the leaves at this season (March)
indicated a pretentious precocity in this particular fig-tree, so that
Jesus was entitled to expect that it would also have fruit, even
though the season had not arrived ; the Ency. Biblica, on the other
hand, supposes that some " early Christian, confounding parable
with history, has misunderstood the parable in Luke xiii. 6-9, and,
forgetting that the season was not one for figs, has transformed it
here into the narrative of an act of Jesus. The probability seems to
be that the words " for the time of figs was not yet " are an un-
intelligent gloss by an early reader, which has made its way into the
text. For authorities see the works mentioned above.
* From Lat. caprtficus, a wild fig; O. Eng. caprifig.
FIG
333
polling tnd packing of figs form one of the most important
industries of the people.
This fruit still constitutes a targe part of the food of the natives
of western Asia and southern Europe, both in the fresh and dried
state. A sort of cake made by mashing up the inferior kinds
serves in parts of the Archipelago as a substitute for bread.
Alcohol is obtained from fermented figs in some southern
countries; and a kind of wine, still made from the ripe fruit,
was known to the ancients, and mentioned by Pliny under the
name of sycites. Medicinally the fig is employed as a gentle
laxative, when eaten abundantly often proving useful in
chronic constipation; it forms a part of the well-known "con-
fection of senna." The milky juice of the stems and loaves is
very acrid, and has been used in some countries for raising
blisters. The wood is porous and of little value; though a piece,
saturated with ofl and spread with emery, is in France a common
substitute for a hone.
The fig is grown for its fresh fruit (eaten as an article of dessert)
in all the milder parts of Europe, and in the United States, with
protection in winter, succeeds as far north as Pennsylvania.
The fig was introduced into England by Cardinal Pole, from
Italy, early in the lOth century. It lives to a great age, and
along the southern coast- of England bears fruit abundantly as a
standard; but in Scotland and in many parts of England a south
wall b indispensable for its successful cultivation out of doors.
Fig trees are propagated by cuttings, which should be put Into
pots, and placed in a gentle hotbed. They may be obtained more
speedily from layers, which should consist of two or three yean old
shoots, and these, when rooted, wilt form plants ready to bear fruit
the first or second year after planting. The best soil lor a fig border
is a friable loam, not too rich, but well drained ; a chalky subsoil
is congenial to the tree, and, to correct the tendency to over-luxuri-
ance of growth, the roots should be confined within spaces surrounded
by a wall enclosing an area of about a jsquare yard. The sandy soil
« Argcoteuil, near Paris, suits the fig remarkably well ; but the best
trees are those which grow in old quarries, where their roots are free
from stagnant water, and where they are sheltered from cold, while
exposed to a very hot sun, which ripens the fruit perfectly. The fig
succeeds well planted in a paved court against a building with a
south aspect.
The fig tree naturally produces two sets of shoots and two crops
of fruit in the season. The first shoots generally show young figs
in July and August, but these in the climate of England very seldom
ripen, and should therefore be rubbed off. The late or midsummer
shoots likewise put forth fruit-buds, which, however, do not develop
themselves till the following spring; and these form the only crop of
figs on which the British gardener can depend.
The fig tree grown as a standard should get very little pruning.
the effect of cutting being to stimulate the buds to push shoots too
vigorous for bearing. When grown against a wall, it has been
recommended that a single stem should be trained to the height of
a foot. Above this a shoot should be trained to the right, and
another to the left; from these principals two other subdivisions
should be encouraged, and trained 15 in. apart; and along these
branches, at distances of about 8 in., shoots for bearing, as nearly
aspoftsible of equal vigour, should be encouraged. The bearing shoots
produced along the leading branches should be trained in at fu|I
*ngtb, and in autumn every alternate one should be cut back to
°ne eye. Jn die following summer the trained shoots should bear
and ripen fruit, and then be cut back in autumn to one eye, while
shoots from the bases of those cut back the previous autumn should
he trained for succession. In this way every leading branch will
be furnished alternately with bearing and suceesstonafshoots.
When protection is necessary, as h may be in severe winters,
{hough it is too often provided in excess, spruce branches have been
found to answer the purpose exceedingly well, owing to the fact
that their leaves drop off gradually when the weather becomes
■ikfer in spring, and when the trees require leas protection and
Bore light and air. The principal part requiring protection is the
nam stem, which is more tender than the young wood.
, In forcing, the fig requires more heat than the vine to bring it
Wo leaf. It may be subjected to a temperature of 50° at night,
•no from 60* to 65* in the day, and this should afterwards be in-
^ased to 6o* and 65° by night, and 70* to 75* by day, or even
"gher by sun heat, giving plenty of air at the same time. In this
temperature the evaporation from the leaves is very great, and this
must be replaced and the wants of the swelling fruit supplied by
J*»y watering, by syringing the foliate, and by moistening the
Joor. this atmospheric moisture being also necessary to keep down
"* red spider. When the crop begins to ripen, a moderately dry
atmosphere should be maintained, with abundant ventilation when
weweather permits.
«• fig tree is easily cultivated in pots, and by introducing- the.
plants into heat in succession the fruiting season may be consider*
ably extended. The plants should be potted in turfy loam mixed
with charcoal and old mortar rubbish, and in summer top-dressings
of rotten manure, with manure water two or three times a week,
wilt be beneficial. While the fruit is swelling, the pots should be
plunged in a bed of fermenting leaves.
The following arc a few of the best figs: those marked F. are good
forcing sorts, and those marked W. suitable for walls: —
Agen : brownish-green, turbinate.
Brown Ischia, F. : chestnut-coloured, roundbh-turbinate.
Brown Turkey (Lee's Perpetual), F., W.: purplish-brown, tur*
binate,
Brunswick, W. : brownish-green, pyriform.
Cot di Signora Blanca, F. : greenish-yellow, pyriform.
Col di Signora Nero: dark chocolate, pyriform.
Early Violet, F. : brownish-purple, roundish.
Grizzly Bourjassotte: chocolate, round.
Crosse Monstreuse de Lipari : pale chestnut, turbinate.
Negro Largo, F.: black, long pyriform.
White Ischia, F. : greenish-yellow, round tsh-obovate.
White Marseilles, f. t W. : pale green, foundiah-obovate.
The sycamore fig, Ficus Sycetmrus, is a tree of large sine, with
heart-shaped leaves, which, from their fancied resemblance to
t hose of the mulberry, gave origin to the name 2 vao/jopot. From
the deep shade cast by its spreading branches, it is a favourite
tree in Egypt and Syria, being often planted along roads and
near houses. It bears a sweet edible fruit, somewhat like that of
the common fig, but produced in racemes on the older boughs.
The apex of the fruit is sometimes removed, or an incision made
Figure 2. — India-rubber Tree, Ficus daslica % showing spreading
woody roots.
in it, to induce earlier ripening. The ancients, after soaking it in
water, preserved it like the common fig. The porous wood is only
at for fuel.
The sacred fig, peepul, or bo, Fiats religiose, a large tree with
heart-shaped, long-pointed leaves on slender footstalks, is much
grown in southern Asia. The leaves are used for tanning, and
afford lac, and a gum resembling caoutchouc is obtained from the
juice; but in India it is chiefly planted with a religious object,
being regarded as sacred by both Brahmans and Buddhists.
The former believe that the last avatar of Vishnu took place
beneath its shade, A gigantic bo, described by Sir J. Emerson
Tennent as growing near Anarajapoora, in Ceylon, is, if tradition
may be trusted, one of the oldest trees in the world. It is said to
have been a branch of the tree under which Gautama Buddha
became endued with his divine powers, and has always been held
in the greatest veneration. The figs, however, hold as important
a place in the religious fables of the East as the ash in the myths
of Scandinavia.
Ficus clastka, the India-rubber tree (figure 2), the large,
oblong, glossy leaves, and pink buds of which are so familiar in
our greenhouses, furnishes most of the caoutchouc obtained
from the East ladies. It grows to a large size, and is remarkable
334
FIGARO— FIGULUS
for the snake-like roots that extend In contorted masses around
the base of the trunk. The small fruit is unfit for food.
Ficus bengalensis, or the Banyan, wild in parts of northern
India, but generally planted throughout the country, has a woody
stem, branching to a height of 70 to 100 ft. and of vast extent
with heart-shaped entire leaves terminating in acute points.
Every branch from the main body throws out its own roots, at
first in small tender fibres, several yards from the ground; but
these continually grow thicker until they reach the surface,
when they strike in, increase to large trunks, and become parent
trees, shooting out new branches from the top, which again
in time suspend their roots, and these, swelling into trunks,
produce other branches, the growth continuing as long as the
earth contributes her sustenance. On the banks of the Nerbudda
stood a celebrated tree of this kind, which is supposed to be that
described by Neaitbus, the admiral of Alexander the Great.
This tree once covered an area so immense, that it was known
to shelter no fewer than 7000 men, and though much reduced in
sue by the destructive power of the floods, the remainder was
described by James Forbes (1740-1819), in his Oriental Memoirs
(1813-1815) as nearly 2000 ft, in circumference, while the trunks
large and small exceeded 3000 in number. The tree usually
grows from seeds dropped by birds on other trees. The leaf-axil
of a palm forms a frequent receptacle for their growth, the palm
becoming ultimately strangled by the growth of the fig, which
by this time has developed numerous daughter stems which
continue to expand and cover ultimately a large area. The
famous tree in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, began its
growth at the end of the. 18th century on a sacred date-palm.
In 1007 it had nearly 250 aerial roots, the parent trunk was
42 ft. in girth, and its leafy crown had a circumference of 857 ft.;
and it was still growing vigorously. Both this tree and F. rcligiosa
cause destruction to buildings, especially in Bengal, from seeds
dropped by birds germinating on the walls. The tree yields an
inferior rubber, and a coarse rope is prepared from the bark and
from the aerial roots.
FIGARO, a famous dramatic character first introduced on the
stage by Beaumarchais in the Barbier de SeviUe, the Mariage
de Figaro, and the FoUe Jountie. The name is said to be an old
Spanish and Italian word for a wigmaker, connected with the
verb cigarrar, to roll In paper. Many of the traits of the character
are to be found in earlier comic types of the Roman and Italian
stage, but as a whole the conception was marked by great
originality; and Figaro soon seized the popular imagination,
and became the recognized representative of daring, clever and
nonchalant roguery and intrigue. Almost immediately after its
appearance, Mozart chose the Marriage of Figaro as the subject
of an opera, and the Barber of Seville was treated first by Paisiello,
and afterwards in 1816 by Rossini. In 1826 the name of the
witty rogue was taken by a journal which continued till 1833
to be one of the principal Parisian periodicals, numbering among
its contributors such men as Jules Janin, Paul Lacroix, Leon
Gozlan, Alphonse Karr, Dr Vcron, Jules Sandeau and George
Sand. Various abortive attempts were made to restore the
Figaro during the next twenty years; and in 1854 the efforts of
M. de Villemessant were crowned with success (see Newspapers:
France).
See Mare Monnicr, Les A ieux de Figaro (1868) ; H. de Villemessant,
Mimoires d'un journalist* (1867).
FIGKAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Lot, 47 m. £. N. E. of
Cahors on the Orl6ans railway. Pop. (1006) 4330. It is enclosed
by an amphitheatre of wooded and vine-clad hills, on the right
bank of the C616, which is here crossed by an old bridge. It is
ill-built and the streets are narrow and dirty; on the outskirts
shady boulevards have taken the place of the ramparts by which
it was surrounded. The town is very rich m old houses of the
13th and 14th centuries; among them may be mentioned
the Hotel de Balftne, of the 14th century, used as a prison.
Another house, dating from the 15th century, was the birthplace
of the Egyptologist J. F. Champollion, in memory of whom the
town has erected an obelisk. The principal church is tha» of
St Sauveur, which once belonged to the abbey of Figeac It
was built at the beginning of the 12th century, but restored
later; the facade in particular is modern. Notre-Dame du Puy,
in the highest part of the town, belongs to the 12th and 13th
centuries. It has no transept and its aisles extend completely
round the interior. The altar-screen is a fine example of carved
woodwork of the end of the 17 th century; Of the four obelisks
which used to mark the limits of the authority of the abbots
of Figeac, those to the south and the west of the town remain.
Figeac is* the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first in-
stance, and a communal college. Brewing, tanning, printing,
doth-weaving and the manufacture of agricultural implements
are among the industries. Trade is in cattle, leather, wool, plums,
walnuts and grain, and there are zinc mines in the neighbour-
hood*
Figeac grew up round an abbey founded by Pippin the Short
in the 8th century, and throughout the middle ages it was the
property of the monks. At the end of the 1 6th century the lord-
ship was acquired by King Henry IV.'s minister, the duke of
Sully, who sold it to Louis XIII. in 1622.
FIOUEIRA DA FOZ, or Figueira, a seaport of central
Portugal, in the district of Coimbra, formerly included in the
province of Beiraj on the ndrlh bank of the river Mondego,
at its mouth, and at the terminus of the Lisbon-Figueira and
Guarda-Figueira railways. Pop. (2900) 6221. Figueira da Fo»
is an important fishing-station, and one of the headquarters of
the coasting trade in grain, fruit, wine, olive oil, cork and coal;
but owing to the bar at the mouth of the Mondego large ships
cannot enter. Glass is manufactured, and the city attracts many
visitors by its excellent climate and sea-bathing. A residential
suburb, the Bairro Novo, exists chiefly for their accommodation,
to the north-west of the old town. Figueira is connected by
a tramway running 4 m. N. W. with Buarcos (pop. 5033) and
with the coal-mines of Cape Mondego. Lavos (pop. 7930), on
the south bank of the Mondego, was the principal landing-plate
of the British troops which came, in 1808, to take part in the
Peninsular War. Figueira da Foz received the title and privileges
of city by a decree dated the 20th of September 1882.
FIOUBRAS, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province
of Gerona, 14 m. S. of the French frontier, on the Barcelona-
Perpignan railway. Pop. (1000) 10,714. Figueras is built at
the foot of the Pyrenees, and on the northern edge of £1
Ampurdan, a fertile and well-irrigated plain, which produces wine,
olives and rice,and derives its name from the seaport of Ampurias,
the ancient Emporiae. The castle of San Fernando, x m.N.W., is
an irregular pentagonal structure, built by order of Ferdinand VL
( 1 746-1 759), on the site of a Capuchin convent. Owing to its
situation, and the rocky nature of the ground over which a
besieger must advance, it is still serviceable as the key to the
frontier. It affords accommodation for 16,000 men and is well
provided with bomb-proof cover. In 1704 Figueras was sur-
rendered to the French, but it was regained in 1795. During
the Peninsular War it was taken by the French in 1808, re-
captured by the Spaniards in 181 1, and retaken by the French
in the same year. In 1823, after a long defence, it was once more
captured by the French. An annual pilgrimage from Figueras
to the chapel of Nuestra Seftora de Requesens, 15 m. N., com-
memorates the deliverance of the town from a severe epidemic
of fever in 1612.
FIGULUS, PUBLIUS NIOIDIUS (c. 98-45 B.C.), Roman
savant, next to Varro the most learned Roman of the age. He
was a friend of Cicero, to whom he gave his support at the time
of the Catilinarian conspiracy (Plutarch, Cicero, 20; Cicero,
Pro Sulla, xiv. 42). In 58 he was praetor, sided with Pompey
in the Civil War, and after his defeat was banished by Caesar,
and died in exile. According to Cicero {Timaeus, 1), Figulus
endeavoured with some success to revive the doctrines of Pytha-
goreanlsm. With this was included mathematics, astronomy
and astrology, and even the magic arts. According to Suetonius
{Augustus, 94) he foretold the greatness of the future emperor
on the day of his birth, and Apuleius {Apologia, 42) records
that, by the employment ^of "magic boys" (magki pueri), he
FIGURATE NUMBERS— FIJI
helped to find a torn of money tiurt had been lost. Jerome (the
authority for the date of his death) calls him Pytkagoriau tt
wtagut. The abstruse natureoi his studies, the mystical character
of his writings, and the general indifference of the Romans to
such subjects, caused his works to be soon forgotten. Amongst
his scientific, theological and grammatical works mention may
be made of Dc diis, containing an examination of various cults
and ceremonials; treatises on divination and the interpretation
of dreams; on the sphere, the winds and animals. His Cowmen*
tarii grommatici in at least 20 books was an ill-arranged collection
of linguistic, grammatical and antiquarian notes. In these he
expressed the opinion that the meaning of words was natural,
not fixed, by man. He paid especial attention to orthography,
and sought to differentiate the meanings of cases of like ending by
distinctive marks (the apes to indicate a long vowel is attributed
to him). In etymology he endeavoured to find a fy>man ex-
planation of words where possible (according to him f rater was
e/er* altar). QuintUian (Instil, oral. xi. 3. 143) speaks of a
rhetorical treatise Dc gist* by him.
See Cicero, Ad Pom. W. it; scholia* en Lucan 1. 659; several
references in Aultts Gcllius; Teuffel, Hist.cf Ramon Literature, 170;
M. Hertz, De N. F. studiis atque operibus (184s); Quacstiones
SigUianae (1890), and edition of tnc fragments (iS£9JbyA.Swoboda.
F1GUBATE NUMBERS, in mathematics. If we take the sum
of » terms of the series 1+1+1+ . . ., i.e. *,as the nth term of
a new series, we obtain the series 1+3+3+ . . ., the sum
of n terms of which is i n . n+i. Taking this sum as the nth
term, we obtain the scries 1 +3+©+xo+ . . ., which has
for the sum of n terms n («+ 1) (n + a)/,}! l This sum is taken as
the nth term of the next scries, and proceeding in this way we
obtain series having the following nth terms: —
x. n, »<w+i)/2l f »(«+x) (»+a) jl,...«(*>+i)...(»+r-aV(r-i) I.
The numbers obtained by giving n any value in theseexprcssions
are of the first, second, third, . . . or rth order of figurate
numbers.
Pascal treated these numbers in his Traill du triangle aritk-
metiquc (1665), using them to develop a theory of combinations
and to solve problems in proba-
bility. His table is here shown
in its simplest form. It is to be
noticed that each number is the
sum of the numbers immediately
above and to the left of it; and
that the numbers along a. line,
termed a base, which cuts off an
equal number of units along the
top row and column are the co-
efficients in tho binomial ex-
pansion of (i+x)*" 1 , where r represents the number of units
cutoff.
FIJI (Viti), a British colony consisting of an archipelago in
the Pacific Ocean, the most important in Polynesia, between
15° and 20 S., and on and about the meridian of x8o°. The
islands number about 250, of which some 80 are inhabited.
The total land area is 7435 sq. m. (thus roughly equalling that
of Wales), and the population is about 121,000. The principal
island is Viti Levu, 98 m. in length (£. to W.) and 67 in extreme
breadth, with an area of 41x2 sq. m. Forty miles N.E. lies
Vanua Levu, measuring 117 m. by 30, with an area of 2432 sq. m.
Close off the south-eastern shore of Vanua Levu is Taviuni,
26 m. in length by xo in breadth; Kandavu or Kadavu, 36 m.
long and very narrow, is 41 m. S. of Viti Levu, and the three
other main islands, lying east of Viti Levu in the Koro Sea, are
Koro, Ngau or Gau, and Ovalau. South-east from Vanua Levu
a loop of islets extends nearly to 20° S., enclosing the Koro Sea.
North-west of Viti Levu lies another chain, the Yasawa or
western group; and, finally, the colony includes the island of
Rotunuh (q.v.), 300 m. N.W. by N. of Vanua Levu.
The formation of the larger islands is volcanic, their surface
nigged, their vegetation luxuriant, and their appearance very
• The notation n\ denotes the product 1.2.3. ... n,and is termed
"factorial a."
335
beautiful; their biflx rise often above 3000, and, in the case of a
few summits, above 4000 ft., and they contrast strongly with the
low coral formation of the smaller members of the group. There
is not much level country, except in the coral islets, and certain
rich tracts along the coasts of the two large islands, especially
near the mouths of the rivers. The large islands have a con-
siderable extent of undulating country, dry and open on their
lee sides. Streams and rivers are abundant, the latter very
large in proportion to the sixe of the islands, affording a waterway
to the rich districts along their banks. These and the extensive
mud flats and deltas at their mouths are often flooded, by which
their fertility is increased, though at a heavy cost to the culti-
vator. The Rewa, debouching through a wide delta at the
south-east of Viti Levu, is navigable for small vessels for 40 m.
There are also in this island the Navua and Sigatoka (flowing S.),
the Nandi (W.), and the Ba (N.W.). The Drcketl, flowing W.,
is the chief stream of Vanua Levu. It breaches the mountains
in a fine valley; for this island consists practically of one long
range, whereas the main valleys and ranges separating them in
Viti Levu radiate for the most part from a common centre.
With few exceptions the islands are surrounded by barriers
of coral, broken by openings opposite the mouths of streams.
Viti Levu is the most important island not only from its size,
but from its fertility, variety of surface, and population, which
is over one-third of that of the whole group. The town of Suva
lies on an excellent harbour at the south-east of the island, and
has been the capital of the colony since 1882, containing the
government buildings and other offices, yanua Levu is less
fertile than Viti Levu; it has good anchorages along its entire
southern coast. Of the other islands, Taviuni, remarkable for
a lake (presumably a crater-lake) at the top of its lofty central
ridge, is fertile, bat exceptionally devoid of harbours; whereas
the well-timbered island of Kandavu has an excellent one. On
the eastern shore of Ovalau, an island which contains in a small
area a remarkable series of gorge-like valleys between command-
ing hills, is the town of Levuka, the capital until 1882. It stands
partly upon the narrow shore, and partly climbs the rocky slope
behind. The chief islands on the west of the chain enclosing
the Koro Sea are Koro, Ngau, Moala and Totoya, all productive,
affording good anchorage, elevated and picturesque. The
eastern islands of the chain arc smaller and more numerous,
Vanua Batevu (one of the Exploring Group) being a centre of
trade. Among others, Mago is remarkable for a subterranean
outlet of the waters of the fertile valley in- its midst.
The land is of recent geological formation, the principal
ranges being composed of igneous rock, and showing traces of
much volcanic disturbance. There arc boiling springs in Vanua
33*
FIJI
Levu and Ngau, and slight shocks 6f earthquake are occasionally
felt. The tops of many of the mountains, from Kandavu in the
S.W., through Nairai and Koro, to the Ringgold group in the
N.E., have distinct craters, but their activity has long ceased.
The various decomposing, volcanic rocks— tufas, conglomerates
and basalts— mingled with decayed vegetable matter, and
abundantly watered, form a very fertile soiL Most of the high
peaks on the larger islands are basaltic, and the rocks generally
are igneous, with occasional upheaved coral found sometimes
over xooo ft. above the sea; but certain sedimentary rocks
observed on Viti Lcvu seem to imply a nucleus of land of con*
siderable age. Volcanic activity in the neighbourhood is further
shown by the quantities of pumice-stone drifted on to the south
coasts of Kandavu and Viti Levu; malachite, antimony and
graphite, gold in small quantities, and specular iron-sand occur.
GimaU.—Tbt colony is beyond the limits of the perpetual
S.E. trades, while not within the range of the N.W. monsoons.
From April to November the winds are steady between S.E. and
E.N.E., and the climate is cool and dry, after which the weather
becomes uncertain and the winds often northerly, this being the
wet warm season. In February and March heavy gales are
frequent, and hurricanes sometimes occur, causing scarcity by
destroying the crops. The rainfall is much greater on the wind-
ward than on the lee sides of the islands (about no in. at Suva),
but the mean temperature is much the same, via., about 8o° F.
In the hills the temperature sometimes falls below 50°. The
climate, especially from November to April, is somewhat enervat-
ing to the Englishman, but not unhealthy. Fevers are hardly
known. Dysentery, which is common, and the most serious
disease in the islands, is said to have been unknown before the
advent of Europeans.
Fauna,— Beside* the dog and the pig. which (with the domestic
fowl) must have been introduced in early times, the only land
mammals are certain species of rats and bats. Insects are numerous,
but the species few. Bees have been introduced. The avifauna is
not remarkable. Birds of prey are few; the parrot and pigeon tribes
are better represented. Fishes, of an Indo-Malay type, are numerous
aud varied; Mollusca, especially marine, and Cruataceae are also
very numerous. These tkree form an important element in the food
Thra.— The vegetation is mostly of a tropical Indo-Malayan
character — thick jungle with great trees covered with creeper* and
epiphytes. The lee sides of the larger islands, however, have grassy
plains suitable for grazing, with scattered trees, chiefly Pandanut.
and ferns. The flora has also some Australian and New Zealand
affinities (resembling in this respect the New Caledonia and New
Hebrides groups), shown especially in these western districts by the
Pandanus, by certain acacias and others. At an elevation c< about
2000 ft. the vegetation assumes a more mountainous type. Among
the many valuable timber trees are the vesi (Afulia friwtp) ; the
dilo (CalopkyUum InophyUum), the oil from its seeds being much
used in the islands, as in India, in the treatment of rheumatism ;
the dakua (Dammara Vitiensis), allied to the New Zealand kauri*
and others. The dakua or Fiji pine, however, has become scarce.
Most of the fruit trees are also valuable as timber. The native cloth
(mast) is beaten out from the bark of the paper mulberry cultivated
for the purpose. Of the palms the cocoanut b by far the most
important. The yasi or sandal-wood was formerly a valuable
product, but is now rarely found. There are various useful drugs,
spices and perfumes; and many plants are cultivated for their
beauty, to which the natives are keenly alive. Among the plants
used as pot-herbs are several ferns, and two or three SoUnums,
one of which, S. anthropophagorum, was one of certain plants always
cooked with human flesh, which was said to be otherwise difficult of
digestion. The use of the Icava root, here called yanggona, from
which the well-known national beverage is made, is said to have been
introduced from Tonga. Of fruit trees, besides the cocoanut, there
may be mentioned the many varieties of the bread-fruit, of bananas
and plantains, of sugar-cane and of lemo n ; the wi ( Spondias dulcis).
the kavika {Eugenia malacctnsis), the ivi or Tahittan chestnut
(Inocarpus edulis), the pine-apple and others introduced in modern
times. Edible roots are especially abundant. The chief staple of
life is the yam, the names of several months in the calendar having
reference to its cultivation and ripening. The natives use no grain or
pulse, but make a kind of bread (mandrai) from this, the taro.and other
roots, as well as from the banana (which is the best), the bread-fruit,
the ivi, the kavika, the arrowroot, and in times of scarcity the
mangrove. This bread is made by burying the materials (or months,
till the mass is thoroughly fermented and homogeneous, when it is
dug up and cooked by baking or steaming. This simple process,
applicable to such a variety of substances, is a valuable security
against famine.
People—The Ffjians are a people of Mdaneaian (Papuan)
stock much crossed with Polynesians (Tongans and Samoans).
They occupy the extreme east limits of Papuan territory and
are usually classified as Melanesia n»; but they are physically
superior to the pure examples of that race, combining their dark
colour, harsh hirsute skin, crisp hair, which is bleached with lime
and worn in an elaborately trained mop, and muscular limbs,
with the handsome features and well proportioned bodies of the
Polynesians. They are tall and well built. The features are
strongly marked, but not unpleasant, the eyes deep set, the beard
thick and bushy. The chiefs are fairer, much better-looking, and
of a less negroid type of face than the people. This negroid type
is especially marked on the west coasts, and still more in the
interior of Viti Levu. The Fijians have other characteristics of
both Pacific races, e.g. the quick intellect of the fairer, and the
savagery and suspicion of the dark. They wear a minimum of
covering, but, unlike the Melanesians, are strictly decent, while
they are more moral than the Polynesians. They are cleanly and
particular about their personal appearance, though, unlike other
Melanesians, they care little for ornament, and only the women
are tattooed. A partial circumcision is practised, which is
exceptional with the Melanesians, nor have these usually an
elaborate political and social system like that of Fiji. The status
of the women is also somewhat better, those of the upper class
having considerable freedom and influence. If less readily
amenable to civilizing influences than their neighbours to the
eastward, the Fijians show greater force of character and in-
genuity. Possessing the arts of both races they practise them
with greater skill than either. They understand the principle of
division of labour and production, and thus of commerce. They
are skilful cultivators and good boat-builders, the carpenters
being an hereditary caste; there are also tribes of fishermen and
sailors; their mats, baskets, nets, cordage and other fabrics
are substantial and tasteful j their pottery, made, like many of
the above articles, by women, is far superior to any other in
the South Seas; but many native manufactures have been
supplanted by European goods.
The Fijians were formerly notorious for cannibalism, which
may have had its origin in religion, but long before the first
contact with Europeans had degenerated into gluttony. The
Fijian's chief table luxury was human flesh, euphemistically
called by him " long pig," and to satisfy his appetite he would
sacrifice even friends and relatives. The Fijians combined with
this greediness a savage and merciless natures. Human sacrifices
were of daily occurrence. On a chief's death wives and slaves
were buried alive with him. When building a chiefs house a
slave was buried alive in the hole dug for each foundation post.
At the launching of a war-canoe living men were tied hand and
foot between two plantain stems making a human ladder over
which the vessel was pushed down into the water. The people
acquiesced in these brutal customs, and willingly met their deaths.
Affection and a firm belief in a future state, in which the exact
condition of the dying is continued, are the Fijians' own explana-
tions of the custom, once universal, of killing sick or aged
relatives. Yet in spite of this savagery the Fijians have always
been remarkable for their hospitality, open-handedness and
courtesy. They are a sensitive, proud, if vindictive, and boastful
people, with good conversational and reasoning powers, much
sense of humour, tact and perception of character. Their code of
social etiquette is minute and elaborate, and the graduations of
rank well marked. These are (1) chiefs, greater and lesser; (2)
priests; (3) Mala ni Vanua (lit., eyes of the land), employes,
messengers or counsellors; (4) distinguished warriors of low
birth; (5) common people; (6) slaves.
The family is the unit of political society. The families are
grouped in townships or otherwise (gait) under the lesser chiefs,
who again owe allegiance to the supreme chief of the maianitu or
tribe. The chiefs are a real aristocracy, excelling the people In
physique, skill, intellect and acquirements of all sorts; and the
reverence felt for them, now gradually diminishing, was very
great, and had something of a religious character. AD that a man
had belonged to his chief. On the other hand, the chief's property
practically belonged to his people, and they were m ready to give
as to take. In a lime of famine, a chief would declare the
contents of the plantations to be common property. A system
of feudal service-tenures (Jala) is the institution on which their
social and political fabric mainly depended. It allowed the chief
to call for the labour of any district, and to employ it in planting,
house or canoe-buildiog^upplying food on the occasion of another
chief's visit, fcc. - This power was often used with much discern-
ment; thus an unpopular chief would redeem Jus character by
caJUng for some customary service and rewarding it liberally, or a.
district would be called on to supply labour or produce as a
punishment. The privilege might, of course, be abused by needy
or unscrupulous chiefs, though they generally deferred somewhat
to public opinion; it has now, with similar customary exactions
of doth, mats, salt, pottery, &c. been reduced within definite
limits. An allied custom, solemn enabled, a district in want of any
particular article to call on its neighbours to supply it, giving
labour or something else in exchange. Although, then, the chief
is lord of the soil, the inferior chiefs and individual families have
equally distinct rights in it, subject to payment of certain dues;
and the idea of permanent alienation of land by purchase was
never perhaps clearly realized • Another curious custom was that
of sum (lit. nephew). The son of a chief by a woman of rank had
almost unlimited rights over the property of his mother's family,
or of her people. In time of war the chief claimed absolute
control over life and property. Warfare was carried on with
many courteous formalities, and considerable skill was shown in
the fortifications. There were well-defined degrees of dependence
among the different tribes or districts: the first of these, baH, is
an alliance between two nearly equal tribes, but implying a sort
of inferiority on one side, acknowledged by military service; the
second, qali, implies greater subjection, and payment of tribute.
Thus A, being bati to B, might hold C in qali, in which case C was
also reckoned subject to B, or might be protected by B for
political purposes.
The former religion of the Fijians was a sort of ancestor-
worship, had much in common with the creeds of Polynesia, and
included a belief fn a future existence. There were two classes of
gods— the first immortal, of whom Ndengei is the greatest, said
to exist eternally in the form of a serpent, but troubling himself
Utile with human or other affairs, and the others had usually only
a local recognition. The second rank (who, though far above
mortals, are subject to their passions, and even to death) com-
prised the spirits of chiefs, heroes and other ancestors. The
gods entered and spoke through their priests, who thus pro-
nounced on the issue of every enterprise, but they were not
represented by idols; certain groves and trees were held sacred,
and stones which suggest phallic associations. The priesthood
usually was hereditary, and their influence great, and they had
generally a good understanding with the chief. The institution
of Taboo existed in full force. . The mburi or temple was also the
council chamber and place of assemblage for various purposes.
The weapons of the Fijians are spears, slings, throwing clubs
and bows and arrows. Their houses, of which the framework »
timber and the rest lattice and thatch, are ingeniously con-
structed, with great taste in ornamentation, and are well
furoished with mats, mosquito-curtains, baskets, fans, nets and
cooking and other utensils. Their canoes, sometimes more than
200 ft. long, are well built. Ever excellent agriculturists, their
implements were formerly digging sticks and hoes of turtlcbone
or flat oyster-shells. In irrigation they showed skill, draining
their fields with built watercourses and bamboo pipes. Tobacco,
maize, sweet potatoes, yams, kava, taro, beans and pumpkins,
are the principal crops.
Fijians are fond of amusements. They have various games,
and dancing, story-telling and songs are especially popular.
Their poetry has well-defined metres, and a sort of rhyme.
Their music is rude, and is said to be always in the major key.
They are clever cooks, and for their feasts preparations are some-
times made months in advance, and enormous waste results
from them. . Mourning is expressed by fasting, by shaving the
head and face, or by cutting off the little finger. This last is
W 337
sometimes done at the death of a rich mas In the hope that his
family win reward the compliment; sometimes it is done vicari-
ously, as when one chief cuts off the little finger of his dependent
in regret or in atonement for the death of another.
A steady, if not a very rapid, decrease in the native population
set in after 1875. A terrible epidemic of measles in that year
swept away 40,000, or about one-third of the Fijians. Sub-
sequent epidemics have not been attended by anything like this
mortality, but there has, however, been a steady decrease,
principally among young children, owing to whooping-cough,
tuberculosis and croup. Every Fijian child seems to contract
yaws at some time in its life, a mistaken not on existing on the
part of the parents that it strengthens the child's physique.
Elephantiasis, influenza, rheumatism, and a skin disease, thoko,
also occur. One per cent of the natives are lepers. - A commission
appointed in 1891 to inquire into the causes of the native de-
crease collected much interesting anthropological information
regarding native customs, and provincial inspectors and medical
officers were specially appointed to compel the natives to carry
out the sanitary reforms recommended by the commission.
A considerable sum was also spent in laying on good water to the
native villages. The Fijians show no disposition to intermarry
with the Indian coolies. The European half-castes are not
prolific inter se, and they are subject to a scrofulous taint. The
most robust cross in the islands Is the offspring of the African
negro and the Fijian. Miscegenation with the Micronesians,
the only race in the Pacific which is rapidly increasing, is regarded
as the most hopeful manner of preserving the native Fijian
population. There is a large Indian immigrant population.
Trade, Administration, &*.— The principal industries are the
cultivation of sugar and fruits and the manufacture of sugar and
copra, and these three are the chief articles of export trade,
which is carried on almost entirely with Australia and New
Zeal and. The fruits chiefly exported are bananas and pine-
apples. There are also exported maixe, vanilla and a variety
of fruits in small quantities; pearl and other shells and beche-
de-mer. There is a manufacture of soap from coconut oil; a fair
quantity of tobacco is grown, and among other industries may
be included boat-building and saw-milling. Regular steamship
communications are maintained with Sydney, Auckland and
Vancouver. Good bridle-tracks exist in all the larger islands,
and there are some macadamised roads, principally in Viti Levu.
There is an overland mail service by native runners. The export
trade is valued at nearly £600,000 annuauy, and the imports at
£500,000. The annual revenue of the colony is about £140,000
and the expenditure about £1 2 5,000. The currency and weights
and measures are British. Besides the customs and stamp
duties, some £18,000 of the annual revenue is raised from native
taxation. The seventeen provinces of the colony (at the head of
which is either a European or a roko tui or native official) are
assessed annually by the legislative council for a fixed tax in kind.
The tax on each province is distributed among districts under
officials called bulls, and further among villages within these
districts. Any surplus of produce over the assessment is sold to
contractors, and the money received is returned to the natives.
Under a reconstruction made in 1004 there is an executive
council consisting of the governor and four official members*
The legislative council consists of the governor, ten official, six
elected and two native members. The native chiefs and pro-
vincial representatives meet annually under the presidency of
the governor, and their recommendations are submitted for
sanction to the legislative council. Suva and Levuka have each
a municipal government, and there are native district and
village councils. There is an armed native constabulary; and
a volunteer and cadet corps in Suva and Levuka.
The majority of the natives are Wesleyan Methodists. The
Roman Catholic missionaries have about 3000 adherents; the
Church of England is confined to the Europeans and kanakas
in the towns; the Indian coolies are divided between Mahom-
medans and Hindus. There are public schools for Europeans
and half-castes in the towns, but there is no provision for the
education of the children of settlers in the out-districts. By an
33*
FILANDER— FILANGIERI, CARLO
ordinance of 1890 provision was made for the constitution of
school boards, and the principle was first applied in Suva and
Levuka. The missions have established schools in every native
village, and most natives are able to read and write their own
language. The government has established a native technical
school for the teaching of useful handicrafts. The natives show
themselves very slow in adopting European habits in food,
clothing and house-building.
History. — A few islands in the north-east of the group were
first seen by Abel Tasman in 1643. The southernmost of the
group, Turtle Island, was discovered by Cook in 1 7 73. Lieutenant
Bligh, approaching them in the launch of the "Bounty," 1789,
had a hostile encounter with natives. In 182 7 Dumont d'Urville
in the " Astrolabe " surveyed them much more accurately, but
the first thorough survey was that of the United States exploring
expedition in 1840. Up to this time, owing to the evil reputation
of the islanders, European intercourse was very limited. The
labours of the Wesleyan missionaries, however, must always have
a prominent place in any history of Fiji. They came from Tonga
in 1835 and naturally settled first in the eastern islands, where
the Tongan element, already familiar to them, preponderated.
They perhapaidentified themselves too closely with their Tongan
friends, whose dissolute, lawless, tyrannical conduct led to much
mischief; but it should not be forgotten that their position was
difficult, and it was mainly through their efforts that many
terrible heathen practices were stamped out.
About 1804 some escaped convicts from Australia and runaway
sailors established themselves around the east part of Viti Levu,
and by lending their services to the neighbouring chiefs probably
led to their preponderance over the rest of the group. Na
Ulivau, chief of the small island of Mbau, established before
his death in 1829 a sort of supremacy, which was extended by
his brother Tanoa, and by Tanoa's son Thakombau, a ruler
of considerable capacity. In his time, however, difficulties
thickened. The Tongans, who had long frequented Fiji (especi-
ally for canoe-building, their own islands being deficient in
timber), now came in larger numbers, led by an able and am-
bitious chief, Maafu, who, by adroitly taking part in Fijian
quarrels, made himself chief in the Windward group, threatening
Thakombau's supremacy. He was harassed, too, by an arbitrary
demand for £0000 from the American government, for alleged
injuries to their consul. Several chiefs who disputed his authority
were crushed by the aid of King George of Tonga, who (1855)
had opportunely arrived on a visit; but he afterwards, taking
some offence, demanded £12,000 for his services. At last
Thakombau, disappointed in the hope that his acceptance
of Christianity (1854) would improve his position, offered the
sovereignty to Great Britain (1850) with the fee simple of 100,000
acres, on condition of her paying the American claims. Colonel
Smythe, R.A., was sent out to report on the question, and
decided against annexation, but advised that the British consul
should be invested with full magisterial powers over his country-
men, a step which would have averted much subsequent difficulty.
Meanwhile Dr B. Seemann's favourable report on the
capabilities of the islands, followed by a time of depression in
Australia and New Zealand, led to a rapid increase of settlere —
from 260 in i860 to 1800 in 1869. This produced fresh complica-
tions, and an increasing desire among the respectable settlers
for a competent civil and criminal jurisdiction. Attempts
were made at self-government, and the sovereignty was again
offered, conditionally, to England, and to the United Stales.
Finally, in 1871, a " constitutional government " was formed
by certain Englishmen under King Thakombau; but this,
after incurring heavy debt, and promoting the welfare of neither
whites nor natives, came after three years to a deadlock, and
the British government felt obliged, in the interest of all parties,
to accept the unconditional cession now offered (1874). Il had
besides long been thought, desirable to possess a station on the
route between Australia and Panama; it was also felt that the
Polynesian labour traffic, the abuses in which had caused much
indignation, could only be effectually regulated from a point
contiguous to the recruiting field, and the locality where that
labour was extensively employed. To this end the go v ernor of
Fiji was also created "high commissioner for the western
Pacific" Rotumah (9.9.) was annexed in 188 x.
At the time of the British annexation the islands were suffering
from commercial depression, following a fail in the price of cot too
after the American Civil War. Coffee, tea, cinchona and sugar
were tried in turn, with limited success. The coffee was attacked
by the leaf disease; the tea could not compete with that grown
by the cheap labour of the East; the sugar machinery was too
antiquated to withstand the fall in prices consequent on the
European 'sugar bounties. In 1878 the first coolies were im-
ported from India and the cultivation of sugar began to pass
into the hands of large companies working with modern
machinery. With the introduction of coolies the Fijians began
to fall behind in the development of their country. Many of the
coolies chose to remain in the colony after the termination of
their indentures, and began to displace the European country
traders. With a regular and plentiful supply of Indian coolies,
the recruiting of kanaka labourers practically ceased. The
settlement of European land claims, and the measures taken
for the protection of native institutions, caused lively dissatisfac-
tion among the colonists, who laid the blame of the commercial
depression at the door of the government; but with returning
prosperity this feeling began to disappear. In 1900 the govern-
ment of New Zealand made overtures to absorb Fiji. The
Aborigines Society protested to the colonial office, and the
imperial government refused to sanction the proposal
See Smyth* Ten Months in the Fiji Islands (London, 1864);
B. Seemann, Flota Viliensis (London, 1865); and Viti: Account of
a Government Mission in the Vilian or Fijian Islands (1860-1861);
W. T. Prit chard, Polynesian Reminiscences (London, 1866) ; H.
Forbes, Two Years in Fiji (London, 1875) ; Commodore Goodenough,*
Journal (London, 1876) ; H. N. Moselcy, Notes of a Naturalist in the
" Challenger " (London, 1879) ; Sir A. H. Gordon, Story of a Little
War (Edinburgh, privately printed, 1879); J. \V\ Anderson, Fiji
and New Caledonia a nod n. 1 so); C R Gordon- Cumming, At
Home in Fiji (Edinburgh, t46|); John Home, A Year in Fiji
(London, 1881); H. 5. 'Cooper, Our New Coterry, Fiji (London,
1882); S. E. Schoki, Fiji W the fntndty Istaidi (London, 1883):
Princes Albert Victor and Gturge of Wain, Cruise 0/ U. M. S. " Bac-
chante M (London, 18W); A. AgauU, The Iilands and Coral Reefs of
Fiji (Cambridge, M .^ , L\S> 1&99); IL B. Guppy, Observations of 4
a Naturalist in the Pstjfit (.[KoG-tftgo), vol %>\ Vanua Levu, Fiji
(Phys. Geog. and Grolugy) (London, J90.D? Lnrimrr Fison, Tales
from Old Fiji (folk-lore, &cj (London* 1904); B. Thomaon, Th$
Fijians (London, 1908;.
FILANDER, the name by which the Am Island wallaby
(Macropus brunii) was first described. It occurs in a translation
of C. de Bruyn's Travels (ii. toi) published in 1737.
FILANGIERI, CARLO (1784-1867), prince of Satriano,
Neapolitan soldier and statesman, was the son of Gaetano
Filangieri (1752-1788), a celebrated philosopher and jurist
At the age of fifteen he decided on a military career, and having
obtained an introduction to Napoleon Bonaparte, then first
consul, was admitted to the Military Academy at Paris. In
1803 he received a commission in an infantry regiment, and
took part in the campaign of 1805 under General Davoust, first
in the Low Countries, and later at Ulm, Maria Zell and Austerlitz,
where he fought with distinction, was wounded several times
and promoted. He returned to Naples as captain on Massena's
staff to fight the Bourbons and the Austrians in 1806, and
subsequently went to Spain, where he followed Jerome Bona-
parte in his retreat from Madrid. In consequence of a fatal
duel he was sent back to Naples; there he served under Joachim
Murat with the rank of general, and fought against the Anglo-
Sicilian forces in Calabria and at Messina. On the fall of
Napoleon he took part in Murat's campaign against Eugene
Beauharnais, and later in that against Austria, and was severely
wounded at the battle of the Panaro (181 5). On the restoration
of the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (I.), Filangieri retained his
rank and command, but found the army utterly disorganized
and impregnated with Carbonarism. In the disturbances of
1820 he adhered to the Constitutionalist party, and fought
under General Pcpe (q.v.) against the Austrians. On the re-
esuhliihmcnt of the autocracy he was dismissed from tho
FILANGIERI, OAETANO— FILE
339
service, and retired to Calabria where he had inherited the
princely title and estates of Satriano. In 183 1 he was recalled
by Ferdinand II. and entrusted with various military reforms.
On the outbreak of the troubles of 184* Filangferi advised the
king to grant the constitution, which he did in February 1848,
but when the Sicilians formally seceded from the Neapolitan
kingdom Filangicri was given the command of an armed force
wiih which to reduce the island to obedience. On the 3rd of
September he landed near Messina, and after very scverefighting
captured the city. He then advanced southwards, besieged
and took Catania, where his troops committed many atrocities,
and by May 1849 he had conquered the whole of Sicily, though
not without much bloodshed. He remained in Sicily as governor
until 1855, when he retired into private life, as he could not
carry out the reforms he desired owing to the hostility of Giovanni
Cassisi, the minister for Sicily. On the death of Ferdinand II.
(22nd of May 1859) the new king Francis II. appointed Filangicri
premier and minister of war. He promoted good relations
with France, then fighting with Piedmont against the Austrians
in Lombardy, and strongly urged on the king the necessity of
an alliance with Piedmont and a constitution as the only means
whereby the dynasty might be saved. These proposals being
rejected, Ftlangieri resigned office. In May i860, Francis at
last promulgated the constitution, but it was too late, for Gari-
baldi was in Sicily and Naples was seething with rebellion.
On the advice of Liborfo Romano, the new prefect of police,
Filangieri was ordered to leave Naples. He went to Marseilles
with his wife and subsequently to Florence, where at the instance
of General La Marmora he undertook to write an account of
the Italian army. Although he adhered to the new government
he refused to accept any dignity at its hands, and died at his
villa of San Giorgio a Cremano neat Naples on the 9th of October
1867.
FSangteri was a very distinguished soldier, and a man of
great ability; although he changed sides several times he
became really attached to the Bourbon dynasty, whkh he hoped
to save by freeing it from its reactionary tendencies and infusing
a new spirit into it. His conduct in Sicily was severe and harsh,
but he was not without feelings of humanity, and he was an
honest man and a good administrator.
His biography has been written by his daughter Teresa Filangicri
Fieschi-Ravascnieri. // Generate Carlo Filangieri (Milan, 1002), an
interesting, although somewhat too laudatory volume baaed on the
rteral's own unpublished memoirs; for the Sicilian expedition see
Finocchiaro, La Rivotutione sitiliana del 1848-49 (Catania, 1906,
with bibliography), in which Filangicri is bitterly attacked ; see ahto
under Naples; Ferdinand IV.; Feakcis L; Fejummakd II.;
Faxxcis 11. (L. V.*)
FILAHOIERI, GAETANO (1752-1788), Italian publicist, was
born at Naples on the r8th of August 175a. His father, Caesar,
prince of Arianiello, intended him for a military career* which he
commenced at the early age of seven, but soon abandoned for the
study of the law. At the bar his knowledge and eloquence early
secured his success, while his defence of a royal decree reforming
abuses in the administration of justice-gained him the favour of
the king, Charles, afterwards Charles III. of Spain, and led to
several honourable appointments at court. • The first twobooksof
his great work, La Scienta delta legislation*, appeared in 1780.
The first book contained an exposition of the rules on which
legislation in general ought to proceed, while the second was
devoted to economic questions. These two books showed him an
ardent reformer, and vehement in denouncing the abuses of his
time, He insisted on unlimited free trade, and the abolition of the
medieval institutions which impeded production and national
well-being. Its success was great and immediate not only in
Italy, but throughout Europe at large. In 1783 he married, re-
signed his appointments at court, and retiring to Cava, devoted
himself steadily to the completion of his work. In the same year
appeared the third book, relating entirely to the principles of
criminal jurisprudence. The suggest ion which he made in it as to
the need for reform in the Roman Catholic church brought upon
him the censure of the ecclesiastical authorities, and it was
condemned by the congregation of the Index in 1 784. In 1785 he
published three additional volumes, making the fourth book of
the projected work, and dealing with education and morals. . In
1 787 he was appointed a member of the supreme treasury council
by Ferdinand IV., but his health, impaired by close study and
overwork in bis new office, compelled his withdrawal to the
country at Vic© Equense. He died somewhat suddenly on the
list of July 1788, having just completed the first part of the
fifth book of his Sekma. He left an outline of the remainder of
the work, which was to have been completed in six books.
La Scienta deUa legisiashne has gone through many editions, and
has been translated into most of the languages of Europe. The
best Italian editioa is in 5 vols. 8vo. (1807). The Milan edition (1822)
contains the Opvsculi scelii and a life by Donato Tommaa. A French
translation appeared in Paris in 7 vols. 8vo (1786-1 798); it was
republished in 1822-1824, with the addition of the Opuscle* and
notes by Benjamin Constant. The Science of Legislation was trans-
lated into English by Sir R. Clayton (London, i8o6).
F1LABJASIS, the name of a disease due to the nematode
FiUria sanguinis kominis. - A milky appearance of the urine, due
to the presence of a substance like chyle, which forms a clot, had
been observed from time to time, especially in tropical and
subtropical countries; and it was proved by Dr Wucherer of
Bahia, and by Dr Timothy Lewis, that this peculiar condition is
uniformly associated with the presence in the blood of minute
eel-like worms, visible only under the microscope, being the
embryo forms of a Filar ia (see Nematqda). Sometimes the
discharge of lymph takes place at one or more points of the
surface of the body, and there is in other cases a condition of
naevoid elephantiasis of the scrotum, or lymph-scrotum. More
or less of blood may occur along with the chylous fluid in the
urine. Both the chyluria and the presence of filariae in the blood
are curiously intermittent; it may happen that not a single
filaria is, to be seen during the daytime, while they swarm in the
blood at night, and it has been ingeniously shown by Dr S.
Mackenzie that they may be made to disappear if the patient sits
up all night, reappearing while he sleeps through the day.
Sir P. Manaon proved that mosquitoes imbibe the embryo
filariae from the blood of man; and that many of these reach full
development within the mosquito, acquiring their freedom 'when
the latter resorts to water, where it dies after depositing its eggs.
Mosquitoes would thus be the intermediate host of the filariae,
and their introduction into the human body would be through the
medium of water (see Parasitic Diseases).
FILDES, SIR LUKE ( 1844* ), English painter, was born at
Liverpool, and trained in the South Kensington and Royal
Academy schools. At first a highly successful illustrator, he took
rank later among the ablest English painters, with " The Casual
Ward " (1874), " The Widower " (1876)," The Village Wedding "
(1883), " An AMresco Toilette " (1889); and " The Doctor "
(1891), now in the National Gallery of British Art, He also
'painted a number of pictures of Venetian life and many notable
portraits, among them the coronation portraits of King Edward
VII. and Queen Alexandra. He was elected an associate of the
Royal Academy ia 187ft and academician in 1887; and was
knighted in 1006.
See David Croal Thomson, The Lift and Work of Luke Fildts, HA.
(1895).
FILE. 1. A bar of steel having sharp teeth on its surface, and
used for abrading orsmoothing hard surfaces. (The O. Eng. word
is/fo/, and cognate forms appear in Dutch vijl, Ger. Feiie, &c;
the ultimate source is usually taken to be an Indo-European root
meaning to mark or scratch, and seen in the Lat. pingere, to
paint.) Some uncivilized tribes polish their weapons with such
things as rofigh stones, pieces of shark skin or fishes' teeth.
The operation of filing is recorded in 1 Sam. xiii. 21 ; and, among
other facts, the similarity of the name for the filing instrument
among various European peoples points to an early practice of
the art. A file differs from a rasp (which is chiefly used for
working wood, horn and the like) in having its teeth cut with a
chisel whose straight edge extends across its surface, while the
teeth of the rasp are formed by solitary indentations of a pointed
chisel According to the form of their teeth, files may be sn+gU-
cut or douUe<Ml' r the former have only one set of parallel ridges
34°
FILE-FISH
(either at right angles or at some other angle with the length);
the latter (and more common) have a second set cut at an angle
with the first. The double-cut file presents sharp angles to the
filed surface, and is better suited for hard metals. Files are
classed according to the fineness of their teeth (see Tool), and
their shapes present almost endless varieties. Common forms
arc— the fiat file, of parallelogram section, with uniform breadth
and thickness, or tapering, or " bellied "; the four-square file, of
square section, sometimes with one side " safe," or left smooth;
and the so-called three-square file, having its cross section an
equilateral triangle, the half-round file, a segment of a circle, the
round or rat-tail file, a circle, which are generally tapered. The
float file is like the fiat, but single-cut. There are many others.
Files vary in length from three-quarters of an inch (watchmakers')
to a or 3 ft. and upwards (engineers'). The length is reckoned
exclusively of the spike or tang which enters the handle. Most
files are tapered; the blunt are nearly parallel, with larger section
near the middle; a few are parallel. The riJJUrs of sculptors and
a few other files are curvilinear in their central line.
In manufacturing files, steel blanks are forged from bars which
have been sheared or rolled as nearly as possible to the sections
required, and after being carefully annealed are straightened, if
necessary, and then rendered clean and accurate by grinding or
filing. The process of cutting them used to be largely performed
by hand, but machines are now widely employed. The hand-
cutter, holding in his left hand a short chisel (the edge of which is
wider than the width of the file), places it on the blank with an
inclination from the perpendicular of i*° or 14°, and beginning
near the farther end (the blank is placed with the tang or handle
end towards him) strikes it sharply with a hammer. An indenta-
tion is thus made, and the steel, slightly thrown up on the side
next the tang, forms a ridge. The chisel is then transferred to the
uncut surface and slid away from the operator till it encounters
the ridge just made; the position of the next cut being thus
determined, the chisel is again struck, and so on. The workman
seeks to strike the blows as uniformly as possible, and he will
make 60 or 80 cuts a minute. If the file is to be single-cut, it is
now ready to be hardened, but if it is to be double-cut he pro-
ceeds to make the second series or course of cuts, which are
generally somewhat finer than the first. Thus the surface is
covered with teeth inclined towards the point of the file. If the
file is flat and is to be cut on the other side, it is turned over, and a
thin plate of pewter placed below it to protect the teeth. Tri-
angular and other files are supported in grooves in lead. In
cutting round and half-round files, a straight chisel is applied as
tangent to the curve. The round face of a half-round file requires
eight, ten or more courses to complete it. ' Numerous attempts
were made, even so far back as the 18th century, to invent
machinery for cutting files, but little success was attained till the
latter part of the 19th century. ' In most of the machines the*
idea was to arrange a metal arm and hand to hold the chisel with
a hammer to strike the blow, and so to imitate the manual
process as closely as possible. The general principle on which the
successful forms are constructed is that the blanks, laid on a
moving table, are slowly traversed forward under a rapidly
reciprocating chisel or knife.
The filing of a flat surface perfectly true is the test of a good
filer; and this is no easy matter to the beginner. The piece to be
operated upon is generally fixed about the level of the elbow,
the operator standing, and, except in the case of small files,
grasping the file with both hands, the handle with the right,
the farther end with the left. The great point is to be able to
move the file forward with pressure in horizontal straight lines;
from the tendency of the hands to move in arcs of circles, the heel
and point of the file are apt to be alternately raised. This is
partially compensated by the bellied form given to many files
(which also counteracts the frequent warping effect of the harden-
ing process, by which one side of a flat file may be rendered
concave and useless). In bringing back the file for the next
thrust it is nearly lifted off the work. Further, much delicacy
and skill are required in adapting the pressure and velocity,
ascertaining if foreign matters or filings remain interposed
between the file and the work, ftc. FDes can be denned with
a piece of the so-called cotton-card (used in comhing cotton wool)
nailed to a piece of wood. In draw-filing which is sometime*
resorted to to give a neat finish, the file is drawn sideways tt
and fro over the work. New files are generally used lor a time
on brass or cast-iron, and when partially worn they axe still
available for filing wrought iron and steel.
a. A string or thread (through the Fr. fit and file, from Let.
filum, a thread); hence used of a device, originally a cord, wire
or spike on which letters, receipts, papers, &c, may be strung
for convenient reference. The term has been extended to
embrace various methods for the preservation of papers in a
particular order, such as expanding books, cabinets, and in-
genious improvements on the simple wire file which enable any
single document to be readily found and withdrawn without
removing the whole series. From the devices used for filing the
word is transferred to the documents filed, and thus is used of a
catalogue, list, or collection of papers, &c. File is also employed
to denote a row of persons or objects arranged one behind the
other. In military usage a " file " is the opposite of a " rank,"
that is, it is composed of a (variable) number of men aligned from
front to rear one behind the other, while a rank contains a number
of men aligned from right to left abreast. Thus a British infantry
company, in line two deep, one hundred strong, has two ranks
of fifty men each, and fifty " files " of two men each. Up to
about 1600 infantry companies or battalions were often sixteen
deep, one front rank man and the fifteen " covcrera " forming a
file. The number of ranks and, therefore, of men in the file
diminished first to ten (1600), then to six (1630), then to three
(1700), and finally to two (about 2808 in the British army, 188S
in the German). Denser formations when employed have been
formed, not by altering the order of men within the unit, but by
placing several units, one closely behind the other (" doubling '*
and " trebling " the line of battle, as it used to be called). In
the 17 th century a file formed a small command under the " file
leader," the whole of the front rank consisting therefore of old
soldiers or non-commissioned officers. This use of the word to
express a unit of command gave rise to the old-fashioned term
" file firing," to imply a species of fire (equivalent to the modern
" independent ") in which each man in the file fired in succession
after the file leader, and to-day a corporal or sergeant is still
ordered to take one or more files under his charge for independent
work. In the above it is to be understood that the men are facing
to the front or rear. If they are turned to the right or left so
that the company now stands two men broad and fifty deep, it
is spoken of as being " in file." From this come such phrases as
" single file " or " Indian file " (one man leading and the rest
following singly behind him). 1 The use of verbs " to file " and
" to defile," implying the passage from fighting to marching
formation, is to be derived from this rather than from the re-
semblance of a marching column to a long flexible thread, for
in the days when the word was first used the infantry company
whether in battle or on the march was a solid rectangle of men,
a file often containing even more men than a rank
FILE-FISH, or TuccEt-nsH, the names given to fishes
of the genus Batistes (and Monacanthus) inhabiting all tropical
and subtropical seas. - Their body is compressed and not covered
with ordinary scales, but with small juxtaposed scutes. Their
other principal characteristics consist in the structure of their
first dorsal fin (which consists of three spines) and in their peculiar
dentition. The first of the three dorsal spines is very strong,
roughened in front like a file, and hollowed out behind to receive
the second much smaller spine, which, besides, has a projection
in front, at it* base, fitting into a notch of the first. - Thus these
two spines can only be raised or depressed simultaneously, in
such a manner that the first cannot be forced down unless the
second has been previously depressed. The latter has been com-
pared to a trigger, hence the name of Trigger-fish. Also the
1 This may also be understood as meaning simply " a single file.'*
but the explanation given above is more probable, as it is essentially
a marching and not a fighting formation that is expressed by the
phrase.
FILELFO
34*
Centric name Belisks and the Italian nana of "PtaoabaHstra"
refer to this structure. Both jaws are armed with eight atrong
indsor-Iikc and sometimes pointed teeth, by which these fishes are
enabled, not only to break off pieces of madrepores and other
corals on which they feed, but also to chisel a hole into the hard
shells of Molluscs, in order to extract the soft parts. In this way
they destroy an immense number of molluscs, and become most
injurious to the pearl-fisheries. The gradual failure of those
Batistes vidua,
fisheries in Ceylon has been ascribed to this cause, although
evidently other agencies must have been at work at the same
time. The Idonacantki are distinguished from the Batistes in
having only one dorsal spine and a velvety covering of theskin.
Some 30 different species are known of Batistes and about 50
of Me n a cantk u s . Two species (B. macidatus and capriscui),
common in the Atlantic, sometimes wander to the British
coasts.
FILELFO, FRANCESCO (1398-1481), Italian humanist, was
born in 1398 at Tolentino, in the March of Aacona. When he
appeared upon the scene of human life, Petrarch and the students
of Florence had already brought the first act in the recovery of
classic culture to conclusion. They had created an eager appetite
for the antique, had disinterred many important Roman
authors, and had freed Latin scholarship to some extent from
the barbarism of the middle ages. Filelfo was destined to carry
on their work in the field of Latin literature, and to be an im-
portant agent in the still unaccomplished recovery of Greek
culture. His earliest studies in grammar, rhetoric and the Latin
language were conducted at Padua, where he acquired so great
a reputation for learning that in 141 7 he was invited to teach
eloquence and moral philosophy at Venice. According to the
custom of that age in Italy, it now became his duty to explain the
language, and to illustrate the beauties of the principal Latin
authors, Cicero and Virgil being considered the chief masters of
moral science and of elegant diction. Filelfo made his mark
at once in Venice. He was admitted to the society of the first
scholars and the most eminent nobles of that city; and in 1419
he received an appointment from the state, which enabled him
to reside as secretary to the consul-genexal(6a>/o) of the Venetians
in Constantinople. This appointment was not only honourable
to Filelfo as a man of trust and general ability, but it also gave
him the opportunity of acquiring the most coveted of all posses-
sions at that moment for a scholar — a knowledge of the Greek
language. Immediately after his arrival in Constantinople,
Filelfo placed himself under the tuition of John Chrysoloras,
whose name was already well known in Italy as relative of Manuel,
the first Greek to profess the literature of his ancestorain Florence.
At the recommendation of Chrysoloras he was employed in several
diplomatic missions by the emperor John Palacologus. Before
very iong the friendship between Filelfo and his tutor was
cemented by the marriage of the former to Theodora, the
daughter of John Chrysoloras. He had now acquired a thorough
knowledge of the Greek language, and had formed a large
collection of Greek manuscripts. There was no reason why he
should not return to his native country. , Accordingly, in 1427 he
accepted an invitation from the republic of Venice, and set sail for
Ita^y. intending to resume his professorial career. From this
time forward until the date of Us death, Ffldfo's history consists
of a record of the various towns in which he lectured, the masters
whom he served, the books he wrote, the authors he illustrated,
the friendships he contracted, and the wars he waged with rival
scholars. He was a man of vast physical energy, of inexhaustible
mental activity, of quick passions and violent appetites; vain,
restless, greedy of gold and pleasure and fame; unable to stay
quiet in one place, and perpetually engaged in quarrels with his
compeers.
When Filelfo arrived at Venice with his family in 2427, he
found that the dty had almost been emptied by the plague,
and that his scholars would be few. He therefore removed to
Bologna; but here also he was met with drawbacks. The
city was too much disturbed with political dissensions to attend
to him; so Filelfo crossed the Apennines and settled in Florence.
At Florence began one of the most brilliant and eventful periods
of his life, During the week be lectured to large audiences of
young and old on the principal Greek and Latin authors, and on
Sundays he explained Dante to the people in the Duomo. In
addition to these labours of the chair, he found time to translate
portions of Aristotle, Plutarch, Xenophon and Lysias from the
Greek. Nor was he dead to the claims of society. At first he
seems to have lived with the Florentine scholars on tolerably
good terms; but his temper was so arrogant that Coaimo de'
Medici's friends were not long able to put up with him. Filelfo
hereupon broke out into open and violent animosity; and when
Cosimo was exiled by the Albixxi party in 1433, he urged the
signoria of Florence to pronounce upon him the sentence of
death. On the return of Cosimo to Florence, Filelfo's position
in that city was no longer tenable. His life, he asserted, had
been already once attempted by a cut-throat in the pay of the
Medici; and now he readily accepted an invitation from the
state of Siena, In Siena, however, he was not destined to remain
more than four years. His fame as a professor had grown great
in Italy, and he daily received tempting offers from princes and
republics. The most alluring of these, made him by the duke
of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, he decided on accepting; and
in 1440 he was received with honour by his new master in the
capital of Lombardy.
Filelfo's life at Milan curiously illustrates the multifarious
importance of the scholars of that age in Italy. It was his duty
to celebrate his princely patrons in panegyrics and epics, to
abuse their enemies in libels and invectives, to salute them with
encomiastic odes on their birthdays, and to compose poems on
their favourite themes. .For their courtiers he wrote epithalamial
and funeral orations; ambassadors and visitors from foreign
6tates he greeted with the rhetorical lucubrations then so much
in vogue. The students of the university he taught in daily
lectures, passing in review the weightiest and lightest authors
of antiquity, and pouring forth a flood of miscellaneous erudition.
No satisfied with these outlets for his mental energy, Filelfo
went on translating from the Greek, and prosecuted a paper
warfare with his enemies in Florence. He wrote, moreover,
political pamphlets on the great events of Italian history; and
when Constantinople was taken by the Turks, he procured the
. liberation of his wife's mother by a message addressed in his own
name to the sultan. In addition to a fixed stipend of some
700 golden florins yearly, he was continually in receipt of special
payments for the orations and poems he produced; so that,
had he been a man of frugal habits or of moderate economy,
he might have amassed a considerable fortune. As it was, he
spent his money as fast as he received it, living in a style of
splendour ill befitting a simple scholar, and indulging his taste
for pleasure in more than questionable amusements. In con-
sequence of this prodigality, he was always poor. His letters
and his poems abound in impudent demands for money from
patrons, some of them couched in language of the lowest adula-
tion, and others savouring of literary brigandage.
During the second year of his Milanese residence Filelfo lost
his first wife, Theodora. He soon married again; and this time
he chose for his bride a young lady of good Lombard famuy,
called Orsina Osnaga. When she died he took in wedlock for
342
the third time a woman of Lombard birth, Laura Magiolfnl , To
all his three wives, in spite of numerous infidelities, he seems
to have been warmly attached; and this is perhaps the best
trait in a character otherwise more remarkable for arrogance
and heat than for any amiable qualities.
On the death of FUippo Maria Visconti, FUelfo, after a short
hesitation, transferred his allegiance to Francesco Sforza, the
new duke of Milan; and in order to curry favour with this
parvenu, he began his ponderous epic, the Sfoniad, of which
1 a ,8oo lines were written, but which was never published. When
Francesco Sforza died, FUelfo turned his thoughts towards
Rome. He was now an old man of seventy-seven years, honoured
with the friendship of princes, recognized as the most distin-
guished of Italian humanists, courted by pontiffs, and decorated
with the laurel wreath and the order of knighthood by kings.
Crossing the Apennines and passing through Florence, he reached
Rome in the second week of 1475. The terrible Sixtus IV. now
ruled in the Vatican; and from this pope Filelfo had received
an invitation to occupy the chair of rhetoric with good emolu-
ments. At first he was vastly pleased with the city and court
of Rome; but his satisfaction ere long turned to discontent,
and be gave vent to his ill-humour in a venomous satire on the
pope's treasurer, Milliardo Cicala. Sixtus himself soon fell
under the ban of his displeasure; and when a year had passed
he left Rome never to return. Filelfo reached Milan to find that
his wife had died of the plague in his absence, and was already
buried. His own death followed speedily. For some time past
he had been desirous of displaying his abilities and adding to
his fame in Florence. Years had healed the breach between
him and the Medicean family; and on the occasion of the Pazzi
conspiracy against the life of Lorenzo de' Medici, he had sent
violent letters of abuse to his papal patron Sixtus, denouncing
his participation in a plot so dangerous to the security of Italy.
Lorenzo now invited him to profess Greek at Florence, and
thither Filelfo journeyed in 14S1. But two weeks after his
arrival he succumbed to dysentery, and was buried at the age
of eighty-three in the church of the Annunziata.
Filelfo deserves commemoration among the greatest humanists
of the Italian Renaissance, not for the beauty of his style, not
for the elevation of his genius, not for the accuracy of his learning,
but for his energy, and for his complete adaptation to the times
In which he lived. His erudition was large but ill-digested;
his knowledge of the ancient authors, if extensive, was superficial ;
his style was vulgar; he had no brilliancy of imagination, no
pungency of epigram, no grandeur of- rhetoric. Therefore he
has left nothing to posterity which the world would not very
willingly let die. But in his own days he did excellent service
to learning by his untiring activity, and by the facility with
which he used his stores of knowledge. It was an age of accumula-
tion and preparation, when the world was still amassing and
cataloguing the fragments rescued from the wrecks of Greece
and Rome. Men had to receive the vtty rudiments of culture
before they could appreciate its niceties. And in this work of
collection and instruction Filelfo excelled, passing rapidly from
place to place, stirring up the zeal for learning by the passion
of his own enthusiastic temperament, and acting as a pioneer
for men like Poliziano and Erasmus.
AH that is worth knowing about Filelfo is contained in Carlo de*
Rotmini's admirable Vita di Filelfo (Milan, 1808); see also W.
Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de* Medici, Vesoasiano's Vile di uotnini
illustri, and J. A. Symonds's Renaissance m Italy (1877).
(J-A-S.)
A complete edition of Filelfo's Greek letters (based on the Codex
Trevulzianns) was published for the first time, with French transla-
tion, notes and commentaries, by E. Legrand in 1802 at Paris (C. xii.
of Publications de Vkole des Lang, orient.). For further references,
especially to monographs, &c, on Filelfo's life and work, see Ulysse
Chevalier, Ripertotre des sources hist., bio-bibliographic (Paris, 1905),
a. v. PhiUlphe, Francois.
FILEY, a seaside resort in the Buckrose parliamentary
division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 9J m. S,E. of
Scarborough by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 3003. It stands upon the slope and
summit of the cliffs above Filey Bay, which is fringed by a fine '
FILEY^-FIUCAJA
sandy beach. Tha northern horn of the bay is formed by Hky
Brigg, a narrow and abrupt promontory, continued seaward by
dangerous reefs. The coastrline sweeps hence south-eastward to
the finer promontory of Flamborough Head, beyond which is the
watering-place of Bridlington. The church of St Oswald at
Filey b a fine cruciform building with central tower, Transitional
Norman and Early English in date. There are pleasant
promenades and food golf links, also a small spa which has fallen
into disuse. Filey is in favour with visitors who desire a quirt
resort without the accompaniment of entertainment common to
the larger watering-places. Roman remains have been dis-
covered on the cliff north of the town; the site was probably
important, but nothing is certainly known about it.
FILIBUSTER, a name originally given to the buccaneers
(9.9.). The term is derived most probably from the Dutch try
buiter, Ger. Freibeuter, Eng. freebooter, the word changing first into
fribustier, and then into Fr. flibustitr, Span, flibustcro. Fit-
bustier has passed into the French language, and flibustcro into
the Spanish language, as a general name for a pirate. The term
" filibuster " was revived in America to designate those
adventurers who, after the termination of the war between
Mexico and the United States, organized expeditions within the
United States to take part in West Indian and Central American
revolutions. From this has sprung the modern use of the word
to imply one who engages in private, unauthorized and irregular
warfare against any state. In the United States it is colloquially
applied to legi slators wh o practise obstruction.
FILlCAJA, VLHCENZO DA (1642-1707), Italian poet, sprung
from an ancient and noble family of Florence, was bom in that
city on the 30th of December 1642. From an incidental notice
in one of his letters, stating the amount of house rent paid during
his childhood, his parents must have been in easy circumstances,
and the supposition is confirmed by the fact that he enjoyed all
the advantages of a liberal education, first under the Jesuits of
Florence, and then in the university of Pisa.
At Pisa his mind became stored, not only with the results of
patient study in various branches of letters, but with the great
historical associations linked with the former glory of the Pisan
republic, and with one remarkable institution of which Pisa was
the seat. To the tourist who now visits Pisa the banners and
emblems of the order of St Stephen are mere matter of curiosity,
but they had a serious significance two hundred years ago to the
young Tuscan, who knew that these naval crusaders formed the
main defence of his country and commerce against the Turkish,
Algerine and Tunisian corsairs. After a five years' residence in
Pisa he returned to Florence, where he married Anna, daughter of
the senator and marquis Scipione Capponi, and withdrew to a
small villa at Figline, not far from the city. Abjuring the thought
of writing amatory poetry in consequence of the premature death
of a young lady to whom he had been attached, he occupied
himself chiefly with literary pursuits, above all the composition of
Italian and Latin poetry. His own literary eminence, the
opportunities enjoyed by him as a member of the celebrated
Academy Delia Crusca for making known his critical taste and
classical knowledge, and the social relations within the reach of a
noble Florentine so closely allied with the great house of Capponi,
sufficiently explain the intimate terms on which he stood with
such eminent men of letters as Magalotti, Menzini, Gori and Redi.
The last-named, the author of Bacchus in Tuscany, was not only
one of the most brilliant poets of his time, and a safe literary
adviser; he was the court physician, and his court influence was
employed with zeal and effect in his friend's favour. FQicaja's
rural seclusion was owing even more to his straitened means than
to his rural tastes. If he ceased at length to pine in obscurity, the
change was owing not merely to the fact that his poetical genius,
fired by the deliverance of Vienna from the Turks in 1683, poured
forth the right strains at the right time, but also to the influence of
Redi, who not only laid Filicaja's verses before his own sovereign,
but had them transmitted with the least possible delay to the
foreign princes whose noble deeds they sung. The first recom-
pense came, however, not from those princes, but from Christina,
the ex-queen of Sweden, who, from her circle of savants and
TILIGEEE
343
courtiers at Rome, spontaneously and generously announced to
Filicaja her wish to bear the expense of educating his two sons,
enhancing her kindness by the delicate request that it should
remain a secret.
The tide of FUicaja's fortunes now turned. The grand-duke of
Tuscany, Cosmo III., conferred on him an important office, the
commissioncrship of official balloting. He was named governor
of Volterra in 1696, where he strenuously exerted himself to raise
the tone of public morality. Both there and at Pisa, where he
was subsequently governor in 1700, his popularity was so great
that on his removal the inhabitants of both cities petitioned for
his recall. He passed the close of his life at Florence; the grand*
duke raised him to the rank of senator, and he died in that city on
the 24th of September 1707. He was buried in the family vault in
the church of St Peter, and a monument was erected to his
memory by his sole surviving son Scipione Filicaja. In the six
celebrated odes inspired by the great victory of Sobieski, Filicaja
took a lyrical flight which has placed him at moments on a level
with the greatest Italian poets. They are, however, unequal,
like all his poetry, reflecting in some passages the native vigour of
his genius and purest inspirations of his tastes, whilst in others
they are deformed by the affectations of the Sekeniisti. When
thoroughly natural and spontaneous— as in the two sonnets
14 Italia, Italia, o tu cui feo la sorte " and " Dov' e\ Italia, fl tuo
hracrio ? e a che ti serve;" in the verses M Alia beata Vergine,"
M A1 divino amore;" in the sonnet "Sulla fede nelle disgrazie"
—the truth and beauty of thought and language recall the verse
of Petrarch.
Besides the poems published in the complete Venice edition of
1762, several other pieces appeared for the first time in the small
Florence edition Drought out by Barbera in 1864.
FIUGREB (formerly written filigrain or filigroue\ the ItaL
Migrmt, Fr. JUigrane, Span, JUigrano, Ger. DrahigejUcht),
jewel work of a delicate kind made with twisted threads usually
of gold and silver. The word, which Is usually derived from the
Lat. /fain, thread, and %ranum t grain, is not found in Ducange,
and is indeed of modern origin. According to Prof. Skeat it is
derived from the Span. JUigrano, from "filar, to spirt, and gran.?,
the grain or principal fibre of the material." Though filigree has
become a special branch of jewel work in modern times it was
tttiefitry part of the ordinary work of the jeweller. Signor A.
CasteHani states, in his Memoir on the Jewellery of the Ancients
(1861), that all the jewelry of the Etruscans and Creeks (other
than that intended for the grave, and therefore of an unsub-
stantial character) was made by soldering together and so building
«P the gold rather than by chiselling or engraving the material.
The art may be said to consist in culling, twisting and plaiting
ioe pliable threads of metal, and uniting them at their points of
contact with each other, and with the ground, by means of gold
« silver solder and borax, by the help of the blowpipe. Small
trains or beads of the same metals are often set in the eyes of
whites, on the junctions, or at intervals at which they will set
off the wire-work effectively. The more delicate work is genera lly
protected by framework of stouter wire. Brooches, crosses,
turings and other personal ornaments of modern filigree are
generally surrounded and subdivided by bands of square or flat
"ttal. giving consistency to the filling up, which would not other-
wise keep its pvoper shape. Some writers of repute have laid equal
Mies on ihefilum and the gramm, and have extended the use of
the term filigree to include the granulated work of the ancients,
wen where the twisted wire-work to 'entirely wanting. Such a
wide application of the term is not approved by current usage,
according to which the presence of the twisted threads is the
predominant fact.
The Egyptian jewellers employed wire, both to lay down on a
•^Aground and to plait or otherwise arrange d jour. But, with
the exception of chains, it cannot be said that filigree work was
ouch practised by them. Their strength lay rather m their
doisoiini work and their moulded ornaments. Many examples,
however, remain of round plaited gold chains of fine wire, such
* *re still made by the filigree workers of India, and known
** Trichinopoly chains. From some of these are hung smaller
chains of finer wire with minute fishes and other pendants
fastened to them. In ornaments derived from Phoenician sites,
such as Cyprus and Sardinia, patterns of gold wire are laid
down with great delicacy on a gold ground, but the art was
advanced to its highest perfection in the Greek and Etruscan
filigree of the 6th to the 3rd centuries b.c. A number of earrings
and other personal ornaments found in central Italy are pre*
served in the Louvre and in the British Museum. Almost all
of them arc made of filigree work. Some earrings are in the
form of flowers of geometric design, bordered by one or more
rims each made up of minute volutes of gold wire, and this kind
of ornament is varied by slight differences in the way of disposing
the number or arrangement of the volutes. But the feathers
and petals of modern Italian filigree ane not seen in these ancient
designs. Instances occur, but only rarely, in which filigree
devices in wire are self-supporting and not applied to metal
plates. The museum of the Hermitage at St Petersburg contains
an amazingly rich collection of jewelry from the tombs of the
Crimea. Many bracelets and necklaces in that collection are
made of twisted wire, some in as many as seven rows of plaiting,
with clasps In the shape of heads of animals of beaten work.
Others are strings of large beads of gold, decorated with volutes,
knots and other patterns of wire soldered over the surfaces.
(See the AtrtiovUis du Bospkore Cmmtricn, by GiUe, 1854;
reissued by S. Reinach, 189a, in which will be found careful
engravings of these objects.) In the British Museum a sceptre,
probably that of a Greek priestess, is covered with plaited and
netted gold wire, finished with a sort of Corinthian capital and
a boss of green glass.
It is probable that in India and various parts of central Asia
filigree has been worked from the most remote period without
any change in the designs. Whether the Asiatic jewellers were
influenced by the Greeks settled on that continent, or merer/
trained under traditions held in common with them, it is certain
that the Indian filigree workers retain the same patterns as those
of the ancient Greeks, and work them in the same way, down to
the present day. Wandering workmen are given so much gold,
coined or rough, which is weighed, heated in a pan of charcoal,
beaten into wire, and then worked in the courtyard or verandah
of the employer's house according to the designs of the artist,
who weighs the complete work on restoring it and is paid at a
specified rate for his labour. Very fine grains or beads and
spines of gold, scarcely thicker than coarse hair, projecting
from plates of gold are methods of ornamentation still used.
Passing to later times we may notice in many collections of
medieval jewel work (such as that in the South Kensington
Museum) reliquaries, covers for the gospels, &c, made either
in Constantinople from the oth to the xath centuries, or in
monasteries in Europe, In which Byzantine goldsmiths' work'
was studied and imitated. These objects, besides being enriched
with precious stones, polished, but not cut Into facets, and with
enamel, are often decorated with filigree. Large surfaces of gold
are sometimes covered with scrolls. of filigree soldered on; and
corner pieces of the borders of book covers, or the panels of
reliquaries, are not unfrequently made up of complicated pieces
of plaited work alternating with spaces encrusted with enamel.
Byzantine filigree work occasionally has small stones set amongst
the curves or knots. Examples of such decoration can be seen
in the South Kensington and British Museums.
In the north of Europe the Saxons, Britons and Celts were
from an early period skilful in several kinds of goldsmiths' work.
Admirable examples of filigree patterns laid down in wire on
gold, from Anglo-Saxon tombs, may be seen in the British
Museum — notably a brooch from Dover, and a sword-hilt from
Cumberland.
The Irish filigree wcrk is more thoughtful in design and more
varied in pattern than that of any period or country that could
be named. Its highest perfection must be placed in the roth
and nth centuries. The Royal Irish Academy in Dublin
contains a number of reliquaries and personal jewels, of which
filigree is the general and most remarkable ornament. The
" Tata " brooch has been copied and imitated, and the shape smj
344
decoration ol it are weB known. Instead of fine curb or volutes
of gold thread, the Irish filigree is varied by numerous designs
in which one thread can be traced through curious knots and
complications, which, disposed over large surfaces, balance one
another, but always with special varieties and arrangements
difficult to trace with the eye. The long thread appears and
disappears without breach of continuity, the two ends generally
worked into the head and the tail of a serpent or a monster.
The reliquary containing the " Bell of St Patrick " is covered
with knotted work in many varieties. A two-handled chalice,
called the "Ardagh cup," found near Limerick in 1868, is
ornamented .with work of this kind of extraordinary fineness.
Twelve plaques on a band round the body of the vase, plaques
on each handle and round the foot of the vase have a series of
different designs of characteristic patterns, in fine filigree wire
work wrought on the front of the repousse* ground. (See a paper
by the 3rd earl of Dunraven in Transactions of Royal Irish
Academy, xxiv. pt. iii. 1873.)
Much of the medieval jewel work all over Europe down to
the 15th century, on reliquaries, crosses, crosiers and other
ecclesiastical goldsmiths' work, is set off with bosses and borders
of filigree. Filigree work in silver was practised by the Moors
of Spain during the middle ages with great skill, and was intro-
duced by them and established all over the Peninsula, whence
it was carried to the Spanish colonies in America. . The Spanish
filigree work of the 17th and 18th centuries is of extraordinary
complexity (examples in the Victoria and Albert Museum), and
silver filigree jewelry of delicate and artistic design is still made
in considerable quantities throughout the country. The manu-
facture spread over the Balearic Islands, and among the popula-
tions that border the Mediterranean. It is still made all over
Italy, and in Malta, Albania, the Ionian Islands and many
other parts of Greece. That of the Greeks is sometimes on a
large scale, with several thicknesses of wires alternating with
larger and smaller bosses and beads, sometimes set with
turquoises, &&, and mounted on convex plates, making rich
ornamental headpieces, belts and breast ornaments. Filigree
silver buttons of wire-work and small bosses are worn by the
peasants in most of the countries that produce this kind of
jewelry. Silver filigree brooches and buttons are also made
in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Little chains and pendants
are added to much of this northern work.
Some very curious filigree work was brought from Abyssinia
after the capture of Magdala— arm-guards, slippers, cups, &c,
tome of which are now in the South Kensington Museum. They
are made of thin plates of silver, over which the wire-work is
soldered. The filigree is subdivided by narrow borders of simple
pattern, and the intervening spaces are made up of many
•patterns, some with grains set at intervals.
A few words must be added as to the granulated work which,
as stated above, some writers have classed under the term of
filigree, although the twisted wires may be altogether wanting.
Such decoration consists of minute globules of gold, soldered
to form patterns on a metal surface. Its use is rare in Egypt.
(See J. de Morgan, Pontiles d Dahchonr, 1804-1895, pi. xii.)
It occurs in Cyprus at an early period, as for instance on a gold
pendant in the British Museum from Enkomi in Cyprus (10th
century B.C.). The pendant is in the form of a pomegranate,
and has upon it a pattern of triangles, formed by more than
3000 minute globules separately soldered on. It also occurs on
ornaments of the 7th century B.C. from Camirus in Rhodes.
But these globules are large, compared with those which are
found on Etruscan jewelry. Signor Castellani, who had made
the antique jewelry of the Etruscans and Greeks his special
Study, with the intention of reproducing the ancient models,
found it for a long time impossible to revive this particular
process of delicate soldering. He overcame the difficulty at
last, by the discovery of a traditional school of craftsmen at
St Angelo in Vado, by whose help his well-known reproductions
were executed.
For examples of antique work the student should examine the
1 of the British Museum, the Louvre and the
FILLAN, SAINT— FILLMORE
collection in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The last < .._ . _
large and very varied assortment of modern Italian, Spanish, Greek
and other jewelry made for the peasants of various countries. It
also poawBiei wterrsting examples of the modern work in granulated
gold by Castellani and ululiano. The Celtic work is well repre se nte d
in the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin.
FILLAN, SAINT, or Faelan, the name of the two Scottish
saints, of Irish origin, whose lives are of a purely legendary
character The St Ffllan whose feast is kept on the aoth of June
had churches dedicated to his honour at Ballyheyland, Queen's
county, Ireland, and at Loch Earn, Perthshire. The other,
who is commemorated on the 9th of January, was specially
venerated at Cluain Mavscua, Co. Westmeath, Ireland, and so
early as the 8th or 9th century at StrathfilIan,Perthshire, Scotland,
where there was an ancient monastery dedicated to him, which,
like most of the religious houses of early times, was afterwards
secularized. The lay-abbot, who was its superior in the reign
of William the lion, held high rank in the Scottish kingdom.
This monastery was restored in the reign of Robert Bruce, and
became a cell of the abbey of canons regular at Inchaffray.
The new foundation received a grant from King Robert, in grati-
tude for the aid which he was supposed to have obtained from a
relic of the saint on the eve of the great victory of Bannockbum.
Another relic was the saint's staff or crozier, which became
known as the coygerach or quigrich, and was long in the posses-
sion of a family of the name of Jore or Dewar, who were its
hereditary guardians. They certainly had it in their custody
in the year 1428, and their right was formally recognized by
King James III. in 1487. The head of the crozier, which is of
silver-gilt with a smaller crozier of bronze inclosed within it, is
now deposited in the National Museum of the Society of Anti-
quaries of Scotland.
The legend of the second of these saints is given in the Bollandist
Acta SS. (1643), 9th of January, i. 594-595 ; A. P. Forbes, Koieniers
of Scottish Sottas (Edinburgh, 1872), pp. 341-346; D. O'HaiuWs
Lives of Irish Saints (Dublin), nd. pp. 134-144. See also Historical
Notices of St Fillan's Crosier, by Dr John Stuart (Aberdeen, 1877).
FILLET (through Tr. filet, from the med. Lat. fileUum, diminu-
tive olfilum, a thread), a band or ribbon used for tying the hair,
the Lat. vitta, which was used as a sacrificial emblem, and also
worn by vestal virgins, brides and poets. The word is thus
applied to anything in the shape of a band or strip, as, in coining,
to the metal ribbon from which the blanks are punched. In
architecture, a " fillet " is a narrow flat band, sometimes called
a " list el," which is used to separate mouldings one from the other,
or to terminate a suite of mouldings as at the top of a cornice.
In the fluted column of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders the fillet
is employed between the flutes.. It is a very important feature
in Gothic work, being frequently worked on large mouldings;
when placed on the front and sides of the moulding of a rib it
has been termed the *' keel and wings " of the rib.
In cooking, " fillet " is used of the " undercut " of a sirloin of
beef, or of a thick slice of fish or meat; more particularly of a
boned and rolled piece of veal or other meat, tied by a " fillet *
or string.
FILLMORE. MILLARD (1800-1874), thirteenth president of
the United States of America, came of a family of English stock,
which had early settled in New England. His father, Nathaniel,
in 1795, made a clearing within the limits of what is now the town
of Summerhill, Cayuga county, New York, and there Millard
Fillmore was born, on the 7th of February x8oo. Until he was
fifteen he could have acquired only the simplest rudiments of
education, and those chiefly from his parents. At that age be
was apprenticed to a fuller and clothier, to card wool, and to dye
and dress the cloth. Two years before the close of his term, with
a promissory note for thirty dollars, he bought the remainder
of his time from his master, and at the age of nineteen began to
study law. In 1820 he made bis way to Buffalo, then only
a village, and supported himself by teaching school and aiding
the postmaster while continuing his studies.
In 1823 he was admitted to the bar, and began practice at
Aurora, New York, to which place his father had removed.
Hard study, temperance and integrity gave him a good reputa-
tion and moderate success, and in 1827 he was made an attorney
FILMER— FILON
345
and, In 1S99, counsellor of the supreme court of the state.
Returning to Buffalo in 1830 he formed, in 1832, a partnership
with Nathan K. Hall (18x0-1874), later a member of Congress
and postmaster-general in his cabinet. Solomon G. Haven ( 1810-
1861), member of Congress from 1851 to 1857, joined them in
1836. The firm met with great success. From 1829 to 1832
Fillmore served in the state assembly, and, in the single term
of 1833-1835, in the national House of Representatives, coming
in as anti-Jackson, or in opposition to the administration. From
1837 lo 1843, when he declined further service, he again repre-
sented his district in the House, this time as a member of the
Whig party. In Congress he opposed the annexation of Texas
as slave territory, was an advocate of internal improvements and
a protective tariff, supported J. Q. Adams in maintaining the
right of offering anti-slavery petitions, advocated the prohibition
by Congress of the slave trade between the states, and favoured
the exclusion of slavery from the District of Columbia. His
speech and tone, however, were moderate on these exciting
subjects, and he claimed the right to stand free of pledges, and
to adjust his opinions and his course by the development of
circumstances. The Whigs having the ascendancy in the Twenty-
Seventh Congress, he was made chairman of the House Com*
mittee of Ways and Means. Against a strong opposition he
carried an appropriation of $30,000 to Morse's telegraph,
and reported from his committee the Tariff Bill of 1842. In
1844 he was the Whig candidate for the governorship of New
York, but was defeated. In November 1847 he was elected
comptroller of the state of New York, and in 1848 he was
elected vice-president of the United States on the ticket with
Zachary Taylor as president. Fillmore presided over the senate
during the exciting debates on the " Compromise Measures of
1850."
President Taylor died on the oth of July 1850, and on the next
day Fillmore took the oath of office as his successor. The cabinet
which he called around him contained Daniel Webster, Thomas
Corwin and John J. Crittenden. On the death of Webster in
185 2, Edward Everett became secretary of state. Unlike Taylor,
Fillmore favoured the " Compromise Measures," and his signing
one of them, the Fugitive Slave Law, in spite of the vigorous
protests of anti-slavery men, lost him much of his popularity
in the North. Few of his opponents, however, questioned his
own finl persuasion that the Compromise Measures were vitally
accessary to pacify the nation. In 1851 he interposed promptly
but ineffectively in thwarting the projects of the " filibusters,"
under Narciso Lopes for the invasion of Cuba. Commodore
Matthew Calbraith Perry's expedition, which opened up diplo-
matic relations with Japan, and the exploration of the valley
of the Amazon by Lieutenants William L. Herhdon (1813-1857)
and Lardner Gibbon also occurred during his term. In the
autumn of 1852 he was an unsuccessful candidate for nomination
for the presidency by the Whig National Convention, and he went
out of office on the 4th of March 1853. In February 1856, while
he was travelling abroad, he was nominated for the presidency
by the American or Know Nothing party, and later this nomina-
tion was also accepted by the Whigs; but in the ensuing pre-
sidential election, the last in which the Know Nothings and the
Whigs as such took any part, he received the electoral votes of
only one- slate, Maryland. Thereafter he took no public share
in political affairs. Fillmore was twice married: in 1826 to
Abigail Powers (who died in 1853, leaving him with a son and
daughter), and in 1858 to Mrs. Caroline C. Mcintosh. He died
at Buffalo on the 8th of March 1874.
In 1007 the Buffalo Historical Society, of which Fillmore was one
0/ the founder* and the first president, published the Millard Fillmore
Papers (a vols., vol. x. and xi. of the Society's publications; edited
by F. H. Severance), containing miscellaneous writings aod speeches,
sod official and private correspondence. Most ol his" correspondence,
however, was destroyed in pursuance of a direction in his son's wilL
FILMER, SIR ROBERT (d. 1653), English political writer, was
the son of Sir Edward Filmer of East Sutton in Kent. He
studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he matriculated in
1604. Knighted by Charles L at the beginning of his reign, he
was an ardent supporter of the king's cause, and his house is said
to have been plundered by the parliamentarians ten times. He
died on the 26th of May 1653.
Filmer was already a middle-aged man when the great contro-
versy between the king and the Commons roused him into literary
activity. His writings afford an exceedingly curious example of
the doctrines held by the most extreme section of the Divine
Right party. Filmer's theory is founded upon the statement that
the government of a family by the father is the true original and
model of all government. In the beginning of the world God gave
authority to Adam, who had complete control over his descend-
ants, even as to life and death. From Adam this authority was
inherited by Noah; and Filmer quotes as not unlikely the
tradition that Noah sailed up the Mediterranean and allotted the
three continents of the Old World to the rule of his three sons.
From Shem, Ham and Japheth the patriarchs inherited the
absolute power which they exercised over their families and
servants; and from the patriarchs all kings and governors
(whether a single monarch or a governing assembly) derive their
authority, which is therefore absolute, and founded upon divine
right. • The difficulty that a man " by the secret will of God ma'y
unjustly " attain to power which he has not inherited appeared to
Filmer in no way to alter the nature of the power so obtained,
for " there is, and always shall be continued to the end of the
world, a natural right of a supreme father over every multitude."
The king is perfectly free from all human control. He cannot be
bound by the acts of his predecessors, for which he is not re-
sponsible; nor by his own, for " impossible it is in nature that a
man should give a law unto himself "—a law must be imposed by
another than the person bound by it. With regard to the English
constitution, he asserted, in his Freeholder's Grand Inquest
touching our Sovereign Lord the King and his Parliament (1648),
that the Lords only give counsel to the king, the Commons only
" perform and consent to the ordinances of parliament," and the
king, alone is the maker of laws, which proceed purely from his
will. It Is monstrous that the people should judge or depose
their king, for they would then be judges in their own cause.
The most complete expression of Filmer's opinions is given in
the Patriarcha, which was published in 1680, many years after his
death. His position, however, was sufficiently indicated by the-
works whjch.he published during his lifetime: the Anarchy of a
Limited and Mixed Monarchy (1648), an attack upon a treatise on
monarchy by Philip Hunton (1604 ?-i68a), who maintained that
the king's prerogative is not superior to the authority of the
houses of parliament; the pamphlet entitled The Power of Kings,
and mi particular of the King of England (1048), first published
in 1680; and his Observations upon Mr Hobbcs's Leviathan, Mr
Milton against Salmasius, and H. Crotius De jure belli et pacis,
concerning the Originall of Government (165a). Filmer's theory,
owing to the circumstances of the time, obtained a recognition
which it is now difficult to understand. Nine years after the
publication of the Patriarcha % at the time of the Revolution which
banished the Stuarts from the throne, Locke singled out Filmer
as the most remarkable of the advocates of Divine Right, and
thought it worth while to attack him expressly in the first part of
the Treatise on Government, going into all his arguments seriatim,
and especially pointing out that even if the first steps of his
argument be granted, the rights of the eldest born have been so
often set aside that modern kings can claim no such inheritance of
authority as he asserted.
FILMY FERNS, a general name for a group of ferns with
delicate much-divided leaves and often moss-like growth,
belonging to the genera HymenophyUum, Todea and Trichomone*.
They require to be kept in close cases in a cool fernery, and the
stones and moss amongst which they are grown must be kept
continually moist so that the evaporated water condenses on the
very numerous divisions of the leaves.
FILOK. PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTIN (1841- ), French man
of letters, son of the historian Charles Auguste Desirl Filon
(1800-1875), was born in Paris in 1841. His father became
professor of history at Douai, and eventually " inspectenr
d'acadomk " in Paris; his principal works were Histoire comparU
346
FILOSA— FILTER
de Frame et de VAngUUrte (1832), Hiibire de I 1 Europe am
XVI' siicle (1838), La Diphmatie francaise sous Louis XV
(1843), Histoin de I'llalie miridionaU (1849), Hisloirc-du sinat
remain (1850), Histoire de la dimocroiie athiuienne (1854)*
Educated at the Eeole normale, Augustin Filon was appointed
tutor to the prince imperial and accompanied him to England,
where he remained for some years. He is the author of Guy
ratin, sa tie, so correspondence (1862); Nos grands-peres (1887);
Prosper Mtrimie (1804); Sous la tyrannie (1900). On English
subjects he has written chiefly under the pseudonym of Pierre
Sandrit, Les Manages de Londres (1873); Histoire de la iilttraturt
anglaise (1883); Le Thidtrc anglais (1896), and La Caricature
en Angleterre (1002).
F1L0SA (A. Lang), one of the two divisions of Rhizopoda,
characterized by protoplasm granular at the surface, and fine
pseudopodia branching and usually acutely pointed at the lips.
FILTER (a word common in various forms to most European
languages, adapted from the medieval Lat. filtrum, felt, a
material used as a filtering agent), an arrangement for separating
solid matter from liquids. In some cases the operation of
filtration is performed for the sake of removing impurities from
the nitrate or liquid filtered, as in the purification of water for
drinking purposes; in others the aim is to recover and collect
the solid matter, as when the chemist filters off a precipitate from
the liquid in which it is suspended.
In regard to the purification of water, filtration was long looked
upon as merely a mechanical process of straining out the solid
particles, whereby a turbid water could be rendered dear. In
the course of time it was noticed that certain materials, such as
charcoal, had the power to some extent also of softening hard
water and of removing organic matter, and at the beginning of
the 19th century charcoal, both animal and vegetable, came into
use for filtering purposes. Porous carbon blocks, made by
strongly heating a mixture of powdered charcoal with oil, resin,
&c, were introduced about a generation later, and subsequently
various preparations of iron (spongy iron, magnetic oxide) found
favour. Innumerable forms of filters made with these and other
materials were put on the market, and were extolled as removing
impurities of every kind from water, and as affording complete
protection against the communication of disease. But whatever
merits they had as clarifiers of turbid water, the advent of
bacteriology, and the recognition of the fact that the bacteria of
certain diseases may be water-borne, introduced a new criterion
of effectiveness, and it was perceived that the removal of solid
particles, or even of organic impurities (which were realized to be
important not so much because they are dangerous to health
per se as because their presence affords grounds for suspecting
that the water in which they occur has been exposed to circum-
stances permitting contamination with infective disease), was not
sufficient; the filter must also prevent the passage of pathogenic
organisms, and so render the water sterile bactcriologically.
Examined from this point of view the majority of domestic
.filters were found to be gravely defective, and even to be worse
than useless, since unless they were frequently and thoroughly
cleansed, they were liable to become favourable breeding-places for
microbes. The first filter which was more or less completely
impermeable to bacteria was the Pastcur-Chamberland, which
<was devised in Pasteur's laboratory, and is made of dense biscuit
porcelain. The filtering medium in this, as in other filters of the
same kind, takes the form, of a hollow cylinder or " candle,"
through the walls of which the water has to pass from the outside
to the inside, the candles often being arranged so that they may
be directly attached to a tap, whereby the rate of flow, which is
apt to be slow, is accelerated by the pressure of the main. But
*ven filters of this type, if they are to be fully relied upon, must be
frequently cleaned and sterilized, and great care must be taken
that the joints and connexions are watertight, and that the
candles are without cracks or flaws. In cases where the water
supply is known to be infected, or even where It is merely
doubtful, it is wise to have recourse to sterilization by boiling,
rather than trust to any filter. Various machines have been
constructed to perform this operation, some of them specially
designed for the use of troops in the field; those in which
economy of fuel is studied have an exchange-heater, by means of
which the incoming cold water receives heat from the outgoing
hot water, which thus arrives at the point of outflow at a
temperature nearly as low as that of the supply. Chemical
methods of sterilization have also been suggested, depending on
the use of iodine, chlorine, bromine, ozone, potassium per-
manganate, copper sulphate or chloride and other substances.
For the sand-filtration of water on a large scale, in whkh the
presence of a surface film containing zooglaea of bacteria is an
essential feature, see Water Supply.
Filtration in the chemical laboratory is commonly effected
by the aid of a special kind of unsized paper, which in the more
expensive varieties b practically pure cellulose, impurities like
feric oxide, alumina, lime, magnesia and silica having been re-
moved by treatment with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids.
A circular piece of this paper is folded twice upon itself so as lo
form a quadrant, one of the folds is pulled out, and the cone thus
obtained is supported in a glass or porcelain funnel having aa
apical angle of 6o°. The liquid to be filtered is poured into the
cone, preferably down a glass rod upon the sides of the funnel
to prevent splashing and to preserve the apex of the fitter-paper,
and passes through the paper, upon which the solid matter is
retained. In the case of liquids containing strong acids or
alkalis, which the paper cannot withstand, a plug of carefully
purified asbestos or glass-wool (spun glass) is often employed,
contained in a bulb blown as an enlargement on a narrow " filter-
tube." To accelerate the rate of filtration various devices are
resorted to, such as lengthening the tube below the filtering
material, increasing the pressure on the liquid being filtered,
or decreasing it in the receiver of the filtrate, R. W. Bunsen may
be regarded as the originator of the second method, and it was he
who devised the small cone of platinum foil, sometimes replaced
by a cone of parchment perforated with pinholes, arranged at
the apex of the funnel to serve as a support for the paper, whkh
is apt to burst under the pressure differences. In the so-called
" Buchner funnel," the filtering vessel is cylindrical, and the
paper receives support by being laid upon its flat perforated
bottom. In filtering into a vacuum the flask receiving the filtrate
should be connected to the exhaust through a second flask.
The suction may be derived from any form of air-pump; a form
often employed where water at fair pressure is available is
the jet-pump, which in consequence is known as a filter-pump.
Another method of filtering into a vacuum is to immerse a porous
jar (" Pnkall cell ") in the liquid to be filtered, and attach a
suction-pipe to its interior. A filtering arrangement devised
by F. C. Gooch, which has come into common use m quantitative
analysis where the solid matter has to be submitted to heating
or ignition, consists of a crucible having a perforated bottom.
By means of a piece of stretched rubber tubing, this crucible
is supported in the mouth of an ordinary funnel whkh is con-
nected with an exhausting apparatus; and water holding in
suspension fine scrapings of asbestos, purified by boiling with
strong hydrochloric acid and washing with water, is run through
it, so that the perforated bottom is covered with a layer of felled
asbestos. The crucible is then removed from tbe rubber support,
weighed and replaced; the liquid is filtered through in the
ordinary way ; and the crucible with its contents is again removed,
dried, ignited and weighed. A perforated cone, similarly coated
with asbestos and fitted into a conical funnel, is sometimes
employed.
In many processes of chemical technology filtration plays an
important part. A crude method consists.of straining the liquid
through cotton or other cloth, either stretched on wooden frames
or formed into long narrow bags (" bag-filters "). Occasionally
filtration into a vacuum is practised, but more often, as in filter-
presses, tbe liquid is forced under pressure, either hydrostatic
or obtained from a force-pump or compressed air, into a series of
chambers partitioned off by cloth, which arrests the solids, but
permits the passage of the liquid portions. For separating
liquids from solids of a fibrous or crystalline character " hydro-
extractors " or " centrifugals " are frequently employed. The
FIMBRIA— FINANCE
347
toaterM is placed hi a perforated cage or *' basket, 1
is enclosed in an outer easing, and when the cage is rapidly
rotated by suitable gearing, the liquid portions are forced out
into the. external casing.
FIMBRIA, 6AIUS PLAVTOt (d. 84 B.C.), Roman soldier and
a violent partisan of Marius. He was sent to Asia in 86 B.C.
as legate to L. Valerius Flaccus, but quarrelled with him and was
dismissed. Taking advantage of the absence of Flaccus at
Chaleedon and the discontent aroused by his avarice and severit y,
Fimbria stirred up a revolt and slew Flaccus at Nicomedia.
He then assumed the command of the army and obtained several
successes against Mithradates, whom he shut up in Pitane on
the coast of Aeolis, and would undoubtedly have captured him
bad Lucultus co-operated with the fleet. Fimbria treated most
croefly aD the people of Asia who had revolted from Rome or
sided with Sulk. Having gained admission to Ilium by declaring
that, as a Roman, he was friendly, he massacred the inhabitants
and burnt the puce to the ground. But in 84 Sulla crossed over
from Greece to Asia, made peace with Mithradates, and turned
his arms against Fimbria, who, seeing that there was no chance
of escape, committed suicide. His troops were made to serve in
Asia till the end of the third Mithradatic War.
See Romb: History; and arts, on Solla. and Mauds.
nVJRIATB (from Let. fimbria*, fringe), a. sooldgkal and
botanical term, meaning fringed. In heraldry, "fimbriate"
or " fimbriated " refer* to a narrow edge or border running round
a bearing.
FINALS (Ital for " end "), a term in music for the concluding
novement in an instrumental composition, whether symphony,
concerto or sonata, and, in dramatic music, the concerted piece
which ends each act. Of instrumental finales, the great choral
finale to Beethoven's oth symphony, and of operatic finales,
that of Mozart 'a Nam di Pigat; to the second art, and to the
last act of Verdi's FaUtag may be mentioned. In the Wagnerian
opera the finale has no place.
FmAMCB. The term " finance," which comes into English
through French, in its original meaning denoted a payment
OSasoa). In the later middle ages, especially in Germany, it
acquired the sense of usurious or oppressive dealing with money
and capital The specialised use of the word as equivalent to
the management of the public expenditure and receipts first
became prominent in France during the sotb century and quickly
ipread to other countries. The plural form (Us Finances) was
particularly reserved for this application, while the singular
came to denote business activity in respect to monetary dealings
(as in the expression la haute finance). For the Germans the
phrase "science of finance " (Finanmnssenschaft) refers ex-
clusively to the economy of the state. English and American
writes are less definite in their employment of the term, which
wits with the convenience of the author.
A work on " finance " may deal with the Money Market or the
Stock Exchange; it may treat of banking and credit organiza-
tion, or it may be- devoted to state revenue and expenditure*
which is on the whole the prevailing sense. The expressions
" science of finance " and " public finance " have been suggested as
"tiiabie to delimit the last mentioned application. At all events,
tfc broad sense ia quite intelligible. " Financial " means what is
weaned with business, and the idea of a balance between
rfoit and return is also prominent. In the present article
mention will be directed to " public finance "; for the other
*pecu of the subject reference may be made {inter alia) to the
Wlowiagj— Banks and Backing; Company; Exchange;
Hum; Stock Exchange. See also English Finance,
and the sections on finance under headings of countries.
Finance, regarded as state house-keeping, or "political
fonomy " (see Economics) in the older sense of the term, deals
*iih (1) the expenditure of the state; (?) state revenues; (3)
fo balance between expenditure and receipts; (4) the organiza-
tion which collects and applies the public funds. Each of these
«*&* divisions presents a series of problems of which the practical
Utttneat is illustrated in the financial history of the great nations
*t the world. Thus the amount and character of public ex
pendfturc necessarily depends on the functions that the state*
undertakes to perform— national defence, the maintenance of
internal order, and the efficient equipment of the state organisa-
tion; such are the tasks that all governments have to discharge,
and for their cost due provision has to be made. The widening
sphere of state activity, so marked a characteristic of modern
civilisation, involves outlay for what may be best described
as ''developmental" services. Education, relief of distress,
regulation of labour .and 'trade, are duties now in great part
performed by public agencies, and their increasing prominence
involves augmented expense. The first problem on this side of
expenditure Is the due balancing of outlay by Income. The
financier has to " cover " his outlay. There is, further, the duty
of establishing a proper proportion between the several forms of
expenditure. Not only has there to he a strict control over the
total national expense; supervision has to he carried into each
department of the state. No one branch of public activity it
entitled to make unlimited ceils on the state's revenue. The
claims of the M expert " require to be carefully scrutinised. The
great financiers have made their reputation quite as much by
rigorous control over extravagance in expenditure as by dexterity
in devising new forma of revenue. Unfortunately they have not
been able to reduce their methods to rule. As yet no more definite
principle has been discovered than the somewhat obvious one of
measuring the proposed items of outlay (1) against each other,
(2) against the sacrifice that additional taxation involves. Of
almost equal importance is the rule that the utmost return is to
be obtained for the given outlay. The canon of economy is as
fundamental in regard to public expenditure as It will appear,
later, to be in respect to revenue* Just application of the outlay
of the state, so that no class receives undue advantage, and the
use of public funds for M reproductive," in preference to " un-
productive" objects, are evident general principles whose
difficulty lies In their appticatioa to the circumstances of each
particular case.
Far greater progress has been made In the formulation of
general canons as to the nature, growth and treatment of the
public revenue*. Historically, there is, first, the tendency
towards increase in state income to balance the advance in outlay.
A second general feature is the relative decline of the receipts
from state property and industries In contrast to the expansion
of taxation. Regarded as an organised system, the body of
receipts baa to be made conformable to certain general conditions. •
Thus there should be revenue sufficient to meet the public re-
quirements- Otherwise the financial organisation bas failed in
one of its essential purposes. In order continuously to attain
this end, the revenue must be flexible, or, as is often said, elastic
enough to vary in response to pressure. Frequently recurring
deficits are, in themselves, a condemnation of the methods
under which they are found. Again, the rule of " economy "
in raising revenue, or, in other words, taking as little as possible
from the contributors over and above what the state receives,
holds good for the whole and for each part of public revenue.
In like manner the principle of formal justice has the same claim
in respect to revenue as to expenditure. No classof person should
bear more than his or its proper share. In fact the special maxims
usually placed under the head of taxation have really a wider
scope aa governing the whole financial system. The recognition
of even the most elementary rules has been a very slow process,
as the course of financial history abundantly proves. Until the
18th century no scientific treatment of financial problems waa
attained, though there had been great advances on the admini-
strative side.
A brief description of the historical evolution of the earlier
financial forms will be the most effective illustration of this
statement. The theory of well-organized public finance is also
discussed under Taxation and National Debt. -
The earliest forms of public revenue are those obtained
from the property of the chief or ruler. Land, cattle and slaves -
are the principal kinds of wealth, and they are all constituents
of the king's revenue; enforced work contributed by members of
the community, and the furnishing commodities on requisition, •
3+8
FINANCE
further aid in the maintenance of the primitive state. Financial
organization makes its earliest appearance in the great Eastern
monarchies, in which tribute was regularly collected and the
oldest and most general form of taxation— that levied on the
produce of land— was established. In its normal shape this
impost consisted in a given proportion of the yield, or of certain
portions of the yield, of the soil; one-fourth as in India, one-
fifth as in Egypt, or two separate levies of a tenth as in Palestine,
are examples of what may from the last instance be called the
" tithe " system. Dues of various kinds were gradually added
to the land revenue, until, as in the later Egyptian monarchy,
the forms of revenue reached a bewildering complexity. But
no Eastern state advanced beyond the condition generally
characterized as the " patrimonial," i.e. an organisation on the
model of the household. The part played by money economy
was small, and it is noticeable that the revenues were collected
by the monarch's servants, the farming out of taxes being
completely unknown. Tribute, however, was paid by subject
communities as a whole, and was collected by them 'for trans*
mission to the conquerors.
A much higher stage was reached in the financial methods
of the Greek states, or more correctly speaking of Athens, the
best-known specimen of the class. Instead of the
jfc jy comparatively simple expedients of the barbarian
monarchies, as indicated above, the Athenian city
state by degrees developed a rather complex revenue system.
Some of the older forms are retained. The city owned public
land which was let on lease and the rents were farmed out by
auction. A specially valuable property of Athens was the
possession of the silver mines at Laurium, which were worked on
lease by slave labour. The produce, at first distributed amongst
the citizens, was later a part of the state income, and forms the
subject of some of the suggestions respecting the revenue in
the treatise formerly ascribed to Xenophon. The reverence
that attached to the precious metals caused undue exaltation
of the services rendered by this property.
One of the characteristics of the ancient state was its extensive
control over the persons and property of its citizens. In respect
to finance this authority was strikingly manifested in the
burdens imposed on wealthy citizens by the requirements of the
"liturgies " (Xttrovpyicu), which consisted in the provision of
a chorus for theatrical performances, or defraying the expenses
of the public games, or, finally, the equipment of a ship, " the
trierarchy," which was economically and politically the most
important. Athenian statesmanship in the time of Demosthenes
was gravely exercised to make this form of contribution more
effective. The grouping into classes and the privilege of exchang-
ing property, granted to the contributor against any one whom
he believed entitled to take his place, are marks of the defective
economic and financial organization of the age.
Amongst taxes strictly so called were the market dues or tolls,
which in some cases approximated to excise duties, though in
their actual mode of levy they were closely similar to the Detroit
of modern times. Of greater importance were the customs
duties on imports and exports. These at the great period of
Athenian history were only 2%. The prohibition of export
of corn was an economic rather than a financial provision. In
the treatment of her subject allies Athens was more rigorous,
general import and export duties of 5% being imposed on their
trade. The high cost of carriage, and the need of encouraging
commerce in a community relying on external sources for its
food supply, help to explain the comparatively low rates adopted.
Neither as financial nor as protective expedients were the custom
duties of classical societies of much importance.
Direct taxation received much greater expansion. A special
levy on the class of resident aliens (perotac*), probably
paralleled by a duty on slaves, was in force. A far more important
source of revenue was the general tax on property (cio^opA),
which according to one view existed as early as the time of Solon,
who made it a part of his constitutional system. Modern
inquiry, however, tends towards the conclusion that it was under
the stress of the Peloponnesian War that this impost was intro-
duced (428 B.C.). At first it was only levied at irregular intervals;
afterwards, in 37$ B.C., it became a permanent tax based oa
elaborate valuation under which the richer members paid on a
larger quota of their capital; in the case of the wealthiest class
the taxable quota was taken as one-fifth, smaller fractions being
adopted for those belonging to the other divisions. The assess-
ment (rifaina) included all- the property of the contributor,
whose accuracy in making full returns was safeguarded by the
right given to other citizens to proceed against him for fraudulent
under-valuation. A further support was provided in the reform
of 378 b.c. by the establishment of the symmories, or groups
of tax-paying citizens; the wealthier members of each. group
being responsible for the tax payments of all the members.
The scanty and obscure references to finance, and to economic
matters generally, in classical literature do not elucidate all the
details of the system; but the analogies of other countries, e.g.
the mode of levying the toille in 18th century France and the
" tenth and fifteenth " in medieval England, make it tolerably
plain that in the 4th century B.C. the Athenian state had developed
a mode of taxation on property which raised those questions of
just distribution and effective valuation that present themselves
in the latest tax systems of the modern world. Taken together
with the liturgies, the " eisphora " placed a very heavy burden
on the wealthier citizens, and this financial pressure accounts
in great part for the hostility of the rich towards the democratic
constitution that facilitated the imposition of graduated taxation
and super-taxes — to use modern terms — on the larger incomes.
The normal yield of the property tax is reported as 6b talents
(£14,400); but on special occasions it reached 300 talents
(£48,000), or about one-sixth of the total receipts.
On the administrative side also remarkable advances were
made by the entrusting of military expenditure to the " generals,"
and in the 4th century B.C. by the appointment of an admini-
strator whose duty it was to distribute the revenue of the state
under the directions of the assembly. The absence of settled
public law and the influence of direct democracy made a complete
ministry of finance impossible.
The Athenian " hegemony " in its earlier and later phases
had an important financial side. The confederacy of Ddos
made provision for the collection of a revenue (ettpos) from the
members of the league, which was employed at first for defence
against Persian aggression, but afterwards was at the disposal
of Athens as the ruling state. The annual collection of 460
talents (£1 10,400) shows sufficiently the magnitudeof the league.
Too little is known of the financial methods of the other
Greek states and of the Macedonian kingdoms to allow of any
definite account of their position. In the latter, particularly
in Egypt, the methods of the earlier rulers probably survived.
Their finance, like their social life generally, exhibited a blending
of Hellenic and barbarian elements. The older land-taxes were
probably accompanied by import dues and taxes on property.
In the infancy of the Roman republic its revenues were of
the kind usual in such communities. The public land yielded
receipts which may indifferently be regarded as rents a omMt
or taxes; the citizens contributed their services or
commodities, and dues were raised on certain articles coming
to market. With the progress of the Roman dominion the
financial organization grew in extent. In order to meet the
cost of the early wars a special contribution from property
(Iribuium ex censu) was levied at times of emergency, though it
was in some cases regarded as an advance to be repaid when
the occasion of expense was over. Owing to the great military
successes, and the consequent increase of the other sources of
revenue, it became feasible to suspend the triimhtm in 167 B.c,
and it was not again levied till after the death of Julius Caesar.
From this date the expenses of the Roman state " were un-
disguisedly supported by the taxation of the provinces, w
Neither the state monopolies nor the public land in Italy afforded
any appreciable revenue. The other charges that affected Italy
were the 5% duty on manumissions, and customs dues on sea-
borne imports. But with the acquisition of the important
provinces of Sicily. Spain and Africa, the formation of a tax
FINANCE
149
system bated on the tributes of tfct dspe»o>KiMbecaa»pojtihls\
To a great extent the pre-existing forms of revenue were retained,
bat were gradually systereatiscd. la legal theory the land of
conquered oomawnitiw passed into the ownership of the Roman
state; in practice a revenue was obtained through land taxes
in the form of either tithes (documao) or money payments
(stipend**). To the latter were adjoined capitation- and trade
taxes (the tribuium capitis). For pasture land a special rent
was paid. In some provinces («*. Sicily) payment in produce
was preferred, as affording the supply needed for the free
distribution of -com at Rome.
The great form of indirect taxation consisted in the customs
dues (porteria), which were collected at the provincial boundaries
and varied in amount, though the irmimmn did oot exceed 5%.
Under the same head were included the town dues (or octrois).
Further, the local administration was charged on the district
concerned, and requisitions for the public service were frequently
made on the provincial communities. Supplies of grain, ships
and Umber for military use were often demanded,
The methods of levy may be regarded as an additional tax.
Vexation," as Adam Smith remarks, " though not strictly
speaking expense, is certainly equivalent to the expense at which
every man would be willing to redeem himself from it "; and
the Roman system was extraordinarily vexatious. From an
early date the collection of the taxes had been farmed out to
companies of contractors (societates oectigalis), who became a
by-word for rapacity. Being bound to pay a stated sum to the
public authorities these publican* naturally aimed at extracting
the largest possible amount from the unfortunate provincials,
and, as they b el o n g ed to the Roman capitalist class, they were
able to influence the provincial governors. Undue claims on the
part of the tax collectors were aggravated by the extortion of
the public officials. The defects of the financial organisation
were a serious influence in the complex of causes that brought
about the fall of the Republic.
One of the reasons that induced the subject populations
to accept with pleasure the establishment of the Empire was the
improvement in financial treatment that it secured. The corrupt
snd uneconomical method of farming out the collection of the
revenue was, to a great extent, replaced by collection through
the officials of the imperial household. The earlier Roman
treasury (aerarium) was formally retained for the receipt of
revenue from the senatorial provinces, but the officials were
appointed by the Princeps and became gradually mere municipal
officers. The real centre of finance was the fiscus or imperial
treasury, which was under the exclusive control of the ruler
C res fiscales," says Ulpian, " quasi propriae et privatae principis
sunt "), and was administered by officials of his household.
Under the Republic the Senate had been the financial authority,
with the Censors as finance ministers and the Quaestors as
secretaries of the treasury. Never very precise, this system in
the xst century B.C. fell into extreme decay. By means of his
freedmen the emperor introduced the more rigorous economy
of the Roman household into public finance. The census as a
method of valuation was revived; the important and productive
land taxes were placed on a more definite footing; while, above
all, the substitution of direct collection by state officials for the
letting out by auction of the tax-collection to the companies
of publican* was made general. Thus some of the most valuable
lessons as to the normal evolution of a system of finance are to
be learned in this connexion. Of equal, or even greater moment
is the failure of the administrative reforms of the Empire to
secure lasting improvement, a result due to the absence of
constitutional guarantees. The close relation between finance
and general policy is most impressively illustrated in this failure
of benevolent autocracy.
Viewed broadly, the financial resources of the earlier Empire
were obtained from (i) the public land alike of the state and the
Princeps; (2) the. monopolies, principally of minerals; (3) the
land tax; (4) the customs; (5) the taxes on inheritances, on
sales and on the purchase of slaves (vectigalia). One rjesult
of the establishment of the Principate was the consolidation of
the pubhx: domain. The old " public land " in Italy had nearly
disappeared, but the royal possessions in the conquered provinces
and the private properties of the emperor became ultimately
a part of the property of the Fiscus. Such land was let either
on five-year leases or in perpetuity to coloni. Mines were also
taken over fox public use and worked by slaves or, in later times,
by convict labour. The tendency towards state monopoly.
became more marked in the closing days of the Empire, the 4th
and 5th centuries aj>. Perhaps the most comprehensive of the
fiscal reforms of the Empire was the reconstruction of the land
tax, based on a census or (to use the French term) cadastre* in
which the area, the modes of cultivation and the estimated
productiveness of each holding were stated, the average of ten
preceding years being taken as the standard. After the recon-
struction under Diocletian at the end of the 3rd century jld.,
fifteen yearn (the UuikUo) — though probably used as early as
the time of Hadnan— was recognised as the period for revalua-
tion. With the growing needs of the state this taxation became
mote rigorous and was one of the great grievances of the popula-
tion, especially of the sections that were declining in status and
passing into the condition of villenage The portoria, or customs,
received a better organisation, though the varying rates for
different provinces continued. By degrees the older maximum
of 5% was exceeded, until in the 4th century ia|% was in
some cases levied. Even at this higher rate the facilities for
trade were greater than in medieval or (until the revolution in
transport) modern times. In spite of certain prejudices against
the import of luxuries and the export of gold, there is little
indication of the influence of mercantilist or protectionist ideas.
The nearest approach to excise was the duty of x % on all sales,
a tax that in Gibbon's words " has ever been the occasion of
clamour and discontent-" The higher charge of 4% on the
purchase of slaves, and the still heavier 5% on successions after
death, were likewise established at the beginning of the Empire
and specially applied to the full citizens. Escheats and lapsed
legacies (caduca) were further miscellaneous sources of gain to
the state.
Taken as a whole, the financial system of Imperial Rome
shows a very high elaboration in Jorm~ The patrimonium,
the tribute and the vectigalia are divisions parallel to the domaine,
the contributions directes and the contributions indirectes of
modern French administration; or the English " non-tax "
revenue, inland revenue and "customs and excise," The
careful regulations given in the Codes and the Digest show the
observance of technical conditions as to assessment and account-
ing. -In substance and spirit, however, Romar finance was
essentially backward. Without altogether accepting Merivalc's,
judgment that " their principles of finance were to tie last rude
and un philosophical," it may be granted that Roman states-
men never seriously faced the questions of just distribution and.
maximum productiveness in the tax system. Still less did they
perceive the connexion between these two aspects of finance.
Mechanical uniformity and minute regulation are inadequate
substitutes for observance of the canons of equality, certainty
and economy in the operation of the tax system. Whether
(as has been suggested) an Adam Smith in power could have
saved the Empire is doubtful; but he would certainly have
remodelled its finance. The most glaring fault was plainly
the undue and increasing pressure on the productive classes.
Each century saw heavier burdens imposed on the actual workers
and on their employers, while expenditure was chiefly devoted
to unproductive purposes. The distribution was also unfair at
between the different territorial divisions. The capital and
certain provincial towns were favoured at the expense of the
provinces and the country districts. Again, the cost of collection,,
though less than under the farming-out system, was far too'
great. Some alleviation was indeed obtained by the apportion-
ment of contributions amongst the districts liable, leaving to
the community to decide as it thought best between its members.
The allotment of the land-tax to units (/«{*) of equal value
whatever might be the area, was a contrivance similar in
character.
3S<»
FINANCE
The gradual way in whfeh the several provinces were brought
under the general tax system, and the equally gradual extension
of Roman citizenship, account further for the irregularity and
increased weight of the taxes, as the absence of publicity and
the growth of autocracy explain the sense of oppression and the
hopelessness of resistance so vividly indicated in the literature
of the later Empire. Exemptions at first granted to the
citizens were removed, while the cost of local government which
continually increased was placed on the middle-class of the
towns as represented by the decuriones t or members of the
municipalities.
The fact that no ingenuity of modern research has been able
to construct a real budget of expenditure and receipt for any
part of the long centuries of the Empire is significant as to the
secrecy that surrounded the finances, especially in the later
period For at the beginning of the principate Augustus seems
to have aimed at a complete estimate of the financial situation,
though this may be regarded as due to the influence of the freer
republican traditions which the reverence that soon attached
to the emperor's dignity completely extinguished.
In addition to its value as illustrating the difficulties and
defects that beset the development of a complex financial
organization from the simpler forms of the city and the province,
Roman finance is of special importance in consequence of its
place as supplying a model or rather a guide for the administra-
tion of the states that arose on its ruins. The barbarian invaders,
though they were accustomed to contributions to their chiefs
and to the payment of commodities as tributes or as penalties,
had no acquaintance with the working of a regular system of
taxation. The more astute rulers utilized the machinery that
they inherited from the Roman government. Under the Franks
the land tax and the provincial customs continued as forms of
revenue, while beside them the gifts and court fees of Teutonic
origin took their place. Similar conditions appear in Theodoric's
administration of Italy. The maintenance of Roman forms and
terms is prominent in fiscal administration. But institutions
that have lost their life and animating spirit can hardly be
preserved for any length of time. All over western Europe the
elaborate devices of the census and the stations for the collection
of customs crumbled away; taxation as such disappeared,
through the hostility of the clergy and the exemptions accorded
to powerful subjects. This process of disintegration spread out
over centuries. The efforts made from time to time by vigorous
rulers to enforce the charges that remained legally due, proved
quite ineffectual to restore the older fiscal system. The final
result was a complete transformation of the ingredients of
revenue. The character of the change may be best indicated
as a substitution of private claims for public rights. Thus, the
land-tax disappears in the 7th century and only comes into
notice in the 9th century in the shape of private customary
dues. The customs duties become the tolb and transit charges
levied by local potentates on the diminishing trade of the earlier
middle ages. This revolution is in accordance with— indeed it
is one side of — the movement towards feudalism which was the
great feature of this period. Finance is essentially a part of public
law and administration. It could, therefore, hold no prominent
place in a condition of society which hardly recognized the state,
as distinct from the members of the community, united by feudal
ties. The same conception may be expressed in another way,
viz. by the statement that the kingdoms which succeeded the
Roman Empire were organized on the patrimonial basis (i.e. the
revenues passed into the hands of the king or, rather, his domestic
officials), and thus in fact returned to the condition of pre-
dassical times. Notwithstanding the differing features in the
Beveral countries, retrogression is the common characteristic
of European history from the 5th to the 10th century, and it
was from the ruder state that this decline created that the re-
building of social and political organization had to be accom-
plished. On the financial side the work, as already suggested,
was aided by the ideas and institutions inherited from the Roman
Empire. This influence was common to all the continental states
and indirectly was felt even in England. Each of the great realms
has, however, worked oat its financial system on 8a
to its own particular conditions, which are best considered ia
connexion with the separate national histories.
Running through the different national systems there ate
some common elements the result not of inheritance merely but
still more of necessity, or at the lowest of similarity in environ-
ment. Over and above the details of financial development
there is a thread of connexion which requires treatment under
Finance taken as a whole. As the great aim of this side of public
activity is to secure funds for the maintenance of the state's life
and working, the administration which operates fortius end is the
true nucleus of all national finance. The first sign of revival
from the catastrophe of the invasions is the reorganization of the
Imperial household under Charlemagne with the intention of
establishing a more exact collection of revenue. The later
German empire of Otto and the Frederics; the French Capetias
monarchy and, m a somewhat different sphere, the medieval
Italian and German cities show the same movement. The
treasury is the centre towards which the special receipts of the
ruler or rulers should be brought, and from it the public wants
should be supplied. Feudalism, as the antithesis of this orderly
treatment, had to be overthrown before national finance could
become established. The development can be traced in the
financial history of England, France and the German states;
but the advance in the French financial organization of the 15th
and 16th centuries affords the best illustration. The gradual
unification operates on all the branches of finance, — expenditure,
revenue, debt and methods of control. In respect to the first
head there is a well-marked " integration " of the modes for
meeting the cost of the public services. What were semi-private
duties become public tasks, which, with the growing importance
of " money-economy," have to be defrayed by state payments.
Thus, the creation of the standing army in France by Charles VII.
marks a financial change of the first order The English navy,
though more gradually developed, is an equally good illustration
of the movement. All outlay by the state is brought into due
co-ordination, and it becomes possible for constitutional govern-
ment to supervise and direct it This improvement, due to
English initiative, has been adopted amongst the essential forms
of financial administration on the continent. The immense im-
portance of this view of public expenditure as representing the
consumption of the state in its unified condition is obvious;
it has affected, for the most part unconsciously, the conception of
all modern peoples as to the functions of the state and the right
of the people to direct them.
On the side of receipts a similar unifying process has been
accomplished. The almost universal separation between
" ordinary " and " extraordinary n receipts, taxation being put
under the latter head, has completely ceased. It was, how-
ever, the fundamental division for the early French writers on
finance, and it survives for England as late as Btackstone's Com-
mentaries. The idea that the ruler possessed a normal income
in certain rents and dues of a quasi-private character, which on
emergency he might supplement by calls on the revenues of his
subjects, was a bequest of feudalism which gave way before the
increasing power of the state. In order to meet the unified
public wants, an equally unified public fund was requisite. The
great economic changes which depreciated the value of the
king's domain contributed towards the result. Only by well-
adjusted taxation was it possible to meet the public necessities.
In respect to taxation also there has been a like course of re-
adjustment. Separate charges, assigned for distinct purposes,
have been taken into the national exchequer and come to form
a part of the general revenue. There has been— taking long
periods — a steady absorption of special taxes into more general
categories. The replacement of the four direct taxes by the
income tax in France, as proposed in iooo, is a very recent
example. Equally important is the growth of " direct " taxa-
tion. As tax contributions have taken the places of the revenue
from land and fees, so, it would seem, are the taxes on com-
modities likely to be replaced or at least exceeded by the imposts
levied on income as such, in the shape either of income taxes
FINANCE
35»
rcc of cliai^ on arttrmulated wealth. The recent history
of the several financial systems of the world is decisive on this
point. A dearer perception of the conditions under which the
effective attainment of revenue is possible is another outcome of
financial development Security, and in particular the absence
oi arbitrary -impositions, combined with convenient modes of
collection, have come to be recognised as indispensable auxiliaries
in financial administration which further aims at the selection of
really productive forms of chaise. Unproductiveness is, accord-
ing to modern standard, the cardinal fault of any particular tax.
How great has been the progress in these aspects fa best illustrated
in the case of English finance, but both French and German
fiscal history can supply many instructive ewnplfs,
In a third direction the co-ordination of finance has been just
as remarkable. Financial adjustment implies the conception of
a halancr, and this should be found in the relation of outlay and
income. Under the pressure of war and other emergencies it has
been found impossible to maintain this desirable equilibrium.
But the use of the system of credit, and the general establishment
of constitutional government, have enabled the. difficulty to be
surmounted by the creation on a vast scale of national debts.
Apart from the special problems that this system of borrowing
raises, there is the general one of its aid in making national
finance continuous and orderly. Deficits can be transferred to
the capital account, and the country's resources employed most
usefully by repaying liabilities contracted in times of extreme
need. The growth of this department, parallel with the general
progress of finance, is significant of its function.
Finally, in an countries though With diversities due to national
peculiarities, the modes of account and control have been brought
into a more effective condition. Previous legislative sanction for
both expenditure and receipts in all their particular forms is
absolutely necessary; so is thorough scrutiny of the actual
application of the funds provided. Either by administrative
survey or by judicial examination care is taken to see that there
has been no improper diversion from the designed purposes. It
is only when the varied systems of financial organisation are
studied in their general bearing, and with regard to what may be
called their frame-work, that their essential resemblance is
thoroughly realised. Such a real underlying unity is the reason
and justification for regarding " public finance " as a distinct
subject of study and as an independent division of political
Local Fimnco.—Ont of the most remarkable features of
modern financial development has been the growth of the com*
plementary system of local finance, which in extent and complica-
tion bids to rival that of the central authority. Under the
constraining power of the Roman Empire the older dty states
were reduced to the position of municipalities, and their financial
administration became dependent on the control of the Emperor
— as in abundantly illustrated in the correspondence of PHny and
Trajan. After the fall of the Western Empire, a partial revival
of dty life, particularly in Italy and Germany, gave some scope
for a return to the type of finance presented by the Athenian
state. Florence affords an instructive specimen; but the
passage from feudalism to the national state under the authority
of monarchy made the cities and country districts parts of a
larger whole. It is In this condition of subordination that the
finance of localities has been framed and effectively organised.
Though each great state has adopted its own methods, influenced
by historical drcumsunees and by ideas of policy, there are
general resemblances that furnish material for scientific treat-
ment mad show of important generalizations being made.
I Amongst these the first to be noticed is the essential suboHino-
1 sm of local finance. AHke in expenditure, in forms of receipt,
sad in methods of administration the central government has
the right of directing and supervising the work of municipal and
provincial agencies. The modes employed are various, but they
sO rest on the sovereignty of the state, whether exercised by the
central officials or by the courts. A second characteristic is the
srrdoiainance of the economi c element in the several tasks that
local administrations have to perform, and the consequent
tendency to treat the charges of local finance as payments for
services rendered, or, in the usual phrase, to apply the " benefits "
principle, in contrast to that of " ability," which rightly prevails
in national finance. Over a great part of municipal administra-
tion—particularly that engaged in supplying the needs of the
individual dtisens— the finance may be assimilated to that of the
joint-stock company, with of course the necessary differences,
vis. that the association is compulsory; and that dividends are
paid, not in money, but in social advantage. The great expansion
in recent years of what is known as Municipal Trading has
brought this aspect of Jocal finance into prominence. Water
supply, transport and lighting have become public services,
requiring careful financial management, and still retaining traces
of their earlier private character.
Corresponding to the mainly economic nature of local ex*
penditure there is the further limitation imposed on the side of
revenue. Unlike the state in this, localities are limited in respect
to the amount and form of thtir taxation. Several distinct
influences combine to produce this result. The needs of the
central government lead to its retention of the more profitable
modes of procuring revenue. No modern country can surrender
the chief direct and indirect taxes to the local administrations
Another limiting condition is found in the practical impossibility
of levying by local agencies such imposts as the customs and the
income-tax in their modern forms. The elaborate machinery
that is requisite for covering the national area and securing the
revenue against loss can only be provided by an authority that
can deal with the whole territory. Hence the very general
limitation of local revenues to certain typical forms. Though in
some cases* municipal taxation is imposed on commodities in the
form of octrois or entry duties— as is notably the case in France-
yet the prevailing tendency is towards the levy of direct charges
on immovable property, which cannot escape by removal -outside
the tax jurisdiction. In addition to these " land " and " house "
taxes, the employment of licence duties oh trades, particularly
those that are in special need of supervision, is a favourite
method. Closely akin are the payments demanded for privileges
to industrial undertakings given as " franchises," very often in
connexion with monopolies, e.g. gas-works and tramways.
Over and above the peculiar revenues of local bodies there is the
further resource— which emphasises the subordinate position of
local finance— of obtaining supplemental revenue from the
central treasury, either by taxes additional to the charges of the
state, and collected at the same time; or by donations from its
funds, in the shape of grants for special services, or assignments of
certain parts of the state's receipts. Great Britain, France and
Prussia furnish good examples of these different modes of
preserving local administration from financial collapse.
The broad resemblance between the two parts of the entir*
system of public finance is seen in another direction. To national
debts there has been added a great mass of municipal and local
indebtedness, which seems likely to equal, or even exceed in
magnitude the liabilities of the central governments. But hert
also the essential limitations of the newer form are easily pei-
ceptible. The sovereignty of the state enables it to deal as it
thinks best with the public creditor. In its methods of borrowing,
In its plans for repayment, or, in extremity, in its power of
repudiation it is independent of external control. Local debt on
the other hand can only be contracted under the sanction of the
appropriate administrative organ of the state. The creditor has
the right of claiming the aid of the law against the defaulting
municipality; and the amounts, the terms, and the time of
duration of local debt are supervised in order to prevent injustice
to particular persons or improvidence with regard to the revenue
and property of the local units. The chief reason for contracting
local debt being the establishment of works that are, directly or
indirectly, reproductive, the governing conditions are evidently
to be found in the character and probable yield of those businesses.
The principles of company investments are fully applicable: the
creation of sinking-funds, the fixing the term of each loan to the
time at which the return from its employment ceases, and the
avoidance of the formation of fictitious capital, become guiding
352
FINCH, FINCH-HATTON— FINCH
roles from this part of finance, and indicate the connexion with
what the commercial world calls " financial operations."
Finally, there is the same set of problems in respect to account-
ing and control in local as in central finance. Though the
materials are simpler, the need for a well-prepared budget is
existent in the case of the city, county or department, if there is
to be dear and accurate financial management. Perhaps the
greatest weakness of local finance lies in this direction. The
public opinion that affects the national budget is unfortunately
too often lacking in the most important towns, not excluding
those in which political life is" highly developed.
Bibliography.— The English literature on finance is rather un-
satisfactory; for public finance the available text-books are:
Adams, Science of Finance (New York, 1898); Bastable, Public
Finance (London. 1892; 3rd ed., 1903). Darnels. Public Finance
(New York, 1899), and Pfehn, Public Finance (3rd ed.. New York.
1909). In French, Leroy-Beaulieu. TraiU de la science des finances
(1877 ; 3rd ed., 1908), is the standard work. The German literature
is abundant. Roscher, «h ed. (edited by Geriach). 1901; Wagner
(4 vols.), incomplete; Conn (1889) and Eheberg (9th ed., 1008)
have published works entitled Finanwwissensckaft, dealing with
all the aspects of state finance. For Greek financial history Boekh.
SlaatskauskaUung der Alkenen (ed. Frankel, 1887), is still a standard
work. For Rome, Marquardt, Rdmiscke StaatseeneaUung, vol. ii.,
and Humbert, Les Finances et la comptabiliti Publiqm ekes Us Remains,
are valuable. Clamageran, Histeire de Vmptf en France (1876),
gives the earlier development of French finance. R. H. Patterson,
Science of Finance (London, 1868), C. S. Meade, Trust Finance (1903).
and E. Carroll, Principles and Practice of Finance, deal with finance
in the wider sense of business transactions. (C F. B.)
FINCH, FINCH-HATON. This old English family has had
many notable members, and has contributed in no small degree
to the peerage. Sir Thomas Finch (d. 1 563), who was knighted
for his share in suppressing Sir T. Wyatt's insurrection against
Queen Mary, was a soldier of note, and was the son and heir of
Sir William Finch, who was knighted in 1513. He was the
father of Sir Moyle Finch (d. 16x4), who was created a baronet
in x6u, and whose widow Elizabeth (daughter of Sir Thomas
Heneage) was created a peeress as countess of Maidstone in 1623
and countess of Winchilsea in 1628; and also of Sir Henry
Finch (1558-1625), whose son John, Baron Finch of Fordwich
(1584-1660)1 is separately noticed. Thomas, eldest son of Sir
Moyle, succeeded bis mother as first earl of Win .Msea; and
Sir Heneage, the fourth son (d. 1631), was the speaker of the
House of Commons, whose son Heneage (1621-1682), lord
chancellor, was created earl of Nottingham in 1675. The latter's
second son Heneage (1640-17x9) was created earl of Aylesiord
in 1 7 14. The earldoms of Winchilsea and Nottingham became
united in 1729, when the fifth earl of Winchilsea died, leaving
no son, and the title passed to his cousin the second earl of
Nottingham, the earldom of Nottingham having since then been
held by the earl of Winchilsea. In 1826, on the death of the ninth
earl of Winchilsea and fifth of Nottingham, his cousin George
William Finch-Hatton succeeded to the tides, the additional
surname of Hatton (since held in this line) having been assumed
in 1764 by his father under the will of an aunt, a daughter of
Christopher, Viscount Hatton (1632-1706), whose father was
related to the famous Sir Christopher Hatton.
FINCH OF FORDWICH, JOHN FINCH, Bason (1584-1660),
generally known as Sir John Finch, English judge, a member
of the old family of Finch, was born on the 17 th of September
1584, and was called to the bar in x6xx. He was returned to
parliament for Canterbury in 1614, and became recorder of the
same place in 16x7. Having attracted the notice of Charles I.,
who visited Canterbury in 1625, and was received with an address
by Finch in his capacity as recorder, he was the following year
appointed king's counsel and attorney-general to the queen and
was knighted. In x6s8<he was elected speaker of the House of
Commons, a post which he retained till its dissolution in 1620.
He was the speaker who was held down in his chair by Holies
and others on the occasion of Sir John Eliot's resolution on
tonnage and poundage. In 1634 he was appointed chief justice of
the court of common pleas, and distinguished himself by the active
seal with which he upheld the king's prerogative. Notable
also was the brutality which characterised his conduct as chief
justice, particularly In the cases of Wflttnm Prynne and John
Langton. He presided over the trial of John Hampden, who
resisted the payment of ship-money, and he was chiefly re-
sponsible for the decision of the judges that ship-money was
constitutional. As a reward for his services he was, in 1640,
appointed lord keeper, and was also created Baron Finch of
Fordwich. He had, however, become so unpopular that one of
the first acts of the Long Parliament, which met in the same
year was his impeachment. He took refuge in Holland, but had
to suffer the sequestration of his estates. When he was allowed
to return to England is uncertain, but in 1660 he was erne of the
commissioners for the trial of the regicides, though he does not
appear to have taken much part in the proceedings. He died
on the 27th or November 1660 and was buried in St Martin's
church near Canterbury, his peerage becoming extinct.
See Foss, Lives of the Judges ; Campbell, Lives of the Chief Justices.
FINCH (Ger. Fink, Lat FringiUa), a name applied (but
almost always in composition— as bullfinch, chaffinch, goldfinch,
hawfinch, &e.) to a great many small birds of the order Pasterts,
and now pretty generally accepted as that of a group or family —
the Fringiliidac of most ornithologists. Yet it is one the extent
of which must be regarded as being uncertain. Many writers
have included in it the buntings (Emberixidae), though these
seem to be quite distinct, as well as the larks (Alaudidae), the
tanagers (Tanagridae), and the weaver-birds (Pl*ccida*\.
Others have separated from it the crossbills, under the title of
Loxiidae, but without due cause. The difficulty which at this
time presents itself in regard to the limits of the Fringiilida*
arises from our ignorance of the anatomical features, especially
those of the head, possessed by many exotic forms.
Taken as a whole, the finches, concerning which no reasonable
doubt can exist, are not only Jittlo birds with a hard bill, adapted
in most cases for shelling and eating the various seeds that form
the chief portion of their diet when adult, but they appear to be
mainly forms which predominate in and are highly characteristic
of the Palaearctic Region; moreover, though some are found
elsewhere on the globe, the existence of but very few in the
Notogaean hemisphere can as yet be regarded as certain.
But even with this limitation, the separation of the undoubted
FrimgUliiae l into groups is a difficult task. Were we merely
to consider the superficial character of the form of the bill, the
genus Loxia (in its modern sense) would be easily divided not
only from the other finches, but from all other birds. The birds
of this genus— the crossbills— when their other character* are
taken into account, prove to be intimately allied on the one hand
to the grosbeaks {Pinkota) and on the other through the redpolls
(Aegiothus) to the linnets (Linota) — if indeed these two can be
properly separated. The linnets, through the genus Latcosticte,
lead to the mountain-finches (UoiUifringitta), and the redpolb
through the siskins (CMrysomilris) to the goldfinches (CafnWss) ;
and these last again to the hawfinches, one group of which
(Coccotkraustes) is apparently not far distant from the chaffinches
(Fringilla proper), and the other (Hesperipkona) seems to be
allied to the greenfinches (Ligurinus). Then there is the group
of serins (Serinus), to which the canary belongs, that one is in
doubt whether to refer to the vicinity of the greenfinches or that
of the redpolls. The mountain-finches may be regarded as
pointing first to the rock-sparrows (Petrmia) and then to the
true sparrows (Passer); while the grosbeaks pass into many
varied forms and throw out a very well marked form — Use
bullfinches {Pyrrkula). Some of the modifications of the family
are very gradual, and therefore conclusions founded on them
are likely to be correct; others are further apart, and the links
which connect them, if not altogether missing, can but be
surmised. To avoid as much as possible prejudicing the case,
we shall therefore take the different groups of FringilHdae which
it is convenient to consider in this article in an alphabetical
arrangement.
Of the Bullfinches the best known is the familiar bird (Pyrrhnla
1 About 200 species of these have been described, and perhaps 150
may r "
FINCHLBY— FINCK, HEINRICH
353
The varied pinup of the cock— Ms bright fed
breast and his grey back, set off by his coal-black head and qu ills
—is naturally attractive; while the facility with whkh he
b tamed, with his engaging disposition in confinement, makes
kirn a popular cage-bird,— to say nothing of the fact (which
in the opinion of so many adds to his charms) of his readily
laming to " pipe " a tune, or some bars of one* By gardeners
the bullfinch has long been regarded as a deadly enemy, from its
nmhmfrtH destruction of the buds of fruit-trees in spring-lime,
though whether the destruction is really so much of a detriment
is by no means so undoubted. Northern and eastern Europe
is inhabited by a larger form (P. major), which differs in nothing
bat size and more vivid tints from that which is common in the
British Isles and western Europe. A very distinct species (P.
murine), remarkable foe its dull coloration, is peculiar to the
Azores, and several others are found in Asia from the Himalayas
to Japan. A bullfinch (P. cassini) has been discovered in Alaska,
bang the first recognition of this genus in the New World.
The Canary (Strinus canariut) is indigenous to the islands
whence it takes its name, as well, apparently, as to the neighbour-
ing groups of the Madeiras and Azores, in all of which it abounds.
It seems to have been imported into Europe at least as early
as the first half of the 16th century, 1 and has since become the
commonest of cage-birds. The wild stock is of an olive-green,
mottled with dark brown above, and greenish-yellow beneath.
Ail the bright-hued examples we now see in captivity have been
induced by carefully breeding from any chance varieties that
have shown themselves; and not only the colour, but the build
and stature of the bird have in this manner been greatly modified.
The ingenuity of " the fancy," which might seem to have ex-
hausted itself in the production of topknots, feathered feet,
tad so forth, has brought about a still further change from the
original type. It has been found that by a particular treatment,
in which the mixing of large quantities of vegetable colouring
igcnts with the food plays an important part, the ordinary
"canary yellow " may be intensified so as to verge upon a
awe or less brilliant flame colour. 1
Very nearly resembling the canary, but smaller in size, is the
Sens (Scrtsatr kortulartus), a species which not long since was
wry local in Europe, and chiefly known to inhabit the countries
bordering on the Mediterranean. It has pushed its way towards
the north, and has even been several times taken in England
(YaneU's BriL Birds, ed. 4, "• PP- ni-116). A closely allied
species ($. canonicus) is peculiar to Palestine.
The Cha flinches are regarded as the type-form of PringUlidae.
The handsome and sprightly FringUU codtbs* is common
threngbout the whole of Europe. Conspicuous by his variegated
Postage, his peculiar call note 4 and hit glad song, the cock is
floor* everywhere a favourite. In Algeria the British chaffinch
» replaced by a closely-allied species (P. spodogenia), while in
u« Atlantic Islands it is represented by two others (P. tintiUon
»d f. teydea)— all of which, while possessing the general appear-
uce of the European bird, are clothed in soberer tints.' Another
'The earnest published description teems to be that of Gesaer in
»555 (O*. p. 334), but he had not seen the bird, an account of which
*u communicated to him by Raphael Seller of Augsburg, under the
•MedSiicnmitel*.
'Sec abo Tke Canary Book, by Robert L. Wallace; Canaries and
uirBvSf, by W. A. Blackscoa; and Darwin's Animals and Plants
■j» Dtmtsttcatian, vol. i. p. 395. An excellent monograph on the
*v bird is that by Dr Cart Bolle (Journ.fArOm., 1858, pp. 125-151).
.«■ fanciful trivial name was given by Linnaeus on the sup-
F°»wn (which later observations do not entirely confirm) that in
~*ta the hens of the species migrated southward in autumn,
™*t the cocks to lead a cdtbate life till spring. It is certain,
**"*. that in some localities the sexes live apart during the
•later.
■ 'Pjj*, call-note, which to many ears sounds like "pink" or
JW/* not only gives the bird a name in many parts of Britain,
J? »a«o obviously the origin of the German Fink and the English
j"A The nroilar Celtic form Pine is said to have given rise to the
"* Latin Pindo, and thence come the Italian Pincione, the Spanish
'««. and the French Pinson.
. Jw » especially the case with P. teydea of the Canary Islands,
!"?•"»» Us dark colouring and large sise forms a kind of parallel
•feAioreaaPwrJWo
species of true FrtnpUa is the brambling {P. mantijringitla),
which has its home in the birch forests of northern Europe and
Asia, whence it yearly proceeds, often in flocks of thousands,
to pass the winter in more southern countries. This bird is
still more beautifully coloured than the chaffinch— especially
in summer, when, the brown edges of the feathers being shed, it
presents a rich combination of black, white and orange. Even
in winter, however, its diversified plumage is sufficiently striking.
With the exception of the single species of bullfinch already
noticed as occurring in Alaska, all the above forms of finches
are peculiar to the Palaearctic Region. (A. N.)
FINCHLBY, an urban district in the Hornsey parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, 7 m. N.W. of St Paul's cathedral,
London, on a, branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop.
(1891) 16,647; (toot) 32,is6. A part, adjoining Highgate on
the north, lies at an elevation between 300 and 400 ft,, while a
portion in the Church 'End district lies lower, in the valley of
the Dollis Brook. The pleasant, healthy situation has caused
Finchley to become a populous residential district. Finchley
Common was formerly one of the most notorious resorts of high-
waymen near London; the Great North Road crossed it, and
it was a haunt of Dick Turpin and Jack Sheppard, and was
still dangerous to cross at night at the dose of the 18th century.
Sheppard was captured in this neighbourhood in 1794* The
Common has not been preserved from the builder. In 1660
George Monk, marching on London immediately before the
Restoration, made his camp on the Common, and in 1745 a
regular and volunteer force encamped here, prepared to resist
the Pretender, who was at Derby. The gathering of this force
inspired Hogarth's famous picture, the " March of the Guards
to Finchley."
FINCK. FRIKDRICH AUGUST VON (171&-1766), Prussian
soldier, was born at Streliu in 1 7 18. He first saw active service
in 1734 on the Rhine, as a member of the suite of Duke Anton
Ulrica of Brunswick-WolfenbatteL Soon after this he trans-
ferred to the Austrian service, and thence went to Russia, where
he served until the fall of his patron Marshal Mttnnich put an end
to his prospects of advancement. In 1 74a he went to Berlin, and
Frederick the Great made him his aide-de-camp, with the rank of
major. Good service brought him rapid promotion in the Seven
Years' War. After the battle of Kolin (June z8th, 1757) he was
made colonel, and at the end of 1757 major-general. At the
beginning of 1750 Finck became lieutenant-general, and in this
rank commanded a corps at the disastrous battle of Kunersdorf*
where he did good service both on the field of battle and
(Frederick having in despair handed over to him the command)
in the rallying of the beaten Prussians. Later in the year he
fought in concert with General Wunsch a widespread combat,
called the action of Korbitz (Sept. a xst) in which the Austrians and
the contingents of the minor states of the Empire were sharply
defeated. For this action Frederick gave Finck the Black Eagle
(Seyfarth, BcUagen, ii. 621-630). But the subsequent catastrophe
of Maxen (see Seven Yeass' Wax) abruptly put an end to Finck's
active career. Dangerously exposed, and with inadequat e forces,
Finck received the. king's positive order to march upon Maxen
(a village in the Pirna region of Saxony). Unfortunately for
himself the general dared not disobey his master, and, cut off by
greatly superior numbers, was forced to surrender with some
x 1,000 men (aist Nov. 1750). After the peace, Frederick sent
him before a court-martial, which sentenced him to be cashiered
and to suffer a term of imprisonment in a fortress. At the expiry
of this term Finck entered the Danish service as general of
infantry. He died at Copenhagen in 1766.
He left a work called Cedanken Hber miliUiriuke GegtnsMnd*
(Berlin, 1788). See Denkwirdigkeiten der militdriscken GescUsckafl.
vol. ii. (Berlin, 1802-1805). and the report of the Finck court-martial
in Zeitsckrift fur Kunst, Wissensckaft und Gesckickte des Krieges, pt.
81 (Berlin, 1851). There is a life of Finck in MS. in the library
of the Great General Staff.
FINCK. HEINRICH (d. c. 1510), German musical composer,
was probably born at Bamberg, but nothing is certainly known
either of the place or date of his birth. Between 1403 and 1506
he was a musician in, and later possibly conductor of the court
354
orchestra of successive kings of Poland at Warsaw. He held the
post of conductor at Stuttgart from 1510 till about 1519, in
which year he probably died. His works, mostly part songs and
other vocal compositions, show great musical knowledge, and
amongst the early masters of the German school he holds a high
position. They are found scattered amongst ancient and modern
collections of songs and other musical pieces (see R. Eitner,
Bibl. dcr Musiksammelwerke des 16. und 17. Jahrh., Berlin, 1877).
The library of Zwickau possesses a work containing a collection of
fifty-five songs by Finck, printed about the middle of the i6lh
century.
FINCK, HERMANN (1527-1558), German composer, the
great-nephew of Heinrich Finck, was born on the 21st of March
1527 in Pirna, and died at Wittenberg on the 38th of December
1 558. After 1553 he lived at Wittenberg, where he was organist,
and there, in 155*5, was published his collection of "wedding
songs." Few details of his life have been preserved. His
theoretical writing was good, particularly his observations on the
art of singing and of making ornamentations in song. His most
celebrated work is entitled Practice musica, exempla variorum
signorum, proportionum, et canonum, judicium de tonis ac quaedam
de arte suaviter et ariificiose cantandi continens (Wittenberg,
1556). It is of great historic value, but very rare.
FINDEN, WILLIAM (1787-1852), English line engraver, was
born in 1 787. He served his apprenticeship to one James Mitan,
but appears to have owed far more to the influence of James
Heath, whose works he privately and earnestly studied. His
first employment on his own account was engraving illustrations
for books, and among the most noteworthy of these early plates
were Smirkc's illustrations to Don Quixote. His neat style and
smooth finish made his pictures very attractive and popular, and
although he executed several large plates, his chief work through-
out his life was book illustration. His younger brother, Edward
Finden, worked in conjunction with him, and so much demand
arose for their productions that ultimately a company of
assistants was engaged, and plates were produced in increasing
numbers, their quality as works of art declining as their quantity
rose. The largest plate executed by William Finden was the
portrait of King George IV. seated on a sofa,af ter the painting by
Sir Thomas Lawrence. For this work he received two thousand
guineas, a sum larger than had ever before been paid for an
engraved portrait. Finden's next and happiest works on a large
scale were the " Highlander's Return " and the "Village Festival,"
after Wflkie. Later in life he undertook , in co-operation with his
brother, aided by their numerous staff, the publication as well as
the production of various galleries of engravings. The first of
these, a series of landscape and portrait illustrations to the life
and works of Byron, appeared in 1833 ancl following years, and
was very successful. But by his Gallery of British Art (in fifteen
parts, 1838-1840), the most costly and best of these ventures, he
lost the fruits of all his former success. . Finden's last undertaking
was an engraving on a large scale of Hilton's " Crucifixion." The
plate was bought by the Art Union for£i47o. He died in London
on the 20th of September 1852.
FINDLATER, ANDREW (1 810-1 885), Scottish editor, was
born in 1810 near Aberdour, Aberdeenshire, the son of a small
fanner. By hard study in the evening, after his day's work on
the farm was finished, he qualified himself for entrance at
Aberdeen University, and after graduating as M.A. he attended
the Divinity classes with the idea of entering the ministry. In
1853 he began that connexion with the firm of W. & R. Chambers
which gave direction to his subsequent activity. His first
engagement was the editing of a revised edition of their Informa-
tion for the People ( 1857) . In this capacity he gave evidence of
qualities and acquirements that marked him as a suitable editor
for Chambers's Encyclopaedia, then projected, and his was the
directing mind that gave it its character. Many of the more
important articles were written by him. This work occupied him
till 1868, and he afterwards edited a revised edition (1874). He
also had charge of other publications for the same firm, and wrote
regularly for the Scotsman. In 1864 he was made LL.D. of
Aberdeen University. In 1877 he gave up active work for
FINCK, HERMANN— FINDLAV
Chambers, but his services were retained as consulting editor.
He died in Edinburgh on the 1st of January 1885.
FINDLAY, SIR GEORGE (1820-1893), English railway
manager, was of pure Scottish descent, and was born at Rainhfll,
in Lancashire, on the 18th of May 1829. For some time he
attended Halifax grammar school, but left at the age of fourteen,
and began to learn practical masonry on the Halifax railway,
upon which his father was then employed. Two years later be
obtained a situation on the Trent Valley railway works, and
when that line was finished in 1847 went up to London. There
he was for a short time among the men employed in building
locomotive sheds for the London & North- Western railway at
Camden Town, and years afterwards, when he had become
general manager of that railway, he was able to point out stones
which he had dressed with his own hands. For the next two or
three years he was engaged in a higher capacity as supervisor
of the mining and brickwork of the Harecastle tunnel on the
North Staffordshire line, and of the Walton tunnel on the
Birkenhead, Lancashire & Cheshire Junction railway. In 1850
the charge of the construction of a section of the Shrewsbury
& Hereford line was entrusted to him, and when the line was
opened for traffic T. Brassey, the contractor, having determined
to work it himself, installed him as manager. In the course
of his duties he was brought for the first time into official relations
with the London & North-Western railway, which had under-
taken to work the Newport, Abergavenny & Hereford line,
and he ultimately passed into the service of that company, when
in 1862, jointly with the Great Western, it leased the railway
of which he was manager. In 1864 he was moved to Euston as
general goods manager, in 1872 he became chief traffic manager,
and in 1880 he was appointed full general manager; this last
post he retained until his death, which occurred on the 26th
of March 1893 at Edgware, Middlesex. He was knighted in
1892. Sir George Findlay was the author of a book on the
Working and Management of an English Railway (London, 1889),
which contains a great deal of information, some of it not easily
accessible to the general public, as to English railway practice
about the year 1800.
FINDLAY, JOHN RITCHIE (1824-1898), Scottish newspaper
owner and philanthropist, was born at Arbroath on the 21st of
October 1824, and was educated at Edinburgh University.
He entered first the publishing office and then the editorial
department of the Scotsman, became a partner in the paper
in 1868, and in 1870 inherited the greater part of the property
from his great uncle, John Ritchie, the founder. The large
increase in the influence and circulation of the paper was in
a great measure due to.his activity and direction, and it brought
him a fortune, which he spent during his lifetime in public
benefaction. He presented to the nation the Scottish National
Portrait Gallery, opened in Edinburgh in 1889, and costing
over £70,000; and he contributed largely to the collections of
the Scottish National Gallery. He held numerous offices in
antiquarian, educational and charitable societies, showing his
keen interest in these matters, but he avoided political office
and refused the offer of a baronetcy. The freedom of Edinburgh
was given him in 1896. He died at Aberlour, Banffshire, on the
16th of October 1898.
FINDLAY, a city and the county-seat of Hancock county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on Blanchard's Fork of the Auglaize river, about
42 m. S. by W. of Toledo. Pop. (1890) 18,553; (1900) 17,613
(1051 foreign-born) , (1910) 14,858. It is served by the Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton &
Dayton, the Lake Erie & Western, and the Ohio Central railways,
and by three interurban electric railways. Findlay lies about
780 ft. above sea-level on gently rolling ground. The city is the
scat of Findlay College (co-educational), an institution of the
Church of God, chartered in 1882 and opened in 1886; it has
collegiate, preparatory, normal, commercial and theological
departments, a school of expression, and a conservatory of
music, and in 1007 had 588 students, the majority of whom were
m the conservatory of music. Findlay is the centre of the
Ohio natural gas and oil region, and lime and building stone
FINE-TINE ARTS
555
in the vidnity. Among reanniactures are reined
petroleum, flour And grist-mill products; glass, boilers, bricks,
tile, pottery, bridgevditching machines, carnages and furniture.
The total value of the factory product in 1905 wis $2,925,309, an
increase of 73-6% since 1900. The municipality owns and
operates the water-works. Findlay was laid out as a town in
i8ax, was incorporated as a village in 1838, and Was chartered
as a dty in 1890. The city waa named in honour of Colonel
James Findlay (r. 1779-1835), who built a fort here during the
war of x8xa; he served in this war under General William
Hull, and from 1825 to 1833 waa a Democratic representative
in Congress.
FOB, a word which in all its senses goes back to the Lat
pure, to bring to an end (finis). Thus in the common
adjectival meanings of elegant, thin, subtle, excellent, reduced
in size, Ac, it is in origin equivalent to " finished" In the
various substantival meanings in law, with which this article
deals, the common idea underlying them is an end ox final
SfttlrWnt of a matter.
A fine, in the ordinary sense, is a pecuniary penalty inflicted
for the less serious offences. Fines are necessarily discretionary
as to amount; but a maiimnm is generally fixed when the
penalty is imposed by statute. And it is an old constitutional
maxim that fines must not be unreasonable. la Magna Carta,
c. in, it is ordained " Liber homo non amercietur pro pare*
delicto met secundum modem ipsius delicti, et pre magno delicto
eecundum matnitudinem delicti*"
The term is abo applied to payments made to the lord of a
manor on the alienation of land held according to the custom
of the manor, to payments made by a lessee on a renewal of a
lease, and to other similar payments.
Fine also denotes a fictitious suit at law, which played the
part of a con v ey a nce of landed property. " A fine," says
Blackstone, " may be described to be an amicable composition
or agreement of a suit, either actual or fictitious, by leave of
the king or his justices, whereby the lands in question become
or are acknowledged to be the right of one of the parties. In
its original it was founded on an actual suit commenced at law
for the recovery of the poss es s i o n of land or other hereditaments;
and the possession thus gained by such composition was found
to be so sure and effectual that fictitious actions were and
continue to be every day commenced for the sake of obtaining
the same security/' Freehold estates could thus be transferred
from one person to another without the formal delivery of
possession which was generally necessary to a feoffment. This
is one of the oldest devices of the law. A statute of 18 Edward
I. describes it as the most solemn and satisfactory of securities,
and gives a reason for its name—" Qui quidem finis sic vocatur,
eo quod finis et consummatio omnium placitorum esse debet,
et hac de causa providebatur." The action was supposed to
be founded on a breach of covenant: the defendant, owning
himself in the wrong, 1 makes overtures of compromise, which
are authorized by the Ikenlia coucordandi; then followed the
concord, or the compromise itself. These, then were the essential
parts of the performance, which became efficient as soon as
they. were complete; the formal pacts were the notes, or abstract
of the proceedings, and the foot of the fine, which recited the
final agreement. Fines were said to be of four kinds, according
to the purpose they bad in view, as, for instance, to convey lands
in pursuance of a covenant, to grant revisionary interest only,
frc. In addition to the formal record of the proceedings, various
statutes required other solemnities to be observed, the great
object of which was to give publicity to the transaction. Thus
by statutes of Richard III. and Henry VII. the fine bad to be
openly read and proclaimed in court no less than sixteen times.
A statute of Elizabeth required a list of fines to be exposed in the
court of common pleas and at assizes. The reason for these
formalities was the high and important nature of the conveyance,
which, according to the act of Edward I. above mentioned,
" precludes not only those which are parties and privies to the
* Hence called cormzor; the other party, the purchaser, is the
fine and their heirs, but all other persons in the world who are
of full age, out of prison, of sound memory, and within the four
seas, the day of the fine levied, unless they put in their claim
on the foot of the fine within a year and a day." This barring
by non-claim was abolished in the reign of Edward III., but
restored with an extension of the time to five years in the reign
of Henry VII. The effect of this statute, intentional according 1
to Blackstone, unintended and brought, about by judicial
construction according to others, was that a tenant-in-taty
could bar his issue by a fine. A statute of Henry VIII. expressly
declares this to be the law. Fines, along with the kindred
fiction of recoveries, were abolished by the Fines and Recoveries
Act 1833, which substituted a deed enrolled in the court of
chancery.
Fines are so generally associated in legal phraseology with
recoveries that it may not be inconvenient to describe the
latter in the present place. A recovery was employed as a means
for evading the strict law of entail. The purchaser or alienee
brought an action against the tenant-in-tail, alleging that he had
no legal title to the land. The tenant-in-tail brought a third
person into court, declaring that he had warranted his title,
and praying that he might be ordered to defend the action.
This person was called the vouchee, and he, after having appeared
to defend the action, takes himself out of the way. Judgment
for the lands is given in favour of the plaintiff; and judgment to
recover lands of equal value from the vouchee was given to the
defendant, the tenant-in-tail. In real action, such lands when
recovered would have fallen under the settlement of entail;
but in the fictitious recovery the vouchee was a man of straw,
and nothing was really recovered from bim, while the lands
of the tenant-in-tail were effectually conveyed to the successful
plaintiff. A recovery differed from a fine, as to form, in being
an action carried through to the end, while a fine was settled
by compromise, and as to effect, by barring all reversions and
remainders in estates tail, while a fine barred the issue only of
the tenant. (See also Ejectment; Proclamation.)
FINE ARTS, the name given to a whole group of human
activities, which have for their result what is collectively known
as Fine Art. The arts which constitute the group are the
five greater arts of architecture, sculpture, painting, musk and
poetry, with a number of minor or subsidiary arts, of which
dancing and the drama are among the most ancient and universal.
In antiquity the fine arts were not explicitly named, nor even
distinctly recognized, as a separate class. In other modern
languages besides English they are called by the equivalent
name of the beautiful arts (belle arti, beaux arts, schBne Kilnsk),
The fine or beautiful arts then, it is usually said, are those among
the arts of man which minister, not primarily to his material
necessities or conveniences, but to his love of beauty; and if
any art fulfils both these purposes at once, still as fulfilling the
latter only is it called a fine art. Thus architecture, in so far as
it provides -shelter and accommodation, is one of the useful or
mechanical arts, and one of the fine arts only in so far as its
structures impress or give pleasure by the aspect of strength,
fitness, harmony and proportion of parts, by disposition and
contrast of light and shade, by colour and enrichment, by variety
and relation of contours, surfaces and intervals. But this,
the commonly accepted account of the. matter, does not really
cover the ground. The idea conveyed by the words " love of
beauty," even stretched to its widest, can hardly be made to
include the love of caricature and the grotesque; and these are
admittedly modes of fine art. Even the terrible, the painful,
the squalid, the degraded, in a word every variety of the signifi-
cant, can be so handled and interpreted as to be brought within
the province of fine art. A juster and more inclusive, although
clumsier, account of the matter might put it that the fine arts
are those among the aits of man which spring from bis impulse
to do or make certain things in certain ways for the sake, first,
of a special kind of pleasure, independent of direct utility, which
it gives him so to do or make them, and next for the sake of the
kindred pleasure which he derives from witnessing or contem-
plating them when they are so done or made by others.
356
FINE ARTS
(GENERAL DEFINITION
The nature of this impulse, and. the several grounds of these
pleasures, are subjects which have given rise to a formidable
body of speculation and discussion, the chief phases of which
will be found summarized under the heading Aesthetics.
In the present article we have only to attend to the concrete
processes and results of the artistic activities of man; in other
words, we shall submit (i) a definition of fine art in general,
(2) a definition and classification of the principal fine arts
severally, (3) some observations on their historical development.
L 0/ Fine Art in General.
According to the popular and established distinction between
art and nature, the idea of Art {q,v.) only includes phenomena
of which man is deliberately the cause; while the
idea of Nature includes all phenomena, both in man
and in the world outside him, which take place without
forethought or studied initiative of his own. Art,
accordingly, means every regulated operation or dexterity where-
by we pursue ends which we know beforehand; and it means
nothing but such operations and dexterities. What is true of
art generally is of course also true of the special group of the
fine arts. One of the essential qualities of all art is premedita-
tion; and when Shelley talks of the skylark's profuse strains
of " unpremeditated art," he in effect lays emphasis on the
fact that it is only by a metaphor that he uses the word art in
this case at all; he calls attention to that which (if the songs of
birds are as instinctive as we suppose) precisely makes the
difference between the skylark'soutpourings and his own. We are
slow to allow the title of fine art to natural eloquence, to charm
or dignity of manner, to delicacy and tact in social intercourse,
and other such graces of life and conduct, since, although in any
given case they may have been deliberately cultivated in early
life, or even through ancestral generations, they do not produce
their fuQ effect until they are so ingrained as to have become
unreflecting and spontaneous. When the exigencies of a philo-
sophic scheme lead some writers on aesthetics to include such
acts or traits of beautiful and expressive behaviour among
the deliberate artistic activities of mankind, we feel that an
essential distinction is being sacrificed to the exigencies of a
system. That distinction common parlance very justly observes,
with its opposition of " art " to " nature *' and its phrase of
"second nature " for those graces which have become so habitual
as to seem instinctive, whether originally the result of discipline
Or not. When we see a person in all whose ordinary movements
there are freedom and beauty, we put down the charm of these
with good reason to inherited and inbred aptitudes of which
the person has never thought or long since ceased to think, and
could not still be thinking without spoiling the charm by self-
consciousness; and we call the result a gift of nature. But
when we go on to notice that the same person is beautifully
and appropriately dressed, since we know that it is impossible
to dress without thinking of it, we put down the charm of this
to judicious forethought and calculation and call the result a
work of art.
The processes then of fine art, like those of all arts properly
so called, are premeditated, and the property of every fine art
TtuacttY* * s lo S* ve to tne Person exercising it a special kind of
ma4th0 active pleasure, and a special kind of passive or
receptive pleasure to the person witnessing the results
of such exercise. This latter statement seems to imply
that there exist in human societies a separate class
producing works of fine art and another class enjoying them.
Such an implication, in regard to advanced societies, is near
enough the truth to be theoretically admitted (like the analogous
assumption in political economy that there exist separate
classes of producers and consumers). In developed communities
the gifts and calling of the artist constitute in fact a separate
profession of the creators or purveyors of fine art, while the rest
of the community are its enjoycrs or recipients. In the most
primitive societies, apparently, this cannot have been so, and we
can go back to an original or rudimentary stage of almost every
fine art at which the separation between a class of producers
•tOatiL
or performers and a class of recipients hardly exists. Such as
original or rudimentary stage of the dramatic art is pre se nte d
by children, who will occupy themselves for ever with mimicry
and make-believe for their own satisfaction, with small regard
or none to the presence or absence of witnesses. The original
or rudimentary type of the profession of imitative sculptors or
painters is the cave-dweller of prehistoric ages, who, when he
rested from his day's hunting, first took up the bone handle of
his weapon, and with a flint either carved it into the shape,
or on its surface scratched the outlines, of the animals of the
chase. The original or rudimentary type of the architect, con-
sidered not as a mere builder but as an artist, is the savage
who, when his tribe had taken to live in tents or hots instead
of caves, first arranged the skins and timbers of his tent or hut
in one way because it pleased his eye, rather than in some other
way which was as good for shelter. The original type of the
artificer or adorner of implements, considered in the same light,
was the other savage who first took it into his head to fashion
his club or spear in one way rather than another for the pleasure
of the eye only and not for any practical reason, and to ornament
it with tufts or markings. In none of these cases, it would
seem, can the primitive artist have had much reason for pleas-
ing anybody but himself. Again, the original or rudimentary
type of lyric song and dancing arose when the first reveller
clapped hands and stamped or shouted in time, in honour of his
god, in commemoration of a victory, or in mere obedience to the
blind stirring of a rhythmic impulse within him. To some very
remote and solitary ancestral savage the presence or absence
of witnesses at such a display may in like manner have been
indifferent; but very early in the history of the race the primitive
dancer and singer joined hands and voices with others of his
tribe, while others again sat apart and looked on at the perform-
ance, and the rite thus became both choral and social. A
primitive type of the instrumental musician is the shepherd who
first notched a reed and drew sounds from it while his sheep
were cropping. The father of all artists in dress and personal
adornment was the first wild man who tattooed himself or be-
decked himself with shells and plumes. In both of these latter
instances, it may be taken as certain, the primitive artist had the
motive of pleasing not himself only, but his mate, or the female
whom he desired to be his mate, and in the last instance of all
the further motive of impressing his fellow-tribesmen and striking
awe or envy into his enemies. The tendency of recent specula-
tion and research concerning the origins of art has been to
ascribe the primitive artistic activities of man less and less to
individual and solitary impulse, and more and more to social
impulse and the desire of sharing and communicating pleasure.
(The writer who has gone furthest in developing this view,
and on grounds of the most careful study of evidence, has
been Dr Yrjd Hirn of Helsingfors.) Whatever relative parts the
individual and the social impulses may have in fact played at
the outset, it is clear that what any one can enjoy or admire by
himself, whether in the way of mimicry, of rhythmical movements
or utterances, of imitative or ornamental carving and drawing,
of the disposition and adornment of dwelling-places and utensils
—the same things, it is clear, others are able also to enjoy or
admire with him. And so, with the growth of societies, it came
about that one class of persons separated themselves and became
the ministers or producers of this kind of pleasures, while the rest
became the persons ministered to, the participators in or recipi-
ents of the pleasures. Artists are those members of a society
who are so constituted as to feel more acutely than the rest
certain classes of pleasures which all can feel in their degree.
By this fact of their constitution they are impelled to devote
their active powers to the production of such pleasures, to the
making or doing of some of those things which they enjoy so
keenly when they arc made and done by others. At the same
time the artist does not, by assuming these ministering or
creative functions, surrender his enjoying or receptive functions.
He continues to participate in the pleasures of which he is
himself the cause, and remains a conscious member of his own
public. The architect, sculptor, painter, are able respectively
CENEKAL DEFINITION]
FINE ARTS
357
to stand off from and appreciate the results of their own labours;
the singer enjoys the sound of his own voice, and the musician
of his own instrument; the poet, according to his temperament,
furnishes the most enthusiastic or the most fastidious reader
for his own stanzas. Neither, on the other hand, does the person
who is a habitual recipient from others of the pleasures of fine
art forfeit the privilege of producing them according to his
capabilities, and of becoming, if be has the power, an amateur
or occasional artist.
Most of the common properties which have been recognized
by consent as peculiar to the group of fine arts will be found on
picmbi examination to be implied in, or dedudble from,
ctao0Mft the one fundamental character generally claimed for
*■ them, namely, that they exist independently of direct
Jvfeiuad practical necessity or utility. Let us take, first, a
point relating to the frame of mind of the recipient, as distin-
guished from the producer, of the pleasures of fine art. It is
an observation as old aa Aristotle that such pleasures differ
from most other pleasures of experience in that they are dis-
interested, in the sense that they are not such as nourish a man's
body nor add to his riches; they are not such as can gratify
aim, when he receives them, by the sense of advantage or
superiority over his fellow-creatures; they are not such as one
human being can in any sense receive exclusively from the
object which bestows them. Thus it Is evidently characteristic
of a beautiful building that its beauty cannot be monopolized,
but can be seen and admired by the inhabitants of a whole city
and by all visitors for all generations. The same thing is true
of a picture or a statue, except in so far as an individual possessor
may choose to keep such a possession to himself, in which case
his pride in exdusrveownership is a sentiment wholly independent
of his pleasure in artistic contemplation. Similarly, music is
composed to be sung or played for the enjoyment of many at a
time, and for such enjoyment a hundred years hence as much as
to-day. Poetry is written to be read by all readers for ever
who care for the ideas and feelings of the poet, and can apprehend
the meaning and melody of his language. Hence, though we
can speak of a class of the producers of fine art, we cannot
speak of a dass of its consumers, only of its recipients or
enjoyers. If we consider other pleasures which might seem to be
analogous to those of fine art, but to which common consent
yet declines to allow that character, we shall see that one reason
» that such pleasures are not in their nature thus disinterested.
Thus the sense of smell and taste have pleasures of their own
like the senses of sight and hearing, and pleasures neither less
poignant nor very much less capable of fine graduation and
discrimination than those. Why, then, is the title of fine art not
claimed for any skill in arranging and combining them ? Why
are there no recognized arts of savours and scents corresponding
in rank to the arts of forms, colours and sounds—or at least
none among Western nations, for in Japan, it seems, there Is a
recognized and finely regulated social art of the combination
and succession of perfumes? An answer commonly given is
that sight and hearing are intellectual and therefore higher
senses, that through them we have our avenues to all knowledge
and all ideas of things outside us; while taste and smell are
unintellectual and therefore lower senses, through which few
such impressions find their way to us as help to build up our
knowledge and our ideas. Perhaps a more satisfactory reason
why there are no fine arts of taste and smell— or let us in deference
to Japanese modes leave out smell, and say of taste only— is this,
that savours yield only private pleasures, which it is not possible
to build up into separate and durable schemes such that every
one may have the benefit of them, and such as cannot be mono*
polised or used up. If against this it is contended that what the
programme of a performance is in the musical art, the same is
a menu in the culinary, and that practically it is no less possible
to serve up a thousand times and to a thousand different com-
panies the same dinner than the same symphony, we must fall
back upon that still more fundamental form of the distinction
between the aesthetic and non-aesthetic bodily senses, upon
which the physiological psychologists of the English school lay
stress. We most say that the pleasures of taste cannot be
pleasures of fine art, because their enjoyment is too closely
associated with the most indispensable and the most strictly
personal of utilities, eating and drinking. To pass from these
lower pleasures to the highest ; consider the nature of the delight
derived from the contemplation, by the person who is their
object, of the signs and manifestations of love. That at least
is a beautiful experience; why is the pleasure which It affords
not an artistic pleasure either? Why, in order to receive an
artistic pleasure from human signs and manifestations of this
kind, are we compelled to go to the theatre and see them exhibited
in favour of a third person who is not really their object any
more than ourselves? This is so, for one reason, evidently,
because of the difference between art and nature. Not to art,
but to nature and life, belongs love where it is really felt, with its
attendant train of vivid hopes, fears, passions and contingencies.
To art belongs love displayed where it is not really felt; and In
this sphere, along with reality and spontaneousness of the
display, and along with its momentous bearings, there disappear
all those elements of pleasure in its contemplation which are
not disinterested— the elements of personal exultation and
self-congratulation, the pride of exclusive possession or accept-
ance, all these emotions, in short, which are summed up in the
lover's triumphant monosyllable, " Mine." Thus, from the
lowest point of the scale to the highest, we may observe that
the element of personal advantage or monopoly in human grati-
fications seems to exclude them from the kingdom of fine art.
The pleasures of fine art, so far as concerns their passive or
receptive part, seem to define themselves as pleasures of gratified
contemplation, but of such contemplation only when it is
disinterested— which is simply another way of saying, when it is
unconcerned with ideas of utility.
Modern speculation has tended in some degree to modify and
obscure this old and established view of the pleasures of fine
art by urging that the hearer or spectator is not after
all so free from self-interest as he seems; that in the
act of artistic contemplation he experiences an enhance-
ment or expansion of his being which is in truth a
gain of the egoistic kind; that in witnessing a play, for instance,
a large part of his enjoyment consists in sympathetically identify-
ing himself with the successful lover or the virtuous hero. All
this may be true, but does not really affect the argument, since
at the same time he is well aware that every other spectator
or auditor present may be similarly engaged with himself. At
most the objection only requires us to define a little more
closely, and to say that the satisfactions of the ego excluded
from among the pleasures of fine art are not these ideal, sym-
pathetic, indirect satisfactions, which every one can share
together, but only those which arise from direct, private and
incommunicable advantage to the individual.
Next, let us consider another generally accepted observation
concerning the nature of the fine arts, and one, this time, relating
to the disposition and state of mind of the practising
artist himself. While for success in other arts it is only
necessary to learn their rules and to apply them until
practice gives facility, in the fine arts, it is commonly
and justly said, rules and their application will carry
but a little way towards success. All that can depend
on rules, on knowledge, and on the application of knowledge
by practice, the artist must indeed acquire, and the acquisition
is often very complicated and laborious. But outside of and
beyond such acquisitions he must trust to what is called genius
or imagination, that is, to the spontaneous working together
of an incalculably complex group of faculties, reminiscences,
preferences, emotions, instincts in his constitution. This char-
acteristic of the activities of the artist is a direct consequence
or corollary of the fundamental fact that the art he practices
is independent of utility. A utilitarian end is necessarily a
determinate and prescribed end, and to every end which is
determinate and prescribed there must be one road which is
the best. Skill in any useful art means knowing practically, by
rules and the application of rules, the best road to the particular
practised!
by rub
358
FINE ARTS
1CENERAL DEFINITION
ends of that art Thus the fanner, the engineer, the carpenter,
the builder so far as he is not concerned with the look of his
buildings, the weaver so far as he is not concerned with the
designing of the patterns which he weaves, possesses each bis
peculiar skill, but a skill to which fixed problems are set, and
which, if it indulges in new inventions and combinations at all,
can indulge them only for the sake of an improved solution of
those particular problems. The solution once found, the inven-
tion once made, its rules can be written down, or at any rate
its practice can be imparted to others who will apply it in their
turn. Whereas no man can write down, in a way that others
can act upon, how Beethoven conquered unknown kingdoms
in the world of harmony, or how Rembrandt turned the aspects
of gloom, squalor and affliction into pictures as worthy of con-
templation as those into which the Italians before him had
turned the aspects of spiritual exaltation and shadowless day.
The reason why the operations of the artist thus differ from the
operations of the ordinary craftsman or artificer is that bis ends,
being ends other than useful, are not determinate nor fixed as
theirs are. He has large liberty to choose his own problems, and
may solve each of them in a thousand different ways according
to the prompting of his own ordering or creating instincts.
The musical composer has the largest liberty of all. Having
learned what is lcarnable in his art, having mastered the compli-
cated and laborious rules of musical form, having next deter-
mined the particular class of the work which he is about to
compose, he has then before him the whole inexhaustible world
of appropriate successions and combinations of emotional sound.
He is merely directed and not fettered, in the case of song,
cantata, oratorio or opera, by the sense of the words which he
has to set. The value of the result depends absolutely on his
possessing or failing to possess powers which can neither be
trained in nor communicated to any man. And this double
freedom, alike from practical service and from the representation
of definite objects, is what makes music in a certain sense the
typical fine art, or art of arts. Architecture shares one-half of
this freedom. It has not to copy or represent natural objects;
for this service it calls in sculpture to its aid; but architecture
is without the other half of freedom altogether. The architect
has a sphere of liberty in the disposition of his masses, lines,
colours, alternations of light and shadow, of plain and orna-
mented surface, and the rest; but upon this sphere he can only
enter on condition that he at the same lime fulfils the strict
practical task of supplying the required accommodation, and
obeys the strict mechanical necessities imposed by the laws of
weight, thrust, support, resistance and other properties of
solid matter. The sculptor again, the painter, the poet, has
each in like manner his sphere of necessary facts, rules and
conditions corresponding to the nature of his task. The sculptor
must be intimately versed both in the surface aspects and the
inner mechanism of the human frame alike in rest and motion,
and in the rules and conditions for its representation in solid
form; the painter in a much more extended range of natural
facts and appearances, and the rules and conditions for repre-
senting Ihcm on a plane surface; the poet's art of words has its
own not inconsiderable basis of positive and disciplined acquisi-
tion. So far as rules, precepts, formulas and other communicable
laws or secrets can carry the artist, so far also the spectator
can account for, analyse, and, so to speak, tabulate the effects
of bis art. But the essential character of the artist's operation,
its very bloom and virtue, lies in those parts of it which fall
outside this range of regulation on the one hand and analysis
on the other. His merit varies according to the felicity with
which he is able, in that region, to exercise his free choice and
frame his individual ideal, and according to the tenacity with
which he strives to grasp and realize his choice, or to attain
perfection according to that ideal.
In this connexion the question naturally arises. In what way
do the progress and expansion of mechanical art affect the power
and province of fine art? The great practical movement of
the world in our age is a movement for the development of
mechanical inventions and multiplication of mechanical pro-
ducts. So far as these inventions are applied to purposes purely •
useful, and so far as their products to not profess to offer any-
thing delightful to contemplation, this movement in f^^^
no way concerns our argument. But there is a vast mm4
multitude of products which do profess qualities of mmtMm-
pleasantness, and upon which the ornaments intended *?*"* *
to make them pleasurable are bestowed by machinery; SeSw."
and in speaking of these we are accustomed to the
phrases art-industry, industrial art, art manufactures and the
like. In these cases the industry or ingenuity which directs the
machine is not fine art at all, since the object of the machine
is simply to multiply as easily and as perfectly as possible a
definite and prescribed impress or pattern. This is equally
true whether the machine is a simple one, like the engraver's
press, for producing and multiplying impressions from an
engraved plate, or a highly complex one, like the loom, in which
elaborate patterns of carpet or curtain are set for weaving. In
both cases there exists behind the mechanical industry an
industry which is one of fine art in it s degree. In the case of the
engraver's press, there exists behind the industry of the printer
the art of the engraver, which, if the engraver is also the free
inventor of the design, is then a fine art, or, if he is but the
interpreter of the invention of another, is then in its turn a
semi-mechanical skill applied in aid of the fine art of the first
inventor. In the case of the weaver's loom there is, behind the
mechanical industry which directs the loom at its given task, the
fine art, or what ought to be the fine art, of the designer who has
contrived the pattern. In the case of the engraving, the mechani-
cal industry of printing only exists for the sake of bringing out
and disseminating abroad the fine art employed upon the design.
In the case of the carpet or curtain, the fine art is often only
called in to make the product of the useful or mechanical industry
of the loom acceptable, since the eye of man is so constituted
as to receive pleasure or l be reverse of pleasure from whatever
it rests upon, and it is to the interest of the manufacturer to
have his product so made as to give pleasure if it can. Whether
the machine is thus a humble servant to the artist, or the artist
a kind of humble purveyor to the machine, the fine art in the
result is due to the former alone; and in any case it reaches
the recipient at second-hand, having been put in circulation by
a medium not artistic but mechanical.
Again, with reference not to the application of mechanical
contrivances but to their invention; is not, it may be inquired,
the title of artist due to the inventor of some of the fbjft a -
astonishingly complex and astonishingly efficient «c*faw
machines of modern limes? Does he not spend as *»«*v
much thought, labour, genius as any sculptor or JJ[**^f
musician in perfecting his construction according to "—***
his ideal, and is not the construction when it is done — so finished,
so responsive in all its parts, so almost human— is not that
worthy to be 'called a work of fine art? The answer is that the
inventor has a definite and practical end before him; his ideal
is not free; he deserves all credit as the pcrfector of a particular
instrument for a prescribed function, but an artist, a free follower
of the fine arts, he is not; although we may perhaps have to
concede him a narrow sphere for the play of something like an
artistic Sense when be contrives the proportion, arrangement,
form or finish of the several parts of his machine in one way
rather than another, not because they work better so but simply
because their look pleases him better.
Returning from this digression, let us consider one common
observation more on the nature of the fine arts. They are
activities, it is said, which were put forth not because Fioemrts
they need but because they like. They have the <■**«
activity to spare, and to put it forth in this way pleases ***•»
them. Fine art is to mankind what play is to the ****
individual, a free and arbitrary vent for energy which is not
needed to be spent upon tasks concerned with the conservation,
perpetuation or protection of life. To insist on the superfluous
or optional character of the fine arts, to call them the play or
pastime of the human race as distinguished from its inevitable
and sterner tasks, is obviously only to reiterate our fundamental
GENERAL DEFINITION]
distinction between the fine arts and the useful or necessary.
But the distinction, as expressed in this particular form, has been
interpreted in a great variety of ways and followed out to an
infinity of conclusions, conclusions regarding both the nature
of the activities themselves and the character and value of then-
results.
For. instance, starting from this saying that the aesthetic
activities are a kind of play, the English psychology of association
goes back to the spontaneous cries and movements
jjj**y r of children, in which their superfluous energies find a
wort»dottt ynni ' I* then enumerates pleasures of which the
iray human constitution, is capable apart from direct
advantage or utility. Such are the primitive or
organic pleasures of sight and hearing, and the second-
ary or derivative pleasures of associations unconscious
reminiscence and inference that soon become mixed up with
these. Such are also the pleasures derived from following any
kind of mimicry, or representation of things real or like reality.
The association psychology describes the grouping within the
mind of predilections based upon these pleasures; it shows
how the growing organism learns to govern its play, or direct
its superfluous energies, in obedience to such predilections,
till in mature individuals, and still more in mature societies, a
highly regulated and accomplished group of leisure activities are
habitually employed in supplying to a not less highly cultivated
group of disinterested sensibilities their appropriate artistic
pleasures. It is by Herbert Spencer that this view has been
most fully and systematically worked out.
Again, in the views of an ancient philosopher,. Plato, and a
modern poet, Schiller, the consideration t hat the artistic activities
n n ^ are in the nature of play, and the manifestations in
m which theyresult independent of realities and utilities,
has led to judgments so differing as the following. Plato held
that the daily realities of things in experience are not realities,
indeed, but only far-off shows or reflections of the true realities,
that is, of certain ideal or essential forms which can be appre-
hended as existing by the mind. Holding this, Plato saw in
the works of fine art but the reflections of reflections, the shows
of shows, and depredated them according to their degree of
remoteness from the ideal, typical or sense-transcending exist-
ences. He sets the arts of medicine, agriculture, shoemaking
and the rest above the fine arts, inasmuch as they produce
something serious or useful (ffrov6aT6r n) . Fine art , he says, pro-
duces nothing useful, and makes only semblances (etfuXorouio)),
whereas what mechanical art produces arc utilities, and even in
the ordinary sense realities (abrowwtracfj).
In another age, and thinking according to another system,
Schiller, so far from holding thus cheap the kingdom of play
and show, regarded his sovereignty over that kingdom
as the noblest prerogative of man, Schiller wrote his
famous Letters on Ike Aesthetic Education of Man in
order to throw into popular currency, and at the same time
to modify and follow up in a particular direction, certain meta-
physical doctrines which had lately been launched upon the
schools by Kant. The spirit of man, said Schiller after Kant,
is placed between two worlds, the physical world or world of
sense, and the moral world or world of will. Both of these are
worlds of constraint or necessity. In the sensible world, the
spirit of man submits to constraint from without; in the moral
world, it imposes constraint from within. So far as man yields
to the importunities of sense*, in so far he is bound and passive,
the subject of outward shocks and victim of irrational forces.
So far as he asserts himself by the exercise of will, imposing upon
sense and outward things the dominion of the moral law within
him, in so far he is free and active, the rational lord of nature
and not her slave. Corresponding to these two worlds, he has
within him two conflicting impulses or impulsions of his nature,
the one driving him towards one way of living, the other towards
another. The one, or sense-impulsion (StoJ/rub), Schiller
thinks of as that which enslaves the spirit of man as the victim
of matter, the other or moral impulsion {Formtrieb) as that
which enthrones it as the dictator of form. Between the two
FINE ARTS
359
the conflict at first seems inveterate. The kingdom of brute
nature and sense, the sphere of man's subjection and passivity,
wages war against the kingdom of will and moral law, the sphere
of his activity and control, and every conquest of the one is an
encroachment upon the other. Is there, then, no hope of truce
between the two kingdoms, no ground where the two contending
impulses can be reconciled ? Nay, the answer comes, there is
such a hope; such a neutral territory there exists. Between
the passive kingdom of matter and sense, where man is compelled
blindly to feel and be, and the active kingdom of law and reason,
where be is compelled sternly to will and act, there is a kingdom
where both sense and will may have their way, and where man •
may give the rein to all his powers. But this middle kingdom
does not lie in the sphere of practical life and conduct. It lies
in the sphere of those activities which neither subserve any
necessity of nature nor fulfil any moral duty. Towards activities
of this kind we are driven by a third impulsion of our nature not
less essential to it than the other two, the impulsion, as Schiller
calls it, of Play (Spicllrieb). Relatively to real life and conduct,
play is a kind of harmless show; it is that which we arc free to
do or leave undone as we please, and which lies alike outside the
sphere of needs and duties. In play we may do as we like, and
no mischief will come of it. In this sphere man may put forth
all his powers without risk of conflict, and may invent activities
which will give a complete ideal satisfaction to the contending
faculties of sense and will at once, to the impulses which bid him
feel and enjoy the shocks of physical and outward things, and
the impulse which bids him master such things, control and
regulate them. In play you may impose upon Matter what
Form you choose, and the two will not interfere with one another
or clash. The kingdom of Matter and the kingdom of Form
thus harmonized, thus reconciled by the activities of play and
show, will in other words be the kingdom of the Beautiful.
Follow the impulsion of play, and to the beautiful you will find
your road; the activities you will find yourself putting forth
will be the activities of aesthetic creation — you will have dis-
covered or invented the" fine arts. " Midway " — these are Schiller's
own words— 44 midway between the formidable kingdom of
natural forces and the hallowed kingdom of moral laws, the
impulse of aesthetic creation builds up a third kingdom un»
perceived, the gladsome kingdom of play and show, wherein it
emancipates man from all compulsion alike of physical and of
moral forces." Schiller, the poet and enthusiast, thus making
his own application of the Kantian metaphysics, goes on to set
forth how the fine arts, oc activities of play and show, are for
him the typical, the ideal activities of the race, since in them
alone is it possible for man to put forth his whole, that is his ideal
self. "Only when he plays is man really and truly man.*'
" Man ought only to play with the beautiful, and he ought to
play with the beautiful only." " Education in taste and beauty
has for its object to train up in the utmost attainable harmony
the whole sum of the powers both of sense and spirit." And the
rest of Schiller's argument is addressed to show how the activities
of artistic creation, once invented, react upon other departments
of human life, how the exercise of the play impulse prepares
men for an existence in which the inevitable collision of the two
other impulses shall be softened or averted more and more.
That harmony of the powers which dash so violently in man's
primitive nature, having first been found possible in the sphere
of the fine arts, reflects itsdf, in his judgment, upon the whole
composition of man, and attunes him, as an aesthetic being, into
new capabilities for the conduct of his social existence.
Our reasons for dwelling on this wide and enthusiastic formula
of Schiller's are both its importance in the history of reflection-
it remained, indeed, for nearly a century a formula Tbf
almost classical— and the measure of positive value mtr—g
which it still retains. The notion of a sphere of poimtaot
voluntary activity for the human spirit, in which, JjJJ 1 "'*
under no compulsion of necessity or conscience, we wy '
order matters as we like them apart from any practical end,
seems coextensive with the widest conception of fine art and the
fine arts as they exist in dvilized and devdoped communities.
360
FINE ARTS
[GENERAL DEFINITION
It insists on and brings into the light the free or optional character
of these activities, as distinguished from others to which we are
compelled by necessity or duty, as well as the fact that these
activities, superfluous as they may be from the points of view of
necessity and of duty, spring nevertheless from an imperious
and a saving instinct of our nature. It does justice to the part
which is, or at any rate may be, filled in the world by pleasures
which are apart from profit, and by delights for the enjoyment
of which men cannot quarrel. It claims the dignity they deserve
ior those shows and pastimes in which we have found a way to
make permanent all the transitory delights of life and nature,
to turn even our griefs and yearnings, by their artistic utterance,
into sources of appeasing joy, to make amends to ourselves for
the confusion and imperfection of reality by conceiving and
imaging forth the semblances of things clearer and more complete,
since in contriving them we incorporate with the experiences
we have had the better experiences we have dreamed of and
longed for.
One manifestly weak point of Schiller's theory is that though
it asserts that man ought only to play with the beautiful, and
that he is his best or ideal self only when he does so,
g^totiL vct il < * ocs DOt sufficiently indicate what kinds of
play are beautiful nor why we are moved to adopt
them. It does not show how the delights of the eye and spirit
in contemplating forms, colours and movements, of the ear and
spirit in apprehending musical and verbal sounds, or of the whole
mind at once in following the comprehensive current of images
called up by poetry— it does not clearly show how delights
like these differ from those yielded by other kinds of play or
pastime, which are by common consent excluded from the
sphere of fine art.
The chase, for instance, is a play or pastime which gives scope
for any amount of premeditated skill; it has pleasures, for
*:jmi •/ tno5e wno ta * e pan * n >*» which are in some degree
ptar analogous to the pleasures of the artist; we all know
wbkb the claims made on behalf of the noble art of venerie
Aw "mru (lowing true medieval precedent) by the knights
and woodmen of Sir Walter Scott's romances. It is an
obvious reply to say that though the chase is play to us, who in
civilized communities follow it on no plea of necessity, yet to a
not remote ancestry it was earnest; in primitive societies
hunting does not belong to the class of optional activities at all,
but is among the most pressing of utilitarian needs. But this
reply loses much of its force since we have learnt how many of
the fine arts, however emancipated from direct utility now,
have as a matter of history been evolved out of activities
primarily utilitarian. It would be more to the point to remark
that the pleasures of the sportsman are the only pleasures
arising from the chase; his exertions afford pain to the victim,
and no satisfaction to any class of recipients but himself; or
at least the sympathetic pleasures of the lookers-on at a hunt
or at a battle are hardly to be counted as pleasures of artistic
contemplation. The issue which they witness is a real issue;
the skilled endeavours with which they sympathize are put
forth for a definite practical result, and a result disastrous to one
of the parties concerned.
What then, it may be asked, about athletic games and sports,
which hurt nobody, have no connexion, with the chase, and
give pleasure to thousands of spectators ? Here the difference
is, that the event which excites the spectator's interest and
pleasure at a race or match or athletic contest is not a wholly
unreal or simulated event; it is less real than life, but it is more
real than art. The contest has no momentous practical conse-
quences, but it is a contest, an 60taf, all the same, in which
competitors put forth real strength, and one really wins and
others are defeated. Such a struggle, in which the exertions
are real and the issue uncertain, we follow with an excitement
and a suspense different in kind from the feelings with which
we contemplate a fictitious representation. For example, let
the reader recall the feelings with which he may have watched
a real fencing bout, and compare them with those with which
he watches the simulated fencing bout in Shakespeare's HamUL
Th0pkr
The instance is a crudal one, because in the fictitious case the
excitement is heightened by the introduction of the p oiso ned
foil, and by the tremendous consequences which we axe aware
will turn, in the representation, on the issue. Yet because the
fencing scene in Hamlet is a representation, and not real, we find
ourselves watching it in a mood quite different from that in
which we watch the most ordinary real fencing-match with
vizors and blunt foils; a mood more exalted, if the representa-
tion is good, but amid the aesthetic emotions of which the
fluctuations of strained, if trivial, suspense and the eagerness of
sympathetic participation find no place. " The delight of tragedy,"
says Johnson, "proceeds from our consciousness of fiction;
if we thought murders and treasons real, they would please no
more." So does the peculiar quality of our pleasure in watching
the fencing-match in Hamlet, or the wrestling-match in As You
Like It, depend on our consciousness of fiction: if we thought
the matches real they might please us still, but please us in a
different way. Again, of athletics in general, they are pursuits
to a considerable degree definitely utilitarian, having for their
specific end the training and strengthening of individual human
bodies. Nevertheless, in some systems the title of fine arts
has been consistently claimed, if not for athletics technically
so called, and involving the idea of competition and defeat, at
any rate for gymnastics, regarded simply as a display of the
physical frame of man cultivated by exercise—as, for instance,
it was cultivated by the ancient Greeks— to an ideal perfection
of beauty and strength.
But apart from criticisms like these on the theory of Sdnller,
the Kantian doctrine of a metaphysical opposition betu
the senses and the reason has for most minds of to-day
lost its validity, and with it falls away Schiller's
derivative theory of a Stojftrieb and a Forntrieb
contending like enemies for dominion over the human
spirit, with a neutral or reconciling Spieltrieb standing
between them. Even taking the existence of the
Spieltrieb, or play-impulse, by itself as a plain
dubitable fact in human nature, the theory that this impulse
is the general or universal source of the artistic activities of the
race, which seemed adequate to thinkers so far apart as Schiller
and Herbert Spencer, is found no longer to hold water. The
tendency of recent thought and study on these subjects has been
to abandon the abstract or dialectical method in favour of the
methods of historical and anthropological inquiry. In the
light of these methods it is claimed that the artistic activities
of the race spring in point of fact from no single source but from
a number of different sources. It is admitted that the play-
impulse is one of these, and the allied and overlapping, but not
identical, impulse of mimicry or imitation another. But it is
urged at the same time that these twin impulses, rooted as they
both are among the primordial faculties both of men and ■»*■■■ !«.
are far from existing merely to provide a vent whereby the
superfluous energies of sentient beings may discharge themselves
at pleasure, but are indispensable utilitarian instincts, by which
the young are led to practise and rehearse in sport those activities
the exercise of which in earnest will be necessary to their pre-
servation in the adult state. (The researches of Professor Karl
Groos in this field seem to be conclusive.) A third impulse
innate in man, though scarcely so primordial as the other two,
and one which the animals cannot share with him, is the impulse
of record or commemoration. Man instinctively desires, alike
for safety, use and pleasure, to perpetuate and hand on the
memory of his deeds and experiences whether by words or by
works of his hands contrived for permanence. This impulse
of record is the most stimulating ally of the impulse of mimicry
or imitation, and perhaps a large part of the arts usually pot
down as springing from the love of imitation ought rather to
be pnt down as springing from the commemorative or recording
impulse, using imitation as its necessary means. Granting the
existence in primitive man of these three allied impulses of play,
of mimicry, and of record, it is urged that they are so many
distinct though contiguous sources from which whole groups of
the fine arts have sprung, and that all three in their origjc
and is-
GENERAL DEFINITION)
FINE ARTS
361
served ends primarily or in great part utilitarian. Examining
any of the rudimentary artistic activities of primitive man already
mentioned: the decoration of the person with tattooing* or
strings of shells or teeth or feathers had primarily the object
of attracting or Impressing the opposite sex, or terrifying an
enemy, or indicating the tribal relations of the person so adorned;
some of the same purposes were served by the scratches and
tufts and markings on weapons or utensils; the grajiti or outline
drawings of animals incised by cave-dwellers on bones are
surmised to have sprung in like manner from the desire of con-
veying information, combined, probably, sometimes with that of
obtaining magic power over the things repr esen ted; the erection
of memorial shrines and images of all kinds, from the rudest
upwards, had among other purposes the highly practical one of
propitiating the spirits of the departed; and so on through the
whole range of kindred activities. It is contended, next, that
such activities only take on the character of rudimentary fine
arts at a certain stage of their evolution. Before they can
assume that character, they must come under the influence
and control of yet another rooted and imperious impulse in
mankind, that is the impulse of emotional self-expression,
the instinct which compels us to seek relief under the stimulus
of pent-up feeling; an instinct, it is added, second only in
power to those which drive us to seek food, shelter, protection
Irom enemies, and satisfaction for sexual desires. According
to a law of our constitution, the argument goes on, this need for
emotional self-expression finds itself fully satisfied only by
certain modes of activity; those, namely, which either have
in themselves, or impress on their products, the property of
rhythm, that is, of regular interval and recurrence, flow, order
and proportion. Leaping, shouting, and clapping hands is the
human animal's most primitive way of seeking relief under the
pressure of emotion; so soon as one such animal found out
that he both expressed and relieved his emotions best, and
communicated them best to his fellows, when he moved in regular
rhythm and shouted in regular time and with regular changes
of pitch, he ceased to be a mere excited savage and became a
primitive dancer, singer, musician— in a word, artist. So soon
as another found himself taking pleasure in certain qualities of
regular interval, pattern and arrangement of lines, shapes
and colours, apart from all questions of purpose or utility,
in his lattooings and self-adornments, his decoration of tools
or weapons or structures for shelter or commemoration, he in
tike manner became a primitive artist in ornamental and
imitative design.
The spedal qualities of pleasure felt and communicated by
doing things in one way rather than another, independently
of direct utility, which we indicated at the outset as characteristic
of the whole range of the fine arts, appear on this showing to
be dependent primarily on the response of our organic sensibilities
of nerve and muscle, eye, ear and brain to the stimulus of rhythm
(using the word in its widest sense) imparted either to our own
actions and utterances or to the works of our hands. Such
pleasures would seem to have been first experienced by man
directly, in the endeavour to find relief with limbs and voice
from states of emotional tension, and then incidentally, as a
kind of by-product arising and affording similar relief in the
development of a wide range of utilitarian activities. Into the
nature of those organic sensibilities, and the grounds of the
relief they afford us when gratified, it is the province of physio-
logical and psychological aesthetics to inquire: our business
here is only with the activities directed towards their satisfaction
and the results of those activ ties in the works of fine art. On
the whole the account of the matter yielded by the method of
anthropological research, and here very briefly summarized,
may be accepted as answering more closely to the complex
nature of the facts than any of the accounts hitherto current;
and so we may expand our first tentative suggestion of a defini-
tion into one more complete, which from the nature of the case
cannot be very brief or simple and must run somehow thus:
Fine art U everything which nan does or makes in one way rather
than mother, freely and with premeditation) in order to express
ami maim emotion, in obe die n ce to lam of rhythmic 1
or utterance or regulated design, and with results independent of
direct utility and capable of affording to many permanent and
disinterested delight.
XL Of Ike Fine Arts severally.
Architecture, sculpture, .painting, music and poetry are by
common consent, as has been said at the outset, the five principal
or greater fine arts practised among developed com-
munities of men. It is possible in thought to group fSJSjtL
these five arts in as many different orders as there are /*•
among them different kinds of relation or affinity, gn m f r
One thinker fixes his attention upon one kind of rda* JJ* ****
tions as the most important, and arranges his group ftn'itfU*
accordingly; another upon another; and each, when
he has done so, is very prone to claim for his arrangement the
virtue of being the sole essentially and fundamentally true.'
For ets mple, we may ascertain one kind of relations between
the arts by inquiring which is the simplest or most limited in
its effects, which next simplest, which another degree less
simple, which least simple or most complex of them alL This,
the relation of p ro g re s sive complexity or comprehensiveness
between the fine arts, is the relation.upon which Auguste Comte
fixed his attention, and it yields in his judgment the following
order:— Architecture lowest in complexity, because both of the
kinds of effects which it produces and of the material conditions
and limitations under which it works; sculpture next; painting
third; then music; and poetry highest, as the most complex
or comprehensive art of all, both in its own spedal effects and
in its resources for ideally calling up the effects of all the other
arts as well as ail the phenomena of nature and experiences of
life. A somewhat similar grouping was adopted, though from
the consideration of a wholly different set of relations, by HegeL
Hegel fixed his attention on the varying relations borne by the
idea, or spiritual element, to the embodiment of the idea, or
material element, in each art. Leaving aside that part of his
doctrine which concerns, not the phenomena of the arts them*
selves, but their place in the dialectical world-plan or scheme of
the universe, Hegel said in effect something like this. In certain
ages and among certain races, as in Egypt and Assyria, and
again in the Gothic age of Europe, mankind has only dim ideas
for art to express, ideas insufficiently disengaged and realized,
of which the expression -cannot be complete or lucid, but only
adumbrated and imperfect; the characteristic art of those
ages is a symbolic art, with its material element predominating
over and keeping down its spiritual; and such a symbolic art
is architecture. In other ages, as in the Greek age, the ideas
of men have come to be definite, disengaged, and clear; the
characteristic art of such an age will be one in which the spiritual
and material elements are in equilibrium, and neither predomi-
nates over nor keeps down the other, but a thoroughly realised
idea is expressed in a thoroughly adequate and lucid form;
this is the mode of expression called classic, and the classic art
is sculpture. In other ages, again, and such are the modern
ages of Europe, the idea grows in power and becomes importunate;
the spiritual and material elements are no longer in equilibrium,
but the spiritual element predominates; the characteristic
arts of such an age will be those in which thought, passion,'
sentiment, aspiration, emotion, emerge in freedom, dealing with
material form as masters or declining its shackles altogether;
this is the romantic mode of expression, and the romantic arts
are painting, music and poetry. A later systematize^ Lotze,
fixed his attention on the relative degrees of freedom or independ-
ence which the several arts enjoy— their freedom, that is, from
the necessity of either imitating given facts of nature or minister-
ing, as part of their task, to given practical uses. In his grouping;
instead of the order architecture, sculpture, painting, music,
poetry, music comes first, because it has neither to imitate any
natural facts nor to serve any practical end; architecture next,
because, though it is tied to useful ends and material conditions,
yet it is free from the task of imitation, and pleases the eye in
its degree, by pure form, light and shade, and the rest, as music
l$2
FINE ARTS
(CLASSIFICATION
pleases the ear by pore found; then, as arts all tied to the task
of imitation, sculpture, painting and poetry, taken in progressive
order according to the progressing comprehensiveness of their
several resources.
The thinker on these subjects has, moreover, to consider the
enumeration and classification of the lesser or subordinate fine
arts. Whole dusters or families of these occur to the
mind at once; such as dancing, an art subordinate
to music, but quite different in kind; acting, an art
auxiliary to poetry, from which in kind it differs no
less; eloquence in all kinds, so far as it is studied and
not merely spontaneous; and among the arts which fashion or
dispose material objects, embroidery and the weaving of patterns,
pottery* glassmaking, goldsmith's work and jewelry, joiner's work,
gardening (according to the claim of some), and a score of other
dexterities and industries which are more than mere dexterities
and industries because they add elements of beauty and pleasure
to elements of servkeablcness and use. To decide whether any
given one of these has a right to the title of fine art, and, if so,
to which of the greater fine arts it should be thought of as
appended and subordinate, or between which two of them
intermediate, is often no easy task.
The weak point of all classifications of the kind of which
we have above given examples is that each is intended to be
final, and to serve instead of any other. The truth
is, that the relations between the several fine arts are
much too complex for any single classification to bear
this character. Every classification of the fine arts
must necessarily be provisional, according to the
particular class of relations which it keeps in view. And for
practical purposes it is requisite to bear in mind not one classifica-
tion but several. Fixing qui attention, not upon complicated
or problematical relations between the various arts, but only
upon their simple and undisputed relations, and giving the first
place in our consideration to the five greater arts of architecture,
sculpture, painting, music and poetry, we shall find at least
three principal modes in which every fine art either resembles
or differs from the rest.
t. The Shaping and the Speaking A rlslor Arts of Form and Arts of
Utterance, or Arts of Space and Arts of Tim*).— Each of the greater
_. arts cither makes something or not which can be seen and
handled. The arts which make something which can be
'^Hz Zz seen and handled arc architecture, sculpture and painting.
"Tri!** In the products or results of all these arts external matter
TfTjftf is in some way or another manually put together, fashioned
?L. tfttr or disposed. But music and poetry do not produce any
itlu^ results of this kind. What music produces is something
that can be heard, and what poetry produces is something
that can be either heard or read — which last is a kind of ideal hearing,
having for its avenue the eye instead of the ear, and for its material,
written signs for words instead of the spoken words themselves.
Now what the eye sees from any one point of view, it sees all at once ;
in other words, the parts o( anything we see fill or occupy not time
but space, and reach us from various points in space at a single
simultaneous perception. If we are at the proper distance we see
at one glance a house from the ground to the chimneys, a statue from
bead to foot, and in a picture at once the foreground and background,
and everything that is within the four corners of the frame. There
is. indeed, this distinction to be drawn, that in walking round or
through a temple, church, house or any other building, new parts
and proportions of the building unfold themselves to view; and the
same thing happens in walking round a statue or turning it on a turn-
tablet so that the spectator, by his own motions and the time it
takes to effect them, can impart to architecture and sculpture
something of the character of time arts. But their products, as
contemplated from any one point of view, are in themselves soKd,
stationary and permanent in space. Whereas the parts of anything
we hear, or, reading, can imagine that we hear, nil or occupy not
space at all but time, and can only reach us from various points in
time through a continuous series of perceptions, or, in the case of
reading, of images raised by words in the mind. We have to wait,
in music,, while one note follows another in a theme, and one theme
another in a movement; and in poetry, while one line with its
images follows another in a stanza, and one stanza another in a
canto, and so on. It is a convenient form of expressing both aspects
of this difference between the two groups of arts, to say that archi-
tecture, sculpture and painting are arts which give shape to things
in space, or, more briefly, shaping arts; and music and poetry arts
which give utterance to things in time, or, more briefly, speaking
arts. These simple terms of the shaping and the speaking arts (the
equivalent of the Ger. bildende und redende KunsU) are not usual
in English; but they seem appropriate and dear: the simplest
alternatives for their use is to speak of the manual and the vocal
arts, or the arts of space and the arts of time. This u practically,
if not logically, the most substantial and vital distinction upon which
a classification of the fine arts can be based. The arts which surround
us in space with stationary effects for the eye. as the house we live
in. the pictures on the walls, the marble figure in the vestibule, are
stationary, hold a different kind of place in our experience — not a
greater or a higher place, but essentially a different place— from the
arts which provide us with transitory effects in time, effects capable
of being awakened for the ear or mind at any moment, as a symphony
is awakened by playing and an ode by reading, but lying in abeyance
until we bid that moment come, and passing away when the perform-
ance or the reading is over. Such, indeed, is the practical force of the
distinction that in modern usage the expression fine art, or even art.
is often used by itself in a sense which tacitly excludes music and
poetry, and signifies the group of manual or shaping arts alone.
As between three of the five greater arts and the other two. the
distinction on which we are now dwelling is complete. Buildings,
statues, pictures, belong strictly to sight and space; to
time and to hearing, realthrough the ear, or ideal through
the mind in reading, belong music and poetry. Among
the lesser or subordinate arts, however, there are several
in which this distinction finds no place, and which produce,
in space and time at once, effects midway between the
stationary or stable, and the transitory or fleeting. Such is the
dramatic an, in which the actor makes with his actions and gesture*,
or several actors make with the combination of their different
actions and gestures, a kind of shifting picture, which appeals to the
eyes of the witnesses while the sung or spoken words of the drama
appeal to their ears; thus making of them spectators and auditors
at once, and associating with the pure time art of words the mixed
time-and-space art of bodily movements. As all movement whatso-
ever is necessarily movement through space, and takes time to
happen, so every other fine art which is wholly or in part an act of
movement partakes in like manner of this double character. Along
with acting thus comes dancing. Dancing, when it is of the mimic
character, may itself be a kind of acting; historically, indeed, the
dancer's art was the parent of the actor's; whether apart from or in
conjunction with the mimic element, dancing is an art in which
bodily movements obey, accompany, and, as it were, express or
accentuate in space the time effects of music. Eloquence or oratory
in like manner, so far as its power depends on studied and pre-
meditated gesture, fa abo an art which to some extent enforces its
primary appeal through the ear in time by a secondary appeal
through the eye in space. So much for the first distinction, that
between the shaping or space arts and the speaking or time arts,
with the intermediate and subordinate class of arts which, like
acting, dancing, oratory, add to the pure time dement a mixed
time-and-opace element. These last can hardly be called shaping
arts, because it is his own person, and not anything outside himself,
which the actor, the dancer, the orator disposes or adjusts; they
may perhaps best be called arts of motion, or moving arts.
a. The Imitative and the Non-Imitative Arte.— Each art either does
or does not represent or imitate something which exists already in
nature. Of the five greater fine arts, those which thus e^^
represent objects existing in nature arc sculpture, painting zT-ZZ--
and poetry. Those which do not represent anything so !T™* , "£"
existing are musio and architecture. On this principle we "**"**
get a new grouping. Two shaping or space arts and one
speaking or time art now form the imitative group of
sculpture, painting and poetry; while one space art and artfc
one time art form the non-imitative group of music and
architecture. The mixed spaee-and-tune arts of the actor, and of the
dancer, so far as he or she is also a mimic, belong, of course, by their
very name and nature, to the imitative class.
It was the imitative character of the fine arts which chiefly
occupied the attention of Aristotle. But in order to understand the
art theories of Aristotle it is necessary to bear in mind —
the very different meanings which the idea of imitation
bore to his mind and bears to ours. For Aristotle the
idea of imitation or representation (mimlsis) was extended
so as to denote the expressing, evoking or making manifest
of anything whatever, whether material objects or ideas
or feelings. Music and dancing, by which utterance or
expression is given to emotions that may bequite detached
from all definite ideas or images, are thus for him varieties of imita-
tion. He says, indeed, most music and dancing, as if he was aware
that there were exceptions, but he does not indicate what the ex-
ceptions are; and under the head of imitative music, he distinctly
reckons some kinds of instrumental music without words. But in
our own more restricted usage, to imitate means to copy, mimic or
represent some existing phenomenon, some definite reality of
experience; and we can only call those imitative arts which bring
before us such 'things, either directly by showing us their actual
likeness, as sculpture does in solid form, and as painting does by
means of lines and colours on a plane surface, or else indirectly, by
calling up ideas or images of them in the mind, as poetry and litera-
ture do by means of words. It is by a stretch of ordinary usage
CLASSIFICATION)
that w* apply the word imitation even to this fast way of representing
things; since words are no true likeness of, but only customary signs
for. the thing they represent. And those arts we cannot call
imitative at all, which by combinations of abstract sound or form
express and arouse emotions unattended by the recognizable likeness,
idea or image of any definite thing.
Now the emotions of musk when music goes along with words,
whether in the shape of actual song or even of the instrumental
accompaniment of song, are no doubt in a certain sense
attended with definite ideas; those, namely, which are
expressed by the words themselves. But the same ideas
would be conveyed to the mind equally well by the same
words if they were simply spoken. What the music
contributes is a special element ot its own, an element of pure
emotion, aroused through the sense of hearing, which heightens the
effect of the words upon the feelings without helping to elucidate
them for the understanding. Nay, it is well known that a song well
sung produces its intended effect upon the feelings almost as fully
though we fail to catch the words or are ignorant of the language
to which they belong. Thus the view of Aristotle cannot be defended
on the ground that he was familiar with music only in an elementary
form, and principally as the direct accompaniment of words, and
that in his day the modern development of the art, as an art for
building up constructions of independent sound, vast and intricate
fabrics of melody and harmony detached from words, was a thing
not yet imagined. That is perfectly true; the immense technical
and intellectual development of music, both in its resources and its
capacities, is an achievement of the modern world; but the essential
character of musical sound is the same in its most elementary as in
its most complicated stage. Its privilege is to give delight, not by
communicating definite ideas, or calling up particular images, but
by appealing to certain organic sensibilities in our nerves of hearing,
and through such appeal expressing on the one part and arousing
on the other a unique kind of emotion. The emotion caused by
music may be altogether independent of any ideas conveyablc by
words. Or it may serve to intensify and enforce other emotions
arising at the same time in connexion with the ideas conveyed by
words; and h was one of the contentions of Richard Wagner that
in the former phase the art is now exhausted, and that only in the
latter are new conquests in store for it. But in either case the music
b the music, and is like nothing else; it is no representation or
similitude of anything whatsoever.
But does not instrumental music, it will be said, sometimes really
imitate the sounds of nature, as the piping of birds, the whispering
JtAlMi , of woods, the moaning of storms or explosion of thunder;
JffJJJJ* ct does it not, at any rate, suggest these things by resem-
J""V blaaces so close that they almost amount fit the strict
ma aaawm g^gg to imitation? Occasionally, it is true, music does
allow itself these playful excursions into a region of quasi-imitation
or mimicry. It modifies the character of its abstract sounds into
something, so to speak, more concrete, and, instead of sensations
which are like nothing else, affords us sensations wluch recognizably
resemble those we receive from some of the sounds of nature. But
such excursions are hazardous, and to make them often is the surest
proof of vulgarity in a musician. Neither are the successful effects
of the great composers in evoking ideas of particular natural pheno-
mena generally in the nature of real imitations or representations;
although passages such as the notes of the dove and nightingale in
Haydn s Creation, and of the cuckoo in Beethoven's Pastoral Sym-
phony, the bleating, of the sheep in the Don Quixote symphony of
Richard Strauss, must be acknowledged to be exceptions. Again,
ft is a recognized fact concerning the effect of instrumental music
on those of its hearers who try to translate such effect into words,
that they will all find themselves in tolerable agreement as to the
meaning of any passage so long as they only attempt to describe
it in terms of vague emotion, and to say such and such a pas
expresses, as the case may be, dejection or triumph, effort or the
relaxation of effort, eagerness or languor, suspense or fruition,
anguish or glee. But their agreement comes to an end tbe moment
they begin to associate, in their interpretation, definite ideas with
these vague emotions; then we find that what suggests in idea to
one hearer the vicissitudes of war wiH suggest to another, or to the
same at another time, the vicissitudes oflove, to another those of
spiritual yearning and aspiration, to another, it may be, those of
changeful travel by forest, field and ocean, to another those of
life's practical struggle and ambition. The infinite variety of ideas
which may thus be called up in different minds by the same strain
of music is proof enough that the music is not hke any particular
thing. The torrent of varied and entrancing emotion which it pours
along the heart, emotion latent and undivined until the spell of
sound begins, that is music's achievement and its secret. It is this
effect, whether coupled or not with a trained intellectual recognition
of the highly abstract and elaborate nature of the lawsof the relation,
succession and combinations of sounds on which the effect depends,
that has caused some thinkers, with Schopenhauer at their head, to
find in music the nearest approach we have to a voice from behind
the veil, a universal voice expressing the central purpose and
deepest essence of things, unconfused by fleeting actualities or by the
FINEf ARTS
363
distracting duty of calling up images of particular and perishable
phenomena. " Music," in Schopenhauer's own words, " reveals the
of particular and perishable
innermost essential being of the world, and expresses the highest
wisdom in a language the reason docs not understand."
Aristotle endeavoured to frame a classification of the arts', in their
several applications and developments, on two grounds — the nature
of the objects imitated by each, and the means or instru-
ments employed in the imitation. But in the case of
music, as it exists in the modern world, the first part of
this endeavour falls to the ground, because the object imitated has,
in the sense in which we now use the word imitation, no existence.'
The means employed by music are successions and combinations of
vocal or instrumental sounds regulated according to the three
conditions of time and pitch (which together make up melody) and
harmony, or the relations of different strains of time and tone co-.
operant but not parallel. With these means, music either creates
her independent constructions, or else accompanies, adorns, enforces
the imitative art of speech— but herself imitates not; and may be
best defined simply as a speaking or time art* of which the business is to
express and arouse emotion by successions and combinations of regulated
sound.
That which music is thus among the speaking or time-arts,
architecture is among the shaping or space-arts. As music appeals
to our faculties for taking pleasure in non-imitative --
combinations of transitory sound, so architecture appeals
to our faculties (or taking pleasure in non-imitative
combinations of stationary mass. Corresponding to the
system of car-effects or combinations of time, tone and
harmony with which music works, architecture works
with a system of eye-effects or combinations of mass, contour, light
and shade, colour, proportion, interval, alternation of plain and
decorated parts, regularity and variety in regularity, apparent
stability, vastness, appropriateness and the rest. Only the m a teri a l s
of architecture arc not volatile and intangible like sound, but solid
timber, brick, stone, metal and mortar, and the laws of weight and
force according to which these materials have to be combined are
much more severe and cramping than the laws of melody and harmony
which regulate the combinations of music The architect is further
subject, unlike the musician, to the dictates and precise prescriptions
of utility. Even in structures raised for purposes not of everyday
use and necessity, but of commemoration or worship, the rules for
such commemoration and such worship have prescribed a more or
less fixed arrangement and proportion of the parts or members,
whether in the Egyptian temple or temple-tomb, the Greek temple
or hereon, or in the churches of the middle ages and Renaissance in
the West.
Hence the effects of architecture are necessarily less full of various,
rapturous and unforeseen enchantment than the effects of music*
Yet for those who possess sensibility to the pleasures of the ,4-«Jb*fc*
eve and the perfections of shaping art, the architecture J£J3j-
01 the great ages has yielded combinations which, so far ttrtnnteo*
as comparison is permissible between things unlike in their r1rm t v ,
materials, fall little short of the achievements of music
in those kinds of excellence which are common to them both. In
the virtues of lucidity, of just proportion and organic interdependence
of the several parts or members, in the mathematic subtlety of their
rautualrclations, and of the transitions from one part or member to
another, in purity and finish of individual forms, in the character
of one thing growing naturally out of another and everything serving
to complete the whole — in these qualities, no musical combination
can well surpass a typical Doric temple such as the Parthenon at
Athens. None, again, can well surpass some of the great cathedrals
of the middle ages in the qualities 01 sublimity, of complexity, In the
power both of expressing and suggesting spiritual aspiration, in the
invention of intricate developments and ramifications about a central
plan, in the union of majesty in the main conception with fertility
of adornment In detail. In fancifulness, in the unexpected, in
capricious and far-sought opulence, in filling the mind with mingled
enchantments of east and west and south and north, music can
hardly do more than a building like St Mark's at Venice does with
its blending of Byzantine elements, Italian elements, Gothic dements,
each carried to the utmost pitch of elaboration and each enriched
with a hundred caprices of ornament, but all working together all in
obedience to a law, and " all beginning and ending with the Cross.
In the case of architecture, however, as in the case of music, the
non-imitative character must not be stated quite without exception
or reserve. There have been styles of architecture in
which forms suggesting or imitating natural or other
phenomena have held a place among the abstract forms
proper to the art. Often the mode of such suggestions
is rather symbolical to the mind than really imitative to
the eye ; as when the number and relations of the heavenly
planetswcre imaged by that race of astronomers, the Baby- ^
lonians, in the seven concentric walls of their great temple, taet
and in many other architectural constructions; or as when
the shape of the cross was adopted, with innumerable slight varieties
and modifications. Tor the ground plan of the churches of Christen*
dom. Passing to examples of imitation more properly so called,
it may be true, and was, at any rate, long believed, that the aisles
of Gothic churches, when once the use of the pointed arch had been
evolved as a principle of construction, were partly designed to evoke
the idea of the natural aisles of the forest, and that the upsoaring
3^4
FINE ARTS
{CLASSIFICATION
forest trunks and meeting branches were more or leas consciously
imaged in their piers and vaultings. In the temple- palace* of
MTOMliBOf i
When we come to the fashion, not rare in Greek architecture, of
carving this same sustaining member, the column, in complete human
likeness, and employing caryatids, canephori, atlases or the like,
to support the entablature of a building, it then becomes difficult
to say whether we have to do with a work of architecture or of
sculpture. The case, at any rate, is different from that in which
the sculptor is called in to supply surface decoration to the various
members of a building, or to nil with the products of his own art
spaces in the building specially contrived and left vacant for that
purpose. When the mutative feature is in itself an indispensable
nftmber of the architectural construction, to architecture rather
than sculpture we shall probably do best to assign it.
Defining architecture, then (apart from its utility, which for the
present we leave out of consideration), as a shaping art, of which the
function is to express and arouse emotion by combinations
of ordered and decorated mass, we pass from the character-
istics of the non-imitative to those of the imitative group
of arts, namely sculpture, painting and poetry.
If we keep in mind the source and origin of these arts, we must
remember what has already been observed, that they spring by no
means from man's love of imitation alone, but from his
w desire to record and commemorate experience, using the
ttvaru faculty of imitation as his means. Mnemosyne (Memory)
was in Greek tradition the mother of the Muses ; imitation,
in the sense above defined, is but their instrument. Hence
we might think " arts of record " a better name for this
group than arts of imitation. The answer is — but a large
part of pure architecture is also commemorative; from
the pyramids and obelisks of Egypt down there are many
monuments in which the impulse of men to perpetuate their own or
others' memories has worked without any aid of imitation. Hence
as the definition of a class of arts contrasted with architecture and
music the name " arts of record " would fail; and we have to fall
back on the current and established name of the " imitative arts."
In considering them we cannot do better than follow that Aristotelian
division which describes each art according, first, to the objects
which it imitates, and, secondly, to the means it employs.
Taking sculpture first, as imitating a smaller range of objects than
the other two, and imitating them more completely : sculpture may
ht have for the objects of its imitation the shapes of whatever
*™*JtT things possess length, breadth and magnitude. For its
JJJ™ "JT means or instruments it has solid form, which the sculptor
tmnmmu either carves out of a hard substance, as in the case of
wood and stone, or models in a yielding substance, as in the case of
day and wax, or casts in a dissolved or molten substance, as in the
case of plaster and of metal in certain uses, or beats, draws or chases
in a malleable and ductile substance, as in the case of metal in other
uses, or stamps from dies or moulds, a method sometimes used in
All soft or fusible materials. Thus a statue or statuette may either
be carved straight out of a block of stone or wood, or first modelled
in clay or wax, then moulded in plaster or some equivalent material,
and then carved in stone or cast in bronze. A gem is wrought in
atone by cutting and grinding. Figures in jeweller's work are
wrought by beating and chasing; a medallion by beating and
chasing or else by stamping from a die; a coin by stamping from a
die; and so forth. The process of modelling (Gr. *A4rr*u>) in a soft
substance being regarded as the typical process of the sculptor, the
name plastic art has been given to his operations in general.
In general terms, the task of sculpture is to imitate solid form with
solid form. But sculptured form may be either completely or in-
completely solid. Sculpture in completely solid form
exactly reproduces, whether on the original or on a different
scale, the relations or proportions of the object imitated
In the three dimensions of length, breadth and depth or
nfttf thickness. Sculpture in incompletely solid form re-
produces the proportions of the objects with exactness
only so far as concerns two of its dimensions, namely, those of
length and breadth; while the third dimension, that of depth
or thickness, it reproduces in a diminished proportion, leaving it
to the eye to infer, from the partial degree of projection given to
the work, the full projection of the object imitated. The former, or
completely solid kind of sculpture, is called sculpture in the round;
its works stand free, and can be walked round and seen from all
points. The latter, or incompletely solid kind of sculpture, is called
sculpture in relief; its works do not stand free, but are engaged in or
attached to a background, and can only be seen from in front.
According, in the latter kind of sculpture, to its degree of projection
from the Background, a work is said to be in high or in low relief.
Sculpture in the round and sculpture in relief are alike in this, that
the properties of objects which they imitate are their external forms
as defined by their outlines — that is, by the boundaries and circum-
scriptions of their masses— and their light and shade— the lights and
shadows, that is, which diversify the curved surfaces of the masses
In consequence of their alternations and gradations of projection and
But the two kinds of sculpture differ in this. A work
of sculpture in the round imitates the whole of the outlines by
which the object imitated is circumscribed in the three dimensions
of space, and presents to the eye, as the object itself would do,
a new outline succeeding the last every moment as you walk round it.
Whereas a work of sculpture in relief imitates only one outline of
any object ; it takes, so to speak, a section of the object as seen
from a particular point, and traces on the background the boundary-
line of that particular section, merely suggesting, by modelling the
surface within such boundary according to a regular, but a dimin-
ished, ratio of projection, the other outlines which the object would
present if seen from all sides successively.
As sculpture in the round reproduces the real relations of a solid
object in space, it follows that the only kind of object "which it can
reproduce with pleasurable effect according to the laws rtLJki ^ fJ
of regulated or rhythmical design must be one not too *T^" T ^
vast or complicated, one that can afford to be detached ^^*t^
and isolated from its surroundings, and of which all the . S^
parts can easily be perceived and apprehended in their f9mm ^ m
organic relations. Further, it will need to be an object
interesting enough to mankind in general to make them take
delight in seeing it reproduced with all its parts in complete
imitation. And again, it must be such that some considerable
part of the interest lies in those particular properties of outline,
play of surface, and light and shade which it is the special function
of sculpture to reproduce. Thus a sculptured representation in
the round, say, of a mountain with cities on it, would hardly be a
sculpture at all, it could only be a model, and as a model might
have value; but value as a work of fine art it could not have, because
the object imitated would lack organic definiteness and complete-
ness; it would lack universality of interest, and of the interest
which it did possess, a very inconsiderable part would depend upon
its properties of outline, surface, and light and shade. Obviously
there is no kind of object in the world that so well unites the required
conditions for pleasurable imitation in sculpture as the human Dody.
It is at once the most complete of organisms, and the shape of all
others the most subtle as well as the most intelligible in its outlines;
the most habitually detached in active or stationary freedom;
the most interesting to mankind, because its own; the richest in
those particular effects, contours and , modulations, contrasts,
harmonies and transitions of modelled surface and circumscribing
line, which it is the prerogative of sculpture to imitate. Accordingly
the object of imitation for this art is pre-eminently the body of man
or woman. That it has not been for the sake of representing men and
women as such, but for the sake of representing gods in the likeness
of men and women, that the human form has been most enthusiastic-
ally studied, does not affect this fact in the theory of the art, though
it is a consideration of great importance in its history. Besides the
human form, sculpture may imitate the forms of those of the lower
animals whose physical endowments have something of a kindred
perfection, with other natural or artificial objects as may be needed
merely by way of accessory or symbol, The body must for the
purposes of this art be divested of covering, or covered only with
such tissues as reveal, translate or play about without concealing
it. Chiefly in lands and ages where climate and social use have
given the sculptor the opportunity of studying human forms so
draped or undraped has this art attained perfection, and become
exemplary and enviable to that of other races.
Relief sculpture is more closely connected with architecture than
the other kind, and indeed is commonly used in subordination to it
But if its task is thus somewhat different from that of
sculpture in the round, its principal objects of imitation "** lrt !
are the same. The human body remains the principal pr9 f*f
theme of the sculptor in relief; but the nature of his art TtZ7
allows, and sometimes compels, him to include other *■'**'■
objects in the range of his imitation. As he has not to
represent the real depth or projection of things, but only
to suggest them according to a ratio which he may fix himself, so
he can introduce into the third or depth dimension, thus arbitrarily
reduced, a multitude of objects for which the sculptor in the round,
having to observe the real ratio of the three dimensions, has no room.
He can place one figure in slightly raised outline emerging from
behind the more fully raised outline of another, and by the same
system can add 4 to his representation rocks, trees, nay mountains
and cities and buds on the wing. But the more he uses this liberty
the less will he be truly a sculptor. Solid modelling, and real light
and shade, are the special means or instruments of effect which the
sculptor alone among imitative artists enjoys. Single outlines and
contours, the choice of one particular section and the tracing of its
circumscription, are means which the sculptor enjoys in common
with the painter or draughtsman. And indeed, when we consider
works executed wholly or in part in very low relief, whether Assyrian
battle-pieces and hunting-pieces in alabaster or bronze, or the
backgrounds carved in bronze, marble or wood by the Italian
sculptors who followed the example set by Ghiberti at the Renais-
sance, we shall see that the principle of such work is not the principle
line of light on the side next to it. 'And we may fairly hesitate
whether we shall rank the artist who works on this principle, which
CLASSIFICATION)
is properly a granitic rather than a plastic principle, among sculptor*
or among draughtsmen. The^ above are cases in which the relief
sculptor exercises his liberty in the introduction of other objects
besides human figures into his sculptured compositions. But there is
another kind of relief sculpture in which the artist has less choice.
That is, the kind in which the sculptor is called in to decorate with
carved work parts of an architectural construction which are not
adapted for the introduction of figure subjects, or for their introduc-
tion only as features in a scheme of ornament that comprises many
other elements. To this head belongs most of the carving of capitals,
mouldings, friezes (except the friezes of Greek temples) bands,
cornices, and, in the Gothic style, of doorway arches, niches, canopies,
pinnacles, brackets, spandrels and the thousand members and parts
of members which that style so exquisitely adorned with true or
conventionalized imitations of natural forms. This is no doubt a
subordinate function of the art; and it is impossible, as we have seen
already, to find a precise line of demarcation between carving, in this
decorative use, which is properly sculpture, and that which belongs
properly to architecture.
Leaving such discussions, we may content ourselves with the
definition of sculpture as a shaping art, of which the business is to
- - ~ express and arouse emotion by the imitation of natural
^p mmmm objects, and principally the human body, in solid form,
mem ^ lmm . reproducing either their true proportions in three dimensions,
or their proportions in the two dimensions of length ana
breadth only with a diminished proportion in the third dimension of
depth or thickness.
in considering bas-relief as a form of sculpture, we have found
ourselves approaching the confines of the second of the shaping
imitative arts, the graphic art or art of painting. Painting,
as to its means or instruments of imitation, dispenses
with the third dimension altogether. It imitates natural
objects by representing them as they are represented on
the retina of the eye itself, simply as an assemblage of
variously shaped and variously shaded patches of colour on a flat
surface. Painting does not reproduce the third dimension of reality
by any third dimension of its own whatever; but leaves the eye to
infer the solidity of objects, their recession and projection, their
nearness and remoteness, by the same perspective signs by which
it also infers those facts in nature, namely, by the direction of their
several boundary lines, the incidence and distribution of their lights
and shadows, the strength or faintness erf their tones of colour.
Hence this art has an infinitely greater range and freedom than
any form of sculpture. Near and far. is all the same to it, and
«. ^ whatever comes into the field of vision can come also
■» into the field of a picture; trees as well as persons, and
_j_ clouds as well as trees, and stars as well as clouds; the
mr remotest mountain snows, as well as the violet of the
foreground, and far-off multitudes of people as well as
one or two near the eye. Whatever any man has seen, or can imagi ne
himself as seeing, that he can also fix by painting, subject only to
one great limitation, — that of the range of brightness which he is
able to attain in imitating natural colour illuminated by light.
In this particular his art can but correspond according to a greatly
diminished ratio with the effects of nature. But excepting this it
can do for the eye almost all that nature herself docs; or at least
all that nature would do if man had only one eye since the three
dimensions of space produce upon our binocular machinery of vision
a particular stereoscopic effect of which a picture, with its two
dimensions only, is incapable. The range of the art being thus almost
unbounded, its selections have naturally been dictated by the varying
interest felt in this or that subject of representation by the societies
among whom the art has at various times been practised. As in
sculpture, so in painting, the human form has always held the first
place. For the painter, the intervention of costume between man
and his environment is not a misfortune izi the same degree as it is
for the sculptor. For him. clothes of whatever fashion or amplitude
have their own charm; they serve to diversify the aspect of the
world, and to express the characters and stations, if not the physical
frames, of his personages; and he is as happy or happier among the
brocades of Venice as among the bare limbs of the Spartan palaestra.
Along with man, there come into painting all animals and vegetation,
all man's furniture and belongings, his dwelling-places, fields and
landscape; and in modern times also landscape and nature for their
own salces, skies, seas, mountains and wildernesses apart from man.
Besides the two questions about any art, what objects docs it
imitate, and by the use of what means or instruments, Aristotle
TboeUef P* !**** («* &* ca* of poetry) the further question,
which of several possible forms does the imitation in any
given case assume? We may transfer very nearly the
same inquiry to painting, and may ask, concerning any
painter, according to which of three possible systems he
works. The throe possible systems are (i) that which
attends principally to the configuration and relations of
natural objects as indicated by the direction of their
boundaries, for defining which there is a convention in universal
use,, the convention, that is, of line; this may be called for short
the system of line; (?) that which attends chiefly to their configura-
tion and relations as indicated by the incidence and distribution
of their lights and shadows— this is the system of light-and-shade or
FINE ARTS
365
chiaroscuro; and (3) that which attends chiefly, not to -their con-
figuration at all, but to the distribution, qualities and relations of
local colours upon their surface — this is the system of colour. It is
not possible for a painter to imitate natural objects to the eye at all
without either denning their boundaries by outlines, or suggesting
thi ->\<j.rc "i their masses by juxtapositions of light and dark or 01
la 1 1 tnlaurv In the complete art of painting, of course, all three
meihiril raployed at once. But in what is known as outline
dr-i*?iic -in 'I iHitline engraving, one of the three methods only is
eni[*LuvLil, Hntjj; in monochrome pictures, and in shaded drawings
an I engravings, two only, line with light-and-shade; and in the
various shaddess forms 01 decorative painting and colour-printing,
tw u u^l, . I.?*: with colour. Even in the most accomplished examples
of the complete art of painting, as was pointed out by Ruskin. we
find that there almost always prevails a predilection for some one
of these three parts of painting over the other two. Thus among
the mature Italians of the Renaissance, Titian is above all things a
K inter in colour, Michelangelo in line, Leonardo in light-and-shade.
any academic painters in their day tried to combine the three
methods in equal balance; to the impetuous spirit of the great
Venetian, Tintoretto, it was alone given to make the attempt with a
great measure of success. A great part of the effort of modern
painting has been to get rid of the linear convention altogether, to
banish Tine and develop the resources of the oil medium in imitating
on canvas, more strictly than the early masters attempted, the actual
appearance of things on the retina as an assemblage of coloured
streaks and patches modified and toned in the playof light-and-shade
and atmosphere.
It remains to consider, for the purpose of our classification, what
arc the technical varieties of the painter's craft. Since we gave the
generic name of painting to all imitation of natural objects r . ,.
by the assemblage of lines, colours and lights and darks JJJJJEJr
on a single plane, we must logically include as varieties of !JJJr^
painting not only the ordinary crafts of spreading or TJixLg* a
laying pictures on an opaque surface in fresco, oil, dis- crmfL
temper or water-colour, but also the craft of arranging a
picture to be seen by the transmission of light through a transpai
anraltit
substance, in glass painting; the craft of fitting together a
of solid cubes or cylinders so that their united surface forms a
picture to the eye, as in mosaic; the craft of spreading vitreous
colours in a state of fusion so that they form a picture when hardened,
as in enamel ; and even, it would seem, the crafts of weaving, tapestry,
and embroidery, since these also yield to the eye a plane surface
figured in imitation of nature. As drawing we must also count
incised or engraved work of all kinds representing merely the out-
lines cf objects and not their modellings, as for instance the graffiti
on Greek and Etruscan mirror-backs and dressing-cases; while
raised work in low relief, in which outlines are plainly marked and
modellings neglected, furnishes, as we have seen, a doubtful class
between sculpture and painting. In all figures that are first modelled
in the solid and then variously coloured, sculpture and painting
bear a common share; and by Car the greater part both 01 ancient
and medieval statuary was in fact tinted so as to imitate or at least
suggest the colours of life. But as the special characteristic of
sculpture, solidity in the third dimension, is in these cases present,
it is to that art and not to painting that we shall still ascribe the
resulting work.
With these indications we may leave the art of painting; defined
in general terms as a shaping or space art, of which the business is to
express and arouse emotion by the imitation of all kinds of
natural objects, reproducing on a plane surface the relations ^
of their boundary lines, lights and shadows, or colours, or
alt three of these appearances together.
The next and last of the imitative arts is the speaking art of poetry.
The transition from sculpture and painting to poetry is, from the
point of view not of our present but of our first division -^. __
among the fine arts, abrupt and absolute. It is a transition JJTj
from space into time, from the sphere of material forms JJJJ
to the sphere of immaterial images. Following Aristotle's
method, we may define the objects of poetry's imitation or evocation,
as everything of which the idea or image can be called up by words,
that is, every force and phenomenon 01 nature, every operation and
result of art, every fact of life and history, or every imagination of
such a fact, every thought and feeling of the human spirit, for which
mankind in the course of its long evolution has been able to create
in speech an explicit and appropriate sign. The means or instru-
ments of poetry s imitation are these verbal signs or words, arranged
in lines, strophes or stanzas, so that their sounds have some of the
regulated qualities and direct emotional effect of music.
The three chief modes or forms of the imitation may still be
defined as they were defined by Aristotle himself. First comes the
epic or narrative form, in which the poet speaks alternately __ ^.
(or himself and his characters, now describing their JJJLrTT
situations and feelings in his own words, and anon making 2«2mii#
each of them speak in the first person for himself. Second JJUJL
comes the lyric form, in which the poet speaks in his own **""*
name exclusively, and gives expression to sentiments which are
purely personal. Third comes the dramatic form, in which the poet
does not speak for himself at all, but only puts into the mouths, of
each of his personages successively such discourse as he thinks
366
FINE ARTS
(CLASSIFICATION
appropriate to the part. The last of these three forms of poetry,
the dramatic, calls, if it is merely read, on the imagination of the
reader to fill up those circumstances of situation, action and the rest,
which in the first or epic form are supplied by the narrative between
the speeches, and for which in the lync or personal form there is no
occasion. To avoid making this call upon the imagination, to bring
home its effects with full vividness, dramatic poetry has to call in
the aid of several subordinate arts, the shaping or space art of the
scene-painter, the mixed lime and space arts of the actor and the
dancer. Occasionally also, or in the case of opera throughout,
dramatic poetry heightens the emotional effect of its words with
music. A play or drama is thus, as performed upon the theatre,
not a poem merely, but a poem accompanied, interpreted, completed
and brought several degrees nearer to reality by a combination of
auxiliary effects of the other arts. Besides the narrative, the lyric
and dramatic forms of poetry, the didactic, that is the teaching or
expository form, has usually been recognized as a fourth. Aristotle
refused so to recognize it, regarding a didactic poem in the light
not so much of a poem as of a useful treatise. But from the Works
and Days down to the Loves of the Plants there has been too much
literature produced in this form for us to follow Aristotle here. Wc
shall do better to regard didactic poetry as a variety corresponding,
among the speaking arts, to architecture and the other manual
arts of which the first purpose is use, but which are capable of
accompanying and adorning use by a pleasurable appeal to the
emotions.
Wc shall hardly make our definition of poetry, considered as an
imitative art, too extended if wc say that it is a speaking or time art,
of which the business is to express and arouse emotion by
imitating or evoking all or any of the phenomena of life and
of wfdeh the business is to express and arouse emotion by
imitating or evoking all or any of the phenomena of life and
of poetry. na t ure by means of words arranged with musical regularity.
Neither the varieties of poetical form, however, nor the modes in
which the several forms have been mixed up and interchanged — as
such mixture and interchange are implied, for instance,
KelaUoa fry tnc very t ; t j c Q f a group f Robert Browning's poems,
of poetry tn " e Q rama ti c Lyrics, — the observation of neither of these
f* ' f* lm y things concerns us here so much as the observation of the
T^Vv relations of poetry in general, as an art of representation
y^™y" or imitation, to the other arts of imitation, painting and
icLtoturm. * cu lp* ure - Verbal signs have been invented for in-
nmrrr9 ' numerable things which cannot be imitated or represented
at all either in solid form or upon a coloured surface. You cannot
carve or paint a sigh, or the feeling which finds utterance in a sigh ;
you can only suggest the idea of the feeling, and that in a somewhat
imperfect and uncertain way, by representing the physical aspect of a
person in the act of breathing the sigh. Similarly you cannot carve
or paint any movement, but only figures or groups in which the
movement is represented as arrested in some particular point of time;
nor any abstract idea, but only figures or groups in which the
abstract idea, as for example release, captivity, mercy, is symbolized
in the concrete shape of allegorical or illustrative figures. The whole
field of thought, of propositions, arguments, injunctions and ex-
hortations is open to poetry but closed to sculpture and painting.
Poetry, by its command over the regions of the understanding, of
abstraction, of the movement and succession of things in time, by
its power of instantaneously associating one image with another
from the remotest regions of the mind, by its names for every shade
of feeling and experience, exercises a sovereignty a hundred times
more extended than that of either of the two art 5 of manual imitation.
But. on the other hand, words do not as a rule bear any sensible
resemblance to the things of which they are the signs. There arc few
things that words do not stand for or cannot call up; but they stand
for things symbolically and at second hand, and call them up only
in idea, and not in actual presentment to the senses. In strictness,
the business of poetry should not be called imitation at all, but rather
evocation. The strength of painting and sculpture lies in this, that
though there are countless phenomena which they cannot represent
at all. and countless more which they can only represent by symbolism
and suggestion more or less ambiguous, yet there arc a few which
each can represent more fully and directly than poetry can represent
any thing at all. These are, for sculpture, the forms or configurations
of things, which that art represents directly to the senses both of
sight and touch; and for painting the forms and colours of things
and their relations to each other in space, air and light, which the
art represents to the sense of sight, directly so far as regards surface
appearance, and indirectly so far as regards solidity. For many
delicate qualities and differences in these visible relations of things
there are no words at all — the vocabulary of colours, for instance,
is in all languages surprisingly scanty and primitive. And those
visible qualities for which words exist, the words still call up in-
distinctly and at second hand. Poetry is almost as powerless to
bring before the mind's eye with precision a particular shade of red
or blue, a particular linear arrangement or harmony of colour-tones,
as sculpture is to relate a continuous experience, or painting to en-
force an exhortation or embellish an abstract proposition. The
wise poet, as has been ju*t!y remarked, when he wants to produce a
vivid impression of a visible thing, does not attempt to catalogue or
describe its stationary beauties. Shakespeare, when he wants to
make us realize the perfections of Pcrdita. puts into the mouth of
Florizel, not, as a bad poet would have done, a description of her
lilies and carnations, and the other charms which a painter could
make us realize better, but the praises of her ways and movements;
and with the final touch,
*' When you do dance, ! wish you
A wave o' the sea, that you might ever do
Nothing but that,"
he evokes a twofold image of beauty in motion, of which one half
might be the despair of those painters who designed the dancing
maidens of the walls of Hcrculaneum, and the other half the despair
of all artists who in modern times have tried to fix upon their canvas
the buoyancy and grace of dancing waves. In representing the
perfections of form in a bride's slender foot, the speaking art, poetry,
would find itself distanced by cither of the shaping aits, painting or
sculpture. Suckling calls up the charm of such a foot by describing
it not at rest but in motion, and in the feet which
" Beneath the petticoat.
Like little mice, went m and out,"
leaves us an image which baffles the power of the other arte. Keats,
when he tells of Madeline unclasping her jewels on St Agncs's Eve,
does not attempt to conjure up their lustre to the eye, as a painter
would have done, and a less poetical poet might have tried to do,
but in the words " her warmed jewels " evoked instead a quality,
breathing of the very life of the wearer, which painting could not
even have remotely suggested.
ThctiifTerences between the means and capacities of representation
proper to the shaping arts of sculpture and painting and those
proper to the speaking art of poetry were for a long while . .
overlooked or misunderstood. The maxim of Simonides, J* ■JJ5.V
that poetry is a kind of articulate painting, and painting TLSb-T
a kind of mute poetry, was vaguely accepted until the yf T _^
days of Lessing, and first overthrown by the famous ^ZSfaT^
treatise of that writer on the Laocodn. Following in the IZH^
main the lines laid down by Lessing, other writers have .
worked out the conditions of representation or imitation i
firoper not only to sculpture and painting as distinguished t
rom poetry, but to sculpture as distinguished from k
painting. The chief points established may really all be
condensed under one simple law, that the more direct and compUtt
the imitation effected by any art, the less is the range and number of
phenomena which that art can imitate. Thus sculpture in the round
imitates its objects much more completely and directly than any other
single art, reproducing one whole set of their relations which no
other art attempts to reproduce at all, namely, their solid relations
in space. Precisely for this reason, such sculpture is limited to a
narrow class of objects. As we have seen, it must represent human
or animal figures; nothing else has enough either of universal interest
or of organic beauty and perfection. Sculpture in the round must
represent such figures standing free in full clearness and detachment,
in combinations and with accessories comparatively simple, on pain
of teasing the eye with a complexity and entanglement of masses and
lights and shadows; and in attitudes comparatively quiet, on pain
01 violating, or appearing to violate, the conditions of mechanical
stability. Being a stationary or space-art, it can only represent a
single action, which it fixes and perpetuates for ever; and it must
therefore choose for that action one as significant and full of interest
as is consistent with due observation of the above laws of simplicity
and stability. Such actions, and the facial expressions accompanying
them, should not be those of sharp crisis or transition, because sudden
movement or flitting expression, thus arrested and perpetuated in
full and solid imitation by bronze or marble, would be displeasing
and not pleasing to the spectator. They must be actions and ex-
pressions in some degree settled, collected and capable of continuance,
and in their collectedness must at the same time suggest to the
spectator as much as possible of the circumstances which have led
up to them and those which will next ensue. These conditions evi-
dently bring within a very narrow range the phenomena with which
this art can deal, and explain why, as a matter of fact, the greater
number of statues represent simply a single figure in repose, with the
addition of one or two symbolic or customary attributes. Paint a
statue (as the greater part both of Greek and Gothic statuary was
in fact painted), and you bring it to a still further point of imitative
completeness to the eye; but you do not thereby lighten the restric-
tions laid upon the art by its material, so long as It undertakes to
reproduce in full the third or solid dimension of bodies. You only
begin to lighten its restrictions when you begin to relieve it of that
duty. We have traced how sculpture in relief, which is satisfied
with only a partial reproduction of the third dimension, is free to
introduce a larger range of objects, bringing forward secondary
fragility. But sculpture in the round has not this licence. It is true
that the art has at various periods made efforts to escape from its
natural limitations. Several of the later schools of antiquity,
especially that of Pergamus in the 3rd and and centuries B.C., strove
hard both for violence o( expression and complexity of design, not
only in relief-sculptures, like the great altar-friezes now at Berlin,
but in detached groups, such as {pace Lessing) the Laocoon itself.
Many modern mrtuost of sculpture since Bernini have misspent their
CLASSIFICATION]
skill in trying to fix in marble both the restlessness oC momentary
actions and the flimsiness of fluttering tissues. In latter days
Auguste Rodin, an innovating master with a real genius for his art,
has attacked many problems of complicated grouping, more or less
in the nature of the Greek symplegmata, but keeps these interlocked
or contorted actions circumscribed within strict limiting lines, so
that they do not by jutting or straggling suggest a kind of acrobatic
challenge to the laws of gravity. The same artist and others inspired
by him have further sought to emancipate sculpture from the
necessity of rendering form in clear and complete definition, and to
enrich it with a new power of mysterious suggestion, by leaving his
figures wrought in part to the highest finish and vitality of surface,
while other parts (according to a precedent set in some unfinished
works of Michelangelo) remain scarcely emergent from the rough-
hewn or unhewn block. But it may be doubted whether such ex-
pcriments and expedients can permanently do much to enlarge
the scope of the art.
Next we arrive at painting, in which the third dimension is dis-
d altogether, ana nothing is actually reproduced, in full or
partially, except the effect made by the appearance of
mmmfHHr natura l objects upon the retina of the eye. The conse-
2^22!r <J ucnce '** that this art can range over distance and
T^^^ multitude, can represent complicated relations between its
^* various figures and groups of figures, extensive back-
grounds, and all those infinite subtleties of appearance in natural
things which depend upon local colours and their modification in
the play of light and shade and enveloping atmosphere. These last
} phenomena of natural things are in our experience subject to change
n a sense in which the substantial or solid properties of things are
not so subject. Colours, shadows and atmospheric effects are
naturally associated with ideas of transition, mystery and evanes-
cence. Hence painting is able to extend its range to another kind
of facts over which sculpture has no power. It can suggest and
perpetuate in its imitation, without breach of its true laws, many
classes of facts which are themselves fugitive and transitory, as a
smile, the glance of an eye, a gesture of horror or of passion, the
waving of hair in the wind, the rush of horses, the strife of mobs,
the whole drama of the ciouds, the toss and gathering of ocean waves,
even the flashing of lightning across the sky. Still, arty long or
continuous series of changes, actions or mov. nn-nts it quite beyond
the means of this art to represent. Painting n main*, in sjjite M its
comparative width of range, tied down to tr ■■■ inevitable mndttions
of a space-art: that is to say, it has to delimit the mind by n har-
monious variety in its effects, but by a variety apprehended not
through various points of time successively, but from jrariops {mints
in space at the same moment. The old convention which allowed
painters to indicate sequence in time by m~. .- vi <lu>utbuiivu in
space, dispersing the successive episodes of a story about the different
parts of a single picture, has been abandoned since the early Renais-
sance; and Wordsworth sums up our modern view of the matter
when he says that it is the business of painting
" to give
To one blest moment snatched from fleeting time
The appropriate calm of blest eternity."
Lastly, a really unfettered range is only attained by the art which
does not give a full and complete reproduction of any natural fact
^^ at all, but evokes or brings natural facts before the mind
^"■£5** merely by the images which words convey. The whole
nrl T ifri wor ^ °f movement, of continuity, of cause and effect,
MftUT- of t j l€ successions, alternations and interaction of events.
thai a l ter s and passions of everything that takes time to happen and
time to declare, is open to poetry as it is open to no other art. As
an imitative or, more properly speaking, an evocative art, then,
poetry is subject to no limitations except those which spring from
the poverty of human language, and from the fact that its means of
imitation are indirect. Poetry's account of the visible properties of
things is from these causes much less full, accurate and efficient than
the reproduction or delineation of the same properties by sculpture
and painting. And this is the sum of the conditions concerning the
respective functions of the three arts of imitation which had been
overlooked, in theory at least, until the time of Lcssing.
To the above law, in the form in which we have expressed it,
it may perhaps be objected that the acted drama is at once the most
^^ full and complete reproduction of nature which we owe
*■•«■■■ to jjjg g ne art8t ant | tnat at t h c game t j me (fee number of
**• facts over which its imitation ranges is the greatest.
The answer is that our law applies to the several arts
only in that which we may call their pure or unmixed
state. Dramatic poetry is in that .state only when it is
_ read or spoken like any other kind of verse. When it is
witnessed on the stage, it is in a mixed or impure state;
the art of the actor has been called in to give actual reproduction
to the gestures and utterances of the personages, that of the costumier
to their appearances and attire, that of the stage-decorator to their
furniture and surroundings, that of the scene-painter to imitate to
the eye the dwelling-places and landscapes among which they
move; and only by the combination of all these subordinate arts
does the drama gain its character of imitative completeness or
reality.
FINE ARTS
367
Thtogt
Throughout the above account of the imitative and non-imitative
groups of fine arts, we have so far followed Aristotle as to allow the
name of imitation to all recognizable representation or
evocation of realities, — using the word " realities " in no
metaphysical sense, but to signify the myriad phenomena
of life and experience, whether as they actually and
literally exist to-day. or as they may have existed in the
past, or may be conceived to exist in some other world
not too unlike our own for us to conceive and realize in
forth kr
•ffaisj*
*yrt
thought. When we find among the ruins of a Greek
temple the statue of a beautiful young man at rest, or above
the altar of a Christian church the painting of one transfixed
with arrows, we know that the statue is intended to bring to our
minds no mortal youth, but the god Hermes or Apollo, the trans-
fixed victim no simple captive, but Sebastian the holy saint. At
the same time we none the less know that the figures in either
case have been studied by the artist from living models before his
eyes. In like manner, in all the representations alike of sculpture,
painting and poetry the things ana persons represented may bear
symbolic meanings and imaginary names and characters ; they may
be set in a land of dreams, and grouped in relations and circumstances
upon which the sun of this world never shone; in point of fact,
through many ages of history they have been chiefly used to embody
human ideas of supernatural powers; but it is from real things
and persons that their lineaments and characters have been taken
in the first instance, in order to be attributed by the imagination to
another and more exalted order of existences.
The law which we have last laid down is a law defining the relations
of sculpture, painting and poetry, considered simply as arts having
their foundations at any rate in reality, and drawing from
the imitation of reality their indispensable elements and
materials. It is a law defining the range and character
of those elements or materials in nature which each art is
best fitted, by its special means and resources, to imitate.
But we must remember that, even in this fundamental
part of its operations, none of these arts proceeds by
imitation or evocation pure and simple. None of them con-
tents itself with seeking to represent realities, however literally
taken, exactly as those realities are. A portrait in sculpture or
painting, a landscape in painting, a passage of local description in
poetry, may be representations of known things taken literally or
for their own sakes, and not for the sake of carrying out thoughts
to the unknown ; but none of them ought to be, or indeed can possibly
be, a representation of all the observed parts and details of such a
reality on equal terms and without omissions. Such a representation,
were it possible, would be a mechanical inventory and not a work of
fine art.
Hence the value of a pictorial imitation is by no means necessarily
in proportion to the number of facts which it records. Many a
plished pictures, in which all the resources of line, colour
and light-and-shade have been used to the utmost of
the artist's power for the imitation of all that he could see
in nature, are dead and worthless in comparison with a
few faintly touched outlines or lightly laid shadows or
tints of another artist who could see nature more vitally
and better. Unless the painter knows how to choose and
combine the elements of his finished work so that it
shall contain in every part suggestions and delights over and
above .the mere imitation, it will fall short, ip that which
is the essential charm of fine art. not only of any scrap
of a great master's handiwork,, such as an outline sketch of
a child by Raphael or a colour sketch of a boat or a mackerel by
Turner, but even of any scrap of the merest Journeyman's handiwork
produced by an artistic race, such as the first Japanese drawing in
which a water-flag and kingfisher, or a spray of peach or almond
blossom across the sky, is dashed in with a mere hint of colour,
but a hint that tells a whole tale to the imagination. That only, we
know, is fine art which affords keen and permanent delight to con-
templation. Such delight the artist can never communicate by the
display of a callous and pedantic impartiality in presence of the
facts of life and nature. His representation of realities will only
strike or impress others in so far as it concentrates their attention on
things by which he has been struck and impressed himself. To
arouse emotion, he must have felt emotion ; and emotion is impos-
sible without partiality. The artist is one who instinctively tends to
modify and work upon every reality before him in conformity with
some poignant and sensitive principle of preference or selection in his
mind. He instinctively adds something to nature in one direction
and takes away something in another, overlooking this kind of fact
and insisting on that, suppressing many particulars which he holds
irrelevant in order to insist on and bring into prominence others by
which he is attracted and arrested.
The instinct by which an artist thus prefers, selects and brings into
light one order of facts or aspects in the thing before him rather
than the rest , is part of what is called the idealizing or ideal u ^^
faculty. Interminable df&ussion has been spent on the '7*?"'
questions. — What is the ideal, and how do we idealize? fT^f,
The answer has been given in one form by those thinkers ***—**
(e.g. Vischer and Lotze) who have pointed out that the * ,O0 *** ,
process of aesthetic idealization carried on by the artist is only the
368
FINE ARTS
(CLASSIFICATION
higher development of a process carried on in an elementary fashion
by all men, from the very nature of their constitution. The physical
organs of sense themselves do not retain or put on record all the
impressions made upon them. When the nerves of the eye receive
a multitude of different stimulations at once from different points in
space, the sense of eyesight, instead of being aware of all these
stimulations singly, only abstracts and retains a total impression
of them together. In like manner we are not made aware by the
sense of hearing of all the several waves of sound that strike in a
momentary succession upon the nerves of the ear; that sense only
abstracts and retains a total impression from the combined effect
of a number of such waves. And the office which each sense thus
performs singly for its own impressions, the mind performs in a
higher degree for the impressions of all the senses equally, and for
all the other parts of our experience. We are always dismissing or
neglecting a great part of our impressions, and abstracting and
combining among those which we retain. The ordinary human
consciousness works like an artist up to this point; and when we
speak of the ordinary or inartistic man as being impartial in the
retention or registry of his daily impressions, we mean, of course,
in the retention or registry of his impressions as already thus far
abstracted and assorted in consciousness. The artistic man, whose
impressions affect him much more strongly, has the faculty of
carrying much farther these same processes of abstraction, com-
bination and selection among his impressions.
The possession of this faculty is the artist's most essential gift.
To attempt to carry farther the psychological analysis of the gift is
„_.,.._ outside our present object ; but it is worth while to con-
5!r^f ^ er somewhat closely its modes of practical operation.
^f*J* One mode is this: the artist grows up with certain innate
?g~^* or acquired predilections which become a part of his
constitution whether he will or no. — predilections, say,
if he is a dramatic poet, for certain types of plot, character and
situation; if he is a sculptor, for certain proportions and a' certain
habitual carriage and disposition of the limbs; if he is a figure
painter, for certain schemes of composition and moulds of figure
and airs and expressions of countenance; if a landscape painter,
for a certain class of local character, sentiment and pictorial effect in
natural scenery. To such predilections he cannot choose but make
his representations of reality in large measure conform. This is one
part of the transmuting process which the data of life and experience
nave to undergo at the hands of artists, and may be called the
subjective or purely personal mode of idealization. But there is
another part of that work which springs from an impulse in the
artistic constitution not less imperious than the last named, and in a
certain sense contrary to it. As an imitator or evokcr of the facts
of life and nature, the artist must recognize and accept the character
of those facts with which he has in any given case to deal. All facts
cannot be of the cast he prefers, and in so far as he undertakes to
deal with those of an opposite cast he must submit to them; he
must study them as they actually are, must apprehend, enforce and
bring into prominence their own dominant tendencies. If he cannot
fimj in them what is mo« pleasing to himself, he will still be led
by (he afe-^racting and discriminating powers of his observation to
discern what is most expressive nnd_ significant in them, he will
emphasize arid put on record this, idealizing the fact* before him not
in hit direction but In their own. This is the second or Objective
half of the artist's task of idealization. It is this half upon which
Taint dwelt almost exclusively, and on the whole u ith a just insight
into the principles of the opera i ion, in his well-known treatise On
the Ideal in Art, Both these modes of idealization are legitimate;
that which springs from inborn and overmastering personal preference
in the artist for particufor aspects of life and nature, and that which
springs from his insight into the dominant and *i unmeant character
of the phenomena actually before him, and his desire to emphasize
■nd disengage them, But there is a third mode of idealizing which
is less vital and genuine than either of these, and therefore less
legitimate, though unfortunately far more common. This mode
consists in making things conform to a borrowed and conventional
standard of beauty and taste, which corresponds neither to any
strong inward predilection of the artist nor to any vital characteristic
in the objects of his representation. Since the rediscovery of Greek
and Roman sculpture in the Renaissance, a great part of the efforts
of artists have been spent in falsifying their natural instincts and
misrepresenting the facts of nature in pursuit of a conventional ideal
of abstract and generalized beauty framed on a false conception
and a shallow knowledge of the antique. School after school from
the l6th century downwards has been confirmed in this practice by
academic criticism and theory, with resulting insipidities and in-
sincerities of performance which have commonly been acclaimed in
their day, but from which later generations have sooner or later
turned away with a wholesome reaction of distaste.
The two genuine modes of idealization, the subjective and the
objective, are not always easy to be reconciled. The greatest artist
is no doubt he who can combine the strongest personal instincts
of preference with the keenest power of observing characteristics as
they are, yet in fact we find few in whom both these elements of the
ideal faculty have been equally developed, # To take an example
among Florentine painters, Sandro Botticelli is usually thought of as
one who could never escape from the dictation of his own personal
ideals, in obedience to which he is supposed to have invested all the
creations of his art with nearly the same conformation of brows,
lips, cheeks and chin, nearly the same looks of wistful
yearning and dejection. There is some truth in this JJJJJJ 1 '" 1
impression, though it is largely based on the works not of f"r*
the master himself, but of pupils who exaggerated his ^ -. . mmm
mannerisms. Leonardo da Vinci was strong in both ^rSZr^
directions; haunted in much of his work by a particular mcZbA*
human ideal of intellectual sweetness, and alluring nV"
mystery, he has yet left us a vast number of exercises
which show him as an indefatigable student of objective character*
istics and psychological expressions of an order the most opposed to
this. Ana in this case again followers have over-emphasized the
master's predilections, Luini, Sodoma and the rest borrowing and
repeating the mysterious smile of Leonardo till it becomes in their
work an affectation cloying however lovely. Among latter-day
painters. Burne-Jones will occur to every reader as the type of an
artist always haunted and dominated by ideals of an intensely
and seeks to disengage the very inmost and individual characters
of the thing or person before it, we think naturally of certain great
masters of the northern schools, as Durer, Holbein and Rembrandt.
Durer's endeavour to express such characters by the most searching
intensity of linear definition was, however, hampered and conditioned
by his inherited national and Gothic predilection for the strained in
gesture and the knotted and the gnarled in structure, against which
his deliberate scholarly ambition to establish a canon of ideal
proportion contended for the most part in vain. And Rembrandt's
profound spiritual insight into human character and personality
did not prevent him from plunging his subjects, ever deeper and
deeper as his life advanced, into a mysterious shadow-world of his
own imagination, whcrcall local colours were broken upand crumbled,
and where amid the struggle of gloom and gleam he could make his
intensely individualized men and women breathe more livingly than
in plain human daylight.
' it is by the second mode of operation chiefly, that is by imagina-
tively discerning, disengaging and forcing into prominence their
inherent significance, that the idealizing faculty brings „___
into the sphere of fine art deformities and degeneracies ■ ■*■»■»
to which the name beautiful or sublime can by no stretch **^*ff _
of usage be applied. Hence arise creations like the Sir, ye* * r *™*J"*
of Notre- Dame and a thousand other grotesques of Gothic U#XI
architectural carving. Hence, although on a lower plane ff. 1 ?
and interpreted with a less transmuting intensity of in- ^^
sight and emphasis, the snarling or jovial crossness of the
Basants of Adrian Brauwcr and the best of his Dutch compeers,
ence Shakespeare's Caliban and figures like those of Quilp and
Quasimodo in the romances of Dickens and Hugo; hence the cynic
grimness of Goya's Caprices and the profound and bitter fmpres-
siveness of Daumier's caricatures of Parisian bourgeois life; or
again, in an angrier and more insulting and therefore less under-
standing temper, the brutal energy of the political drawings of
Gilray.
Sculpture, painting and poetry, then, are among the greater fine
arts those which express and arouse emotion by imitating or evoking
real and known things, either for their own sakes literally,
or for the sake of shadowing forth things not known but
imagined. In either case they represent their originals,
not indiscriminately as they are, but sifted, simplified, ___ . .
enforced and enhanced to our apprehensions partly by tmumiU
the artist's power of making things conform to his own ii*>
— :•«.. ..-j — r — - — M -i.. §,.. u:- ^u~_ __._ ~t interpreting
before him.
these things
in full measure fails in the quality of emotional expression and
emotional appeal, and in so failing falls short, taken merely as
imitation, 01 the standard of fine art.
But we must remember that idealized imitation, as such, is not the
whole task of these arts nor their only means of appeal. There is
another part of their task, logically though not practically _,„ _.
independent of the relations borne by their imitations IJJJE?
to the original phenomena of nature, and dependent on JLjJJJJS
the appeal made through the eye and car to our primal JJJJJ^JJ^
organic sensibilities by the properties of rhythm, pattern ^fZt^lm.
and regulated design in the arrangement of sounds, lines, ff^
masses, colours and light-and-shade. That appeal we i^tMthw
noted as lying at the root of the art impulse in its most ^ m€Bta ,
elementary stage. In its most developed stage every
fine art is bound still to play upon the same sensibilities.
In a work of sculpture the contours and interchanges of
light and shadow are bound to be such as would please the eye.
whether the statue or relief represented the figure of anything real
in the world or not. The flow and balance of line, and the distribution
of colours and light-and-shade, in a picture are bound to be such as
would make an agreeable pattern although they bore no resemblance
to natural fact (as, indeed, many subordinate applications of this
art, in decorative painting and geometrical and other ornaments,
do, we know, give pleasure though they represent nothing)*. The
CLASSIFICATION!
sound of a line or verse ia poetry Is bound to be such a* would thrill
the physical ear in bearing, or the mental ear in reading, with a
delightful excitement even though the meaning went for nothing.
If the imitative arts are to touch and elevate the emotions, if they
are to afford permanent delight of the due pitch and volume, it is
not a more essential law that their imitation, merely as such, should
be of the order which we have denned as ideal, than that they should
at the same time exhibit these independent effects which they share
with the non-imitative group.
So far we have assumed, without asserting, the necessity that
' ' " i a power of execution,
FINE ARTS
369
: in whatever Idnd should 1
Id possess
or technique as It is called in modern phrase, adequate
-~— -— ~ to the task of embodying and giving shape to his ideals.
rf— .. In thought it is possible to separate the conception of a
JTT^ work of art from its execution; in practice it is not
""""?! possible, and half the errors in criticism and speculation
' j«L.ZT *bout the fine arts spring from failing to realise that an
^^ artistic conception can only be brought home to us through
and by its appropriate embodiment. Whatever the artisrs
cast of imagination or degree of sensibility may be in
presence of the materials of life, it ia essential that he
should be able to express himself appropriately in the
__ material of his particular art. To quote the writer
(R. A. M. Stevenson) who has enforced this point most
and vividly, perhaps with some pardonable measure
of over-statement; It is a sensitiveness to the special qualities
of some visible or audible medium of art which distinguishes the
species artist from the genus man." And again ; ' ' There are aa many
separate faculties of imagination as there are separate mediums in
which to conceive an image— day, words, paint, notes of music'*
. . . ** Technique differs as the material of each art differ*— differs
as marble, pigments, musical notes and words differ." The artist
who doe* not enjoy and has not with delighted labour mastered
the effects of his own chosen medium will never be a master; the
hearer, reader or spectator who cannot appreciate the qualities of
skill, vitality and charm in the handling of the given material, or
who fails to fed their absence when they are lacking, or who looks
in one material primarily for the qualities appropriate to another,
will never make a critic The technique of the space-arts differs
radically from that of the time-arts. So again do those of the imita-
tive and the non-imitative arts differ among themselves. The non-
imitative arts of music and architecture are In a certain degree
alike in this, that the artist is in neither case his own executant
(this at least is true of music so far as concerns its modern con-
certed and orchestral developments); the musical composer and the
architect each imagines and composes a design in the medium of
his own art which it is left for others to carry out under bis direction.
The technique in each case consists not in mastery of an instrument
(though the musical composer may bey and often is | a master of
some one of the instruments whose effects be in his mind's ear
co-ordinates and combines); it lies in the power of knowing and
conjuring up all the emotional resources and effects of the various
materials at his command, and of conceiving and designing to their
last detail vast and ordered structures, to be raised by subordinate
executants from those materials, which shall adequately express his
temperament and embody his ideals.
In the imitative arts, on the other band, the sculptor, unless he
is a fraud, must be wholly his own executant in the original task
of modelling his design in the soft material of day or
' wax, though he must accept the aid of assistants whether
in the casting of his work in bronze or in first roughing
it out from the block in marble. Too many sculptors
have been inclined further to trust to trained mechanical
help in finishing their work with the chisel; with the
result that the surface loses the touch which is the ex-
pression of personal temperament and personal feeling
for the relations of his material to nature. The artist in
love with the vital qualities of form, or those of his own
handiwork in expressing such qualities in modelling-day, will
never stop until he learns how to translate them for himself in
marble. Proceeding to that imitative art which leaves out the third
dimension of nature, and by so doing enormously increases the range
of objects and effects which come within its power— proceeding to
the art of painting, the painter is in theory exclusively his own
executant, and in practice mainly so, though in certain schools and
periods the great artists have been accustomed to surround themselves
with pupils to whom they have imparted their methods and who
have helped them in the subordinate and preparatory parts of their
work. But the painter fit to teach and lead can by no means escape
the necessity of being himself a master of his material, end his
handling of it must needs bear the immediate impress of his tempera-
ment. His emotional preferences among the visible facts of nature,
his feeling for the relative importance and charm of tine, colour,
light and shade, used whether for the interpretation and heightening
of natural fact or for producing a pattern in itself harmonious and
suggestive to the eye, pis sense of the special modes of handling most
effective for communicating the impression he desires, all these
together inevitably appear in, and constitute, his style and technique.
If he ia careless or inexpert or conventional, or cold or without delight,
in technique, though he may be animated by the noblest purposes
X. 7
and the loftiest Ideas, he Is a failure as a painter. At certain periods
in the history of paintiflg, as in the 13th and 14th centuries in Italy,
the technique seems indeed to modern eyes wholly immature;
but that was because there were many aspects of visible things which
the art had not yet attempted or desired to portray, not because it
did not put forth with delight its best traditional or newly acquired
skill in portraying the special aspects with which it had so far
attempted to grapple. At certain other periods, aa in the later
16th and 17th centuries in the same country, the elements of inherited
technical faculty and academic pride of skill outweigh the sincerity
and freshness of interest taken in the aspects of things to be portrayed,
and the true balance is lost. At other times, as in much of the work
of the 19th century, especially in England, painters have been
diverted from their true task, and lost hold of intelligent and living
technique altogether, in trying to please a public blind to the special
qualities of their art, and prone to seek in it the effects, frivolous or
serious, which are appropriate not to paint and canvas but to
literature.
Lastly, the poet and literary artist must obviously be the exclusive
master of his own technique. No one can help him: all depends on
the keenness of his double sensibility to the thrill of life -^ ft t
and to that of words, and to his power of maintaining a 1^2*1
just balance between the two. If he is truly and organic- *jTZT£
ally sensitive to words alone, and has learnt life only
through their medium and not through the energies of
may be a miracle of accomplished* verbal music, and may <
the ear for the moment, but will never live to illuminate and sustain
and console. If, on the other hand, he has imagination and sensibility
in full measure, and lacks the inborn love of and gift for words
and their magic, he will be but a dumb or summering poet all his
days. There is no better witness on this point than Wordsworth.
His own prolonged lapses from verbal felicity, and continual habit
of solemn meditation on themes not always inspiring, might make us
hesitate to choose bun as an example of that particular lovcand gift.
But Wordsworth could never have risen to his best and greatest self
had he not truly possessed the sensibilities which he attributes to
himself in the Prelude:
" Twice five years
Or less I might have seen, when first my mind
With conscious pleasure opened to the charm
Of words in tuneful order, found them sweet
For their own sake*, a passion, and a power;
And phrases pleased me chosen for delight,
For pomp, or love."
And again, expressing better than any one else the relation which
words in true poetry hold to things, he writes:
*' Visionary power
Attends the motions of the viewless winds,
Embodied in the mystery of words;
There darkness makes abode, and all the host
Of shadowy things workendless changes, — there*
As in a mansion uke their proper home,
Even forms and substances are circumfused
By that transparent veil with light divine,
And, through the turnings intricate of verse.
Present themselves as objects recognized,
In flashes, and with glory not their own.'*
3. The Serviceable and the Non-Serviceable Arls.—\t has been
established from the outset that, though the essential distinction of
fine art as such is to minister not to material necessity or _
practical use, but to delight, yet there are some among the 2?S
arts of men which do both these things at once and are T^zzZ
arts of direct use and of beauty or emotional appeal *~T-
together. Under this classification a survey of the field JJT
of art at different periods of history would yield different .
results. In ruder times, we have seen, the utilitarian aim tornH
was still the predominant aim of art, and most of what ^
we now call fine arts served in the beginning to fulfil the
practical needs of individual and social life; and this not only among
primitive or savage races. In ancient Egypt and Assyria the primary
purpose of the nelief-sculptures on palace and temple walk was the
practical one of historical record and commemoration. Even as late
aa the middle ages and early Renaissance the primary business of
the painter was to give instruction to the unlearned in Bible history
and in the lives of the saints, and to rouse him to moods of religious
and ethical exaltation. The pleasures of fine art proper among the
manual-imitative gr o up the pleasures, namely, of producing and
contemplating certain arrangements rather than others of design,
proportion, pattern, colour and light and shade, and of putting forth
and appreciating certain qualities of skill, truth and significance ia
idealized imitation, — these were, historically speaking, by-products
that arose gradually in the course of practice and development.
Aa time went on, the conscious aim of ministering to such pleasures
displaced and threw into the background the utilitarian ends for
which the arts had originally been practised, and the pleasures
became ends in themselves.
But even ia advanced societies the double qualities of use and
2a
37o
FINE ARTS
[HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
beauty still remain inseparable, among the five greater arts, in
architecture, we build in the first instance for the sake of
^mZH* necessary shelter and accommodation, or for the com-
memoration, propitiation or worship of spiritual powers on
whom we believe our welfare to depend. By and by we
find out that the aspect of our constructions is pleasurable
or the reverse. Architecture is the art of building at once
as we need add as we like, and a practical treatise on
architecture must treat the beauty and the utility of
buildings as bound up together. But for our present
purpose it has been proper to take into account one half
only of the vocation of architecture, the half by which it im-
presses, gives delight and belongs to that which is the subject of
our study, to fine art ; and to neglect the other half of its vocation,
by which it belongs to what is not the subject of our study, to useful
or mechanical art. It is plain, however, that the presence or absence
of this foreign element, the element of practical utility, constitutes
a fair ground for a new and separate classification of the fine arts.
If we took the five greater arts as they exist in modern times by
themselves, architecture would on this ground stand alone in one
division, as the directly useful or serviceable fine art ; with sculpture,
painting, music and poetry together in the other division, as fine
arts unassociated with such use or service. Not that the divi-
sions would, even thus, be quite sharply and absolutely separated.
Didactic poetry, we have already acknowledged, is a branch of the
poetic art which aims at practice and utility. Again, the hortatory
and patriotic kinds of lyric poetry, from the strains of Tyrtaeus to
those of Arndt or Rouget de Lisle or Wordsworth's sonnets written
in war-time, may fairly be said tCbelong to a phase of fine art which
aims directly at one of the highest utilities, the stimulation of
patriotic feeling and self-devotion. So may the strains of musk
which accompany such poetry. The same practical character, as
stimulating and attuning the mind to definite ends and actions,
might indeed have been claimed for the greater part of the whole art
of music as that art was practised in antiquity, when each of several
prescribed and highly elaborated moods, or modes, of melody was
supposed to have a known effect upon the courage and moral temper
of the hearer. Compare Milton, when he tells of the Dorian mood of
flutes and soft recor d ers which assuaged the sufferings and re n e w ed
the courage of Satan and his legions as they marched through hell.
In modern music, of which the elements, much more complex in
themselves than those of ancient music, have the effect of stirring
our fibres to moods of rapturous contemplation rather than of
action, military strains in march time are in truth the only purely
instrumental variety of the art which may still be said to retain
this character.
To reinforce, however, the serviceable or useful division of fine
arts in.our present classification, it is not among the greater arts
that we must look. We must look among the lesser or
™**™ auxiliary arts of the manual or shaping group. The
m ! r~T ? weaver, the joiner, the potter, the smith, the goldsmith,
w . "* the glass-maker, these and a hundred artificers who pro-
^^ duce wares primarily for use, produce them in a form or
with embellishments that have the secondary virtue of
giving pleasure both to the producer and the user. Much
nuity has been spent to little purpose in attempting to
iify these lesser shaping arts under one or other of
! greater shaping arts, according to the nature of the means
ipfoyed in each. Thus the potter's art has been classed under
sculpture, because he moulds in solid form the shapes of his cups,
plates and ewers; the art of the joiner under that of the architect,
because his tables, seatsand cupboards are fitted and framed together,
like the houses they furnish, out of solid materials previously pre-
pared and cut; and the weaver and embroiderer, from the point of
view of the effects produced by their art, among painters. But the
truth is, that each one of these auxiliary handicrafts has its own
materials and technical procedure, which cannot, without forcing
and confusion, be described by the name proper to the materials
and technical procedure of any of the greater arts. The only satis-
factory classification of these handicrafts is that now before us,
according to which we think of them all together in the same group
with architecture, not because any one or more of them may be
technically allied to that art, but because, like it, they all yield
products capable of being practically useful and beautiful at the
same time. Architecture is the art which fits and frames together,
of stone, brick, mortar , timber or iron, the abiding and assembling
places of man, all his houses, palaces, temples, monuments, museums,
workshops, roofed places of meeting and exchange, theatres for
spectacle, fortresses of defence, bridges, aqueducts, and ships for
seafaring. The wise architect having fashioned any one of these
great constructions at once for service and beauty in the highest
degree, the lesser or auxiliary manual arts (commonly called " in-
dustrial " or " applied " arts) come in to fill, furnish and adorn it
with things of service and beauty in a lower degree, each according
to its own technical laws and capabilities; some, like pottery,
delighting the user at once by beauty of form, delicacy of substance,
and pleasantness of imitative or non-imitative ornament; some, like
embroidery, by richness of tissue, and by the same twofold pleasant-
ness of ornament; some, like goldsmith's work, by exquisiteness
of fancy and workmanship proportionate to the exquisiteness of the
material. To this vast group of workmen, whose work is at the same
time useful and fine in its degree, the ancient Creek gave the place
which is most just and convenient for thought, when he classed
them all together under the name of rferortt, or artificers, and called
the builder by the name of *>xitUtw, arch-artificer or ertificer-in-
chief. Modern usage has adopted the phrase " arts and crafts'*
as a convenient general name for their pursuits.
m. Of Ike History of the Fine Arts.
Students of human culture have concentrated a great deal
of attentive thought upon the history of fine art, and have put
forth various comprehensive generalizations intended
at once to sum up and to account for the phases and
vicissitudes of that history. The most famous formulae
are those of Hegel, who regarded particular arts as being
characteristic of and appropriate to particular forms
of civilization and particular ages of history. For him, _
architecture was the symbolic art appropriate to ages of
obscure and struggling ideas, and characteristic of the Egyptian
and the Asiatic races of old and of the medieval age in Europe.
Sculpture was the classical art appropriate to ages of ludd and
self-possessed ideas, and characteristic of the Greek and Roman
period. Painting, music and poetry were the romantic arts,
appropriate to the ages of complicated and overmastering ideas,
and characteristic of modern humanity in general. In the
working out of these generalizations Hegel brought together
a mass of judicious and striking observations; and that they
contain on the whole a preponderance of truth may be admitted.
It has been objected against them, from the philosophical
point of view, that they too much mix up the definition of what
the several arts theoretically are with considerations x»f what
in various historical circumstances they have practically been.
From the historical point of view there can be taken what
seems a more valid objection, that these formulae of Hegel
tend too much to fix the attention of the student upon the one
dominant art chosen as characteristic of any period, and to
give him false ideas of the proportions and relations of the several
arts at the same period— of the proportions and relations which
poetry, say, really bore to sculpture among the Greeks and
Romans, or sculpture to architecture among the Christian nations
of the middle age. The truth is, that the historic survey gained
over any field cf human activity from the height of generaliza-
tions so vast in scope as these are must needs, in the complexity
of earthly affairs, be a survey too distant to give much guidance
until its omissions are filled up by a great deal of nearer study;
and such nearer study is apt to compel the student in the long
run to qualify the theories with which he has started until they
are in danger of disappearing altogether.
Another systematic exponent of the universe, whose system
is very different from that of Hegel, Herbert Spencer, brought
the doctrine of evolution to bear, not without interest-
ing results, upon the history of the fine arts and then:
development. Herbert Spencer set forth how the
manual group of fine arts, architecture, sculpture
and painting, were in their first rudiments bound up
together, and how each of them in the course of history has
liberated itself from the rest by a gradual process of separation.
These arts did not at first exist in the distinct and developed
forms in which we have above described them. There were no
statues in the round, and no painted panels or canvases hung
upon the wall. Only the rudiments of sculpture and painting
existed, and that only as ornaments applied to architecture,
in the shape of tiers of tinted reliefs, representing in a kind of
picture-writing the exploits of kings upon the walls of their
temple-palaces. Gradually sculpture took greater 'salience
and roundness, and tended to disengage itself from the wall,
while painting found out how to represent solidity by means of
its own, and dispensed, with the raised surface upon which it
was -first applied. But the old mixture and union of the three
arts, with an undeveloped art of painting and an undeveloped
art of sculpture stiH engaged in or applied to the works of archi-
tecture, continued on the whole to prevail through the long
cydes of Egyptian and Assyrian history. In the. Egyptian
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT!
FINE ARTS
37'
palace-temple we find a monument at once political and religious,
upon the production of which were concentrated all the energies
and faculties of all the artificers of the race. With its incised
and pictured walls, its half-detached colossi, its open and its
colonnaded chambers, the forms of the columns and their
capitals recalling the stems and blossoms of the lotus and papyrus,
with its architecture everywhere taking on the characters and
covering itself with the adornments of immature sculpture and
painting— this structure exhibits within its single fabric the
origins of the whole subsequent group of shaping arts. From
hence it is a long way to the innumerable artistic surroundings
of later Greek and Roman fife, the many temples with their
detached and their engaged statues, the theatres, the porticoes,
the baths, the training-schools, the stadiums, with free and
separate statues both of gods and men adorning every building
and pubBc place, the frescoes upon the walls, the panel pictures
hung m temples and public and private galleries. In the terms
of the Spencerian theory of evolution, the advance from the
early Egyptian to the later Greek stage is an advance from the
one to the manifold, from the simple to the complex, from the
homogeneous to the heterogeneous, and affords a striking
instance of that vast and ceaseless process of differentiation and
integration which it is the law of all things to undergo. In the
Christian monuments of the early middle age, again, the arts,
owing to the political and social cataclysm in which Roman
civilization went down, have gone back to the rudimentary
stage, and axe once more attached to and combined with each
other. The single monument, the one great birth of art, in that
age, is the Gothic church. In this we find the art of applied
sculpture exercised in fashions infinitely rich and various, but
entirely in the service and for the adornment of the architecture ;
we find painting exercised in fashions more rudimentary still,
principally in the forms of translucent imagery in the chancel
windows and tinted decorations on the walls and vaultings.
From this stage again the process of the differentiation of the
arts is repeated. It is by a new evolution or unfolding, and
by one carried to much further and more complicated stages
than the last had reached, that the arts since the middle age
have come to the point where we find them to-day; when
architecture is applied to a hundred secular and dvil uses with
not less magnificence, or at least not less desire of magnificence,
than that with which it fulfilled its two only uses in the middle
age, the uses of worship and of defence; when detached sculptures
adorn, or are intended to adorn, all our streets and commemorate
all our likenesses; when the subjects of painting have been
extended from religion to all life and nature, until thb one art
has been divided into the dozen branches of history, landscape,
still life, genre, anecdote and the rest. Such being in brief the
successive stages, and such the reiterated processes, of evolution
among the shaping or space arts, the action of the same law
can be traced, it is urged, in the growth of the speaking or time
arts also. Originally poetry and music, the two great sneaking
arts, were not separated from each other and from the art of
bodily motion, dancing. The fether of soiig,inusjfc and dancing,
all three, was that primitive man of whom so much has already
been said, he who first clapped hands and leapt and shouted in
time at some festival of bis tribe, from the clapping, or rudi-
mentary rhythmical noise, has been evolved the whole art of
instrumental musk, down to the entrancing complexity of the
modem symphony. From the shout, or rudimentary emotional
utterance, has proceeded by a kindred evolution the whole art
of vocal music down to the modern opera or oratorio. From
the leap, or rudimentary expression of emotion by rhythmical
movements of the body, has descended every variety of dancing,
from the stately figures of the tragic chorus of the Greeks to
the kcrdax of their comedy or the complexities of the modern
ballet.
That the theory of evolution serves usefully to group and to
interpret many facts in the history of art we shall not deny,
though it would be easy to show that Herbert Spencer's instances
and applications are not sufficient to sustain all the conclusions
that he seems to draw from them. Thus, it is perfect!/ true
that the Egyptian or Assyrian palace wall b an instance of
rudimentary painting and rudimentary sculpture in subser-
vience to architecture. But it is not less true that races
who had no architecture at all, but lived in caverns of
the earth, exhibit, as we have already had occasion to
notice, excellent rudimentsof the other two shaping arts
in a different form, in the carved or incised handles of
their weapons. And it is almost certain that, among
the nations of oriental antiquity themselves, the art of decorating
solid walls so as to please the eye with patterns and presentations
of natural objects was borrowed from the precedent of an older
art which works in easier materials, namely, the art of the
weaver. It would be in the perished textile fabrics of the
earliest dwellers in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Nile
that we should find, if anywhere, the origins of the systems of
surface design, whether conventional or imitative, which those
races'af towards applied to the decoration of their solid construc-
tions. Not, therefore, in any one exclusive type of primitive
artistic activity, but in a score of such types equally, varying
according to race, region and circumstances, shall we find so
many germs or nuclei from which whole families of fine arts
have In the course of the world's history differentiated and
unfolded themselves. And more than once during that history,
a cataclysm of political and social forces has not only checked
the process of the evolution of the fine arts, but from an advanced
stage of development has thrown them back again to a primitive
stage. Recent research has shownhow the Minoanand Mycenaean
civilizations in the Mediterranean basin, with their developed
fine arts, must have perished and been effaced before the second
growth of art from new rudiments took place in Greece. The
great instance of the downfall of the Roman civilisation need
not be requoted. By Spencer's application of the theory of
evolution, not less than by Hegel's theory of the historic periods,
attention is called to the fact that Christian Europe, during
several centuries of the middle age, presents to our study a
civilisation analogous to the civilization of the old oriental
empires in this respect, that its ruling and characteristic manual
art is architecture, to which sculpture and painting are, as in
the oriental empires, once more subjugated and attached. It
does not of course follow that such periods of fusion or mutual
dependence among the arts are periods of bad art. On the
contrary, each stage of the evolution of any art baa its own
characteristic excellence. The arts can be employed in combina-
tion, and yet be alt severally excellent. When music, dancing,
acting and singing were combined in the performance of the
Greek chorus, the combination no doubt presented a relative
perfection of each of the four elements analogous to the combined
perfection, in the contemporary Doric temple, of pure architec-
tural form, sculptured enrichment of spaces specially contrived
for sculpture in the pediments and frieze, and coloured decoration
over all. The extreme differentiation of any art from every
other art, and of the several branches of one art among themselves,
does not by any means tend to the perfection of that art. The
process of evolution* among the fine arts may go, and indeed
in the course of history has gone, much too far for the health
of the arts severally. Thus an artist of our own day is usually
either a painter only or a sculptor only; but yet it is acknow-
ledged that the painter who can model a statue, or the sculptor
who can paint a picture, is likely to be the more efficient master
of both arts; and in the best days of Florentine art the greatest
men were generally painters, sculptors, architects and goldsmiths
all at once. In like manner a landscape painter who paints
landscape only is apt not to paint it so well as one who paints
the figure too; and in recent times the craft of engraving had
almost ceased to be an art from the habit of allotting one part
of the work, as skies, to one hand, another part, as figures, to a
second, and another part, aa landscape, to a third. This kind
of continually progr e ssi ng subdivision of labour, which seems
to be the necessary law of industrial processes, is fatal to any
skill which demands, as skill in the fine arts, we have seen,
demands, the free exercise and direction of a highly complex
duster both of faculties and sensibilities.
37«
FINE ARTS
In the second half of the 19th century a reaction set in against
such over-differentiation of the several manual arts and crafts.
This reaction is chiefly identified in England with the
name of William Morris, who insisted by precept and
example that one form of artistic activity was as
worthy as another, and himself both practised and
trained others in the practiceof glass-painting, weaving,
S^"* embroidery, furniture and wall-paper designing, and
book decoration alike. His example has been to some
extent followed in most European countries, and efforts have
been made to reunite the, functions of artist and craftsman,
and to set a limit to the process of differentiation among the
various manual arts. In the vocal or time arts also, a reformer
of high genius and force of character, Richard Wagner, rose to
contend that in music the process of evolution and differentiation
had gone much too far. Music, he urged, as separated from
words 'and actions, independent orchestral and instrumental
music, had reached its utmost development, and its further
advance could only be an advance into the inane; while operatic
music had broken itself up into a number of set and separate
forms, as aria, scena, recitative, which corresponded to no real
varieties of instinctive emotional utterance, and in the aimless
production of which the art was in danger of paralysing and
stultifying itself. This process, he declared, must be checked;
music and words must be brought back again into close connexion
and mutual dependence; the artificial opera forma must be
abolished, and a new and homogeneous music-drama be created,
of which the author must combine in himself the functions of
poet, composer, inventor, and director of scenery and stage
appliances, so that the entire creation should bear the impress
of a single mind; to the creation of such a music-drama he
accordingly devoted all the energies of his being.
It is thus evident that the evolution theory, though it furnishes
us with some instructive points of view for the history of the fine
, arts as for other things, is far from being the whole
JJSZZpby key to that history. Another key, employed with
•rmteaf results perhaps less really luminous than they are
*!Z!mL* t ccrUinl y too"? **& attractive, is that supplied by
JJjf* Taine, Taine's philosophy, which might perhaps
be better called a natural history, 0/ fine art consists
in regarding the fine arts as the necessary result of the
general conditions under which they are at any time produced
— conditions of race and climate, of religion, civilization and
manners. Acquaint yourself with these conditions as they
existed in any given people at any given period, and you will
be able to account for the characters assumed by the arts of that
people at that period, and to reason from one to the other, as a
botanist can account for the flora of any given locality, and can
reason from its soil, exposure and temperature, to the orders
of vegetation which it will produce. This method of treating
the history of the fine arts, again, is one which can be pursued
with profit in so far as it makes the student realize the connexion
of fine arts with human culture in general, and teaches him how
the arts of any age and country are not an independent or
arbitrary phenomenon, bnt are essentially an outcome, or
efflorescence, to use a phrase of Ruskin's, of deep-seated elements
in the civilization which produces them. But it is a method
which, rashly used, is very apt to lead to a hasty and one-sided
handling both of history and of art. It is easy to fasten on
certain obvious relations of fine art to general civilisation when
you know a few of the facts of both, and to say, the cloudy skies
and mongrel industrial population of Protestant Amsterdam at
such and such a date had their inevitable reflection in the art of
Rembrandt; the wealth and pomp of the full-fleshed burghers
and burgesses of Catholic Antwerp had theirs in the art of
Rubens. But to do this in the precise and conclusive manner
of Taine's treatises on the philosophy of art always means to
ignore a large range of conditions or causes for which no corre-
sponding effect is on the surface apparent, and generally also
a large number of effects for which appropriate causes cannot
easily be discovered at all.
These considerations have resulted in a reaction
(HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Taine's theories which goes probably too far. It is no complete
confutation of his philosophy of art-history to contend,
as has been done somewhat contemptuously by
Professor Ernst Grosse and others, that the great
artist, so far from representing the general tendencies
of his time and environment, is commqnly a solitary
innovator and revolutionist, and has to educate and
create his own public, often through years of obloquy
or neglect. This is sometimes true when the traditions and
ideals of art are undergoing revolution or swift experimental
change, but hardly ever true in times of stable tradition and
accepted ideals; and when true it only shows that the tendencies
the innovating genius represents are tendencies which have till
his time been working underground, and which he is born to
bring into light and evidence. A new and revolutionary impulse
in art, as in thought or politics, is like a yeast or ferment working
at first secretly, affecting for a while only a few spirits, as a new
epidemic may for a while only affect a few constitutions, and
then gradually ripening and strengthening till it communicates
itself to thousands. In its inception such a ferment is not,
indeed, one of the obvious phenomena of the society in which
it takes root, but it is none the less one of the most vital and
significant phenomena. The truth is, that this particular
efflorescence of human culture depends for its character at any
given time upon combinations.of causes which are by no means
simple, but generally highly complex, obscure and nicely
balanced. For instance, the student who should try to reason
back from the holy and beatified character which prevails in
much of the devotional painting of the Italian schools down
to the Renaissance would be much mistaken were he to conclude,
"like art, like life, thoughts and manners." He would not
understand the relation of the art to the general civilization of
those days unless he were to remember that one of the chief
functions of the imagination is to make up for the shortcomings
of reality, and to supply to contemplation images of that which
is most lacking in actual life; so that the visions at once peaceful
and ardent embodied by the religious schools of art in the
Italian cities are to be explained, not by the peace, but rather
in great part by the dispeacc, of contemporary existence, and
by the longing of the human spirit to escape into happier and
more calm conditions.
Any one of the three modes of generalization to which we have
referred might no doubt yield, however, supposing in the student
the due gifts of patience and of caution, a working
due to guide him through that immense region of ^^
research, the history of the fine arts. But it is hardly bioimrt*
possible to pursue to any purpose the history of the **&*'
two great groups, the shaping group and the speaking *£ rf
group, together. At some stages of the world's wtthtkat
history the manual and the monumental arts have ■/«**
flourished, as in Egypt and Assyria, when there was "**
no fine art of words at all, and the only literature was JJJJ^
that of records cut in hieroglyph or cuneiform on
palace walls and temples, and on tablets, seals and cylinders.
At other times and in other communities there has existed
a great tradition and inheritance of poetry and song when the
manual arts were only beginning to emerge again from the
wreck of an old civilization, as in the Homeric age of Greece,
or where they had never flourished at all except by imitation
and importation, as in Palestine. In historic Greece all three
divisions of the art of poetry, the epic, lyric and the dramatic,
had been perfected, and two of them had again declined, before
sculpture had reached maturity or painting had passed beyond
the stage of its early severity. The European poetry of the
middle ages, abundant and rich as it was alike in France and
Provence, in Germany and Scandinavia, can yet not take rank,
among the creations of human genius, beside the great master-
pieces of Romanesque and Gothic architecture; it was in Italy
only that Dante, before the end of that age-, carried poetry to
a place of equality if not of primacy among the arts. Taking the
England of the Elizabethan age, we find the great outburst of
our national genius in poetry contemporary with nothing more
HOTOfclCAL DEVELOPMENT]
FINE ARTS
373
interesting in the manual: art* than the gttdual and only halt-
intelligent transformation of late Gothic architecture by the
adoption of Italian Renaissance forms imported principally
byway of Flanders or France, together with a fine native skill
shown in the art of miniature portrait-painting! and none at
all worth mentioning in other branches of painting or in sculpture.
If the course of poetry and that of the manual arts have thus
run independently throughout almost the whole field of history,
those of music and the manual arts have been more widely
separated still. In ancient Greece music and poetry were, we
know, most intimately connected, but of the true nature of Greek
music we know but tittle, of that of the earlier middle ages less
still, and throughout the later middle ages and the earlier
Renaissance the art remained undeveloped, whether in the
service of the church or in secular and popular use, and in both
cases in strict subservience to words. The growth of independent
music is entirely the work of the modern world, and w$ probably
rank in the esteem of posterity as its highest spiritual achievement
and claim to gratitude, when the mechanical inventions and
applications of applied science, which now occupy so dispropor-
tionate a part of the attention of humanity, have become a
normal and unregarded part of its existence.
Moments in history there have no doubt been when literature
and the manual arts, and even music, have been swept simul-
taneously along a single stream of ideas and feelings. Such a
moment was experienced in France in 1830 and the following
years, when (to choose only a few of the greatest names) Hugo
in poetry, Delacroix in painting, and BerKos in music were
roused to a high pitch of consentaneous inspiration by the new
ideas and feelings of romanticism. But such moments are rare
and exceptional. On the other hand, it is very possible to take
the whole of the shaping or manual group of fine arts together
and to pursue their history connectedly throughout the course
of civilization. By the history of art what is usually meant is
indeed the history of these three arts with that of some of their
subordinate and connected crafts. Leaving aside the arts of
the races of the farther East, which, profoundly interesting
as they are, have but gradually and late become known to us,
and the relations of which with the arts of the nearer East and
the Mediterranean are still quite obscure— leaving these aside,
the history of the manual arts of architecture, painting and
sculpture falls naturally into several great periods or divisions to
some extent overlapping each other but in the main consecutive.
These periods are roughly as follows: —
1. The period of the great civilizations of Mesopotamia
and the Nile, beginning approximately about 5000 B.C.
tutogirt. and ending, roughly speaking (but some of them
tioaa of much earlier), with the spread of Greek power and
ttobMoir Greek ideas under Alexander. On the main char-
acteristics of the art of these empires we have already
had occasion to touch.
2. The Minoan and Mycenaean period, partly contemporary
with the above and dating probably from about 2500 to about
1000 B.C.; our .knowledge of this is due entirely to quite recent
researches, confined at present to certain points in Greece and
Asia Minor, in Crete and other islands in the Mediterranean
basin; enough has already been revealed to prove the existence
of an original and highly developed palace-architecture and of
forms of relief-painting and of all the minor and decorative
arts more free and animated than anything known to Egypt or
Assyria. (See Crete and Aegean Civilization.)
3. The Greek and Roman period, from about 700 B.C. to the
final triumph of Christianity, say A.D. 400. During the first
two or three centuries of this period the Hellenic race, beginning
again after the cataclysm which had swallowed up the. earlier
Mediterranean civilizations, carried to perfection its most
characteristic art, that of sculpture, in the endeavour to embody
worthily its ideas of the supernatural powers governing the world.
Putting aside the monstrous gods of Egypt and the East, it
found its ideals in varieties of the human form as presented by
the most harmoniously developed specimens of the race under
conditions of the greatest health, activity and grace, Inthengures
of Greek sculpture, both decorative and independent, and no
doubt in Greek painting also (but of that we can only judge from
such specimens of the minor, handicrafts, chiefly vase-paintings,
as have come down to us) — in these were set for the whole
Western world the types and standards of human beauty, and
in their grouping and arrangement the types and standards
of rhythmical composition and design. Gradually human por-
traiture and themes of everyday Ufe took their place beside
representations of the gods and heroes. New schools struck
put new tendencies within certain limits. But' in the general
standards of form and design there was in the imitative arts
relatively little change, though towards the end there was much
failure of skill, throughout the whole period. The one great
change was in architecture. Greece had been content with the
constructive system of columns and horizontal entablature,
and under that system had invented and perfected her three
successive modes or orders of architecture— the Doric, Ionic and
Corinthian. The genius of Rome invented the round arch,
and by help of that system erected throughout her subject
world a thousand vast constructions— temple, palace, bath,
amphitheatre, forum, aqueduct, triumphal gate and the rest-
on a scale of monumental grandeur such as Greece had never
known.
4. The Christian period, from about 400 to about 1400.
The decay or petrifaction of the imitative arts which had set
in during the latter days of Rome continued during all the
earlier centuries of the Christian period, while the Western
world was in process of remaking. Free painting and free
sculpture practically ceased to exist. Roman architecture
underwent modifications under the influence of the church and
of the new conditions of life; the Byzantine form, touched at
certain times and places with oriental influences, developed
itself wherever the Eastern Empire still stood erect In decay;
the Romanesque form, as it is called, in the barbarian-conquered
regions of the west and north. Sculpture existed for centuries
only in rudimentary and subordinate forms as applied to archi-
tecture; painting only in forms of rigid though sometimes
impressive hieratic imagery, whether as mosaic in the apses and
vaults of churches, as. rude illumination in MSS. and service-
books, or as still ruder altar-painting carried on according to a
frozen mechanical tradition. As time went on and medieval
institutions developed themselves, a gradual vitality dawned
in all these arts. In architecture the introduction of the pointed
or Gothic arch at the beginning of the 13th century led to almost
as great a revolution as that brought about by the use of the
round or vaulted arch among the Romans. The same vital
impulse that informed the new Gothic architecture breathed
into the still quite subordinate arts of sculpture and painting
(the latter now including the craft of glass-painting for church
windows) a new spirit whether of devotional intensity or sweet-
ness, or of human pathos or rugged humour, with a new technical
skill for its embodiment We have not set down, as is usually
done, a specifically Gothic period in art, for this reason. The
characteristic of the whole Christian period is that its dominant
art is architecture, chiefly employed in the service of the church,
with painting and sculpture only subordinate^ introduced for
its enrichment. It makes no essential difference that from the
5th to the 1 2th century the forms of this art were derived with
various modifications from the round-arched architecture of the
Empire, and that by the 13th century new forms both of con-
struction and decoration, in which the round arch was replaced
by the pointed, had been invented in. France, and from thence
spread abroad to Germany and Scandinavia, Great Britain,
Spain, and last and most superficially to Italy. The essential
difference only begins when the imitative arts, sculpture and
painting, begin to emancipate and detach themselves, to exist
and strive after perfection on their own account. This happened
first and very partially in Italy with the artificers of the 13th
and 14th centuries— with the sculptors Nicola, Giovanni, and
Andrea Pisano; the Sienese group of painters, Ducdo; Simone
Martini, and the Lorenzetti; and the Florentine group, Cimabue
(if Cimabue is not a myth), Giotto and the Giotteschi. The
374
FINE ARTS
(HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
development of the rapid and flowing craft of fresco in place of
the Laborious and piecemeal craft of mosaic (henceforth for
several centuries almost lost) was a great aid to this movement.
After a period of something like stagnation, the movement
received a vigorous fresh impulse soon after 1400, at about
which date in Italy (not till near a century later in northern
Europe) the beginning of the Renaissance Is usually fixed.
5. The Renaissance period, from about 1400 to about 1600.
The passion for classic literature, stimulated by the influence
of Greek scholars into Italy after the fall of Constantinople;
the enthusiastic revival of classic forms of architecture by
architects like Brunelleschi and Albert i; the achievements in
sculpture and painting of masters like Donatello and Masaccio,
based on a new and impassioned study of nature and the antique
together; these are the outstanding and universally known
symptoms of the Italian Renaissance in the second and third
quarters of the 15th century. Promptly and contemptuously
in Italy, much more gradually and incompletely in the north,
Gothic principles of construction and decoration were cast
aside for classical principles, as reformulated by eager spirits
from a combined study of Roman remains and of the text of
Vitruvius. To the ideal types of devout and prayer-worn,
ascetic and spiritualized humanity (tempered in certain subjects
with elements of the homely and the grotesque), which the
spirit of the middle ages had dictated to the sculptor and the
painter, succeeded ideals of physical power, beauty and grace
rivalling the Hellenic. The personages of the Christian faith
and story were brought into visible kindred with those of ancient
paganism. In the hands of certain artists a fortunate blending
of the two ideals yielded results of a poignant and unique charm,
which for us, who are the heirs both of antiquity and the middle
ages, is far from being yet exhausted. At the same time, the
love alike of republics, great princes, churchmen, nobles and
merchants for works of art gave employment to sculptors and
painters on themes other than ecclesiastical. The taste for civic
or personal commemoration, for portraiture, for illustrations
of allegory, romance and classic fable, covered with pictures
the walls of council halls, of public and private palaces, and of
villas. The invention of the oil medium by the painters of
Flanders, and its gradual adoption by the Venetians and other
schools of Italy for all purposes except the external decorations
of buildings, added enormously to the resources of the art in
rivalry with nature, and to the splendour of its results as objects
of pride and luxury. The glories of matured Italian art reacted,
not always favourably, on the north. The great days of Flemish
painting had been from about 1430 to 1500, before any appreci-
able influence of the Renaissance had touched the schools of
Brussels, of Bruges or of Antwerp. By about 1520 the artists
of those schools had begun, except in portraiture, to* lose their
native vigour and originality by contact with the alien south.
Among the great artists of Germany in the first half of the x6tb
century the work of one or two, like Burgkmair and Holbein,
shows Italian influence reconciled not unsuccessfully with native
instinct; but Dtirer, the greatest of them, remained in all
essentials Gothic and German to the end. During the last half
of the century, the Netherlands and Germany alike yielded^
little but work of mongrel Teutonixed Italian or Italianized*
Teutonic type, until towards its close Rubens accomplished, in
the fire of his prodigious temperament, a true fusion of Flemish
and Venetian qualities, at the same time closing gloriously
the Renaissance period properly so called, and handing on an
example which irresistibly affected a great part of modern
painting.
6. Modern period, from about 1600 to the present time.
During this period architecture remained in all European
countries, until the 19th century, more or less completely under
the influence of the Italian Renaissance. The principles of the
classical revival had during a century or more of transition been
gradually absorbed, first by France, then by Germany, the Low
Countries, and Spain, and last by England, each country modify-
ing the style according to its degree of knowledge or ignorance,
its needs, instincts and traditions. Sculpture, which in the
hands of the great masters of the earlier and later Renaissance
in Italy had almost equalled its ancient glories, nay, in those of
Michelangelo had actually surpassed them in the qualities at
least of superhuman energy and intellectual expression—
sculpture lost the sense of its true limitations, and entered,
with the work of Bernini and even earlier, into an extravagant
or " baroque " period of relaxed and bulging line, of exaggerated
and ostentatious virtuosity. In tMs it followed the lead given
by Italian architecture, by Jesuit church architecture especially,
at and after the height of the Catholic reaction. From the
monumental and memorial purposes which sculpture principally
serves, it remained still, except in purely iconic uses, attached
to or dependent on architecture. Not so painting, which asserted
its independence more and more. • In Protestant countries the
old ecclesiastical patronage of the art had quite died out; in
those that remained Catholic it continued, and even received
a new stimulus from the anti-Protestant reaction. The demand
for religious art was supplied with abundance of traditional
facility, of technical accomplishment and devotional display,
but with a loss of the old sincerity and inspiration. Almost all
painting, even for the most extensive and monumental phases
of decoration in church or palace or civic hall, was on canvas
stretched over or fined into its allotted space in the architecture,
and the art of fresco, even in Venice, its last stronghold, was
for a time neglected or forgotten. Portable paintings for princely
or private galleries and cabinets became the chief and most
characteristic products of the art. The subjects of painting
multiplied themselves. All manner of new aspects of life and
nature were brought within the technical compass of the painter.
Besides devotional and classical subjects and portraiture, daily
life in all its phases, down to the homeliest and grossest, the
life of the parlour and the tavern, of field and shore and sea,
with landscape in all its varieties, took their place as material
for the painter. The truths of indoor and outdoor atmosphere
were translated on canvas for the first time. The Dutchmen
from about 1620 to 1670 were the most active innovators and
path-breakers of modern art along all these lines. The greatest
of them, Rembrandt, dealt, as has been said, like a master and a
magician with the problems of human individuality as revealed
in a mysterious colour and shadow world of his own invention.
At the same time a painter of no less power in Spain, Velazquez,
viewing the world in the natural light of every day, showed for
the first time how vitally and subtly paint could render the
relief and mutual values of figures and objects in space, the
essential truth of their visible relations and reactions in the
enveloping atmosphere. The achievement of these two victorious
innovators has only come to be fully understood in our own day.
The simultaneous conquest of Claude le Lorrain, on the other
hand, over the atmospheric glow of summer and sunset on the
Roman Campagna and the adjacent hills and coasts, found
acceptance instantly, less perhaps for its own sake than because
of the classical associations of the scenery which he depicted.
The vast widening of the field of the painter's art and multiplica-
tion of its subjects, which thus took place at the dawn of the
modern period, were gains attended by one drawback, the loss,'
namely, of the sense of high seriousness and universal appeal
which belonged to the art while its themes had been those of
religion and classic story almost exclusively.
During the three hundred or so years of the modem period,
academical schools attempting, more or less unsuccessfully,
to carry on the great Italian and classical traditions
of the Renaissance have not ceased to exist side by *■*
side with those which have striven to express new
ways of seeing and feeling. Sometimes, as in France
first under Louis XTV., and again for forty years from the
beginning of the Revolution to the dawn of romanticism, such
schools have succeeded in crushing out and discrediting all
efforts in other directions. Between these two epochs, say
from 1710 to 1780, French 18th-century ideals of social elegance
and brilliant frivolity expressed themselves in forms of great
accomplishment and vivacity both in poetry and sculpture,
from the days of Watteau to those of Fragonard and Clodion.
«***«*.
FINGER— FINGER-AND-TOE
375
At tlie same time England produced one of the finest and at the
same time most national and downright masters of the brush in
Hogarth; two of the greatest aristocratic portrait-painters of the
world in Reynolds and Gainsborough, each of whom modified
according to his own instincts the tradition imported in the
previous century- by Van Dyck, the greatest pupa of Rubens
(Reynolds fusing with this influence those of Rembrandt and the
Venetians in almost equal shares). Pastoral landscape in the
hands of Gainsborough, classical, following Claude, in those of
Wilsoa— these together with the humble but wholesome discipline
of topographical illustration led on to the ambitious, wide-ranging
and often inspired experiments of Turner, and to the narrower
but more secure achievements of Constable in the same field,
and made this country the acknowledged pioneer of modern
landscape art. In the meantime the wave of classical enthusiasm
which passed over Europe in the later years of the 18th century
had produced in architecture generally a return to severer
principles and purer lines, in reaction from the baroque and the
rococo Renaissance styles of the preceding century and a half.
In Italian sculpture, the same movement inspired during the
Napoleonic period the over-honeyed accomplishment of Canova
and his school; in northern sculpture, the more truly antique
but almost wholly imitative work of Thorwaldsen, and the pure
and rhythmic grace of the English Flaxman, a true master of
design though scarcely of sculpture strictly so called. The
same movement again was partly responsible in English painting
and illustration from about 1770 to 1820 for much pastoral and
idyllic work of agreeable but shallow elegance. In French
painting the classic movement struck deeper. Along with
much would-be Roman attitudinizing there was much real, if
rigid, power in the work of David, much accomplished purity
and sweetness in that of Prud'hon. The last and truest classic
of France, and at the same time in portraiture the greatest
realist, Ingres, held high the standard of his cause even through
and past the great romantic revival which began with Gericault
and culminated in Delacroix and the school of landscape painters
.who had received their inspiration from Constable. The main
instincts embodied in the Romantic mivement were the awaken*
ing of the human spirit to an eager retrospective love of the past,
and especially of the medieval p*st, and simultaneously to a
new passion for the beauties of nature, and especially of wild
nature. Germany and England preceded France in this double
awakening; in both countries the movement inspired a fine
literature, but in neither did it express itself so fully and self-
consciously through literature and the other arts together as
it did in France when the hour struck. The revival of medieval
sentiment in Germany had inspired comparatively early in the
century the learned but somewhat aridly ascetic and essentially
unpainterlike work of the group of artists who styled themselves
Naxarener. In England the same revival expressed itself
during a great part of the Victorian age in an enthusiastic return
to the early Gothic ecclesiastical styles of architecture, a return
unsuccessful upon the whole, because in pursuit of archaeological
and grammatical detail the root qualities Of right proportion
and organic design were too often neglected.
Allied with this Gothic revival, and stimulated like it by the
persuasive conviction and brilliant resource of Ruskin in criticism
was the pre-Raphaeiite movement in painting. Among
Tkepn* tnc artists identified with this movement there was
little really in common except in impatience of the
prevailing modes of empty academic convention or
anecdotic frivolity. The name covered for a while the essentially
divergent aims of a vigorous unintellectual craftsman like
Millais, fired for a few years in youth by contact with more
imaginative temperaments, of a strenuous imitator of unharmon-
ized local colours and unsubordinated natural facts like Holman
Hunt, and of born poets and impassioned medievalists like
Rossctti and after him Burne-Jones. Meantime in France,
putting aside the work of the great Delacroix, the impulse of
1830 expressed itself best and most lastingly in the monumental
work of Daumier both in caricature and romance, the impressive
and significant treatment of peasant life and labour by J. F.
Millet, the vitally truthful pastoral and landscape work of
Troyon, Corot, Daubigny and the rest.
Since the exhaustion of the Romantic movement, the other
movement that have been taking place in European art have
been too numerous and too rapid to be touched on
here to any purpose. Both in sculpture and painting ,
France has taken and held the lead. Mention has *****
already been. made of the spedal tendency in recent *^
sculpture identified with the name and influence of Rodin. In
painting there has been the fertilizing and transforming influence
of Japan on the decorative ideals of the West; there have
been successively the Realist movement, the movements of
the Impressionists, the Luminists, the Neo-impressionists, the
Independents, movements initiated almost always in Paris,
and in other countries eagerly adopted and absorbed, or angrily
controverted and denounced, or simply neglected and ignored
according to the predilection of this or that group of artists
and critics; there has been a vast amount of heterogeneous,
hurried, confident and clamant innovating activity in this
direction and in that, much of it perhaps doomed to futility in
the eyes of posterity, but at any rate there has not been stag-
nation.
BiBLirxiRArTiT*— To attempt in this place anything; like a futl
bibliography covering so va»t 4 Hl-EiI would be idle. Many of the
book? mxi^iary to a hr^t-hand filudy of the subject ore cited in the
article Aesthetics. The following arc some of the most i moor La at
writing* actually referred to in the tcjtt, Enzliih translation* being
mentioned *here they exist: Aristotle. FoelKJ t edited with critical
HO'- - ind .1 tj-.m-'uiMri hy S, H Huh Km r uAyS)] S, T|. UiimI-t,
Atiitoite't Theory of Poetry and Fine Art* with a critical toft ant! a
translation of the Poetks (1907); Plato, Repvhttc, bk. *, 596 fT„
600 ff. (Grote. iii. 1 17 ff.; jowett, iLL 4H9 ff.); B + Fto&mquci,
Introduction to He^ti's Philosophy of Fine Art (Aitheiik), translation,
wilh notes and prvfatfuy eway (tfioA); The Philosophy of Art, an
Introduction to ike Scitna of Attfheiici, by Hcgc I and C. L. Mkhelct,
trams. Hastie (|&K6); Schiller, Brief* ubrr die dsthctisthe ErtUhung
des Mciiicheit (trans, by G* h Writs, with pirfuce by J. Chapman.
184s; al*o in Hohn's Standan! Library, 1S46): Herbert Spencer,
Finl PtitcipJfj, ch. xsii.i Got I fried Semper, 0*r Sttf (1660-1865);
Hippolyte Taint, Dt i'idial dans Vart (i«bf). Pk&oso^kit d* iV/r*
Grtie (ifrbtj), philtiiofrftie de I' art en Itatit, Fhilesophut de t'att dans
Us Pcfi-Pas (translations in 5 vols, by J, Durand, Slew Yorlc, i£&uk
Karl Grooa, Die Spirit drr Mrnschen ((809; inn*, by E. L. Baldwin*
1901 1, and Dio spirit der Tkf* (?nd «., 1907; Iran*, by E. L.
Baldwin, 1JJ9A); km** Gro^c, Vi* Anf&nt* &* KnujI (1894; Irani,
in 1 lie Anitirup>fogical Scries. 1S94); Vrjo Witty t The Origins of Art
flooo): G. Baldwin Brown, The Fine Arts (sad ed\. looa): FcIU
Clay, Thr Origins of th* Seme of Beauty (190ft). For a general history
of the manual or shaping group of art% C J^ F. Scha&vic, Geichichio
der bitdctiden K unite (Jnd ed* 1066-11170?, though in part* obsolete,
U Mill un superseded. A very nummary general view 11 given in
Salomon Remach. The Story of Art through the Ages {tram* by
Florence SEmmomK 1904)* a general history of the same croup
wat undertaken by Giulio Carotu (Engh&h translation by Alice Todd,
1900). IS. t.)
FIMGER, one of the five members with which the hand is
terminated, a digit; sometimes the word is restricted to the
four digits other than the thumb. The word is common to
Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vinger and Ger. Finger; probably
the ultimate origin is to be found in the root of the words ap-
pearing in Greek vbrc, Lat. qmnque, five. (See Skeleton:
Appendicular.)
FINGER-AND-TOB, Club Root or Anbury, a destructive
plant-disease known botanicaOy as Plasmo&iophora Brassicoe,
which attacks cabbages, turnips, radishes and other cultivated
and wild members of the order Crudferae. It is one of the
so-called Slime-fungi or Myxogastres. The presence of the
disease is indicated by nodules or warty outgrowths on the
root* which sometimes becomes much swollen and ultimately
rots, emitting an unpleasant smell. The disease is contracted
from spores present in the soil, which enter the root. The
parasite develops within the living cells of the plant, forming
a glairy mass of protoplasm known as the Plasmodium, the form
of which alters from time to time. The cells which have been
attacked increase enormously in size and the disease spreads
from cell to cell. Ultimately the Plasmodium becomes resolved
into numerous minute round spores which, on the decay of the
root, are set free in the soil. A preventive is quicklime, the
376
FIN GER-PRINTS— FINIGUERRA
application of which destroys the spores in the soil. It is impor-
tant thai diseased plants should be burned, also that cruciferous
Fingcr-and-Toe (Plasnodiophora Brasskac).
I, Turnip attacked by the disease, reduced.
?, A cell of the tissue containing the Plasmodium; the smaller cells
at the aides are unaffected.
3, Infected cell, showing spore formation. 2, 3, highly magnified.
weeds, such as shepherd's purse, charlock, &c, should not be
allowed to grow in places where plants of the same order are in
cultivation.
FINGER-PRINTS. The use of finger-prints as a system of
identification (q.v.) is of very ancient origin, and was known
from the earliest days in the East when the impression of his
thumb was the monarch's sign-manual. A relic of this practice
is still, preserved in the formal confirmation of a legal document
by " delivering " it as one's " act and deed." The permanent
character of the finger-print was first put forward scientifically
In 1823" by J. E. Purkinje, an eminent professor of physiology,
who read a paper before the university of Breslau, adducing nine
standard types of impressions and advocating a system Of classi-
fication which attracted no great attention. Bewick, the
English draughtsman, struck with the delicate qualities of the
lincation, made engravings of the impression of two of his finger-
tips and used them as signatures for his work. Sir Francis
Galton, who laboured to introduce finger-prints, points out that
they were proposed for the identification of Chinese immigrants
when registering their arrival in the United States. In India,
Sir William Hcrschcl desired to use finger-prints in the courts
of the Hugli district to prevent false personation and fix
the identity upon the executants of documents. The .Bengal
police under the wise administration of Sir E. R. Henry, after-
wards chief commissioner of the London metropolitan police,
usefully adopted finger-prints for the detection of crime, an
example followed in many public departments in India. A
transfer of property is attested by the thumb-mark, so are
documents when registered, and advances made to opium-
growers or to labourers on account of wages, or to contracts
signed under the emigration law, or medical certificates to
vouch for the persons examined, all tending to check the frauds
and impostures constantly attempted.
The prints depend upon a peculiarity seen in the human hand
and to some extent in the human foot. The -skin is traversed
in all directions by creases and ridges, which arc ineradicable
and show no change from childhood to extreme old age. The
persistence of the markings of the finger-tips has been proved
beyond all question, and this universally accepted quality has
been the basis of the present system of identification. The
impressions, when examined, show that the ridges appear in
certain fixed patterns, from which an alphabet of signs or a
system of notation has been arrived at for convenience of record.
As the result of much experiment a fourfold scheme of classifi-
cation has been evolved, and the various types employed
arc styled " arches," " loops," " whorls " and " composites."
There are seven subclasses, and all are perfectly distinguishable
by an expert, who can describe each by its particular symbol
in the code arranged, so that the whole " print " can be read
as a distinct and separate expression. Very few, and the simplest,
appliances are required for taking the print — a sheet of white
paper, a tin slab, and some printer's ink. Scars or malformations
do not interfere with the result.
The unchanging character of the finger-prints has repeatedly
helped in the detection of crime. We may quote the case of the
thief who broke into a residence and among other things helped
himself to a glass of wine, leaving two finger-prints upon the
tumbler which were subsequently found to be identical with
those of a notorious criminal who was arrested, pleaded guilty
and was convicted. Another burglar effected entrance by re-
moving a pane of glass from a basement window, but, unhappily
for him, left his imprints, which were referred to the registry
and found to agree exactly with those of a convict at large;
his address was' known, and when visited some of the stolen
property was found in his possession. In India a murderer was
identified by the brown mark of a blood-stained thumb he had
left when rummaging amongst the papers of the deceased.
This man was convicted of theft but not of the murder.
The keystone to the whole system is the central office where
the register or index of all criminals is kept for ready reference.
The operators need no special gifts or lengthy training; method
and accuracy suffice, and abuhdant checks exist to obviate
incorrect classification and reduce the liability to error.
Authorities.— F. Galton, Fineer Prints (1892), .Fingerprint
Directories (1895); E. R. Henry, Classification and Uses of Finger
Prints; A. Yvert, L' Identification par Us emtneintes digUales pal*
maires (1905) ; K. Windt, R. S. Kodicck, Dcktyloskopie. Venoertunf
von Fingerabdrucktn tu Identifisierungszwecken (Vienna, 1904) ; E.
Loeard, La Dactyloscopic. Identification des rtcidmstes par Us
empreintes digUales (1904); H. Faulds, Guide to Finger-Print
Identification (1905); H. Gross, Criminal Investigation (trans. J. and
J. C.Adam, 1907). (A. G.)
FINGO, or Fencu (Ama-Fengu, "wanderers"), a Bantu-
Negro people, allied to the Zulu family, who have given their
name to the district of Fingoland, the S.W. portion of the
Transkei division of the Cape province. The Fingo tribes were
formed from the nations broken up by Chaka and his Zulu;
after some years of oppression by the Xosa they appealed to the
Cape government in 1835, and were permitted by Sir Benjamin
D' Urban to settle on the banks of the Great Fish river. They
have been always loyal to the British, and have steadily advanced
in social respects. They have largely adapted themselves to
western culture, wearing European clothes supporting their
schools by voluntary contributions, editing newspapers, translat-
ing English poetry, and setting their national songs to correct
music. The majority call themselves Christians and many of
them have intermarried with Europeans. (See Kaffuu>.) ,
P1NIAL (a variant of " final "; Lat. finis, end), an archi-
tectural term for the termination of a pinnacle, gable end,
buttress, or canopy, consisting of a bunch of foliage, which
bears a close affinity to the crockets (q.v.) running up the gables,
turrets or spires, and in some cases may be formed by uniting
four or more crockets together. Sometimes the term is in-
correctly applied to a small pinnacle of which it is only the
termination (see Epi).
FINIGUERRA. MASO [i.e. Tommaso] (1426-1464), Florentine
goldsmith, draughtsman, and engraver, whose name is distin-
guished in the history of art and craftsmanship for reasons which
are partly mythical. Vasari represents him as having been the
first inventor of the art of engraving (using that word in its
popular sense of taking impressions on paper from designs
engraved on metal plates), and Vasari 's account was universally
accepted and repeated until recent research proved it erroneous.
What we actually know ftom contemporary documents of
Finiguerra, his origin, his life, and his work, is as follows. He
FINIGUERRA
377
was the son of Antonio, and grandson of Tommaso Finiguerra or
Flnigaerri, both goldsmiths of Florence, and was born in Sta
Lucia d'Ognissanti in 1426. He was brought up to the hereditary
profession of goldsmith and was early distinguished for his work
in niello. In his twenty-third year (1449) wc nnd note °* *
sulphur cast from a niello of his workmanship bring handed
over by the painter Alessio Baldovinetti to a customer in pay-
ment or exchange for a dagger received. In 1452 Maso delivered
and was paid for a niellated silver pax commissioned for the
baptistery of St John by the consuls of the gild of merchants
or Calimara. By this time he seems to have left his father's
workshop: and we know that he was in partnership with Picro
di Bartolommeo cK Sail and the great Antonio PoUaiuolo in 1457,
when the firm had an order for a pair of fine silver candlesticks
for the church of San Jacopo at Pistoia. In 1459 we find Fini-
guerra noted in the house-book of Giovanni Rucellai as one of
several distinguished artists with whose works the Casa Rucellai
was adorned. In 1462 he is recorded as having supplied another
wealthy Florentine, Cino di Filippo Rinuccini, with waist-
buckles, and in the years next following with forks and spoons
for christening presents. In 1463 he drew cartoons, the heads
of which were coloured by Alessio Baldovinetti, for five or more
figures for the sacristy of the duomo, which was being decorated
in wood inlay by a group of artists with Giuliano da Maiano at
their head. On the 14th of December 1464 Maso Finiguerra
made his will, and died shortly afterwards..
These documentary facts are supplemented by several writers
of the next generation with statements more or less authoritative.
Thus Bacdo Bandinelli says that Maso was among the young
artists who worked under Ghiberti on the famous gates of the
baptistery; Benvenuto Cellini that he was the finest master of
his day in the art of niello engraving, and that his masterpiece
was a pax of the Crucifixion in the baptistery of St John; that
being no great draughtsman, he in most cases, including that of
the above-mentioned pax, worked from drawings by Antonio
PoUaiuolo. Vasari, on the other hand, allowing that Maso was
a much inferior draughtsman to PoUaiuolo, mentions nevertheless
a number of original drawings by him as existing in his own
collection, " with figures both draped and nude, and histories
drawn in water-colour." Vasari's account was confirmed and
amplified in the next century by Baldinucd, who says that he
has seen many drawings by FinTguerra much in the manner of
Masaccio; adding that Maso «as beaten by PoUaiuolo in com-
petition for the reliefs of the great silver altar-table commission
by the merchants' gild for the baptistery of St John (this famous
work is now preserved in the Opera del Duomo). But the para-
graph of Vasari which has chiefly held the attention 0/ posterity
is that in which he gives this craftsman the credit of having
been the first to print off impressions from niello plates on sulphur
casts and afterwards on sheets of paper, and of having followed
up this invention by engraving copper-plates for the express
purpose of printing impressions from them, and thus became
the inventor and father of the art of engraving in general.
Finiguerra, adds Vasari, was succeeded in the practice of engrav-
ing at Florence by a goldsmith called Baccio Baldini, who, not
having much invention of his own, borrowed his designs from
other artists and especially from Botticelli. In the last years of
the 18th century Vasari's account of Finiguarra's invention was
held to have received a decisive and startling confirmation under
the following circumstances. There was in the baptistery at
Florence (now in the Bargello) a beautiful 15th-century niello
pax of the Coronation of the Virgin. The Abate Gori, a savant
and connoisseur of the mid-century, had claimed this conjee tur-
ally for the work of Finiguerra; a later and still more enthusi-
astic virtuoso, the Abate Zani, discovered first, in the collection
of Count Seratti at Leghorn, a sulphur cast from the very same
niello (this cast is now in the British Museum), and then, in the
National library at Paris, a paper impression corresponding to
both. Here, then, he proclaimed, was the actual material first-
fruit of Finiguerra's invention and proof positive of Vasari's
accuracy.
Zani's famous discovery, though still accepted in popular
ait histories and museum guides, is now discredited among
serious students. For one thing, it has been proved that the
art of printing from engraved copper-plates had been known in
Germany, and probably in Italy also, for years before the date
of Finiguerra's alleged invention. For another, Maso's pax for
the baptistery, if Cellini is to be trusted, represented not a
Coronation of the Virgin but a Crucifixion. In the next place, its
recorded weight does not at all agree with that of the pax claimed
by Gori and Zani to be his. Again, and perhaps this is the
strongest argument of any, all authentic records agree in repre-
senting Finiguerra as a close associate in art and business of
Antonio PoUaiuolo. Now nothing is more marked than the
special style of PoUaiuolo and his group; and nothing is more
unlike it than the style of the Coronation pax, the designer of
which must obviously have been trained in quite a different
school, namely that of Filippo Lippi. So this seductive identifica-
tion has to be abandoned, and we have to look elsewhere for
traces of the real work of Finiguerra. The onlyfuUy authenti-
cated specimens which exist are the above-mentioned tarsia
figures, over half life-size, executed from his cartoons for the
sacristy of the duomo. But his hand has lately been conjectur-
ally recognized in a number of other things : first in a set of
drawings of the school of PoUaiuolo at the Uffizi, some of which
are actually inscribed " Maso finiguerra * in a 17th-century
writing, probably that of Baldinucd himself; and secondly
in a very curious and important book of nearly a hundred
drawings by the same hand, acquired in 1888 for the British
Museum. The Florence series depicts for the most part figures
of the studio and the street, to all appearance members of the
artist's own family and workshop, drawn direct from life. The
museum volume, on the other hand, is a picture-chronicle, drawn
from imagination, and representing parallel figures of sacred
and profane history, In a chronological series from the Creation
to JuUus Caesar, dressed and accoutred with inordinate richness
according to the quaint pictures which Tuscan popular fancy
in the mid- 15th century conjured up to itself of the ancient
world. Except for the differences naturally resulting from the
difference of subject, and that the one series are done from fife
and the other from imagination, the technical style and handling
of the two are identical and betray unmistakably a common
origin. Both can be dated with certainty, from their style,
costumes, tfc, within a few years of 1460. Both agree strictly
with the accounts of Finiguerra's drawings left us by Vasari and
Baldimicci, and disagree in no respect with the character of the
inlaid figures of the sacristy. That the draughtsman was a
goldsmith is proved on every page of the picture-chronicle by
his skill and extravagant delight in the ornamental parts of
design— chased and jewelled cups, helmets, shields, breastplates,
scabbards and the like, — as well as by the symmetrical metaUic
forms into which he instinctively conventionalizes plants and
flowers. That he was probably also an engraver in niello appears
from the fact that figures from the Ufnzi series of drawings are
repeated among the rare anonymous Florentine nieuo prima
of the time (the chief collection of which, formerly belonging to
the marquis of Salamanca, is now in the cabinet of M. Edmond de
Rothschild in Paris). That he was furthermore an engraver on
copper seems certain from the fact that the general style and
many particular figures and features of the British Museum
chronicle drawings are exactly repeated in some of those primitive
15th-century Florentine prints which used to be catalogued
loosely under the names of Baldini or Botticelli, but have of
late years been classed more cautiously as anonymous prints in
the "fine manner" (in contradistinction to another contem-
porary group of prints in the M broad manner "). The fine-
manner group of primitive Florentine engravings itself falls
into two divisions, one more archaic, more vigorous and original
than the other, and consisting for the most part of larger and
more important prints. It is this division which the drawings of
the Chronicle series most closely resemble; so closely as almost
to compel the conclusion that drawings and engravings are by
the same hand. The later division of fine-manner prints represent
a certain degree of technical advance from the earlier, and are
37«
FINISHING
softer in style, with elements of more classic grace and playful-
ness; their motives moreover are seldom original, but are
borrowed from various sources, some from German engravings,
some from Botticelli or a designer closely akin to him, some
from the pages of the British Museum Chronicle-book itself,
with a certain softening and attenuating of their rugged spirit;
as though the book, after the death of the original draughtsman-
engraver, had remained in his workshop and continued to be
used by his successors. We thus find ourselves in presence of a
draughtsman of the school of Pollaiuolo, some of whose drawings
bear an ancient attribution to Finiguerra, while all agree with
what is otherwise known of him, and one or two are exactly
repeated in extant works of niello, the craft which was peculiarly
his own; others being intimately related to the earliest or all
but the earliest works of Florentine engraving, the kindred
craft which tradition avers him to have practised, and which
Vasari erroneously believed him to have invented. Surely,
it has been confidently argued, this draughtsman must be no
other than the true Finiguerra himself. The argument has not
yet been universally accepted, but neither has any competent
criticism appeared to shake it; so that it may be regarded for
the present as holding the field!
Bibliography. — See Bandinelli in Bottari, RaccoUa di letter e
('754). »• P. 75; Vasari (ed. Milanesi), i. p. aoo, iii. p. 206; Ben-
venuto Cellini, / TrtMati deW oriftceria, &c. (ed. Lemonnier), pp. 7,
vol. i. pref. and- vol. ii. ; and for a full discussion of the whole ques-
tion, with quotations from earlier authorities and reproductions
of the works discussed, Sidney Colvin, A Florentine Picture CkronicU
(1898). (S.C.)
FINISHING. The term finishing, as specially applied in the
textile industries, embraces the process or processes to which
bleached, dyed or printed fabrics of any description are subjected*
with the object of imparting a characteristic appearance to the
surface of the fabric, or of influencing its handle or feel. Strictly
speaking, certain operations might be classed under this heading
which are conducted previous to bleaching, dyeing, &c; e.g.
mercerizing (q.v.), stretching and crabbing, singeing (see Bleach-
ing); but as these are not undertaken by the finisher, only
those will be dealt with here which are not mentioned under
other headings. By the various treatments to which the fabric
is subjected in finishing, it is often so altered in appearance that
it is impossible to recognize in it the same material that came
from the loom or from the bleacher or dyer. On the other hand,
one and the same fabric, subjected to different processes of
finishing, may be made to represent totally different classes of
material In other cases, however, the appearance of the finished
article differs but slightly from that of the piece on leaving the
loom.
All processes of finishing are purely mechanical in character,
and the most important of them depend upon the fact that in
their ordinary condition (i.e. containing their normal amount of
moisture), or better still in a damp state, the textile fibres are
plastic, and consequently yield to pressure or tension, ultimately
assuming the shape imparted to them. The old-fashioned box
press, formerly largely used for household linen, owed its efficacy
to this principle. At elevated temperatures the damp fibres
become very much more plastic than at the ordinary temperature,
the simplest form of finishing appliance based on this fact being
the ordinary flat iron. Indeed it may safely be stated that most
of the modern finishing processes have been evolved from the
household operations of washing (milling), brushing, starching,
mangling, ironing and pressing.
Cotton Pieces. — In the ordinary process of bleaching, cotton
goods are subjected during the various operations to more or
less continual longitudinal tension, and while becoming elongated,
shrink more or less considerably in width. In order to bring
them back to their original width, they are stretched or
" stentered " by means of specially constructed machines. The
most effective of these is the so-called stentering frame, which
consists essentially of two slightly diverging endless chains
carrying clips or pins which hold the piece in position as it
traverses the machine. The length of a frame may vary from
20 to 30 yds. On the upper part of the frame the chains run in
slots, and by means of set screws the distance between the two
chains can be set within the required limits. The pieces are
fed on to one end of the machine in the damp state by hand and
are then naturally slack. But before they have travelled many
yards they become taut, the stretching increasing as they travel
along. Simultaneously with the stretching, the pieces are dried
by a current of hot air which is blown through from below, so
that on arriving at the end of the machine they are not only
stretched to the required degree but are also dry. The machine
used for stentering is more fully described under Mercerizing
(q.v.). In case the goods come straight from the loom to be
finished, stentering is not necessary.
Pieces intended to receive a " pure " finish pass on without
further treatment to the ordinary finishing processes such as
calendering, hot pressing, raising, &c. But in the majority of
cases they are previously impregnated, according to the finish
desired, with stiffening or softening agents, weighting materials,
&c Usually, starch constitutes the main stiffening agent, with
additions of china clay, barium compounds, &c, for weighting
purposes, and Turkey red oil, with or without the addition of
some vegetable oil or fat, as the softening agent. Magnesium
sulphate is also largely used in order to give " body " to the cloth,
which it does by virtue of its property of crystallizing in fine
felted needle-shaped crystals throughout the mass of the fabric.
When starch is used in filling, it is advisable to add some anti-
septic, such as zinc chloride, sodium silicofluoride, phenol or
salicylic acid, in order to prevent or retard subsequent develop-
ment of mildew. The impregnation of the pieces with the
filling is effected in two ways, viz. either throughout the thickness
of the cloth or on one surface only (back starching). When the
whole piece is to be impregnated the operation is conducted in a
starching mangle, which is similar in construction to an ordinary
household mangle, though naturally larger and more elaborate
in construction. The pieces run at full width through a trough
situated immediately below the bowls and containing the filling
(starch paste, &c.), then between the bowls, the pressure (" nip ")
of which regulates the amount of filling taken up, and thence
over a range of steam-heated drying cylinders (see Bleaching).
In case one side only of the goods is to be stiffened— and this
is usually necessary in the case of printed goods, — a so-called
back-starching mangle is employed.
The construction of the machine varies, but the simplest form
consists essentially of a wooden bowl a (fig. 1) which runs in the
starch paste con-
tained in trough 1. wm , , , —
The pieces pass >/~S ~ /^ ^V *
from the batch- / / \«t
roller B, through
scrimp rails S and
over the bowl
under tension,
touching the sur-
face from which
they gather the
starch paste. By Fig. r.— Principle of Back-Starching Machine,
means of the fixed
" doctor " blade d, which extends across the piece, the paste is
levelled on the surface of the fabric and excess scraped off, falling
back into the trough,
to the cylinders.
The goods are then dried with the face side
Some goods come into the market with no further treatment
after starching other than running through a mangle with a
little softening and then drying, but in the great majority of
cases they are subjected to further operations.
Dampii'g.— When deprived of their natural moisture by
drying on the cylinder drying machine*, cotton goods are not in a
fit condition to undergo the subsequent operations of calendering,
beetling, &c„ since the fibres in the dry state have lost their
plasticity. The pieces are consequently damped to the desired
degree, and this is usually effected in a damping machine in
passing through which they meet with a fine spray of water.
A simple and effective device for this purpose is shown in section
in fig. 2. It consists essentially of a brass roller r running in water
FINISHING
379
contained in a trough or box I. Touching the brass roller is a brush
roller * which revolves at a high speed, thus spraying the water,
which it takes up
continuously from
the wet revolving
brass roller in all
directions, and
consequently also
Fig. 2. — Principle of Damping Machine.
against the piece
which passes in a
stretched condi-
tion over the top
of the box. being
drawn from the
batch roller B,
over scrimp rails S. and batched again on the other side on roller R.
The level of the water in the' trough is kept constant.
Calendering.— The calender may be regarded as an elaboration
of the ordinary mangle, from which, however, it differs essentially
inasmuch as one or more of the rollers or bowls are made of steel
or iron and can be treated either by gas or steam; the other
bowls are made of compressed cottou or paper. Three distinct
forms of calender are in use, viz. the ordinary calender, the
friction calender and the embossing calender.
The number of bowls in an ordinary calender varies between
two and six according to the character of the finish for which
it is intended. In a modern five-bowl calender the bottom bowl
is made of cast iron, the second of compressed cotton or paper,
the third of iron being hollow and fitted with steam heating
apparatus. The fourth bowl is made of compressed cotton, and
the fifth of cast iron. The pieces are simply passed through for
*' swissing," i.e. for the production of an ordinary plain finish.
The same calender may also be used for " chasing/' in which
two pieces are passed through, fact to face, in order to produce
an imitation linen finish. Moire* or " watered " effects are
produced in a similar way, but these effects art frequently
imitated in the embossing calender.
The friction calender, the object of which is to produce a high
gloss on the fabric, differs from the ordinary calender inasmuch
as one of the bowls is caused to revolve at a greater speed than
the others. In an ordinary three-bowl friction calender the
bottom bowl is made of cast iron, the middle one of compressed
cotton or paper, and the top one (the friction bowl) of highly
polished chilled iron. The last-named bowl, which has a greater
peripheral speed than the others, is hollow and can be heated
either by steam or gas.
The embossing calender is usually constructed of two bowls,
one of which is of steel and the other of compressed cotton or
paper. The steel roller, which is hollow and can be heated
either by steam or gas, is engraved with the pattern which it is
desired to impart to the piece. If the pattern is deep, as is the
case in the production of book cloths, it is necessary to run the
machine empty under pressure until the pattern of the steel
bowl has impressed itself into the cotton or paper bowls, but if
the effect desired only consists of very fine lines, this is not
necessary; for instance, in the production of the Schreiner
finish, which is intended to give the pieces (especially after
mercerizing) the appearance of silk, the steel roller is engTaved
with fine diagonal lines which are so close together (about 250
to the in.) as to be ^distinguishable by the naked eye.
BcelBng is a process by which a peculiar linen-like appearance
and a leathery feel or handle are imparted to cotton fabrics, the
process being also employed for improving the appearance of
linen goods. For the best class of beetle finish, the pieces are
first impregnated with sago starch and the other necessary
ingredients (softening, &c.) and are dried on cylinders. They
are then damped on a water mangle, and beamed on to the
heavy iron bowl of the beetling machine.
A beetliag machine of the kind, with four sets of " falters," is
shown in fig. 3. The fallen are made of beech wood, are about 8 ft.
long, 5} in. deep and 4 in. wide, and are kept in their vertical position
by two pairs of guide rails. Each falter is provided with a tappet
or wooden peg driven in at one side, which engages with the teeth
or " wipers " of the revolving shaft in the front of the machine.
The effect of this mechanism is to lift the falter a distance of about
13 in. and then let it drop on to the cloth wound on the beam. This
lifting and dropping of the falters on to the beam takes place in
rhythmical and rapid succpssiofl- To ensure even, treat mem the
beam turns slowly round and al*o ha* a to-and^iro mowernmt im-
parted to it. The treatment may last, according to the finish which
it U desired to obtain, from one to sixty hours.
Fig, 3.— Beetling Machine (Ldmeiton & Sons).
Beetling was originally used tor Jlnen goods, but to-day is
almost entirely applied to rot ton for the production of so-calM
iinencltfs,
ff't-prtising is used to a limited extent in order to obtain a
soft finish on cotton goods, but as this operation is more used for
wool, it will be described below.
fi'nung. — This operation, which was formerly only used for
woollen goods (leasing), has come largely into Use for cotton
pieces, partly in consequence of Ihe introduction of ihe direct
cotton colours by which Lhe cotton is dyed evenly throughout
(see Dyeing), and partly in consequence of new and improved
machinery hiving been devised for The purpose, Starling with
a plain bleached , dyed or printer! fabric, the process consists
in principle in raising or drawing out the ends of individual
fibres from the body of the cloth, so as to produce a nap or soft
woolly surface on the fate*
This is effected by parsing the fabric slowly round a large drum D,
whi h is surrounded, at shown in the diagram (fig. 4). by a number of
Fie. 4.— Raising.
smalt cylinders or rollers, r, covered with steel wire brushes r>r
" cardinal," *utb a*ii used in card ing engines (seeCotTON'Sr'iNNtNG
M .iCUIXbRY).
The ruller* f, whkh are all driven by one and the uoir belt
(not shown in the figure), revolve at * high rate of speed, and can be
made to do so either in the tame direction as that followed by the
piece A-i U travel* through ihe machine or in the opposite one. In
addition to their revolving round their own aw*, toe raising rollers
may be either krpl stationary or may be moved round the drum Din
tit her direction.
In the more modern machines there are two sets of raiding rollers,
o\ which each alrernate one is caused lo revolve in the dirvction
followed by the piece* while lhe other is made to revolve in the
opposite direction. By passing through an arrangement of this
kind several timev or through w vera I *orh machine* in succession,
the ends of the fibres are gradually drawn out to the desired extent.
38o
FINISHING
After raising, the pieces are sheared (for better class work)
in order to produce greater regularity in the length of the nap.
The raised style of finishing is used chiefly for the production of
uniformly white or coloured flannelettes but is also used for
such as are dyed in the yarn, and to a limited extent for printed
fabrics.
Woollen and Worsted Pieces. — Although both of these classes
of material are made from wool, their treatment in finishing
differs so materially that it is necessary to deal with them
separately. Unions or fabrics consisting of a cotton warp with
a worsted weft are in general treated like worsteds.
In the finishing of woollen pieces the most important operation
is that of milling, which consists in subjecting the pieces to
mechanical friction, usually in an alkaline medium (soap or
soap and soda) but sometimes in an acid (sulphuric acid) medium,
in order to bring about felting and consequent " fulling " of the
fabric This felting of the wool is due to the peculiar structure
of the fibre, the scales of which all protrude in one direction, so.
that the individual fibres can slip past each other in one direction
more readily than in the opposite one and thus become more and
more interlocked as the milling proceeds. If the pieces contain
burrs these are usually removed by a process known as " carbon-
izing," which generally, but not necessarily, precedes the milling.
Their removal depends upon the fad that the burrs, which
consist in the main of cellulose, are disintegrated at elevated
temperatures by dilute mineral acids. The pieces are run
through sulphuric acid of from 4° to 6° Tw M squeezed or hydro-
extracted, and dried over cylinders and then in stoves. The
acid is thus concentrated and attacks the burrs, which fall to
dust, while leaving the wool intact. For the removal of the acid
the fabric is first washed in water and then in weak soda. Carbon-
izing is also sometimes used for worsteds.
Milling was formerly all done in milling or fulling stocks (see
fig. 5), in which the cloth saturated with a strong solution of soap
Fie. 5.— Milling Stocks,
(with or without other additions such as stale urine, potash,
fuller's earth, &c.) is subjected to the action of heavy wooden
hammers, which are raised by the cams attached to the wheel
(E) on the revolving shaft, and fall with their own weight on to
the bundles of cloth. The shape of the hammer-head causes the
cloth to turn slowly in the cavity in which the milling takes place.
Occasionally, the cloth is taken out, straightened, washed if
necessary, and then returned to the stocks to undergo further
treatment, the process being continued until the material is
uniformly shrunk or milled to the desired degree.
In the more modern forms of milling machines the principle
adopted is to draw the pieces in rope form, saturated with soap
solution and sewn together end to end so as to form an endless
band, between two or more rollers, on leaving which they are
forced down a closed trough ending in an aperture the size of
which can be varied, but which in any case is sufficiently small
ro cause a certain amount of force to be necessary to push the
pieces through. A machine of this kind is shown in fig. 6. It is
evident that for coloured goods which have to be milled only
such colouring matters must be chosen for dyeing that are
absolutely fast to soap.
After the pieces have been milled down to the desired degree,
they present an uneven and undesirable appearance on the
surface, the ends
of many of the
fibres which pre-
viously projected
having been
turned and thus
become embedded
in the body of the
cloth. In order to
bring these hairs
to the surface
again, the fabric is
subjected to leas-
ing or raising, an
operation iden-
tical in principle
with one which f™ g*^. r-**, u^A Pfrtt „
has already been F|G * ^.-Roller Milling Machine,
noticed under the finishing of cotton. In place of the steel wire
brushes it is the usual practice to employ teasels for the treat-
ment of woollen goods.
The teasel (see fig. 7) is the dried head (fruit) of a kind of thistle
(DipsacusfuUorum), the horny sharp spikes of which turn downwards
at their extremity, and, while possessing the necessary sharpness
and strength for raising the fibres, arc not sufficiently rigid to cause
any material damage to the cloth. For raising, the teasel* are fixed
in rows on a large revolving drum, and the piece to be treated i*
drawn lengthways underneath the drum, being guided by rollers
or rods so as to just touch the teasels as they sweep past. In the
raising of woollen goods it is necessary that the pieces should be
damp or moist while undergoing this treatment.
After teasing, the pieces arc stretched and dried. At this
stage they still have an irregular appearance, for although the
raising has brought all the loose ends of the fibres to the surface,
these vary considerably in length and thus give rise to an uneven
nap.
By .the next operation of shearing or cropping, the long hairs
are cut off and a uniform surface is thus obtained. Shearing
was in former times done by
hand, by means of shears,
but is to-day universally
effected by means of a cut-
ting device which works on
the same principle as an
ordinary lawn-mower, in
which a number of spiral
blades set on the surface of
a rapidly revolving roller
pass continuously over a
straight fixed blade under-
neath, the roller being set
so that the spiral blades
just touch the fixed blade.
Before the piece comes to
the shearing device the nap
is raised by means of a
rotary brush. Shearing may
be effected either trans-
versely, in which case the
fixed blade is parallel to
the warp, or longitudinally
with the fixed blade parallel Frojn ^^ Tu ^A,**,.
tothe weft. In the first case, Fic 7# _ TeMcl used for ^ {slng .
t he piece being stretched on
a table, over which the cutter, carried on rails, travels from selv-
edge to selvedge. The length of the piece that can be shorn in
one operation will naturally depend upon the length of the blade,
but in any case the process is necessarily intermittent, many
operations being required before the whole piece is shorn. In
FINISHING
381
the longitudinal shearing machines the process is continuous,
the pieces passing from the beam in the stretched condition
over the rotary brush, under the fixed blade, and then being
again brushed before being beamed on the other side of the
machine. Shearing once is generally insufficient, and for this
reason many of the modern machines are constructed with
duplicate arrangements so as to effect the shearing twice in the
same operation. In the finishing of certain woollen goods the
pieces, after having been milled, raised and sheared, go through
these operations again in the same sequence.
After these operations the goods are pressed either in the
hydraulic press or in the continuous press, and according to the
character of the material and the finish desired may or may
not be steamed under pressure, all of which operations are
described below.
New cloth, as it comes into the hands of the tailor, frequently
shows an undesirable gloss or sheen, which is removed before
making up by a process known as shrinking, in which the material
is simply damped or steamed.
Worsteds and Unions.— The pieces are first singed by gas or
hot plate (see Bleaching), and are then usually subjected to a
process known as " crabbing," the object of which is to " set "
the wool fibres. If this operation is omitted, especially in the
case of unions, the fabric will " cockle," or assume an uneven
surface on being wetted. In crabbing the pieces are drawn
at full breadth and under as much tension as they will stand
through boiling water, and are wound or beamed on to a roller
under the pressure of a superposed heavy iron roller, the operation
being conducted two or three times as required. From the
crabbing machine the pieces are wound on to a perforated
shell or steel cylinder which is closed at one end. The open
end is then attached to a steam pipe, and steam, at a pressure
of 30 to 45 lb, is allowed to enter until it makes its way through
all the layers of cloth to the outside, when the steam is turned
off and the whole allowed to cool. Since those layers of the cloth
which are nearest the shell are acted upon for a longer period
than those at the outside, it is necessary to rc-wind and repeat
the operation, the outside portions coming this time nearest to
the shell. The principle' of the process depends upon the fact
that at elevated temperatures moist wool "becomes plastic, and
then easily assumes the shape imparted to it by the great tension
under which the pieces are wound. On cooUng the shape is
retained, and since the temperature at which the pieces were
steamed under tension exceeds any to which they are submitted
in the subsequent processes, the "setting" of the fibres is
permanent. After crabbing, the pieces are washed or " scoured "
in soap either on the winch or at full width. In some cases the
crabbing precedes the scouring. The goods are then dyed and
finished.
The nature of the finishing process will vary considerably
according to the special character of the goods under treatment.
Thus, for certain classes of goods cold pressing is Sufficient,
while in other cases the pieces are steamed under pressure in a
manner analogous to the treatment after crabbing (" decatiz-
ing "). The treatment in most common use for worsteds and
unions is hot pressing, which may be effected cither in the
hydraulic press or in the continuous press, but in most cases in
the former.
In pressing in the hydraulic press the pieces are folded down
by hand on a table, a piece of press paper (thin hand-made
cardboard with a glossed and extremely hard surface) being
inserted between each lap. After a certain number of laps, a
steel or iron press plate is inserted, and the folding proceeds
in this way until the pile is sufficiently high, when it is placed
in the press. The press being filled, tho hydraulic ram is set
in motion until the reading on the gauge shows that the desired
amount of pressure' has been obtained. The heating of the press
plates was formerly done in ovens, previous to their insertion
in the piece, but although this practice is still in vogue in rare
instances, the heating is now effected either by means of steam
which is caused to circulate through the hollow steel plates,
or in the more modern forms of presses by means of an electric
current. After the pieces have thus been subjected to the
combined effects of heat and pressure for the desired length of
time, they are allowed to cool in the press. It is evident that
portions of the pieces, viz. the folds, thus escape the finishing
process, and for this reason it is necessary to repeat the process,
the folds now being made to lie in the middle of the press
papers.
The continuous press, which is used for certain classes of worsteds,
but more especially for woollen goods, consists in principle of a
polished steam-heated steel cylinder against which either one or two
steam-heated chilled iron cheeks are set by meansof leversand adjust-
ing screws. The pieces to be pressed are drawn slowly between the
Fran Oaawiodt, Tmhmbj k 4* AftHm.
Fig. 8. — Continuous Press.
cheeks and the bowl. A machine of the kind is shown in section in
fig. 8. In working, the cheeks C, Q are pressed against the bowl B.
The course followed by the cloth to be finished is shown by the
dotted line, the finished material being mechanically folded down
on the left-hand side of the machine. The pieces thus acquire a
certain amount of finish which is, however, not comparable with
that produced in the hydraulic press.
PUe Fabrics, such as velvets, velveteens, corduroys, plushes,
sealskins, &c., require a special treatment in finishing, and great
care must be taken in all operations to prevent the pile being
crushed or otherwise damaged. Velveteens and corduroys are
singed before boiling or bleaching. Velveteens dyed in black
or in dark shades are brushed with an oil colour (e.g. Prussian
blue for blacks), and dried over-night in a hot stove in order to
give them a characteristic bloom. Regularity in the pile and
gloss are obtained by shearing and brushing. Corduroys are
stiffened at the back by the application of " bone-size " (practi-
cally an impure form of glue) in a machine similar to that nsed
for back-starching. The face of the fabric is waxed with beeswax
by passing the piece under a revolving drum, on the surface
of which bars of this material are fixed parallel to the axis.
The bars just touch the surface of the fabric as it passes through
the machine. The gloss is then obtained by brushing with
circular brushes which run partly in the direction of the piece
and partly diagonally. In the finishing of velvets, shearing
and brushing are the most important operations. The same
applies to sealskins and other long pile fabrics, but with these
an additional operation, viz. that of " batting," is employed
after dyeing and before shearing and brushing, which consists
in beating the back of the stretched fabric with sticks in order
to shake out the pile and cause it to stand erect.
For the finishing of silk pieces the operations and machinery
employed are similar in character to some of those used for
cotton and worsteds. Most high-class silks require no further
treatment other than simple damping and pressing after they
leave the loom. Inferior qualities are frequently filled or back-
filled with glue, sugar, gum tragacanth, dextrin, &c, after which
they are dried, damped and given a light calender finish. Moire*
38a
finistere
or watered effects are produced by running two pieces face to
face through a calender or by means of an embossing calender.
In the latter case the pattern repeats itself. For the production
of silk crape the dyed (generally black) piece is impregnated
with a solution of shellac in methylated spirit and dried. It
is then " goffered/' an operation which is practically identical
with embossing (see above), and may either be done on an
embossing calender or by means of heated brass plates in which
the design is engraved to the desired depth and pattern.
The measuring, wrapping, doubling, folding, &c., of piece goods
previous to making up are done in the works by specially con-
structed machinery.
Finishing of Yarn.— Tht finishing of yarn is not nearly so
important as the finishing of textiles in the piece, and it will
suffice to draw attention to the main operations. Cotton yarns
are frequently " gassed," i.e. drawn through a gas flame, in
order to burn or singe off the projecting fibres and thus to produce
a dean thread which is required for the manufacture of certain
classes of fabrics. The most important finishing process for
cotton yarn is " mercerizing " (?.*.), by means, of which a per-
manent silk-like gloss is obtained. The " polishing " of cotton
yarn, by means of which a highly glased product, similar in
appearance to horsehair, is obtained, is effected by impregnating
the yarn with a paste consisting essentially of starch, beeswax
or paraffin wax and soap, and then subjecting the damp material
to the action of revolving brushes until dry. Woollen yarn is
not subjected to any treatment, but worsted yarns (especially
twofold) have to be " set " before scouring and dyeing in order
to prevent curling. This is effected by stretching the yarn
tight on a frame, which is immersed in boiling water and then
allowing it to cool in this condition.
A peculiar silk-like gloss .and feci is sometimes imparted to
yarns made from lustre wool by a treatment with a weak solution
of chlorine (bleaching powder and hydrochloric add) followed
by a treatment with soap.
Worsted and mohair yarns intended for the manufacture of
braids are singed by gas, a process technically known as
" Genapping."
Silk yarn is subjected to various mechanical processes before
weaving. The most important of these are stretching, shaking,
lustreing and glossing. Stretching and shaking are simple
operations the nature of which is sufficiently indicated by their
names, and by these means the hanks are stretched to their
original length and straightened out by hand or on a specially
devised machine. In lustreing, the yarn is stretched slightly
beyond its original length between two polished revolving
cylinders (one of which is steam heated) contained in a box or
chest into which steam is admitted^ In glossing, the yarn is
twisted tight, first in one direction and then in the other, on a
machine, this alternating action being continued until the
maximum gloss is obtained.
The so-called "scrooping" process, which gives to silk a
peculiar feel and causes it to crackle or crunch when compressed
by the hand, is a very simple operation, and consists in treating
the yarn after dyeing in a bath of dilute add (acetic, tartaric or
sulphuric) and then drying without washing. Heavily weighted
black silks are passed after dyeing through an emulsion of olive
oil in soap and dried without washing, in order to give additional
lustre to the material or rather to restore some of the lustre
which has been lost in weighting. (E. K.)
FINIST&RB, or Finisterre, the most western department of
France, formed from part of the old province of Brittany. Pop.
(1906) 795,203. Area, 27x3 sq. m. It is bounded W. and S. by
the Atlantic Ocean, E. by the departments of C6tes-du-Nord
and Morbihan, and N. by the English Channel. Two converging
chains of hills run from the west towards the east of the depart-
ment and divide it into three zones conveying the waters in three
different directions. North of the Arrce, or more northern of
the two chains, the waters of the Douron, Penze and Flcche
flow northward to the sea. The Elorn, however, after a short
northerly course, turns westward and empties into the Brest
roads. South of the Montagues Noires, the Odet, Aven, Isole
and EUe flow southward; .while the waters of the Aulne, flowing
through a region enclosed by the two chains with a westward
declination, discharge into the Brest roads. The rivers are all
Small, and none of the hills attain a height of 1300 fL The
coast is generally steep and rocky and at some points dangerous,
notably off Cape Raz and the Be de Sdn; it is indented with
numerous bays and inlets, the chief of which— the roadstead
of Brest and the Bays of Douarnenez and Audierne — are on the
west. The prindpal harbours are those of Brest, Concarneau,
Morlaix, Landerneau, Quimper and Douarnenez. Off the coast
lie a number of islands and rocks, the prindpal of which are
Ushant (?.v.)N.W. of Cape St Mathieu, and Batz off Roscoff.
The climate is temperate and equable, but humid; the prevailing
winds are the W., S.W. and N.W. Though more than a third
of the department is covered by heath, waste land and' forest,
it produces oats, wheat, buckwheat, rye and barley in quantities
more than sufficient for its population. In the extreme north
the neighbourhood of Roscoff, and farther south the borders
of the Brest roadstead, are extremdy fertile and yield large
quantities of asparagus, artichokes and onions, besides melons
and other fruits. The cider apple is abundant and furnishes the
chief drink of the inhabitants. Hemp and .flax are also grown.*
The farm and dairy produce is plentiful, and great attention is
paid to the breeding and feeding of cattle and horses. The pro-
duction of honey and wax is considerable.. The fisheries of the
coast, particularly the pilchard fishery, employ a great many
hands and render this department an excellent nursery of seamen
for the French navy. Coal, though found in Finistere, is not
mined; there are quarries of granite, slate, potter's day, &c
The lead mines of Poullaouen and Huelgoat, which for several
centuries yielded a considerable quantity of silver, are no longer
worked. The preparation of sardines is carried on oa a large
scale at several of the coast-towns, The manufactures include
linens, woollens, sail-doth, ropes, agricultural implements, paper,
leather, earthenware, soda, soap, candles, and fertilizers and
chemicals derived from seaweed. Brest has important foundries
and engineering works; and shipbuilding is carried on there
and at other seaports. Brest and Morlaix are the most important
commercial ports. Trade is in fish, vegetables and fruit-
Coal is* the chief import. The department is served by the
Orleans and Western railways. The canal from Nantes to Brest
has 51 m. of its length in the department. The Aulne is
navigable for 17 m., and many of the smaller rivers for short
distances.
Finistere is divided into the arrondissemente of Quimperle,
Brest, Chateaulin,- Morlaix and Quimper (43 cantons, 204 com-
munes), the town of Quimper being the capital of the department
and the seat of a bishopric. The department belongs to the
region of the XI. army corps and to the archiepiscopal province
and academie (educational division) of Rennes, where its court
of appeal is also situated.
The more important places are Quimper, Brest, Morlaix,
Quimperle, St Pol-de-J-eon, Douarnenez, Concarneau, Hoscoff,
Penmarc'h and Pont-l'Abt>6. Finistere abounds in menhirs and
other megalithic monuments, of which those of Penmarc'h,
Plouarzal and Crozbn are noted. The two religious structures,
characteristic of Brittany — calvaries and charnel-houses— are
frequently met with. The calvaries of Plougastd-Daoulas,
Pleyben, St Thegonnec, Lampaul-Guimiliau, which date from
the 17th century, and that of Guimiliau (16th century), and the
charnel-houses of Sizun and St Thegonnec (16th century) and
of Guimiliau (17th century) may be instanced as the most
remarkable. Daoulas has the remains of a fine church and
doister in the Romanesque style.* The chapel of St Herbot
(16th century) near Loqueffret, the churches of St Jean-du-Doigt
and Locronan, which belong to the 15th and 16th centuries,-,
those of Ploarl, Roscoff, Penmarc'h and Pleyben of the 16th
century, that of Le FolgoSt (14th and x6th centuries), and the
huge chateau of Kerjean (16th century) are of architectural in-
terest. Religious festivals, and processions known as " pardons,"
are held in many.piaces, notably at Locronan, St Jean-du-Doigt,
St Herbot and Le Faou.
FINLAND
383
PIWLAMD (Finnish, Suomi or Suomewmaa), a grand-duchy
governed subject to its own constitution by the emperor of
Russia as grand-duke of Finland. It is situated between the
gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, and includes, moreover, a large
territory in Lapland. It touches at its south -eastern extremity
the government of St Petersburg, includes the northern half
of Lake Ladoga, and is sep ar ated from the Russian governments
of Arkhangelsk and Olonets by a sinuous line which follows,
roughly speaking, the water-parting between the rivers flowing
into the Baltic Sea and the White Sea. In the north of the Gulf
of Bothnia it is separated from Sweden and Norway by a broken
line which takes the course of the valley of the Tornea river up
to its sources, thus falling only ax m. short of reaching the head
of Norwegian Lyngen-fjord; then it runs south-east and
Aorth-easf down the Tana and Pasis-joki, but does not reach
the Artie Ocean, and 13 m. from the Varanger-fjord it turns
southwards. Finland includes in the south-west the Aland
archipelago— its frontier approaching within 8 m. from the
Swedish coast— as well as the islands of the Gulf of Finland,
Hogland, Tytars, &c Its utmost limits are: 50° 48'— 7©° 6' N.,
and io° 2'— 32° 50* E. The area of Finland, in square miles,
is as follows {Alias da Finlande, 1809) >—
Government.
Continent.
Islands
in Lakes.
Islands
in Seas.
Lakes.
Total.
Nyland . . .
Abo-Bjorneborg
Tavastefaus
Viborg . . .
StMichd . . .
Kaopio .
Vasa . , . .
fjleaborg .
4.062
I®
11,630
5.653
13.160
6o!348
1018
171
210
1331
130
J03
94
286
400
1400
4.502
3,696
1.313
3.344
4^8*
9.333
16)624
8,819
16.499
16,105
63*57
Total . .
123,810
2385
1968
16,090
144^33
Orognpky.-^-A line drawn from the head of the Gulf of Bothnia
to the eastern coast of Lake Ladoga divides Finland into two distinct
parts, the lake region and the nearly uninhabited hilly tracts belong-
ing to the Kjolen mountains, to the plateau of the Kola peninsula,
and to the slopes of the plateau which separates Finland proper
from the White Sea. At the head-waters of the Tornea, Finland
penetrates as a narrow strip into the heart of the highlands of Kjolen
hhe Ked), where the Haldef jail (Uppish, Halditjokko) reaches 41 15
ft. above the sea, and is surrounded by other ft*Us, or flat-topped
summits, of from 3300 to 3750 ft. of altitude. Extensive plateaus
(1500-1750 ft.), into which Lake Enare, or Inari, and the valleys of
its tributaries are deeply sunk, and which take the character of a
mountain region in the Saariselka (highest summit, 2360 ft.), occupy
the remainder of Lapland. Along the eastern border the dreary
plateaus of Olonets reach on Finnish territory altitudes of from 700
to 1000 ft. Quite different is the character of the pentagonal space
comprised between the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, Lake Ladoga,
and the above-mentioned line traced through the lakes Ulca and
Ptellis. The meridional ridges which formerly used to be traced here
along the main water-partings do not exist in reality, and the country
appears on the hypsometrical map in the Alias da Finland* as a
plateau of 350 ft. of average altitude, covered with countless lakes,
lying at altitudes of from 250 to 300 ft. The three main lake-basins
of Nasi-jarvi, Pajane and Saima are separated by low and flat hills
only; but one sees distinctly appearing on the map a line of flat
elevations running south-west to north-east along the north-west
border of the lake regions from Lauhanvuori to Kajana, and reaching
from 650 to 825 ft. of altitude. A regular gentle "slope leads from
these hills to the Gulf of Bothnia (Osterbotten), forming vast prairie
tracts in its lower parts.
A notable feature of Finland are the dsar or narrow ridges of
morainic deposits, more or less reassorted on their surfaces, some
of them are relics of the longitudinal moraines of the ice-sheet, and
they ran north-west to south-east, parallel to the striation of the
rocks and to the countless parallel troughs excavated by the ice in
the hard rocks in the same direction; while the Lojo as, which runs
from Hang6udd to Vesi-jarvi, and is continued, farther east under
the name of Salpausclfia, parallel to the shore of the Gulf of Finland,
are remainders of the frontal moraines, formed at a period when the
ice-sheet remained for some time stationary during its retreat. As
a rule these forest-clothed tear rise from 30 to 60 and occasionally
120 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, largely adding
to the already great picturesqueness of the lake region; railways
are traced in preference along them.
Lakes and Rivers. — A labyrinth of lakes, covering 11% of the
ate territory, and connected by short and rapid streams
»), covers the surface of South Finland, offering great facilities
for Interna! navigation, while the connecting streams* t
etoftnuuj amount of motive- power. The chief Likes are: 1
Ladoga, of which the northern half belongs to Finland; Saima
(three 4 nd a half times Urger than Lake Lcraanh who*? outlet, the
Vuokrfn, iltiwi mtn Lal« Ladoga forming the mighty 1 ma tra rapids,
while the lake itxil [s connected by mean* o( it sluiced canal with the
Gulf oi FLnlaiuh the. basins of Pyha-selk&t Gri-vtsi and PicUis-jaivi:
Rijanc. mutuhqcM by hundreds of snulfot lakes, a»d lh« waters of
wIijl'j art di *c harmed tnt* the lower gu Lf through t he K y mniene river;
Ndii-iirvi and Pyhl-iarvi, frhuse outflow 14 the Kmmxlf, flowing
into the Gulf of Bothnia; LJltl-irasfe, discharged h> tin- Ulca into
the same (julf: and Enarcs belonging to the ba*in of die Arctic'
(Xca rt. Two Urge riven, Kenii and Tornwl, enter the head of the
Gull of Bothnia, while the L'tea La now navigable throughiMJt, owing
to improvement* la. iu channel.
Geology*— Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous
deposits are found on the coasts of the Gulf of Finland and Lake
Ladoga, and also along the coasts of the Arctic Ocean (probably
Devonian), and in the Kjolen. Eruptive rocks of Palaeozoic age
are met with in the Kola peninsula (nepheline-syenites) and at
Kuusamo (syenite). The remainder of Finland is built up of the
oldest known crystalline rocks belonging to the Arcbaeozoic or
AlgonJrian period. The most ancient of these seem to be the granites
of East Finland. The denudation and. destruction of the granites
gave rise to the Ladoga schists and various deposits of the same
period, which were subsequently strongly folded. Then the country
came once more under the sea, and the debris of the previous
formations, mixed with fragments from the vol-
canoes then situated in West Finland, formed the
so-called Bothnian series. New masses of granites
protruded next from underneath, andthe Bothnian
deposits underwent foldings in their turn, while
denudation was again at work on a grand scale. A
new series of JaiuTian deposits was formed and a new
system of foldings followed: but these were the last
in this part of the globe. The Jotnian series, which
were formed next, remain still undisturbed. It is to
this series that the well-known Rapaldvi granite of
Alanfl, Nystad and Viborg belongs. No marine
deposits younger than those just mentioned— all
belonging to a pre-Cambrian epoch — are found in
the central portion of Finland: and the greater
part of the country has probably been dry land since
Palaeozoic times. The whole of Finland is covered with Glacial and
post-Glacial deposits. The former of these, representing the bottom-
moraine of the ice-sheet, are covered with Glacial and post -Glacial
clays (partly of lacustrine and partly of marine origin) only in
the peripheral coast-region— or in separate areas in the interior
depressions. Some Finnish geologists — Scdcrholm for one — con-
sider it probable that during the Glacial period an Arctic sea ( Yoldia
sea) covered all southern Finland and also Scania (Skane) in Sweden,
thus' connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the Baltic and the* White
Sea by a broad channel; but no fossils from that sea have been
found anywhere In Finland. Conclusive proofs, however, of a later
submergence under a postrGIacial Littonna sea (containing shells
now living in the Baltic) are found up to 150 ft. along the Gulf of
Finland, and up to 260, or perhaps 330 ft., in Osterbotten. Traces
of a large inner post-Glacial lake, similar to Lake Agassis of North
America, have been discovered. The country is still continuing
* " '' 'u century in the
, -. south, and nearly
zero in the Baltic provinces.
Climate, — Owing to the prevalence of moist west and south-west
winds the climate of Finland is less severe than it is farther east in
corresponding latitudes. The country lies thus between the annual
isotherms of 41 • and 28° Fahr., which run in a W.N.W.-E.S.E.
direction. In January the average monthly temperature varies from
9° Fahr. about Lake Enarc to 30° along the south coast ; while in July
the difference between the monthly averages is only eight degrees,
being 53* in the north and 61* in the south-cast. Everywhere, and
especially in the interior, the winter lasts very long, and early frosts
(June 13-14 i Q 1^93) often destroy the crops. The amount o( rain
and snow is from 25} in. along the south coast to 13-8 in. in the
interior of southern Finland.
Flora, Forests, Fauna. — The flora of Finland has been most
minutely explored, especially in the south, and the Finnish botanists
were enabled to divide the country into twenty-eight different
provinces, giving the numbers of phanerogam species for each prov-
ince. These numbers vary from 318 to 400 species in Lapland,
from 508 to 651 in Karelia, and attain 752 species for Finland proper;
while the total for all Finland attains 1132 species. Alpine plants
are not met with in Finland proper, but are represented by from 32
to 64 species in the Kola peninsula. The chief forest trees of Finla nd
arc the Scotch fir {Finns sylvestris, L.), the fir {Picea excelsa. Link.) ;
two species of birch {B. verrucosa, Ehrh., and B. odorata, Bechst.),
as well as the birch-bush {B, nana) ; two species of Alnus (glutinosa
and incana) ; the oak (Q. peduncuiata t Ehrh.), which grows only on
the south coast; the poplar {Populus tremula); and the Siberian
larch, introduced in culture in the 18th century. Over 6.000,000
trees are cut every year to be floated to thirty large saw-mills, and
to rise, but at an unequal rate; of nearly yx ft. in a century in the
Gulf of Bothnia (Kvarkcn), from I >4 to 2 ft. in the 1
•38+
FINLAND
about 1 ,000,000 to be transformed into paper pulp. The total export
of timber was valued in 1897 at 83,160,000 marks. It is estimated,
however, that the domestic use of wood (especially for fuel) represents
nearly five times as many cubic feet as the wood used for export in
different shapes. The total area under forests is estimated at
63,050,000 acres, of which 34,662,000 acres belong to the state.
The fauna has been explored in great detail both as regards the
vertebrates and the invertebrates, and specialists will find the
necessary bibliographical indications in Travaux gfogropkipus en
Finland*, published for the London Geographical Congress of 1895.
Population. — The population of Finland, which was 429,912 tn
1751,. 832,659 in 1800, 1,636,915 in 1850, and 2,520,437 in 1895,
was 2,712,562 in 1904, of whom 1,370480 were women and 1,342,082
men. Of these only 341,602 lived in towns, the remainder in the
country districts. The distribution of population in various prov-
inces was as follows: —
1904.
Population.
Density per'
sq. kilometre.
Abo-Bjorneborg.
Kuopio
Nylamf. . 4 . .
St Michel
Tavastebus
Uleaborg
Viborg .....
Vasa
447,098
313.951
397.813
189,360
301,272
280,899
421,610
460,460
203
8-9
293
Ii-I
*7'7
19
14-6
Total . . .
2,712,562
8-6
The number of births in 1904 was 90,253 and the deaths 50,227,
showing an excess of births over deaths of 40,026. Emigration was
estimated at about three thousand every year before 1898. but it
largely increased then owing to Russian encroachments on Finnish
autonomy. In 1899 the emigrants numbered 12,357; 10,642 in
1900; 12,659 in 1901; and 10,952 in 1904.
The bulk of the population are Finns (2,352,990 in 1004) and
Swedes (349,733). Of Russians there were only 5939, chiefly in the
provinces of Viborg and Nyland. Both Finns and Swedes belong
to the Lutheran faith, there being only 46,466 members of the Greek
Orthodox Church and 755 Roman Catholics.
The leading cities of Finland arc: Hclsingfors, capital of the
grand-duchy and of the province (Idn) of Nyland,' principal seaport
(1 11,654 inhabitants) ; Abo, capital of the Abo-Bjorneborg province
and ancient capital of Finland (42,639); Tammerfors, the leading
manufacturing town of the grand-duchy (40,261); Viborg, chief
town of province of same name, important seaport (34,672) ; Ulea-
borg, capital of province (17,737); Vasa, or Nikolaistad, capital of
vasa Ian (18,028); BiOrneborg (16,053); Kuopio, capital of pro-
vince (13.V9); and Tavastchus, capital of province of the same
name (5545). . . .
Industries. — Agriculture gives occupation to the large majority
of the population, but of late the increase of manufactures has
been marked. Dairy-farming is also on the increase, and the foreign
exports of butter rose from 1930 cwt. in 1900 to 3130 cwt. in 1905.
Measures have been taken since 1892 for the improvement of agri-
culture, and the state keeps twenty-six agronomists and instructors
for that purpose. There are two high schools, one experimental
station, twenty-two middle schools and forty-eight lower schools of
agriculture, besides ten horticultural schools. Agricultural societies
exist in each province.
Fishing is an important item of income. The value of exports of
fish, &c., was £140,000 in 1904, but fish was also imported to the
value of £61,300. The manufacturing industries (wood-products,
metallurgy, machinery, textiles, paper and leather) are of modern
development, but the aggregate production approaches one and a
half millions sterling in value.
Some gold is obtained in Lapland on the Ivalajoki, hut the output,
which amounted in 1871 to 56,692 grammes, had fallen in 1904 to
1951 grammes. There is also a small output of silver, copper and
iron. The last is obtained partly front mines, but chiefly from the
lakes. In 1904 22,050 tons of cast iron were obtained. The textile
industries are making rapid progress, and their produce, notwith-
standing the high duties, is exported to Russia. The fabrication of
paper out of wood is also rapidly growing. As to the timber trade,
there arc upwards of 500 saw-mills, employing 2i,ooo men, and with
an output valued at over £3,000,000 annually.
Communications. — The roads, attaining an aggregate length of
27,500 m.,are kept as a rule in very goocforder. The first railway
was opened in 1862, and the next, from Hclsingfors to St Petersburg,
in 1870 (cost onty £4520* per mile). * Railways of a lighter type
be^an to be built since 1877, and now Finland has about 2100 m. of
railway, mostly belonging to the state. The gross income from .the
state railways is 26.607.622, and the net income 4,684.856 marks.
Finland has a'n extensive arid well-kept system of canals, of which
the sluiced canal connecting Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland
b the chief one. It permits ships navigating the Baltic to penetrate
270 m. inland, and is passed every year by from 4980 to 5200 vessels.
Considerable works have also been made to connect the different
lakes and lake-basins for inland navigation, a torn of £1.000,000
having been spent for that purpose.
The telegraphs chiefly belong to Russia. Telephones have an
enormous extension both in the towns and between the different
towns of southern Finland; the cost of the yearly subscript ion
varies from 40 to 60 marks, 1 and is only 10 marks in the smaller tow nv»
Commerce. — The foreign trade of Finland increases steadily, and
reached in 1904 the following values.-—
From pr to
Russia.
From or to
other Countries.
Totals.
Jim porta
Exports
£4,036,000
t 2,332,000
£6488,000
6,292,000
£10.524.000
8,624,000
. The chief trade of Finland is with Russia, and next with Great
Britain, Germany, Denmark, France and Sweden. The main im-
ports are : cereals and flour (to an annual value exceeding £3,000.000).
metals, machinery, textile materials and textile products. The
chief articles of export are: timber and wood articles (£5.250.000).
paper and paper pulp, some tissues, metallic goods, leather, Ac.
The Chief ports are Hclsingfors, Abo, Viborg, Hango and Vasa.
Education. — Great strides have been made since 1866. when a
new education law was passed. Rudimentary teaching in reading,
occasionally writing, and the first principles of Lutheran faith are
given in the maternal house, or in iC maternal schools,** or by ambu-
latory schools under the control of the clergy , who make the neeessa ry
examination in the houses of every pariah. All education above
that level is in the hands of the educational department and school
boards elected in each parish, each rural parish being bound (since
1898) to be divided into a proper number of school districts and to
have a school in each of them, the state contributing to these ex-
penses 800 marks a year for each male and 600 marks for each
female teacher, or 25% of the total cost in urban communes.
Secondary education, formerly instituted on two separate lines,
classical and scientific, has been reformed so as to give more prom-
inence to scientific education, even in the classical (linguistic) lyceums
or gymnasia. For higher education there is the university of
Hclsingfors (formerly the Abo Academy), which in 1906 had 1921
students (328 women) and 141 professors and docents. Besides the
Hclsingfors polytechnic there are a number of higher and lower
technical, commercial and navigation schools. Finland has several
scientific societies enjoying a world-wide reputation, as the Finnish
Scientific Society, the Society for the Flora and Fauna of Finland,
several medical societies, two societies of literature, the Finno-
Ugrian Society, the Historical and Archaeological Societies, one
juridical, one technical and two geographical societies. All of these,
as also the Finnish Geological Survey, the Forestry Administration,
&c, issue publications well known to the scientific world. The
numerous local branches of the Friends of the Folk-School and the
Society for Popular Education display great activity, the former by
aiding the smaller communes in establishing schools, and the latter
in publishing popular works, starting their own schools as well aa
free libraries (in nearly every commune), and organizing lectures for
the people. The university students take a lively part in this work.
Government and Administration.— -From the time of its union
with Russia at the Diet of Borgl in 1809 till the event* of 1809
(see History) Finland was practically a separate state, the
emperor of Russia as grand-duke governing by means of a nomin-
ated senate and a diet elected on a very narrow franchise, and
meeting at distant and irregular intervals. This diet was on the
old Swedish model, consisting of representatives of the four
estates — nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants — sitting and
voting in separate " Houses." The government of the country
was practically carried on by the senate, which communicated
with St Petersburg through a Finnish secretary attached to the
Russian government. War and foreign affairs were entirely
in the hands of Russia, and a Russian governor had his residence
in Helsingfors. The senate also controlled the administration
of the law. The constitutional conflict of 1890-1005 brought
about something like a revolution in Finland. For some years
the country was subject to a practically arbitrary form of govern-
ment, but the disasters of the Russo-Japanese War and the
growing anarchy in Russia resulted in 1905 in a complete and
peaceful victory for the defenders of the Finnish constitution.
As a Finnish writer puts it: " just as the calamities which ha<f
befallen Finland came from Russia, so was her deliverance to'
come from Russia." The status quo anle was restored, the diet
met in extraordinary session, and proceeded to the entire re-
casting of the Finnish government. Freedom of the press was
voted, and the diet next proceeded to reform its own constitution.
1 The Finnish mark, markka, of 1 00 penni, equals about 9 Id-
FINLAND
3»S
Far-reaching changes were vdted. The new diet, instead of
being composed of four estates sitting separately, consists of a
single chamber of 200 members elected directly by universal
suffrage, women being eligible. By the new constitution the
grand-duchy was to pe divided into not less than twelve and not
more than eighteen constituencies, electing members in propor-
tion to population. A scheme of " proportional representation,*'
the votes being counted in accordance with the system invented
by G. M. d'Hondt, a Belgian, was also adopted. The executive
was to consist of a minister-secretary of state and of the members
of the senate, who were entitled to attend and address the diet
and who might be the subject of interpellations. - The members
of the senate were made responsible to the diet as well as to
the emperor-grand-duke for their acts. The diet has power to
consider and decide upon measures proposed by the government
After a measure has been approved by the diet it is the duty
of the senate* to report upon it to the sovereign. But the senate
is not obliged to accept the decision of the majority of the diec»
nor, apparently, is the sovereign bound to accept the advice of
the senate, lie first elections, April 1907, resulted in the
election to the diet of about 40 % representatives of the Social
Democratic party, and nineteen women members. The budget
of Finland in 1905 was £4, 273.970 of "ordinary** revenue.
The " ordinary " expenditure was £3,595,300. The public debt
amounted at the end of 1005 to £5,611,170.
History.— It was probably at the end of the 7th or the begin-
ning of the 8th century that the Finns took possession of what
is now Finland, though it was only when Christianity was in-
troduced, about 1 157, that they were brought into contact with
civilized Europe. They probably found the Lapps m possession
of the country. The early Finlandcrs do not seem to have had
any governmental organization, but to have lived in separate
communities and villages independent of each other. Their
mythology consisted in the deification of the forces of nature,
as " Ukko," the god of the air, " Tapio," god of the forests,
*' Ahti," the god of water, &c. These early Finlanders seem to
have been both brave and troublesome to their neighbours, and
their repeated attacks on the coast of Sweden drew the attention
of the kings of that country. King Eric IX. (St Eric), accom-
panied by the bishop of Upsah, Henry (an Englishman, it b
said), and at the head of a considerable army, invaded the
country in 1x57, when the people were conquered and baptized.
King Eric left Bishop Henry with his priests and some soldiers
behind to confirm the conquest and complete the conversion.
After si time he was killed, canonized, and as St Henry became
the patron saint of Finland. As Sweden had to attend to her
own affairs, Finland was gradually reverting to independence
and paganism, when in 1209 another bishop and missionary,
Thomas (also an Englishman), arrived and recommenced the
work of St Henry. B tshop Thomas nearly succeeded in detaching
Finland from Sweden, and forming it into a province subject
only to the pope. The famous Birgcr Jart undertook a crusade
in Finland in 1249, compelling the Tavastians, one of the sub-
divisions of the Finlandcrs proper, to accept Christianity, and
building a castle at Tavcstehus. It was Torkcl Knutson who
conquered and connected the Karelian Finlandcrs in 1293, and
built the strong castle of Viborg. Almost continuous wars
between Russia and Sweden were the result of the conquest
of Finland by the latter. In 13*3 it was settled that the river
Rajajoki should be the boundary between Russia and the
Swedish province. After the final conquest of the country by
the Swedes, they spread among the Finlanders their civilization,
gave them laws, accorded them the same dvil rights as belonged
to themselves, and introduced agriculture and other beneficial
arts. The Reformed religion was introduced into Finland by
Gustavus Vasa about 1528, and King John III. raised the
country to the dignity of a grand<-ducby. It continued to
suffer, sometimes deplorably, in most of the wars waged by
Sweden, especially with Russia and Denmark. His predecessor
having created art order of nobility, — counts, barons and
nobles, Gustavus Adblphus in the beginning of the 17th century
established the diet of Finland, composed of the four orders of
the nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants. CfusUvus and
his successor did much for Finland by founding schools and
gymnasia, building churches, encouraging teaming' and intre-
ducing printing. During the reign of Charles XI (1692-1696)
the country suffered terribly from famine and pestilence; in the
diocese of Abo alone 60,000 persons died in less than nine months.
Finland has been visited at different periods since by these
scourges; so late as 1848 whole villages were -starved during
a dreadful famine. Peter the Great cast an envious eye on
Finland and tried to wrest It from Sweden; in 17 10 he managed
to obtain possession of the towns of Kexholm and Villmanstrand;
and by 1716 all the country was in his power. Meantime- the
sufferings of the people had been great; thousands perished
in the wars of Charles XII. By the peace of Nystad in 1721
the province of Viborg, the eastern division of Finland, was
finally ceded to Russia. But the country had been laid very
tow by war, pestilence and famine, though it recovered itself
with wonderful rapidity. In 1741' the Swedes made an effort
to recover the ceded province, but through wretched management
suffered disaster, and were compelled to capitulate in August
1 742. ceding by the peace of Abo, next year, the townsof Vittman*
strand and Fredrikshamn. Nothing remarkable seems to have
occurred till 1788, under Gustavus III., who began to reign
in 1 771, and who confirmed to Finland those "fundamental
laws " which they have succeeded in raaintrining against kings
and tsars for over two centuries. The country was divided into
sue governments, a second superior court of justice was founded
at Vasa, many new towns were built, commerce flourished, and
science and art were encouraged. Latin disappeared as the
academic language, and Swedish was adopted. In 1788 war
again broke out between Sweden and Russia, and was carried
on for two years without much glory or gain to either party,
the main aim of Gustavus being to recover the lost Finnish
province. In 1808, under Gustavus IV., peace was again
broken between the two countries, and the war ended by the
cession in 1809 of the whole of Finland and the Aland Islands to
Russia* Finland, however, did not enter Russia as a conquered
province, but, thanks to the bravery of her people after they had
been abandoned by an incompetent monarch and treacherous
generals, and not less to the wisdom and generosity of the
emperor Alexander I. of Russia, she maintained her free constitu-
tion and fundamental laws, and became a semi-independent
grand-duchy with the emperor as grand-duke. The estates
were summoned to a free diet at Borgi and accepted Alexander
as grand-duke of Finland, he on his part solemnly recognizing
the Finnish constitution and undertaking to preserve the religion,
laws and liberties of the country. A senate was created and a
governor-general named. The province of VibOrg was reunited
to Finland in 181 1, and Abo remained the capital of the country
till i8ax, when the civil and military authorities were removed
to Helsingfors, and the university in 1847. The diet, which had
not met for 56 years, was convoked.by Alexander 11. at Helsingfors
in 1863* Under Alexander II. Finland was on the whole pros-
perous and progressive, and his statue in the groat square in
front of the cathedral and the senate house in Helsingfors
testifies to the regard in which his memory is cherished by his
Finnish subjects. Unfortunately his successor soon fell under
the influence of the reactionary party which had begun to assert
itself in Russia even before the assassination of Alexander 1L
One of Alexander IlL's first acts wa* to Confirm " the constitu-
tion which was granted to the grand-duchy of Finland by His
Majesty the emperor Alexander Pavlovkh of most glorious
memory, and developed with the consent of the estates of Finland
by our dearly beloved father of blessed memory the emperor
Alexander Nkolaievich." But the Slavophil movement, with
its motto, " one law, one church, one .tongue," acquired great
influence in official circles* and its aim was, in defiance of the
pledges of successive tsars, to subject Finland to Orthodoxy
and autocracy. It is unnecessary to follow in detail the seven
years*' struggle between the Russian bureaucracy and the
defenders of the Finnish constitution. Politics in Finland were
complicated by the rivalry between the Swedish party, which
386
had hitherto been dominant io Finland, and the Finnish " nation*
alist " party which, during the latter half of the 10th century,
had been determinedly asserting itself linguistically and politi-
cally With some exceptions, however, the whole country united
in defence of its constitution, " Fennoman " and " Svecoman,"
recognizing that their common liberties were at stake, suspended
their feud for a season. With the accession of Nicholas II.
(see Russia) the constitutional conflict became acute, and the
" February manifesto " (February 15th, 1899) virtually abro-
gated the legislative power of the Finnish diet. A new military
law, practically amalgamating the Finnish with the Russian
forces, followed in July 1901 , Russian officials and the Russian
language were forced on Finland wherever possible, and in
April 1003 the Russian governor, General Bobrikov, was invested
with practically dictatorial powers. The country was flooded
with spies, and a special Russian police force was created, the
expenses being charged to the Finnish treasury. The Russian
system was now in full swing; domiciliary visits, illegal arrests
and banishments, and the suppression of newspapers, were the
order of the day. To all this the people of Finland opposed
a dogged and determined resistance, which culminated in
November 1005 in a " national strike." The strike was universal,
all classes joining in the movement, and it spread to all the
industrial centres and even to the rural districts. The railway,
steamship, telephone and postal services were practically
suspended Helsingfors was without tramcars, cabs, gas and
electricity; no shops except provision shops were open; public
departments, schools and restaurants were closed. After six
days the unconstitutional government — already much shaken
by events in Russia and Manchuria — capitulated. In an imperial
manifesto dated the 7th of November 1005 the demands of
Finland were granted, and the status quo ante 1800 was restored.
But the reform did not rest here. The old Finnish constit ution,
although precious to those whose only protection it was, was an
antiquated and not very efficient instrument of government.
Popular feeling had been excited by the political conflict, ad-
vanced tendencies had declared themselves, and when the new
diet met it proceeded as explained above to remodel the con-
stitution, on the basis of universal suffrage, with freedom of
the press, speech, meeting and association.
In 1008-10 friction with Russia was again renewed. The
Imperial government insisted that the decision in all Finnish
questions affecting the Empire must rest with them; and a re-
newed attempt was made to curtail the powers of the Finnish Diet.
Ethnology. — The term Finn has a wider application than
Finland, being, with its adjective Finnic or Finno-Ugric (q.v.)
or Ugro-Finnic, the collective name of the westernmost branch
of the Ural-Altaic family, dispersed throughout Finland, Lapland,
the Baltic provinces (Estnonia, Livonia, Curland), parts of
Russia proper (south of Lake Onega), both banks of middle
Volga, Perm, Vologda, West Siberia (between the Ural Mountains
and the Ycnisso) and Hungary.
Originally nomads (hunters and fishers), all the Finnic people
except the Lapps and Ostyaks have long yielded to the influence
of civilization, and now everywhere lead settled lives as herdsmen,
agriculturists, traders, frc Physically the Finns (here to be
distinguished from the Swedish-speaking population, who
retain their Scandinavian qualities) are a strong, hardy race,
of low stature, with almost round head, low forehead, flat
features, prominent cheek bones, eyes mostly grey and oblique
(inclining inwards), short and flat nose, protruding mouth,
thick lips, neck very full and strong, so that the occiput seems
flat and almost in a straight line with the nape; beard weak
and sparse, hair no doubt originally black, but, owing to mixture
with other races, now brown, red and even fair; complexion
also somewhat brown. The Finns are morally upright, hospitable,
faithful and submissive, with a keen sense of personal freedom
and independence, but also somewhat stolid, revengeful and
indolent. Many of these physical and moral characteristics
they have in common with the so-called " Mongolian " race,
to which they are no doubt ethnically, if not also linguistically,
related.
FINLAND [LITERATURE
Considerable researches have been accomplished since about
1850 in the ethnology and archaeology of Finland, on a scale
which has no parallel in any other country. The study of the
prehistoric population of Finland— Neolithic (no Palaeolithic
finds have yet been made) — of the Age of Bronze and the Iron
Age has been carried on with great zeal. At the same time the
folklore, Finnish and partly Swedish, Ms been worked out with
wonderful completeness (see L'CEuvredmi-sicuiaiu de la Soditi
de LitUrature finnoise et It mouventent national finnois, by Dr
E. G. Palmen, Helsingfors, 1JJ82, and R. Kjohn's report to the
London Folklore Congress of i8ox). The work that was begun
by Porthan, Z. Topelius, and especially E. Ldnnrot (1802-1884).
for collecting the popular poetry of the Finns, was continued
byCastren (1813-1852), Europaeus (1820-1884), and V. Porkka
(1854-1889), who extended their researches to the Finns settled
in other parts of the Russian empire, and collected a considerable
number of variants of the Kalewala and other popular poetry
and songs. In order to study the different eastern kinsfolk
of the Finns, Sjogren (1792-1855) extended his journeys to
North Russia, and Castren to West and East Siberia (Nordische
Rcisen und Forschune.cn), and collected the materials which
permitted himself and Sch{efner to publish grammatical works
relative to the Finnish, Lappish, Zyrian, Tcheremiss, Ostiak,
Samoyede, Tungus, Buryat, Karagas, Yenisei-Ostiak and Kott
languages. Ahlqvist (1826V1889), and a phalanx of linguists,
continued their work among the Vogules, the Mordves and the
Obi-Ugrians. And finally, the researches. of Aspelin (Foundations
of Finno-U grian Archaeology, in Finnish, and Atlas of A ntiquities)
led the Finnish ethnologists to direct more and more their
attention to the basin of the Yenisei and the Upper Sdenga.
A series of expeditions (of Aspelin, Snellman and Heikel) were
consequently directed to those regions, especially since the
discovery by Yadrintseff of the remarkable Orkhon inscriptions
(see Turks, p. 473), which finally enabled the Danish linguist,
V. Thomsen, to decipher these inscriptions, and to discover
that they belonged to the Turkish Iron Age. (See Inscriptions
do Flinissei recueWies el publics par la SociiU Finl. aV Archiologie,
1889, and Inscriptions de FOrhhoH, 2892.)
Authorities. — The general history of Finland is fully treated by
Yrjo Koskincn (1869-1873) and M. G. Schybemon (1887-1889).
Both works have been translated into German. The constitutional
conflict gave rise to a host of books and pamphlets in various
languages. Mechelin, Danielson and Hermanson were the leading
writers on the Finnish side, and M.Ordin on the Russian. Most of the
political documents have been published and translated. A finely
illustrated book, Finland in the nineteenth Century, by various Finnish
writers, gives an excellent account of the country; also Router's
Finlandia, a very complete work with an exhaustive bibliography.
The constitutional question was fully discussed in English in Fin-
land and the Tsars, by J. R. Fisher (2nd ed.. 1900). The Atlas de
Finlande, published in 1899 by the Geographical Society of Fin-
land, is a remarkably well executed and complete work. The
Statistical Annual for Finjand—Statistish Arsbokfor Finland— pub-
lished annually by the Central Statistical Bureau in Helsingfors,
gives the necessary figures. (P. A. K.; J. S. K.; J. R. E>)
Finnish Literature.
The earliest writer in the Finnish vernacular was* Michael
Agricola (1506-1557), who published an A B C Booh in 1544,
and, as bishop of Abo, a number of religious and educational
works. A version of the New Testament in Finnish was printed
by Agricola in 1548, and some books of the Old Testament in
1552. A complete Finnish Bible was published at Stockholm
in 164a. The dominion of the Swedes was very unfavourable
to the development of anything like a Finnish literature, the
poets of Finland preferring to write in Swedish and so secure a
wider audience. It was not until, in 1835, the national epos of
Finland, the Kalewala (q.v.), was introduced to readers by the
exertions of Elias Ldnnrot (q.v.), that the Finnish language was
used for literary composition. Ldnnrot also collected and edited
the works of the. peasant-poets P. Korhonen (1775-1840) and
Pentti Lyytinen, with an anthology containing the improvisa-
tions of eighteen other rustic bards. During the last quarter of
the 10th century there was an ever-increasing literary activity
in Finland, and it took the form less and less of the publication
FINLAY— FINN MAC COOL
387
of Swedish works, but more and more that of examples of the
aboriginal vernacular. At the present time, In spite of the
political troubles, books in almost every branch of research are
found in the language, mainly translations or adaptations. We
meet with, during the present century, a considerable number
of names of poets and dramatists, no doubt very minor, as also
painters, sculptors and musical composers. At the Paris
International Exhibition of 1878 several native Finnish painters
and sculptors exhibited works which would do credit to any
country; and both in the fine and applied arts Finland occupied
a position thoroughly creditable. An important contribution
to a history of Finnish literature is Krohn's Suomenkiclincn
runoUisuusruotsinvaUanoikana (1862). Finland is wonderfully
rich in periodicals of all kinds, the publications of the Finnish
Societies of Literature and of Sciences and other learned bodies
being specially valuable. A great work in the revival of an
interest in the Finnish language was done by the Suomalaisen
KirjaUisuuden Seura (the Finnish Literary Society), which from
the year 1841 has published a valuable annual, Suomi. The
Finnish Literary Society has also published a new edition of the
works of the father of Finnish history, Henry Gabriel Porthan
(died 1804). A valuable handbook of Finnish history was pub-
lished at Helsingfors in 1869-1873, by Yrjd Koskinen, and has
been translated into both Swedish and German. The author
was a Swede, Georg Forsman, the above form being a Finnish
translation. Other works on Finnish history and some inportant
works in Finnish geography have also appeared. In language
we have Lttnnrot's great Finnish-Swedish dictionary, published
by the Finnish Literary Society. Dr Otto Donncr's Comparative
Dictionary of the Finno-Ugric Languages (Helsingfors and
Leipzig) is in German. In imaginative literature Finland has
produced several important writers of the vernacular. Alexis
Stenwall (" Kiwi ") (1834-1872), the son of a village tailor,
was the best poet of his time; he wrote popular dramas and an
historical romance, The Seven Brothers (1870). Among recent
playwrights Mrs Minna Canth (1844-1897) has been the most
successful. * Other dramatists are E. F. Johnsson (1844-1895),
P. Cajander (b. 1846), who translated Shakespeare into Finnish,
and Karl Bcrgbom (b. 1843). Among lyric poets are J. H.
Erkko (b. 1849), Arwi Janncs (b. 1848) and YrjO Weijola
(b. 1875). The earliest novelist of Finland, Pictari PaivarintA
(b. 1827), was the son of a labourer; he is the author of a grimly
realistic story, His Life. Many of the popular Finnish authors
of our day are peasants. Kauppis Heikki was a wagoner; Alkio
Filander a farmer; Heikki Mavilainen a smith; Juhana Kokko
(Kydsti) a gamekeeper. The most gifted of the writers of
Finland, however, is certainly Juhani Aho (b. x86i), the son of
a country clergyman. His earliest writings were studies of
modern life, very realistically treated. Aho then went to
reside in France, where be made a close study of the methods
of the leading French novelists of the newer school. About the
year 1893 he began to publish short stories, some of which, such
as Enris, The Fortress of MaUhias, The Old Man of Korpela and
Finland's Flag, are delicate works of art, while they reveal to a
very interesting degree the temper and ambitions of the contem-
porary Finnish population. It has been well said that in the
writings of Juhani Aho can be traced all the idiosyncrasies
which have formed the curious and pathetic history of Finland
in recent years. A village priest, Juho Reijonen (b. 1857), in
talcs of somewhat artless form, has depicted the hardships
which poverty too often entails upon the Finn in his country
life. Tolstoy has found an imitator in Arwid Jamefelt (b. 1 861).
Santeri Ingman (b. i860) somewhat naively, but not without
skill, has followed in the steps of Aho. It would be an error to
exaggerate either the force or the originality of these early
developments of a national Finnish literature, which, moreover,
are mostly brief and unambitious in character. But they are
eminently sincere, and they have the great merit of illustrating
the local aspects of landscape and temperament and manners.
AuTHOBiTiKS.— E. G. Palmen. UCEuwe denri'Siculairo dt la
Suomalaisen KiriaUisumden Seura, 1831-81 (Helsingfors, 188s);
J. Krohn. Suomalaiun KirjaUisuuden vaiheei (Helsingfors, 1897);
F. W. Pipping. FtrlKhnngffver bicker p&finska spr&ket (Helsingfors.
lft56-MSS7); B. Bnutewetter, Finland im Bilde seiner Dkktnng und
seiner Didder (Berlin, 1899); C. J. Billson. Popular Poetry of the
Finns (London, 1000); V. Vaseniua, Ofversigt of Finlands Litleraiur-
historiafor skolor (Helsingfors, 1893). For writers using the Swedish
language, see Sweden : Literature. (E. G.)
FINLAY, GBOROB (1799-1875), British historian, was born
of Scottish parents at Faversham, Kent, on the 21st of December
1709. He studied for the law in Glasgow, and about 18 2 1 went
to Gdttingen. He had already begun to feel a deep interest in
the Greek struggle for independence, and in 1823 he resolved to
visit the country. In November he arrived in Cephalonia, where
be was kindly received by Lord Byron. Shortly afterwards he
landed at Pyrgos, and during the next fourteen months he
improved bis knowledge of the language, history and antiquities
of the country. Though he formed an unfavourable opinion,
of the Greek leaders, both civil and military, be by no means
lost his enthusiasm for their cause. A severe attack of fever,
however, combined with other circumstances, induced him to
spend the winter of 1824-1825 and the spring of 1825 in Rome,
Naples and Sicily. He then returned to Scotland, and, after
spending a summer at Castle Toward, Argyllshire, went to
Edinburgh, where he passed his examination in civil law at the
university, with a view to being called to the Scottish bar. His
enthusiasm, however, carried him back to Greece, where he
resided almost uninterruptedly till his death. He took part in
the unsuccessful operations of Lord Cochrane and Sir Richard
Church for the relief of Athens in 1827. When independence
had been secured in 1829 he bought a landed estate in Attica,
but all his efforts for the introduction of a better system of
agriculture ended in failure, and he devoted himself to the
literary work which occupied the rest of his life. His first
publications were The Hellenic Kingdom and the Creek Nation
(1836); Bssai sur Us principes de banque appliquis d Vital aetuel
de laGrice (Athens, 1836); and Remarks on the Topography
of Oropia and Diacria, vrith a map (Athens, 1838). The first
instalment of Ms great historical work appeared in 1844 (2nd ed.,
1857) tinder the title Greece under the Romans; a Historical
View of the Condition of the Creek Nation from the time of its
Conquest by the Romans until the Extinction of the Roman Empire
in the East. Meanwhile he had been qualifying himself still
further by travel as well as by reading; he undertook several
tours to various quarters of the Levant; and as the result of
one of them he published a volume On the Site of the Holy
Sepulchre; with a plan of Jerusalem (1847). The History of the
Byzantine and Creek Empires from 716-1453 was completed
in 1854. It was speedily followed by the History of Greece under
the Ottoman and Venetian Domination (1856), and by the History
of the Greek Revolution (i860- In weak health, and conscious
of failing energy, he spent his last years in revising his history.
From 1S64 to 1870 he was also correspondent of The Times
newspaper, his letters to which attracted considerable attention,
and, appearing in the Greek newspapers, exercised a distinct
influence on Greek politics. He was a member of several learned
societies; and in 1854 he received from the university of Edin-
burgh the honorary degree of LL.D. He died at Athens on the
26th of January 1875. A new edition of his History, edited by
the Rev. H. F. Tozer, was issued by the Oxford Clarendon press in
1877. It includes a brief but extremely interesting fragment of an
autobiography of the author, almost the only authority for his life.
As an historian, Finlay had the merit of entering upon a field
of research that had been neglected by English writers, Gibbon
alone being a partial exception. As a student, he was laborious;
as a scholar he was accurate; as a thinker, he was both acute
and profound; and in all that he wrote he was unswerving in
his loyalty to the principles of constitutional government and to
the cause of liberty and justice.
FINN MAC COOL (in Irish Find Mac Cuuaill), the central
figure of the later heroic cycle of Ireland, commonly called
Ossianic or Fenian. In Scotland Find usually goes by the name
of Fingal. This appears to be due to a misunderstanding of the
tHle assumed by the Lord of the Isles, Ri Fionnghall, i.e. king of
the Norse. Fino"s father, Cumall mac 7>£nm6ir t was uncle to Conn
388
FINNO-UGRIAN
Cltchathach, High King of Ireland, who died to aj>. 1 57. Cumall
carried off Murna Munchaem, the daughter of a Druid named
Tadg mac Nuadat, and this led to the battle of Cnucha, in which
Cumall was slain by Goll mac Morna (aj>. 174)- Find was born
after his father's death and was at first called Demni. He is
leader of the fiann or fiiiine (English " Fenians M ), a kind of
militia or standing army which was drawn from all quarters of
Ireland. His father had held the same office before him, but
after his death it passed to his enemy Goll mac Morna, who
retained it until Find came to man's estate. Find usually
resided at Almu (Allen) in Co. Kildare, where he was surrounded
by some of the contingents of the fiann, the rest being scattered
throughout Ireland to ward off enemies, particularly those
coming from over the sea. In times of invasion Find collected
his forces, overcame the foe, and pursued him to Scotland or
Lochlann (Scandinavia) as the case might be. When not
engaged in war the fiann gave themselves up to the chase or
love-adventures. We are informed in great detail as to the
conditions of admission to this privileged band, which were
at once singular and exacting. The foremost heroes in Find's
train were his son Ossian, his grandson Oscar, Cailte mac Ronain,
and Diarmait O'Duibnc, whose elopement with Find's destined
bride Crainne, daughter of the High-King Cormac mac Airt
(ad. 227-266), forms the subject of a celebrated story. These,
like Find, were all of the Ua Baisgne branch, with- which was
allied the Ua Morna, with whom they were generally at variance.
The latter bailed from Connaught, chief among them being
Goll and Conan. By the annalists Find is represented as having
met with death by treachery either in 252 or 283. Under
Coirpxe Lifcochair, successor to Cormac mac Airt, the power
of the fiann became intolerable. The monarch accordingly
took up arms against them and utterly crushed them at the
battle of Gabra (a.d. 283). Very few survived the defeat, but
Ibe story makes Ossian and Cailte live on until after the arrival
of St Patrick in 432.
It is incredible that such a band as the fiann should have
existed in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. A number of sagas older
in date than the Ossianic stories have been preserved, which deal
with events happening in the reigns of Art son of Conn (166-196),
Lugaid mac Con (196-227), and Cormac mac Airt (227-266),
but none of these in their oldest shape contain any allusion
whatsoever to Find and his warriors. In the history of the
Boroma, contained in the book of Leinster, Find is merely a
Leinster chieftain who assists Bressal the king of Leinster
against Coirpre Lifeochair. It can be shown that Find was
originally a figure in Leinster-Munstcr tradition previous to the
Viking age, but we have no documentary evidence concerning
him at this time. He seems primarily to have been regarded as
a poet and magician. Later he appears to have been trans-
formed into a petty chief, and Zimmer even tried to show that
his personality was developed in leinster and Munster local
tradition out of stories clustering round the* figure of the Viking
leader Kctill Hviti (Caittil Find), who was slain in 857. By the
year 1000 Find was certainly connected in the minds of the people
with the feign of Cormac mac Airt, but the process is obscure.
Recently John MacNeill has pointed out that in the oldest
genealogies Find is always connected with the Ui Tairrsigh of
Failge (Offalcy, a district comprising the present c&unty of
Rildare and parts of King's and Queen's counties). The Ui
Tairrsigh were undoubtedly of Firbolg origin, and MacNeill
would account in this manner for the slow acceptance of the
stories by the conquering Milesians. Whilst the Ulster epic was
fashionable at court, the subject races dung to the Fenian cycle.
For the last 800 years Find has been the national hero of the
Gaelic-speaking populations of Ireland, the Scottish Highlands
and the Isle of Man. See also Celt (subsection Irish Literature).
Authorities.— A. Nutt, Ossian and the Ossiatic Literature
(London, 1899); H. Zimmer, " Kelttsche Bcitrage Hi.," Zeitsckriftfur
deutsckes A Her turn (1891), vol. xxxv. pp. 1*172; L. C. Stem, * Die
Ossianischen HeldenUeder," Zeitsckrift fur teriletckende LiUeratur*
weschickte (1895; trans, by J. L. Robertson in Transactions of ike
Gaelic Society of Inverness, 1 897- 1898, vol. xxii. pp. 257-3252; J.
MacNeill. Duanaite Finn (London. 1908). <E. C. Q.)
FINNO-UGRIAN, or Fdwo-Ucbic, the designation of a
division of the Ural- Altaic family of languages and their speakers.
The first part is the name given by their neighbours, though
not used by themselves, to the inhabitants of the eastern shores
of the Baltic It is probably the same word as the Eenni of
Tacitus and ♦iwoi of Ptolemy, though it is not certain that those
races were Finns in the modem sense. It possibly means people
of the fens or marshes, and corresponds to the native word Suowti,
which appears to be derived from suo, a marsh. Finn and
Finnish are used not only of the inhabitants of Finland bat
also in a more extended sense of similar tribes found in Russia
and sometimes called Baltic Finns and Volga Finns. In this
sense the Esthonian tribes (Baltic), the Laps, the Chereans and
Mordvins (Volga), and the Permian tribes are all Finns. The
name is not, however, extended to the Osliaks, Voguls and
Magyars, who, though allied, form a separate subdivision called
Ugrian, a name derived from Yura or Ugra, the country on
either side of the Ural Mountains, and first used by Castxen in
a scientific sense.
The name Finno-Ugric is primarily linguistic and mast not
be pressed as indicating a community of physical features
and customs. But making allowance for the change of language
by some tribes, the Fiano-Ugrians form, with the striking ex-
ception of the Hungarians, a moderately homogeneous whole.
They are nomads, but, unlike the Turks, Mongols and Manchns,
have hardly ever shown themselves warlike and have no power
of political organization. Those of them who have not come
under European influence live under the simplest form of
patriarchal government, and states, kings or even great chiefs
are almost unknown among them.
Their headquarters are in Russia. From the Baltic to south
Siberia extends a vast plain broken only by the Urals. Large
parts of it are still wooded, and the proportion of forest land and
marsh was no doubt much greater formerly. The Finno-Ugric
tribes seem to shun the open steppes but are widely spread in
the wooded country, especially on the banks of lakes and rivers.
Their want of political influence renders them obscure, but they
form a considerable element in the population of the northern,
middle and eastern provinces of Russia, but are not found much
to the south of Moscow (except in the east) or in the west (except
in the Baltic provinces) . The difference of temperament between
the Great Russians and the purer Slavs such as the Ujtk
Russians is partly due to an infusion of Finnish blood.
Physically the Finno-Ugric races are as a rule solidly buOt
and, though there is considerable variation in height and the
cephalic index, are mostly of small or medium stature, somewhat
squat, and brachy- or mesocephalic. As a rule the skin is greyish
or olive coloured, the eyes grey or blue, the hair light, the
beard scanty. Most of them seem deficient in energy and
liveliness, both mental and physical; they are slow, heavy,
conservative, somewhat suspicious and vindictive, inclined to
be taciturn and melancholy. On the other hand they are
patient, persevering, indostrious, faithful and honest. When
their natural mistrust of strangers is overcome they are kindly
and hospitable.
I. Tribes and Nations.— The Ugrian subdivision, which seems
to be in many respects the more primitive, consists of three
peoples standing on very different levels of civilisation, the
Ostiaks and Voguls and the Hungarians.
The Ostiaks (Ostyaks or Ostjaks) are a tribe of nomadic
fishermen and hunters inhabiting at present the government
of Tobolsk and the banks of the Obi. They formerly ^ ^^
extended into the government of Perm on the European
side of the Ural Mountains. The so-called Ostiaks of the Yenisei
appear to be a different race and not to belong to the Finno-
Ugrian group. The Ostiaks are still partially pagan and worship
the River Obi. Allied to them are the Vogids, a similar nomadic
tribe found on both sides of the Urals, and formerly ¥■— &,
extending at least as far as the government of Vologda.
The languages of the Ostiaks and Voguls are allied, though not
mere dialects of one another, and form a small group separated
from the languages of the Finns both Western and Eastern.
FINNO-UGRIAN
389
For further details of these tnd other tribes see under the separate
According to the legend, Nimrod had two tons, Hunyor and
Magyor. They married daughters of the prince of the Alans
and became the ancestors of' the two kindred nations,
£**£JJj7 Huns and Magyars or Hungarians. This story corre-
^uiMMa. aponds with what can be ascertained scientifically about
the origin of these peoples. It is probable that the
Huns and Magyars were allied tribes of mixed descent comprising
both Turkish, and Finno-Ugrian elements. The language is
indisputably Finno-Ugrian, but the name Hungarian seems to
lead back, to the Conn Un-ugur, and to suggest Turkish connexions
which are confirmed by the warlike habits of the Huns and
Magyars. The same name possibly occurs in the form Hiung-nu
as far cast as the frontiers of China, but recent authorities are
of opinion that the tribes from whom the present Hungarians
are descended were formed originally in the Terek-Kuban
country to the north of the Caucasus, where a mixture of Turkish
and Ugrian blood took place, a Ugrian language but Turkish
mode of life predominating. They were also influenced by
Iranians and the various tribes of the Caucasus. Both Huns
and Magyars moved westwards, but the Huns invaded Europe
in the 5th century and made no permanent settlement in spite
of the devastation they caused, whereas the Magyars remained
for some centuries near the banks of the Don. According to
tradition they were compelled to leave a country called Lebcdia
under the pressure of nomadic tribes, and moved westward
under the leadership of seven dukes. They conquered Hungary
in the years 884-895, and the first king of their new dominions
was called Arpad. For the chequered and often tragic history
of the country see Hungary. The Magyars were converted to
Christianity in the nth century and adhered to the Roman
not the Eastern Church. They have in all probability entirely
lost their ancient physique, but have retained their language,
and traces of their older life may be seen in their fondness for
horses and nocks.
The following are the principal Finnish peoples. The Permiaus
and Syrytnhatu may be treated as one tribe. The latter name
is very variously spelt asSyrjenian,Sirianian,Zyrjenian,
2^?"^ Zirian, &c. They both call themselves Komi and
rntanZ speak a mutually intelligible language, allied to
Votiak. The name Bjarmisch is sometimes applied
to this sub-group. Both Permiaus and Syrycnians are found
chiefly in the governments of Perm, Vologda and Archangel,
but there are a few Syrycnians on the Siberian side of the Urals.
The Syryenian headquarters are at the town of Ishma on the
Pechora, whereas the name Permian is more correctly restricted
to the inhabitants of the right bank of the upper .Kama. Both
probably extended much farther to the west in former times.
The Syryenians are said to be more intelligent and active than
most Finnish tribes and to make considerable journeys for
trading purposes. They are possibly a mixed race.
The Voliaks are a tribe of about a quarter of a million persons
dwelling chiefly in the south-eastern part of the government
Votiaig. o{ Viatks. Their language indicates that they have
borrowed a good deal from the Tatars and Chuvashes,
and they seem to have little individuality, being described as
weak both mentally and physically. They call themselves
Ud-murt or Urt-murt. About the 16th century some of them
migrated, doubtless under the pressure of Russian advance, into
the government of Ufa and, the country bang more fertile, are
uid to have improved in physique.
The Cher emissions, or Tcheremissians or Cberemis, who call
themselves Mari, inhabit the banks of the Volga, chiefly in the
jj^ neighbourhood of Kazan. Those inhabiting the right
"fatal* b*nk of the Volga are physically stronger and are
known as Hill Cheremiss* The evidence of place
names makes it probable that their present position is the result
of their being driven northwards by the Mordvins and then
KWthwarda by the Russians. There is some discrepancy between
their language and their physical characteristics. The former
shows affinities to both-Mordvinian and the Permian group, but
their crania are said to he mainly dolichocephalic, and it has
been suggested that they are connected with the neolithic
dolichocephalic population of Lake Ladoga. They are gentle
and honest, but neither active nor intelligent.
The Mordvinians, also called Mordva, Mordvins and Mordvs,
are scattered over the provinces near the middle Volga, especially
Nizhniy Novgorod, Kazan, Penza, Tambov, Simbirsk,
Ufa and even Orenburg. Though not continuous,
their settlements are considerable both in extent and
population. They are the most important of the Eastern Finns,
and their traditions speak of a capital and of a king who fought
with the Tatars. They are mentioned as Mordens as early as the
6th century, but do not now use the name, calling themselves
after one of their two divisions, Moksha or Erza. Their country
is still covered with forest to a large extent. Their language
is on the one side allied to Cheremissian. On the other it shows
a nearer approach to Finnish (Suomi) than the other Eastern
languages of the family, but it has also constructions peculiar
to itself.
The Lapps are found in Norway, Sweden and Finland. They
call themselves Sabmc, but are called Finns by the Norwegians.
They are the shortest and most brachycephalic race .
in Europe. The majority axe nomads who live by *-****
pasturing reindeer, and are known as Mountain Lapps, but
others have become more or less settled and live by hunting or
fishing. From andent times the Lapps have had a great reputa-
tion among the Finns and other neighbouring nations for skill
in sorcery.
The Esthonians are the peasantry of the Russian province
Esthonia and the neighbouring districts. They were serfs
until 181 7 when they were liberated, but their condition m Mtham
remained unsatisfactory and led to a serious rebellion in SnT
1859. They are practically a branch of the Finns, and
are hardly separable from the other Finnish tribes inhabiting
the Baltic provinces. The name Est or Ehst, by which they
are known to foreigners, appears to be the same as the Aestii
of Tacitus, and to hive properly belonged to quite a different
tribe. They call themselves Ma mes, or country people, and
their land Rabwama or Wiroma (cf . Finnish, Virolaiset, Esthon-
ians.) Though, not superior to other tribes in general intelligence,
they have become more civilized owing to their more intimate
connexion with the Rjussian and German population around them,
Livs, Li/danders or Lhonians is the name given to the old
Finnish-speaking population of west Liviand or Livonia and
north Kurland. We hear of them as a warlike and
predatory pagan tribe ia the middle ages, and it is l tfmm%
possible that they were a mixed Letto-Finnish race
from the beginning. In modern times they have become almost
completely absorbed by Letts, and their language is only spoken
in a few places on the coast of Kurland. It has indeed been
disputed if it still exists. It is known as Liviah or Livonian and
is allied to Esthonian.
The Votes (not to be confounded with the Votiaks), also
called southern Chudes and Vatjalaiset, apparently represent
the original inhabitants of Ingria, the district round y^m,
St Petersburg) but have decreased before the advance
of the Russians and also of Karelians from the north. They are
heard of in the nth century, but now occupy only about thirty
parishes in north-west Ingria.
The Vepsas or Vcpses, also called Northern Chudes, are another
tribe allied to the Esthonians, but are more numerous than the
Votes. They are found in the district of Tikhvinsk ^mn.
and other parts of the government of Old Novgorod,
and apparently extended farther east into the government of
Vologda in former times. Linguistically both the Votes and
Vepsas arc closely related to the Esthonians.
The Finns proper or Suomi, as they call themselves, are the
most important and civilized division of the group. They
inhabit at present the grand duchy of Finland and the t>*m*.
adjacent governments, especially Olonetz, Tver and
St Petersburg. Formerly a tribe of them called Kainulaiset
was also found in Sweden, whence the Swedes call the Finns
39°
FINNO-UGRIAN
Qven. At present there are two principal subdivisions of Finns,
the Tavastlanders or Hamalaiset, who occupy the southern and
western parts of the grand duchy, and the Karelians or Karjalaisct
found in the east and north, as far as Lake Onega and towards
the White Sea.
The former, and generally speaking, all the inhabitants of the
grand duchy have undergone a strong Swedish influence. There
is a considerable admixture of Swedish blood; the language is
full of Swedish words; Christianity is universal; and the upper
classes and townspeople arc mainly Swedish in their habits and
speech, though of late a persistent attempt has been made to
Russify the country. The Finns have much the same mental
and moral characteristics as the other allied tribes, but have,
reached a far higher intellectual and literary stage. Several
collections of their popular and mythological poetry have been
made, the most celebrated of which is the Kalewala, compiled
by Lonnrot about 1835, and there is a copious modern literature.
The study of the national languages and antiquities is prosecuted
in Helsingfors and other towns with much energy: several
learned societies have been formed and considerable results
published, partly in Finnish. It is clear that this scientific
activity, though animated by a patriotic Finnish spirit, owes
much to Swedish training in the past. Besides the literary
language there are several dialects, the most important of which
is that of Savolaks.
The Karelians are not usually regarded as separate from the
Finns, though they are a distinct tribe as much as the Vepsas
ft>-»«w anc * V° tes * Living farther east they have come less
under Swedish and more under Russian influence than
the Inhabitants of West Finland; but, since many of the districts
which they inhabit are out of the way and neglected, this influence
has not been strong, so that they have adopted less of European
civilization, and in places preserved their own customs more
than the Westerners. They are of a slighter and better pro-
portioned build than the Finns, more enterprising, lively and
friendly, but less persevering and tenacious. They number
about 260,000, of whom about 63,000 live in Olonetz and 195,000
in Tver and Novgorod, but in the southern districts are less
distinguished from the Russian population. They belong to
the Russian Church, whereas the Finns of the grand duchy are
Protestants. There also appear to be authentic traces of a
Karelian population in Kaluga, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Vologda
and Tambov. It was among them that the Kalewala was
collected, chiefly in East Finland and Olonetz.
There is some difference of opinion as to whether the Samoyedes
should be included among the Finno-Ugrian tribes or be given
the rank of a separate division equivalent to Finno-
JJU" Ugrian and Turkish. The linguistic question is
discussed below. The Samoyedes are a nomad tribe
who wander with their reindeer over the treeless plains which
border on the White and Kara seas on either side of the Urals.
In culture and habits they resemble the Finno-Ugrian tribes,
and there seems to be no adequate reason for separating them:
Various other peoples have been referred to the Finno-Ugrian
group, but some doubt must remain as to the propriety
furtKttyn °f tne classification, either because they are now
extinct, or because they are suspected of having
changed their language.
The original Bulgarians, who had their home on the Volga
before they invaded the country which now bears their name,
were probably a tribe similar to the Magyars, though all record
of their language is lost. It has been disputed whether the
Khazars, who in the middle ages occupied parts of south Russia
and the shores of the Caspian, were Finno-Ugrians or Turks, and
there is the same doubt about the Avars and Pechenegs, which
without linguistic evidence remains insoluble. Nor is the differ-
ence ethnographically important. The formation of hordes
of warlike bodies, half tribes, half armies, composed of different
races, was a characteristic of Central Asia, and it was probably
often a matter of chance what language was adopted as the
common speech.
At the present day the Bashkirs, Meshchers and Teptert, who
speak Tatar languages, are thought to be Finnish in origin, as are
also the Chuvashes, whose language is Tatar strongly modified
by Finnish influence. The little known Soyotsof the headwaters
of the Yenisei are also said to be Finno-Ugrians.
The name Chude appears to be properly applied to the Vepsas
and Votes but is extended by popular usage in Russia to all
Finno-Ugrian tribes, and to all extinct tribes of whatever race
who have left tombs, monuments or relics of mining operations
in European Russia or Siberia. Some Russian archaeologists use
it specifically of the Permian group. But its extension is so
vague that it is better to discard it as a scientific term.
II. Languages.— -The Finno-Ugric languages are generally
considered as a division of the Ural-Altaic group, which consists
of four families: Turkish, Mongol, Manchu and Finno-Ugric,
including Samoyede unless it is reckoned separately as a fifth.
The chief character of the group is that agglutination, or the
addition of suffixes, is the only method of word-formation,
prefixes and significant change of vowels being unknown, as is
also gender. This suggests an affinity with many other languages,
such as the ancient Accadian or Sumerian, and Japanese. A
connexion between the Finno-Ugric and Dra vidian languages has
also been suggested. On the other hand, the more highly
developed agglutinative languages, such as Finnish, approach
the inflected Aryan type, so that the Aryan languages may have
been developed from an ancestor not unlike the Ural-Altaic
group.
The Finno-Ugrian languages are distinguished from the other
divisions of the Ural-Altaic group both in grammar and vocabu-
lary. Compared with Mongol and Manchu they have a much
greater wealth of forms, both in declension and conjugation;
the suffixes form one word with the root and are not wholly or
partially detachable postpositions; the pronominal element
is freely represented in the suffixes added to both verbs and
nouns. These features are also found in the Turkish languages,
but Finno-Ugrian has a much greater variety of cases denoting
position or motion, and the union of the case termination with
the noun is more complete; in some languages the object can
be incorporated in the verb, which does not occur in Turkish,
but the negative is rarely (Cheremissian) thus incorporated
after the Turkish fashion (e.g. yaxmak, " to write "; yaxmamak,
"not to write") 1 snd in some languages takes pronominal
suffixes (Finnish en tide, tl lult, civOt tide, " I, you, they do not
come"). Vowel-harmony is completely observed in Finnish
and Magyar, but in the other languages is imperfectly developed,
or has been lost under Russian influence. Relative pronouns
and particles exist and are fully developed in some languages.
The tendency to form compounds, which is not characteristic
of Turkish, is very marked in Finnish and Hungarian, and is
said also to be found in Samoyede, Cheremissian and Syrycnian.
The original order in the sentence seems to be that the governing
word follows the word governed, but there are many exceptions
to this, particularly in Hungarian where the arrangement is
very free.
In vocabulary the pronouns agree fairly well with those of
Turkish, Mongol and Manchu, but there is little resemblance
between the numbers. Many of the languages contain numerous
Tatar and Turkish loan-words, but with this exception the
resemblance of vocabulary is not striking and indicates an
ancient separation. But the similarity in the process of word-
building and of the elements used, even if they have not the
same sense, as well as analogies in the general construction of
sentences and in some details (e.g. the use of the infinitive or
verbal substantive), seem to justify the hypothesis of an original
relationship with the Turkish languages, which in their turn
have connexions with the other groups.
Samoyede is classed by some as a separate group and by
some among the Finno-Ugrian languages, but it. at any rate
displays a far closer resemblance to them in both grammar
and vocabulary than do any of the Turkish languages. The
numerals are different, but the personal and interrogative
pronouns and many common words (e.g. joka, " river/' Finn.
Mi; sots, "good," Finn. AywS; koU t "fish," Finn, kda)
FINNO-UGRIAN
391
show a considerable resemblance. The inflection of nouns is
very like that found in Finno-Ugrian but that of the verb
differs, verb and noun being imperfectly differentiated. In
detail, however, the verbal suffixes show analogies to those of
Finno-Ugrian. Vowel - harmony and weakening of consonants
occur as in Finnish.
Excluding Samoyede, the Finno-Ugrian languages may be
divided into two sections: (x) Ugrian, comprising Ostiak,
Vogul and Magyar; and (a) Finnish. The Permian languages
(Syryenian, Permian and Votiak) form a distinct group within
this latter section, and the remainder may be divided into the
Volga group (Chcremissian and Mordvinian) and the West
Finnish (Lappish, Esthonian and Finnish proper).
The Ugrian languages appear to have separated from the
Finnish branch before the systems of declension or conjugation
were developed . Their case suffixes seem to be later formations,
though we find, /, // or k for the plural and traces of J as a local
suffix. Ostiak and Vogul, like Samoyede, have a dual. Moods
and tenses are less numerous but the number of verbal forms is
increased by those in which the pronominal object is incorporated.
Hungarian has naturally advanced enormously beyond the
stage reached by Ostiak and Vogul, and shows marks of strong
European Influence, but also retains primitive features. Vowel-
harmony is observed (vdrok, u I await/' but verek, " I strike ").
The verb has two sets of terminations, according as it is transitive
or intransitive, and the pronominal object is sometimes in-
corporated. Alone among Finno-Ugrian languages it has
developed an article, and the adjective is inflected when used
as a predicate though not as an attribute (J 6 emberek, " good
men," but Az emberek jdk t " the men are good "). There is
great freedom in the order of words and, as in Finnish, a tendency
to form long compounds.
The Finnish languages are not divided from the Ugrian by
any striking differences, but show greater resemblances to one
another in details. None of them have a dual and only Mord-
vinian an objective conjugation. The case system is elaborate
and generally comprises twelve or fifteen forms. The negative
conjugation is peculiar; there are negative adjectives ending
in tern or torn and abessive cases (e.g. Finnish syyttd, without a
cause, tiedotta, without knowledge).
Permian, Syryenian and Votiak exhibit this common develop-
ment less fully than the more western languages. They are
less completely inflected than the Finnish languages and more
thoroughly agglutinative in the strict sense. In vocabulary,
e.g. the numerals, they show resemblances to the Ugrian division.
Syryenian has older literary remains than any Finno-Ugrian
language except Hungarian. In the latter part of the 14th
century Russian missionaries composed in it various manuals
and translations, using a special alphabet for the purpose.
Unlike the Finnish and Esthonian branch, the languages of
the Volga Finns (Mordvinian and Chercmissian) have been
influenced by Russian and Tatar rather than by Scandinavian,
and hence show apparent differences. But Mordvinian has
points of detailed resemblance to Finnish which seem to point
to a comparatively late separation, e.g. the use of kemen for ten,
-ma as the possessive suffix of the third personal pronoun, the
regular formation of the imperfect with *', the infinitive with
ma, and the participle with / (Finnish va). On the other hand
it has many peculiarities. It retains an objective conjugation
like the Ugrian languages, and has developed two forms of
declension, the definite and indefinite.
Cheremissian has affinities to both the Permian languages
and Mordvinian. It resembles Syryenian in its case terminations
and also in marking the plural by interposing a distinct syllable
(Syry. yos, Cher, vlya) between the singular and the case suffixes.
Most of the numerals are likeSyryenian butkSndekhsye,indekhsye t
for eight and nine, recall Finnish forms (kahdeksan, ykdcks&n),
as do also the pronouns.
The connexion between the various West Finnish languages
is more obvious than between those already discussed. Lappish
(or Lapponic) forms a link between them and Mordvinian. Its
pronouns are remarkably like the Mordvinian equivalents, but
the general system of declension and conjugation, both positive
and negative, is much as in Finnish. Superficially, however,
the resemblance is somewhat obscured by the difference in
phonetics, for Lappish has an extraordinary fondness for diph-
thongs and also an unusually ample provision of consonants.
The affinity of Esthonian (together with Votish, Vepsish and
Livish) to Finnish is obvious not only to the philologist but
to the casual learner. In a few cases it shows older forms than
Finnish, but on the whole is less primitive and has assumed
under foreign influence the features of a European language
even more thoroughly. The vowel-harmony is found only in the
Dorpat dialect and there imperfectly, the pronominal affixes
are not used, and the negative has become an unvarying particle,
though in Vepsish and Votish it takes suffixes as in Finnish.
On the other hand, the laws for the change of consonants, the
general system of phonetics, the declension, the pronouns and
the positive conjugation of the verb all closely resemble Finnish.
Esthonian has two chief dialects, those of Reval and Dorpat, and
a certain amount of literary culture, .the best-known work being
the national epic or Kalcwi-poeg.
Finnish proper is divided into two chief dialects, the Karelian
or Eastern, and the Tavastland or Western. The spoken
language of the Earelians is corrupt and mixed with Russian,
but the KalewaJa and their other old songs are written in a pure
Finnish dialect, which has come to be accepted as the ordinary
language of poetry throughout modern Finland, just as the
Homeric dialect was used by the Greeks for epic poetry. It is
more archaic than the Tavastland dialect and preserves many
old forms which have been lost elsewhere, but its utterance is
softer and it sometimes rejects consonants which are retained in
ordinary speech, e.g. saa'a, koscn for saada, kosken.
The affinity of Finnish to the more eastern languages of the
group is dear, but it has been profoundly influenced by Scandi-
navian and in its present form consists of non-Aryan material
recast in an Aryan and European mould. Not only are some
of the simplest words borrowed from Scandinavian, but the
grammar has been radically modified. tin-Aryan peculiarities
have been rejected, though perhaps less than in Esthonian.
The various forms of nouns and verbs are not merely roots with
a string of obvious suffixes attached, but the termination forms
a whole with the root as in Greek and Latin inflections; the
adjective is declined and compared and agrees with its sub-
stantive; compound tenses are formed with the aid of the
auxiliary verb, and there is a full supply of relative pronouns
and particles.
Finnish and Hungarian together with Turkish are interesting
examples of non-Aryan languages trying to participate, by both
translation and imitation, in the literary life of Europe, but it
may be doubted if the experiment is successful. The sense of
effort is felt less in Hungarian than in the other languages;
though they are admirable instruments for terse conversation or
popular poetry, there appears to be some deep-seated difference
in the force of the verb and the structure of phrases which
renders them clumsy and complicated when they attempt to
express sentences of the type common in European literature.
III. Civilization ami Religion," -The Finno-Ugric tribes have
not been equally progressive; some, such as the Finns and
Magyars, have adopted, at least in towns, the ordinary civiliza-
tion of Europe; others are agriculturists; others still nomadic.
The wilder tribes, such as the Ostiaks, Voguls and Lapps, mostly
consist of one section which is nomadic and another which is
settling down. The following notes apply to traces of ancient
conditions which survive sporadically but are nowhere universal.
Few except the Hungarians have shown themselves warlike,
though we read of conflicts with the Russians in the middle ages
as they advanced among this older population. But most
Finno-Ugrians are astute and persevering hunters, and the
Ostiaks still shoot game with a bow. The tribes are divided
into numerous small clans which are exogamous. Marriage by
capture is said to survive among the Cheremiss, who are still
I polygamous in some districts, but purchase of the bride is the
I more general form. Women are treated as servants and often
392
FINNO-UGRIAN
excluded from pagan religious - ceremonies. The most primitive
form of house consists of poles inclined towards one another
and covered with skins or sods, so as to form a circular screen
round a fire; winter houses are partly underground. Long
snow-shoes are used in winter and boats are largely employed in
summer. The Finns in particular arc very good seamen. The
Ostiaks and Samoyedes still cast tin ornaments in wooden
moulds. The variation of the higher numerals in the different
languages, which are sometimes obvious loan words, shows that
the original system did not extend beyond seven, and the aptitude
for calculating and trading Ss not great. Several thousands of
the Ostiaks, Voguls and Cheremiss are still unbaptized, and much
paganism lingers among the nominal Christians, and in poetry
such as the KoUwala. The deities are chiefly nature spirits and
the importance of the several gods varies as the tribes are hunters,
fishermen, &c Sun or sky worship is found among the Samoyedes
and Jumala, the Finnish word for god, seems originally to mean
sky. The Ostiaks worship a water-spirit of the river Obi and
also a thunder-god.. We hear of a forest-god among the Finns,
Lapps and Cheremiss. There are abo clan gods worshipped by
each clan with special ceremonies. Traces of ancestor-worship
are also found. The Samoyedes and Ostiaks are said to sacrifice
to ghosts, and the Ostiaks to make images of the more important
dead, which are tended and honoured, as if alive, for some years.
Images are found in the tombs and barrows of most tribes, and
the Samoyedes, Ostiaks and Voguls still use idols, generally
of wood. Animal sacrifices arc offered, and the lips of the
idol sometimes smeared with blood. Quaint combinations
of Christianity and paganism occur; thus the Cheremiss are
said to sacrifice to the Virgin Mary. The idea that disease is
due to possession by an evil spirit, and can be both caused and
cured by spells, seems to prevail among all tribes, and in general
extraordinary power is supposed to reside in incantations and
magical formulae. This belief is conspicuous in the Kalcwala,
and almost every tribe has its own collection of prayers, healing
charms and spells to be used on the most varied occasions.
A knowledge of these formulae is possessed by wizards (Finnish
noila) corresponding to the Shamans of the Altaic peoples.
They are exorcists and also mediums who can ascertain the
will of the gods; a magic drum frlays a great part in their
invocations, and their office is generally hereditary. The non-
Buddhist elements of Chinese and Japanese religion present
the same features as arc found among the Finno-lTgrians — nature-
worship, ancestor-worship and exorcism— but In a much more
elaborate and developed form.
TV. History. — Most of the Finno-Ugrian tribes have no history
or written records, and little in the way of traditions of their
past. In their later period the Hungarians and Finns enter
to some extent the course of ordinary European history. For
the earlier period we have no positive information, but the labours
Of investigators, especially in Finland, have collected a great
number of archaeological and philological data from which an
account of the ancient wanderings of these tribes may be con-
structed. Barrows containing skulls and ornaments may mark
the advance of a special form of culture, and language may be
of assistance; if we find, for instance, a language with loan
words of an archaic type, we may conclude that it was in contact
with the other language from which it borrowed at the time when
such forms were current. But dearly all such deductions
contain a large element of theory, and the following sketch is
given with all reserve.
The Finno-Ugrian tribes originally lived together east of the
Urals and spoke a common language. It is not certain if they
were all of the same physical type, for the association of different
races speaking one language is common in central Asia. They
were hunters and fishermen, not agriculturists. At an unknown
period the Finns, still undivided, moved into Europe and perhaps
settled on the Volga and Oka. They had perhaps arrived there
before 1500 B.C., learned some rudiments of agriculture, and
developed their system of numbers up to ten. They were still
in the neolithic stage. About 600 B.C. they came in contact
with an Iranian people; from whom they learned the use of
metals, and borrowed numerals for a hundred (Finnish sdo,
Ostiak 5d/, Magyar siaz; cf. Zend sola) and a thousand (Magyar
ezer\ cf. JtazdHra and hazar). Magyar and some other languages
also borrowed a word for ten (liz, cf. das). This Iranian race
may perhaps have been the Scythians, who are believed by many
authorities to have been Iranians -and to be represented by the
Osetians of the Caucasus. There was probably a trade route
up the Volga in the 4th century B.C. About that time the
Western Finns must have broken away from the Mordvinians
and wandered north-westwards. At a period not much later
than the Christian era, they must have come in contact with
Letto-Lithuanian peoples in the Baltic provinces, and also with
Scandinavians. Whether they came in contact with the latter
first in the Baltic provinces or in Finland itself is disputed, as
there may have been Scandinavians in the Baltic provinces.
But the distribution of tombs and barrows seems to indicate
that they entered Finland not from the east through Karelia
but from the Baltic provinces by sea to Satakunta and the
south-east coast, whence they extended eastwards. From both
Lithuanians and Scandinavians they borrowed an enormous
quantity of culture-words and probably the ideas and materials
they indicate. Thus the Finnish words for gold, king and
everything concerned with government are of Scandinavian
origin. Their migration to Finland was probably complete about
a.d. 800. Meanwhile the Slav tribes known later as Russians
were coming up from the south and pressed the Finns northwards,
overwhelming but not annihilating them in the country between
St Petersburg and Moscow. The same movement tended to
drive the Eastern Finns and Ugrians backwards towards the east
The Finns know the Russians by the name of VendjS, or Wends,
and as this name is not used by Slavs themselves but by Scandi-
navians and Teutons, it seems dear that they arrived among
the Finns as greater strangers than the Scandinavians and
known by a foreign name. Christianity was perhaps first
preached to the Finns as early as a.d. xooo, but there was along
political and religious struggle with the Swedes. At the end of
the 13th century Finland was definitdy converted and annexed
to Sweden, remaining a dependency of that country until 1809,
when It was ceded to Russia.
The Ugrians and Eastern Finns took no part in the westward
movement and did not fall under western influences but came
into contact with Tatar tribes and were more or less Tatarized.
In some cases this took the form of the adoption of a Tatar
language, in others (Mordvin, Cheremis and Votiak) a large
number of Tatar words were borrowed. We also know that there
were considerable settlements of these tribes, perhaps amounting
to states, on the Volga and in south-eastern Russia. Such
was Great Bulgaria, which continued until destroyed by the
Mongols in 1238. The pressure of tribes farther east acting on
these settlements dislodged sections of them from time to time
and created the series of invasions which devastated the East
Roman empire from the 5th century onwards. But we do not
know what were the languages spoken by the Huns, Bulgarians,
Pcchencgs and Avars, so that wc cannot say whether they were
Turks, Finns or Ugrians, nor docs it follow that a horde speaking
a Ugrian language were necessarily Ugrians by race. An inspec-
tion of the performances of the various tribes, as far as we can
distinguish them, suggests that the Turks or Tatars were the
warlike clement. The names Hun and Hungarian may possibly
be the same as Hiung-nu, but we cannot assume that this tribe
passed across Asia unchanged in language and physique. The
Hungarians entered on their present phase at the end of the 9th
century of this era, when they crossed the Carpathians and
conquered the old Pannonia and Dacia. For half a century or
so before this invasion they are said to have inhabited Atclkuzu,
probably a district between the Dnieper and the Danube. The
isolated groups of Hungarians now found in Transylvania and
called Szeklers are considered the purest descendants of the
invading Magyars. Those who settled in the plains of Hungary
probably mingled there with remnants of Huns, Avars and
earlier invaders, and also with subsequent invaders, such as
Pechenegs and Kumans.
FINSBURY— FIORENZO DI LORENZO
393
Bibuogia PHY.— Among thd older writers may be nm?nii«>ncd
Strahfenbcrg (Das twrd- nnd tstlitke ThtU von Emrofa MM A iia $
•73<>)» Johann Gottlieb Georgt {Description dt toutts us dt
l' empire dt la Russie, French tr., St Petersburg. 1777), bm Ity
the various works of Matthias A. Castren (1852-1853) and t>tt
( 1 858). Modern scientific knowledge of the Finno-ugrian-^ | ml their
Languages was founded by these two authors. Among nt*tr works
some 01 the most important separate publications are : J. l ■: ,\ -\ - in,
AntiquUis du nord finno-ougrien (1877-1884); J. Abertromby,
Pre- and Proto-hutoric Finns (1898); and A. Hackmann, Dte mere
Eisenxtit in Finnland (1905).
The recent literature on the origin, customs, antiquities and
languages of these races is voluminous, but is contained chiefly not
in separate books but in special learned periodicals. Of these there
arc several: Journal, de la Sociiti Finno-ougrienne (Helsinefors)
(Suomalass-Vgrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja); Fimtxsch-Ugrisckt
Fonchungen (Helsingfors and Leipzig); Mitleilungen der arckdo-
lotUchsn, kisloriscktm und ethnographuchen GtstUschaft der Kais.
Unwersitat tu Kasan; Keleti Stemu or Revue orientale pour its
itudef ouralo-altaiques (Budapest). In all of these will be found
numerous valuable articles by such authors as Ahlqvist, Haje'vy,
Heikel, Krohn, Muncacsi, Paaspnen, Setala, Smurnow, Thomsen
and Vambery.
The titles of grammars and dictionaries will be found under the
headings of the different languages. For general linguistic questions
may be consulted the works of Castren, Schott and Otto Donner,
also such parts of the following as treat of Ftnno-Ugric languages:
BvTtie, PrtncipUs of the Structure of Language, vol. i. (1892) ; Fnedrich
Muller, Cntndriss der Sftrachvissenschaft 1 1., Band ii., Abth. 1882;
Steinthal and Misleli, Abriss der Sprackwissenschaft (1893). (C El.)
FINSBURY, a central metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N. by Islington, E. by Shoreditch, S.*by the
city of London and W. by Holborn and St Pancras. Ppp.
(xoox) 101,463. The principal thoroughfares are Pentonville
Road, from King's Cross east to the Angel, Islington, continuing
E. and S. in City Road and S. again to the City in Moorgate
Street; Clerkenwell Road and Old Street, crossing the centre
from W. to E., King's Cross Road running S.E. into Farringdon
Road, and so to the City; St John Street and Road and Goswell
Road (the residence of Dickens' Pickwick) running S. from the
Angel towards the City; and Rosebery Avenue running S.W.
from St John Street into Holborn. The commercial character
of the City extends into the southern part of the borough; the
residential houses are mostly those of artisans. Local industries
include working in precious metals, watch-making, printing
and paper-making.
An early form of the name is Vynesbury, but the derivation
is not known. The place was supposed by some to take name
from an extensive fen, a part of which, commonly known as
Moorfields (cf. Moorgate Street), was drained in the 16th century
and subsequently laid out as public grounds. It was a frequent
resort of Pepys, who mentions its houses of entertainment and
the wrestling and other pastimes carried on, also that it furnished
a refuge for many of those whose houses were destroyed in the fire
of London in 1666. Bookstalls and other booths were numerous
at a somewhat later date. The borough includes the parish of
Clerkenwell (q.v.), a locality of considerable historic interest,
including the former priory of St John, Clerkenwell, of which
the gateway and other traces remain. Among several other
sites and buildings of historical interest the Charterhouse (q.v.)
west of Aldcrsgate Street, stands first, originally a Carthusian
monastery, subsequently a hospital and a school out of which
grew the famous public school at Godahning. Bunhill Fields,
City Road, was used by the Dissenters as a burial-place from the
middle of the 17th century until 1832. Among eminent persons
interred here are John Bunyan, Daniel Defoe, Susanna, mother
of John and Charles Wesley, and George Fox, founder of the
Society of Friends. A neighbouring chapel is intimately associ-
ated with the Wesleys, and the house of John Wesley is opened
as a museum bearing his name. Many victims of the plague
were buried in a pit neighbouring to these fields, near the junction
of Goswell Road and Old Street. To the south of the fields
b'es the Artillery Ground, the training ground of the Honourable
Artillery Company, so occupied since 1641, with barracks and
armoury. Sadler's Wells theatre, Rosebery Avenue, dating as
a place of entertainment from 1683, preserves the name of a
fashionable medicinal spring, music room and theatre, the last
most notable in its connexion with the names of Joseph. Grimaldi
the clown and Samuel Phelps. Other institutions are the tech*
nical college, Leonard Street, and St Mark's, St Luke's and
the Royal chest hospitals. At Mount Pleasant is the parcels
department of the general post office, and at Clerkenwell Green
the sessions house for the county of London (north side of the
Thames). Adjacent to Rosebery Avenue are reservoirs of the
New River Head. The municipal borough coincides with the
east and central divisions of the parliamentary borough of
Finsbury, each returning one member. The borough council
consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 54 councillors. Area,
589-1 acres .
FINSTERWALDE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Prussia, on the Schackebach, a tributary of the Little Elster,
28 m. W.S.W. of Cottbus by rail. Pop. (1905) 10,726. The
town has a Gothic church (1581), a chateau, schools, cloth and
cigar factories, iron-foundries, flour and saw mills and factories
for machine building. The town, which is first mentioned in
1288, came into the possession of electoral Saxony in 1635 and
of Prussia in 1815.
FIORENZO Dl LORENZO (c, 1440-1522), Italian painter, of
the Umbrian school, lived and worked at Perugia, where most
of his authentic works are still preserved in the Pinacoteca. There
is probably no other Italian master of importance of whose
life and work so little is known. In fact the whole edifice that
modern scientific criticism has built around his name is based
on a single signed and dated picture (1487) in the Pinacoteca
of Perugia— a niche with lunette, two wings and predella — and
on the documentary evidence that he was decemvir of that city
in 1472, in which year he entered into a contract to paint
an altarpiece for Santa Maria Nuova— the pentatych of the
" Madonna and Saints w now in the Pinacoteca. 6f his birth
and death and pupilage nothing is known, and Vasari does not
even mention Fiorenzo's name, though he probably refers to him
when he says that Cristofano, Perugino's father, sent bis son
to be the shop drudge of a painter in Perugia, " who was not
particularly distinguished in his calling, but held the art in great
veneration and highly honoured the men who excelled therein."
Certain it is that the early works both of Perugino and of Pintu-
ricchio show certain mannerisms which point towards Fiorenzo's
influence, if not to his direct teaching. The list of some fifty
pictures which modern critics have ascribed to Fiorcnzo includes
works of such widely varied character that one can hardly be
surprised to find great divergence of opinion as regards the
masters under whom Fiorenzo is supposed to have studied.
Prsanello, Verrocchio, Bcnozzo Gozzoli, Antonio Pollaiuolo,
Benedetto Bonfigli, Mantcgna, Squarcione, Filippo Lippi,
Signorelli and Ghirlandajo have all been credited with this
distinguished pupil, who was the most typical Umbrian painter
that stands between the primitives and Perugino; but the
probability is that he studied under Bonfigli and was indirectly
influenced by Gozzoli. Fiorenzo's authentic works are remarkable
for their sense of space and for the expression of that peculiar
clear, soft atmosphere which is so marked a feature in the work
of Perugino. But Fiorenzo has an intensity of feeling and a
power of expressing character which are far removed from the
somewhat affected grace of Perugino. Of the forty-five pictures
bearing Fiorenzo's name in the Pinacoteca of Perugia, the eight
charming St Bernardino panels are so different from his well-
authenticated works, so Florentine in conception and movement,
that the Perugian's authorship is very questionable. On the
other hand the beautiful " Nativity," the " Adoration of the
Magi," and the " Adoration of the Shepherds " in the same
gallery, may be accepted as the work of his hand, as also the
fresco of SS. Romano and Rocco at the church of S. Francesco
at Deruta. The London National Gallery, the Berlin and the
Frankfort museums contain each a "Madonna and Child n
ascribed to the master, but the attribution is in each case open
to doubt.
See Jean Cariyle Graham, The Problem of Fiorenzo di Lorenzo
(Perugia, 1903) ; Edward Hutton, The Cities of Umbria (London).!
(P.G. K.)
394-
FIORENZUOLA D'ARDA— FIR
FIORSHZUOLA LTARDA, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the
province of Piacenza, from which it is 14 m. S.E. by rail, 270 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1001) 779a. It is traversed by the Via
Aemilia, and has a picturesque piazza with an old tower In the
centre. The Palazzo Grossi also is a fine building. Alseno
lies 4 m. to the S.E., an d near it is the Cistercian abbey of Chiara-
valle della Colomba, with a fine Gothic church and a large and
beautiful cloister (in brick and Verona marble), of the ia(h-i4th
century.
FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS (1748-1821), German
painter and historian of art, was born at Hamburg on the 13th
of October 1748. He received his first instructions in art at an
academy of painting at Bayreuth; and in 1761, to continue
his studies, he went first to Rome, and next to Bologna, where
he distinguished himself sufficiently to attain in 1769 admission
to the academy. Returning soon after to Germany, he obtained
the appointment of historical painter to the court of Brunswick.
In 1 781 be removed to Gdttingen, occupied himself as a drawing-
master, and was named in 1784 keeper of the collection of prints
at the university library. He was appointed professor extra-
ordinary in the philosophical faculty in 1709, and ordinary
professor in 18x3. During this period he had made himself
known as a writer by the publication of his Gesckickte dcr zeick-
nenden KUnste, in 5 vols. ,(1708-1808). This was followed in
181 5 to 1820 by the Gesckickte dcr xeicknenden KtinsU in Deutsck-
land und den vereinigten Niederlanden, in 4 vols. These works,
though not attaining to any high mark of literary excellence,
are esteemed for the information collected in them, especially
on the subject of art in the later middle ages. Fiorillo practised
his art almost till his death, but has left no memorable master-
piece. The most noticeable of his painting is perhaps the
" Surrender of Briscis." He died at Gdttingen on the xoth of
September 1821.
FIR, the Scandinavian name originally given to the Scotch
pine (Pinus syhairis), but at present not infrequently employed
as a general term for the whole of the true conifers (Abielineae) ;
in a more exact sense, it has been transferred to the " spruce "
and " silver firs," the genera Picea and Abie* of most modern
botanists.
The firs are distinguished from the pines and larches by having
their needle-like leaves placed singly on the shoots, instead of
growing in clusters from a sheath on a dwarf branch. Their
cones are composed of thin, rounded, closely imbricated scales,
each with a more or less conspicuous bract springing from the
base. The trees have usually a straight trunk, and a tendency
to a conical or pyramidal growth, throwing out each year a more
or less regular whorl of branches from the foot of the leading
shoot, while the buds of the lateral boughs extend horizontally.
In the spruce firs (Picea), the cones are pendent when mature
and their scales persistent; the leaves are arranged all round the
shoots, though the lower ones are sometimes directed laterally.
In the genus A bus, the silver firs, the cones are erect, and their
scales drop off when the seed ripens; the leaves spread in distinct
rows on each side of the shoot.
The most important of the firs, in an economic sense, is the
Norway spruce (Picea excelsa), so well known in British planta-
tions, though rarely attaining there the gigantic height and
grandeur of form it often displays in its native woods. Under
favourable conditions of growth it is a lofty tree, with a nearly
straight, tapering trunk, throwing out in somewhat irregular
whorls its widespreading branches, densely clothed with dark,
clear green foliage. The boughs and their side-branches, as they
increase in length, have a tendency to droop, the lower tier, even
in Urge trees, often sweeping the ground— a habit that, with
the jagged sprays, and broad, shadowy, wave-like foliage-masses,
gives a peculiarly graceful and picturesque aspect to the Norway
spruce. The slender, sharp, slightly curved leaves are scattered
thickly around the shoots; the upper one pressed towards the
stem, and the lower directed sideways, so as to give a somewhat
flattened appearance to the individual sprays. The elongated
cylindrical cones grow chiefly at the ends of the upper branches;
they are purplish at first, but become afterwards green, and
eventually light brown; their scales are slightly toothed at the
extremity; they ripen in the autumn, but seldom discharge
their seeds until the following spring.
The tree is very widely distributed, growing abundantly on
most of the mountain ranges of northern and central Europe;
while in Asia it occurs at least as far east as the Lena, and in
latitude extends from the Altaic ranges to beyond the Arctic circle.
On the Swiss Alps it is one of the most prevalent and striking
of the forest trees, its dark evergreen foliage often standing out
in strong contrast to the snowy ridges and glaciers beyond.
In the lower districts of Sweden it is the predominant tree ia
most of the great forests that spread over so large a portion cf
that country. In Norway it constitutes a considerable part of
the dense woods of the southern dales, flourishing, according
to Franz Christian SchUbeler, on the mountain slopes up to an
altitude of from 2800 to 3 100 ft., and clothing the shores of some
of the fjords to the water's edge; in the higher regions it is
generally mingled with the pine. Less abundant on the western
side of the fjelds, it again forms woods in Nordland, extending
Fig. I. — Norway Spruce (Picea cxctlsa). Male Flowers. A, branch
bearing male cones, reduced ; B, single male cone, enlarged ; C, single
stamen, enlarged.
in the neighbourhood of the coast nearly to the 67th parallel;
but it is, in that arctic climate, rarely met with at a greater
elevation than 800 ft. above the sea, though in Swedish llpland
it is found on the slope of the Sulitelma as high as 1200 ft., its
upper limit being everywhere lower than that of the pine. In
all the Scandinavian countries it is known as the Gran or Grann,
Great tracts of low country along the southern shores of the
Baltic and in northern Russia are covered with forests of spruce.
It everywhere shows a preference for a moist but well-drained
soil, and never attains its full stature or luxuriance of growth
upon arid ground, whether on plain or mountain — a peculiarity
that should be remembered by the planter. In a favourable
soil and open situation it becomes the tallest and one of the
stateliest of European trees, rising sometimes to a height of
from 150 to 170 ft., the trunk attaining a diameter of from $
to 6 ft. at the base. But when it grows in dense woods, where
the lower branches decay and drop off early, only a small head
of foliage remaining at the tapering summit, its stem, though
frequently of great height, is rarely more than i) or a ft. in
thickness. Its growth is rapid, the straight leading shoot, in the
vigorous period of the tree, often extending 2 J or even 3 ft. in
a single season. In its native habitats it is said to endure for
several centuries; but in those countries from which the com*
merdal supply of its timber is chiefly drawn, it attains perfection
in from 70 to 90 years, according to soil and situation.
FIR
395
In the most prevalent variety of the Norway spruce the wood
is white, apt to be very knotty when the tree has grown in an
open place, but, as produced in the close northern forests, often
of tine and even grain. Immense quantities are imported into
Britain from Norway, Sweden and Prussia, under the names
of " white Norway," " Christiania " and " Danzig deal." The
larger trees are sawn up into planks and battens, much used for
the purposes of the builder, especially for flooring, joists -and
rafters. Where not exposed to the weather the wood is probably
as lasting as that of the pine, but, not being so resinous, appears
less adapted for out-door uses. Great quantities are sent from
Sweden in a manufactured state, in the form of door and window-
frames and ready-prepared flooring, and much of the cheap
" white deal " furniture is made of this wood. The younger and
smaller trees are remarkably durable, especially when the bark
is allowed to remain on them; and most of the poles imported
into Britain for scaffolding, ladders, mining-timber and similar
uses are furnished by this fir. Small masts and spars are often
made of it, and are
said to be lighter
than those of pine.
The best poles are
obtained in Norway
from small, slender,
drawn-up trees,
growing under the
shade of the larger
ones in the thick
woods, these being
freer * from knots,
and tougher from
their slower growth.
A variety of the
spruce, abounding in
some parts of Nor-
way, produces a red
heartwood, not easy
to distinguish from
that of the Norway
pine (Scotch fir), and
imported with it into
England as "red
deal " or " pine."
This kind is some-
Fig. a.— NoiwSpruce (Pieea exctlsa). time8 Ken - m p]BnUm
(.ones; icaJe witn aeeda. A, orafien bear- 4 .___ —v.--, : t ma w
in; (a) young female cone, (•> ripe cones, \* 0D *> whcre .* m » v
reduced. B, Ripe cone scale with seeds, be recognized by its
enlarged. , shorter, darker
,- ~J leaves and longer
cones. The smaller branches and the waste portion of the
trunks, left in cutting up the timber, are exported as fire-wood,
or used for splitting into matches. The wood of the spruce is
also employed in the manufacture of wood-pulp for paper.
The resinous products of the Norway spruce, though yielded
by the tree in less abundance than those furnished by the pine,
are of considerable economic value. In Scandinavia a thick
turpentine oozes from cracks or fissures in the bark, forming
by its congelation a fine yellow resin, known commercially as
M spruce rosin," or " frankincense "; it is also procured artifici-
ally by cutting off the ends of the lower branches, when it
slowly exudes from the extremities. In Switzerland and parts of
Germany, where it is collected in some quantity for commerce,
a long strip of bark is cut out of the tree near the root; the resin
that slowly accumulates during the summer is scraped out in
the latter part of the season, and the slit enlarged slightly the
following spring to ensure a continuance of the supply. The
process is repeated every alternate year, until the tree no longer
yields the resin in abundance, .which under favourable circum-
stances it will do for twenty years or more. The quantity
obtained from each fir is very variable, depending on the vigour
of the tree, and greatly lessens after it has been subjected to the
Operation for some years. Eventually the tree is destroyed,
and the wood rendered worthless for timber, and of little value
even for fuel. From the product so obtained most of the better
sort of " Burgundy pitch " of the druggists is prepared. By
the peasantry of its native countries the Norway spruce is
applied to innumerable purposes of daily life. The bark and
young cones afford a tanning material, inferior indeed to oak-
bark, andhardly equal to that of the larch, but of value in countries
where substances more rich in tannin are not abundant. In
Norway the sprays, like those of the juniper, are scattered over
the floors of churches and the sitting-rooms of dwelling-houses,
as a fragrant and healthful substitute for carpet or matting.
The young shoots are also given to oxen in the long winters of
those northern latitudes, when other green fodder is hard to
obtain.' In times of scarcity the Norse peasant-farmer uses the
sweetish inner bark, beaten in a mortar and ground in his
primitive mill with oats or barley, to eke out a scanty supply of
meal, the mixture yielding a tolerably palatable though some-
what resinous substitute for his ordinary fiad-brod. A decoction
of the buds in milk or whey is a common household remedy
for scurvy; and the young shoots or green cones form an essential
ingredient in the spruce-beer drank with a similar object, or as
an occasional beverage. The well-known " Danzig-spruce "
is prepared by adding* a decoction of the buds or cones to the
wort or saccharine liquor before fermentation. Similar prepara-
tions are in use wherever the spruce fir abounds, The wood is
burned for fuel, its heat-giving power being reckoned in Germany
about one-fourth less than that of beech. From the wide-
spreading roots string and ropes are manufactured in Lapland
and Bothnia: the longer ones which run near the surface are
selected, split through, and then boiled for some hours in a ley
of wood-ashes and salt, which, dissolving out the resin, loosens
the fibres and renders them easily separable, and ready for twist-
ing into cordage, Light portable boats are sometimes made of
very thin boards of fir, sewn together with cord thus manufac-
tured from the roots of the tree.' r
The Norway spruce seems to have been the " Pieea " of
Pliny, but is evidently often confused by the Latin writers
with their " Abies," the Abies peciinata of modern botanists.
From an equally loose application of the word " fir " by our
older herbalists, it is difficult to decide upon the date of intro-
duction of this tree into Britain; but it was commonly planted
for ornamental purposes in the beginning of the 17th century.
In places suited to its growth it seems to flourish nearly as well
as in the woods of Norway or Switzerland; but as it needs for
its successful cultivation as a timber tree soils that might be
turned to agricultural account, it is not so well adapted for
economic planting in Britain as the Scotch fir or larch, 'which
come to perfection in more bleak and elevated regions, and on
comparatively barren ground, though it may. perhaps be grown
to advantage on some moist hill-sides and mountain hollows.
Its great value to the English forester is as a " nurse " for other
trees, for which its dense leafage and tapering form render it
admirably fitted, as it protects, without overshading, the young
saplings, and yields saleable stakes and small poles when cut out.
For hop-poles it is not so well adapted as the larch. As a pictur-
esque tree, for park and ornamental plantation, it is among
the best of the conifers, its colour and form contrasting yet
harmonizing with the olive green and rounded outline of oaks
and beeches, or with the red trunk and glaucous foliage of the
pine. When young its spreading boughs form good cover for
game. ' The fresh branches, with their thick mat of foliage, are
useful to the gardener for sheltering wall-fruit in the spring.
In a good soil and position the tree sometimes attains an enormous
size: one in Studley Park, Yorkshire, attained nearly 140 ft.
in height, and the trunk more than 6 ft. in thickness near the
ground. The spruce bears the smoke of great cities better than
most of the Abietineae\ but in suburban localities after a
certain age it soon loses its healthy appearance, and is apt to
be affected with blight (Eritoomd), though not so much as
the Scotch fir and most of the pines.
The black spruce {Pieea nigra) is a tree of more formal growth
than the preceding. The branches grow at a more acute angle
39&
FIR
and in more regular whorls than those of the Norway spruce;
and, though the lower one? become bent to a horizontal position,
they do not droop, so that the tree has a much less elegant
appearance. The leaves, which grow very thickly all round the
stem, are short, nearly quadrangular, and of a dark greyish-
green. The cones, produced in great abundance, are short and
oval in shape, the scales with rugged indented edges; they are
deep purple when young, but become brown as they ripen.
The tree also occurs in the New England states and extends over
nearly the whole of British North America, its northern limit
occurring at about 67 N. lat., often forming a large part of the
dense forests, mostly in the swampy districts. A variety with
lighter foliage and reddish bark is common in Newfoundland and
some districts on the mainland adjacent. The trees usually
grow very close together, the slender trunks rising to a great
height bare of brandies; but they do not attain the size of the
Norway spruce, being seldom taller than 60 or 70 ft., with a
diameter of 1} or a ft. at the base. This species prefers a peaty
soil, and often grows luxuriantly in very moist situations. The
wood is strong, tight and very elastic, forming an excellent
material for small masts and spars, for which purpose the trunks
are used in America, and exported largely to England. The
sawn timber is inferior to that of P. excel sa, besides being of a
smaller size. In the countries in which it abounds, the log-houses
of the settlers are often built of the long straight trunks. The
spruce-beer of America is generally made from the young shoots
of this tree. The small twigs, tied in bundles, are boiled for
some time in water with broken biscuit or roasted grain; the
resulting decoction* is then poured into a cask with molasses or
maple sugar and a little yeast, and left to ferment. It is often
made by the settlers and fishermen of the St Lawrence region,
being esteemed as a preventive of scurvy. The American
" essence of spruce," occasionally used in England for making
spruce-beer, is obtained by boiling the shoots and buds and
concentrating the decoction. The resinous products of the tree
axe of no great value. It was introduced into Britain at the
end of the 17th century.
The white spruce {Picca alba); sometimes met with in English
plantations, is a tree of lighter growth than the black spruce,
the brandies being more widely apart; the foliage is of a light
glaucous green; the small light-brown cones are more slender
and tapering than in P. nigra, and the scales have even edges.
It is of comparatively small size, but is of some importance in the
wilds of the Canadian dominion, where it is found to the northern
limit of tree-vegetation growing up to at least 69 ; the slender
trunks yield the only useful timber of some of the more desolate
northern regions. In .the woods of Canada it occurs frequently
mingled with the black spruce and other trees. The fibrous
tough roots, softened by soaking in water, and split, are used
by the Indians and voyageurs to sew together the birch-bark
covering of their canoes; and a resin that exudes from the bark
is employed to varnish over the seams. It was introduced to
Great Britain at the end of the> 17th century and was formerly
more extensively planted than at present.
. The hemlock spruce ( Tsuga canadensis) is a large tree, abound-
ing in most of the north-eastern parts of America up to Labrador;
in lower Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia it is often
the prevailing tree. The short leaves are fiat, those above
pressed close to the stem, and the others forming two rows;
they are of a rather light green tint above, whitish beneath.
The cones are very small , ovate and pointed. The large branches
droop, lake those of the Norway spruce, but the sprays are much
lighter and more slender, rendering the tree one of the most
elegant of the conifers, especially when young. When old,
the branches, broken and bent down by the winter snows,, give
it a ragged but very picturesque aspect. The trunk is frequently
3 ft. thick near the base. The hemlock prefers rather dry
and elevated situations, often forming woods on the declivities
of mountains. The timber is very much twisted in grain, and
liable to warp and split, but is used for making plasterers' laths
and for fencing; " shingles " for roofing are sometimes made of
it. The hark, split off in May or June, forms one of the most
valuable tanning substances in Canada. The sprays are i
times used for making spruce-beer and essence of spruce. It
was introduced into Great Britain in about the year 1736.
The Douglas spruce (PscwU>4suga Deuglasii), one of the
finest conifers, often rises to a height of 200 ft. and sometimes
considerably more, while the gigantic trunk frequently measures
8 or 10 ft. across. The yew-like leaves spread laterally, and are
of a deep green tint; the cones are furnished with trident ate
bracts that project far beyond the scales. It forms extensive
forests in Vancouver Island, British Columbia and Oregon,
whence the timber is exported, being highly prized for its strength,
durability and even grain, though very heavy; it is of a deep
yellow colour, abounding in resin, which oozes from the thick
bark. It was introduced into Britain soon after its rediscovery
by David Douglas in 1827, and has been widely planted, but
docs not flourish well where exposed to high winds or in too
shallow soil
Of the Abies group, the silver fir (A. pectinate), may be taken
as the type, — a lofty tree, rivalling the Norway spruce in size,
with large spreading horizontal boughs curving upward toward
the extremities. The flat leaves are arranged in two regular,
distinct rows; they are deep green above, but beneath have two
broad white lines, which, as the foliage in large trees has a
tendency to curl upwards, give it a silvery appearance from below.
The large cones stand erect on the branches, are cylindrical
in shape, and have long bracts, the curved points of which
project beyond the scales. When the tree is young the bark is
of a silvery grey, but gets rough with age. This tree appears to
have been the true " Abies " of the Latin writers — the " pul-
cherrima abics " of Virgil. From early historic times it has bees
held in high estimation in the south of Europe, being used by
the Romans for masts and all purposes for which timber of great
length was required. It is abundant in most of the mountain
ranges of southern and central Europe, but is not found in the
northern parts of that continent. In Asia it occurs on the
Caucasus and Ural, and in some parts of the Altaic chain. Exten-
sive woods of this fir exist on the southern Alps, where the tree
grows up to nearly 4000 ft.; in the Rhine countries it forms
great part of the extensive forest of the Hochwald, and occurs
in the Black Forest and in the Vosges; ft is plentiful likewise on
the Pyrenees and Apennines. The wood is inferior to that of
Picca excelsa, but, being soft and easily worked, is largely
employed in the countries to which it is indigenous for all
the purposes of carpentry. Artides of furniture are frequently
made of it, and it is in great esteem for carving and for the
construction of stringed instruments. Deficient in resin, the
wood is more perishable than that of the spruce fir when exposed
to the air, though it is said to stand well under water. The bark
contains a large amount of a fine, highly-resinous turpentine,
which collects in tumours on the trunk during the heat of summer.
In the Alps and Vosges this resinous semi-fluid is collected by
climbing the trees and pressing out the contents of the natural
receptacles of the bark into horn or tin vessels held beneath
them. After purification by straining, it is sold as " Strasburg
turpentine," much used in the preparation of some of the finer
varnishes. Burgundy pitch is also prepared from it by a similar
process as that from Picca exedsa. A fine oil of turpentine is
distilled from the crude material; the residue forms a coarse
resin. Introduced into Britain at the beginning of the 17th
century, the silver fir has become common there as a planted tree,
though, like the Norway spruce, it rarely comes up from seed
scattered naturally. There are many fine trees in Scotland;
one near Roscneath, figured by Strutt in his Jy/w Britannia,
then measured more than 22 ft. round the trunk. In the more
southern parts of the island it often reaches a height of 90 ft,
and specimens exist considerably above that size; but the young
shoots are apt to be injured in severe winters, and the. tree on
light soils is also hurt by long droughts, so that it usually presents
a ragged appearance; though, in the distance, the lofly top
and horizontal boughs sometimes stand out in most picturesque
relief above the rounded summits of the neighbouring trees.
The silver fitflburishes in a deep loamy soil, and will grow eves
FIR
Plate I.
Silver Fir (Abies pectinata).
A , Cone and foliage.
B
Spruce Fir (Picea excelsa).
B, Cone and foliage.
Hemlock Spruce (Tsuga canadensis).
C, Cone, seed and foliage.
Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii).
D, Cone, seed and foliage.
Photos by Henry Irving.
Plate II.
Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) .
A , Cone and branchlets.
Araucaria (A. imbricata, Chile pine or
monkey-puzzle).
C, Seed-bearing cone and a single scale
with seed.
FIR
Other
Conifers
Juniper (Juniperus communis).
B y Fruit and foliage.
m
Yew (Taxus baccata).
D, Seed and foliage.
Photos by Henry Irving.
FIRDOUSf
397
upon stiff day, when well drained— a situation in ythkh few
conifers will succeed. On such lands, where otherwise desirable,
it may sometimes be planted with profit. The cones do not ripen
till the second year.
The silver fir of Canada (A. bal&omea), a small tree resembling
the last spedes in foliage, furnishes the " Canada balsam ";
it abounds in Quebec and the adjacent provinces.
Numerous other firs are common in gardens and shrubberies,
and some furnish valuable products in their native countries;
but they are not yet of sufficient economic or general interest to
demand mention here.
For further information see Veitch's Manual of Conrfeme (2nd ed.,
1900).
FIRDOUSf, FtkdattsI or Ffemrsl, Persian poet. Abul
Kasim Mansur (or Hasan), who took the nam de plume ol FirdousI,
author of the epic poem the Sh&kndma, or " Book of Kings,"
a complete history of Persia in nearly 60,000 verses, was born
at Shadab, a suburb of TOs, about the year 329 of the Hegira
(941 aj>.), or earlier. His father belonged to the class of Dihkans
(the old native country families and landed proprietors of Persia,
who had preserved their influence and status under the Arab
rule), and possessed an estate in the neighbourhood of Tus
(in Khorasan). FirdousTs own education eminently qualified
him for the gigantic task which he subsequently undertook,
for he was profoundly versed in the Arabic language and literature
and had also studied deeply the Pahiavi or Old Persian, and was
conversant with the andent historical records which existed
in that tongue.
The Shdkndnta of FirdousI (see aho Persia: Literature) is
perhaps the only example of a poem produced by a single
author which at once took its place as the national epic of the
people. The nature of the work, the materials from which
it was composed, and the drcumstances under which it was
written are, however, in themselves exceptional, and necessarily
tended to this result. The grandeur and antiquity of the empire
and the vicissitudes through which it passed, their long series
of wars and the magnificent monuments erected by their andent
sovereigns, could not fail to leave numerous traces In the memory
of so imaginative a people as the Persians. As early as the 5th
century of the Christian era we find mention made of these
historical traditions in the work of an Armenian author, Moses
of Chorene (according to others, he lived in the 7th or 8th
century). During the reign of Chosroes I. (Amishlrvan) the
contemporary of Mahomet, and by order of that monarch, an
attempt had been made to collect, from various parts of the
kingdom, all the popular tales and legends relating to the andent
kings, and the results were deposited in the royal library. During
the last years of the Sassanid dynasty the work was resumed,
the former collection being revised and greatly added to by the
Dihkan Dantshwer, assisted by several learned mobeds. His
work was entitled the Khodt'in&mo, which in the old dialect
also meant the " Book of Kings." On the Arab invasion this
work was in great danger of perishing at the hands of the icono-
clastic caliph Omar and his generals, but it was fortunately
preserved; and we find it in the and century of the Hegira
being paraphrased in Arabic by Abdallah ibn d Mokaffa, a
learned Persian who had embraced Islam. Other Guebres
occupied themsdves privately with the collection of these tradi-
tions; and, when a prince of Persian origin, Yakub ibn Laith,
founder of the Saffarid dynasty, succeeded in throwing off his
allegiance to the caliphate, he at once set about continuing the
work of Ins illustrious predecessors. His "Book of Kings"
was completed in the year 260 of the Hegira, and was freely
drcnlated in Khorasan and Irak. Yakub's family did not
continue long in power; but the Samanid princes who succeeded
applied themsdves zealously to the same work, and Prince
Nun n., who came to the throne in 365 a.h. (a.d. 076), entrusted
it to the court poet Dakiki, a Guebre by religion. Dakiki's
labours were brought to a sudden stop by bis own assassination,
and the fall of the Samanian house happened not long after, and
their kingdom passed into the hands of the Ghaanevids. Mahmud
Ibn Sabukugin, the second of the dynasty (ooft-1030), continued
to male himself stffl more independent of the catenate than his
p redece ss ors, and, though a warrior and a fanatical Moslem,
extended a generous patronage to Persian literature and learning,
and even developed it at the expense of the Arabic institutions.
The task of continuing and completing the collection of the
ancient historical traditions of the empire especially attracted
htm. With the assistance of neighbouring princes and of many
of the influential Dihkans, Mahmud collected a vast amount
of materials for the work, and after having searched in vain
for a man of sufficient learning and ability to edit them faithfully,
and having entrusted various episodes for versification to the
numerous poets whom he had gathered round him, he at length
made choice of FirdousI ■ FirdousI had been always strongly
attracted by the andent Pahiavi records, and had begun at an
early age to turn them into Persian epic verse. On hearing of
the death of the poet Dakiki, he conceived the ambitious design
of himself carrying out the work Which the latter had only Just
commenced; and, although he had not then any introduction
to the court, he contrived, thanks to one of his friends, Bsuhoouaed
Lashkari, to procure a copy of the Dihkan Danish war's collection,
and at the age of thirty-fix commenced his great undertaking.
Abu Mansur, the governor of TOs, patronised him and encour-
aged htm by substantial pecuniary support. When Mahmud
succeeded to the throne, and evinced such active interest In the
work, FirdousI was naturally attracted to the court of Ghasni.
At first court jealousies and intrigues prevented FirdousI from
being noticed by the sultan; but at length one of his friends,
Mabek, undertook to present to Mahmud hav poetic version of
one of the wen-known episodes of the legendary history. Hearing
that the poet was bom at Tus, the sultan made him explain the
origin of his native town, and was much struck with the intimate
knowledge of andent history which he displayed. Being pre-
sented to the seven poets who were then engaged on the projected
epic, Abu 1 Kasim was admitted to thdr meetings, and on one
occasion improvised a verse, at Mahmud's request, in praise of
his favourite Aylz, with such success that the sultan bestowed
upon hhn the name of FirdousI, saying; that he had converted
his assemblies into paradise (Firdcus). During the early days
of his sojourn at court an incident happened which contributed
In no small measure to the realisation of his ambition. Three of
the seven poets were drinking in a garden when FirdousI ap-
proached, and wishing to get rid of him without rudeness, they
informed him who they were, and told hhn that it was their
custom to admit none to their society but such as could, give
proof of poetical talent. To test his acquirements they proposed
that each should furnish an extemporary line of verse, his own
to be the last, and all four ending in the same rhyme. FirdousI
accepted the challenge, and* the three poets having previously
agreed upon three rhyming words to which a fourth could not
be found in the Persian language, 'Ansari began—
" Thy beauty edipaes the light of the sun ";
Farrakhi added —
" The rose with thy cheek would comparison shun w :
'Asjadi continued—
" Thy glances pierce through the mailed warrior's johsun **; *
and FirdousI, without a moment's hesitation, completed the
quatrain —
" Like the lance of fierce Giv in his fight with Poshun."
The poets asked for an explanation of this allusion, and FirdousI
recited to them the battle as described in the Sh&hn&mo, and
delighted and astonished them with his learning and eloquence.
Mahmud now definitely selected him for the work of compiling
and versifying the andent legends, and bestowed upon him such
marks of his favour and munificence as to elitit from the poet
an enthusiastic panegyric, which is inserted in the preface of
the SkdtmSnta, and forms a curious contrast to the bitter satire
which he subsequently prefixed to the book. The sultan ordered
his treasurer, Khojah Hasan' Mmimandi, to pay to FirdousI a
thousand gold pieces for every thousand verses; but the poet
preferred allowing the sum to accumulate till the whole was
* A sort of cuirass.
39 8
FIRDOUSI
finished, with theobject of amassing sufficient capital to construct
a dike lor his native town of TQs, which suffered greatly from
defective irrigation, a project which had been the chief dream
of his childhood. Owing to this resolution, and to the jealousy
of Hasan Maimandi, who often refused to advance him sufficient
for the necessaries of life, FirdousI passed the later portion of
his life in great privation, though enjoying the royal favour
and widely extended fame. Amongst other princes whose
liberal presents enabled him to combat his pecuniary difficulties,
was one Rustam, son of Fakhr Addaula, the Dailamite, who
sent him a thousand gold pieces in acknowledgment of a copy
of the episode of Rustam and Isfendiar which FirdousI had sent
him, and promised him a gracious reception if he should ever
come to his court. As this prince belonged, like FirdousI, to the
Shiah sect, while Mahmud and Maimandi were Sunnites, and
as he was also politically opposed to the sultan, Hasan Maimandi
did not fail to make the most of this incident, and accused the
poet of disloyalty to his sovereign and patron, as well as of
heresy. Other enemies and rivals also joined in the attack, and
for some time Firdousi's position was very precarious, though
his pre-eminent talents and obvious fitness for the work prevented
him from losing his post. To add to his troubles he had the
misfortune to lose his only son at the age of 37.
At length, after thirty-five years' work, the book was completed
(101 1), and FirdousI entrusted it to Ayaz, the sultan's favourite,
for presentation to him. Mahmud ordered Hasan Maimandi
to take the poet as much gold as an elephant could carry, but the
jealous treasurer persuaded the monarch that it was too generous
a reward, and that an elephant's load of stiver would be sufficient.
60,000 silver dirhems were accordingly placed in sacks, and
taken to FirdousI by Ayaz at the sultan's command, instead of
the 60,000 gold pieces, one for each verse, which had been
promised. The poet was at that moment in the both, and seeing
the sacks, and believing that they contained the expected gold,
received them with great satisfaction, but finding only silver he
complained to Ayaz that he had not executed the sultan's order.
Ayaz related what had taken place between Mahmud and Hasan
Maimandi, and FirdousI in a rage gave so thousand pieces to
Ayaz himself, the same amount to the bath-keeper, and paid the
rest to a beer seller for a glass of beer (Jouka), sending word
back to the sultan that it was not to gain money that he had
taken so much trouble. On hearing this message, Mahmud at
first reproached Hasan with having caused him to break his word,
but the wily treasurer succeeded in turning his master's anger
upon FirdousI to such an extent that he threatened that on the
morrow be would " cast that Carmathian (heretic) under the
feet of his elephants." Being apprised by one of the nobles of
the court of what had taken place, FirdousI passed the night
in great anxiety; but passing in the morning by the gate that
led from his own apartments into the palace, he met the sultan
in his private garden, and succeeded by humble apologies in
appeasing his wrath. He was, however, far from being appeased
himself, and determined at once upon quitting Ghazni. Return-
ing home he tore up the draughts of some thousands of verses
which he had composed and threw them in the fire, and repairing
to the grand mosque of Ghazni he wrote upon the walls, at the
place where the sultan was in the habit of praying, the following
lines: —
" Thcauspidous court of Mahmud, king of Zabulistan, is like a sea.
What a seal One cannot sec its shore. If I have dived therein
without finding any pearls it is the fault of my star and not of the
sea."
He then gave a sealed paper to Ayaz, begging him to hand it
to the sultan in a leisure moment after 20 days had elapsed,
and set off on his travels with no better equipment than his
staff and a dervish's cloak. At the expiration of the 20 days
Ayaz gave the paper to the sultan, who on opening it found the 4
celebrated satire which is now always prefixed to copies of the
Sk&knama, and which is perhaps one of the bitterest and severest
pieces of reproach ever penned. Mahmud, in a violent rage,
sent after the poet and promised a large reward for his capture,
but he was already in comparative safety. FirdousI directed his
steps to Mazandaran, and took refuge with Kabus, prince of
Jorjan, who at first received him with great favour, and promised
him his continued protection and patronage; learning, however,
the circumstances. under which he had left Ghazni, he feared the
resentment of so powerful a sovereign as Mahmud, who he knew
already coveted his kingdom, and dismissed the poet with a
magnificent present. FirdousI next repaired to Bagdad, where
he made the acquaintance of a merchant, who introduced him
to the vizier of the caliph, al-Qadir, by presenting an Arabic
poem which the poet had composed in his honour. The vizier
gave FirdousI an apartment near himself, and related to the
caliph the manner in which he had been treated at Ghazni.
The caliph summoned him into his presence, and was so much
pleased with a poem of a thousand couplets, which FirdousI
composed in bis honour, that he at once received him into
favour. The fact of his having devoted his life and talents to
chronicling the renown of fire- worshipping Persians was, however,
somewhat of a crime in the orthodox caliph's eyes; in order
therefore to recover his prestige, FirdousI composed another
poem of 9000 couplets on the theme borrowed from the Koran
of the loves of Joseph and Potiphar's wife— Y&suf and ZuUikka
(edited by H. Eth6, Oxford, 1902; complete metrical transla-
tion by Schlechta-Wssehrd, Vienna, 1889). This poem, though
rare and little known, is still in existence— the Royal Asiatic
Society possessing a copy. But Mahmud had by this time
heard of his asylum at the court of the caliph, and wrote a letter
menacing his liege lord, and demanding the surrender of the
poet. FirdousI, to avoid further troubles, departed for Ahwaz,
a province of the Persian Irak, and dedicated his YHsuf and
ZuUikka to the governor of that district. Thence he went to
Kohistan, where, the governor, Nasir Lek, was his intimate and
devoted friend, and received him with great ceremony upon the
frontier. FirdousI confided to him that he contemplated writing
a bitter exposition of his shameful treatment at the hands of the
sultan of Ghazni; but Nasir Lek, who was a personal friend of
the latter, dissuaded him from his purpose, but himself wrote and
remonstrated with Mahmud. Nasir Lek's message and the
urgent representations of Firdousi's friends had the desired
effect; and Mahmud not only expressed his intention of offering
full reparation to the poet, but put his enemy Maimandi to death.
The change, however, came too late; FirdousI, now a broken
and decrepit old man, had in the meanwhile returned to Tus,
and,, while wandering through the streets of his native town,
heard a child lisping a verse from his own satire in which he
taunts Mahmud with his slavish birth:—
" Had Mahmud's father been what he is now
A crown of gold had decked this aged brow:
Had Mahmud's mother been of gentle blood.
In heaps of silver knee-deep had I stood."
He was so affected by this proof of universal sympathy with his
misfortunes that he went home, fell sick and died. He was
buried in a garden, but Abu'l Kasim Jurjani, chief sheikh of
Tus, refused to read the usual prayers Over his tomb, alleging
that he was an infidel, and had devoted his life to the glorification
of fire-worshippers and misbelievers. The next night, however,
having dreamt that he beheld FirdousI in paradise dressed in the
sacred colour, green, and wearing an emerald crown, he recon-
sidered his determination; and the poet was henceforth held to
be perfectly orthodox. He died in the year 4x1 of the Hegira
(1020 A.D.), aged about eighty, eleven years after the completion
of his great work. The legend goes that Mahmud had in the
meanwhile despatched the promised hundred thousand pieces of
gold to FirdousI, with a robe of honour and ample apologies
for tiw past. But as the camels bearing the treasure reached
one of the gates of the city, Firdousi's funeral was leaving it by
another. His daughter, to whom they brought the sultan's
present, refused to receive it; but his aged sister remembering
his anxiety for the construction of the stone embankment for
the river of Tus, this work was completed in honour of the poet's
memory, and a large caravanserai built with the surplus.
Much of the traditional life, at given above, which is based upon
that prefixed to the revised edition of the poem, undertaken by
FIRE
399
order of Baisingar Khan, grandson of Ttmur-i-Lenc (Immr). is
rejected by modern scholars (see T. Noldeke, " Das iranische
Nationalepos," in W. GeJger s Grundrus der iranische* Phihlogie, ii.
pp. 150-158).
The SkaknSma is based, as we have seen, upon the ancient legends
current among the populace of Persia, and collected by the Dinkans,
a class of men who bad the greatest facilities for this purpose. There
is every reason therefore to believe that Firdousi adhered faithfully
to these records of antiquity, and that the poem is a perfect store-
house of the genuine traditions of the country.
The entire poem (which only existed in MS. up to the beginning of
the 19th century) was published (1831-1868) with a French transla-
tion in a magnificent folio edition^ at the expense of the French
government, by the learned and indefatigable Julius von Mohl.
The size and number of the volumes, however, and their great
expense, made them difficult of access, and Frau von Mohl published
the French translation (1 876-1 878) with her illustrious husband's
critical notes and introduction in a more convenient and cheaper
form. Other editions are by Turner Macan (Calcutta, 1829), J. A.
Vullers and S. Landaucr (unfinished; Leiden, 1877-1883). There
is an English abridgment by J. Atkinson (London, 1833; reprinted
1886, 1892); there is a verse-translation, partly rhymed and partly
onrbymed.by A.G.and E. Warner .(1905 foil.), with an introduction
containing an account of Firdousi and the Sbehnlma; the version
by A. Ropers (1907) contains the greater part of the work. The
episode of Sohrab and Rustam is well known to English readers
from Matthew Arnold's poem. The only complete translation is 11
Libro dci Ret, by I. Pizzi (8 vols., Turin, 1886- 1888), also the author
of a history of Persian poetry.
See also E. G. Browne's Literary History of Persia, i., iL (ioo»-
1906); T. Noldeke (as above) for a full account of the Shahoama,
editions, Ac; and H. Ethe, " Neupersische Utteratur," in the same
work. (E. H. P.; X)
FIRB (in O. Eng. fp; the word is common to West German
languages, d. Dutch turn, Ger. Feutr; the pre- Teutonic form
is seen in Sanskrit p6, P&oaka, and Gr. xpp; the ultimate origin
is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf . Lat. purus),
the term commonly used for the visible effect of combustion
(see Flame), operating as a heating or lighting agency.
So general is the knowledge of fire and its uses that it is a
question whether we have any authentic instance on record of a
tribe altogether ignorant of them. A few notices indeed are to
be found in the voluminous literature of travel which would
decide the question in the affirmative; but when they are
carefully investigated, their evidence is found to be far from
conclusive. The missionary Krapf was told by a slave of a tribe
in the southern part of Sboa who lived like monkeys in the
bamboo jungles, and were totally ignorant of fire; but no
better authority has been found for the statement, and the
story, which seems to be current in eastern Africa, may be
nothing else than the propagation of fables about the Pygmies
whom the ancients located around the sources of the Nile.
Lieut. Charles Wilkes, commander of the United States exploring
expedition of 1838^49, says that in Fakaafo or Bowditch Island
" there was no sign of places for cooking nor any appearance of
fire," and that the natives felt evident alarm at the sparks pro-
duced by flint and steel and the smoke emitted by those with
cigars in their mouths. The presence of the word aft, fire, in the
Fakaafo vocabulary supplied by Hale the ethnographer of the
expedition, though it might perhaps be explained as equivalent
only to solar light and heat, undoubtedly invalidates the supposi-
tion of Wilkes; and the Rev. George Turner, in an account of a
missionary voyage in 1850, not only repeats the word aft in his
list for Fakaafo, but relates the native legend about the origin
of fire, and describes some peculiar customs connected with its
use. Alvaro dc Saavedra, an told Spanish traveller, informs us
that the inhabitants of Los Jardines, an island of the Pacific,
showed great fear when they saw fire— which they did not know
before. But that island has not been identified with certainty
by modern explorers. It belongs, perhaps, to the Ladrones or
Marianas Archipelago, where fire was unknown, says Padre
Gobien, " till Magellan, wroth at the pilferings of the inhabitants,
burnt one of their villages. When they saw their wooden huts
ablaze, their first thought was that fire was a beast whicn eats
up wood. Some of them having approached the fire too near
were barn?, and the others kept aloof, fearing to be torn or
poisoned by the powerful breath of that terrible animal." To
this Freycinct objects that these Ladrone islanders made pottery
before the arrival of Europeans, that they had words expressing
the ideas of same, fire, oven, coals, roasting and cooking. Let
us add that In their country numerous graves and ruins have been
found, which seem to be remnants of a former culture. Thus
the question remains in uncertainty: though there is nothing
impossible in the supposition of the existence of a fireless tribe,
it cannot be said that such a tribe has been discovered.
It is useless to inquire In what way man first discovered that
fire was subject to his control, and could even be called into
being by appropriate means. With the natural phenomenon
and its various aspects he must soon have become familiar.
The volcano lit up the darkness of night and sent its ashes or its
lava down into the plains; the lightning or the meteor struck
the tree, and the forest was ablaze; or some less obvious cause
produced some less extensive ignition. For a time it is possible
that the grand manifestations of nature aroused no feelings save
awe and terror; but man is quite as much endowed with curiosity
as with reverence or caution, and familiarity must ere long have
bred confidence if not contempt. It is by no means necessary
to suppose that the practical discovery of fire was made only
at one given spot and in one given way; it is much more probable
indeed that different tribes and races obtained the knowledge
in a variety of ways.
It has been asserted of many tribes that they would be unable
to rekindle their fires if they were allowed to die out. Travellers
In Australia and Tasmania depict the typical native woman
bearing always about with her a burning brand, which it is one
of her principal duties to protect and foster; and it has been
supposed that it was only ignorance which imposed on her the
endless task. This is absurd. Hie Australian methods of
producing fire by the friction of two pieces of wood are perfectly
well known, and are illustrated in Hewitt's Native Tribes of
South-Bast Australia, pp. 771-773- To carry a brand saves a
little trouble to the men.
The methods employed for producing fire vary considerably
in detail, but are for the most part merely modified applications
of concussion or friction. Lord Avebury has remarked that the
working up of stone into implements must have been followed
sooner or later by the discovery of fire; for in the process of
chipping sparks were elicited, and in the process of polishing
heat was generated. The first or concussion method is still
famihar in the flint and steel, which has hardly passed out of
use even in the most civilized countries. Its modifications are
comparatively few and unimportant. The Alaskans and Aleutians
take two pieces of quartz, rub them well with native sulphur,
strike them together till the sulphur catches fire, and then
transfer the name to a heap of dry grass over which a few feathers
have been scattered Instead of two pieces of quartz the
Eskimos use a piece of quartz and a piece of iron pyrites. Mr
Frederick Boyle saw fire produced by striking broken china
violently against a bamboo, and Bastian observed the same
process in Burma, and Wallace in Ternate. In Cochin China
two pieces of bamboo are considered sufficient, the silicious
character of the outside layer rendering it* as good as native
flint. The friction methods are more various. One of the
simplest is what E. B. Tylor calls the stick and groove — " a
blunt pointed stick being run along a groove of its own making
in a piece of wood lying on the ground." Much, of course,
depends on the quality of the woods and the cxpertness of the
manipulator. In Tahiti Charles Darwin saw a native produce
fire in a few seconds, but only succeeded himself after much
labour. The same device was employed in New Zealand, the
Sandwich Islands, Tonga, Samoa and the Radak Islands.
Instead of rubbing the movable stick backwards and forwards
other tribes make it rotate rapidly in a round hole in the station-
ary piece of wood— thus making what Tylor has happily desig-
nated a fire-drill. Tins, device has been observed in Australia,
Kamchatka, Sumatra and the Carolines, among the Veddahs
of Ceylon, throughout a great part of southern Africa, among
the Eskimo and Indian tribes of North America, in the West
Indies, in Central America, and as far south as the Straits of
Magellan. It was also employed by the ancient Mexicans, and
49°
FIRE
Tylor gives a quaint picture of the operation from a Mexican
MS.— a man half kneeling on the ground is causing the stick
to rotate between the palms of hia hands. This simple method
of rotation seems to be very generally in use; but various
devices have been resorted to for the purpose of diminishing
the labour and hastening the resulL The Gaucho of the Pampas
takes " an elastic stick about x8 in. long, presses one end to his
breast and the other in a hole in a piece of wood, and then
rapidly turns the curved part like a carpenter's centre-bit."
In other cases the rotation is effected by means of a cord or
thong wound round the drill and pulled alternately by this end
and that. In order to steady the drill the Eskimo and others
put the upper end in a socket of ivory or bone which they hold
firmly in their mouth. A further advance was made by the
Eskimo and neighbouring tribes, who applied the principle of
the bow-drill; and the still more ingenious pump-drill was
used by the Onondaga Indians. For full descriptions of these
instruments and a rich variety of details connected with
fire-making we must refer the reader to Tylor's valuable
chapter in his Researches. These methods of producing fire are
but rarely used in Europe, and only in connexion with super-
stitious observances. We read in Wuttke that some time ago the
authorities of a Mecklenburg village ordered a " wild fire " to be
lit against a murrain amongst the cattle. For two hours the
men strove vainly to obtain a spark, but the fault was not to be
ascribed to the quality of the wood, or to the dampness of the
atmosphere, but to the stubbornness of an old lady, who, object-
ing to the superstition, would not put out her night lamp; such
a fire, to be efficient, must burn alone. At last the strong-minded
female was compelled to give in; fire was obtained— but of
bad quality, for it did not stop the murrain.
It has long been known that the rays of the sun might be
concentrated by a lens or concave mirror. Aristophanes men-
tions the burning-lens in The Clouds, and the story of Archimedes
using a mirror to fire the ships at Syracuse is familiar to every
schoolboy. If Garcilasso de la Vega can be trusted as an authority
the Virgins of the Sun in Peru kindled the sacred fire with a>
concave cup set in a great bracelet. In China the burning-glass
is in common use.
To the inquiry how mankind became possess ed of fire, the
cosmogonies, those records of pristine speculative thought,
do not give any reply which would not be found in the relations
of travellers and historians.
They say in the Tonga Islands that the god of the earthquakes
is likewise the god of fire. At Mangaia it is told that the groat
Maui went down to hell, where he surprised the secret of making
fire by rubbing two pieces of wood together. The Maoris tell the
tale differently Maui had the fire given to him by his old blind
grandmother, Mahuika, who drew it from the nails of her hands.
Wishing to have a stronger one, he pretended that it had gone out,
and so he obtained fire from her great toe. k was so fierce that every
thing melted before the glow; even Maui and the grandmother
herself were already burning when a deluge, sent from heaven,
saved the hero and the perishing world; but before the waters
extinguished all the blaze, Mahuika shift a few sparks into some
trees, and thence men draw it now. The Maoris have also the
legend that thunderT* the noise of Tawhaki's footsteps, and that
lightnings flash from his armpits. At Western Point. Victoria, the
Australians say the good old man Pundyil opened the door of the
sun, whose light poured then on earth, and that Karakorok, the
good man's good daughter, seeing the earth to be full of serpents,
went everywhere destroying serpents; but before she had killed
them all, her staff snapped in two, and while it broke, a flame burst
out of it. Here the serpent-killer is a fire-bringer. In the Persian
Shahnama also fire was discovered by a dragon-fighter. Hushenk,
the powerful hero, hurled at the monster a prodigious stone, which,
evaded by the snake, struck a rock and was splintered by it. " Light
shone from the dark pebble, the heart of the rock flashed out in
glory, and fire was seen for the first time in the world." The snake
escaped, but the mystery of fire had been revealed.
North American legends narrate bow the great buffalo, careering
through the plains, makes sparks flit in the night, and seta the
prairie ablase by his hoofs hitting the rocks. We meet the same
idea in the Hindu mythology, which conceives thunder to have
been, among many other things, the clatter of the solar horses on
the Akmon or hard pavement of the sky. The Dakotas claim that
their ancestor obtained fire from the spark* which a friendly panther
struck with its claws, as it scampered upon a stony hill.
TohiL who gave the Quiches fire by shaking his sandals, was.
like the Mexican Quetzefcoatl. represented by a flint stone. Gua-
mansuri, the father of the Peruvians, produced the thunder and the
lightning by hurling stones with his sling. The thunderbolts are
bis children. Kudai, the great god of the Altaian Tartars, disclosed
"the secret of the stones edge and the iron's hardness." The
Slavonian god of thunder was depicted with a silcx in his band, or
even protruding from his head. The Lapp Tiermes struck with his
hammer upon his own head; the Scandinavian Thor held a mallet
in one hand, a flint in the other. Taranis, the Gaul, had upon his bead
a huge mace surrounded by six little ones. Finnish poems describe
how " fire, the child of the sun, came down from heaven, where it
was rocked in a tub of yellow copper, in a large pail of gold." Ukko,
theEsthonian god, sends forth lightnings, as he strikes his stone with
his steel. According to the Kalewala, the same mighty Ukko struck
his sword against his nail, and from the nail issued the " fiery babe."
He gave it to the Wind's daughter to rock it, but the unwary maiden
let it fall in the sea, where it was swallowed by the great pike, and
fire would have been lost for ever if the child of the sun had not
come to the rescue. He dragged the great pike from the water,
drew out his entrails, and found there the heavenly spark still alive.
Prometheus brought to earth the torch he had lighted at the sun's
chariot.
Human culture may be said to have begun with fire, of which
the uses increased in the same ratio as culture itself. To save
the labour expended on the initial process of procuring light,
or on carrying it about constantly, primitive men hit on the
expedient of a fire which should burn night and day in a public
building. The Egyptians had one in every temple, the Greeks,
Latins and Persians in all towns and villages. The Natchez,
the Aztecs, the Mayas, the Peruvians had their "national
fires " burning upon large pyramids. Of these fires the " eternal
lamps" in the synagogues, in the Byzantine and Catholic
churches, may be a survival The " Regia," Rome's sacred
centre, supposed to be the abode of Vesta, stood close to a
fountain; it was convenient to draw from the same spot the
two great requisites, fire and water. All civil and political
interests grouped themselves around the prytaneum which was
at once a temple, a tribunal, a town-hall, and a gossiping resort:
all public business and most private affairs were transacted by
the light and in the warmth of the common fire. No wonder
that its flagstones should become sacred. Primitive communities
consider as holy everything that ensures their existence and
promotes their welfare, material things such as fire and water
not less than others. Thus the prytaneum grew into a religious
institution. And if we hear a little more of fire worship than of
water worship, it is because fire, being on the whole more difficult
to obtain, was esteemed more precious. The prytaneum and
the state were convertible terms. If by chance the fire in the
Roman temple of Vesta was extinguished, all tribunals, all
authority, all public or private business had to stop immediately.
The connexion between heaven and earth had been broken,
and it had to be restored in some way or other — either by Jove
sending down divine lightning on his altars, or by the priests
making a new fire by the old sacred method of rubbing two
pieces of wood together, or by catching the rays of the sun in a
concave mirror. No Greek or Roman army crossed the frontier
without carrying an altar where the fire taken from the prytaneum
burned night and day. When the Greeks sent out colonics the
emigrants took with them living coals from the altar of Hestia,
and had in their new country a fire lit as a representative of that
burning in the mother country. 1 Not before the three curiae
united their fires into one could Rome become powerful; and
1 Curiously enough we see the same institution obtaining among
the Damaras of South Africa, where the chiefs, who sway their people
with a sort of priestly authority, commit to their daughters the care
of a so-called eternal fire. From its hearth younger scions separating;
from the parent stock take away a burning brand to their new home.
The use of a common prytaneum, of circular form, like the Roman
temple of Vesta, testified to the common origin of the North American
Assinais and Maichas. The Mobiles, the Chippewas, the Natchez,
had each a corporation of Vestals. If the Natchez let their fire die
out, they were bound to renew it from the Mobiles. The Moquis,
Pueblos and Comanche* had also their perpetual fires. The Red-
skins discussed important affairs of state at the "council fires,"
around which each sachem marched three times, turning to it all the
sides of his person. " It was a saying among our ancestors," said an
Iroquois chief in 1 753, " that when the fire goes out at Onondaga " —
the Delphi of the league — " we shall no longer be a people.'*
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
40 x
Athens became a shining light to the world only, we are told,
when the twelve tribes of Attica, led by Theseus, brought each
Its brand to the altar of Athene Polias. All Greece confederated,
making Delphi its central hearth; and the islands congregated
around Delos, whence the new fire was fetched every year.
Periodic Pires.— Because the sun loses its force after noon,
and after midsummer daily shortens the length of its circuit, the
ancients inferred, and primitive populations still believe, that,
as time goes on, the energies of fire must necessarily decline.
Therefore men set about renewing the fires in the temples and
on the hearth on the longest day of summer or at the beginning
of the agricultural year. The ceremony was attended with
much rejoicing, banqueting and many religious rites. Houses
were thoroughly cleansed; people bathed, and underwent
lustrations and purifications; new clothes were put on; quarrels
were made up; debts were paid by the debtor or remitted by
the creditor; criminals were released by the civil authorities
in imitation of the heavenly judges, who were believed to grant
on the same day a general remission of sins. All things were
made new; each man turned over a new page in the book of
his existence. Some nations, like the Etruscans in the Old
World and the Peruvians and Mexicans in the New, carried
these ideas to a high degree of development, and celebrated
with magnificent ceremonies the renewal of the saccula, or
astronomic periods, which might be shorter or longer than a
century. Some details of the festival among the Aztecs have
been preserved. On the last night of every period (52 years)
every fire was extinguished, and men proceeded in solemn
procession to some sacred spot, where, with awe and trembling,
the priests strove to kindle a new fire by friction. It was as if
they had a vague idea that the cosmos, with its sun, moon and
stars, had been wound up like a clock for a definite period of
time. And had they failed to raise the vital spark, they would
have believed that it was because the great fire was being extin-
guished at the central hearth of the world. The Stoics and many
other ancient philosophers thought that the world was doomed
to final extinction by fire. The Scandinavian bards sung the
end of the world, how at last the wolf Fenrir would get loose,
how the cruel fire of Loki would destroy itself- by destroying
everything. The Essenes enlarged upon this doctrine, which is
also found in the Sibylline books and appears in the Apocrypha
(2 Eldras xvL 15).
See Dupuis, Origin* do tons Us cultes (179 ,\); Burnouf. Settee
its r Hi lions; Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, ca ...
bert Kuhn.Di* Herabkunfl des Feuers und tU GvittHranks (18*9);
Sceinthal, Uber die wspruntliche Form dor S*r£t von PtymclMous
(i860; Albert Revilte. ^U fcythc de Protneti -/' xnRaue oUsienx
monies (August 1862) ; Michel Breal, HercuUc < act rftjfa); Tylor,
Resear c h e s into the Early History of Mankind, ch ■ i x. (t&6$) ; B&e Wen.
Die Sage von Tanaguil (1870) : Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Tima <6th
ed. 1900) ; Hang, Religion of the Parsis (1878). (£. Ra.)
PIRB AMD FIRE EXTINCTION. Fire is considered in this
article, primarily, from the point of view of the protection against
fire that can be accorded by preventive measures and by the
organization of fire extinguishing establishments.
History is full of accounts of devastation caused by fires in
towns and cities of nearly every country in the civilized world.
The following is a list of notable fires of early days:—
Great Britain and Iisland
798. London, nearly destroyed.
982. „ greater part of the city burned.
1086. „ all houses and churches from the east to the west
gate burned.
121 s. „ greaterpart of the city burned.
1666. „ n The Great Fire." September 2-6.
It began in a wooden house in Pudding Lane, and burned
for three days, consuming the buildings on 436 acres, 400
streets, lanes, Ac, 13,200 houses, with St PauTs church, 86
parish churches, 6 chapels, the guild-hall, the royal ex-
change, the custom-house, many hospitals and libraries, 52
companies' halls, and a vast number of other stately
edifices, together with three of the city gates, four stone
bridges, and the prisons of Newgate, the Fleet, and the
Poultry and Wood Street Compters. The fire swept from
the Tower to Temple church, and from the N.E. gate to
Holborn bridge. Sot persons were killed. The total loss of
property was estimated at the time to be £10,730.509.
X. 7*
1794. London, 630 houses destroyed at Wapping. Loss above
£1,000,000.
1834. „ Houses of Parliament burned.
1861. „ Tooley Street wharves, Ac* burned. Loss estimated
at £2*
1873. ,, Alexandra palace destroyed.
1 U7. York, totally destroyed.
1 184. Glastonbury, town and abbey burned.
1292. Carlisle, destroyed..
1507. Norwich, nearly destroyed; 7x8 houses burned.
154a. Leith, burned.
1598. Tmrton, 400 houses and a large number of horses burned;
33 persons killed. Loss, £150.000.
1612. w 600 houses burned. Loss over £200,000.
*73i- tt 300 houses burned.
1700. Edinburgh, " the Great Fire."
1612. Cork, greater part burned, and again in 1622.
1613. Dorchester, nearly destroyed. Loss, £200,000.
1614. Stratford-on-Avon, burned.
1644. Beaminster, burned. Again In 1684 and 1781.
1675. Northampton, almost totally destroyed.
1683. Newmarket, large part of the town burned.
1694. Warwick, more than half burned; rebuilt by national con*
tribution.
1707. Lisbum, burned.
1727. Gravesend, destroyed.
1738. Wellingborough, 800 houses burned.
1743. CredUon, 450 houses destroyed.
1760. Portsmouth, dockyard burned. Loss, £400,000.
W,, ••,-•».*»•. Loss. £100.000,
1802. Liverpool, destructive fire. Loss, £1,000,000.
1827. Sheerness, 50 houses and much property destroyed.
1854. Gateshead, 50 persons killed. Loss, £1,000,000.
1875. Glasgow. Great fire. Loss, £300,000.
France
59. Lyons, burned to ashes. Nero offers to rebuild it.
ix 18. Nantes, greater part of the city destroyed.
1 137. Dijon, burned.
1524. Troyts, nearly destroyed.
1720. Rennes, on fire from December 22 to 20. 850 houses burned.
1784. Brest. Fire and explosion in dockyard. Loss, £1,000,000.
1862. Marseilles, destructive fire.
1871. Parti. Communist devastations. Property destroyed,
£32,000,000.
Central and Southern Europe
64. Rome burned during 8 days. 10 of the 14 wards of the city
were destroyed.
1 106.. Venice, mater part of thercity was burned.
1577* t» are at the arsenal, greater part of the city ruined by
an explosion.
1290. Weimar, destructive fire; also in 1424 and 161 8.
1379. Memel was in large part destroyed, and again in 1457, 1549,
1678, r«5T-
1405. Bsrti wa* d<»tnnyed.
I42O. Lnpfig Ifrit 400 housct,
1457. Bwi cathedra! and large pari of the town burned.
1491. DrtidrH was destroyed.
152 1. OinedA* large part of the city destroyed,
1543. Kamttrn was burned*
1 634. Futih was burned by
1680. Fh*ik was again deVtroyedL
, Furtk was burned by Austria Croat*,
1686. Lcn>iau wai utnioft destroyed,
1758. Pima was burned by Prutsjant*
1702. Muxith lost joo houbci.
1764. Ktmgikerg* public building*, &c T , burned,
1769. ,. almost destroyed*
1784, Rt&itetM (Bohemia) was totally destroyed.
1801. Brody, 1500 hou-xs destroyed.
1859. ,, looo hou*f* (fcitroyedY
1803. Poitrt. targe port of nTJ*r port Jem of city burned.
181 1. Forest fires in Tyrol destroyed 64 village* and hamlets.
1818. Snisbitrg wan partly destroyed*
1842. Ittmfrurf. A fire ragtd for too hours. May 5-7.
During the fire the city was in. a itate oT anarchy. 4219
buildings including jogo dwellings, were destroyed. One-
fifth of the popular ton was nude nomdc», and 100 persons
tost their Itvt* The total kw» amuuftled to £7,000.000.
After the fire, contribution* from all Germany came in to
help to rebuild the ch\.
186X. Gfarw (Swit»rland) 4 5po houses burned.
NORTHBBN EujtOPB
60 housaa destroyed.
Loss, £600,000.
Loss, £300,000.
site.
1530. Aalborg, almost entirely destroyed.
1541. Aarhwus, almost entirely destroyed, and again in 1596b
1624. Op do, nearly destroyed. Christiania was built on the
1702. Bergen, greater part of the town destioyed.
172$. Copenhagen, nearly destroyed. 1650 housesburned, 77 streets.
1 79V n royal palace with contents burned.
1795* » 50 etreeta, 1963 houses burned.
402
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
(STATISTICS
175'. Stockholm, 1000 houses destroyed.
1759- ,» 250 houses burned. Loss, 3,000,000 crowns.
1775. Abo, 200 houses and 15 mills burned.
1827. „ 780 houses burned, with the university.
1790. Carlscrona, 1087 houses, churches, warehouses, Ac., destroyed.
1802. Gothenburg* 178 houses burned.
1858. Christianta. Loss estimated at £250,000.
1865. Corlstadt (Sweden), everything burned except the bishop's
residence^ hospital and jail. 10 lives lost.
Russia
1736. St Petersburg, 2000 houses burned.
1862. „ great fire. Loss, £1,000,000.
1752. Moscow, 18.000 houses burned.
1812. ( f The Russians fired the city on September 14 to
drive out the army of Napoleon. The fire con-
tinued five days. Nine-tenths of the city was
destroyed. Number of bouses burned, 30,800,
Loss, £30,000,000.
1753. Archangel, 900 houses burned.
1793. „ 3000 buildings and the cathedral burned.
1786. Tobolsk, nearly destroyed.
1788. Milan, nearly destroyed.
1812. Riga, partly destroyed.
1834. r«2a, destructive fire.
1848. Orel, large part of the town destroyed.
1850. Cracow, large part of thetown burned.
1864. Novgorod, large amount of property destroyed.
Turkey
The following fires have occurred at Constantinople*—
1 720. A great fire destroyed 12,000 houses and 7000 people.
1745. A fire lasted five days.
1750. In January, 10,000 houses burned; in April, property destroyed
estimated from £1,000,000 to £3,000,000. Later In the
year 10.000 houses were destroyed.
1751. 4000 houses were burned.
1756. 15,000 houses and 100 people destroyed. During the years
1761, 1765 and 1767 great havoc was made by fire.
1769. July 17. A fire raged for twelve hours, extending nearly 1 m.
in length. Many of the palaces, some small mosques and
nearly 6£0 houses were destroyed.
1771. A fire lasting 15 hours consumed 2500 houses and shops.
1778. 2000 houses were burned.
1782. August 12. A fire burned three days: 10,000 houses, 50
mosques and 100 corn mills destroyed; 100 lives lost.
In February, 600 houses burned ; in June, 7000 more.
1784. August 5. A fire burned for 26 hours and destroyed 10,000
houses, most of which had been rebuilt since the fires of
1782. In the same year. March 13, a fire in the suburb of
Pera destroyed two-thirds of that quarter. Loss estimated
at 2,000,000 florins.
1791. Between March and July 32,000 nouses are said to have been
burned, and as many m 1795.
1799. In the suburb of Pera 13,000 houses were burned and many
magnificent buildings.
1816. August 16. 1 2,000 houses and 3000 shops in the finest quarter
were destroyed.
1818. August 13. A fire destroyed several thousand houses.
1826. A fire destroyed 6000 houses.
1848. 500 houses and 2000 shops destroyed. Loss estimated at
£3,000,000.
1865. A great fire destroyed 2800 houses, public buildings, &c
Over 22,000 people were left homeless.
1870. June 5. The suburb of Pera, occupied by the foreign popula-
tion and native Christians, was swept by a fire which
destroyed over 7000 buildings, many of them among the
best in the city, including the residence of the foreign
legations. Loss estimated at nearly £5,000,000.
1797* Scutari, the town of 3000 houses totally destroyed.
1763. Smyrna, 2600 bouses consumed. Loss, £200,000.
1772. h 3000 dwellings burned. 3000 to 4000 shops, Ac.
consumed. Loss, £4,000,000.
1796. n 4000 shops, mosques, magazines, Ac., burned
1841. „ 12,000 houses were burned.
India
1631. Rajmahal. Palace and great part of the town burned.
1799. Manilla, vast storehouses were burned.
1833. ti 10,000 huts were burned, March 26. 30,000 people
rendered homeless, and 50 lives lost.
1803. Madras, more than 1000 houses burned.
1803. Bombay. Loss by fire of £600,000.
China and Japan
1822. Canton was nearly destroyed by fire.
1866. 7o*oA«»w, two-tmrds rf the nathx town sjkI one-sixth of the
foreign settlement destroyed.
1872. Yeddo. A fo occurred in April during a gale of wind, destroy-
1873.
ing buildings covering a space of 6 sq. 1
persons were made hoi — ' —
A fire destroyed 10,000 h
1679.
1760.
1787.
1794.
1872.
Units* Stats*
All* the warehouses, 80 dwellings, and the vessels
in the dockyards were consumed. Loss, £20 0/ 300.
A fire caused a loss estimated at £100,000.
A fire consumed 100 buildings, February to.
96 buildings were burned. Loss, &i?,oool
Great fire, November 9-10. By this fire the richest
quarter of Boston was destroyed.
The fire commenced at the corner of Summer and
Kingston streets. The area burned over was 65 acres.
776 buildings, comprising the largest granite and brick
warehouses of the city, filled with merchandise, were burned.
The loss was about £1 5,000,000. Before the end of the year
1876 the burned district had been rebuilt more substantially
than ever.
1778. Charleston (S.C.). A fire caused the lost of £100,000.
1796. „ 300 houses were burned.
1838. „ One-half the city was burned on April 27. 1158
buildings destroyed. Loss, £600,000.
1802. Portsmouth (N.H.), 102 buildings destroyed.'
1813. ,, 397 buildings destroyed.
1820. Savannah, 463 buildings were- burned. Loss, £800,000.
1835. New York. The great fire of New York began in Merchant
Street, December 16. and burned 530 buildings
•in the business part of the city. 1000 mercantile
firms lost their places of business. The area
burned over was 52 acres. The loss was
£3,000,000.
1845. „ A fire in the business part of the city. July 20,
destroyed 300 buildings. The loss was
£1,500,000, 35 persons were killed.
1845. Pittsburg. A huge part of the city burned, April 11. 20
squares, 1100 buildings destroyed. Loss, £2,000,000.
1846b Nantucket was almost destroyed.
1848. Albany^ 600 houses burned, August 17. Area burned over
37 acres, one-third of the city. Loss, £600,000.
St Louis. 23 steamboats at the wharves,- and the whole or
part of 15 blocks of the city burned. May 17.
Loss, £600,000.
More than three-quarters of the city was burned,
May 4. 2500 buildings. Loss, £2,200,000.
£00 buildings burned. Loss, £600,000.
1840. •
1851.
1850! Philadelphia. 400 buildings bnrned, July 9I 30 lives lost.
Loss, £200,000.
1865. „ 50 buildings burned, February 8. 20 persons
killed. Loss, £100,000.
1851. Washington. Part of the Capitol and the whole of the Con-
gressional Library were burned.
1851. San Francisco. On May 4-4 a fire destroyed 2500 buildings.
A number of lives lost. More than three-fourths of the city
destroyed. Loss, upwards of £2,000,000. In"
fire burned 500 buildings. Loss estimated at aooo^ooc
1857. Chicago. A fire destroyed over £100,000. 14 lives lost.
1859. „ Property destroyed worth £100,000, Sept. 15.
1866. „ Two fires on August 10 and November 18,
£100,000 each.
„ The greatest fire of modern times.
It began in a barn on the night of the 8th of October and
raged until the 10th. The area burned over was 2124 acres,
or 3f so. m., of the very heart of the city. 250 lives were
lost, 98,500 persons were made homeless, and 17430
buildings were consumed. The buildings were ooe-thwdin
number and one-half in value of the buildings of the city.
Before the end of 1875 the whole burned district had been
rebuilt. The loss was estimated at £39,000,000.
Troy (N.Y.) was nearly destroyed by fire.
~ "" ' (Mail * " . .
1871.
1862.
1*66. Portland
Maine). Great fire on July 4.
was burned; 200 acres were ravaged; 50 buildings were
blown up to stop the progress of the fire. ' — "
One-half of the city
"> buildings were
Loss, £2,000,000
to £2,250,000.
1871. October. Forest and prairie fires in Wisconsin and Michigan.
15,000 persons were made homeless; 1000 lives lost. Loss
estimated at £600,000.
British North America
1815. Quebec was injured to the extent of £260,000.
1845.- „ 1650 houses were burned. May 28. One-third of the
population made homeless. Loss from £400,000 to
£750,000. Another fire, on June 28, consumed 1300
dwellings. 6000 persons were made homeless. 30
streets destroyed. Insurance losses, £60,770.
1866. „ 2500 houses and 17 churches in French quarter burned.
1825. New Brunswick. A tract of 4,000,000 acres, more than
100 m. in length, was burned over; it included many
towns. 160 persons killed, and 875 head of cattle. 590
buildings burned. Loss, about £60.000. Towns of New-
castle, Chatham and Douglastown destroyed.
1837. St John (New Brunswick). 115 houses burned, January 13,
and nearly all the business part of the city. Loss,
£1,000,900.
FIRE PftOTECTK)!*
1877. St Jokm. Great fire on June 21. The area burned over was
200 acres. 37 streets and squares totally or in part de-
stroyed 10 m. of streets; 1650 dwellings. 18 lives
lost. Total loss, £3,500,000. Two-fifths of the city
burned.
1846. St John's (Newfoundland) was nearly destroyed, June 9.
Two whole streets burned upwards of 1 m. long. Loss
estimated at £1,000,000.
1850. Montreal. A fire destroyed the finest part of the city on
June 7. aoo houses were burned.
1852. „ A fire on July 9 rendered 10,000 people destitute.
The space burned was 1 m. In length by J m. in
width, including 1 200 houses. Loss, £1 ,000,000.
South Amewca
1536. Cusco was nearly consumed.
1 861. Mendosa. A grat fire followed an earthquake which had
destroyed 10,000 people.
1 862. Valparaiso was devastated by fire.
1663. Santiago. Fire in the Jesuit church; 3000 persona, mostly
women and children, perished.
Wbst Indies
1752. Pierre (Martinique) had 700 houses burned.
17S2. Kingston (Jamaica) had 80 houses burned. Loss, £500,000.
1795. Monte 'go Bay (Jamaica). Loss by fire of £400,000.
1805. St Thomas. 900 warehouses consumed. Loss, £6,006,000.
1808. Spanish Town (Trinidad) was totally destroyed. Loss esti-
mated at £1,500,000.
1828. Havana lost 350 houses; 3000 persons reduced to poverty.
1843. Port Rtpubltcain (Haiti). Nearly one-third of the town was
burned.
Since this list was compiled, there have been further notable
fires, more particularly in North America, the great conflagra-
tions at Chicago, Baltimore and San Francisco being terrible
examples. But speaking generally, these conflagrations, exten-
sive as they were, only repeated the earlier lessons as to the
necessity of combating the general negligence of the public by
attaching far greater importance to the development of fire-
preventive measures even than to toe better organization of the
fire-fighting establishments.
It may be of interest to mention notable fires in the British
empire, and London in particular, during the decade 1800 to
1809:—
Port of Spain (Trinidad) .
New Westminster (British Columbia)
Toronto (Ontario) ....
Windsor (Nova Scotia)
St John's (Newfoundland)
London — Charterhouse Square
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
403
St Mary Axe
Old Bailey and Fleet Street
„ Tabernacle Street, Finsbury
„ Bermondscy Leather Market
., Minories
South-West India Docks .
Charlotte and Leonard Streets,
Cripplegate
Nottingham
Sheffield ....
Bradford ....
Sunderland ....
Dublin . .
Glasgow — Anderston Quay
„ Dunlop Street
Finsbury
March 4, 1895
Sept. 10, 1898
Tan. 6, 10, and
March 3, 1895
Oct. it, 1897
fury
July
Nov.
June
Sept.
May
Nov.
Feb.
June
Nov.
Nov.
Dec.
Nov.
> 1892
3«, 1889
18, 1893
»5, »893
21,1894
13. I«94
17. 1895
to, 1894
8,I89S
10. 1896
19. 1897
17.1894
30, 1896
18. 1898
4,1894
Jan' x6, 1897
Lpril 25, 1898
As to fires in any one specific class of building, the extra-
ordinary number of fires that occurred in theatres and similar
places of public entertainment up to the dose of the 19th century
calls for mention. Since- that time, however, there has been a
considerable abatement in this respect, owing to the adoption
of successful measures of fire preventidn.- A list of some ixoo
fires was published by Edwin 0. Sachs in 1897 (Fires at Public
Entertainments), and the results of these fires analysed. They
involved a recorded loss of life to the extent of 9350 souls. About
half of them (584) occurred in Europe, and the remainder m
other parts of the world. Since the publication of that list
extraordinary efforts have been made in all countries to reduce
the risk of fires in public entertainments. The only notable
disaster that has occurred since was that at the Iroquois Theatre
at Chicago.
The annual drain in loss of life and in property through fires
is far greater than is generally realized, and although the loss
of life and property is being materially reduced from year to year,
mainly by the fire-preventive measures that are now making
themselves felt, the annual fire wastage of the world still averages
quite £50,000,000 sterling. It is extremely difficult to obtain
precise data as to the fire loss, insured and uninsured, but it
may be assumed that in Great Britain the annual average loss
by fife, towards the end of the 19th century (say 1897), was about
£17,000,000 sterling, and that this had been materially reduced
by 1909 to probably somewhere about £12,000,000 sterling.
This extraordinary diminution in the fire waste of Great Britain,
—in spite of the daily increasing number of houses, and the
increasing amount of property in buildings — is in the main owing
to the fire-preventive measures, which have led to a better class
of new building and a great improvement in existing structures,
and further, to a greater display of intelligence and interest in
general fire precautionary measures by the public.
Notable improvements in the fire service have been effected,
more particularly in London and in the country towns of the
south of England since 1003. The International Fire Exhibition
held in 1903 at Earl's Court, and the Fire Prevention Congress
of the same year, may be said to have revolutionized thought
on the subject of fire brigade organization and equipment in the
British empire; but, for all that, the advance made by the fire
service has not been so rapid as the development of the fire-
preventive side of fire protection.
Fire Protection.— -The term "Fire Protection " is often mis-
understood. Fire-extinguishing — in other words, fire brigade
work— is what the majority understand by it, and many towns
consider themselves well protected if they can boast of an
efficiently manned fire-engine establishment. The fire brigade
as such, however, has but a minor role in a rational system of
protection. Really well-protected towns owe their condition
in the first place to properly applied preventive legislation, based
on the practical experience and research of architects, engineers,
fire experts and insurance and municipal officials. Fire protec-
tion is a combination of fire prevention, fire combating and fire
research.
Under the heading of "Tire Prevention" should be classed
all preventive measures, including the education of the public;
and under the heading " Fire Combating " should be classed
both self-help and outside help.
Preventive measures may be the result of private initiative,
but as a rule they are denned by the local authority, and con-
tained partly in Building Acts, and partly in separate codes of
fire-survey regulations— supplemented, if necessary, by special
rules as to the treatment of extraordinary risks, such as the
storage of petroleum, the manufacture of explosives, and theatri-
cal performances. The education of the public may be simply
such as can be begun informally at school and continued by
official or semi-official warnings, and a judicious arrangement
with the newspapers as to the tendency of their fire reports.
Such forms of training have already been successfully introduced.
There are English towns where the authorities have, for instance,
had some of the meaningless fables of the old elementary school
Standard Reader replaced by more Instructive ones, which warn
children not to play with matches, and teach them to run for help
in case of an emergency. Instructive copy-book headings have been
arranged in place of the meaningless sentences so often used in
elementary schools. There are a number of municipalities where
regular warnings are issued every December as to the dangerous
Christmas-tree. In such places every inhabitant has at least an
opportunity of learning how to throw a bucket of water properly,
and how to trip up a burning woman and. roll her up without fanning
the flames. The householder u officially informed where the nearest
fire-call point is. and how long he must expect to wait till the first
engine can reach his house. If he is a newspaper reader, he will
also have ample opportunity of knowing the resources of his town,
and the local reporter's fire report will give him much useful infor-
mation based on facts or hints supplied oy the authorities.
Both self-help and outside help must be classed under the
heading of "Fire Combating." Self-help mainly deals with
the protection of large risks, such as factories, stores and public
places of amusement, which lend themselves to regulation,
4°+
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
The requirements of the fire survey code may allow for hydrants
or sprinklers in certain risks, and also for their regular inspection,
and the means for self-help may thus be given. These means
will, however, probably not be properly employed unless some
of the employes engaged on the risk are instructed as to their
purpose, and have confidence In the apparatus at their' disposal.
The possibility of proper self-help in dangerous risks may be
encouraged by enforcing regular drills for the employes, and
regular inspections to test their efficiency. There are towns
where great reliance is placed on the efforts of such amateur
firemen. In some cities they even receive extra pay and arc
formed into units, properly uniformed and equipped, and
retained by the fire brigade as a reserve force for emergencies.
Self-help for the shopkeeper, the lodger or the householder
can scarcely be regulated. The opportunities already mentioned
for the education of the public, if properly utilized, would assure
intelligent behaviour on the part of a large percentage of the
community. There are places where, without any regulation
being attempted, and thanks entirely to the influence referred
to, most residences can boast of a hand-pump, a bucket, and a
crowbar, the proper use of which is known to most of the house-'
hold. Self-help in small risks may, however, be distinctly
encouraged by the authorities, without any irksome interference
with personal liberty, simply by the provision of street pillar-
boxes, with the necessaries of first aid, including perhaps a couple
of scaling ladders, and, further, by opportunities being given
to householders to learn how to handle them. If a street pillar-
box of this kind be put in a fire-station, and certain afternoons
in the year be reserved on which this elementary instruction will
be given, and the students afterwards shown over the fire-station
or treated to a " turn-out," a considerable number will be found
to take advantage of the opportunity. No matter whether
curiosity or real interest brings them, the object in view will
be attained.
Under " outside " help should be understood what is organised,
and not Simply such as is tendered by the casual passer-by or
by a neighbour. The link between self-help and outside help is
the fire-call.
The Fire-Call.— -The efficiency of the fire-call depends not
only on the instrument employed and its position, but also
on its conspicuous appearance, and the indications by which
its situation may be discovered. These indications are quite
as important as the instruments themselves. The conspicuous-
ncss of the instrument alone does not suffice. Of the official
notifications given in the press, those in regard to the position
of the call-points are among the most useful. An indication at
every street corner as to the direction to take to reach the point —
or perhaps better, the conspicuous advertisement of the nearest
call-point over every post pillar-box and inside every front door —
may enable the veriest stranger to call assistance, and rninimize
the chances of time being lost in search of the instrument. It
b immaterial for the moment whether the helpers are called by
bell outside a fire-station, by a messenger from some special
messenger service, by a call through a telephone, or by an
electric or automatic appliance. Any instrument will do that
ensures the call being transmitted with maximum speed and
certainty and in full accord with the requirements of the locality.
Outside Help.— Organised outside help may not be limited
simply to the attendance of the fire brigade. Special arrange-
ments can be made for the attendance of the local police force,
a public or private salvage corps, an ambulance, or, in some
cases, a military guard. Then in some instances arrangements
are made for the attendance of the water and gas companies'
servants, and even officials from the public works office, insur-
ance surveyors, and the Press. There are places where the salvage
corps arrives on the scene almost simultaneously with the fire
brigade, and others where the police are generally on the spot
in good force five minutes after the arrival of the first engines.
There axe several cities where the ambulance wagon and the
steamers arrive together, and another city where the military
authorities always send a fire piquet which can be turned out
in a few minutes.
(FIR£ PROTECTION
If all these helpers come together, no matter how high the rank
of the individual commanders, the senior officer of the fire
brigade, even if he holds only non-cornrnissioned officer's rank,
should have control, and his authority be fully recognized
Unfortunately, there are not many countries where this is tbe
case. The efficiency of outside help depends in the first in s t a ncy
on the dear definition of the duties and powers of aU-concemed--,
on the legal foundation, in fact; then on the orgamzation^ the
theoretically as well as practically correct executive; and, last,'
but by no means least, on the prestige, the sodal standing, the
education of commanders and their ability to. handle men.
Among the rank and file of the brigade, clear-headedness, pluck,
smartness and agility will be as invaluable as reckless dare-
devilry; showy acrobatism, or an unhealthy ambition for
public applause, will be dangerous.
Research.— Under the heading "Fire Research'' should be
included theoretical and experimental investigation as to
materials and construction, combined with the chronicling. of
practical experience in fires, then the careful investigation* and
chronicling of the causes of fires, assisted where necessary by a
power for holding fire inquests in interesting, suspicious or fatal
cases. Experimental investigation as to natural and arridenfat
causes as distinct from criminal causes can be-included. Re-
search in criminal cases may be assisted not only by a fire
inquest, but also by immediate formal inquiries held on the spot^
by the senior fire brigade and police officers present, or by
immediate government investigations held on the same lines as
inquiries into explosions and railway accidents. 1 As to general
research work, there are several cities which contribute sub-
stantially towards the costs of fire tests at independent testing
stations. Some towns also have special commissions of experts
who visit all big fires occurring within easy travelling distance,
take photographs and sketches, and issue reports as to how the
materials were affected. Then there are the usual statistics
as to outbreaks, their recurrence and causes, and in some places
such tables are supplemented by reports on experiments with
oil lamps, their burners and wicks, electric wiring, and the like.
The British Fire Prevention Committee.— The British Fire Preven-
tion Committee is an organization founded a few days after the great
Cripplegate (London) fire in 1897, and incorporated in February
1899. It comprises some 500 members and subscribers. The
members include civil engineers, public officials holding government
appointments, fire chiefs, insurance surveyors and architects, whilst
the subscribers in the main include the great public departments,
such as the admiralty and war office, and municipalities, such as tbe
important corporations of Glasgow, Liverpool and the like. Colonial
government departments and municipalities are also on the roll,
together with a certain number of colonial members. New Zealand
has formed a special section having its own local honorary secretary.
The ordinary work of the committee is carried out by a council
and an executive, and the necessary funds are provided by the sub-
scription of members and subscribers. The services of the members
of council and executive are given gratuitously, no out-of-pocket
expenses of any kind being refunded. Whilst the routine work deals
mainly with questions of regulations, rules and. publications of
general technical interest, the tests are probably what have brought
the committee into prominence and given it an international re-
Bitatkm. They are not only the recognized fire tests of Great
ritain, but they rank as universal standard tests for the whole of
the civilized world, and Americans, just as much as Danes, Germans
or Austriansi pride themselves when some product of their country
has passed the official procedure of a test by the committee. The
reports of the tests, which state facts only without giving criticisms
or recommendations, are. much appreciated by all who have the
control of public works or the specification of appliances. Tbe
committee does not limit itself solely to testing proprietary forms
of construction or appliances, but has a number of tests— quite equal
to the proprietary tests — of articles in general use. The ordinary
concrete floor or the ordinary wooden joist floor protected by asbestos
boards or slag wool receives as much attention as a patent floor;
1 In the United States a special officer called a " fire-marshal "
has for some time been allocated to this work in many cities, and in
1894 state fire-marshals were authorized in Massachusetts and in
Maryland, this example being followed by Ohio (1900), Connecticut
(loor), and Washington (1902); and in other states laws have been
passed making official inquiry compulsory. I n England the question
has been mooted whether coroners, even where no death has occurred,
should hold similar inquiries, but though this has been done in recent
years in the City of London no regular system exists.
COSTJ
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
+05
mm! ajmnafiy the ofdwary everyday hydrant receives equal attention '
with the patent hydrant, or ordinary bucket of water with the •pedal
fire extinguisher. The door tests of the committee, which cover
some thirty different types of doors, deal with no less than twenty
ordinary wooden doors that can be made by any ordinary builder
or cabinet-maker. These so-called non-propiietary tests are made
.at the expense of the general funds of the committee, whilst for the
proprietary tests the owners have to pay about two-thirds of the
expenses incurred in the form of a testing fee. The expenses incurred
in a test, of course, not only comprise the actual testing operation of
testing, but also the expense of producing the report, which is always
a very highly finished publication with excellent blocks. The ex-
pense incurred also includes the establishment expenses of the testing
station at Regent's Park.
The British Fire Prevention Committee organized the great Fire
"Exhibition and. International Fire Congress of London in 1903, in
both of which it enjoyed the support and assistance of the National
Fire Brigades Union and the Association of Professional Fire Chiefs.
It from tune to time despatches special commissions to the continent
of Europe, and these visits are followed by the issue of official reports,
well illustrated, presenting the appliances, rules and methods of the
countries visited, and serving as most useful reference publications.
Taken generally, the whole of the work of the committee, both
in respect of scientific investigations and propagandtsm, has been
most beneficial. Fire waste has been materially reduced, regardless
of the fact of the greater fire hazards and the ever-growing amount
of property. In Great Britain alone the stun saved in fire wastage
annually is about £5,000,000. This great annual saving has been
obtained at an expenditure in research work, as far as the British
Fire Prevention Committee is concerned, of about {23,000, of which
more than half was provided by the membership in voluntary
contributions or subscriptions.
There is no similar institution anywhere in the world, although
several government laboratories occasionally undertake fire tests,
notably the Gross LichterfeHe laboratory near Berlin, and several
insurance corporations have testing plants, notably the American
Underwriters at Chicago. The efforts at research work outside
Great Britain have, however* been spasmodic and in no way compare
with the systematic series of inquiries conducted without any
substantial state aid in London.
Distribution of Losses. — Property destroyed by fire is practi-
cally an absolute loss. This loss may actually only affect the
owner, or it may be distributed among a number of people, who
are taxed for it in the form of a contribution to their national
or local fire fund, a share in some mutual insurance " ring,"
or the more usual insurance companies' premium. In the first
two cases some expenses have also to be met in connexion with
the management of the fund, " tariff " organization, or " ring."
In the last case, not only the expenses of management have to
be covered, but also the costs incurred in running the insurance
enterprise as such, and then a further amount for division amongst
those who share the risk of the venture— namely, the insurance
company's shareholders.
It is weB to distinguish between loss and mere expenditure.
The sinking fund of the large property owner should cover a loss
with a minimum extra expense; insurance in an extravagantly
managed company paying large dividends will cover a loss, but
with an unnecessarily large extra outlay. In every case the loss
remains; and as property may always be considered part of the
community, the province or nation, as the case may Jbe, suffers.
It is always in the interest of a nation to mmimbe its national losses,
no matter whether they fall on one individual's shoulders or on many,
and whether such losses arc good for certain trades or not. With a
suitable system of fire protection it is possible to bring these losses
to a minimum, but this minimum would probably only be reached by
an extra expense, -which would fall heavier on the insurers' pockets
in the form of municipal rates than the higher premium for the
greater risk. A practical minimum is all that can be attempted,
and that practical minimum varies according to circumstances.
Practical protection must mean smaller annual Insurance duet,
lal extra cost of this protection should be something less
and the actual <
than the saving off these dues. Then not only has the nation a
smaller dead loss, but the owner also has a smaller annual ex-
penditure for his combined contributions toward the losses, the
management of his insurance, and the protective measures. Where
there is mutual insurance or municipal insurance in its best
sense, the losses by fire and the costs of the protection are often
booked in one account, and the better protection up to a certain
point should mean a smaller individual annual share. Where there
is company insurance the municipal rates are increased to cover the
cost of extra protection, while a proportionate decrease is expected
in the insurance premiums. Competition and public opinion
generally impose this decrease of the insurance rates as soon as there
a a greater immunity from fire. Where the insurance companies
are well managed and the shareholders are satisfied with reasonable
dividends, practical protection can be said to find favour with all
concerned, but if the protection is arranged for and the companies
do not moderate their charges accordingly, the reverse is the case.
The position of insurance companies subscribing towards the
maintenance of a fire brigade should here be referred to, as there is
considerable misunderstanding on the subject. The argument which
municipalities or fire brigade organizations often use is to the effect
that the insurance companies derive all the profit from a good fire
service, and should contribute towards its cost. Where properly
managed companies have the business, a better fire service, however,
means a smaller premium to the ratepayer. If the ratepayer has
to pay for extra protection in the form of an increased municipal
rate, or in the form of an increased premium raised to meet the
contribution levied, this is simply juggling with figures.
CosL—Ai to the cost of a practical system of fixe protection,
better and safer building from the fire point of view means
better and more valuable structures of longer life from the
economic aspect. Such better and safer constructional work
pays for itself and cannot be considered in the light of an extra
tax on the building owner. The compilation and administration
of the fire protective clauses in a Building Act would be attended
to by the same executive authorities as would in any case
superintend general structural mattes, and the additional
work would at the most require some increased clerical aid.
If the execution of the fire survey regulations were delegated
to the same authority there would again simply be some extra
clerical aid to pay for, and the salaries of perhaps a few extra
surveyors. To make the inspections thoroughly efficient, it has
been found advisable in several instances to form patties of three
for the rounds. The second man would, in this case, be a fire
brigade officer, and the third probably a master cfcun&ey-fiweep,
who would have to receive a special retaining fee.
The cost of the public training referred to would be small,
as the elementary part would simply be included in the school-
master's work, and the Press matters could be easily managed
in the fire brigade office. Payments would have only to be made
for advertisements, such as the official warnings, lists for fire-
call points, &c, and perhaps for the publication of semi-official
hints. Self-help, as far as inspection and drills for amateurs
are concerned would be under the control of the fire brigade.
There would, however, be an extra expense for the purchase
and maintenance of the street first-aid appliances referred to.
The most expensive items in the system of fire protection
undoubtedly come under the headings " Fire-Call " and " Fire
Brigade." As to the former, there are a number of cities where
the cost is modified by haying the whole of the electrical service
for the police force, the ambulance and fire brigade, managed by
a separate department. The same wires call up each of these
services, and, as* the same staff attend to their maintenance,
the fire protection of a city need only be debited with perhaps
a third of the outlay it would occasion if managed independently.
The combined system has also the great advantage of facilitating
the mutual working of the different services in case of an emer-
gency. The indicators which have been referred to involve an
outlay; but here again, if the three services work together,
the expenses on the count of fire protection can be lessened.
The money rewards given in some tities to the individuals who
first call .the fire-engines may become a heavy item. Their
utility is doubtful, and they have formed an inducement for
As to the outlay on fire brigade establishment, a strong
active force should be provided, supported by efficient reserves.
The latter should be as inexpensive as possible, but should at
least constitute a part-paid and discipliped body which could
be easily called in for emergencies. Fire brigade budgets cannot
allow for an active force being ready for such coincidences as an
unusual number of large fires starting simultaneously, but they
must allow for an ample strength always being forthcoming
for the ordinary emergencies, and this with all due consideration
for men's rest and possible sickness. An undermanned fire
brigade is an anomaly which is generally fatal, not only to the
property owner, but also to the whole efficiency and esprit of
the force. The budget must also allow for an attractive rate of
pay, as the profession is one which requires men who have a
maximum of the sterling qualities which we look for in the pick
406
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION (safety of property
of a nation. It must also not be forgotten that the fire service
is one of the few where a system of pensions is the only fair way
of recognizing the risks of limb and health, and at the same time
securing that stability in which practical experience from long
service is so essential a factor. The budget must allow for an
ample reserve of appliances.
Whether or not afire brigade should be. so strong as to permit
of its having a separate section for salvage corps purposes
depends on circumstances. Economically a salvage corps is
required, and should be part and parcel of the municipal brigade
and organized on the same lines with a reserve, no matter
whether the insurance of the locality be managed by the authori-
ties or by companies. If a corps is necessary, it matters little
whether it be paid for out of premiums or out of rates.
Of further expenses which have to be considered, there arc
items for fire research and fire inquest. If managed economically,
due confidence being placed in the opinions of the fire officers
and surveyors, there is no reason why the outlay should be great.
The statistical work would only require some clerical aid. Where
special coroners are retained for criminal cases some extra money
will of course be required; but even here the costs need not be
excessive, as there are many retired fire brigade officers and fire
surveyors who are well suited for the work, and would be satisfied
with a small emolument.
As to the cost of the water supply, there are but few places
where special fire high-pressure mains are laid on in the interests
of fire protection. As a rule the costs which are ^debited to the
heading " Fire Protection " have simply to cover the maintenance
of hydrants and tablets, or at the most the cost of the water
actually used for fire-extinguishing purposes. Sometimes the
cost of hydrants is shared with the scavenging department or
the commission of sewers, which also have the use of them.
Where the provision of water and hydrants falls to a' private
water company, the property owners will be paying their share
for them, indirectly, in the form of water rates.
The protective measures referred to will serve both for life-
saving and for the protection of property. It should be re-
membered that a good staircase and a ladder are often as useful
for the manoeuvring of the firemen' as for life-saving purposes,
and that they are practically as essential for the saving of pro-
perty as for saving life. No distinction need be made between
the two risks when speaking of fire protection in general; but as
the safety of the most valueless life is generally classed higher
than that of the most valuable property, it may be well to give
life-saving the first place when alluding to the two separately.
Criminal fire-raising only prevails where the fire-protective
system is defective. With good construction and a fire survey,
the quick arrival of the firemen, and careful inquests, the risks
of detection are as a rule far too great to encourage its growth.
Sating of Life. — Under " Fire Prevention " special require-
ments in the Building Act can greatly influence the safety of life
by requiring practical exits and sufficient staircase accommoda-
tion. The risks in theatres and assembly halls require separate
legislation. In ordinary structures no inmate of a building
should be more than sixty feet away from a staircase, and
preferably there should be two staircases at his disposal in the
event of one being blocked. Generally, attention is only given
to the construction of staircases; but it must be pointed out that
their ventilation is equally important. Smoke is even a greater
danger than fire, and may hamper the helpers terribly. The
possibility of opening a window has saved many a life.
Safety of Properly. — As far as the protection of property
is concerned, the prevention of outbreaks can be influenced by
the careful construction of flues, hearths, stoves, and in certain
classes of buildings by the construction of floors and ceilings,
the arrangement of skylights, shutters and lightning conductors.
Then comes the prevention of the fire spreading, first, by the
division of risks, and secondly, by the materials used in con-
struction.
The legislator's first ambition must be to prevent a fire in one
house from spreading to another, and a stranger's property,
so to say, from being endangered. This is quite possible, given
good party walls carried well over the roof to a height regulated
by the nature of the risk, the provision of the shutters to windows
where necessary, and the use of fire-resisting glass. Again, a
thoroughly good roof— or still better, a fire-resisting attic floor
— can do much. If the locality has a fire brigade and the force
is efficiently handled, " spreads " from one house to another
should never occur. Narrow thoroughfares and courts are,
however, a source of danger which may baffle all efforts to
localize a fire. This should be remembered by those responsible
for street improvements.
The division of a building or large ''risk" into a number
of minor ones is only possible to a certain extent. There is no
need to spend enormous sums to make each of the minor " risks "
impregnable. The desire should be simply to try to retard the
spread for a certain limited time after the flames have really
taken hold of the contents. In those minutes most fires will
have been discovered, and, where there is an efficient fire-
extinguishing establishment, a sufficient number of firemen can
be on the spot to localize the outbreak and prevent the con-
flagration from becoming a big one. In the drawing-room of an
ordinary well-built house, for example, if the joists are strong
and the boards grooved, if some light pugging be used and the
plastering properly done, if the doors are made well-fitting and
fairly strong, a very considerable amount of furniture and fittings
can remain well alight for half an hour before there is a spread.
In a warehouse or factory " risk " the same holds good. With
well-built wooden floors, thickly pugged, and the ceilings perhaps
run on wire netting or on metal instead of on laths, with ordinary
double ledged doors safely hung, at the most perhaps lined with
sheet iron or asbestos cloth, a very stiff blaze can be imprisoned
for a considerable time. Many of the recent forms of "patent "
flooring are exceedingly useful for the division of "risks,'' and
with their aid a fire can be limited to an individual storey of a
building, but it should not be forgotten that even the best of
flooring is useless if carried by unprotected iron girders supported,
say, by some light framing or weak partition. The general
mistake made in using expensive iron and concrete construction
is the tendency to allow some breach to be made (for lifts,
shafting, &c), through which the fire spreads, or to forget that
the protection of the supports and girder-work requires most
careful attention.
Of the various systems of "patent" flooring, as a rule the
simpler forms are the more satisfactory. It should, however,
always be remembered that any specific form of flooring alone
does not prevent a fire breaking from one " risk " to another
They should go hand in hand with general good construction,
and naked ironwork must be non-existent. Some of the modern
fire-resisting floors are too expensive to permit their introduction
for fire protection alone. In considering their introduction, tho
general advantages which they afford as to spans, thickness,
general stability, &c, should be taken into account. A practical
installation of floors, partitions, doors, &c., should, first, not
increase the cost of a building more than 5%, and secondly
should add to the general value of the structure by giving it a
more substantial character.
The danger of lift wells, skylights and shaft openings should
not be forgotten. The last should be as small as possible, well
armed with shutters, the skylights should have fire-resisting
glass, and the lifts not only vertical doors, but also horizontal
flaps, cutting up the well into sections. The question of light
partitions must also not be neglected.
Division of " risks," common-sense construction, and proper
sta ir case accommodation are really all that fire protection
requires, and where the special Building Act clauses have been
kept within the lines indicated, there has been little friction and
discontent. It is only as a rule when the authorities are eccentric
in their demands that the building owner considers hj rn relf
harassed by protective measures.
Fire survey regulations should mainly aim at preventing the
actual outbreak of fire. In certain classes of risks fire survey
can also increase the personal safety of the inmates and lessen
the possibility of a fire spreading. The provision of fire-escapes
FIRE COMBATING]
or ladders, and a regular inspection of their efficiency, will do
much. The examination of a rusty door-catch may save a
building. The actual preventive work of the surveyor will,
however, mostly consist in warning property owners against
temporary stoves standing on ordinary floor boards, sooty
chimneys, badly bung lamps, dangerous burners and gas
brackets fixed in risky positions. .Self-help will be greatly
facilitated by the judicious arrangement of fire-extinguishing
gear, and a like inspection of Its efficiency. Hydrants and
cocks must not rust, nor must the hose get so stiff that the water
cannot pass through it, or sprinklers choked. Hand pumps and
pails must always stand ready filled. One of the greatest errors
generally made in distributing such apparatus is disregard of
the fact that the amateur likes to have an easy retreat if his
efforts are unsuccessful, and if this is not the case, he may not,
perhaps, use the gear at all.
With regard to regulations governing " spedal risks," so far
as the safety of the public in theatres and public assembly halls
is concerned, attention should be chiefly given to the exits.
Spread of fire, and even its outbreak, are secondary considera-
tions. A panic caused by the suspicion of a fire can be quite
as fatal as that caused by the actual start of a conflagration.
In the storage of petroleum in shops, direct communication
should be prevented between the shop or cellar and the main
staircase or the living rooms. The sale of dangerous lamps and
burners should be prohibited.
Fire - resisting Materials.— One of the greatest misnomers
in connexion with fire prevention was originally the description
of certain materials and systems of construction as being " fire-
proof." This has seriously affected the development of the
movement towards fire prevention, for, having regard to the fact
that nothing described as " fire-proof " could be fire-proof in
the true sense, confidence was lost in everything so described,
and in fact everything described as " fire-proof " came to be
looked on with suspicion. In order to decrease this suspicion
and obtain a better understanding on the subject, the Inter-
national Fire Prevention Congress of London in 1003, at which
some 800 representatives of government departments and
municipalities were present, discussed this matter at considerable
length, and they arrived at conclusions which, in consideration
of their importance in affecting the whole development of fire-
resisting construction, are published below. It is the classifica-
tion of fire resistance adopted by this congress in 1003 that has
been utilized by all concerned throughout the British empire,
and in numerous other countries, since that date.
The resolutions adopted by the congress embodied the re-
commendations contained in the following statement issued by
the British Fire Prevention Committee: —
The executive of the British Fire Prevention Committee having
given their careful consideration to the common misuse of the term
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
407
" fire-proof," now indiscriminately and often most unsuitably
applied to many boi Wing materials and systems of building con-
struction in use in Great Britain, have come to the conclusion that
the avoidance of this term in general business, technical, and legis-
lative vocabulary is essential.
The executive consider the term " fire-resisting " more applicable
for general use, and that it more correctly describes the varying
qualities of different materials and systems of construction intended
to resist the effect of fire for shorter or longer periods, at high or low
temperatures, as the case may be, and they advocate the general
adoption of this term in place of " fire-proof."
Further, the executive, fully realizing the great variations in the
fire-resisting qualities of materials and systems of construction,
co n sider that the public, the professions concerned, and likewise
the authorities controlling building operations, should clearly dis-
criminate between the amount of protection obtainable or, in fact,
requisite for different classes of property. For instance, the city
warehouse filled with highly inflammable goods of great weight
requires very different protection from the tenement house of the
suburbs.
The executive are desirous of discriminating between fire-resisting
materials and systems of construction affording temporary protection.
partial protection, and/Mil protection against fire, and to classify all
building materials ana systems of construction under these three
headings. The exact ana definite lirriit bf'these three classes is based
on the experience obtained from numerous investigations and tests,
combined with the experience obtained from actual fires, and after
due consideration of the limitations of building practice and the
question of cost.
The executive's minimum requirements of fire-resistance for
building materials or systems of construction will be seen from the
standard tables appended for —
I. Fire-resisting floors and ceilings,
II. Fire-resisting partitions,
III. Fire-resisting doors,
but they could be popularly summarized as follows:—
(a) That temporary protection implies resistance against fire
for at least three-quarters of an hour.
(6) That partial protection implies resistance against a fierce fire
for at least one hour and a half.
(c) That full protection implies resistance against a fierce fire
for at least two hours and a half.
he-
ar 1 1
the applic
by .01 tst
which the
alone should
under this resistance should be obtainable, the
temperatures, thickness, questions of load, and'
of water can be appreciated from the annexed tables
Iw interested, but for the popular discrimination —
ve are desirous of encouraging— the time standard
1 1 U dnirab 1 1 1 'iat these standards become the universal standards
in tlii » country. "" the continent and in the United States, so that
the ^i.-iiv tuitJ irlization may in future be common to all countries,
and the preliminary arrangements for this universal standardization
arc already in hand.
Fire Combating. —As to self-help, complication must always
be avoided. The amateur fireman must be drilled on the simplest
lines. One thing which must be instilled into him Is not to
waste water— a sure sign of lack of training. Of course the drills
must be on the same lines as those of the local brigade, and on
no account should other gear be used for self-help than is generally
Standard Table for Fire-resisting Floors and Ceilings.
Classification.
Sub-Class.
Duration
of Test.
At Least
Minimum
Temperature.
Load per
Superficial
Foot
Distributed
(per Sq. Metre).
Minimum
Superficial
Area
under Test.
Minimum
Time for
Application
ofWater
under Press.
Temporary Protection
ClassA
45 mins.
iSOo*F.
(8iS'S # C.)
Optional
- 100 sq. ft.
(9290 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
60 mins.
1500* F.
(815V C.)
Optional
200 sq. ft.
(18-580 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Partial Protection
ClassA
90 mins.
i8oo°F.
(982-2° C)
112 lb
(546852 kg.)
too sq. ft.
(9-290 sq. m.)
2 mins.
ClassB
iso mins.
i8oo°F.
(982-2° C.)
t68 lb
(820278 kg.)
200 sq. ft.
(18-580 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Full Protection
ClassA
150 mins.
i«oo°F.
, (982-2° C.)
224 lb
(1093-706 kg.)
joo sq* ft.
(9-290 sq. m.)
2 mins.
ClassB
240 mins.
i8oo°F.
(982-2* C.)
280 lb
(1367- 130 kg.)
200 sq. ft.
(18-580 sq. m.)
5 mins.
kg. - kilogramme.
4-o8
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
Standard Table for -Fire-resisting Partitions.
(FIRE-CALLS
Classification.
Sub-class.
Duration
of Test.
At Least
Minimum
Temperature.
Thickness of
Material.
Minimum
Superficial
Area
under Test.
Minimum
Time for
Application
cTwiter
under Press.
Temporary Protection . •
Class A
45 mins.
1500° F.
<8i5-5'C.)
2 in. and under
(•051 in.)
80 sq.ft.
(7-432 «q. «•)
a mins.
Class B
60 mins.
1500* F.
(815-5'C)
Optional
80 sq. ft.
(7.432 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Partial Protection
Class A
90 mins,
i8oo°F.
(982.2° C)
2\ In. and under
(-063 in.)
80 sq. ft.
(7-43* sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
120 mins.
i8oo°F.
(082-2 a C.)
Optional
80 sq.ft.
(7432 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Full Protection
Class A
150 mins.
i8oo°F.
(982-2° C.)
2} in. and under
(063 m.)
80 sq.ft.
(7-432 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
240 mins.
i8oo°F.
(982.2° C.)
Optional
80 sq.ft.
(7.432 sq. m.)
S mins.
Standard Table for Fire-resisting Single Doors, with or without Frames.
Classification.
Sub-class.
Duration
of Test.
At Least
Minimum
Temperature.
Thickness of
Material.
Minimum
Superficial
Area
under Test.
Minimum
Time for
Application
of Water
under Press.
Temporary Protection .
Class A
45 mins.
t50O° F.
(815-5° C.)
2 in. and under
(051 m.)
20 sq. ft.
(1-858 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
60 rains.
1500° F.
(815-5° C.)
Optional
20 sq.ft.
(1.858 sq.m.)
2 mins.
Partial Protection «
Class-A
90 mins.
i8oo°F.
(0822° C.)
a| in. and under
(•063 m.)
20 sq. ft.
(1858 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
120 mins.
l8oo°F.
(982-2°'C)
Optional
20 sq. ft.
(1-858 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Full Protection
Class A
150 mins.
i8co°F.
(982-2° C.)
i in. and under
(•018 m.)
2 5 sq.ft.
(2322 sq. m.)
2 mins.
Class B
240 mins.
i8oo°F.
(982-2° C.)
Optional
25 sq. ft.
(2-322 sq. m.)
5 mins.
customary in that force. When volunteers and regulars work
together, the former should always remember that the paid
force are experts, though the regulars must never have that
contempt for volunteer work so often noticeable. Volunteers
are often men who are probably experts in some other vocation
outside fire-fighting, and have not had the opportunities which
a professional fire-fighter has had.
Transmission of Fire-Calls. — There are several methods of
transmitting the message of a fire-call. The simplest is, of
course, to run direct to the nearest fire-station; but this is only
possible where the distance is short. In one or two cities, bow-
ever, the number of fire-stations is so great that they are very
close to one another, and hence " direct " calls are generally
recorded.
Then comes the system of special messengers. The fire is
reported at some public office, police-station ox guard-room,
where there are always runners ready to start off to the nearest
fire-station. The special runner is here practically a makeshift
for the more modern telegraph or telephone line, and it is believed
that the only city in which this system is employed is one where
the unsettled political atmosphere has compelled the authorities
to prohibit the construction of any telegraph lines other than
those for the use of the general postal service. Similar messenger
services have, however, also been introduced in connexion with
the telegraphic signalling system. Private enterprises known
as "general messenger" or "call-boy" services, which are
organized for business purposes, have the advantage of including
the fire-call and the police-calL In the same way that a cab can
be signalled, a call may come for a fire-engine, and the ever-ready
runner makes off to the fire-station instead of to the cab rank.
As a rule, these messenger offices are near the fire-station. The
combination is rather a curious one, as it embraces the most
advanced notions of giving every " risk * its own fire-call, and
the somewhat ancient one of the special runner.
Another system for facilitating the fire-call relies entirely
on the public telephone system, the terms of subscription to
which may compel holders to forward fire messages if required
to do so. This system allows for such development as the
payment of retaining fees to porters in public and other buildings
which have a night service, on condition that the fire-call shall
be promptly despatched. The telephones are, perhaps, even
provided free, if they are not forthcoming; but it should be
remembered that the service always goes through a general
telephone exchange, which is, of course, open day and night.
In the special telephone line system special wires are laid
from buildings, which are practically open all the year round
direct to their nearest fire-stations, and some payment is again
made for prompt attention. Sometimes the telegraph takes
the place of the telephone, but this requires the porter or attend-
ant to be specially trained to the work. To simplify matters,
the buildings are sometimes provided with automatic fire-calls
instead of telephones; but the principle of the system remains
the same. In districts where there are few public offices, the
list of buildings at which messages can be handed in has been
frequently augmented by a set of bakeries or apothecaries' shops,
where night service is not unusual
What may be termed semi-public street alarms come next.
Automatic fire-calls are put up in the street, but their handles
FIRE-CALLS]
are under lock and key! and the keys are distributed only among
policemen, watchmen or householders, and- the messages can,
therefore, only be given by persons known to the authorities.
The public automatic street-call is the simplest system next
to the direct message. Private automatic firc-caus or telephones
can be aid on from dangerous risks, and there has even been an
instance where an attempt was made to give every householder
a private fire-call. This system is, however, unfortunately
too extreme for the municipal purse. If in connexion with
some other paying enterprise, as in the case of the messenger
services referred to, it would be a different matter, though it
should also not be forgotten that too great a number of call
points means a probable repetition of signals of the same fire,
and a risk of too many sections of the fire brigade being on the
road to it.
Besides these forms of " caff," there is also the private alarm.
Dangerous bafldings are frequently provided with telephones,
alarm-posts, or even automatic temperature indicators, by which
a call can be given direct from the " risk " involved.
Call points should be not only conspicuous, but also m most
frequented positions. Possibly, in some towns, a 'point in front
of a church would be the best; in others, the front of a public-
house. It should always be remembered that every facility
should be given to- enable as many people as possible to know
the whereabouts of the call points without any distinct effort
on their part. Red paint may make a call pillar conspicuous
by day, and a coloured lamp by night.
As to the indication of call points, a plate on every letter-box
stating the position of the nearest call-point is perhaps one of the
best methods. The letter-box is one of the instruments most
in use in a modern city, and hence the plate is read by many.
In an oriental town the public fountain would, however, take
the place of the letter-box. Plates put up inside every front
door are somewhat extreme measures. In one dty red darts
are painted on the glass of every street lamp, indicating the
direction to be taken to find a street alarm. This sign, however,
has the disadvantage of requiring a previous knowledge of its
meaning, and is generally useless to a stranger in the town.
Rewards paid to messengers vary from one shilling to half a
sovereign. In some places every call is rewarded— even those
to chimney fires— and this often results in an abuse of the
privilege. Rogues light fires on the top of a chimney and then
ran to call the engines. If a reward be given, a limitation
should he made. In one town no relation or employe of the
owner receives a reward. In other dries no rewards are given
for calls to a fire in a dust-bin or a chimney.
No true fireman would be annoyed at a false alarm given by
mistake. The possibility of a fire, or the suspicion of one, is
a bona fide reason for a call which should not be discouraged.
Malicious alarms should, however, be treated with the utmost
rigour, as the absence of firemen from their stations always means
an extra risk to life and property. Combined "lynch law"
and imprisonment has generally been adopted with good effect.
The rascal should first be put when caught over the pole of the
engine and thrashed with a broad fireman's belt, and after that
sanded to the police.
The fire-call should, if possible, also be so constructed as to
facilitate intercommunication between the scene of a fire and the
headquarters of the fire brigade. Where the runner is employed
°r the telephone is used no special arrangements are required,
but where tfee telegraph or automatic call point has been intro-
duced, the apparatus most be adapted for this contingency.
At some automatic fire-call points a few signals can be given, at
others a telegraphic or telephonic transmitter can be applied.
Much valuable time may be saved in this way when more assist-
ance is required.
Fire Brigades.— Tht organisation of fire brigades varies
Flatly. There are brigades where officers and men are pracri-
c*uy constantly ready to attend a fire, and others where they
*r* ready on alternate days, two days out of every three, or three
«y* out of every four, and the off day is entirely their own,
w at the most, only partially used by the authorities lor some
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
+09
tight work. The men off duty are only expected, to attend a fire
if there is a great emergency, the brigade being strong enough
without them for ordinary eventualities. Both systems can be
worked with or without part-paid or volunteer service, which
would be only called out for great calamities. They could be
organized as a practically independent reserve force, or the
reserve men might be attached to sections of the regulars and
mixed with them when the occasion arises. The reserves can
consist either of retired firemen who have a few regular drills,
or of amateurs who go through a special course of training, and
have some series of drills at intervals, with preferably a short
spell of service every year with the regulars. For the regulars,
forty-eight hours on duty to every twenty-four off has given the
most satisfactory results.
The division of the active force may be on a system of a number
of small parties of twos and threes backed by one or more strong
bodies. Another system allows for subdivision into sections of
equal strength, ranging from parties of, say, five men with a
non-commissioned officer to thirty non-commissioned officers
and men with an officer. The force can, of course, also simply
be divided up into parties or sections of different strengths not
governed by a system of military units. The sections either can
work independently, as units, simply governed by one central
authority, or there can be a grouping of the units into minor
or major bodies or districts, each duly officered, and as a whole
individually responsible to headquarters. '
The officers may be all taken from the ranks, or they may
be " officers and gentlemen " in the military sense, or have only
temporarily done work with the rank and file when in training.
There could also be a combination of these two systems. Only
the captain and deputy-captain might be officers in the military
sense, the sections or divisions being officered by " non-coms."
Some cities have an officer to every thirty " non-coms " and men,
whilst others put a division of as many as two hundred under
a fireman who has risen from the ranks. Where protection is
treated as a science, and where those in charge of a brigade have
really to act as advisers to their employers, officers in the military
sense have been found essential They have also been found
advantageous where their scope is limited to fire extinguishing.
The prestige of the fire service has been raised everywhere where
the officers, besides being fire experts, are educated men of
social standing. There are dries where the officers of the fire
brigade are in every way recognized as equal to army or navy
men, their social position is the same, and their mess fulfils the
same functions as a regimental mess. The fire brigade officer
is recognized at court, and there is no ceremonial without him.
On the other hand, there are also dries with brigades several
hundred strong where the captain's social standing is beneath
that of a petty officer or colour-sergeant. As to the primary
training of a fire brigade officer, the best men have generally
had some experience in another profession, such as the army, the
navy, or the architectural and engineering professions, previous
to their entering the fire service. Some brigades recruit from
army officers only, and preferably from the engineers or artillery
regiments; others recruit from among architects and engineers,
subject to their having at least had some military experience
in the reserve forces or the volunteers. Some dries only take
engineers or architects, and make a point of it that they should
have no previous military experience. Some previous experience
in the handling of men is essential
As to the men, there are dries where only trained soldiers are
taken as firemen; others where the engines are manned by
sailors. In some towns the building trades supply the recruits;
in others, all trades are either discriminately or indiscriminately
represented. A combination from the army or navy on the one
side and the building trades on the other is most satisfactory*
The knowledge of building construction in the ranks stands the
force in good stead, and has often saved both lives and property.
Where a brigade can boast of a few men of each important trade,
much money has been saved the ratepayers by the men doing
their own repairs and refitting, but the number of men from
sedentary trades should not be excessive. Where there are only
4-io
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
men of one trade or calling, there is often too great a tendency
to one-sidedness, and a great amount of prejudice.
Physical strength and perfect constitution are requisite for
both officers and men. As to the height of the men, small, wiry
men are very useful. First-class eyes, ears and nose are neces-
sary, also a good memory. Fat men are entirely out of place in
a brigade, and should be transferred to some other service if
the fatness be developed during their engagement with a brigade.
Many brigades take only single men, " non-coms " and officers
only being allowed to marry. There are many brigades where
twenty-two and forty are the limits of age for the privates, fifty
for the " non-coms," and sixty for the officers.
As to the equipment, there are brigades which have all their
sections or units provided with practically the same gear;
others where each unit has a double or treble set, one of which
is used according to circumstances. The section may have a
manual engine, a steamer and a ladder truck at its disposal,
and may turn out with either. There are towns where the units
are differently equipped, and steamer or manual sections called
out, as the case may be. In a few extreme cases, where the
sections arc very strong, they may be equipped with a set of
engines and trucks, and the unit, in every case, turns out complete
with (say) a chemical engine, a steamer and a horsed escape.
The contrast to this will be found in the small parties of twos
or threes, whose turn-out would only consist of a small hose
trolley or an escape. Of course, there are all kinds of combina-
tions, the most important of which allows a section to have
one or more independent subsections. Though practically
belonging to the " unit," the subsections work independently
in charge of a certain gear. This may be a hose-reel, a long
ladder, or a smoke helmet, according to circumstances. The
subsections may act as outposts or simply as specialist parties,
which are only called out for particular work.
As for the housing of the units or sections, simple street
stations are provided for the small parties referred to. In a few
cases two small parties are housed under the same roof. The
large bodies that back them are generally quartered together
in extensive barracks, from which any number of engines and
men can be turned out according to the nature of the call Then
there are cities where every section has its own well-built station ;
others where one or two sections are housed together, according
to circumstances, and perhaps as many as half a dozen located
at headquarters. If groups are formed, the headquarters of the
group or district has, perhaps, two sections, while each of the
other stations has only one. The general headquarters may be
the central station of a district at the same time. The actual
working of the district headquarters would, however, then be
kept separate from the working of the headquarters staff. The
latter would, perhaps, have some sections ready to send any-
where besides the trucks, &c. f necessary for the officers, the
general extra gear, &c, that might be required. It is usual to
combine workshops, stores, hose-drying towers, &&, with the
headquarters station, and, in some cases, also with the district
centres.
In the distribution of the stations, the formation of districts,
&c., various systems have been adopted. The most satisfactory
results have been obtained where a fully-equipped section (not
simply a hose-car or escape-party) can reach any building in the
city within six minutes from the time of the call reaching the
station, the six minutes including both turn-out and run. Where
there are exceptionally large or dangerous risks, this time has had
to be shortened to four minutes, and the possibility of an attend-
ance from a second station assured within six minutes. In
dividing up districts, the most satisfactory results have been
obtained where every house can be reached from the district
centre within fifteen minutes from the can. Headquarters
would naturally have a central position in the city. In one or
two instances the headquarters offices are located in a separate
building, which in no way serves as a fire-station, but simply as
a centre through which all orders and business pass.
The different stations must be in connexion with each other.
The special runner or rider is practically disappearing. __ The
(FIRE-CALLS
telegraph and telephone have taken his place. Some cities
favour Morse telegraphy, which certainly had great advantages
over the telephone at one time, as messages could be easuy
transmitted to several stations with the same effort, but telephone
distributors have now been successfully introduced. Errors
are less frequent by telegraph than by telephone, and there is
always a record of every message. The most modern forms of
telephone communication are, however, more suitable for the
fire service than the telegraph. Headquarters should be in
direct communication with every station, but every station
should be able to communicate with its neighbour directly, as
well as through the headquarters office, and there should be a
direct wire to its district station if it has one. There should be
three routes of communication, so that two should be always
ready for use in case of one breaking down. Either headquarters
or the district centres would be in touch with the various
auxiliaries referred to, as well as the general telegraph office and
the telephone exchange.
As to the attendance at fires, some cities turn out but one
unit to answer the first call if they have no particulars, others
always turn out two or three sections, and there are several
cities where the district centre would at least send an officer
and a few men as well. In one brigade, headquarters is always
represented by either the chief or the second officer in the case
of a call of this kind. The idea is that it is always better to have
too strong a force quickly in attendance than too small a number
of men, and that it is most important that the first arrival should
be well handled. Further, if two sections answer a call and one
breaks down on the road, there is no chance of there being too
great a delay in the arrival of organized help. It should, however,
not be forgotten that further calls in the same district to other
fires are not unusual, and that the absence of too many enginfs,
on account of a first call, is dangerous. In some cities, when a
caU reaches the firemen one or two of the nearest stations turn
out, and if more help is required other sections will be called
up individually. In others the reinforcements are not called
up separately, but the fires are divided into three cbwfi mnnH,
medium and large; and on the message arriving of a more
extensive conflagration at a certain point, the section already
know beforehand whether they must attend or not. First caHs
to certain classes of risks, e.g. to theatres or public offices, may
always be considered to be for medium or large fires; and the
same message will then simultaneously turn out the stronger
body without any further detailed instructions being necessary.
In some towns the fire-call automata are so arranged that the
messenger can at once call for the different classes of fire. This,
however, is not to be recommended, as a messenger will probably
consider the smallest fire to be a gigantic blase, and will bring out
too many engines.
Equipment.— 'The following are characteristic features in the
equipment of brigades. First, where there is a high-pressure
water supply, some brigades simply attend .with hose-c&rs,
life-saving gear and ladders; or, instead of the hose-cars, take
their manuals, which they practically never use and which serve
only as vehicles to carry men and hose. Others take, and make
a point of using, the manuals, and have a barrel with them
ready to supply the first gallons of water necessary. No time
is thus lost in connecting with the nearest hydrant or plug;
and in case of a hydrant being out of order, there is always
sufficient water at hand until the second hydrant has been found.
Many cities have introduced chemical engines .to take the place
of this combination of water barrel and manual engine. A
supply of water is carried on the chemical engine. Some cities
always have an attendance of steamers, which are, however,
only used in urgent cases. In other instances the steamer is at
once used in the same way as the manual, and this quite inde-
pendently of the pressure there is in the water service. Where
there is no good water service, manuals or steamers have, of
course, to be sent out, and are supplied either from the low-
pressure service or from the natural waterways or wells. There
are still a large number of cities where the suburbs have no
proper water service, and the water barrel is then very handy
FIRE BRIGADES!
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
4"
for water porterage. Attempts have abo been made at the
chemical treatment of water which is to be thrown on to a fire,
'with the view of increasing its effect, or at the use of chemicals
instead of water. In certain localities fire appliances are still
run out to fires by hand, especially where there is a high pressure
water system and hose carts only are required. Generally the
appliances are horsed. Motor traction is, however, now rapidly
superseding horse traction for reasons of economy and the
wider and more rapid range of efficiency.
As to life saving and manoeuvring gear, some brigades rely
almost entirely on hook ladders, others almost entirely depend
on scaling ladders or telescopic escapes. In some great con-
fidence is placed in the jumping-sheet; in another, chutes are
much used; and there are a few where wonderful work is done
with life-lines. To indicate the diversity with which any one
appliance can be treated, made or handled, in the fire service,
it may be mentioned that there are quite ten different ways in
which a jumping-sheet can be held. Then there is the material
of the jumping-sheet to be considered; the siae and the shape—
whether round, oblong, square or rectangular; then the means
of holding it, the way to fold it, how and where to stow it, and at
what distance from the endangered building the sheet is to be
held. Last, but not least, come the words of command.
Working of Brigades.— la some forces all possible attention
is given to the rapidity of the actual turn out, while in others
the speed at which engines run to the fire b considered to be
of primary importance. Other brigades, again, give equal
attention to both. There are brigades which work entirely on
military lines, each man having certain duties marked out for
him beforehand for every possible occasion, and there are others
where happy-go-lucky working is preferred. Of course there
are combinations in the same way as regards command. Some
chief officers arrive at a fire with a staff of adjutants and orderlies,
and control the working of the brigade from a position of vantage
at a distance. Other chiefs delight to be in the thick of a fire,
perhaps at the branch itself, or on some gallant life-saving
exploit where they no doubt do good work as a fireman, but in
no way fulfil the office of commanders. Officers must remember
that they are officers, and not rank and file; and this is generally
very difficult to those who have advanced from the ranks.
Superintendents, however smart, must leave acts of bravery to
their men, and chief officers, without going to extremes, must
always be in a good position where they can superintend every-
thing pertaining to the outbreak in question. Some brigades
seem to make a point of working quietly, and shouting is
absolutely forbidden, all commands being given by shrill whistles.
In some brigades all commands are given by word of mouth, and
there is much bawling. In others commands, besides being
bawled, are even repeated on horns, and the noise becomes
trying. As a rule, quiet working is a sign of efficiency.
Some brigades work as close as possible to the fire, others
are satisfied with putting water on or about the fire from a
distance. Some attack the fire direct, others only try to protect
what surrounds the seat of the flames. Several brigades are
ordered always to try to attack by the natural routes of the
front door and the staircases. In others, the men always have
to attempt some more unnatural entrance, with the aid of
ladders— through windows, for instance. Some brigades care-
fully extinguish a fire, some simply swamp it. Some brigades
boast of never having damaged property unnecessarily. They
have, for instance, had the patience to suffocate a cellar fire,
instead of putting the whole cellar under water. In certain
classes of property the bucket, the mop, and the hand-pump
have been far more effective in minimizing actual destruction
than the branch and hose. It is one of the easiest signs by which
to judge the training and handling of a fire brigade— to see what
damage they do. Even an inconsiderate smashing of doors and
windows, when there is absolutely no need for it, can be avoided,
where every man in the force feels that his first duty is to prevent
damage and loss and his second to extinguish the fire.
Where the brigade includes a salvage division, it is generally
stationed at headquarters; where this division is split up into
sections, there would abo be a distribution among the district
centres; the salvage men are simply past of the force, told off
on special duty. Where there are private salvage corps, their
stations are generally near the headquarters or district centres
of the brigade, from which they receive notice of the fire. In
some cities the salvage corps work quite independently; in
others, they work under the chief of the brigade directly they
arrive at the fire;
As to the working of allied civilian forces in conjunction with
the fire service, the advantages of firemen having plenty of room
to work in is now fully recognized, and the police are at once
called out and often brought on to the scene in an incredibly
short time. The value of these measures should not be under-
rated, especially in cities where rowdyism exists. In many
cities the ambulance service is also turned out to fires. Where
no independent ambulance corps exists, some of the firemen
should be trained to work as ambulance men. Turncocks and
gasmen are also frequently brought to all fires. Lastly, in many
garrison towns the military turn out to assist the fire brigade.
Notional Fire Bri ,-..■ -1* > ' Vn h <n . — The ■ \ T ni ion j \ F i re B \\%a des"
Union, which is the i , *-nuiive Fire Service Society for Grc-ii
Britain, originated in a ruilioaal demonstration of volunteer Sre
brigades held at Oxford in u-k-bration of Queen Victoria 4 * jubilee
on the 30th of May I $87, u htn W 2 fi re brigades w ith q 1 6 ft remc were
present. Next day a meeti n g of 1 he office n was held at the Gui Idha I P t
Oxford, and h was then resolved to form the NniionaL Fire Brijradi-4
Union. Alderman Gfeen* the chief officer of the Oxford fire brigade,
was appointed the fir=t . . h lirman. Sir Eyre iMasaey Shaw wai ap-
pointed first president in taftii, and on his retirement in 1896 through
ill-health he was succeeded by the Juke of Marlborough. When the
union offered to provide. _: .n^ u_<....u^.. «..~a j»ui_<.i».ut-i uwau..
for his regiment the duke accepted the offer, and two fully equipped
corps were sent out to the Imperial Yeomanry hospital at Deel-
fontein. South Africa, under Colonel Sloggett, who specially men-
tioned the services rendered by the firemen in his despatches.
The union is divided into seventeen districts, each having its own
council, and sending one delegate for every tea brigades to the
central council. The districtsare : — Eastern, Midlands/South Coast,
South-Eastcra, West Midland. North-Eastcrn, North-western, South
Western, Surrey, South Midlands, Southern, South Wales, North
Wales, Cornish, Yorkshire, Central and South Africa (formed in
1903). There are also seventy-five foreign members and corre-
spondents in America, Australia, Austria , Belgium, Canada, Denmark.
France, Germany, Holland, Italy, New Zealand, Russia, South
Africa, India and the Federated Malay Straits. The total strength
of the union b 667 fire brigades and members with nearly 12,000
firemen. Every member of the union gives his time and services
for the benefit of the country; all appointments are honorary, with
the exception that a small allowance is made for clerical assistance.
A drill book is issued by the union, and the fourth edition was
published in 1902. Over 60,000 of these books have been issued to
brigades all over the world.
The ambulance department is under the charge of medical officers.
All members have to come up for re-examination every three years,
else they are not entitled to wear the red cross, and the examination
is more stringent than that held by the St John Ambulance Associa-
tion. This department has proved to be a great benefit to provincial
fire brigades, who are often called upon to undertake ambulance
work. A very useful and instructive manual has been issued by the
union entitled First Aid in the Fire Service, by Chief Officer William
Ettles, M.D.
The union organized and took part in the International Fire
Exhibitions, at the Royal Agricultural Hall, London, in 1893 and
1896, and it was represented at the International Fire Congresses
at Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Paris, Lyons, Havre and Berlin. It
has also held a review before the German emperor at the Crystal
Palace, and before Queen Victoria in Windsor Park.
Fire Brigade Organization.
Below are given examples of the organization of different fire
brigades. The brigades so described have been selected not so
much on account of their intrinsic importance, as because they
represent classes or types of brigades and fire brigade organization
which it may be useful to refer to. In respect of the London
fire brigade, however, historical data are also presented, as it
is only with the aid of these that the extraordinary development
of that force can be properly realized.
With regard to modern views as to the functions of the fire
brigade, the resolutions of the Fire Prevention Congress of 1003
are reprinted below. As they indicate, the general feeling
amongst all interested in fire protection from an economic point
+ 12
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
JLONDON
of view is that fin brigades should not be merely fire extinguish'
ing organisations but should utilize their influence in a much
wider sense.
The Congress considered: —
i. That public authorities should encourage fire brigade officers
to take an active interest in the preventive aspect of fire protection,
inasmuch as the result of the fire brigade officers' experience in actual
fire practice, if suitably applied in conjunction with the work of
architects, engineers and public officials, would be most useful for
the organization and development of precautionary measures.
2. That fire brigade societies, associations and unions should
encourage amongst the brigades affiliated to these bodies the study
of questions of fire prevention.
3. Thst fire brigades should be placed on a sound legal basis, and
that it is advisable that their efficiency be supervised by a govern-
ment department.
4. That an official investigation should be made of all fires. That
on the occurrence of every fire an investigation should be immedi-
ately made by an official, duly qualified and empowered to ascertain
the cause and circumstances connected therewith, reporting the
result of such investigation to a public department for tabulation
and publication.
5. That the whole or part of the cost of such inquiry should be
charged to the occupier of the premises where the fire occurred,
as may appear desirable in the circumstances of each case.
6. That the press should from time to time publish technical
reports on fires so that the public may benefit from the knowledge
and experience gained.
London.— In the early part of the 19th century the methods
in vogue for the suppression of outbreaks of fire in the metropolis
were of the most crude and disjointed character, in striking
contrast with the highly elaborated system now put into practice
by the London County Council through its fire brigade; and it
was not until the second half of the 19th century was well
advanced that anything approaching an adequate and satis-
factory organization was brought into existence. Until the
passing of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act 1865, the only
acts relating to the suppression of outbreaks of fire in London
were the Lighting and Watching Act (3 & 4 William IV., c. 90),
and " an act (14 Geo. III., c 78) for the further and better
Regulation of Buildings and Party Walls, and for the more
effectually preventing Mischiefs by Fire within the Cities of
London and Westminster, and the Liberties thereof, and other
the Parishes, Precincts and Places within the Weekly Bills of
Mortality, the Parishes of Marylebone, Paddington, St Pancras,
and St Luke's at Chelsea, in the County of Middlesex." The
clauses in the latter act relating to protection against fire re-
mained in force till the passing of the act of 1865. They provided
that every parish should keep " one large engine and one small,
called a hand engine, a leathern pipe, and a certain number of
ladders." The Lighting and Watching Act contained a clause
which extended to England and Wales and so covered the area
" without the bills of mortality," enabling the inspectors ap-
pointed under that act to provide and keep up two fire-engines;
and certain of the parishes in the metropolitan district, without
the bills of mortality, availed themselves of this provision.
The select committee of fires in the metropolis, which sat in
1862, reported that it was difficult to ascertain how far the act
of George III. was attended to, or when it ceased to be considered
practically of importance, but that, at the time of the report,
the arrangements generally made by the parishes under the act
were not only entirely useless, but in many cases produced
injurious results, as the system under the act frequently con-
ferred a reward for the first useless parochial engine, whereas
the efficient engine which might be on the spot a few minutes
later derived no pecuniary advantages. There were, however,
exceptions to the general rule. At Hackney, for example, a
" very efficient " fire brigade was maintained at an expense of
about £500 a year, or about one halfpenny in the pound on the
rating of the parish. The select committee were unable to
ascertain with any accuracy the total amount paid by the
metropolitan parishes for the maintenance, "however in-
efficient," of their fire-engines, but it was estimated to be
about £10,000.
For many years previous to 1832, the principal fire insurance
offices in London kept fire brigades at their individual expense;
to these brigades were attached a considerable number of men
usually occupied as Thames watermen, retained in the service
of the different Fire Offices, who received payment only on the
occurrence of fires, and who wore the livery and badge of the
respective companies. These fire brigades were, to quote the
report of the select committee of 1862, considered as giving
notoriety to the different insurance companies, and a considerable
rivalry was maintained, which was productive naturally of good
as well as of some considerable evil on occasions of fires.
The large expenses thus incurred by the companies induced
an attempt to be made, which was effectually carried out in
the year 1832, by R. Bell Forde, a leading director of the Sua
Fire Office, to form one brigade for the purpose of promoting
economy as well as greater efficiency. Thus the first organised
fire brigade for London began its operations under the united
sanction of, and from funds contributed by, most of the leading
insurance offices in London. The force thus formed was known
as the London Fire Engine Establishment. The annual expense
was at first £8000, the number of stations 19, the number of
men employed 80. By 2862 the annual cost had grown to
£25,000, the number of stations had become 20, and the number
of men 127.
It is interesting to note that the chief station of the Fire
Engine Establishment was the Watling-Street station, in sub-
stitution for which the new Cannon-Street station has been
built. The following is a list of the other stations of the establish-
ment: —
School House-lane, Shadwell Crown Street, Soho
Welldose Square Wells Street
Jeffrey's Square Baker Street
Whitecross Street King Street, Golden Square
Farringdoa Street Horseferry Road
Holborn Waterloo Road
Chandos Street . Southwark Bridge Road
Tooley Street Southwark Bridge (floating)
Lucas Street, Rotherhithe Rotherhithe (floating)
The work of this force was carried out in an efficient manner
as far as its limited equipment and strength would permit, but
it was universally admitted that the staff, engines and stations
were totally inadequate for the general protection of London
from fire. The directors of the insurance offices themselves
admitted this, but they considered their brigade sufficient for
the protection of that part of London in which the largest amount
of insured property was located, and contended that it was not
their business to provide fire stations in the more outlying
districts where, if a fire occurred, it was not likely to involve
their offices in serious loss.
From 1836 the work of the brigade maintained by the fire
offices was supplemented by the " Society for the Protection of
Life from Fire." This society was managed by a committee of
which the lord mayor was president. It was supported entirely
by voluntary contributions, and, at a cost of about £7000 a
year, maintained fire-escapes at from 80 to 90 stations in different
parts of the most central districts in London. Its most outlying
station was only 4 m. from the Royal Exchange, and it main-
tained no stations in such localities as Greenwich, Peckham,
Deptford and New Cross. It did much useful work, though its
equipment was quite inadequate to cope with the needs of the
metropolis.
In 1834, two years after the institution of the London Fire
Engine Establishment, the Houses of Parliament were destroyed
by fire, and the attention of the government was consequently
directed to the inadequacy of the existing conditions for fire
extinction. It was suggested, at the time, that the parochial
engines should be placed under the inspection of the commis-
sioners of police, but this proposal was not adopted, and the
existing state of matters was allowed to continue for another
thirty years. The select committee of 1 862 recommended that a
fire brigade should be created under the superintendence of the
commissioners of police, and should form part of the general
establishment of the metropolitan police. In 1865, however,
the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act was passed, under which the
responsibility for the provision and maintenance of an efficient
COLOGNE)
PIRB AND FIRE EXTINCTION
4i3
fire brigade wn laid upon the Metropolitan Board of Work*.
Under the provisions of the act, the board took over the staff,
stations and equipment 6f the Fire Engine Establishment;
the engines maintained by the various parochial authorities,
and the men in charge of them were also absorbed by the new
organization, as were the fire-escapes and staff of the Society
for the Protection of Life from Fire.
The funds provided by the Fire Brigade Act for the main-
tenance of the brigade were: (1) the produce of a halfpenny
rate on all the rateable property in London; (2) contributions
by the fire insurance companies at the rate of £3$ per million
of the gross amount insured by them in respect of property in
London; and (3) a contribution of £10,000 a year by the govern-
ment. Although the revenue allotted increased year by year,
its increase was far from keeping pace with the constant calls
from all parts of London for protection from fire. Some tem-
porary financial relief was afforded by the Metropolitan Board
of Works (Loans) Act 1869, which (1) authorized the interest
on borrowed money to be paid, and the principal to be redeemed
out of the proceeds of the Metropolitan Consolidated rate, apart
from the halfpenny allocated for fire brigade purposes; and (2)
provided that the amount to be raised for the annual working
expenditure on the brigade should be equal to what would be
produced by a halfpenny in the pound on the gross annual value
of property, instead of, as before, on the rateable value. One
result of the passing of the Local Government Act 1886 (by
which the London County Council was constituted), under which
a county rate for all purposes is levied, was virtually to repeal
the limitation of the amount which might be raised from the
ratepayers for fire brigade purposes. Since that time the
expenditure on the brigade has therefore, like that of other
departments of the council's service, been determined solely
by what the council has judged to be the requirements of the
case.
When the council came into existence early in 1889 the fire
brigade was admittedly not large enough properly to protect
the whole of London, the provision in various suburban districts
being notoriously inadequate to the requirements. A plan for
enlarging and 'improving old stations, and for carrying out a
scheme of additional protection laid down after careful considera-
tion of the needs of London as a whole, was approved on the 8th
of February 1898 (and somewhat enlarged in 1901); it provided
for the placing of horsed escapes at existing fire stations, for
the establishment of some 22 additional stations provided with
horsed escapes, and for the discontinuance of nearly all the fire-
escape and hose-cart stations in the public thoroughfares.
Since it came into exUtcnce the London County Council has estab-
lished additional fire sutjuiii at Dulwietu New Crois, KjniiLnd,
Whiltf riars* LcwUham, Shepherd 1 ! Bush, West Hampsttad, East
Greenwich, Perivale h H*>mcrton H Highbury, VauxhalK Papcant's
Whirl (Rothtrhithe), St rut ham, kilburn. Bivswater. Lkhim,
BurdeiC Road (Mite End), Wapping, Nortncote Read {Uatt<r*ca),
Heme Hill* Lee Green and Norili End (Futham). 01 thes*-, Vaux-
'h-itt* KLIbtirov Rayawater, Eltham, Burdctt .Road, Kerne Hill and
North End stations are sub-rtatians, ftew sfc* lions have bsjfcit.
erected* in luWitutioo for »matl and inconvenient buildings, at
Wandsworth* Shored itch, Ful!iam t Brampton, lUingtoa* PaLULuw-
ton, Redcross Street (City), Eu*ton Road, Ctapham, Mrte End,
DeptfonJ* Old Kent Ro.irf h Mil I wall. Ken sin Eton, Westminster,
Brixton and Cannon Street (City). and the existing Motions tfl
Kcnnineton, RotherhiLhc, CkrfccnwelK Hampitcad. Batiercea,
Whitcchapel, Greenwich and Stoke X^wington have beta consider-
ably enlarged. Two limatl station? without h arses have been L*tal>
luihVd in Battcrwa Park Road and North Woolwich respectively.
A building has been erected at Rrrthcfh.it he tor the Accomrtin.l-(iir>n
of 1 he stuff of the Cherry-nardcn river station: and another building
has been erected at BaLtirrsca for the accommodation ol the «an
of a river station which has been established there.
In T900 new stations in wbtHtUtlon for fritting "talons were in
counc of erection at Knight tbridgt and Ttsotiogv nnd Additional
*-jt> stations were beinj erected at PluFrattad aiid Hornscy Rlie.
The Bcthnal Green station was being cufuitltrably altered and en-
larged. The council had al*o determined to erect new ttatiuns in
yi_< restitution for existing inconvenient bu tidings at Hollo way,
Waterloo Road, Shooters Hitl and North End. Fulham; and to
li 1 Id additional sub-stations at Charlton, Caledonian Road, Brixton
Hill, CamberwtJl New Road, Roeharapton, Balham. Brocklty and
EarUneM.
Bmtopetk— Than is * combination ol a professional force
and a volunteer force at Budapest, and in addition an auxiliary
service of factory fire brigades. The professional fire brigade
possesses a central station and eight sub-stations, two minor
stations, and permanent theatre-watchrooms at the royal
theatres. The staff (in 1001) of the professional brigade con-
sisted of a chief officer, an inspector, a senior adjutant and two
junior adjutants, a clerk, and further 23 warrant officers, 3
engineers, 15 foremen, 154 firemen and 36 coachmen with 62
horses. There have been some slight increases since. The
apparatus at their disposal consists of 6 steam fire-engines, 22
manual engines, 27 small manual engines, xx water carts, 13
traps, 4 tenders, 26 hose reels and hose carts, 5 long ladders,
9 ordinary extension ladders, 34 hook ladders, 12 smoke helmets
and 22,000 metres of hose. The various stations are connected
with the central station by private telephone lines. There are
149 telephonic fire alarms distributed throughout the city
They are on radial lines connected up with their respective
nearest stations, and on a single radial line there are from, three
to seventeen call-points.
The volunteer brigade has an independent constitution and
comprises some eighty members. Its equipment is housed with
that of the professional brigade, and is bought and maintained
by the municipality. This volunteer brigade is a comparatively
wealthy institution, having a capital of 100,000 crowns, whilst
receiving a special subsidy annually from the municipality.
Though legally an entirely independent institution, the brigade
voluntarily puts itself under the command of the chief officer,
of the professional brigade. It further puts daily at the disposal
of the professional fire chief ten men who do duty every night
and " torn out " when called upon to render service, This
volunteer brigade Stands as a kind of model to the other volunteer
brigades, and it is in connexion with this volunteer brigade that
the educational classes referred to above are held and facilities
accorded to the officers undergoing instruction to gain experience
at the Budapest fires.
The Budapest professional five brigade, even if assisted by the
volunteer force, would scarcely be of adequate strength to deal with
the great factory risks of that city were it not that the Budapest
factories and mill* have a splendidly organized service of factory fire
brigades. These brigades-— forty-four in number — are essentially
private institutions, intended to render self-help in the factories to
which they bejoag, but they, are well organized, and have a mutual
understanding whereby the neighbouring brigades of any one factory
immediately turn out and assist in case of need. These factory
brigades have a total staff of 1600 men. They are equipped with
t steam fire-engine. 57 large manuals, 136 small manuals, and have
a very* considerable amount of small gear, including 15 smoke
helmets.
Cologne*— The Cologne professional fire brigade Is 153 strong
(xoo6), with a chief officer, a second officer, and two divisional
officers, a warrant officer, a telegraph superintendent and 16
foremen. The brigade has 26 horses, of Which 2, however,* are,
used for ambulance purposes. The brigade has three large
stations and a minor station, and has a permanent fire-watch
at the two municipal theatres. Men are told off for duty as
coachmen among the firemen. The staff do forty-eight hours of
duty to twenty-four hours of rest.
A peculiarity of the Cologne organization is its auxiliary
retained fire brigade in two sections, comprising a superintendent,
2 deputy superintendents, 5 foremen, and 51 men, with 2 horses,
who are retained men housed in municipal buildings (tenements),
and available as an immediate reserve force. The first section
of the reserve force are housed centrally.
There is a further system of suburban volunteer fire brigades
manned by volunteers but equipped by the municipality, and
horsed from the municipal stables or municipal tramways.
Three of these volunteer brigades, which have large suburban
districts, comprise each a superintendent, 2 senior foremen and
3 junior foremen, with 50 firemen and 3 coachmen. The minor
outlying suburbs have several such brigades, each having one
senior foreman, 3 junior foremen, so firemen and 2 coachmen.
The combined force of the suburban volunteer brigades is 295.
all ranks.
4H
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
The Cologne fire service thus comprises a combination of pro-
fessional brigade with a retained auxiliary brigade arid a system of
suburban volunteer brigades. Of s lit throe Fiation.5, the central flint U
still an old building, and the other two are in modem building ; I he
extra sub-station (near the river t t. -.j is j!w .1 modem boiMTnsf-
The brigade has about 150 fires \^ attend per annum, it* printtd
matter, in the form of an annual detailed report, is except ion.illy
well prepared. The brigade does permanent ' fire -watch. ' duty at
the municipal theatres which arc strengthened of an evening, ft
provides additional watches during performance? at all other
theatres and public entertainments. Such duties are provided in
part by an auxiliary brigade and paltry by tkt professional brigade.
A number of the professional brigade are always utilised for Joins
general work in the workshops of the brigade. The first or central
section of the auxiliary brigade drills d. v< n tir:i> ^ per annum, and
is additionally turned out eleven times per annum (without drill).
Men newly attached to the auxiliary force have to go through a
four weeks' recruit drill.
Nuremberg. — The Nuremberg fire service stands as the most
economically organized efficient fire service in Central Europe,
and its form of organization is peculiar and exceptional. In
1903 the entire fire- service cost the city 126,000 marks (£6300).
The total of inhabitants in 1000 was 261,000. For this small
amount of money the city gets a highly-trained retained fire
brigade of 156 men (2007), and two volunteer fire brigades of
130 and 224 men respectively. Further, it has an auxiliary of
eighteen suburban volunteer fire brigades (1080 men) and two
private factory fire brigades (7 x men). The whole service stands
under a professional chief officer and professional second officer.
There are 8 telegraph clerks, 6 watchmen and 17 coachmen
attached to the retained brigade. The service has been in
existence for fifty years. It has gradually developed and has
worked remarkably well, and may, in fact, be taken as a model
institution for municipal economy, with due regard to up-to-
dateness and efficiency. The retained fire brigade comprises
entirely municipal employes, regularly engaged in the municipal
workshops, scavenging and works department. The municipal
workshops are located alongside the fire-brigade stations. There
is a headquarters station for the retained brigade and volunteer
brigade in the centre of the town, a modern district station in the
western district, and a third district station is in course of erection
for the eastern district, which is at present only served by a
small branch station.
At headquarters station there are qn immediate duty by day 14
firemen (chiefly smiths and carpenters) of the retained brigade.
Nine men of the retained brigade are on duty at headquarters at
night, together with 8 men of the volunteer fire brigade. At the west
district station, 14 men of the retained brigade are on duty by day,
and the same number at night.
The headquarters can turn out in succession four complete units
of the following strength, namely: —
First unit, a large chemical-engine, and a mechanical long ladder.
Second unit, a trap with hose reel, a- special gear-cart and a long
ladder.
Third unit, a trap with hose-cart and manual, and a long ladder.
Fourth unit, a steam fire-engine, and hose-and coal-tender trap.
From the west district station three units can be turned out in
rotation, namely: —
First unit, large chemical engine, large trap and a long ladder.
Second unit, a trap with hose-reel and manual engine.
Third unit, a steam fire-engine and a hose-tender and coal-tender
trap.
The equipment of the eastern sub-station at present comprises
a turn-out of a trap and a long ladder.
The brigade can thus tunrout immediately, in rapid succession,
these horsed appliances, well organised and fully manned. It further
has a reserve of 4 manual engines and 2 long ladders.
The suburban volunteer brigades have besides at their disposal
25 manual engines, o fire-escapes and 18 hose-reels. The whole of
the hose for all brigades is of uniform pattern and make, with bayonet
pattern standard couplings. The brigade posts an evening " fire
watch " at the theatres. The men of the retained brigade get
modest extra pay for fire brigade duty, but this pay is intended rather
to cover disbursements or expenses than to be considered as wages.
The brigade uses the municipal horses, all of which are stabled in
proximity to the fire stations, and a number of which are kept On
duty for fire brigade purposes in the actual stations. For all practical
purposes the retained brigade is the professional brigade in which
the men do municipal work in the municipal workshops, and else-
where, *.e. in training, drill and general efficiency they are quite up
to the beat professional standard. The volunteer brigade is well
drilled and includes the best of the younger townsmen, who do
duty at night by rotation. The brigade's responsibilities are clearly
(VIENNA
defined, and the position of theprofesskmal chief and second criBcer
clearly laid down by by-laws. There are 129 fire-call points. During
the fifty years' existence of the service, 85 firemen received thr
twenty-five years' long-service medal, of whom 32 belonged to the
suburban volunteer brigades.
Venice.— The Venice fire brigade is a section of the force
of " Vigili " or municipal watchmen, which body docs general
duty in preserving order and rendering assistance to the com-
munity. In other words, this force performs the duties of the
civil police (rather than governmental or criminal police), fire,
patrol watch service, and public control in a general sense.
The force, which in all Its sections made a most excellent impres-
sion, has a commandant, under whom the two primary sections
work, namely (a) the civil police section and the (6) fire brigade
section; 1 each section in turn having its own principal officers.
The police section comprises some 108 of all ranks, and the fire
brigade section some 73 of all ranks (1008). The commandant
of the whole force is a retired military officer, and the chief of the
fire service section is a civil engineer, and these two officers,
together with the chief of the civil police section, are the three
superior officers of the force. The police section serve as auxili-
aries to the fire brigade section in case of any great fire, and,
of course, generally work very much hand in hand on all occa-
sions. The fire brigade section has 3 superintendents, 6 foremen,
6 sub-foremen, 6 corporals and 40 file. The section is well
equipped with appliances, both hand and steam, having a large
modern petrol-propelled float, constructed in London, a large old
type steam-float, two 35-ft. old steam-floats, and several small
petrol motor-floats or first turnout appliances. The manual-
engines, ladders, &c, which are in considerable number, are
carried in a large fleet of swift gondolas. Fire-escape work is
done with Roman ladders, which are usually planted on two
gondolas flung together barge-form, or, if the depth of the canal
permits, the lower length is buried in the canal bottom. Hook
ladders are also used.
Men are distributed in six companies of varying strength, the
headquarters company being stationed at the town hall, with a
strength of 22,and most of the steam and petrol floats lie opposite
the station. The fire brigade docs theatre watch duty. As a fire
station of considerable interest, should be mentioned the one at the
Doge's palace; the large vaults occupying a portion of the ground
floor facing St Mark's Square have been adapted for fire station
purposes in a .very simple yet artistic manner, and the old gear of
the brigade has been used to form emblems, &c.
Vienna.— In 1892 the Vienna fire service was reconstituted
on modern lines owing to the area of the Vienna municipality
having been greatly extended. The professional brigade was
somewhat strengthened and entirely re-equipped, and the
various existing volunteer brigades of the outlying districts
were transformed into suburban volunteer fire brigades, equipped
and controlled by the municipality and standing under the
general command of the fire brigade headquarters. The principle
involved was the utilization of the splendid volunteer force
around Vienna for the purpose of strengthening the municipal
brigade, a principle of great economic advantage, as the pro-
fessional brigade would otherwise have bad to be materially
strengthened, probably trebled. These suburban volunteer fire
brigades number no fewer than 34, and have 1200 firemen of
all ranks. They are practically independent institutions as far
as the election of officers and administration- is concerned, but
their equipment and uniforms and their fire stations are provided
by the municipality, and in certain districts a staff of professional
firemen detached from headquarters are attached to their
stations as telegraph clerks and drill-instructors.
The suburban volunteer brigades turn out to fires in their
own districts, and further, assist in other districts when so
ordered by headquarters. They form a strong reserve for great
fires in the city proper. Headquarters, of course, renders
assistance at large suburban fires. These suburban volunteer
fire brigades are very perfectly equipped with appliances, gener-
ally of the same type as those used in the central professional
brigade. Some of these brigades are equipped with combined
chemical engines with 15-metres long ladders attached. They
have smoke helmets, and everything that may be termed modern.
UNITED STATES)
The men are volunteers in the truest seme of the word, Le. do
not take pay of any description or make any charges for attend-
ance at fires or refreshments at fires.
The Vienna -professional brigade/' as it is generally called/
has a personnel (1906) consisting of 8 officers, s officials and 475
men. Of stations there is the headquarters, a district station,
4 branch stations with steam fire engines, 9 small branch stations,
and 2 " watches V in public buildings. The officers of the brigade
consist of the commandant, chief inspector and six inspectors.
The officers, of whom four are on duty daily, are all quartered
at headquarters. There are three telegraph superintendents.
The rank and file is composed of 8 drill-sergeants, 40 telegraph
clerks (.three classes), 53 foremen (two classes), 22 engineers
and stokers, 248 men (three classes). Twenty-four telegraph
clerks and engineers ace detailed for duty with the suburban
volunteer brigades. There are 78 coachmen.
The following are the fire-extinguishing and life-saving apparatus
and service vehicle* of all kind* standing ready to " turn out " :—
2 open and a officers' service carriages (at headquarters), 6 " traps "
for the first " turn-out " (5 at headquarters and 1 at the district
fire station), each manned by one officer in charge and nine men,
and equipped with 1 hook-Udders, a portable extension ladder
and jumping sheet, a life-saving chute, an ambulance chest, 3 tool-
boxes, a jack, tools, torches, 2 smoke-helmets, with hand-pump
and a nose-reel attached; five special gear-carts (4 at headquarters
and l at the district station), each manned by seven firemen and
equipped like the " traps " with the exception that, instead of the
life-saving chute, the carts carry with them a slidiog-sheet. two
p etrole um torches each, an extension ladder (15 metre* long) and
some spare coal for the steam fire-engines; 4 pneumatic extension
ladders each 2% metres long, and 3 extension turn-table ladders
each 3$ metres long (at headquarters and at two of the substations) ;
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
415
each of the pneumatic ladders has- three men, and each
irters 1
1 book-ladders, a
ladder five men; 18 chemical engines (3 at headquarters and 1 each
r stations), each having five men with
in the other
jointed ladder (in four
helmet, a jumping sheet, .
Ac; 6 steam fire-engines (3 at headquarters and one each in the
district fire station and the 4 steaovengiae stations), each with an
, each having five men with \ hook-ladders, a
r sections), a hose-reel, a hand engine, a smoke
teet, an ambulance chest, a tool box, torches.
engineer and stoker.
The reserve of appliances includes 12 manual engines, 15 large
chemical engines. 17 steel water-carts (with tooo litre reservoirs).
The total number of oxygen smoke helmets in the brigade is 68,
graphic and telephonic installation, including the lines in the volun-
teer brigades' districts kept up by the professional brigade, comprises
£ telegraph stations, 249 telephone stations, with altogether lol
orse instruments and 536 semi-public fire-call points,
Zurich.— Zurich covers about 12,000 English acres, 1500 of
which are built over with some 15,000 houses, the whole of the
buildings being subject to the local building regulations and the
State Insurance Association's rules, in which they are com-
pukorily insured. The brigade is a compulsory militia brigade,
placed under the control of the head of the department of police
under a law of 1808. The same municipal officer is head of a
special municipal committee of nine, entrusted with the safety
of the town from fire. The executive officer of the committee is
known as the inspector, and acts as captain of the fire brigade.
His office is at the fire-brigade headquarters, where he has a
small permanent staff both for brigade work and correspondence.
Every male inhabitant of Zurich is compelled to do some service
for the prevention of, or protection against, fire, from the age of
twenty to fifty years. The duty may be fulfilled (x) by active
service, or (2) in the case of an able-bodied citizen, who for some
reason is not found suited to be a member of the brigade, or has
been dismissed from the brigade, by the payment of a tax,
which tax is fixed on the basis of his income. Certain citizens,
however, are ipso facto exempt from active service, namely
members of parliament, members of council of the Polytechnic
school, of the Cantonal government, of the High Court of Justice,
and of the Town Council; also clergymen and schoolmasters,
the officials of railways, tramway and steamboat companies, of
the post-office afid telephone department, students of the Poly-
technic, school and other educational institutions and municipal
officials, with whose duties fire brigade service is incompatible.
Exemption from active service can also be accorded on a testi-
nbe used free by law fc/isn alarm. The brigade has
1 extension telephone service, but the men are not
> with the telephone of their respective districts,
monial of a medical board. Exemption from active service,
however, in no case exempts from the tax, the total of which
amounts to between £4000 and £5000. In' making the selection
of men for active service only, men particularly fitted for the
work are taken, namely, men who are personally seen, who
have a good physique, and who are preferably of the building or
allied trades. The officers of the brigade are appointed by the
municipal committee. The men's drills are by the chief officer,
and the men are liable to fines and to imprisonment (up to four
days) for not attending their drills. The whole of the brigade
is insured against accidents and illness with the Swiss Fire
Brigade Union at the expense of the city, and the city in addition
provides a fund for families in cases of death of firemen on duty.
There is also a sick fund provided for the brigade by the munici-
pality, which also accords a scale of compensation.
The fire brigade comprises the very large complement of fifteen
companies with 120 men each. Each company has three sections,
namely, a fire service section, a life-saving section, and a police
section, the last being utilised tor keeping the ground and attending
to salvage. Each company is supposed to be able, as a rule, to deal
with the fire in its own district without calling upon the compan>
of an adjoining district, and it is only in the case of a very serious
fire that additional companies are turned out. There is thus a
system of decentralisation and independence of companies In this
brigade not often met with elsewhere. Firemen are paid one franc
for each drill of two hours. For fires, two francs for two hours,
a nd fifty centimes per hour afterwards. Refreshments are provided.
Any telephone canheui- J ' — •— * — *--"' — * »■*•-.
at tte disposal an r
all connected up 1 — r — — r _. . ,
and thus the alarm is given mainly with horns sounded by men who
are on the telephone. No section of the brigade has less than ten
men on the telephone.
The water-supply Is of a most excellent character. The appliances
in the main comprise hydrants and hoes r e d s with ladder trucks,
and each section has not less than 3000 ft. of hose. They are mainly
housed in small temporary corrugated iron sheds with roller shutter
doors, to which all the firemen have keys. There are some sixty
of these hydrant houses distributed round the city, the larger appli-
ances being at headquarters and at some depots.
Apart from the fact of there being the inspector or chief officer for
the whole district, with a certain permanent staff, each company
might be considered as a separate brigade, having its own chief
officer and staff, and independent organisation, the organization of
the oompanjes* however, being identical. A company comprises 1
chief officer, 1 second officer, 1 doctor, 2 ambulance men and 6
orderlies, a staff in charge, and the three sections have respectively
t lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 40 men for the fire service
section; 1 lieutenant, 1 deputy-lieutenant and 40'men for the life-
saving section, and i- lieutenant, 1 deputy-Ueuteaaat and jo men
for the police section. Only in the case of sections 1 and 2 is there
some slight variation in the organization, namely, I and a sections
have been combined as a joint section, with an additional senior
officer. At Zurich, as in all Swiss fire brigades, there is an extra-
ordinary-uniformity of drills, rules, regulations and instructions in
all its sections. In 1008 the brigade comprised 2268 in all ranks.
There were about 70 fires in that year. (E. O. S.)
United States.
Fire service in the United States has developed on so large a
scale that in- 1902 it was estimated by P. G. Hubert (" Fire
Fighting To-Day and To-Morrow," Scribner's Magazine, igoa,
32, pp. 448 sqq.) that in proportion to population the fire force
of America was nearly four times that of Germany or France and
about three times that of England. The many fires consequent
on wooden construction even in the large cities; the bad effect
of sudden climatic changes— drying, parching heat being followed
by weather so cold as to require artificial heating; the less safe
character of heating appliances; and, especially in tenements,
the more inflammable character of furniture, are some of the
reasons assigned for greater fire frequency in America. Fire-
fighting service in the United States Is in no way connected with
the military as it is on the continent of Europe; the association
of volunteer with paid firemen Is uncommon except In the
suburban parts of the large dries, and in the smaller cities and
towns, where volunteers serving for a certain term are, during
that term and thereafter, exempt from jury duty.
New For*.— The fire department of New York City is the
result of gradual development. The first record of municipal
action in regard td fire prevention dates from 1659, when 250
4-i6
FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION
leather buckets and a supply of fire-ladders and hooks were
purchased, and a tax of one guilder for fire apparatus was imposed
on every chimney; in 1676 fire- wells were ordered to "be dug; in
1686 every dwelling-house with two chimneys was required to
provide one bucket (if with more than two hearths, two), and
bakers and brewers had to provide three and six buckets re-
spectively; in 1689 "brent-masters" or fire-marshals were
appointed; in 1695 every dwelling-house had to provide one
fire-bucket at least; in 1730 two Richard Newsham hand*
engines were ordered from England, and soon afterwards a
superintendent of fire-engines was appointed on a small salary;
in 1736 an engine-house was built near the watch-house in Broad
Street, and an act of the provincial legislature authorized the
appointment of twenty-four firemen exempt from constable
or militia duty. Early in the 19th century volunteer fire com-
panies increased rapidly in numbers and in importance, especially
political; and success in a fire company was a sure path to
success in politics, the beat-known case being that of Richard
Croker, a member of " Americus 6," commonly called " Big
Six," of which William M. Tweed was. organizer and foreman.
Parades of fire companies, chowder parties and picnics (pre-
decessors of the present " ward leader's outing ") under the
auspices t>f the volunteer organizations, annual balls after 1829,
water-throwing contests, often over liberty poles, and bitter
fights between: different companies (sometimes settled by fist
duels between selected champions), improved the organization
of these companies as political factors if not as fire-fighters.
So devoted were the volunteers to their leaders that in 18364
when James Gulick, chief engineer since 183 1, was removed from
office for political reasons, the news of his removal coming when
the volunteers were fighting a fire caused them all to stop their
work, and they began again only when Gulick assured them that
the news was false; almost all the firemen resigned until Gulick
was reinstated. The type of the noisy, rowdy New York volunteer
fire hero was made famous in 1848-1849 by Frank S. Chanfrau's
playing of the part Mese in Benjamin Baker's play, A Glance at
New York, The Ellsworth Zouaves of New York were raised
entirely from volunteer firemen of the city.
In 1865, when the volunteer service was abolished, it consisted
of 163 companies (52 engines, 54 hose; 57 hook and ladder)
manned by 3521 men (engines averaging 40 to 60 men, hose-carts
about 25, and hook and ladder companies about 40); the- chief
engineer, elected with assistants for terms of five or three years
by ballots of the firemen, received a salary of $3000 a year; and
three bell-ringers in each of eight district watch-towers, who
watched for smoke and gave alarms, received $600 a year.
The legislature in March 1865 created a Metropolitan Fire
District and established therein a Fire Department, headed by
four commissioners, who with the mayor and comptroller con-
stituted a board of estimate.
This organization was practically unchanged until 1898, when
the Greater New York was chartered and the present system
was introduced. At its head is a commissioner who receives
$7500 a year. The more immediate head of the firemen is a
chief (annual salary $10,000), the only member of the force not
appointed on the basis of a civil service examination; the chief
has a deputy in Manhattan (for Manhattan, Bronx and Rich-
mond boroughs) and another for Brooklyn and Queens, each
receiving an annual salary of $5000.
In December 1908 there were: 14 deputy chiefs (eight in Man-
hattan, Bronx and Richmond, and six in Brooklyn and Queens) ;
59 chiefs of battalion (31 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond,
and' 28 in Brooklyn and Queens): 948 foremen or captains (137 in
Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 1 1 1 in Brooklyn and Queens),
365 assistant foremen (221 in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond;
and 144 in Brooklyn and Queens); 4*1 engineers of steamers (247
in Manhattan, Bronx and Richmond, and 184 in Brooklyn and
Queens) and 2933 firemen (1772 in Manhattan, Bronx and Rich-
mond, and 1 161 in Brooklyn and Queen*); and the total uniformed
force was 4107. At the close of 1908 there were 88 engine com-
panies in Manhattan and the Bronx, including 6 fire-baft companies
—at East 99th St.. Battery Park, Grand St. (East River), Wert
35th St., Gansevoort St. and West 132nd St.; and in Manhattan
and the Bronx there were 38 hook and ladder companies; in
Brooklyn and Queens there were 70 engine companies, including
[FIRE APPLIANCES
two fire-boat companies—at 4*nd St. and at North 8th St. Tie
appropriations for the year 1906 were f4.777.687 for Manhattan.
Bronx and Richmond, and $3*147.033 for Brooklyn and Queens;
and the department expenses were $3,980,535 for Manhattan, Bronx
and Richmond, and $2,565,849 for Brooklyn and Queens.
The first high-pressure main system in the city was mrmllrri at
Coney Island in 1905, gas-engines working the pumps. Electrically
driven centrifugal pumps are used in Brooklyn (protected area.
1360 acres) and in Manhattan, where the system was introduced ia
1908, and where the protected district (1454 acres) reaches f ram the
City Hall to 25th St. and from the Hudson east to Second Avenue
and East Broadway, being the " Dry Goods District M * k — -
Kmped either from city mains or from the river, and t
made instantaneously. Thefire watch-tower system wasa
in 1869; the present system is that of red box electric telegraph
alarms, which register at headquarters (East 67th St.), where an
operator sends out the alarm to that engine-house nearest to the
fire which is ready to respond, and a chart informing him of the
absence from the engine-house of apparatus. There are volunteer
forces (about 2700 men) in Queens and Richmond boroughs and in
other outlying districts.
Bos ton.— The Boston fire department (reorganised after the great
fire of 1872) is officered by a commissioner (annual salary, $5000).
a chief (annual salary, $4000), a senior deputy ($2400), and a junior
deputy ($2200), twelve district chiefs ($2000 each), a superintendent
and an assistant superintendent of fire-alarms, and a superintendent
and an assistant superintendent of the repair shop. In 1909 the
force numbered 877 regulars and 8 call men, There were 53 steam
fire-engines, 14 chemical engines, 3 water-towers, 3 combination
chemical engines and hose-wagons (one being motor-driven), 3 fire-
boats (built in !889, 1895 and 1909 respectively), 20 JsxMer-trudcs
and 49 hose-wagons. The auxiliary salt-water mam service was
established in 1893. The earliest suggestion of the application of
the electric telegraph to a fire-alarm system was made in Boston in
1845 by Dr Wm. F. Channing; in 1847-1848 Moses G. Farmer, then
a telegraph operator at Framingham, made a practicable electric
telegraph alarm; and. in 1851-1855 Fanner became superintendent
of the Boston fire-alarm system, a plant being installed in 185a. 1
Ckicaio.— The Chicago organisation practically dates from the
fire of 1871, though there was a paid department as early as 1858.
Its principal officers are a fire-marshal and chief of brigade (salary
$8000), four assistant fire-marshals, a department inspector, eighteen
battalion chiefs, a superintendent of machinery, a veterinary and
assistant; and about one hundred each of captains, lieutenants,
engineers and assistant engineers; the total regular force in 1908
was 1799 men with an auxiliary volunteer force of 71 in Riverdale,
Norwood Park, Hansen Park and Ashourn Park. In the bosineg
part of the dty there is a patrol of seven companies employed by
the Board of Fire Underwriters. Since 1895 ail men in the uniformed
force (except the chief of brigade) are under civil service rules. In
1908 the equipment included 117 engine companies, 34 hook and
ladder companies, including one water-tower, 1 5 chemical engines and
one hose company; and there were 5 fire-boats (4 active and t
reserve). The first fire-boat was built in 1883. The initial installa-
tion of 'high-pressure mains was completed in 1902, and was greatly
enlarged in 1908.
Firs Appliances.
Fire- Alarms. — Most large cities possess a system of electrical
fire-alarms, consisting of call boxes placed at frequent intervals
along the streets. Anyone wishing to give notice of a fire either
opens the door of one of these boxes or breaks the glass window
with which it is fitted, and then pulls the handle inside, thus
causing the particular number allocated to the box, which of
course indicates its position, to be electrically telegraphed to
the nearest fire station, or elsewhere as thought advisable.
Sometimes a telephone is fixed in each call-box. Automatic
fire-alarms consist of arrangements whereby an electric circuit
is closed when the surrounding air reaches a certain temperature.
The electric circuit may be used to start an alarm bell or to give
warning to a watchman or central office, and the devices for
closing it are of the most varied kinds— the expansion of mercury
in a thermometer tube, the sagging of a long wire suspended
between horizontal supports, the unequal expansion of the brass
in a curved strip of brass and steel welded together, &c
Fire- Engines.— The earliest method of applying water to the
extinction of fires was by means of buckets, and these long
remained the chief instruments employed for the purpose,
though Hero of Alexandria about 150 B.C. described a fire-
1 See Thomas C. Martin, Municipal Electric Fire Alarm and Police
Patrol Systems (Washington, 1904), Bulletin ri of the Bureau of the
Census, Department of Commerce and Labour. The next plant was
installed in Philadelphia in 1855; one in St Louis was completed ia
1858; and work was begun in New Orleans and Baltimore in i860.'
FIRE APPLIANCES)
FIRE AND FJRE EXTINCTION
fugue with two cylinders and fciatons worked by a reciprocating
lever, and Pliny refers to the use of fire-engines in Rome. In
the x6th century (as at Augsburg in 1518) we bear of fire squirts
or syringes worked by hand, and towards the end of the same
century Cyprien Lucar described a very large one operated by
a screw handle. The fire squirts used in London about the lime
of the Great Fire were 3 or 4 ft. long by 2) or 3 in. in diameter,
and three men were required to manipulate them. The next
stage of development was to mount a cistern or reservoir on
wheels so that it was portable, and to provide it with pumps
which forced out the water contained in it through a fixed
delivery pipe in the middle of the machine. An important
advance was made in 1672 when two Dutchmen, Jan van dcr
Heydc, senior and junior, made flexible hose by sewing together
the edges of a strip of leather, and applied it for both suction and
delivery, so that the engines could be continuously supplied with
water and the stream could be more readily directed on the seat
of the fire. For many years manual engines were the only ones
employed, and they came to be made of great size, requiring as
many as 40 or 50 men to work them; but now they are super*
seded by power-driven engines, at least for all important services.
The first practical steam fire-engine was made by John Brailh-
-waite about 1829, but though it proved useful in various fires
in London for several years after that date, it was objected to
by the men of the fire brigade and its use was abandoned. A
generation later, however, steam fire-engines began to come into
vogue. At first they were usually drawn by horses to the scene
of the fire, though exceptionally their engines could be geared,
to the wheels so that they became self-propelled; and it was not
till the beginning of the 20th century that motor fire-engines
were employed to any extent. Steam, petrol and electricity
have all been used. Such engines have the advantage that they
can reach a fire much more rapidly than a horse-drawn vehicle,
especially in hilly districts, and they can if necessary be made
of greater power, since their size need not be limited by considera-
tions of the weight that can be drawn by horses. Petrol-propelled
engines can be started off from a station within a few seconds
of the receipt of an alarm, and their pumps are ready to work
immediately the fire is reached; steam-propelled engines possess
the same advantage, if they are kept always standing under
steam, though this involves expense that is avoided with petrol
engines, which cost nothing for maintenance except while they
are actually working. Motor engines are made with a capacity
to deliver xooo gallons of water a minute or even more, but the
sizes than can deal with 400 or 500 gallons a minute are probably
those most commonly used.
In towns standing on a navigable water-way fire-boats are
often provided for extinguishing fires in buildings, in docks
and along the waterside. The capacity of these may rise to 6000
gallons a minute. Steam is the power most commonly used in
them, both for propulsion and for pumping, but rn one built
for Spezia by Messrs Merryweather & Sons of London in xooo,
an 80 H. P. petrol engine was fitted for propulsion, while a steam
engine was employed for pumping. The boiler was fired with
oil-fuel, and steam could be raised in a few minutes while the
boat was on its way to a fire. The pumps could throw a ij-in.
jet to a height of nearly 900 ft. In some places, as at Boston,
Mass., the fire-boats are utilized for service at some distance from
the water. Fire-mains laid through the streets terminate in deep
water at points accessible to the boats, the pumps of which can
be connected to them and made to fill them with water at high
pressure. In cities where a high-pressure hydraulic supply
system is available, a relatively small quantity of the pressure
water can be used, by means of Creathead hydrants or similar
devices, to draw a much larger quantity from the ordinary
mains and force it in jets to considerable heights and distances,
without the intervention of any engine
The water is conducted from the engines or hydrants in hose*
pipes, which are made either of leather fastened with brass or
copper rivets, or of canvas (woven from flax) which has the
merit of lightness but is liable to rot, or of rubber jacketed with
canvas (or in America with cotton). For directing the water on
417
the fire, nozzles of various forms are employed, some throwing
a plain solid jet, others producing spray, and others again com-
bining jet and spray, the spray being useful to drive away smoke
and protect the firemen. Various devices are employed to
enable the upper storeys of buildings to be effectively reached.
A line of hose may be attached to a telescopic ladder, the exten-
sions of which are pulled out by a wire rope until the top rests
on the wall of the building at the required height. Water-towers
enable the jet to be delivered at a considerable height inde-
pendently of any support from the building. A light, stiff, lattice
steel frame is mounted on a truck, on which it lies horizontally
while being drawn to a fire, but when it has to be used it is
turned to an upright position, often by the aid of compressed
gas, and then an extensible tube Is drawn out to a still greater
height. The direction of the stream delivered at the top may be
controlled from below by means of gearing which enables the
nozzle to be moved both horizontally and vertically. The pipe
up the tower may be of large diameter, so that it can carry a
huge volume of water, and at the bottom it may terminate rn a
reservoir into which several fire-engines may pump simultane-
ously.
Another class of fire-engines, known in the smaller portable
sizes as fire-extinguishers or " extincteurs," and in the larger
ones as * chemical engines," throw a jet of water charged with
gas, commonly carbon dioxide, which does not support com-
bustion. Essentially they consist of a closed metal tank, filled
with a solution of some carbonate and also containing a small
vessel of sulphuric arid. Under normal conditions the acid is
kept separate from the solution, but when the machine has to
be used they are mixed together; in some cases there is a plunger
projecting externally, which when struck a sharp blow breaks the
bottle of acid, while In others the act of inverting the apparatus
breaks the bottle or causes it to fall against a sharp pricker
which pierces the metallic capsule that doses it. As soon as the
acid comes into contact with the carbonate solution carbon
dioxide is formed, and a stream of gas and liquid mixed issues
under, considerable pressure from the attached nozzle or hose-
pipe. Hand appliances of this kind, holding a few gallons,
are often placed in the corridors of hotels, public buildings, &c,
and if they are well-constructed, so that they do not fail to act
when they are wanted, they arc useful in the early stages of a fire,
because they enable a powerful jet to be quickly brought to bear:
but it is doubtful whether the stream of mixed gas and liquid
they emit is much more efficacious than plain water, and too
much importance can easily be attached to spectacular displays
of their power to extinguish artificial blazes of wood soused with
petrol, which have been burning only a few seconds. Chemical
engines, up to 60 or 70 gallons capacity, are used by fire brigades
as first-aid appliances, being mounted on a horsed or motor
vehicle and often combined with a fire-escape, a reel of hose,
and other appliances needed by the firemen, and even with
pumps for throwing powerful jets of ordinary water. Large
buildings, such as hotels and warehouses, where a competent
watchman is assumed to be always on duty, may be protected
by a large chemical engine placed in the basement and connected
by pipes to hydrants placed at convenient points on the various
floors. At each hose-station a handle is provided which when
pulled actuates a device that effects the mixing of the acid and
carbonate solution in the machine, so that in a minute or so a
stream is available at the hydrants.
Automatic Sprinklers. — Factories, warehouses and other
buildings in which the fire risks are great, are sometimes fitted
with automatic sprinklers which discharge water from the
ceiling of a room as soon as the temperature rises to a certain
point. Lines of pipes containing water under" pressure are carried
through the building near the ceilings at distances of 8 or xo ft.
apart, and to these pipes are attached sprinkler heads at intervals
such that the water from them is distributed all over the room.
The valves of the sprinklers are normally kept closed by a device
the essential feature of which is a piece of fusible metal; this
as soon as it is softened (at a temperature of about t6o° F.) by
the beat from an incipient fire, gives way and releases the water
4 i8
FIREBACK— FIREBRICK
which striking against a deflecting plate is spread in a shower.
In situations where the water is liable to freeze, the ceiling pipes
are filled only with air at a pressure of say 10 lb per sq. in. When
tne sprinkler head opens under the influence of the heat from a
fire, the compressed air escapes, and the consequent loss of
pressure in the pipes is arranged to operate a system of levers
that opens the water-valve of the main-feed pipe. The idea of
automatic sprinklers is an old one, and a system was patented
by Sir William Congreve in 1812; but in their present develop-
ment they are specially associated with the name of Frederick
Grinnell, of Providence, Rhode Island.
Fire -Escapes. — The best kind of fire-escape,, because it is
always in place, and always ready for use, is an external iron
staircase, reaching from the top of a building to the ground,
and connected with balconies accessible from the windows on
each floor. In many towns the building by-laws require such
staircases to be provided on buildings exceeding a certain height
and containing more than a certain number of persons. Of
non-fixed escapes, designed to enable the inmates of an upper
room to reach the ground through the window, numberless
forms have been invented, from simple knotted ropes and
folding ladders to slings and baskets suspended by a rope over
sheaves fixed permanently outside the windows, and provided
with brakes by which the occupant can regulate the speed of
his descent, and to " chutes " or canvas tubes down which
he slides. Fire brigades are provided with telescopic ladders,
mounted on a wheeled carriage, up which the firemen climb;
sometimes the persons rescued are sent down a chute attached
to the apparatus, but many 'fire brigades think it preferable to
rely on carrying down those who are unable to descend the
ladder unaided. Jumping sheets or nets, held by a number of
men, are provided to catch those whose only chance of escape
is by jumping from an upper window. (X.)
FIREBACK, the name given to the ornamented slab of cast
iron protecting the back of a fireplace. The date at which
firebacks became common probably synchronizes with the
removal of the fire from the centre to the side or end of a room.
They never became universal, since the proximity of deposits
of iron ore was essential to their use. In England they were
confined chiefly to the iron districts of Sussex and Surrey, and
appear to have ceased being made when the ore in those counties
was exhausted. They are, however, occasionally found in other
parts of the country, and it is reasonable to suppose that there
was a certain commerce in an appliance which gradually assumed
an interesting and even artistic form. The earlier examples
were commonly rectangular, but a shaped or gabled top eventu-
ally became common. English firebacks may roughly be separ-
ated into four chronological divisions— those moulded from more
than one movable stamp; armorial backs; allegorical, mytho-
logical and biblical slabs with an occasional portrait; and copies
of 17th and 18th century continental designs, chiefly Nether-
landish. The fleur-de-lys, the rosette, and other motives of
detached ornament were much used before attempts were made
to elaborate a homogeneous design, but by the middle of the 1 7 th
century firebacks of a very elaborate type were being produced.
Thus we have representations of the Crucifixion, the death of
Jacob, Hercules slaying the hydra, and the plague of serpents.
Coats of arms were very frequent, the royal achievement being-
used extensively—many existing firebacks bear the arms of
the Stuarts. About the time of Elizabeth the coats of private
families began to be used, the earliest instances remaining
bearing those of the Sackvilles, who were lords of a large portion
of the forest of Andcrida, which furnished the charcoal for the
smelting operations <tn our ancient iron-fields. To the armorial
shields the. date was often added, together with the initials
of the owner. The method of casting firebacks was to cut the
design upon a thick slab of oak which was impressed face down-
wards upon a bed of sand, the molten metal being ladled into
the impression. Firebacks were also common in the Netherlands
and'in parts of France, notably in Alsace. At Strassburg and
Metx there are several private collections, and there are also
many examples in public museums. The museum of the Porte de
Hal at Brussels contains one of the finest examples in erkrmrc
with an equestrian portrait of the emperor Charles V., accom-
panied by his arms and motto. When monarchy was first
destroyed in France the possession of a plague de ckemimie
bearing heraldic insignia was regarded as a mark of disaffection
to the republic, and on the 13th of October 1793 the National
Convention issued a decree giving the owners and tenants of
houses a month in which to turn such firebacks with their face
to the wall, pending the manufacture by the iron foundries of a
sufficient number of backs less offensive to the instinct of equality.
Very few of the old plaques were however removed, and to this
day the old chateaux of France contain many, with their backs
outward. Reproductions of ancient chimney backs are now not
infrequently made, and the old examples are much prized and
collected.
FIRE BRAT, a small insect {ThermoHa or TkcrmofkHa
furnorum) related to the silverfish, and found in bak eh ous es ,
where it feeds upon bread and flour.
FIREBRICK.— Under this term are included all bricks, blocks
and slabs used for lining furnaces, fire-mouths, flues,- &c, where
the brickwork has to withstand high temperature (see Ban).
The conditions to which firebricks are subjected in use vary
very greatly as regards changes of temperature, crushing strain,
corrosive action of gases, scouring action of fuel or furnace
charge, chemical action of furnace charge and products of com-
bustion, &c, and in order to meet these different ;conditions
many varieties of firebricks are manufactured.
Ordinary firebricks are made from fireclays, i\e. from days
which withstand a high temperature without fusion, excessive
shrinkage or warping. Many clays fulfil these conditions although
the term " fireclay " is generally restricted in use to certain
shales from the Coal Measures, which contain only a small
percentage of soda, potash and lime, and are consequently
highly refractory. There is no fixed standard of refractoriness
for these clays, but no clay should be classed as a fireclay which
has a fusion point below 1600° C.
Fireclays vary considerably in chemical composition, bat gener-
ally the percentage of alumina and silica (taken together) is high,
and the percentage of oxide of iron, magnesia, lime t soda and potash
(taken together) is low. Other materials, such as lime, bauxite. Ac,
are also used for the manufacture of firebricks where special «-h»mir»l
or other properties are necessary.
The suitability of a fireclay for the manufacture of the various
fireclay goods depends upon its physical character as well as upon
its refractoriness, and it is often necessary to mix with the day a
certain proportion of ground firebrick, gantster, sand or some similar
refractory material in order to obtain a suitable brick. Speaking
generally, fireclay goods used for lining furnaces where the firing
is continuous, or where the lining is in contact with molten metal or
other flux, are best made from fine-grained plastic days; whereas
firebricks used in fire-mouths and other places which are subjected
to rapid changes of temperature must be made from coarser-grained
ami consequently less plastic clays. In all cases care should be taken
to obtain a texture and also, as far as possible, by 1
mixing, to obtain a chemical composition suitable for the purpose
to which the goods are to be applied. Hie Coal Measure days often
contain nodules of siderite in addition to the carbonate of iron
disseminated in fine particles throughout the mass, and these nodules
are carefully picked out as far as practicable before the day is used.
A firebrick suitable for ordinary purposes should be even and rather
open in texture, fairly coarse in grain, free from cracks or warping,
strong enough to withstand the pressure to which it may be sub-
jected when in use. and sufficiently fired to ensure practically the
full contraction of the material. Very few fireclays meet all these re-
quirements, and it is usual to mix a certain proportion of ground
firebrick, ganistcr, sand or clay with the fireclay before making up.
The fireclay or shale or other materials are ground either between
rollers or on perforated pans, and then passed through sieves to
ensure a certain size ana evenness of grain, after which the day
and other materials arc mixed in suitable proportion in the dry
state, water being generally added in the mixing mill, and the bricks
made up from plastic or semi-plastic clay in the ordinary way.
The proportion of ground firebrick, Ac, used depends on the nature
of the day and the purpose for which the material is required, but
generally speaking the more plastic clays require a higher percentage
of a plastic material than the less plastic days, the object being to
produce a day mixture which shall dry and fire without cracking,
warping or excessive shrinkage, and which shall retain after firing
a sufficiently open and even texture to withstand alternate hearings
and coolings without cracking or flaking. For special purposes
FIREFLY— FIRESHIP
419
- mixtures are required and many expedients are used to obtain
fireclay goods having certain specific qualities. In preparing clay
for the manufacture of ordinary fire-grate backs, «c, where the
temperature is very variable but never very high, a certain per-
centage of sawdust is often mixed with the fireclay, which burns out
on firing and ensures a very open or porous texture. Such material
is much less liable to splitting or flaking in use than one having a
closer texture, but it is useless for furnace lining and similar work,
where strength and resistance to wear and tear are essential. For
the construction of furnaces, fire-mouths, Ac, the firebrick used
must be sufficiently strong and rigid to withstand the crushing
strain of the superimposed brickwork, Ac, at the highest temperature
to which they are subjected.
The wearing out of a firebrick used in the construction of furnaces,
Ac., takes place in various ways according to the character of the
brick and the particular conditions to which it is subjected. t The
firebrick may waste by crumbling— due to excessive porosity or
openness of textile; it may waste by shattering, due to the presence
of large pebbles, pieces of limestone, Ac; it may gradually wear
away by the friction of the descending charge in the furnace, of the
solid particles carried by the flue gases and of the flue gases them-
selves; it may waste by the gradual vitrification of the surface
through contact with fluxing materials: in cases where it is sub-
jected to very high temperature it will gradually vitrify and contract
and so split and fall away from the setting. It is a well-recognised
fact that successive firings to a temperature approaching the fusion
point, or long continued heating near that temperature, will gradually
produce vitrification, which brings about a very dense mass and close
texture, and entirely alters the properties of the brick.
Where firebricks are in contact with the furnace charge it is
necessary that the texture shall be fairly close, and that the chemical
composition of the brick shall be such as to retard the formation of
fusible double silicates as much as possible. Where the furnace
charge is basic the firebrick should, generally speaking, be basic or
aluminous and not siliceous, «.«. it should be made from a fireclay
containing little free silica, or from such a fireclay to which a high
percentage of alumina, lime, magnesia, or iron oxide has been added.
For such purposes firebricks are often made from materials con-
taining little or no clay, as for example mixtures of calcined and
uncalaned magnetite; mixtures of lime and magnesia and their
carbonates; mixtures of bauxite and clay; mixtures of bauxite,
day and plumbago; bauxite and oxide of,iron, Ac
In certain cases it is necessary to use an acid brick, and for the
manufacture of these a highly siliceous mineral, such as chert or
canister, is used, mixed if necessary with sufficient clay to bind the
material together. Dinas fireclay, so-called, and the ganisters of
the south Yorkshire coal-fields are largely tufed for making these
siliceous firebricks, which may be also used where the brickwork
does not come in contact with basic material, as in the arches, Ac,
of many furnaces. It is evident that no particular kind of firebrick
can be suitable for all purposes, and the manufacturer should en-
deavour to make his bricks of a definite composition, texture, Ac,
to meet certain definite requirements, recognising that the materials
at his disposal may be ill-adapted or entirely unsuitable for making
firebricks for other purposes. In setting firebricks in position, a
thin paste of fireclay and water or of material similar to that of
which the brick is composed, must be used in place of ordinary
mortar, and the joints should be as close as possible, . only just
sufficient of the paste being used to enable the bricks to " bed " on
one another.
It has long been the practice on certain works to wash the face of
firebrick work with a thin paste of some very refractory material —
such as kaolin — in order to protect the firebricks from the direct
action of the flue gases, Ac., and quite recently a thin paste of
carborundum and day, or carborundum and silicate of soda has
been more extensively used for the same purpose. So-called carbor-
undum bricks have been put on the market, which have a coating of
carborundum and clay fired on to the firebrick, and which are said to
have a greatly extended life for certain purposes. It is probable that
the carborundum gradually decomposes in the firing, leaving a thin
coating of practically pure silica which forms a smooth, impervious
and highly-refractory facing. (J- B.»; W. B.»)
FIREFLY, a term popularly used for certain tropical American
click-beetles (Pyrophorus), on account of their power of emitting
fight. The insects belong to the family Elaieridae, whose char-
acters are described under Coleoptera (q.v.). The genus Pyro-
pkorus contains about ninety species, and is entirely confined to
America and the West Indies, ranging from the southern United
States to Argentina and Chile. Its species are locally known as
cncujdt. Except for a few species in the New Hebrides, New
Caledonia and Fiji, the luminous ELateridc* are unknown in the
eastern hemisphere. The Kght proceeds from a pair of con-
spicuous smooth ovoid spots on the pronotum and from an area
beneath the base of the abdomen. Beneath the cuticle of these
regions are situated the luminous organs, consisting of layers of
cells which may be regarded as a specialized portion of the
fat-body. Both the male and female fireflies emit light, as well
as their larvae and eggs, the egg being luminous even while
still in the ovary. The inhabitants of tropical America some-
times keep fireflies in small cages for purposes of illumination,
or make use of the insects for personal adornment.
The name " firefly " is often applied also to luminous beetles
of the family Lampyridae, to which the well-known glow-worm
belongs.
PIRE-IR0N8, the implements for tending a fire. Usually
they consist of poker, tongs and shovel, and they are most
frequently of iron, steel, or brass, or partly of one and partly
of another. The more elegant brass examples of the early part
of the 19th century are much sought after for use with the brass
fenders of that date. They were sometimes hung from an
ornamental brass stand. The fire-irons of our own times are
smaller in size and lighter in make than those of the best period.
FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO (1493-t. 1545), Italian poet and
litterateur, was born at Florence on the 28th of September 1493.
The family name was taken from the town of Firenzuola, situated
at the foot of the Apennines, its original home. The grandfather
of Agnolo had obtained the citizenship of Florence and trans-
mitted it to his family. Agnolo was destined for the profession
of the law, and pursued his studies first at Siena and afterwards
at Perugia. There he became the associate of the notorious
Pietro Aretino, whose foul life he was not ashamed to make the
model of his own. They met again at Rome, where Firenzuola
practised for a time the profession of an advocate, but with
little success. It is asserted by all his biographers that while
still a young man he assumed the monastic dress at VaUombrosa,
and that he afterwards held successively two abbacies. Tira-
boschi alone ventures to doubt this account, partly on the
ground of Firenzuola's licentiousness, and partly on the ground
of absence of evidence; but his arguments are not held to be
conclusive. Firenzuola left Rome after the death of Pope
Clement VII., and after spending some time at Florence, settled
at Prato as abbot of San Salvatore. His writings, of which a
collected edition was published in 1548, are partly in prose and
partly in verse, and belong to the lighter classes of literature.
Among the prose works are — Discorsi dtgli animali, imitations
of Oriental and Aesopian fables, of which there are two French
translations; Dialogo dctU bdlme deUt donne, also translated
into French; RagionamerUi amorosi, a series of short tales in
the manner of Boccaccio, rivalling him in elegance and in licen-
tiousness; Discaccumenlo deUe nucve lettere, a controversial piece
against Trissino's proposal to introduce new letters into the
Italian alphabet; a free version or adaptation of The Gulden
Ass of Apuleius, which became a favourite book and passed
through many editions; and two comedies, / Lucidi, an imitation
of the Mtnaechmi of Plautus, and'£a Trinu&ia, which in some
points resembles the Calandria of Cardinal Bibbiena. His
poems are chiefly satirical and burlesque. All his works are
esteemed as models of literary excellence, and arc cited as authori-
ties in the vocabulary of the Accademia della Crusca. The date
of Firenzuola's death is only approximately ascertained. He
had been dead several years when the first edition of his writings
appeared (1548).
His works have been very frequently republished, separately and
in collected editions. A convenient reprint of the whole was issued
at Florence in 2 vols, in 1848.
FIRESHIP, a vessel laden with combustibles, floated down
on an enemy to set him on fire. Fireships were used in antiquity,
and in the middle ages. The highly successful employment
of one by the defenders of Antwerp when besieged by the prince
of Parma in 1585 brought them into prominent notice, and they
were used to drive the'Armada from its anchorage at Gravelines
in 1588. They continued to be used, sometimes with great
effect, as late as the first quarter of the 19th century. Thus
in 1809 fireships designed by Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald)
were employed against the French ships at anchor in the Basque
Roads; and in the War of Greek Independence the successes of
the Greek fireships against the Ottoman navy, and the conse-
quent demoralization of the ill-disciplined Turkish crews, largely
426
FIRE-WALKING— FIREWORKS
contributed to secure for the insurgents the command of the sea.
In general, however, it was found that fireships hampered the
movements of a fleet, were easily sunk by an enemy's fire, or
towed aside by his boats, while a premature explosion was
frequently fatal to the men who had to place them in position.
They were made by building " a fire chamber "between the decks
from the forecastle to a bulkhead constructed abaft the main-
mast. This space was filled with resin, pitch, tallow and tar,
together with gunpowder in iron vessels. The gunpowder and
combustibles were connected by trains of powder, and by
bundles of brushwood called " bavins." When a fireship was
to be used, a body of picked men steered her down on the enemy,
and when close enough set her alight, and escaped in a boat
which was towed astern. As the service was peculiarly dangerous
a reward of £100, or in lieu of it a gold chain with a medal to be
worn as a mark of honour, was granted in the British navy to the
successful captain of a fireship. A rank of capitaine de bridot
existed in the French navy of Louis XIV., and was next to the
full captain — or capitainc de vaisscau.
FIRE-WALKING, a religious ceremony common to many
races. The origin and meaning of the custom is very obscure,
but it is shown to have been widespread in all ages. It still
survives in Bulgaria, Trinidad, Fiji Islands, Tahiti, India, the
Straits Settlements, Mauritius, and it is said Japan. The details
of its ritual and its objects vary in different lands, but the
essential feature of the rite, the passing of priests, fakirs, and
devotees barefoot over heated stones or smouldering ashes is
always the same. Fire-walking was usually associated with
the spring festivals and was believed to ensure a bountiful
harvest. Such was the Chinese vernal festival of fire. In the
time of Kublai Khan the Taoist Buddhists held great festivals
to the " High Emperor of the Sombre Heavens " and walked
through a great fire barefoot, preceded by their priests bearing
images of their gods in their arms. Though they were severely
burned, these devotees held that they would pass unscathed
if they had faith. J. G. Frazer [Golden Bough, vol. iii. p. 307)
describes the ceremony in the Chinese province of Fo-kien.
The chief performers are labourers who must fast for three days
and observe chastity for a week. During this time they are
taught in the temple how they are to perform their task. On
the eve of the festival a huge brazier of charcoal, often twenty
feet wide, is prepared in front of the temple of the great god. At
sunrise the next morning the brazier is lighted. A Taoist priest
throws a mixture of salt and rice into the flames. The two
exorcists, barefooted and followed by two peasants, traverse
the fire again and again till it is somewhat beaten down. The
trained performers then pass through with the image of the god.
Frazer suggests that, as the essential feature of the rite is the
carrying of the deity through the flames, the whole thing is
sympathetic magic designed to give to the coming spring sun-
shine (the supposed divine emanation), that degree of heat
which the image experiences. Frazer quotes Indian fire-walks,
notably that of the Dosadhs, a low Indian caste in Bchar and
Chota Nagpur. On the fifth, tenth, and full moon days of three
months In the year, the priest walks over a narrow trench
filled with smouldering wood ashes. The Bhuiyas, a Dravidian
tribe of "Mirzapur, worship their tribal hero Bir by a like per-
formance, and they declare that the walker who is really " pos-
sessed " by the hero feels no pain. For fire-walking as observed
in the Madras presidency see Indian Antiquary, vii. (1878)
p. 126; iii. (1874) pp. 6-8; ii. (1873) p. 100 scq. In Fiji the
ceremony is called vilavilarevo, and according to an eyewitness
a number of natives walk unharmed across and among white-
hot stones which form the pavement of a huge native oven.
In Tahiti priests perform the rite. In April 1899 an Englishman
saw a fire- walk in Tokio (see The Field, May 20th, 1899). The
fire was six yards long by six wide. The rite was in honour of a
mountain god. The fire-walkers in Bulgaria are called Nislinarcs
and the faculty is regarded as hereditary. They dance in the
fire on the 21st of May, the feast of SS. Helena and Constantine..
Huge fires of faggots are made, and when these burn down the
Nislinarcs (who turn blue in the face) dance on the red-hot
embers and utter prophecies, afterwards placing their feet in .the
muddy ground where libations of water have been poured.
The interesting part of fire-walking is the alleged irmmmity
of the performers from burns. On this point authorities and
eyewitnesses differ greatly. In a case in Fiji a handkerchief
was thrown on to the stones when the first man leapt into the
oven, and what remained of it snatched up as the last left the
stones. Every fold that touched the stone was charred! Is
some countries a thick ointment is rubbed on the feet, but this
is not usual, and the bulk of the reports certainly leave) an ixa-
pression that there is something still to be explained in the
escape of the performers from shocking injuries. S. P. Langky,
who witnessed a fire-walk in Tahiti, declares, however, that the
whole rite as there practised is a mere symbolic farce {Natmn
for August «nd, xoox).
For a full discussion of the subject with many eyewitnesses* reports
in exteruo, see A. Lang, Magic and Religion (1901). See also Dr
Gustav Oppert, Original Inhabitants of India, p. 480; W. Crookr.
Introd. to Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, p. 10
(1896); Folklore Journal tor September 1895 and for 1903, voL ah.
p. 87.
FIREWORKS. In modern times this term, is principally
associated with the art of " pyrotechny " (Gr. rvp, fire, and
Ti\vn, art), and confined to the production of pleasing scenic
effects by means of fire and inflammable and explosive substances.
But the history of the evolution of such displays is bound up
with that of the use of such substances not only for scenk
display but for exciting fear and for military purposes; and it is
consequently complicated by our lack of exact knowledge as
to the materials at the disposal of the ancients prior to the
invention of gunpowder (see also the article Greek Fxke). For
the following historical account the term " fireworks " is therefore
used in a rather general sense.
History. — It is usually stated that from very ancient times
fireworks were known in China; it is, however, difficult to
assign dates or quote trustworthy authorities. Pyrotechnic
displays were certainly given in the Roman circus. While a
passage in Maniliu^, 1 who lived in the days of Augustus, seems
to bear this interpretation, there is the definite evidence of
Vopiscus* that fireworks were performed for the emperor
Carinus and later for the emperor Diocletian; and Claudian,*
writing in the 4th century, gives a poetical description of a set
piece, where whirling wheels and dropping fountains of fire
were displayed upon the pegma, a species of movable framework
employed in the various spectacles presented in the circus.
After the fall of the Western empire no mention of fireworks
can be traced until the Crusaders carried back with them to
Europe a knowledge of the incendiary compounds of the East.
and gunpowder had made its appearance. Biringucdo, 4 writing
in 1540, says that at an anterior period it had been customary
at Florence and Siena to represent a fable or story at the Feast
of St John or at the Assumption, and that on these occasions
stage properties, including effigies with wooden bodies and
plaster limbs, were grouped upon lofty pedestals, and that these
figures gave forth flames, whilst round about tubes or pipes were
erected for projecting fire-balls into the air: but he adds that
these shows were never heard of in his time except at Rome
when a pope was elected or crowned. But if relinquished in Italy,
fire festivals on the eve of St John were observed both in England
and France; the custom was a very old one in the days of Queen
Elizabeth,' while Dc Frezier, 4 writing in 1707, says it was com-
monly adhered to in his time, and that on one occasion the king
of France himself set a light to the great Paris bonfire. Survivals
of these curious rites have been noted quite recently in Scotland
and Ireland. 7 Early use also of fireworks was made in plays
and pageants. Hell or hell's mouth was represented by a
1 ManiHus, Astronomica, lib. v., 438-443.
4 Vopiscus, Corns, Numerianus el Carinus, ch. xix;
* Claudianus, De consulatu Manlii Theoden, 325-330.
4 Vanuzzio Biringucdo, Pyrotechnia.
• StrutU, Sports and Pastimes of the English People.
4 De Frezier, Traiii desfeux d'arti/ice (1707 and 1747).
T Notes and Queries, series 5, vol. uc. p. 140, and series 8. vol ii.
pp. X45 and 254.
FIREWORKS
421
gigantic head out of which flames were made to issue: 1 ' in the
river procession on the occasion of the marriage of Henry VII.
and Elizabeth (1487) the " Bachelors' Barge " carried a dragon
spouting flames, and Hall relates that at the marriage of Anne
Boleyn (1538) " there went before the lord mayor's barge a
foyst or waf ter full of ordnance, which foyst also carried a great
red dragon that spouted out wild fyre and round about were
terrible monstrouaand wild men casting fire and making a hideous
noise." 1 These individuals were known as "green men.' 1
Their clothing was green, they wore fantastic masks, and carried
" fire clubs." They were sometimes employed to clear the way
at processions.'
Soon after the' introduction of gunpowder the gunner and
fireworker came into existence; at first they were not soldiers,
but civilians who sometimes exercised military functions, and
part of their duties wasintimately connected with the preparation
of fireworks both for peace and war. The emperor Charles V.
brought his fireworks under definite regulations in 1535, 4 and
eventually other countries did the same. The ig nes triumphaUs
were an early form of public fireworks. Scaffold poles were
erected with trophies at their summits, while fixed around them
were tiers of casks filled with combustibles, so that they presented
the appearance of huge flaming trees; at their bases crouched
dragons or other mythical beasts. With such a display Antwerp
welcomed the archduke of Austria in 1550.* Then the " fire
combat " came into fashion. Helmets from which flames would
issue were provided for the performers; there were also swords
and clubs that would give out sparks at every stroke, lances
with fiery points, and bucklers that when struck gave forth a
detonation and a flame. A picture of a combat with weapons
such as these will be found in Hanzelet's Recueil de machines
militaircs (1620). In addition, the fireworker grew to be some-
what of a scenic artist who could devise a romantic background
and fill it with shapes bizarre, beautiful or terrific; he had to
make his castle, his cave or his rocky ravine, and people his
stage with distressed damsel, errant knight or devouring dragon.
Furthermore he had to give motion to the inanimate persons of
the drama; thus his dragon would run down an incline on
hidden wheels, be actuated by a rope, or be propelled by a rocket. 4
In 1613 at the marriage of the prince palatine to the daughter
of James, the pyrotechnic display was confided to four of the
king's gunners, who provided a fiery drama which included a
giant, a dragon, a lady, St George, a conjurer, and an enchanted
castle, jumbled up together after the approved fashion of the
Spenserian legends. 7 As lime went on a more refined taste
rejected the bizarre features of the old displays, artistic merit
began to creep into the designs, and an effort was made to
introduce something appropriate to the occasion. Thus Clarmer
of Nuremberg, a well-known fire-worker, celebrated the capture
of Rochelle (1613) by an adaptation of the Andromeda legend,
where Rochelle was the rock, Andromeda the Catholic religion,
the monster Heresy, and Perseus on his Pegasus the all-conquer-
ing Louis XIII. 8 In the first half of the 1 7th century many books •
on fireworks appeared, which avoided the old grotesque ideas
and advocated skill and finesse. " It is a rare thing," says Nye
1 J. B. Nichols ft Sons, London Pageants.
* Hall's Chronicles.
* J. Bate. Mysteries of Nature and Art (1635). This contains a
picture of a green man.
•Gesckicbe da Feuerwerkswesen (Berlin, 1887). The Jubilee
pamphlet of the Brandenburg Artillery.
• See " Fan-holts' Collection " bequeathed to the Royal Society of
Antiquaries. .
• Journal of the Royal Artillery, vol. xxxii. No. n.
» Somen' Tracts, vol. Hi. _ • De Frexier.
•Diego Ufano, Artillery, in Spa rush (i6t.j); Master Gunner
Norton, The Gunner and The Gunner'* Btaletuc {ite&)i F. de
Malthe (Malthus), Artificial Fireworks, to French and Engli-'U
(1628): " Hanxelet." Recueil de plmsiturt machines mititoira *i fmx
artificiels pour la guerre et ricriation (1620 and 1630J : Furl 1 en back,
master gunner of Bavaria, Halinitro Pyt^ldicA n Gcrma n ( 1 Gj 7 ) ; ( John
Babington Matrose, Pyrotechnia, 16^5} ; Ny*, master j^nner of
Worcester, Art of Gunnery (Worcester, ib&) ■ Castmir Sienna rto wit*,
lieu t. -genera I of the Ordnance to the kinc of Poland, The Great An of
Artillery, in French (1650).
(1648), " to represent a tree or fountain in the air." The most
celebrated work of them all was the Great Art of Artillery by
Sicmicnowitz, which was considered important enough to be
translated into English by order of the Board of Ordnance, nearly
eighty years after it had appeared. 10 The classic facade now
came into fashion; on it and about it were placed emblematic
figures, and disposed around were groups of rockets, Roman
candles, &c, musket barrels for projecting stars, and mortars
from which were fired shells called balloons, which were full of
combustibles. The figures were carved out of wood which was
soaped or waxed over and covered with papier mache" so that
a skin was formed: this was cut vertically into two parts,
removed from the wood, formed into a hollow figure, and filled
with fireworks:
National fireworks now assumed a stately and dignified appear-
ance, and for two centuries played a conspicuous part all over
Europe in the public expression of thanksgiving or of triumph.
Representations and sometimes accounts will be found in the
British Museum 11 of the more important English displays,
from the coronation of James II. down to the peace rejoicings
of 1856, during which period national fireworks were provided
by the officials of the Ordnance. But since the days of Ranelagh
and Vauxhall fireworks have become a subject of private enter-
prise, and the triumphs of such firms as Messrs Brock or Messrs
Pain at the Crystal Palace and elsewhere have been without
an official rival. . (J. R. J. J.)
Modern Fireworks.— In modern times the art of pyrotechny
has been gradually improved by the work of specialists, who
have had the advantage of being guided by the progress of
scientificchemistryandmechanics. As in all such cases, however,
science is useless without the aid of practical experience and
acquired manual dexterity.'
Many substances have a strong tendency to combine with
oxygen, and will do so, in certain circumstances, so energetically
as to render the products of the combination (which may be
solid matter or gas) intensely hot and luminous. This is the
general cause of the phenomenon known as fire. Its special
character depends chiefly on the nature of the substances burned
and on the manner in which the oxygen is supplied to them.
As is well known, our atmosphere contains oxygen gas diluted
with about four times its volume of nitrogen; and it is this
oxygen which supports the combustion of our coal and candles.
But it is not often that the pyrotechnist depends wholly upon
atmospheric oxygen for his purposes; for the phenomena of
combustion in it are too familiar, and too little capable of varia-
tion/to strike with wonder. Two cases, however, where he does
so may be instanced, vis. the burning of magnesium powder
and of lycopodium, both of which are used for the imitation of
lightning in theatres. Nor does'the pyrotechnist resort much
to the use of pure oxygen, although very brilliant effects may
be produced by burning various substances in glass jars filled
with the gas. Indeed, the art could never have existed in any-
thing like its present form had not certain solid substances
become known which, containing oxygen in combination with
other elements, are capable of being made to evolve large volumes
of it at the moment it is required. The best examples of these
solid oxidising agents are potassium nitrate (nitre or saltpetre)
and chlorate; and these are of the first importance in the
manufacture of fireworks. If a portion of one of these salts
be thoroughly powdered and mixed with the correct quantity
of some suitable combustible body, also reduced to powder,
the resulting mixture is capable of burning with more or less
energy without any aid from atmospheric oxygen, since each
small piece of fuel is in close juxtaposition to an available and
sufficient store of the gas. AH that is required is that the libera*
tion of the oxygen from the solid particles which contain it shall
be started by the application of heat from without, and the
» Translated by George Shetvocke, 1727. by order of the surveyor*
general of the Ordnance.
u " Crace Collection " in the print-room ; the King s Prints and
Drawings in the library. See also " The Connection ofthe Ordnance
Department with National and Royal Fireworks," R. A. Journal,
voL xxii. No. 11.
422
FIREWORKS
Action then goes on unaided. 'This, then, is the fundamental
fact of pyrotechny— that, with proper attention to the chemical
nature of the substances employed, solid mixtures (compositions
or fuses) may be prepared which contain within themselves
all that is essential for the production of fire.
If nitre and potassium chlorate, with other salts of nitric
and chloric acids and a few similar compounds, be grouped
together as oxidizing agents, most of the other materials used
in making firework compositions may be classed as oxidkable
substances. Every composition must contain at least one
sample of each class: usually there are present more than one
oxidizable substance, and very often more than one oxidizing
agent. In all cases the proportions by weight which the in-
gredients of a mixture bear to one another is a matter of much
importance, for it greatly affects the manner and rate of com-
bustion. The most important oxidizable substances employed
are charcoal and sulphur. These two, it is well known, when
properly mixed in certain proportions with the oxidizing agent
nitre, constitute gunpowder; and gunpowder plays an important
part in the construction of most fireworks. It is sometimes
employed alone, when a strong explosion is required; but more
commonly it is mixed with one or more of its own ingredients
and with .other matters. In addition to charcoal and sulphur,
the following oxidizable substances are more or less employed: —
many compounds of carbon, such as sugar, starch, resins, &c;
certain metallic compounds of sulphur, such as the sulphides of
arsenic and antimony; a few of the metals themselves, such as
iron, zinc, magnesium, antimony, copper.' Of these metals
iron (cast-iron and steel) is more used than any of the others.
They are all employed in the form of powder or small filings.
They do not contribute much to the burning power of the
composition; but when it is ignited they become intensely
heated and are discharged into the air, where they oxidize
more or less completely .and _ cause .brilliant. .sparks. and
scintillations. ^__
Sand, potassium sulphate, calomel and some other substances,
which neither combine with oxygen nor supply it, are sometimes
employed as ingredients of the compositions in order to influence
the character of the fire. This may be modified in many ways.
Thus the rate of combustion may be altered so as to give anything
from an instantaneous explosion to a slow fire lasting many
minutes. The flame may be clear, smoky, or charged with glow-
ing sparks. But the most important characteristic of a fire—
one to which great attention is paid by pyrotechnists — is its
colour, which may be. varied through the different shades and
combinations of yellow, red, green and blue. These colours
are imparted to the flame by the presence in it of the heated
vapours of certain metals, of which the following are the most
important:— sodium, which gives a yellow colour; calcium,
red; strontium, crimson; barium, green; copper, green or
blue, according to circumstances. Suitable salts of these metals
are much used as ingredients of fire mixtures; and they are
decomposed and volatilized during the process of combustion.
Very often the chlorates and nitrates arc employed, as they
serve the double purpose of supplying oxygen and of imparting
colour to the flame.
The number of fire mixtures actually employed is very great,
for the requirements of each variety of firework, and of almost
each size of each variety, are different. Moreover, every pyro-
technist has his own taste in the matter of compositions. They
are capable, however, of being classified according to the nature
of the work to which they are suited. Thus there arc rocket-
fuses, gerbe-fuscs, squib-fuses, star-compositions, &c; and, in
addition, there are a few which are essential in the construction
of most fireworks, whatever the main composition may be.
Such are the starting-powder, which first catches the fire, the
bursting-powder •, which causes the final explosion, and the quick-
match (cotton-wick, dried after being saturated with a paste of
gunpowder and starch), cmployedforconnecting parts of the more
complicated works and carrying the fire from one to another.
Of the general nature of fuses an idea may be bad from the
following two examples, which are selected at hazard from
among the numerous recipes for making, respectively, tourbflhon
fire and green stars:—
Tourbillion. Green Stars.
Meal gunpowder .
24 parts.
Nitre . . .
10 „
Sulphur . . .
7 ..
Charcoal . . .
„
Steel filings . .
Potassium chlorate
Barium nitrate
Sulphur . . .
Charcoal . . .
Shellac . . .
Calomel .' . .
Copper sulphide .
16 parts.
» ~
I „
i ::
Although the making of compositions is of the first importance,
it is not the only operation with which the pyrotechnist has to do;
for the construction of the cases in which they are to be packed,
and the actual processes of packing and finishing, require much
care and dexterity. These cases are made of paper or pasteboard,
and are generally of a cylindrical shape. In size they vary
greatly, according to the effect which it is desired to produce.
The relations of length to thickness, of internal to external
diameter, and of these to the size of the openings for discharge,
are matters of extreme importance, and must always be attended
to with almost mathematical exactness and considered in
connexion with the nature of the composition which is to be
used.'
There" is one very' important property of fireworks that is
due more to the mechanical structure of the cases and the manner
in which they are filled than to the precise chemical character
of the composition, i.e. their power of motion. Some are so
constructed that the piece is kept at rest and the only motion
possible is that of the flame and sparks which escape during
combustion from the mouth of the case. Others, also fixed,
contain, alternately with layers of some more ordinary com-
positions, balls or blocks of a special mixture cemented by some
kind of varnish; and these stars, as they are called, shot into the
air, one by one, like bullets from a gun, blaze and burst there
with striking effect. But in many instances motion is imparted
to the firework as a whole— to the case as well as to its contents.
This motion, various as it is in detail, is almost entirely one of two
kinds — rotatory motion round a fixed point, which may be in the
centre of gravity of a single piece or that of a whole system of
pieces, &nd free ascending motion through the air. In all cases the
cause of motion is the same, viz. that Urge quantities of gaseous
matter are formed by the combustion, that these can escape
only at certain apertures, and that a backward pressure is neces-
sarily exerted at the point opposite to them. When a large
gun is discharged, it recoils a few feet. Movable fireworks may
be regarded as very light guns loaded with heavy charges; and
in them the recoil is therefore so much greater as to be the
most noticeable feature of the discharge; and it only requires
proper contrivances to make the piece fly through the air like
a sky-rocket or revolve round a central axis like a Catherine
wheel. Beauty of motion is hardly less important in pyro-
techny than brilliancy of fire and variety of colour/
The following is a brief description of some of the forms of fire*
work most employed : —
Fixed Fires. — Theatre fires consist of a slow composition which
may be heaped in a conical pile on a tile or a flagstone and fit at
the apex. They require no cases. Usually the fire is coloured—
green, red or blue; and beautiful effects are obtained by illuminating
buildings with it. It is also used on the stage; but, in that case,
the composition must be such as to give no suffocating or poisonous
fumes. Bengal lights are very similar, but are piled in saucers,
covered with gummed paper, and lit by means of pieces of match.
Marroons are small boxes wrapped round several times with lind
cord and filled with a strong composition which explodes with a k>ud
report, They are generally used in batteries, or in combination with
some other form of firework. Squibs are straight cylindrical cases
about 6 in. long, firmly dosed at one end, tightly packed with a
strong composition, and capped with touch-paper. Usually a little
bursting-powder is put in before the ordinary composition, so that
the fire is finished by an explosion. The character of the fire is, of
course, susceptible of great variation in colour, &c. Crackers are
characterized by the cases being doubled backwards and forwards
several times, the folds being pressed close and secured by twine.
One end is primed; and when this is lit the cracker burns with a
hissing noise, and a loud report occurs every time the fire reaches a
bend. If the cracker is placed on the ground, it will give a jump at
each report; so that h cannot quite fairly be classed among the
fixed fireworks. Roman candles are straight cylindrical cases filled
FIRM— FIRMICUS
423
with layers of composition and stars alternately. These stars are
simply balls of some special composition, usually containing metallic
filing*, made up with gum and spirits of wine, cut to the required
size and shape, dustea with gunpowder and dried. They are dis-
charged like Dlaxing bullets several feet into the air, and produce a
beautiful effect, which may be enhanced by packing stars of differ-
ently coloured fire in one case. Cerbes are choked cases, not unlike
Roman candles, but often of much larger sise. Their fire spreads
like a sheaf of wheat. They may be packed with variously coloured
stars, which will rise 30 ft. or more. Lances are small straight cases
charged with compositions like those used for making stars. They
are mostly used in complex devices, for which purpose they are fixed
with wires on suitable wooden frames* They are connected by
leaders, \a. by quick-match enclosed in paper tubes, so that they
can be regulated to take fire all at the same time, singly, or in detach-
ments, as may be desired. The devices and " set pieces " constructed
in this way are often of an extremely elaborate' character; and they
include all the varieties of lettered designs, of fixed tuns, JountoAns,
palm-trees, waterfalls, mosaic work. Highland tartan, portraits, skips, Ac.
Rotating Fireworks. — Pin or Catherine wheels are long paper
cases filled with a composition by means of a funnel and packing-
wire and afterwards wound round a disk of wood. This is fixed by
a pin, sometimes vertically and sometimes horizontally; and the
outer primed end of the spiral is lit. As the fire escapes the recoil
causes the wheel to revolve in an opposite direction and often with
considerable velocity. Pastiles are very similar in principle and
construction. Instead of the case being wound in a spiral and
made to revolve round its own centre point, it may be used as the
engine to drive a wheel or other form of framework round in a
circle. Many varied effects are thus produced, of which the fire-
wheel is the simplest. Straight cases, filled with some fire-com-
position, are attached to the end of the spokes of a wheel or other
mechanism capable of being rotated. They are all pointed in the
same direction at an angle to the spokes, and they are connected
together by leaders, so that each, as it burns out, fires the one next
it. The pieces may be so chosen that brilliant effects of changing
colour are produced ; or various fire-wheels of different colours may
be combined, revolving in different planes and different directions
—some fast and some slowly. Bisecting wheels, plural wheels, caprice
wheels, spiral wheels, are all more or less complicated forms; and
it is possible to produce, by mechanism of thb nature, a model in
fire of the solar system.
A scending Fireworks*— TourbUlions are fireworks so constructed
as to ascend in the air and rotate at the same time, forming beautiful
spiral curves of fire. The straight cylindrical case is closed at the
centre and at the two ends with plugs of plaster of Paris, the com-
position occupying the intermediate parts. The fire finds vent by
six holes pierced in the case. Two of these are placed close to the
ends, but at opposite sides, so that one end discharges to the right
and the other to the left ; and it is this which imparts the rotatory
motion. The other holes are placed along the middle line of what is
the under-surface of the case when it is laid horizontally on the
ground; and these, discharging downwards, impart an upward
motion to the whole. A cross piece of wood balances the tourbillion ;
and the quick-match and touch-paper are so arranged that com-
bustion begins at the two ends simultaneously and does not reach
the holes of ascension till after the rotation a fairly begun. The
shy-rocket is generally considered the most beautiful of all fireworks;
and it certainly is the one that requires most skill and science in its
construction. It consists essentially of two parts, — the body and the
bead. The body is a straight cylinder of strong pasted paper and
b choked at the lower end, so as to present only a narrow opening
for the escape of the fire. The composition does not fill up the case
entirely, for a central hollow conical bore extends from the choked
mouth up the body for three-quarters of its length. This is an
essential feature of the rocket. It allows of nearly the whole com-
position being fired at once; the result of which is that an enormous
J quantity of heated gases collects in the hollow bore, and the gases,
orcing their way downwards through the narrow opening, urge the
rocket up through the air. The top of the case is closed by a pfaster-
of- Paris plug. A hole passes through this and is filled with a fuse,
which serves to communicate the fire to the head after the body is
burned out. This head, which is made separately and fastenca on
after the body is packed, consists of a short cylindrical paper chamber
with a conical top. It serves the double purpose of cutting a way
through the air and of holding the garniture of stars, sparks, crackers,'
serpents, gold and silver rain, &c, which are scattered by bursting
fire as soon as the rocket reaches the highest point of its path. A
great variety of beautiful effects may be obtained by the exercise of
ingenuity in the choice and construction of this garniture. Many of
the best results have been obtained by unpublished methods which
must be regarded as the secrets of the trade. The stick of the sky-
rocket serves the purpose of guiding and balancing it in its flight ;
and its sise must be accurately adapted to the dimensions of the case.
In winged rockets the stick is replaced by cardboard wings, which act
like the feathers of an arrow. A girandole is the simultaneous dis-
charge of a large number of rockets (often from one hundred to two
hundred), which either spread like a peacock's tail or pierce the
sky in all directions with rushing lines of fire* This is usually the
final feat of a great pyrotechnic display.
See Chatter, Snr let feux farUAce (Paris, 1841 ; and ed., 1854);
Mortimer, Manual of Pyroteckny (London, 1856); Tessier, Chtmie
pyroUckniqm, on trait* pratique des feux ooloris (Paris, 1858);
Richardson and Watts, Chemical Technology, $*. " Pyrotechny "
(London, 1863-1867); Thomas Kentish, The Pyrotechnist's Treasury
(London, 1878); Websky, Lujtfeuerwerkkunst (Leipzig, 1878).
(O. M.)
FIRM, an Adjective originally indicating a dense or dose
consistency, hence steady, unshaken, unchanging or fixed. This
word, in M. Eng. ferme, is derived through the French, from Lat.
firm**. The medieval Latin substantive firma meant a fixed
payment, either in the way of rent, composition for periodic
payments, &c; and this word, often represented by " firm "
in translations of medieval documents, has produced the English
" farm " .(«.».). From a late Latin use of firmer e, to confirm
by signature, firma occurs in many Romanic languages for a
signature, and the English " firm " was thus used till the 18th
century. From a transferred use came the meaning of a business
house. In the Partnership Act 1890, persons who have entered
into partnership with one another are called collectively a firm,
and the name under which their business is carried on is called
the firm-name.
FIRMAMENT, the sky, the heavens; In the Vulgate the
word firmamenium, which means in classical Latin a strengthen-
ing or support {firmer e, to make firm or strong) was used as the
equivalent of ortpkuixa (ortpebuv, to make firm or solid) in
the LXX., which translates the Heb. rdqiya . The Hebrew
probably signifies literally " expanse," and is thus used of the
expanse or vault oi the sky, the verb from which it is derived
meaning " to beat out." In Syriac the verb means " to make
firm," and is the direct source of the Gr. ttrepawjta and the Lat.
firmamentum. In ancient astronomy the firmament was the
eighth sphere containing the fixed stars surrounding the seven
spheres of the planets.
FIRMAN (an adaptation of the Per. fermdn, a mandate or
patent, cognate with the Sanskrit promdno, a measure, authority),
an edict Of an oriental sovereign, used specially to designate
decrees, grants, passports, &c, issued by the sultan of Turkey
and signed by one of his ministers. A decree bearing the sultan's
sign-manual and drawn up with special formalities is termed a
hatti-sherif, Arabic words meaning a line, writing or command,
and lofty, noble. A written decree of an Ottoman sultan is also
termed an trade, the word being taken from the Arab, irddd,
will, volition, order.
FIRMICUS, MATBRNU8 JULIUS, a Latin writer, who lived in
the tcign of Constantine and his successors. About the year
346 he composed a work entitled De errotHma profanarum
religicnum, which he inscribed to Constantius and Constans,
the sons of Constantine, and which is still extant. In the first
part (chs. 1-17) he attacks the false objects of worship among the
Oriental cults; in the second (chs. 18-29) he discusses a number
of formulae and rites connected with the mysteries. The whole
tone of the work is fanatical and declamatory rather than
argumentative, aod is thus in such sharp contrast with the
eight books on astronomy (Ltbri VIII. Motheseos) bearing the
same author's name, that the two works have usually been
attributed to different writers. Mommsen {Hermes vol. 29,
pp. 468-472) has, however, shown that the astronomy — a work
interfused with an urbane Neoplatonic spirit — was composed
about 336 and not in 354 as was formerly held. When we add
to this the similarity of style, and the fact that each betrays a
connexion with Sicily, there is the strongest reason for claiming
the same author for the two books, though it shows that in the
4th century acceptance of Christianity did not always mean an
advance in ethical standpoint.
The Christian work is preserved in a Palatine MS. in the Vatican
library. It was first printed at Strassburg in 1562, and has been
reprinted several times, both separately and along with the writings
pnnt _ .
often been reprinted. For full discussions see C. Ebert, Cesck. der
chr. lat. Lift., ed. 1889, p. 129 ff.; O. Bardenhewer, Patrologie,
«d. 1901,0,^54.
FIRMINY— FIRST OF JUNE (BATTLE)
424
FIRMINY, a town of central France in the department of
Loire, 8 m. S.W. of St Etienne by rail. Pop. (1906) 15,778.
It has important coal mines known since the 14th century and
extensive manufactures of iron and steel goods, including
railway material, machinery and cannon. Fancy woollen
hosiery is also manufactured.
FIRST-FOOT, in British folklore, especially that of the north
and Scotland, the first person who crosses the threshold on
Christmas or New Year's Eve. Good or ill luck is believed to be
brought the house by First-Foot, and a female First-Foot is
regarded with dread. In Lancashire a light-haired man is as
unlucky as a woman, and it became a custom for dark-haired
males to hire themselves out to " take the New Year in." In
Worcestershire luck is ensured by stopping the first carol-singer
who appears and leading him through the house. In Yorkshire
it must always be a male who enters the house first, but his
fairness is no objection. In Scotland first-footing was always
more elaborate than in England, involving a subsequent enter-
tainment.
FIRST OF JUNE, Battle or the. By this name we call the
great naval victory won by Lord Howe over the French fleet of
Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse, on the 1st of June 17.04. No place
name can be given to it, because the battle was fought 429 m.
to the west of Ushant.
The French people were suffering much distress from the bad
harvest of the previous year, and a great convoy of merchant
ships laden with corn was expected from America. Admiral
Vanstabel of the French navy had been sent to escort it with
two ships of the line in December of 1793. He sailed with hia
charge from the Chesapeake on the nth of April 1794. On the
previous day six French ships of the line left Brest to meet
Vanstabel in mid ocean. The British force designed to intercept
the convoy was under Lord Howe, then in command of the channel
fleet. He sailed from Spithead on the 2nd of May with 34 sail
of the line and 15 smaller vessels, having under his charge
nearly a hundred merchant ships which were to be seen clear of
the Channel. On the 4th, when off the Lizard, the convoy was
sent on its way protected by 8 line of battle ships and 6 or 7
frigates. Two of the bne of battle ships were to accompany
them throughout the voyage. The other six under Rear-admiral
Montagu were to go as far as Cape Finisterre, and were then to
cruise on the look-out for the French convoy between Cape
Ortegal and Belle Isle. These detachments reduced the force
under Lord Howe's immediate command to 26 of the line and
7 frigates. On the 5th of May he was off Ushant, and sent
frigates to reconnoitre the harbour of Brest. They reported to
him that the main French fleet, which was under the command
of ViUaret-Joyeuse, and was of 25 sail of the line, was lying at
anchor in the roads. Howe then sailed to the latitude on which
the convoy was likely to be met with, knowing that if the French
admiral came out it would be to meet the ships with the food and
cover them from attack. To seek the convoy was therefore the
most sure way of forcing ViUaret-Joyeuse to action. Till the
1 8th the British fleet continued cruising in the Bay of Biscay.
On the 19th J-ord Howe returned to Ushant and again recon-
noitred Brest. It was then seen that ViUaret-Joyeuse had gone
to sea. He had sailed with his whole force on the 16th and had
passed close to the British fleet on the 17th, unseen in a fog.
On the 19th the French admiral was informed by the " Patriote "
(74) that Niclly had fallen in with, and had captured, the British
frigate " Castor " (32), under Captain Thomas Troubridge, to-
gether with a convoy from Newfoundland. On the same day
ViUaret-Joyeuse captured part of a Dutch convoy of 53 sail
from Lisbon. On the 19th a frigate detached by Admiral Montagu
joined Howe. It brought information that Montagu had re-
captured part of the Newfoundland convoy, and had learnt that
N icily was to join Vanstabel at sea, and that their combined
force would be 9 sail of the line. Montagu himself had steered to
cruise on the route of the convoy between the- 45th and 47th
degrees of north latitude. Howe now steered to meet his sub-
ordinate who, he considered, would be in danger from the main
French fleet. On the 21st he recaptured some of the Dutch
ships taken by ViUaret-Joyeuse. From them be learnt that
on the 19th the French fleet had been in latitude 47 46' N. and in
longitude n° 22' N. and was steering westward. Judging that
Montagu was too far to the south to be in peril from ViUaret-
Joyeuse, and considering him strong enough to perform the
duty of intercepting the convoy, Lord Howe decided to pursue
the main French fleet. The wind was changeable and the
weather hazy. It was not tiU the 28th of May at 6.30 a.m. that
the British fleet caught sight of the enemy in 47 34' N. and
i3°39'W.
The wind was from the south-east, and the French were to
windward. ViUaret-Joyeuse bore down to a distance of 10 m.
from the British, and then hauled to the wind on the port tack.
It was difficult for the British fleet to force an action from leeward
if the French were unwilUng to engage. Lord Howe detached
a light squadron of four ships, the " Bellerophon " (74), " Russcl *
(74), "Marlborough" (74), and "Thunderer" (74) under
Rear-admiral Thomas Pasley, to attack the rear of the French
line. Villaret-Joyeuse stood on and endeavoured to work to
windward. In the course of the afternoon Rear-admiral Pasley's
ships began to come up with the last of the French line, the
" Revolutionnairc " (no). A partial action took place which
went on tUl after dark; other British vessels joined. The
" ReVolutionnaire " was so damaged that she was compeUed
to leave her fleet, and the British " Audacious " (74) was also
crippled and compeUed to return to port. The " Rf.olutkm-
naire" was accompanied by another liner. During the night
the two fleets continued on the same course, and next day Howe
renewed his attempts to force an action from leeward. He
tacked his fleet in succession — his first ship tacking first and the
rest in order— in the hope that he would be able to cut through
the French rear and gain the weather-gage. ViUaret-Joyeuse
then turned all his ships together and again headed in the same
direction as the British. This movement brought him nearer
the British fleet, and another partial action took place between
the van of each force. Seeing that the French admiral was not
disposed to charge home, Howe at noon once more ordered his
fleet to tack in succession. His signal was poorly obeyed by the
van, and his object, which was to cut through the French line,
was not at once achieved. But the admiral himself finally set
an example by tacking his flagship, the " Queen Charlotte "
(100), and passing through the French, two ships from the end
of their line. He was followed by his fleet, and Villaret-Joyeuse,
seeing the peril of the ships in bis rear, wore aU his ships together
to help them. Both forces had been thrown into considerable
confusion by these movements, but the British had gained the
weather-gage. ViUaret-Joyeuse was able to save the two ships
cut off, but he had fallen to leeward and the power to force on a
battle had passed to Lord Howe. During the 30th the fleets
lost sight of one another for a time. The French, who had four
ships crippled, had been joined by four others, and were again
26 in number, including the " Patriote."
The 31st of May passed without a hostile meeting and in thick
weather, but by the evening the British were close to windward
of the French. As Howe, who had not fuU confidence in aU his
captains, did not wish for a night battle, he waited till the follow-
ing morning, keeping the French under observation by frigates.
On the 1 st of June they were in the same relative positions, and
at about a quarter past eight Howe bore down on the French,
throwing his whole Une on them at once from end to end, with
orders to pass through from windward to leeward, and so to
place the British ships on the enemy's line of retreat. It was a
very bold departure from the then established methods of
fighting, and most honourable in a man of sixty-eight, who had
been trained in the old school. Its essential merit was that it
produced a close inUie, in which the better average gunnery
and seamanship of the British fleet would tell. Lord Howe s
orders were not fully obeyed by all his captains, but a signal
victory was won,— six of the French line of battle ships were
taken, and one, the " Vengeur," sunk. The convoy escaped
capture, having passed over the spot on which the action of the
20th May was fought, on the foUowing day, and it anchored at
FIRTH— FISCHART
4*5
Brest on the 3rd of June. Its safe arrival went far to console
the French for their defeat. The failure to atop it was forgotten
in England in the pleasure given by the victory.
See James's Naval History* vol. L (1837); and Troode, Bataittes
navaUs <U la France (1867). (D. H.)
FIRTH. CHARLES HARDING (iS S7 - ), British historian,
was born at Sheffield on the i6tL of March 1857, and was educated
at Clifton College and at Balliol College, Oxford. At his univer-
sity he took the Stanhope prize for an essay on the marquess
Weliesley m 1877, became lecturer at Pembroke College in 1887,
and fellow of All Souls College in 1901. He was Ford's lecturer
in English history in 1900, and became regius professor of
modern history at Oxford in succession to F. York Powell in
1004. Firth's historical work was almost entirely confined to
English history during the time of the Great Civil War and the
Commonwealth; and although he is somewhat overshadowed
by S. R. Gardiner, a worker in the same field, his books are of
great value to students of this period. The chief of them are:
Life of Ike Duke of Newcastle (1886); Scotland and the Common-
wall* (189s); Scotland and the Protectorate (1800); Narrative
of General V enables (1000); Oliver Cromwell (iqoo); Cromwelty
Army (1902); and the standard edition of Ludlow's Memoirs
(1894). He also edited the Clarke Papers (1891-1901), and Mb
Hutchinson's Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson (1885), and wrote
an introduction to the Stuart Tracts (1903), besides contributions
to the Dictionary of National Biography. In 1909 he published
The Last Years of the Protectorate.
FIRTH, MARK (1819-1880), English steel manufacturer and
philanthropist, was born at Sheffield on the 25th of April 181 9,
the son of a steel smelter. At the age of fourteen Mark, with his
brother/ left school to join their father in the foundry where he
was employed, and ten years later the three together started a
six-hole furnace of their own. The venture proved successful,
and besides an extensive home business, they soon established
a large American connexion. Their huge Norfolk works were
erected at Sheffield in 1849, and still greater were afterwards
acquired at Whittington in Derbyshire and others at Clay Wheels
near Wadsley. The manufacture of steel blocks for ordnance
was the principal feature of their business, and they produced
also shot and heavy forgings. They also installed a plant
for the production of steel cores for heavy guns, and for some
lime they supplied nearly all the metal used for gun making
by the British government and a large proportion of that used
by the French. On the death of his father in 1848 Mark Firth
became the head of the firm. In 1869 he built and endowed
" Mark Firth's Almshouses " at Ranmoor near Sheffield, and in
1875, when mayor, he presented to his native place a freehold
park of thirty-six acres. He founded and endowed Firth College,
for lectures and classes in connexion with the extension of
university education, which was opened in 1 879. He died on the
28th of November 1880, and was accorded a public funeraL
FTROZABAD, a town of Persia, in the province of Fart, 7s m.
S. of Shiraz, in 28 51' N. Pop. about 3000. It is situated
in a fertile plain, 15 m. long and 7 rn. broad, well watered by
the river Khoja which flows through it from north to south.
>The town is surrounded by a mud wall and ditch. Three or four
miles north-west of the town are the ruins of the ancient city
and of a large building popularly known as the firc-tcmplc of
Ardasbir, and beyond them on the face of the rock in the gorge
through which the river enters the plain are two Sassanian
bas-reliefs.
The river leaves the plain by a narrow gorge at the southern
end, and according to Persian history it was there that Alex-
ander the Great, when unable to capture the ancient city, built
a dike across the gorge, thus damming up the water of the river
and turning the plain into a lake and submerging the city and
villages. The lake remained until the beginning of the 3rd
century, when Ardashir, the first Sassanian monarch, drained
it by destroying the dike. He built a new city, called it Gdr,
and made it the capital of one of the five great provinces or
divisions of Fars. Firuz (or Pcroz, q.v.), one of Ardashir's
successors, called the district after his name FirQzabad C" the
abode of Firuz "), but the name of the city remained GOr until
Azud ed Dowfefc (Adod addanla) (049-08*) changed it to its
present name. He did this because he frequently resided at Gflr,
and the name meaning«also " a grave " gave rise to unpleasant
allusions, for instance, '* People who go to Gur (grave) never
return alive; our king goes to Gar (the town) several times a
year and is not dead yet. w
The district has twenty villages and produces much wheat
and rice. It is said that the rice of FirQzabad bears sixty*
fold.- (A, H.-S.)
FIROZKOH, a small province of Persia, with a population
of about 5000, paying a yearly revenue of about £500. Its chief
place is a village of the same name picturesquely situated in a
valley of the Elburz, about 90 m. east of Teheran, at an elevation
of 6700 ft. and in 35° 46' N. and 3a 9 ,48' E> It has post and
telegraph offices and a population of 9500. A precipitous din*
on the eastern side of the valley is surmounted by the ruins of an
ancient fort popularly ascribed to Alexander the Great.
FISCHART, JOHANN (c. 1545-1591)1 German satirist and
publicist, was born, probably at Strassburg (but according to
some accounts at Mainz), in or about the year 1545, and was
educated at Worms in the house of Kaspar Scheid, whom in the
preface to bis Eulanspiegel he mentions as his "cousin and
preceptor." He appears to have travelled in Italy, the Nether-
lands, France and England, and on his return to have taken the
degree of doctor juris at Basel. From 1 575 to 1581, wfthin which
period most of his works were written, he lived with, and was
probably associated in the business of, his sister's husband,
Bernhard Jobin, a printer, at Strassburg, who published many
of his books. In 1581 Fischart was attached, as advocate to
the Rcichskammergcricht (imperial court of appeal) at Spires,
and in 1583, when he married, was appointed Amlmann (magis-
trate) at Forbacb near Saarbrucken. Here he died in the winter
of 1 590-1591. Fischart wrote under various feigned names,
such as Mcntzcr, Menzcr, Reznem, Huldrich Elioposkleros,
Jesuwalt Pkkhart, Winhold Alkofribas Wustbtutus, Vlrich
Mansehr von Treubach, and Im Fischen Gilt's Mischen; and it
is partly owing to this fact that there is doubt whether some of
the works attributed to him are really his. More than 50 satirical
works, however, both in prose and verse, remain authentic,
among which an—Nacklrao oder Ncbelkrdh (1570), a satire
against one Jakob Rabe, who bad become a convert to the
Roman Catholic Church; Van St Domiuid des Predigtrmdnchs
und St Frandsd Barfutscrs arUichem Lebcn (1571); a poem with
the expressive motto " Sie naben Nasen vnd riechen's nit "
(Ye have noseaand smell it not), written to defend the Protestants
against certain wicked accusations, one of which was that Luther
held communion with the devil; Eulenspiegel Rcimcnswcis
(written 1571, published 157a); AUer PrakUk Crossmutler
(1573). after Rabelais's Prognostication Pantagrueline\ Floh
Ha* f Weiber Traz (1573). >n which he describes a battle be-
tween fleas and women; AffentkeuerlUhe und ungeheucrliche Co
sckickisckrift vom Lcben, Rhatcn und Thaten der , . . Hcldcn
und Herren Grandgusirr Cargantaa und Pantagruel t also after
Rabelais (1575. and again under the modified title. Naupcn-
geheurliche GcschichtMitterung t 1577); Neue kUnsUicke Figurcn
bibliscker Historien (1576); Anmahnung xur chrisllichen Kinder-
zucht (1576); Das glUckhafft Setoff von Zurich (1576, repub-
lished 1828, with an introduction by the poet Ludwig Uhland),
a poem commemorating the adventure of a company of
Zurich arquebusiers, who sailed from their native town to
Strassburg in one day, and brought, as a proof of this feat, a
kctifeful of Hirsebrei (millet), which had been cooked in ZOrich,
still warm into Strassburg, and intended to illustrate the pro-
verb " perseverance overcomes all difficulties "; Podagrammisck
TrostbilcMein (1577); Philosophise* EkzuchtbiUhlein (1578); the
celebrated Bienenkorb des keiligen rdmiscken Irnmensckwarms,
&c, a modification of the Dutch De roomsche Byen-Korf, by
Philipp Marnix of St Aldegonde, published in 1579 and reprinted
in 1847; Der keilig Broikorb (1580), after Calvin's Traiti des
r cliques; Das vierkdrnige JcsuiterhUflrin, a rhymed satire
against the Jesuits (1580); and a number of smaller poems.
426
FISCHER, EMIL— FISCHER, ERNST
To Fischart also have been attributed some " Psalmen und
geistUche Lieder " which appeared in a.Strassburg hymn-book
of 1576.
Fischart had studied not only the ancient literatures, but also
those of Italy, France, the Netherlands and England. He
was a lawyer, a theologian, a satirist and the most powerful
Protestant publicist of the counter-reformation period; in
politics he was a republican. Above all, he is a master of
language, and was indefatigable with his pen. His satire was
levelled mercilessly at all perversities in the public and private
life of his time—at astrological superstition, scholastic pedantry,
ancestral pride, but especially at the papal dignity and the
lives of the priesthood and the Jesuits. He indulged in the
wildest witticisms, the most abandoned caricature; but all
this he did with a serious purpose. ' As a poet, he is characterized
by the eloquence andpicturesquenessof his style and the symboli-
cal language he employed. Thirty years after Fischart 's death
his writings, once so popular, were almost entirely forgotten.
Recalled to the public attention by Johatin Jakob Bodmer and
Got t hold Ephraim Lessing, it is only recently that his works
have come to be a subject of investigation, and his position
in German literature to be fully understood.
Fmherr von Mtutcbaebt whose valuable collection of Fischart *s
works has pissed into the r>OMca*ion of the royal library in Berlin,
ileal* in his Ftuhartsiudttn (Halle, 1879) wilh the groat satirist.
F- hehart'i poetical work* *ece published by Hermann Kurz in three
vol untie* {Leipzig, 1866-1 960); and selections by K. Goedeke
{Letitfigi 1S00) and by A, Hay Hen in Kurvhwr'n Deutsche National-
tiicratur (Stuttgart. 1893); Oit CcjchichtktUltriMg and some minor
writings appeared In Scbeiblea Khutor, vols. J and 10 (Stuttgart,
(847-1348), Das gHkckhofil Sdiiff has been frequently reprinted,
critical edition by J . Baechtold ( I HHo). See (or further biographical
detail*. Erich Schmidt in the Aitgemew* deuiithe Biographte, vol. 7;
A. F, C. VII mar ifi Er*ch and Gruber's Encytiopaedie; W. Wacker-
niigeli Johonn FittkAri vox Strquburjz und Bairit Anteil an ihm (2nd
ed., Basel, 1875); P, Becson, Elude sur Jean Fischart (Paris, 1889);
and A. Kauflen. " Fischart -St udien " (in Euph,>rion, 1 896-1909).
FISCHER, EMIL (1852- ), German chemist, was born at
Euskirchcn, in Rhenish Prussia, on the 9th of October 1852,
his father being a merchant and manufacturer. After studying
chemistry at Bonn, he migrated toStrassburg, where he graduated
as Ph.D. in 1874. He then acted as assistant to Adolf von
Baeyer at Munich for eight years, after which he was appointed
to the chair of chemistry successively at Erlangen (1882) and
Wurzburg (1885). In 1892 he succeeded A. W. von Hofmann
as professor of chemistry at Berlin. Emil Fischer devoted
himself entirely to organic chemistry, and his investigations
are characterized by an originality of idea and readiness of
resource which make him the master of this branch of experi-
mental chemistry. In his hands no substance seemed too
complex to admit of analysis or of synthesis; and the more
intricate and involved the subjects of his investigations the more
strongly shown is the conspicuous skill in pulling, as it were,
atom from atom, until the molecule stood revealed, and, this
accomplished, the same skill combined atom with atom until
the molecule was regenerated. His forte was to enter fields
where others had done little except break the ground; and his
researches in many cases completely elucidated the problem in
hand, and where the solution' was not entire, his methods and
results almost always contained the key to the situation.
In 1875, the year following his engagement with von Baeyer,
he published his discovery of the organic derivatives of a new com-
pound of hydrogen and nitrogen, which he named hydrazine (q.v.).
He investigated both the aromatic and aliphatic derivatives, estab-
lishing their relation to the diazo compounds, and he perceived the
readiness with which they entered into combination with other
substances, giving origin to a wealth of hitherto unknown compounds.
Of such condensation products undoubtedly the most important are
the hydrazones, which result from the interaction with aldehydes
and ketones. His observations, published in 1886, that such hydra-
zones, by treatment with hydrochloric acid or zinc chloride, yielded
derivatives of indol, the pyrrol of the benzene series and the parent
substance of indigo, were a valuable confirmation of the views
advanced by his master, von Baeyer, on the subject of indigo and
■the many substances related to it. Of greater moment was his
discovery that phenyl hydrazine reacted with the sugars to form
substances which he named osazones, and which, being highly
crystalline and readily formed, served to identify such carbohydrate
more definitely than had been previously possible. He next turned
to the rosanilinedyestuffs {the magenta of Sir W. H. Perkin), and in
collaboration with his cousin Otto Fischer (b. 1852), then at Munich
and afterwards professor at Erlangen, who has since identified
himself mainly with the compounds of this and related groups, be
published papers in 1878 and 1879 which indubitably established
that these dyest uffs were derivatives of t ripheny 1 metha ne. Fischer's
next research was concerned with compounds related to uric arid.
Here the ground had been broken more especially by von Baeyer,
but practically all our knowledge of the so-called purin group (the
word purin appears to have been suggested by the phrase pnrum
uricum) is due to Fischer. In 1881-1882 he published papers which
established the" formulae of uric acid, xanthine, caffeine, theobromine
and some other compounds of this group. But his greatest work
in this field was instituted in 1894, when he commenced his great
series of papers, wherein the compounds above mentioned were all
referred to a nitrogenous base, purin (q.v.). The base itself was
obtained, but only after much difficulty ; and an immense series of
derivatives were prepared, some of which were patented in view of
possible therapeutical applications. 1 These researches were pub-
lished in a collected form in 1907 with the title Unterstuhmngen in
der Puringruppe (1 882-1906). The first stage of his purin work
successfully accomplished, he next attacked the sugar group. Here
the pioneer wprk was again of little moment, and Fischer may be
regarded as the prime investigator in this held. His researches may
be taken as commencing in 1883; and the results are unparalleled
in importance in the history of organic chemistry. The chemical
complexity of these carbohydrates, and the difficulty with which
they could be got into a manageable form — they generally appeared
as syrups — occasioned much experimental difficulty; but these
troubles were little in comparison with the complications due to
stereochemical relations. However, Fischer synthestceid fructose,
glucose and a great number of other sugars, and having shoved
how to deduce, for instance, the formulae of the 16 stereoisomeric
glucoses, he prepared several stcreoisomerides, thereby completing
a most brilliant experimental research, and simultaneously confirm-
ing the van't Hott theory of the asymmetric carbon atom (see
Stereoisomerism). The study of the sugars brought in its train
the necessity for examining the nature, properties and reactions of
substances which bring about the decomposition known as fermenta-
tion (q.v.). Fischer attacked the problem presented by ferments
and enzymes, and although we as yet know little of this complex
subject, to Fischer is due at least one very important discovery,
viz. that there exists some relation between the chemical constitution
of a sugar and the ferment and enzyme which breaks it down. The
magnitude of his researches in this field may be gauged by his
collected papers, Untersuchungen iiber Kohlenhydrale und Fcrmente
(1884-1908), pp. viii. + oi2 (Berlin, 1009).
From the sugars and ferments it is but a short step to the subject
of the proteins, substances which arc more directly connected with
life processes than any others. The chemistry of the proteins, a
subject which bids fair to be Fischer's great lifework. presents
difficulties which are probably without equal in the whole field of
chemistry, partly on account of the extraordinary chemical com-
plexity of the substances involved, and partly upon the peculiar
manner in which chemical reactions are brought about in the Hving
organism. But by the introduction of new methods, Fischer suc-
ceeded in breaking down the complex albuminoid substances into
amino acids and other nitrogenous compounds, the constitutions
of most of which have been solved; and by bringing about the re-
combination of these units, appropriately chosen, he prepared
synthetic peptides which approximate to the natural products.
His methods led- to the preparation of an octadeca-pepttde of the
molecular weight 1213, exceeding that of any other synthetic
compound; but even this compound falls far short of the simplest
natural peptide, which has a molecular weight of from 2000 to 3000.
He considers, however, that the synthesis of more complex products
is only a matter of trouble and cost. His researches made from 1899
to 1906 have been published with the title Untersuckunmtn uber
Aminosauren, Polypeptides und Proteine (Berlin, 1907). The extra-
ordinary merit of his many researches has been recognized by all the
important scientific societies in the world, and be was awarded the
Nobel prize for chemistry in 1902. Under his control the laboratory
at Berlin became one of the most important in existence, and has
attracted to it a constant stream of brilliant pupils, many of whom
arc to be associated with much of the experimental work indis-
solubly connected with Fischer.
FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD (1824-1907), German
philosopher, was born at Sandewalde in Silesia, on the 23rd of
July 1824. After studying philosophy at Leipzig and Halle,
he became a privat-docent at Heidelberg in 1850. The Baden
government in 1853 laid an embargo on his teaching owing to
1 For a brief review of the pharmacology ofpurin derivatives see
F. Francis and J. M. Fortescuc-Brinkdale, The Chemical Basis oj
Pharmacology (1908).
FISH— FISHER, JOHN
his liberal ideas, but the effect of this was to rouse considerable
sympathy for his views, and in 1856 he obtained a professorship
at Jena, where he soon acquired great influence by the dignity
of his personal character. In 1 87 2, on teller's removal to Berlin,
Fischer succeeded him as professor of philosophy and the history
of modern German literature at Heidelberg, where he died on
the 4th of Jury 1967. His part in philosophy was that of historian
and commentator, for which he was especially qualified by his
remarkable clearness of exposition; his point of view is in the
main Hegelian. His CescMchte der neuarn Philosophic (1852-
1893, new ed. 1897) is perhaps the most accredited modern book
of its kind, and he made valuable contributions to the study of
Kant, Bacon, Shakespeare, Goethe, Spinoza, Lcssing, Schiller
and Schopenhauer.
Some of his numerous works have been translated into English:
Francis Bacon of Verulam, by J. Oxcnford (1857): The Life and
Character of Benedict Spinoza, by Frida Schmidt (1883); A Com-
on Kant a Kritik of Pure Reason, by J. P. Mahaffy (1866);
Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (1905),
FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893), American statesman, was
born in New York City on the 3rd of August 1808. His father,
Nicholas Fish (1758-1833), served in the American army during
the War of American Independence, rising to the rank of
lieutenant-colonel. The son graduated at Columbia College in
1827, and in 1830 was admitted to the bar, but practised only
a short time. In 1 843-1 845 he was a Whig representative in
Congress. He was the Whig candidate for lieutenant-governor
of New York in 1846, and was defeated by Addison Gardner
(Democrat); but when in 1847 Gardner was appointed a judge
of the state court of appeals, Fish was elected (November 1847)
to complete the term (to January 1849). He was governor of
New York state from 1849 to 1851, and was United States
senator in 185^-1857, acting with the Republicans during the
last part of his term. In 1 861-1862 he was associated with John
A. Dix, William M. Evarts, William E. Dodge, A. T. Stewart,
John Jacob Astor, and other New York men, on the Union
Defence Committee, which (from April 22, 1861, to April 30,
1862) co-operated, with the municipal government in the raising
and equipping of troops, .and disbursed more than a million
dollars for the relief of New York volunteers and their families.
Fish was secretary of state during President Grant's two ad-
ministrations (1860-1877). He conducted the negotiations with
Great Britain which resulted in the treaty of the 8th of May
1871, under which (Article 1) the "Alabama claims" were
referred to arbitration, and the same disposition (Article 34)
was made of the M San Juan Boundary Dispute," concerning
the Oregon boundary line. In 1871 Fish presided at the Peace
Conference at Washington between Spain and the allied republics
of Peru, Chile, Ecuador and Bolivia, which resulted in the
formulation (April 1 2) of a general truce between those countries,
to last indefinitely and not to be broken by any one of them
without three years' notice given through the United Stales;
and it was chiefly due to his restraint and moderation that a
satisfactory settlement of the " Virginius Affair " was reached
by the United States and Spain (1873). Fish was vice-president-
general of the Society of the Cincinnati from 1848 to 1854,
and president-general from 1854 until his death. He died in
Garrison, New York, on the 7th of September 1893.
His son, Nicholas Fish (1846-1902), was appointed second
secretary of legation at Berlin in 1871, became secretary in
1874, and was charge d'affaires at Berne in 1877-1881, and
minister to Belgium in 1882-1886, after which he engaged in
banking in New York City.
FISH (O. Eng. fisc, a word common to Teutonic languages,
cf. Dutch tisch, Gcr. Fisch t Goth, fisks, cognate with the Lat.
pise is), the common name of that class of vertebrate animals
which lives exclusively in water, breathes through gills, and
whose limbs take the form of fins (see Ichthyology). The
article Fisheries deals with the subject from the economic and
commercial point of view, and Angling with the catching of
427
fish as a sport. The constellation and sign of the zodiac known
as " the fishes " is treated under Pisces.
The fish was an early symbol of Christ In primitive and medieval
Christian art. The origin is to be found in the initial letters
of the names and titles of Jesus in Greek, vis. 'Inoodt Xptcrrfe,
QeoD Tt6s, Srfwifp, Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour, which
together spell the Greek word for " fish/' IxOix. The fish is
also said to be represented in the oval-shaped figure, pointed at
both cnds> and formed by the intersection of two circles. This
figure, also known as the vesica piscis, is common in ecclesiastical
seals and as a glory or aureole In paintings of sculpture, surround-
ing figures of the Trinity, saints, &c. The figure is, however,
sometimes referred to the almond, as typifying virginity; the
French name for the symbol is Amende mystique.
The word " fish " is used in many technical senses. Thus
it is used of the purchase used in raising the flukes of an anchor
to the bill-board; of a piece of wood or metal used to strengthen
a sprung mast or yard; and of a plate of metal used, as in railway
construction, for the strengthening of the meeting-place of two
rails. This word is of doubtful origin, but it is probably an
adaptation of the Fr. fichc, that which " fixes," a peg. This
word also appears in the English form " fish," in the metal,
pearl or bone counters, sometimes made in the form of fish, used
for scoring points, &c, in many games.
FISHER, ALVAN (1 792-1 863), American portrait-painter,
was born at Needham, Massachusetts, on the 9th of August 1792.
At the age of eighteen he was a clerk in a country shop, and
subsequently was employed by the village house painter, but at
the age of twenty-two he began to paint portrait heads, alternat-
ing with rural scenes and animals, for which he found patrons
at modest prices. In ten years he had saved enough to go to
Europe, studying at the Paris schools and copying in the galleries
of the Louvre. Upon his return he became one of the recognised
group of Massachusetts portrait-painters. Along with Doughty,
Harding and Alexander, in 1831, he held an exhibition of his
work In Boston— perhaps the first joint display by painters
ever held in that city. Though he had considerable talent for
landscape, a lack of patronage for such work caused him to
confine himself to portraiture, in which he was moderately
successful. He died at Dedham, Mass., on the 16th of February
1863.
FISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909), American theologian,
was born at Wrentham, Massachusetts, on the xoth of August
1827. He graduated at Brown University in 1847, and at the
Andover Theological Seminary in 1851, spent three years in
study in Germany, was college preacher and professor of divinity
at Yale College in 1854-1861, and was Titus Street professor of
ecclesiastical history in the Yale Divinity School in 1 861-1901,
when he was made professor emeritus. He was president of the
American Historical Association in 1897- 1808. His writings have
given him high sank as an authority on ecclesiastical history.
They include Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity
(186$); History of the Reformation (1873), republished in several
revisions; The Beginnings of Christianity (1877); Discussions
in History and Theology (1880); Outlines of Universal History
(1886); History of the Christian Church (1887); The Nature
and Method of Revelation (1890); Manual of Natural Theology
(1893); A History of Christian Doctrine, in the "Interna-
tional Theological Library" (1896); and A Brief History of
Nations (1896). He died on the 20th of December 1909.
FISHER, JOHN (c. 1460-1535), English cardinal and bishop of
Rochester, born at Beverly, received his first education at the
collegiate church there. In 1484 he went to Michael House,
Cambridge, where he took his degrees in arts in 1487 and 1491,
and, after filling several offices in the university, became master
of his college in 1499. He took orders; and his reputation for
learning and piety attracted the notice of Margaret Beaufort,
mother of Henry VII., who made him her confessor and chaplain.
In 1 501 he became vice-chancellor; and latw on, when chancellor,
he was able to forward, if not to initiate entirely, the beneficent
schemes of his patroness in the foundations of St. John's and
Christ's colleges, in addition to two lectureships, in Greek
428
FISHER, BARON
and Hebrew. His love for Cambridge never waned, and his
own benefactions took the form of scholarships, fellowships and
lectures. In 1503 he was tho first Margaret professor at Cam-
bridge; and the following year was raised to the see of Rochester,
to which he remained faithful, although the richer sees of Ely
and Lincoln were offered to him. He was nominated as one of
the English prelates for the Latcran council (151 2), but did not
attend. A man of strict and simple life, he did not hesitate at
the legatine synod of 1517 to censure the clergy, in the presence
of the brilliant Wolsey himself, for their greed of gain and love of
display; and in the convocation of 1523 he freely opposed the
cardinal's demand for a subsidy for the war in Flanders. A
great friend of Erasmus, whom he invited to Cambridge, whilst
earnestly working for a reformation of abuses, he had no sym-
pathy with those who attacked doctrine; and he preached at
Paul's Cross (12th of May 1 521) at the burning of Luther's books.
Although he was not the author of Henry's book against Luther,
he joined with his friend, Sir Thomas More, in writing a reply
to the scurrilous rejoinder made by the reformer. He retained
the esteem of the king until the divorce proceedings began in
1527; and then he set himself sternly in favour of the validity
of the marriage. He was Queen Catherine's confessor and her
only champion and advocate. He appeared on her behalf before
the legates at Blackfriars; and wrote a treatise against the
divorce that was widely read.
Recognizing that the true aim of the scheme of church reform
brought forward in parliament in 1520 was to put down the only
moral force that could withstand the royal will, he energetic-
ally opposed the reformation of abuses, which doubtless under
other circumstances he would have been the first to accept!
In convocation, when the supremacy was discussed (nth of
Febmaty 1531), he declared that acceptance would cause the
clergy " to be hissed out of the society of God's holy Catholic
Church "; and it was his influence that brought in the saving
clause, quantum per legem Dei licet. By listening to the revela-
tions of the " Holy Maid of Kent," the nun Elizabeth Barton
(q.v.), he was charged with misprision of treason, and was con-
demned to the loss of his goods and to imprisonment at the king's
will, penalties he was allowed to compound by a fine of £300
(25th of March 1534). Fisher was summoned (13th of April)
to take the oath prescribed by the Act of Succession, which he
was ready to do, were it not that the preamble stated that the
offspring of Catherine were illegitimate, and prohibited all faith,
trust and obedience to any foreign authority or potentate.
Refusing to take the oath, he was committed (15th of April) to
the Tower, where he suffered greatly from the rigours of a long
confinement. On the passing of the Act of Supremacy (November
i$34)» in which the saving clause of convocation was omitted,
he was attainted and deprived of his sec. The council, with
Thomas Cromwell at their head, visited him on the 7th of May
1535, and his refusal to acknowledge Henry as supreme head of
the church was the ground of his trial. The constancy of Fisher,
while driving Henry to a fury that knew no bounds, won the
admiration of the whole Christain world, where he had been
long known as one of the most learned and pious bishops of the
time. Paul III., who had begun his pontificate with the intention
of purifying the curia, was unaware of the grave danger in which
Fisher lay; and in the hope of reconciling the king with the
bishop, created him (20th of May 1535) cardinal priest of St
Vitalis. When the news arrived in England it sealed his fate.
Henry, in a rage, declared that if the pope sent Fisher a hat there
should be no head for it. The cardinal was brought to trial at
Westminster (17th of June 1535) on the charge that he did
" openly declare in English that the king, our sovereign lord,
is not supreme head on earth of the Church of England," and
was condemned to a traitor's death at Tyburn, a sentence
afterwards changed. He was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 2 2nd
of June 1535, after saying the Te Deutn and the psalm In
tt Doming speravi^ His body was buried first at All Hallows,
Barking, and then removed to St. Peter's ad vinculo in the Tower,
where it lies beside that of Sir Thomas More. His head was
exposed on London Bridge and then thrown into the river. Ai
a champion of the rights of conscience, and as the only one of
the English bishops that dared to resist the king's will, Fisher
commends himself to all. On the 9th of December 1886 he was
beatified by Pope Leo XIII.
Fisher's Latin works are to be found in the Opera J. Fiskeri moc
hactema inveniri potuernnt omnia (Wurzburg, 1595), and some of his
published English works in the Early English Text Society (Extra
series, No. 37, part i. 1876). There are others in manuscript at the
P.R.O. (27, Henry VIII., No. 887). Besides the State papers, the
mainsources for his biography are The Life and Death of that renosmtd
1880 and 1890); and Thureau, he bienheureux Jean Fisher (Paris,
1907). (E. Tk.)
FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER, ist Bakon (1&41-
), British admiral, was bom on the 25th of January 1841,
and entered the navy in June 1854. He served in the Baltic
during the Crimean War, and was engaged as midshipman on
the " Highflyer," " Chesapeake " and " Furious," in the Chinese
War, in the operations required by the occupations of Canton,
and of the Peiho forts in 1859. He became sub-lieutenant on
the 25th of January i860, and lieutenant on the 4th of November
of the same year. The cessation of naval wars, at least of wars
at sea in which the British navy had to take a part, after iS6o t
allowed few officers to gain distinction by actual services against
the enemy. But they were provided with other ways of proving
their ability by the sweeping revolution which transformed the
construction, the armament, and the methods of propulsion of
all the navies of the world, and with them the once accepted
methods of combat. Lieutenant Fisher began his career as a
commissioned officer in the year after the launching of the French
" Gloire " had set going the long duel in construction between
guns and armour. He early made his mark as a student of
gunnery, and was promoted commander on the 2nd of August
1869, and post-captain on the 30th of October 1874. In this
rank he was chosen to serve as president of the committee
appointed to revise " The Gunnery Manual of the Fleet.*' It
was his already established reputation which pointed Captain
Fisher out for the command of H.M.S. " Inflexible," a vessel
which, as the representative of a type, had supplied matter for
much discussion. As captain of the " Inflexible " he took part
in the bombardment of Alexandria (nth July 1882). The
engagement was not arduous in itself, having been carried out
against forts of inferior construction, indifferently armed, and
worse garrisoned, but it supplied an opportunity for a display
of gunnery, and it was conspicuous in the midst of a long naval
peace. The " Inflexible " took a prominent part in the action,
and her captain had the command of the naval brigade landed in
Alexandria, where he adapted the ironclad train and com-
manded it in various skirmishes with the enemy. After the
Egyptian campaign, he was, in succession, director of Naval
Ordnance and Torpedoes (from October 1886 to May 1891);
A.D.C. to Queen Victoria (18th June, 1887, to 2nd August 1800,
at which date he became rear-admiral); admiral superintendent
of Portsmouth dockyard (1891 to 1892); a lord commissioner
of the navy and comptroller of the navy (1892 to 1897), and
vice-admiral (8th May 1896); commander-in-chief on the
North American and West Indian station (1897). In 1899 he
acted as naval expert at the Hague Peace Conference, and on
the 1 st of July 1899 was appointed commander-in-chief in the
Mediterranean. From the Mediterranean command, Admiral
Fisher passed again to the admiralty as second sea lord in 1002,
and became commander-in-chief at Portsmouth on the 31st
of August 1903, from which post he passed to that of first sea
lord. Besides holding the foreign Khedivial and Osmanieh
orders, he was created K.C.B. in 1894 and G.C.B. in 1902. As
first sea lord, during the years 1003-1909, Sir John Fisher had
a predominant influence in all the far-reaching new measures of
naval development and internal reform; and he was also one
of the committee, known as Lord Esher's committee, appointed
in 1904 to report on the measures necessary to be taken to
put the administration and organization of the British army on
a sound footing. The changes in naval administration made
FISHERIES
429
under him were hotly canvassed among critics, who charged bim
with autocratic methods, and in 1006-1909 with undue sub-
servience to the government's desire for economy; and whatever
the efficiency of his own methods at the admiralty, the fact
was undeniable that for the first time for very many years the
navy suffered, as a service, from the party-spirit which was
aroused. It was notorious that Admiral Lord Charles Bcrcsford
in particular was acutely hostile to Sir John Fisher's administra-
tion ; and on his retirement in the spring of 1909 from the
position of commander-in-chief of the Channel fleet, he put his
charges and complaints before the government, and an inquiry
was held by a small committee under the Prime Minister. Its
report, published in August, was in favour of the Admiralty,
though it encouraged the belief that some important suggestions
as to the organization of a naval " general staff " would take
effect. On the 9th of November Sir John Fisher was created
a peer as Baron Fisher of Kilverstone, Norfolk. He retired
from the Admiralty in January 1910.
FISHERIES, 1 a general term for the various operations engaged
in for the capture of such aquatic creatures as are useful to man.
From time immemorial fish have been captured by various forms
of spears, nets, hooks and more elaborate apparatus, and a
historical description of the methods and appliances that have
been used would comprise a considerable portion of a treatise
on the history of man. For the most part the operations of
fishing have been comparable with those of primitive hunting
rather than with agriculture; they have taken the least possible
account of considerations affecting the supply j when one locality
has been fished out, another has been resorted to. The increasing
pressure on every source of food, and the enormous improvements
in the catching power of the engines involved, has made some
kind of regulation and control inevitable, with the result that
in practically every civilized country there exists some authority
for the investigation and regulation of fisheries.
The annexed table shows the department of state and the
The early years of the 20th century* witnessed another great
expansion of the sea fisheries of the United Kingdom. The
herring fishery has been revolutionized partly by the successful
introduction of steam drifters, which have markedly increased
the aggregate catching power, and partly by the prosecution
ol the fishery on one part or other of the British coasts during
the greater part of the year. The crews of many Scottish
vessels which formerly worked at the herring and line fisheries
in alternate seasons of the year now devote their energies almost
entirely to the herring fishery, which they pursue in nomad
fleets around all the coasts of Great Britain. The East Anglian
drifters carry on their operations at different seasons of the
year itouL Shetland in the north (for herrings) to Newlyn in the
west (for mackerel). In Scotland the value of the nets employed
on steam drifters has increased from £3000 in 1899 to £61,000
in 1906, and the average annual catch of herrings has increased
from about four to about five million cwts. during the past
ten years. In England also the annual catch of herrings,
which reached a total of two million ewts. for the first time
in 1899, has exceeded three millions In each year from 1902 to
1005.
In steam trawling also great enterprise has been shown. In
1906 Messrs Hellyer of Hull launched a new steam trawling
fleet of 50 vessels for working the North Sea grounds, and the
delivery of new steam trawlers at Grimsby was greater thaa
at any previous period, these vessels being designed rnore especi-
ally to exploit the distant fishing grounds, the range of which
has been extended from Morocco to the White Sea. About 100
vessels were added to the Crimsby fleet in the course of twelve
months. These new vessels measure about 140 ft. in length
and over 20 ft. in beam, and exceed 250 tons gross tonnage,
the accommodation both for fish and crews being considerably
in excess of that provided in vessels of this class hitherto.
Returns of the steam trawlers registered in 1907 in the chief
European countries show the expanse of this industry, and the
AM*istMti$n of Fiikerus.
Norway.
Sweden.
Denmark.
Germany.
Holland.
Belgium.
Department of State
Approximate Annual Expenditure—
1. Administration
2. Scientific Fishery Research
Trade and In-
dustry and
Agricultuee.
£15.000
5.000
Agriculture.
£5.500
4.500
Agriculture.
£10,200 .
6,300
Imperial De-
partment of
Interior.
Conducted by
Maritime
Statds
£*7.7S©
Agriculture.
£i2»500
2,500
Agriculture and
woods and
Forests.
£**ooo
Canada.
U.S. America.
b^-drt
Scotland.
Ireland.
Department of State
Approximate Annual Expenditure —
1. Administration
2. Scientific Fishery Research .
Marine and Fish-
eries*
£159.000
48^00
Bureau of Fisheries
under Commerce
and Labour.
Conducted by
Coastal States
£141,000
Agriculture and
Fisheries.
£8 f ooo
14,000
(expended through
agents)
Fishery Board.
£i3.*>°
800
Agriculture and
Technical In-
struction.
£10,000
approximate expenditure on fisheries in some of the chief countries
of the world. The figures arc only approximate and are based
on the expenditure for 1907. In tie case of England and Wales
the expenditure is not complete, as under the Sea Fisheries
Regulation Act of 1888 the whole of the coast of England and
Wales could be placed under local fisheries committees with
power to levy rates for fishery purposes, and in a certain number
of districts advantage has been taken of this act; But even with
this addition, British expenditure on fisheries is less than that
undertaken by most of the countries of northern Europe, although
British fisheries are much more valuable than those of all the rest
of Europe together.
* For fisheries in the cases of Coral, Oyster, Pearl, Salmon.
Spokges and Whale, see these articles-, for fishing as- a sport see
Angling.
enormous preponderance of Great Britain. The numbers arc as.
follows: —
Belgium .....
Denmark .....
France
Germany .
Netherlands ....
Norway
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
Scotland
Ireland
England and Wales
A simultaneous development of the sea fisheries has been
manifested in other maritime countries of Europe, particularly
in Germany and Holland, but the total number of steam trawlers
23
5
224
12-18
11
1317
43°
FISHERIES
belonging to those countries in 1005 scarcely exceeded the mere
additions to the British fishing fleet in 1006.
The relative magnitude of British fisheries may best be
gauged by a comparison with the proceeds of the chief fisheries
of other European countries. The following table is based upon
official returns and mainly derived from the Bulletin Statistique
of the International Council for the Study of the Sea. It re-
presents in pounds sterling the value of the produce of the various
national fisheries during the year 1904, except in the case of
France, for which country the latest available figures are those
for 1902.
Values in Thousands of £
The total value of the sea fisheries in the three chief sub-
divisions of the British Isles in the year 1905, according to the
official returns, was as follows:
These figures show an increase of £1,000,000 as compared
with the total value in 1000, and of more than £3,000,000 as
compared with 1895 (cf. Table I. at end).
In England and Wales the trawl fisheries for cod, haddock,
and flat fish yielded about
three-quarters of the total,
and the drift fisheries for
herring and mackerel nearly
the whole of the remaining
quarter. The line fisheries in
England and Wales are now
relatively insignificant and
yield only about one-fortieth
of the total (cf. Table VIII. at end).
In Scotland, on the other hand, there is not so much difference
in the relative importance of the three chief fisheries. In 1905
herrings and other net-caught fish yielded rather more than one-
east coasts. The remaining quarter is mainly derived from the
trawl fisheries, the headquarters of which are at Dublin. Howth
and Balbriggan on the east, and at Galway and Dingle on the
west coast.
The value of the fishing boats and gear employed in the
Scottish fisheries during 1905 is returned as nearly £4,i2o,cc<x
Upon a moderate estimate, the total value of the boats and gear
employed in the fisheries of Great Britain and Ireland cannot
be less than £12,000,000.
The relative yield and value of the various fisheries on the
separate coasts of the British Isles is illustrated in the table of
landings from the latest data available.
From these figures it is manifest that the yield and value of
the east coast fisheries of England and Scotland preponderate
enormously over those of the western coasts, whether attention
be paid to the drift-net fisheries for surface fish or to the fisheries
for bottom fish with trawls and lines.
The preceding statistics and remarks, as well as the supple-
mentary tables at the end of this article, indicate that the British
fishing industry has enjoyed a period of unexampled prosperity.
The community at large has benefited by the more plentiful
supply, and the merchant by the general lowering of prices at
the ports of landing (see Tables I. IV. at end). But it is to be
noted that this wave of prosperity, as on previous occasions,
has been attained by the application of increased and more
powerful means of capture and by the exploitation of new
fishing grounds in distant waters, and not by any increase,
natural or artificial, in the productivity of the home waters,—
unless perhaps the abundance of herrings is to be ascribed to
the destruction of their enemies by trawling. British fisheries
are still pursued as a form of hunting rather than of husbandry.
In 1892 the Iceland and Bay of Biscay trawling banks were
discovered, in 1898 the Faroe banks, in 1005 rich plaice grounds
in the White Sea. In 1905 one-half of the cod and a quarter
of the haddock and plaice landed at east coast ports of England
were caught in waters beyond the North Sea.
Table showing, in Thousands of dot., the Quantity of Fish landed by Steam Trawlers on the East Coast
of England from Fishing Grounds within and beyond the North Sea respectively.
Herring.
Cod.
Plaice.
Other
Fish.
Total.
British Isles
Norway . .
Denmark . .
Germany ; .
Holland . . .
France (1902) .
1870
352
"7
220
575
635
1015
64 1
851*
1 100
58
549«
443
223
512 »
3"
3562
9,481,000
1,629,000
57».ooo
836,000
997.000
5,048,000
Fish landed in
Excluding
Shellfish.
Including
Shellfish.
England and Wales ....
Scotland
Ireland
Total
£7,200,644
2,619,148
360,577
£7,502,768
2,719310
414.364
£10,210,369
£10,636.942
Year.
Within the North Sea.
Beyond the North Sea.
Cod.
Haddock.
Plaice.
All Kinds.
Cod.
Haddock.
Plaice.
AU Kinds.
«9©3
1904
"90S
729
637
640
2301
2032
1560
812
658
621
4776
4228
3739
470
389
429
518
284
»44
U89
1389
16&2
Fishery.
Trawl and Line.
Drift and Stake-nets.
Shellfish.
Thousands
Thousands
Thousands
Thousands
Thousands
of cwt
of£.
of cwt.
of£.
of£.
England and Wales, 1905—
East Coast .
6017
4713
3042
'»
202
South Coast .
303
245
728
3
West Coast : .
1002
720
219
111
Scotland, 1906 —
East Coast . . .
2296
1202
2709
819
25
Orkney and Shetland .
West Coast . . .
3
S
1735
591
642
210
10
3»
Ireland, 1905 — '
North Coast . .
9
5
177
70
,1
East Coast
79
70
no
32
South and West Coast .
46
35
577
148
28
half of the total, the trawl fisheries nearly three-eighths, and
the line fisheries one-eighth (cf. Table X.).
In Ireland the mackerel and herring fisheries provide nearly
three-quarters of the total yield, the mackerel forming the chief
item in the south and west, and the herring on the north and
1 Estimated as regards about one-third of the total.
• Including the Newfoundland fishery.
The statistics of the English Board of Agriculture and Fisheries
have distinguished since 1003 between the catch of fish within
and beyond the North Sea, and between the catch of trawlers
and liners. Neglecting the catch of the liners as relatively
insignificant, and of the sailing trawlers
as relatively small and practically con-
stant during the three years in question,
we see from the board's figures (see table
above) that the total catch of English
steam trawlers within the North Sea
during 1904 and 1905 was in each year
500,000 cwt. less than in the year
before,, amounting to a gross decrease
of more than 25% in 1905 as com-
pared with 1903, and, in relation to the
catching power employed, to an average
decrease of 2} cwt. per boat per diem.
This decrease may be largely explained
by the occurrence in 1003 of one of
those periodic " floods " of small cod
and haddock which take place in the North Sea from time
to time; but the steady decline in the number of North
Sea voyages by English steam trawlers— from 29,300 in 1003
to 26,700 in 1905 — affords a clear indication of the fact that
many of our trawling skippers are deserting the North Sea
for more profitable fishing grounds. The number of Scottish
steam trawlers " employed " at Scottish North Sea ports has
FISHERIES
43'
also declined during the same period from 240 in 1903 to
228 in 1905.
The following table shows the number of British and foreign
steam trawlers registered at North Sea ports, and for English
vessels the number of fishing voyages made within and beyond
the North Sea respectively: —
Year.
Boats
Registered.
English Steam Trawlers.
Voyages. 1
Scottish.
Employed.
German,
Dutch and
Belgian.
Registered.
Within
North Sea.
Beyond
North Sea.
1903
1904
1905
1060
1049
1064
*8.5*9
26,670
182a
2120
2671
240
1%
181
£1
Unfortunately the North Sea gains no rest from this with-
drawal of British trawlers, since the place of the latter is filled
year after year by increasing numbers of continental fishing
boats. The number of fishing steamers (practically all trawlers)
registered at North Sea ports in Germany and Holland was 159
in 1903, 177 in 1904, 205 in 1905, and 330 in 1907*
It k satisfactory under these circumstances to note the in-
creased attention which has been paid in recent years to the
acquisition of more exact knowledge upon the actual slate of
the fisheries and upon the biological and other factors which
influence the supply.
A comprehensive programme of co-operative investigations,
both scientific and statistical, was put into execution in the
course of 1902 under the International Council for the Study
of the Sea (see below). The Fishery Board for Scotland and the
Marine Biological Association for England were commissioned
to carry out the work at sea allotted to Great Britain, and the
English fishery department was equipped soon afterwards with
the means for collecting more adequate statistics.
Trawling investigations and the quantitative collection of
fish eggs have located important spawning grounds of cod,
haddock, plaice, sole, eel, &c; marking experiments with cod,
plaice and eel have thrown much light upon the migrations of
these fishes; and the rate of growth of plaice, cod and herring
has been elucidated in different localities. The percentage of
marked plaice annually recaptured in the North Sea has been
found to be remarkably high (from 25 to 50 %), and throws a
significant light on the intensity of fishing under modern con-
ditions. It seems probable that the impoverishment of the stock
of plaice on the central grounds of the North Sea is mainly
attributable to the excessive rate of capture of plaice during
their annual off-shore migrations from the coast. On the other
band, it has been shown that the growth-rate of plaice on the
Dogger Bank is constantly and markedly greater (five- or six-fold
in weight) than on the coastal grounds where these fish are
reared, — facts which open up the possibility of increasing the
permanent supply of plaice from the North Sea by the adoption
of some plan of commercial transplantation (see Pisciculture).
History.— A brief review may now be given of the history
of the administration of British sea-fisheries since i860, and of
the steps which have been taken for the attainment of scientific
and statistical information in relation thereto.
In i860 a royal commission, consisting of Professor Huxley,
Mr (afterwards Sir) John Caird, and Mr G. Shaw-Lefevrc (after-
wards Lord Eversley), was appointed to inquire into the con-
dition of the British sea-fisheries, the harmfulness or otherwise
of existing methods of fishing, and the necessity or otherwise
of the existing legislation. The important report of this com-
mission, issued in 1866, embodied the following main conclusions
and recommendations: — (1) the total supply of fish obtained
upon the British coasts is increasing and admits of further
augmentation; (2) beam-trawling in the open sea is not a waste-
fully destructive mode of fishing; (3) all acts of parliament
which profess to regulate or restrict the modes of fishing pursued
in the open sea should be repealed and " unrestricted freedom
1 Excluding the voyages of the fleeting trawlers which supply
London by means of carriers.
of fishing be permitted hereafter "; (4) all fishing boats should
be lettered and numbered as a condition of registration and
licence.
In 1868 full effect was given to these recommendations by
the passing of the Sea Fisheries Act. Regulations for the
registration of fishing boats were issued by order in council in
the following year. (New regulations were intro-
duced in Z002.)
In 1878 a commission was given to Messrs Buck-
land and Walpole to inquire into the alleged
destruction of the spawn and fry of sea fish,
especially by the use of the beam-trawl and
ground seine. Their report is an excellent sum-
mary of the condition of the sea fisheries at the
time, and shows how little was then known with
regard to the eggs and spawning habits of our marine food
fishes.
In 1882 the former Board of British White Herring was dis-
solved and the Fishery Board for Scotland instituted, the latter
being empowered to take such measures for the improvement
of the fisheries as the funds under their administration might
admit of. Arrangements were made in the following year with
Professor M'Intosh of St Andrews which enabled the latter
to fit up a small marine laboratory and to begin a series of studies
on the eggs and larvae of sea fishes, which have contributed
greatly to the development of more exact knowledge concerning
the reproduction of fishes. Under the Sea Fisheries (Scotland)
Amendment Act of 1885 the board closed the Firth of Forth
and St Andrews Bay against trawlers as an experiment for the
purpose of ascertaining the result of such prohibition on the
supply of fish on the grounds so protected. The treasury also,
by a further grant of £3000, enabled the board to purchase the
steam-yacht " Garland "as a means of carrying out regular expert'
mental trawlings over the protected grounds. Reports on the
results of these experiments have been annually published, and
were summarized at the end of ten years' closure in the board's
report for 1895. Dr Fulton's summary showed that " no very
marked change took place in the abundance of food-fishes
generally, either in the dosed or open waters of the Firth of Forth
or St Andrews Bay," as a consequence of the prohibition of trawl-
ing. Nevertheless, among flat fishes, plaice and lemon soles,
which spawn off-shore, were reported to have decreased in
numbers In all the areas investigated, whether closed or open,
while dabs and long rough dabs showed a preponderating, if
not quite universal, increase.
The results of this classical experiment point strongly to the
presumptions (1) that trawling operations in the open sea have
now exceeded the point at which their effect on the supply of
eggs and fry for the upkeep of the flat fisheries is inappreciable;
add (2) that protection of in-shore areas alone is Insufficient to
check the impoverishment caused by over-fishing off-shore.
(For critical examinations of Dr Fulton's account sec M'Intosh,
Resources of the Sea, London, 1889; Garstang, "The Impoverish-
ment of the Sea," Journ. if or. Bud. Ass. vol. vi, 1900; and
Archer, Report of Icktkyological Committee, Cd. 1312, 1902.)
A laboratory and sea-fish hatchery were subsequently estab-
lished by the board at Dunbar in 1893, but removed to Aberdeen
in 1000.
In 1883 a royal commission, under the chairmanship of the
late earl of Dalhousie, was appointed to inquire into complaints
against the practice of beam-trawling on the part of line and
drift-net fishermen. A small sum of money (£200) was granted
to the commission for the purpose of scientific trawling experi-
ments, which were carried out by Professor M'Intosh.
The report of this commission was an important one, and its
recommendations resulted in the institution of fishery statistics
for England, Scotland and Ireland (1885-1887).
In 1884 the Marine Biological Association of the United
Kingdom was founded for the scientific study of marine soology
and botany, especially as bearing upon the food, habits and
life-conditions of British food-fishes, Crustacea and molluscs.
Professor Huxley was its first president, and Professor Ray
4-3 *
FISHERIES
Lankester, who initiated the movement, succeeded him. A large
and well-equipped laboratory was erected at Plymouth, and
formally opened for work in 1888. The work of the association
has been maintained by annual grants of £400 from the Fish-
mongers' Company and £1000 from H. M. treasury, and by the
subscriptions of the members. The association publishes a
half-yearly journal recording the results of its investigations.
In 1886 a fishery department of the Board of Trade was
organized under the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act of
that year. The department publishes annually * return of
statistics of sea-fish landed, a report on salmon fisheries (trans-
ferred from the home office), and a report 011 sea fisheries. It
consists of several inspectors under an assistant secretary of
the board; it has no power to make scientific investigations
or bye-laws and regulations affecting the sea-fisheries. In 1894
the administration of the acts relating to the registration of
fishing vessels, &c, was transferred to the fisheries department.
In 1 888 the Sea Fisheries Regulation Act provided for the
constitution (by provisional order of the Board of Trade) of local
fisheries committees having, within defined limits, powers for
the regulation of coast fisheries in England and Wales. The
powers of district committees were extended under Part II. of
the Fisheries Act 1891, and again under the Fisheries (Shell
Fish) Regulation Act 1894. Sea-fisheries districts have now been
created round nearly the whole coast of England and Wales.
Under bye-laws of these committees steam-trawling has been
prohibited in nearly all the territorial waters of England and
Wales, and trawling by smaller boats has been placed under a
variety of restrictions. Local scientific investigations have been
initiated under several of the committees, especially in Lancashire
by Professor Hcrdman of Liverpool and his assistants.
In 1890 an important survey of the fishing grounds off the
west coast of Ireland was undertaken by the Royal Dublin
Society, with assistance from the government, and in the hands
of Mr E. W. L. Holt led to the acquisition of much valuable
information concerning the spawning habits of fishes and the
distribution of fish on the Atlantic seaboard.
In 1892, under powers conferred by the Herring Fishery (Scot-
land) Act of 1889, the Fishery Board for Scotland closed the whole
of the Moray Firth— including a large tract of extra-territorial
waters— against trawling, in order to test experimentally the
effect of protecting certain spawning grounds in the outer parts
of the firth. The closure has given rise to a succession of protests
from the leaders of the trawling industry in Aberdeen and
England. It seems that the difficulty of policing so large an
area, as well as the absence of any power to enforce the restriction
on foreign vessels, have defeated the original intention; and
the bye-law appears to be now retained mainly in deference
to the wishes of the local line-fishermen, the decadence of whose
industry— from economic causes which have been alluded to
above — is manifest from the figures in Table X. below. The
controversy has had the effect of causing the transference of a
number of English trawlers to foreign flags, especially the
Norwegian.
Statistics.— The following tables summarize the official statistics
of fish landed on the coasts of England and Wales, Scotland and
Ireland, and give some information relative to the numbers of
fishing-boats and fishermen in the three countries.
Table I. — Summary of Statistics of Fish landed, imported and
exported for the United Kingdom.
Year.
Fish landed
(excluding Shell-fish).
Net
Imports.
Exports of
British Fish.
1800
»895
1900
1005
Cwt.
12,774.010
14,068,641
14,671,070
20,164,276
£6.361,487
7,168,025
9.242,491
10,210,369
£2,315,572
2,453.676
2,937486
2,250,259
£1,795.267
2.282,406
3,000,852
4.164,869
Note.— Imported fish afterwards re-exported (consisting chiefly
of salted or cured fish to the value of over £900,000 in 1905) .arc not
included in the above values of imports and exports. The exports
consist mainly of herrings.
Table U.— Quantify and Average Landing Value of Flat Fite
landed on Ike Coasts of England and Woks {all caught i~n
Trawl-nets, except Halibut in part).
=2
Quantity
(in Thousands of Cwt.).
Average Price (per Cwt.).
3
1
03
.5
1
X
1
|
03
E
.£
1890
1895
1900
1905
72-1
828
753
801
519
m
895
»5'4
19*0
207
22-4
6 S
789
752
1074
95
136
120
ir
6 16
7 l l
5 18
£ ».
3 13
3 17
4 3
3 »i
1 s-
2 8
2 II
2 14
2 II
£ «
19
1 1
I 4
O 19
L *
1 10
1 i^
1 i;
1 >:
Table III.— Quantity and Average Landing Value of Round Fisk. :
caught with Trawls and Lines, landed oh the Coasts of EHglc,..
and Wales.
2
>
Quantity
(in Thousands of Cwt.)-
Average Price (per Cwt.)
„W
If
m
£
.1
0*
i
60
c
•n
•0
3
•§
M
c
•c
U
3
X
J
J?
U
•0
X
s
-J
e
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
5. d
1890
363
1585
96
1151
13 10
97
"4 3
14
»895
49t
2433
2487
132
114
1013
14 8
•SI
16 2
11 8
»3 7
1900
5«9
m
IOO
1190
15 10
12 10
14 10
I905«423
2148
165
1425 12 4
12 5
13 4
11 3
9 *
Table IV.— Quantity and Average Landing Value of Surface Fishes
landed on the Coasts of England and Wales {caught uritk Dnft-.
Seine-, and Stow-nsts).
i
>
Quantity
(in Thousands of Cwt.).
Average Price (per Cwt.).
1
5
2
1
X
I
1
1
s
X
■8
i
1890
1895
1900
1905
509
375
321
682
1332
1437
2425
3062
61
65
106
169
99
91
73
75
s. d.
Ill
1,?
s. d.
7 2
5 to
7 8
7 7
s. d.
5 10
I i
5
s. d.
3
3 1
4 »i
3 6
Table V.— Quantity and Average Landing Value of Shell-fish landed
on the Coasts of England and Wales.
1
Number.
Average Price.
Thousands.
Mills.
Thou-
sands of
Ctrl,
Per Hundred.
Per
Cwt.
A
t
i
J
£
t
I
t
S
c
u
3
1
•3
S
e
u
1
■0
e
J?
f. s.
f s.
s. d.
s. d.
1896
4808
922
47-6
505
» 4
4 18
6 1
5
1895
4501
677
25-3
37-8
590
1 4
4 8
6 2
4 11
1900
5177
654
539
1 2
4 7
7
5 8
1905
5106
503
354
423
I 3
4 »5
S 9
5 6
Table VI.— Total Quantity of the more important Fishes and SheU-fiih
landed in Scotland.
In Thousands of Cwt.
Cwt.
Number
Year.
-ft
H*rurM»)
2
|
J*
c.JiCC
I 5 *
i
i
1
X
1
&
J
i
s
1
C
|S*»
S9&0
17
81
to
449
170
7*4
75
54
181
>SSi
641
313
l*9<
4077
»9
80
ao
4S9
165
1001
43
59
194
at4»
610
JMfl
1000
j$*o
71
IOJ
J6
4M
157
761
,s;
71
•43
»•»»
6Ac
r*
1905
S343
31
561
JO
077
IU
©J»
too
toj
1090
7*o
tii
FISHERIES
433
Table VII.— Total Quantity «f the mere important Piste and Shell-
fish returned as landed on the Irish Coasts.
In
of Cwt.
i
*
i
divergencies rfvptafos on the question whether the low si*e-
limits proposed would be effectual In keeping the trawlers from
working on the grounds where small fish congregated, the
committee reported against the hill, and urged the immediate
equipment of the government departments with means for
undertaking the necessary scientific investigations.
In iooi an international conference of representatives of all
the countries bordering upon the North and Baltic Seas met at
Chrfstiarda to revise proposals which had been drafted at Stock-
holm In 1800 for a scientific exploration of these waters in the
interest of the fisheries, to be undertaken concurrently by all
the participating countries. The British government was
represented by Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff, K.C.M G. f with Pro-
fessor D'Arcy W. Thompson, Mr (afterwards Professor) W.
Garstang and Or H. R. Mitt as advisers. The proposals were
subsequently accepted, with some restrictions, and an intcma-
Taslb WIU.— Classified List of British Fishing Boats on the Register for 1905. omilling and Class Steamer* tIonaI coundl °* manage-
1900
1905
1890 502
1895 339
5©5l354
85
171
278 284
39*6
43*6
148
297
Il-Q
9-r
1*4
3P-9
124
"•3
U-5
u-9
119
183
a*3
i| 7
163
7*1
Note.— The Irish statistic! of shell-nsh are very incomplete, owing
to the inadequate means at the disposal of the authorities for collect*
ing statistics over large sections 01 the coast.
and Vessels under 18 Ft. Keel or Navigated fry Oars only and Vessels unemployed.
Mode of
Fishing.
England and Wales.
Scotland.
Ireland.
Steamers.
1st a
Sailing.
1st CL and CL
Steamers.
istCL
Sailing.
1st CI. and CI.
Steamers,
1st CI.
Sailing.
1st CI. 2nd CI.
Trawling .
Drift-nets
Lines
Various .
'II 3
21
904
56a
29
ai5
586
®
2277
244
209
3403
68
2910
to
14a
229
2776
Total
1513
1710
4087
453
3403
2978
10
371
3«S9
Sate.— 1st class -steamers of at least 15 tons gross tonnage, and other boats of at least 15 tons registered „ r H ivwlv k»
tonnage (in Scotland exceeding 30 ft. keel). eaca ^y *¥
2nd class -less than 15 tons tonnage, or from 18 to 30 ftJceeL * urv for w«
Tabls IX.— Number (A) of Men and Boys constantly employed
and (£) of other Persons occasionally employed in Fishing.
Year.
Encbt
id and
S^T«hM,
Wood.
g rjhiwd
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
1*90
iS«
i»»S
3*.JOJ
Jf.5*9
J4.JIS
M.J19
Jt.«M4
«7.»*S
>o,S*9
l«>,4*7
lo.ut
8.691
S.677
8,144
18.98.
I7.©7»
7S.4JO
BIS
7J.*W
«6.JJ7
4i.»JO
J7.Su
j6.iji
Table Xs—CaUh and Value of Line-caught and Trawled Fish'landed
in Scotland.
Year.
Limvcaught Fish.
Trawled Fish.
1890
1895
1900
1905
Cwt.
1.577.299
1 479.654 .
757.416
735.654
£591.059
548.629
37M73
348.610
Cwt.
291,812
53 '.695
1,077,08a
1. 745431
£203,620
291,165
7034*7
948.117
In 1893 a select committee of the House of Commons took
evidence as to the expediency of adopting measures for the
preservation of the sea-fisheries in the seas around the British
Islands, with especial reference to the alleged wasteful destruction
of under-sized fish. They recommended the adoption of a size-
limit of 8 in. for soles and plaice, and 10 in. for turbot and brill,
below which the sale of these fishes should be prohibited, on the
ground that these limits would approximate to those already
adopted by foreign countries.
In 1899 the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland)
Act transferred the powers and duties of the inspectors of Irish
fisheries to the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruc-
tion for Ireland. The department is provided with a steam
cruiser, the "Heiga,"375 tons, fully equipped for fishery research,
as well as with a floating marine laboratory, Mr Holt, formerly
of too Marine Biological Association, was appointed to take
charge of the scientific work.
In 1900 another select committee of the House of Commons
was appointed to consider and take evidence on the proposals of
the Sea Fisheries BUI, which had been framed in accordance with
the recommendations of the select committee of 1893, but bad
failed to pass in several sessions of parliament. Owing to marked
A.0
ment was appointed by
the participating govern-
ments. The Fishery.
Board for Scotland and
the Marine Biological
Association from England
were commissioned in
1002 to carry out the
work at sea allotted to
Great Britain, and a
special grant of £s$oo
per annum was made to
the Trea-
this purpose.
Two steamers, the
" Huxley w and the " Goldseeker/* were chartered for the investi-
gations and began work in 1902 and 1003 from Lowestoft
and Aberdeen respectively. Reports on the work of the first
five years were published in 1909.
In 1901 the Board of Trade appointed a committee (the
Committee on Ichthyological Research) to inquire and report
as to the best means by which scientific fishery research could
be organized and assisted in relation to the state or local authori-
ties. The committee consisted of Sir Herbert Maxwell, M.P.
(chairman), Mr W. F. Archer, Mr Donald Crawford, Rev. W. S.
Green, Professor W. A. Hcrdman, Hon. T. H. W. Pelham,
Mr S. E. Spring Rice and Professor J. A. Thomson. Sir Herbert
Maxwell resigned his chairmanship before the report was drawn
up (September 1902), and was succeeded by Sir Colin Scott-
Moncrieff. The committee recommended the provision of more
complete statistics; the provision and maintenance of five special
steamers (where not already existing) to work in connexion with
as many marine laboratories, viz. one for each of the three coasts
of England and Wales, and one each for Scotland and Ireland;
the provision of three biological assistants at each laboratory;
the grant of statutory powers to local sea-fisheries committees to
expend money on fishery research; the constitution of a fishery
council for England and Wales, and of a conference of represent-
atives of the central authorities in England, Scotland and
Ireland. In 1903 the fishery department of the Board of Trade
was transferred to the Board of Agriculture, Mr W. E. Archer,
chief inspector of fisheries, becoming an assistant secretary of
the new Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.
In Z907 a departmental treasury committee was appointed
to inquire into the scientific and statistical investigations carried
on in relation to the fishing industry of the United Kingdom.
The committee consisted of Mr H. J. Tennant, M.P. (chairman),
Lord Nunburnholme, Sir Reginald MacLeod, Mr N. W. Helms;
M.P., Mr A. Williamson, M.P., Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S.,
Mr J. S. Gardiner, F.R.S., the Rev. W. S. Green, Mr R. H. Rew
and Mr L. S. Hcwby. This committee reviewed the work that
had already been done and urged its continuation and extension
under the direction of a central council composed of represent-
atives of the government departments concerned with fishery
matters in England, Scotland and Ireland, with a scientific
2a
43+
fishery;
chairman and director, ftad further insisted* on the need of
international co-operation in the investigations.
United States Fisheries.— The administration of the fisheries
of the United States of America is under the control of the
several coastal states, but the Bureau of Fisheries at Washing*
ton, which reports to the secretary of commerce and labour,
conducts a vast amount of scientific fishery investigation, issues
admirable statistical and biological reports, and conducts on a
very large scale work on the replenishment of the fishing stations
by artificial means (see Pisciculture). Although in recent
years Canada has given an increasing amount of state support
to the Investigation, control and assistance of her fisheries, an
amount actually and relatively far exceeding that given in Great
Britain, the fishing industry of the United States still far exceeds
that of Canada. A considerable bulk of fish, taken by American
ships from the Newfoundland coasts and from those of other
British provinces, is landed at American ports, but as the follow-
ing recent table shows, it is much less than that taken from
American waters.
Quantities ami Values of Pish landed by American Vessels at Boston
and Gloucester, Mass., in 1905.
Quantities..
Value.
(a) From fishing grounds off U.S.
coasts
(6) From fishing grounds off New-
foundland
(c) From fishing grounds off other
British provinces
152,241,139
17,165,083
32,608.343
£669,640
103.145
192.517
The fisheries of the United States show a substantial increase
from year to year. There has been a decline in some important
branches owing to indiscreet fishing and to the inevitable effects
of civilization on certain kinds of animal life and in certain
restricted areas. Such diminution has been more than com-
pensated for by growth resulting from the invasion of new fishing
grounds made possible by increase in the sea-going capacity
of the vessels employed, by improvement in the preservation
and handling of the catch, and by the greater utilization of
products which until comparatively recently were disregarded
or considered without economic value. The annual value of the
water products taken and sold by the United States fishermen
now amounts to over ,£11,000,000, and this sum does not include
the very large quantities taken by the fishermen for home
consumption or captured by sportsmen and amateurs. Between
two and three hundred thousand persons make a livelihood by
the industry, and the capital involved exceeds £16,000,000.
The oyster is the most valuable single product, and the output
ef the United States industry exceeds the combined output of
all other countries in the world. The most notable feature of
this fishery is that nearly half the total yield now comes from
cultivated grounds, so that the business is being placed on a
secure basis. Virginia has now taken the first rank as an oyster-
producing state, oyster farming being now highly developed
with an annual yield of nearly nine million bushels.
The high-sea fisheries for cod, haddock, hake, halibut, mackerel,
herring, and so forth are on the whole not increasing in prosperity,
the annual value being between one and two mirn'on pounds.
The lobster fishery shows- a markedly diminishing yield, the
diminution having been progressive since about 1890, and
being attributed to over-fishing and violation of the restrictive
regulations. At present a large part of the lobsters consumed
in the United States comes from Nova Scotia, but there is
evidence of useful results coming from the extensive cultural
operations now being carried out.
The whale fishery, at one time the leading fishing industry
of the country, is now conducted chiefly in the North Pacific
and Arctic oceans, but is decaying, being now expensive, un-
certain and often unremunerative. The annual value of the
take is now under £200,000.
The important group of anadromous fishes (those like salmon,
shad, alewife, striped bass and sea perches, which ascend the
rivers from the ocean) has continued to provide an increasing
source of income to fishermen, the combined value of the catch
on the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards now amounting to over
£3,000,000 annually. The fisheries of the Great Lakes yield
about £600,000 annually. (W.Ga.; P. CM.)
FISHERY (Law or). This subject has (1) its international
aspect; (2) its municipal aspect. On the high seas outside
territorial waters the right of fishery is now recognized as com moo
to all nations. Claims were made in former times by singk
nations to the exclusive right of fishing in tracts of open sea;
such as that set up by Denmark in respect of the North Sea, a<
lying between its possessions of Norway and Iceland, against
England in the 17th Century, and against England and Holland
in the 18th century, when she prohibited any foreigners fishing
within 15 German miles of the shores of Greenland and Iceland.
This claim, however, was always effectively resisted on the
ground stated in Queen Elizabeth's remonstrance to Denmark
on the subject in 1602, that " the law of nations alloweth of
fishing in the sea everywhere, even in seas where a nation hath
propertie of command." The enunciation of this principle a
to be found, also, in the award of the arbitration court which
decided the question of the fur-seal fishery in Bering Sea in 1804.
(See Bering Sea Arbitration; Arbitration, Internationa)
The right of nations to take fish in the sea may, however, be
restrained or regulated by treaty or custom; and Great Britain
has entered into conventions with other nations with regard to
fishing in certain parts of the sea. The provisions of such
conventions are made binding on British subjects by statutes.
Instances of these arc the conventions of 181 8 and 1872 between
Great Britain and the United States as to the fisheries on the eastern
coasts of British North America and the United States within certain
limits, and the award of the Bering Sea arbitration tribunal under the
treaty of 1892; the conventions between Great Britain and France
in 1839 and 1867 as regards fishing in the seas adjoining the*
countnes, the latter of which will come into force on the repeal of
the former; the agreement of 1904 with respect to the New-
foundland fisheries (sec Newfoundland) ; the convention of 1&2
between Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain and
Holland, regarding the North Sea fisheries; that of 1887 between
the same parties concerning the liquor traffic in the North Sea;
and the declaration regarding the same waters made between
Great Britain and Belgium for the settlement of differences between
their fishermen subjects in such extra-territorial waters. At the
instance of the Swedish government the British parliament also
passed an act in 1875 to establish a close time for the seal fishery in
the seas adjacent to the eastern coasts of Greenland.
Cases have come before British courts with regard to the
whale fishery in northern and southern seas; and the customs
proved to exist among the whaling ships of the nations engaged
in a particular trade have been upheld if known to the parties
to the action. In territorial waters, on the other band, fishery
is a right exclusively belonging to the subjects of the country
owning such waters, and no foreigners can fish there except by
convention.
(a) Tidal Waters.— In British territorial waters, ft may be
stated, as the general rule, that fishery is a right incidental
to the soil covered by the waters in which that right is exercised.
The bed of all navigable rivers where the tide flows and renews,
and of all estuaries or arms of the sea. is vested in the crown; and
therefore, in Lord Chief Justice Hale's words,**" the right of the
fishery in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof is originally
lodged in the crown, as the right of depasturing is originally lodged
in the owner of the waste whereof he is lord, or as the right of fisbtqa
belongs to him that is the owner of a private or inland river.
" But," he continues, *• though the king is the owner of this great
waste, and as a consequent ol his propriety hath the primary right
of fishing in the sea and the creeks and arms thereof, yet the common
people of England have regularly a liberty of fishing therein as a
public common of piscary, and may not without injury to their right
be restrained of it unless in such places or creeks or navigable rivers
where either the king or some particular subject hath gained a
propriety exclusive of that common liberty " (De Jure Maris, ch. iv.).
This right extends to all fish floating in the sea or left on the
seashore, except certain fish known as royal fish, which, when
taken in territorial waters, belong to the crown or its grantee,
though caught by another person. These are whales, sturgeons
and porpoises; and grampuses are also sometimes added (whales,
porpoises and grampuses being " fishes " only In a legal sense).
In Scotland only whales which are of large size can be so claimed;
FISHERY
+35
but tbe right* of saJrnon nsaittrfftt the sea and 1n public and
private liven, and those of mussel and oyster fishing, except
in private riven, are inter regalia^ and are only enjoyable by tbe
crown or persons deriving title under it. As salmon fishery was
formerly practised by nets and engines on the short, and the
mussel and oyster fisheries were necessarily carried on on the
shore, the opinion was held at one time that angling for salmon
-was a public right, bat the later decisions have established that
the right of salmon fishing by whatever means is a jus regale in
Scotland. In England the crown in early limes made frequent
grants of fisheries to subjects in tidal waters, and instances of
such fisheries belonging to persons and corporations are very
common at the present day: but by Magna Carta the crown
declared that "no rivers shall be defended from henceforth,
but such as were in defence in the time of King Henry, our
grandfather, by the same places and the same bounds as they
were wontrto be in bis time "; and. thus bound itself not to
create a private fishery in any navigable tidal river. Judicial
decision and commentators having interpreted this statute
according to the spirit and not the letter, at the present day the
right of fishery in tidal waters prima facie belongs to the public,
and they can only be excluded by a particular person or corpora-
tion on proof of an exdusive right to fish there not later in its
origin than Magna Carta; and for this it is necessary either to
prove an actual grant from the crown of that date to the claimant's
predecessor in title, or a later grant or immemorial custom or
prescription to that effect, from which such an original grant
may be presumed. This exdusive right of fishing may be either
a franchise derived from tbe crown, or may arise by virtue of
ownership of the soil covered by the waters.
In Lord Hale's words: " Fishing may be of two lands ordinarily,
vis. fishing with a net, which may be either as a liberty without the
■oil, or as a liberty arising by reason of and in concomitance with the
•oil or an interest or propriety of it ; or otherwise it is a local fishing
that ariseth by or from the propriety of the soil/— such are gurgites.
wears, fishing-places, borackioe, stackioe, which are the very soil
itself, and so frequently agreed by our books. And such as these a
subject may have by usage; either in gross, as many religious
houses had, or as parcel ofor appurtenant to their manors, as Doth
corporations and others have had ; and this not only in navigable
rivers and arms of the sea but in creeks and ports and havens, yea,
and in certain known limits in the open sea contiguous to tbe shore.
And these kinds of fishings are not only for small sea-fish, such as
herrings, Ac. but for great fish, as salmons, and not only for them
but for royal fish.. . .Most of the precedents touching such rights
of fishing in tbe sea, and the arms and creeks thereof belonging by
usage to subjects, appear to be by reason of the propriety of the
very water and soil wherein the fishing is, and some of them even
within parts of the seas " (De Jurt Maris, ch. v.)
An instance of the former kind of fishery is to be found in the
old case of Royal Fishery of the River Bonn (temp. James I.,
Davis 655), and the modern one of Wilson v. Crossfield, 1885,
z T.L.R. 601, where a right of fishery in gross was established;
but the latter kind, as Hale says, is much more common, and the
presumption is always in its favour; & fortiori where the fishing
is proved to have been carried on by means of engines or struc-
tures fixed in the soil. In England the public have not at com-
mon law, as incidental to their right of fishing in tidal waters>
the right to make use of the banks or shores for purposes in-
cidental to the fishery, such as beaching their boats upon them,
landing there, or drying their nets there (though they can do so
by proving a custom from which such a grant may be presumed);
but statutes relating to particular parts of the realm, such as
Cornwall for the pilchard fishery, give them such rights. In
Scotland a right of salmon fishing separate from land implies
the right of access to and use of the banks, foreshores or beach
for the purposes of the fishing; and so does white fishing by
statute. But otherwise there is no right to do so, e.g. in a public
river for trout fishing. A similar privilege is given to Irish
fishermen for the purpose of sea fishery by special statute. There
is no property in fish in the sea, and they belong to the first
taker; and the custom of the trade deddes when a fish is taken
or not, e.g. in the whale fishery the question whether a fish is
" loose " or not has come before English courts.
(Jo) Fresh Waters. — In non-tidal waters in England and
Ireland, for the reason given above, the presumption b (n favottt
of the fishery in such waters belonging to the owners of the ad-
jacent lands; " fresh waters of what kind soever do of common
right belong to the owners of the soil adjacent, so that tbe owners
of the one side have of common right the property of the soil, and
consequently tbe right of fishing usque ad filum aquae, and the
owners of the other side the right of soil or ownership and fishing
onto the filum aquae on their side; and if a man be owner of
the land on both sides, in common presumption he is owner of
the whole river, and hath the right of fishing according to the
extent of his land in length " (Hale, ch, i.). There Is a similar
presumption that the owner of the bed of a river has the exdusive
right of fishery there, and this is so even though he does not own
the banks; but these presumptions may be displaced by proof
of a different state of things, e.g. where the banks of a stream
are separatdy owned the owner of one bank may show by acts
of ownership exercised over the whole stream that he has the
fishery over it alt The crown prerogative of fishery, never it
seems, extended to non-tidal waters flowing over the land of a
subject, and it could not therefore grant such a franchise to a
subject, nor has it any right dejure to the soil or fisheries of an
inland lake such as Lough Neagh (BrisUrw v. Cormkan, 1878,
3 App. Cae, 641). The public cannot acquire the right to fish
in fresh waters by prescription or otherwise although they are
navigable; such a right is unknown to law, because a profit
4 prendre in alieno solo is neither to be acquired by custom nor
by prescription under the Prescription Act. It has been dedded
that the " dwellers " in a parish cannot acquire such a- right,
being of too vague a class, but the commoners in a manor may
have it by custom; and the " free inhabitants of andent tene-
ments " in a borough have been held capable of acquiring a
right to dredge for oysters in a fishery belonging to the corpora*
tion of the borough on certain days in each year by giving proof
of uninterrupted enjoyment of it from time immemorial, on the
presumption that this was a condition to which the grant made
to the corporation was subject
in Scotland the law is similar. The right to fish for trout
in private streams is a pertinent of the land adjacent, and
owners of opposite banks may fish usque ad medium filum aquae;
and where two owners own land round a private loch, both have
a common of fishing over it. The public cannot prescribe for it,
for a written title either to adjacent lands or to the fishery is
necessary. A tight of way along the bank of a river or loch
does not give ft, nor does tbe right of the public to be on or
at a navigable but non-tidal river. The right of salmon fishing
carries with it the right of Croat fishing: and ed fishing passes in
the same way.
In England and Ireland private fisheries have been divided
into («) several (separalis), (b) free (libera), (c) common of piscary
(communis), whether in tidal or non-tidal waters. The distinction
between several and free fisheries has always been uncertain.
Blackstone's opinion was that several fishery implied a fishery in
right of the soil under the water, while free fishery was confined
to a public river and did not necessarily comprehend the soil.
He is supported by later writers, such as Woolrych and Paterson.
On the other hand, the opinions of Coke and Hale are opposed
to this view. " A man may prescribe to have a several fishery
in such a water, and the owner shall not fish there; but if he
dairo to have common of fishery or free fishery the owner of the
soil shall fish there '•(Co Littl. 1 32 A); " one man may have
the river and others the soil adjacent: or one man may have the
river and soil thereof, and another the free or several fishing in
that river " (De Jure Maris, ch. i.). Lord Holt, though in one
instance he distinguished them, in a later case thought that
they were " all one," Later decisions have established the latter
view, and it is now settled that although the owner of the several
fishery is prima fade owner of tbe soil of the waters, this presump-
tion may be displaced by showing that the terms of the grant
only convey an incorporeal hereditament, and that the words
" sole and exclusive fishery " give a several fishery in alieno sola,
In the words of Mr Justice Willes, " tbe only substantial distinc*
tion is between an exdusive right of fishery, usually called
43&
FI8HERY
4 several,' and sometime* ' free/ as in ' free warren,' and a right
in common with others, usually called ' common of fishery/
and sometimes ' free,' as in ' free port/ A several fishery means
an exclusive right to fish in a given place, either with or without
the property in the soil " (Makdmson v. CDta, 1863, 10 H.L )
A common of piscary, or " a right to fish in common with certain
other persons in a particular stream/' is usually found in manors,
the commoners of which may have the right to enjoy it to an
extent sufficient for the sustenance of their tenements; but
they cannot, except by immemorial special prescription, exclude
the lord of the manor therefrom, and have no rights over the
soil itself. Decisions also establish that a grant of " fishery "
will prima facie pass an exclusive fishery; a grant of soil covered
by water or a lease of lands including water will pass the fishery
therein; a several fishery will not merge on being resumed by
the crown; and a fishery situate within a manor is presumed
to belong to the owners of adjacent land, and not to the lord.
A several fishery, as already seen, being an incorporeal heredita-
ment, can only be transferred by deed, and therefore cannot
be abandoned, and so acquired by the public, even on proof that
the public have, as far back as living memory, exercised the right
of fishing in the locus in quo to the knowledge of and without
interruption from the claimant of the fishery. But to establish
a title to a several fishery, a " paper title," i.e. one founded on
documentary evidence only, is not sufficient; it must be sup-
ported by evidence of acts of ownership in recent times, for
otherwise it will be presumed that a person other than the alleged
owner is the real owner. If the waters of a tidal river leave their
old channel and flow into another, the owner of a several fishery
in the old channel cannot claim to have it in the new one, but,
on the other hand, the owner of a several fishery can take
advantage of a gradual encroachment by the river upon and
into the land of a riparian owner, the limits of whose land are
ascertained. The owner of an exclusive fishery, whether in tidal
or fresh waters, has the right to take as many fish as he can, and
may do so by means of fixed engines or dredging, provided that
in navigable waters he does not interfere with the right of
navigation, and that in navigable and other waters he does not
interfere with the fishing rights of his neighbours or infringe the
provisions made by old or modern statutes as to the methods
of taking the fish, e.g. by weirs. These were forbidden in rivers
by Magna Carta and later statutes, and on the seashore by a
statute of James I.; but all weirs in navigable fresh waters
traceable to a date not later than 35 Edward III. are lawful,
for the statutes forbidding weirs do not apply to navigable
waters. It seems, however, that at common law any fixed
structures put up by the owner of a fishery in his part of a river,
which at all prevent the free passage of fish to the waters above
or below, give the owners of fisheries therein a right of action
against him. So the grantee of an exclusive fishery with rod
and line in an unnavigable river can prevent any person from
polluting the river higher up and so damaging the fishery. At
common law there is no property in fish when enjoying their
natural liberty; the taker is entitled to keep them unless they
are caught from a tank or small pond; or except in the case of
salmon by statute.
Modern statutes now regulate all fisheries, sea or fresh, in
territorial or inland waters. As regards sea fishery in England,
the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has (since 1903, when it
took it over from the Board of Trade) power by order to create
sea fisheries districts, comprising any part of the sea within
which British subjects have, by international law, the exclusive
right of fishing, and to provide for the constitution of a local
fisheries committee to regulate the sea fisheries in such district,
which can make by-laws for that purpose. It appoints fishery
officers to enforce them, prescribes a dose time for sea fish
(which does not include salmon as defined in the Salmon Act),
has summary jurisdiction over offences committed on the sea
coast or at sea. beyond the ordinary jurisdiction of a court of
summary jurisdiction, can enforce the Sea Fisheries Acts, or
regulate, protect and develop fisheries for all or any kind of shell
fish. Special provision is also made by statute for the oyster
fishery and herring fishery (applicable also to Scotland), and that
of mussels, cockles, lobsters and crabs (applicable to all the
United Kingdom). In Scotland the Fishery Board can constitute
sea fishery districts, and boards with like powers to those m
England, and has general control over the coast and deep-sea
fisheries of Scotland; and there are acts relative to herring,
mussel and oyster fisheries, and allowing the appropriation of
money intended to relieve local distress and taxation towards
the encouragement of sea fisheries and marina superintendence
and enforcement of Scottish sea fisheries laws. In Ireland the
sea fisheries are under the direction of the inspectors of Irish
fisheries, who have replaced the former fishery commissioners
and special commissioners for Irish fisheries; special statutes,
besides the general ones applying to all the United Kingdom,
deal with oyster fisheries and mussel fisheries; and money is
also appropriated for sea fisheries under the head of technical
instruction. In all three component parts of the United Kingdom
there are also special statutes relative to salmon and freshwater
fish: for England, the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts
1861-1907, and the Freshwater Fisheries Acts 2878-1886; for
Scotland the chief Salmon Acts are those of 1862-1868, and for
trout and freshwater fish those of 1 845-1 002; for Ireland, the
Fisheries (Ireland) Acts 1 842-1001 . A similar scheme is adopted
in each case, namely, fishery districts and district boards are
set up which regulate the fishing by by-laws and protect the fish
by fixing a close time, and prescribing passes, licences, inspection
and the like, breaches of which are punishable by courts of
summary jurisdiction. The supreme authorities in each case
are— for England the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, for
Scotland the Fishery Board, and for Ireland the inspectors of
fisheries, and in England a certain official number of conservators
on such boards are appointed by the county councils. The
Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act 1907 gives the Board
of Agriculture and Fisheries power to make provisional orders
for the regulation of salmon fisheries or freshwater fisheries
within any area on the application of any board of conservators,
or of a county council, or of the owners of one-fourth in value
of private fisheries. There ase also special acts dealing with the
fishing in certain rivers, such as the Thames, Medway, Severn,
Tweed and Esk. (The act of 1907 applies, however, to the Esk,
but not otherwise to Scotland nor to Ireland.) Throughout the
United Kingdom the use of dynamite or other explosive substance
to catch or destroy fish in any public fishery is prohibited, as it
is also in England in any private waters subject to the Salmon
and Freshwater Fisheries Acts 1878, in which it is also forbidden
to use poison or other noxious substance for destroying fish.
Officers in the army or marines are forbidden (under penalty) to
lull fish without written leave from the person entitled to grant
it. There are also provisions of the criminal law dealing with the
protection of fisheries generally, as well as the provisions of the
acts already mentioned dealing with special kinds of fish.
Special provision is made by the Merchant Shipping Acts
1894-1906 for sea-fishing boats (except in Scotland and the
colonies), relating to their registration, carrying official papers,
carrying boats in proportion to their tonnage, the punishment
of offences on board, the wages of their crews, and keeping record
of all casualties, punishments and the like on board. As regards
trawlers, especially in the case of those of 25 tons and upwards,
a statutory form of agreement with the crew is prescribed, as
well as accounts of wages and discharges; and skippers and
second hands must have certificates of competency, which are
granted under similar conditions to those required in the case
of seagoing ships and are registered with the Board of Trade.
Scottish fishing boats are regulated by a special statute of 1886
(except as regards agreements to pay crew by share of profits,
dealt with by the above act) and by the Sea Fisheries Act of 1868,
which applies to all British fishing boats. Particular lights must
be carried by fishing boats in navigation. An act of 1908 (The
Cran Measures Act) legalized the use of cran measures in connexion
with trading in fresh herrings in England and Wales, the Board
of Agriculture and Fisheries being empowered to make reguia-
I tions under the act.
FISHGUARD— FI8KE
437
Authorities.— Gram. Emyehpoodia of Scots Law (Edinburgh,
»?*>); Stewart, Law of Fishing in Scotland (Edinburgh, 1869);
t'oolrvch. Waters (London, 1851); Patcrson, Fishery Laws of the
JniUd Kingdom (London and Cambridge, 1863); Stuart Moore,
•oreskore (London, 1888); Phillimore, Intemahonal Lew (3rd ed.,
^ndon, 1879); Martens, Causes cHiores dm droUdes gens (Leipzig,
827): Seiwyn. Nisi Prims, Fishery (London, 1869). (G. C P.*)
FISHGUARD (Aberpoaun}, a market town, urban district,
rontributory parliamentary borough and seaport of Pembroke-
shire. Wales, near the mouth of the river Gwsua, which here
Bows into Fishguard Bay or St George's Channel Fop. (1901)
wo?. Its raitway station, which is the chief terminus of the
So u t h Wales systeaxof the Great Western railway, is at the hamlet
of Goodwtcfc across the bay, a mile distant to the south«west.
Fishguard Bay is deep and well sheltered from all winds save
those of the? N. and N.E., and its immense commercial value baa
long been recognized. After many years of labour and at a great
expenditure of money the Great Western railway has constructed
a fine breakwater and railway pier at Goodwick across the lower
end of the bay, and an important passenger and goods traffic with
Rosslare on the opposite Irish coast was inaugurated in 1906.
The importance of Fishguard is due to the local 6sheries and
the excellence of its harbour, and its early history is obscure.
The chief historical interest of the town centres round the so-
called " Fishguard Invasion " of 1797, in which year on the
22 nd of February three French men-of-war with troops on board,
under the command of General Tate, an Irish-American adven-
turer, appeared off Carreg Gwastad Point in the adjoining
parish of Llanwnda. To the great alarm of the inhabitants a
body of about 1400 men disembarked, but it quickly capitulated,
practically without striking a blow, to a combined force of the
local militias under Sir Richard Philipps, Lord Milford and
John Campbell, Lord Cawdor; the French frigates meanwhile
sailing away towards Ireland. For many years the castles and
prisons of Haverfordwest and Pembroke were filled to over-
flowing with French prisoners of war. Close to the banks of the
Gwaun is the pretty estate of Glyn-y-mel, for many years the
residence of Richard Fenton (1 746-1821), the celebrated anti-
quary and historian of Pembrokeshire.
PISHKILL LANDING, or Fibhkill-on-the-Hudson, a village
of Fishkill township, Dutchess county, New York, U.S.A.,
about 58 m. N. of New York City, 00 the E. bank of the Hudson
river, opposite Newburgh. Pop. (1800) 3617, (1000) 3673,
of whom 540 were foreign born, (1005) 3930, (1910) 3902,
of Fishkill township (1800) 11,840; (1900) 13,016; (1905)
13,183; (1910) 13,858. In the township are also the villages
of Maiteawan (?.v.), Fishkill and Gkaham. Fishkill Landing
» served by the New York Central ft Hudson River and the
New York, New Haven ft Hartford railways, by railway ferry
and passenger ferries to Newburgh, connecting with the West
Shore railway; by river steamboats and by electric railway
to Matteawan. Four mDcs farther N on Fishkill Creek is
the village of Fishkill (incorporated in 1899), pop. (1005) 579-
In this village are two notable old churches, Trinity (1769),
and the First Dutch Reformed (173O. in which the New York
Proviakal Congress met in August and September 1976.
At the old Verplanck mansion in Fishkill Landing the Society
oi the Cincinnati was organized in 1783. Among the manu-
factures of Fishkill Landing are rubber-goods, engines (Corliss)
and other machinery, hats, silks, woollens, and brick and tile.
The village of Fishkill Landing was incorporated in 1864. The
lint settlement in the township was made about 1690. The
township of Fishkill was. like Newburgh, an important military
post during the War of Independence, and was a supply depot
for the northern Continental Army.
F18K, JAMES (1834-1872), American financier, was born at
Bennington, Vermont, on the 1st of April 1834. After a brief
period in school he ran away and joined a circus, Later he became
a bold waiter, and finally adopted the business of his father,
a pedlar. He then became a salesman for a Boston dry goods
firm, his aptitude and energy eventually winning for him a share
in the business. By his shrewd dealing in army contracts during
the Civil War, and it is said hy engaging in cotton smuggling,
he accumulated a considerable capital which he soon lost in
speculation. In 1864 he became a stockbroker in New York
and was employed by Daniel Drew as a buyer. He aided Drew
in his war against Vanderbilt for the control of the Erie railway,
and as a result of the compromise that was reached he and Jay
Gould became members of the Erie directorate. The association
with Gould thus began continued until his death. Subsequently
by a well-planned " raid," Fisk and Gould obtained control
of the road. They carried financial " buccaneering " to extremes,
their programme including open alliance with the Tweed " ring,"
the wholesale bribery of legislatures and the buying of judges.
Their attempt to corner the gold market culminated in the
fateful Black Friday of the 24th of September 1869. Fisk was
shot and killed in New York City by E. S. Stokes, a former
business associate, on the 6th of January 187a.
FISK, WILBUR (1 792-1839), American educationist, was
bora in Brattleboro, Vermont, on the 31st of August 179s.
He studied at the university of Vermont in 1812-18x4, and then
entered Brown University, where he graduated in 1815. He
studied law, and in 18 17 came under the influence of a religious
revival in Vermont, where at Lyndon in the following year he
was licensed as a local preacher and was admitted to the New
England conference. His influence with the conference turned
that body from its opposition to higher education as immoral
in tendency to the establishment of secondary schools and
colleges. Upon the removal in 1824 of the conference's academy
at New Market, New Hampshire, to Wilbraham, Massachusetts,
Fisk became one of its agents and trustees, and in 1826 its
principal. He drafted the report of the committee on education
to the general conference in 1828, at which time he declined
the bishopric of the Canada conference. He was first president
of Wesleyan University from the opening of the university in
1831 until his death on the s;nd of February 1839 in Middle-
town, Connecticut. His successful administration of the Wesleyan
Academy at Wilbraham and of Wesleyan University were remark-
able. He was an able controversialist, and in the interests
of Anxunianism attacked both New England Calvinism and
Unitarianism; he published in 1837 The Cahinistic Controversy.
He also wrote Travels on the Continent of Europe (1838).
See Life and Writings of Wilbur Fisk (New York. 1842), edited by
Joseph Hotdich, and the biography by George Prentice (Boston,
1890), in the American Rditious Leaders Series-, also a sketch in
Memoirs of Teachers and Educators (New York, 1861), edited by
Henry Barnard.
FISKE, JOHN (1842-1001), American historical, philosophical
and scientific writer, was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on the
30th* of March 1842, and died at Gloucester, Massachusetts, on
the 4th of July 1001. His name was originally Edmund Fiske
Green, but in 1855 he took the name of a great-grandfather,
John Fiske. His boyhood was spent with a grandmother in
Middletown, Connecticut; and prior to his entering college he
had read widely in English literature and history, had surpassed
most boys in the extent of his Greek and Latin work, and had
studied several modern languages. He graduated at Harvard in
1863, continuing to study languages and philosophy with zeal;
spent two years in the Harvard law school, and opened an office
in Boston, but soon devoted the greater portion' of his time
to writing for periodicals. With the exception of one year,
he resided at Cambridge, Massachusetts, from the time of his
graduation until his death. In 1869 he gave a course of lectures
at Harvard on the Positive Philosophy; next year he was
history tutor; in 1871 he delivered thirty-five lectures on the
Doctrine of Evolution, afterwards revised and expanded as
Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy (1874), and between 1872 and
1879 he was assistant-librarian. After that time he devoted
himself to literary work and lecturing on history. Nearly all
of his books were first given to the public in the form of lectures
or magazine articles, revised and collected under a general
title, such as Myths and Myth-Makers (1872), Darwinism and
Other Essays (1879), Excursions of an Evolutionist (1883), and
A Century of Science (1899). He did much, by the thoroughness
of his learning and the lucidity of his style, to spread a knowledge
of Darwin and Spencer in America. His Outlines of Cosmic
43»
FISKE— FITCH
Philosophy, while setting forth the Spencerian system, made
psychological and sociological additions of original matter, in
some respects anticipating Spencer's later conclusions. Of one
part of the argument of this work Fiske wrote in the preface of
one of his later books {Through Nature to God, 1809): " The
detection of the part played by the lengthening of infancy in the
genesis of the human race is my own especial contribution to the
Doctrine of Evolution." In The Idea of Cod as affected by
Modern Knowledge (1885) Fiske discusses the t heist ic problem,
and declares that the mind of man, as developed, becomes an
illuminating indication of the mind of God, which as a great
immanent cause includes and controls both physical and moral
forces. More original, perhaps, is the argument in the immedi-
ately preceding work, The Destiny of Man, viewed in the Light of
his Origin (1884), which is, in substance, that physical evolution
is a demonstrated fact; that intellectual force is a later, higher
and more potent thing than bodily strength; and that, finally,
m most men and some " lower animals " there is developed a
new idea of the advantageous, a moral and non-selfish line of
thought and procedure, which in itself so transcends the physical
that it cannot be identified with it or be measured by its standards,
and may or must be enduring, or at its best immortal.
It is principally, however, through his work as a historian
that Fiske's reputation will live. His historical writings, with
the exception of a small volume on American Political Ideas
(1885), an account of the system of Civil Government in the
United States (1800), The Mississippi Valley in the Civil War
(1900), a school history of the United States, and an elementary
story of the American Revolution, are devoted to studies, in a
unified general manner, of separate yet related episodes in
American history. The volumes have not appeared in chrono-
logical order of subject, but form a nearly complete colonial
history, as follows: The Discovery of America, with some Account
of Ancient America, and the Spanish Conquest (1892, 2 vols.);
Old Virginia and her Neighbours (1807, 2 vols.); The Beginnings
of New England; or, The Puritan Theocracy in its Relations' to
Civil and Religious Liberty (t88o); Dutch and Quaker Colonies
in America (1800); The American Revolution (1891, a vols.)
and The Critical Period of American History, 1783-1789 (1888),
Of these the most original and valuable is the Critical Period
volume, a history of the consolidation of the states into a govern-
ment, and of the formation of the constitution. (C. F. R.)
FISKE. MlfltlE MADDERN (1865- ), American actress,
was born in New Orleans, the daughter of Thomas Davey. As
a child she played, under her mother's name of Maddern, with
several well-known actors. In 1882 she first appeared as a
" star," but in 1890 she married Harrison Grey Fiske and was
absent from the stage for several years. In 1893 she reappeared
in Hester Crewe, a play written by her husband, and afterwards
acted a number of Ibsen's heroines, and in Becky Sharp, a
dramatization of Thackeray's Vanity Pair. In 1001 she opened,
m opposition to the American theatrical " trust," an independent
theatre in New York, the Manhattan. She won a considerable
reputation in the United States as an emotional actress.
FISTULA (Lat. for a pipe or tube), a term in surgery used to
designate an abnormal communication leading either from
the surface of the body to a normal cavity or canal, or from one
normal cavity or canal to another. These communications are
the result of disease or injury. They receive different names
according to their situation: lachrymal fistula is the small
opening left after the bursting of an abscess in the upper part of
the tear-duct, near the root of the nose; salivary fistula is an
opening into the salivary duct on the cheek; anal fistula, or
fistula in ana, is a suppurating track near the outlet of the
bowel; urethral fistula is the result of a giving way of the tissues
behind a stricture. These are examples of the variety of the
first kind of fistula; while recto-vesical fistula, a communication
between the rectum and bladder, and vesico-vaginal fistula, a
communication between the bladder and vagina, are examples
of the second. The abnormal passage may be straight or tortuous,
of considerable diameter or of narrow calibre. , Fistulae may
be caused by an obstruction of the normal channel, the result
of disease or injury, which prevents, for example, the t
saliva or urine, as the case may be, from escaping; their rete
tion gives rise to inflammation and ulceration in order thu an
exit may be obtained by the formation of an abscess, which
bursts, for example, into the gut or through the skin; the
cavity does not close, and a fistula is the result. The fistulous
channel remains open as long as the contents of the cavity 07
canal with which it is connected can pass through it. To obliter-
ate the fistula one must remove the obstruction and encourage
the flow along the natural channel; for example, one must
open up the nasal duct so as to allow the tears to reach the nasal
cavity, and the lachrymal fistula will close; and so also in the
salivary and urethral fistulae. Sometimes it may be accessary
to lay the channel freely open, to scrape out the unhealthy
material which lines the track, and to encourage it to fill op frosp
its deepest part, as in anal fistula; in other cases it may be
necessary to pare the edges of the abnormal opening and stitch
them together. (E. (X*)
FIT, a word with several meanings. (1) A portion or division
of a poem, a canto, in this sense often spelled " fytte." (2) A
sudden but temporary seizure or attack of illness, particularly
one with convulsiveparoxysmsaccompanied by unconsciousness,
especially an attack of apoplexy or epilepsy, but also applied to
a transitory attack of gout, of coughing, fainting, &c t also of an
outburst of tears, of merriment or of temper. In a trans/erred
sense, the word is also used of any temporary or irregular periods
of action or inaction, and hence in such expressions as " by
fits and starts." (3) As an adjective, meaning suitable, proper,
becoming, often with the idea of having necessary qualifications
for a specific purpose, "a fit and proper person"; and also
as prepared for, or in a good condition for, any enterprise. The
verb " to fit " is thus used intransitively and transitively, to be
adapted for, to suit, particularly to be of the right measurement
or shape, of a dress, of parts of a mechanism, &c, and to make
or render a thing in such a condition. Hence the word is used
as a substantive.
The etymology of the word is difficult; the word may be one
in origin, or may be a homonymous term, one in sound and
spelling but with different origin in each different waning
In Skeat's Etymological Dictionary (ed. 1808) (1) and (2) are
connected and derived from the root of " foot," which appears
in Lat. pes, pedis. The evolution of the word is: step, a part
of a poem, a struggle, a seizure. (3) A word of Scandinaviaa
origin, with the idea of " knitted together " (cf. Ice. feija, to
knit together, Goth, fetjan, to adorn); the ultimate origin is a
Teutonic root meaning to seize (cf. " fetch "). The New English
Dictionary suggests that this last root may be the origin of tO
the words, and that the underlying meaning is junction, meeting;
the early use of " fit " (2) is that of conflict. It is also pointed
out that the meanings of " fit," suitable, proper, have been
modified by " feat," which comes through Fr. fail, from Lat
factum, facere, to do, make.
FITCH, JOHN (i743~'7o8), American pkmeer of steam naviga-
tion, was born at Windsor, Connecticut, on the 21st of January
1743. He was the son of a farmer, and received the usual
common school education. At the age of seventeen he went to
sea, but he discontinued his sailor life after a few voyages and
became successively a clockmaker, a brassfounder and a silver-
smith. Daring the War of Independence he was a sutler to the
American troops, and amassed in that way a considerable sum
of money, with which he bought land in Virginia. He was
appointed deputy-surveyor for Kentucky in 1780, and when
returning to Philadelphia in the following year he was captured
by the Indians, but shortly afterwards regained his liberty.
About this time he began an exploration of the north-western
regions, with the view of preparing a map of the district; and
while sailing oh the great western rivers, the idea occurred to
him that they might be navigated by steam. He endeavoured
by the sale of his map to find money for the carrying out of his
projects, but was unsuccessful. He next applied for assistance
to the legislatures of different states, but though each reported
in favourable terms of his invention, none of them would agree
FITCH, SIR J. G.-<FITCHBURG
439
to grant Wat any pecuniary assistance. He was successful,
however, in 1786, in forming a company Cor the prosecution of
his enterprise, and shortly afterwards a steam-packet of his
invention was hunched on the Delaware. His claim to be the
inventor of stesra-asvigation was disputed by James Rumtey
of Virginia, but Fitch obtained exduaive rights in steam-naviga*
tion in Now jersry, Pennsylvania and Delaware, wUle a similar
privilege .was granted Co Rdrasey in Virginia, Maryland and
New York. A steam-boat built by Fkch conveyed passengers
for hire on the Delaware in the summer of 1700, but the wider*
taking wasa losing one, and led to the dissolution, of the company.
In 1793 ae endeavoured to introduce his invention into France,
but met with no success. On his return to America he found his
property overrun by squatters, and reaping from bis invention
nothing but disappointment and poverty, be committed suicide
at Bardstown, Kentucky, on the and of July 1708.
He left behind hhn a record of his adventures and inaUertunes,
" inscribed to bis children sod future posterity "; and from this a
biography was compiled by Thompson Westcott (Philadelphia,
1857)
FITCH. SIR JOSHWA CIRUMO (18*4-1903), English educa-
tionist, second son of Thomas Fitcb. of a Colchester family, was
born in Southwark, London, in 1814. His parents were poor but
intellectually inclined, and at an early age Fitch started work
as an assistant master in the British and Foreign School Society's
elementary school in the Borough Road, founded by Thomas
Lancaster. But he continued to educate himself by assiduous
reading and attending classes at University College, he was
made headmaster of another school at Klngsland; and in i£$o
be took his B-A. degree at London University, proceeding M A
two years later. In 185a he was appointed by the British and
Foreign School Society to a tutorship at their Training College
in the Borough Road, soon becoming vice-principal and in 1856
principal. He had previously done some occasional teaching
there, and he was thoroughly imbued with the Lancastrian
system. In 1863 he was appointed a government inspector of
schools for the York district, from which, after intervals in which
be was detached for work as an assistant commissioner (1865-
1867) on the Schools Inquiry Commission, as special commis-
sioner (1869), and as an assistant commissioner under the
Endowed Schools Act (1870-1877), he was transferred in 1877
to East Lambeth. In 1883 he was made a chief inspector,
to superintend the eastern counties, and in 1885 chief inspector
of training colleges, a post he held till he retired in 1804. In the
course of an extraordinarily active career, he acquired a unique
acquaintance with all branches of education, and became a
recognized authority on the subject, his official reports, lectures
and books having a great influence on the development of
education in England. He was a strong advocate and supporter
of the movement for the higher education of women, and he was
constantly looked to for counsel and direction on every sort of
educational subject; his wide knowledge, safe judgment and
amiable character made his co-operation of exceptional value,
and after he retired from official life his services were in active
request in inquiries and on boards and committees. In 1896
he was knighted; and besides receiving such academic distinc-
tions as the LL.D. degree from St Andrews University, he was
made a chevalier of the French Legion of Honour in 1880. He
was a constant contributor to the leading reviews; he published
an important series of Lectures on Teaching (1881), Educational
Aims and Methods, Notes on American Schools and Colleges
(1887), and an authoritative criticism of Thomas and Matthew
Arnold, and their Influence on English Education (see also the
article on Arnold, Matthew) in loot; and he wrote the article
on Education in the supplementary volumes (xoth edition)
of this encyclopaedia (1002). He died on the 14th of July 1003
in London. A civil list pension was given to bis widow, whom,
as Miss Emma Wilks, he had married in 1856.
See also Sir Joshua Fitch, by the Rev. A. L. Lilley (1906).
FITCH, RALPH (fl. 1583-1606), London merchant, one of
the earliest English travellers and traders in Mesopotamia, the
Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean, India proper and Indo-China.
In January 1583 he embarked In the " Tiger " for Tripoli and)
Aleppo in Syria (see Shakespeare, Macbeth, Act I. sc. 3), together
witn J. Mewberie, J. Eldred and two other merchants or em-
ployees of the Levant Company. From Aleppo he reached the
Euphrates, descended the river from Bir to Fallujab, crossed
southern Mesopotamia to Bagdad, and dropped down the Tigris
to Basra (May to July 1583). Here Eldred stayed behind to
trade, while fitcb and the rest sailed down the Persian Golf
to Ormuz, where tbey were arrested as spies (at Venetian instiga-
tion, as they believed) sad tent prisoners to the Portuguese
viceroy at Gea (September to October). Through the sureties
procured by two- Jesuits (one being Thomas Stevens, formerly
of New College, Oxford, the first EngKsnman known to have
reached India by the Cape route in 1570) Fitcb and his friends
regained their liberty, and escaping from Goa (April 1584)
travelled through the heart of India to the court of the Great
Mogul Akbar, then probably at Agra. la September 1585
Newberie left on his return journey overland vis Lahore (be
disappeared; being presumably niu i d ew d , in the Punjab), while
Fitch descended the Jumna and the Ganges, visiting Benares,
Patna, Koch Behar, Hugli, Chittaspng, Ac. (1 585-1 586), and
pushed on by sea to Pegu and Burma. Here he visited the
Rangoon region, ascended the Irawadi some distance, acquired
a remarkable acquaintance with inland Pegu, and even pene-
trated to the Siamese Shan states (1586-1587). Early in 1588
he visited Malacca; in the autumn of this year he began his
homeward travels, first to Bengal; then round the Indian coast,
touching at Cochin and Goa, to Otmus; next up the Persian
Gulf to Basra and up the Tigris to Mosul (Nineveh); finally
via Urfa, Bir on the Euphrates, Aleppo and Tripoli, to the
Mediterranean. He reappeared in London on the Syth of April
1 591. His experience was greatly valued by the founders of
the East India Ccnnpany, who spedoly consulted him on Indian
affairs (e.g. end of October 1600; 19th of January 1601 j 31st
of December 1606).
Sec Hakluyt, Principal Navigations (1599), vol. H. part I pp.
245-271, esp. 350-268; Linschoten, Voyages Utinerans), part i.
ch. xoi. (vol. ii. pp. 158-160, Ac., Hakluyt Soc. edition) ; Stevens and
Birdwood, Court Records of the East India Company 1409-1601 (1886),
csp. pp. 26, 123; State Papers, East Indies, Ac., ijij-idiO (1862).
No. 36; Pinkerton, Voyages and Travels (1808-1814), ix. 406-425.
FTTCHBURG, a city and one of the county-seats of Worcester
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated, at an altitude varying
from about 435 ft- to about 550 ft., about 23 m. N. of Worcester
and about 45 n>. W.N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1880) 12,420?
(1800) 12,037; (1000) 31,531, <5f whom 10,017 were foreign-born,
including 4063 French Canadians, 836 English Canadians,
2306 Irish and 963 Finns; (1910 census) 37,826. Fitchburg
is traversed by the N. branch of the Nashua river, and is served
by the Boston * Maine, and the New York, New Haven fc
Hartford railways, and by three interurbon electric lines. The
city uvea (27*7 sq.m.) is well watered, and is very uneven, with
hill spurs running in all directions, affording picturesque scenery.
The court house and the post office (in a park presented by the
citizens) are the principal public buildings.. Fitchburg is the
seat of a state normal school (1895), with model and training
schools; has a free public library (1859; in the Wallace library
and art building), the Burbonk hospital, the Fttchborg home
for old ladies, and an extensive system of parks, in one of which
is a fine fountain, designed by Herbert Adams. Fitchburg
has large mercantile and financial interests, but manufacturing
is the principal industry. The principal manufactures are
paper and wood pulp, cotton and woollen goods, yam and silk,
machinery, saws, horn goods, and bicycles and firearms (the
Iver Johnson Arms and Cycle Works being located here). In
1005 the city's total factory product was valued at $i5.3v<>.5©7i
of which $3,019,118 was the value of the paper and wood pulp
product, $2,910,572 was the value of the cotton goods, and
$1,202421 was the value of the foundry and machine shop
products. The municipality owns and operates its (gravity)
water works system. Fitchburg was included in Lunenburg
until 1764, when it was incorporated as a township and was
44<>
FITTIG— FITTON
named in honour of John Fitch, a citizen who did much to secure
incorporation; it wu chartered as a city in 187?.
See W. A. Emerson, FUchburg, Massachusetts, Past and Present
(Fitchburg, 1887).
FITTIG, RUDOLF (1835- )# German chemist, was born,
at Hamburg on the 6th of December 1835. He studied chemistry
at Gttttingen, graduating as PhJ). with a dissertation on
acetone in 1858. He subsequently held several appointments at
Gottingen, being privat docent (i860), and extraordinary
professor (2870). In 1870 he obtained the chair at Tubingen,
and in 1876 that at Strassburg, where the laboratories were
erected from his designs. Fittig's researches arc entirely in
organic chemistry, and cover an exceptionally wide field. The
aldehydes and ketones provided material for bis earlier work.
He observed that aldehydes and ketones may suffer reduction in
neutral, alkaline, and sometimes acid solution to secondary
and tertiary glycols, substances which be named pinacones;
and also that certain pinacones when distilled with dilute
sulphuric acid gave compounds; which he named pinacoUnes.
The unsaturated acids also received much attention, and he
discovered the internal anhydrides of oxyacids, termed lactones.
In 1863 he introduced the reaction known by his name. In
1855 Adolph Wurtz had shown that when sodium acted upon
alkyl iodides, the alkyl residues combined to form more complex
hydrocarbons; Fittig developed this method by showing that a
mixture of an aromatic and alkyl haloid, under similar treatment,
yielded homologues of benxene. His investigations on Perkin's
reaction led him to an explanation of its mechanism which
appeared to be more in accordance with the facts. The question,
however, is one of much difficulty, and the exact course of the
reaction appears to await solution. These researches incidentally
solved the constitution of coumarin, the odoriferous principle
of woodruff. Fittig and Erdmann's observation that phenyl
isocrotonic acid readily yielded a-naphthol by loss of water was
of much importance, since it afforded valuable evidence as to
the constitution of naphthalene. They also investigated certain
hydrocarbons occurring in the high boiling point fraction of the
coal tar distillate and solved the constitution of phenanthrene.
We also owe much of our knowledge of the alkaloid piperine to
Fittig, who in collaboration with Ira Remsen established its
constitution in 1871. Fittig has published two widely used
text-books; he edited several editions of Woofer's Grundriss
der organischen Chemie (1 xth ed., i887)and wrote an Unorganisehe
Chemie (ist ed., 1872; 3rd, 1882). His researches have been
recognized by many scientific societies and institutions, the Royal
Society awarding him the Davy medal in 1006.
FITTON, HART (c. x 578-1647), identified by some writers
with the " dark lady " of Shakespeare's sonnets, was the daughter
of Sir Edward Fitton of Gawsworth, Cheshire, and was baptized
on the fi|th of June 1578. Her elder sister, Anne, married John
Newdigate in 1587, in her fourteenth year. About 1595 Mary
Fitton became maid of honour to Queen Elizabeth. Her father
recommended her to the care of Sir William Knollys, comptroller
of the queen's household, who promised to defend the " innocent
lamb " from the "wolfish cruelty and fox-like subtlety of the
tame beasts of this place." Sir William was fifty and already
married, but he soon became suitor to Mary Fitton, in hope of the
speedy death of the actual Lady Knollys, and appears to have
received considerable encouragement. There is no hint in her
authenticated biography that she was acquainted with Shake-
speare. William Kemp, who was a clown in Shakespeare's
company, dedicated his Nine Daits Wonder to Mistress Anne
(perhaps an error for Mary) Fitton, " Maid of Honour to Eliza-
beth"; and there is a sonnet addressed to her in an anonymous
volume, A Woman's Woortk defended against all the Men in the
World (1500). In 1600 Mary Fitton led a dance in court festivi-
ties at which William Herbert, later earl of Pembroke, is known
to have been present; and shortly afterwards she became bis
mistress. In February 1601 Pembroke was sent to the Fleet
in connexion with this affair, but Mary Fitton, whose child
died soon after it* birth, appears to have simply been dismissed
from court Mary Fitton seems to have gone to her sister, Lady
Newdigate, at Arbury. A second scandal has been find em
Mary Fitton by George Ormerod, author of History of CsesAsrv,
in a MS. quoted by Mr. T. Tyler {Academy, 97th Sept. iS&«)_
Ormerod asserted, on the strength of the MSS. of Sir Peter
Leycester, that she had two illegitimate daughters by Sir Richard
Leveson, the friend and correspondent of her sister Anne. He
also gives the name of her first husband as Captain Logber, aztd
her second as Captain Polwhele, by whom she had a son and
daughter. Polwhele died in 1609 or 1610, about three year*
alter his marriage, But Ormerod was mistaken in the order
of Mary Fitton's husbands, for her second husband, Logber.
died in 1636. Her own will, which was proved in 1647, gives
her name as " Mary Lougher." In Gawsworth church there is
a painted monument of the Fittons, in which Anne and Miry
are represented kneeling behind their mother. It is stated that
from what remains of the colouring Mary was a dark woman,
which is of course essential to her identification with the lady
of the sonnets, but in the portraits at Arbury described by Lady
Ncwdigate-Newdegate in her Gossip from a Mumntestt Room
(1897) she has brown hair and grey eyes.
The identity -of the Arbury portrait with Mary Fitton was chsl-
lengcd by Mr Tyler and by Dr Furnivall. For aa answer to their
remarks see an appendix by C. G. O. Bridgeman in the and editjow
of Lady Newdigate-Newdcgate's book.
The suggestion that Mary Fitton should be regarded as the fabe
mistress ol Shakespeare's sonnets rests on a very thin chain of
reasoning, and by no means follows on the acceptance of the theory
that William Herbert was the addressee of the sonnets, though it at
course fails with the rejection of that supposition. Mr William
Archer (Fortnightly Review, December 1807} found some support
for Mary Fitton's identification with the dark lady ** in the fact
that Sir William Knollys was also her suitor, thus numbering three
M Wills " among her admirers. This supplies a definite interpreta-
tion, whether right or wrong, to the initial lines of Sonnet 135:—
" Whoever hath her wish, thou hast thy ' WHIZ
And ' Will ' to boot, and 'Will ' in overplus. 1 *
Arguments in favour of her adoption into the Shakespeare circle
will be found in Mr Thomas Tyler's Shakespeare's Sonnets (1890, pp.
73-92), and in the same writer's Herbert- Fitton Theory of SkaH-
speore's Sonnets (1898).
FITTON, WILLI AM HENRY (1780-1861), British geologist
was born in Dublin in January 178a Educated at Trinity
College, in that city, he gained the senior scholarship in 170S,
and graduated in the following year. At this time he began to
take interest in geology and to form a collection of fossils. Having
adopted the medical profession he proceeded in 1808 to Edin-
burgh, where he attended the lectures of Robert Jameson, and
thenceforth his interest in natural history and especially in
geology steadily increased. He removed to London In 1800,
where he further studied medicine and chemistry. In 181 x be
brought before the Geological Society of London a description
of the geological structure of the vicinity of Dublin, with aa
account of some rare minerals found in Ireland. He took a
medical practice at Northampton in 18x2, and for some years
the duties of his profession engrossed his time. He was admitted
M.D. at Cambridge in 1816. In 1820, having married a lady of
means, he settled in London, and devoted himself to the science
of geology with such assiduity and thoroughness that he soon
became a leading authority, and in the end, as Murcbison said,
" one of the British worthies who have raised modern geology to
its present advanced position." His " Observations on some of the
Strata between the Chalk and the Oxford Oolite, in the South-east
of England " (Trans. Geci. Soc. ser. 2, vol iv ) embodied a series
of researches extending from 1824 to 1836, and form the classic
memoir familiarly known as Fitton's " Strata below the Chalk."
In this great work he established the true succession and relations
of the Upper and Lower Grccnsand, and of the Wealden and
Purbeck formations, and elaborated their detailed structure.
He had been elected F.R.S. in 1815, and he was president of the
Geological Society of London 1827-1829. His house then
became a meeting place for scientific workers, and during bis
presidency he held a conversazione open on Sunday evenings
to all fellows of the Geological Society. From 1817 to 1841 he
contributed to the Edinburgh Review many admirable essays on
the progress of geological science; he also wrote " Notes on the
FITZBALL— FITZGERALD
P roct er el Geology in England " for the Philosophical Magatisa
0833-1833). Hsvonly independent publication was A Geological
Shetct vf the Vicinity of Hastings (1833). He was awarded the
WollastoD medal by the Geological Society in 1852. He died
in London on the 13th of May x86x.
Obituary by R. I. Murchisoa in Quaff, /earn. Cool. Soc, vet
xviii., 1 86a, p. xxx>
FITZBALU BDWARD (x 709-1873), English dramatist,
whose real patronymic was Ball, was born at Bnrwell, Cambridge-
shire, in x 702. His father was a well-to-do fanner, and FiUbaJl,
after receiving fats schooling at Newmarket, was apprenticed
to a Norwich printer in 1800. He produced some dramatic
pieces at the local theatre, and eventually the marked success
of his Innkeeper of Abbeville, or The Ostler and the Robber (1S2©),
together with the friendly acceptance of one of his pieces at the
Surrey theatre by Thomas Dibdin, induced him to settle in
London. During the neat twenty-five years he produced a
great nnmber of plays, most of which were highly successful.
He had a special talent for nautical drama. His Floating Beacon
(Surrey theatre, 19th of April 1824) ran for 140 nights, and bis
Pass* (Adelpbi, 1825) for 200 nights. His greatest triumph in
xnelodrama was perhaps Jonathan Bradford, or ike Murder at /Ac
Roadside Inn (Surrey theatre, 1 2th of June 1833). He was at
one time stock dramatist and reader of plays at Covent Garden,
and afterwards at Drury Lane. He bad a considerable reputation
as a song-writer and as a librettist in opera. The last years of
his life were spent in retirement at Chatham, where he died on
the 37th of October 1873.
HU autobiography, Thirty-Five Years of a Dramatic Author's Life
(2 vols., 1850), is a naive record of his career. Numbers of his plays
are printed in Cumberland's Minor British Theatre, Dick's Standard
Flays and Lacy's Acting Edition of Plays.
FfTZvBRAIA, the name of an historic Irish house, which
descends from Walter, son of Other, who at the time of the
Domesday Survey (1086) was castellan of Windsor and a tenant-
in-chief in five counties. From his eldest son William, known
as " de Windsor/' descended the Windsors of Stanwell, of whom
Andrew Windsor was created Lord Windsor of Stanwell (a
Domesday possession of the house) by Henry VIIL, which
barony is now vested in the ead of Plymouth, bis descendant
in the female line. Of Walter's younger sons, Robert was given
by Henry I. the barony of Little Easton, Essex; Maurice
obtained the stewardship (dapiferatus) of the great Suffolk abbey
of Bury St Edmunds; Reinald the stewardship to Henry I.'s
queen, Adehca; and Gerald (also a dapifer) became the ancestor
of the FitzGeralds. As constable and captain of the castle that
Arnulf de Montgomery raised at Pembroke, Gerald strengthened
his position in Wales by marrying Nesta, sister of Griffith, prince
of South Wales, who bore to him famous children, " by whom
the southern coast of Wales was saved for the English and the
bulwarks of Ireland stormed." Of these sons William, the eldest,
was succeeded by his son Odo, who was known as " de Carew,"
from the fortress of that name at the neck of the Pembroke
peninsula, the eldest son Gerald having been slain by the Welsh.
The descendants of Odo held Carew and the manor of Moulsf ord,
Berks, and some of them acquired lands in Ireland. But the
wild claims of Sir Peter Carew, under Queen Elisabeth, to vast
Irish estates, including half of " the kingdom of Cork," were
based on a fictitious pedigree. Odo de Carew's brothers,
Reimund " Fits William " (known as " Le Gros ") and Griffin
" Fits William," took an active part in the conquest of Ireland.
Returning to Gerald and Nesta, their son David " Fitz Gerald "
became bishop of St David's (1147-1176), and their daughter
Angharat mother of Gerald de Barri (Giraldus Cambrensis, ex.),
the well-known historian and the eulogist of his mother's family.
A third son. Maurice, obtained from his brother the stewardship
{dapiferatus) of St David's, c xx 74, and having landed in Ireland
in x 169, on the invitation of King Dermod, founded the fortunes
of bis house there, receiving lands at Wexford, where he died
and was buried In x 176. His eventual territory, however, was
the great barony of the Naas in Ophaley (now in Kildare), which
Strongbow granted him with Wicklow Castle; but his sons were
forced to give up the latter. His eldest son William succeeded
him as baron of the Naas and steward of St David's, but William's
granddaughter carried the Naas to the Butlers and so to the
foundreses. Gerald, a younger son of Maurice, who obtained
lands in Ophaley, was father of Maurice " Fit* Gerald," who
held the great office of justiciar of Ireland from x 23 2 to 1245.
In x>34 he fought and defeated his overlord, the earl marshal,
Richard, earl of Pembroke, and he also fought for his king
against the, Irish, the Webb, and in Gascony, dying in 1257.
He held Maynooth Castle, the seat of his descendants.
Much confusion follows in the family history, owing to the
justiciar leaving a grandson Maurice (son of his eldest son
Gerald) and a younger son Maurice, of whom the latter was
justiciar for a year in 127a, while the former, as heir male and
head of the race, inherited tho Ophaley lands, which he is said
to have bequeathed at his death (1287) to John " Fits Thomas,"
whose fighting life was crowned by a grant of the castle and
town of Kildare, and of the earldom of Kildare to him and the
heirs male of his body (May 14th, 13x6), Dying shortly after,
he was succeeded by Ms son Thomas, son-in-law of Richard
(de Burgh) the " red earl " of Ulster, who received the hereditary
shrievalty of Kildare in 13x7, and was twice (1320, 1327) justiciar
of Ireland for a year. His younger son Maurice " Fits Thomas,"
4th earl (1331-1300), was frequently appointed justiciar, and
was great-grandfather of Thomas, the 7th earl (142 7-147 7), who
between 145$ and 1475 was repeatedly in charge of the govern-
ment of Ireland as " deputy," and who founded the " brotherhood
of St George " for the defence of the English Pale. He was also
made lord chancellor of Ireland in 1463. His son Gerald, the
8th carl (1477*25x3), called " More " (the Great), was deputy
governor of Ireland from 1481 for most of the rest of his life,
though imprisoned in the Tower two years (1494-1406) on
suspkion as a Yorkist. He was mortally wounded while fighting
the Irish as "deputy." Gerald, the 9th earl (x 5 13-1534),
followed in his father's steps ss deputy, fighting the Irish, till
the enmity of the earl of Ormonde, tho hereditary rival of his
house, brought about bis deposition in 151a In spite of tem-
porary restorations he finally died a prisoner in the Tower.
In his anger at his rival's successes the 9th earl had been led,
it was suspected, into treason, and while he was a prisoner in
England his son Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, "Silken Thomas,"
broke out into open revolt (1534), and declared war on the
government; his followers slew the archbishop of Dublin and
laid siege to Dublin Castle. Meanwhile he made overtures to
the native Irish, to the pope and to the emperor; but the
Butlers took up arms against him, an English army laid siege
to his castle of Maynooth, and, though its fall was followed by
a long struggle in the field, the earl, deserted by O'Conor, had
eventually to surrender himself to the king's deputy. He was
sent to the Tower, where he was subsequently joined by .his
five uncles, arrested as his accomplices. They were all six
executed ss traitors in February 1537, and acts of attainder
completed the ruin of the family.
But the earl's half-brother, Gerald (whose sister Elizabeth
was the earl of Surrey's " fair Geraldine "), a mere boy, had
been carried off, and, after many adventures at home and abroad,
returned to England after Henry VIII.'s death, and to propitiate
the Irish was restored to his estates by Edward VI. (i$$s).
Having served Mary in Wyat's rebellion, he was created by her
earl of Kildare and Lord Offaley, on the 13th of May 1554, but
the old earldom (though the contrary is alleged) remained under
attainder. Although he conformed to the Protestant religion
under Elizabeth and served against the Minister rebels and their
Spanish allies, he was imprisoned in the Tower on suspicion of
treason in 1583. But the acts attainting his family had been
repealed in 1560, and the old earldom was thus regained. In
iS&s he was succeeded by his son Henry ( M of the Battleaxes "),
who was mortally wounded when fighting the Tyrone rebels
in 1597- On the death of his brother in 1509 the earldom passed
to their cousin Gerald, whose claim to the estates was opposed by
Lettice, Lady Digby, the heir-general. She obtained the
ancestral castle of Geasbill with its territory and was recognized
44P
FITZGERALD
in 1620 as. Lady Offaley for life. George, the 16th earl (1620-
2660), had Jus castle of Maynooth pillaged by the Roman Catholics
in 1642, and after itt subsequent occupation by them in 1646
it was finally abandoned by the family.
The history of the earls after the Restoration was uneventful,
save for the re-acquisition in 1739 of Carton! which thenceforth
became the seat of the family, until James the aoth earl (172*-
>773)t vho obtained a viscounty of Great Britain in 1747, built
Leinster House in Dublin, and formed a powerful party in the
Irish parliament. In 1756 he was made lord deputy; in 1760
he raised the royal Irish regiment of artillery; and in 1766 he
received the dukedom of Leinster, which remained the only
Irish dukedom till that of Abercorn was created in 1868. fits
wealth and connexions secured him a commanding position.
Of his younger children one son was created Lord Lecale;
another was the well-known rebel, Lord Edward Fitzgerald;
another was the ancestor of Lord De Ros; and a daughter
was created Baroness Raylrigh. William Robert, the 2nd duke
(1740-1804), was a cordial supporter of the Union, and received
nearly £30,000 for the loss of his borough influence. In 1S83 the
family was still holding over 70,000 acres in Co. Rildare; but,
after a tenure of nearly 750 years, arrangements were made to
sell them to the tenants under the recent Land Purchase Acts.
In 1893 Maurice Fitzgerald (b. 1887) succeeded his father Gerald,
the 5th duke (1 851-1893), as 6th duke of Leinster.
The other great Fitzgerald line was that of the carls of Desmond,
who were undoubtedly of the same stock and claimed descent
from Maurice, the founder of the family in Ireland, through a
younger son Thomas. It would seem that Maurice, grandson
Of Thomas, was father of Thomas " Fits Maurice " Nappalh
(" of the ape "), justice of Ireland in 1295, who obtained a grant
of the territory of " Decies and Desmond " in 1292, and died
in 1 398. His son Maurice Fitz Thomas or Fitzgerald, inheriting
vast estates in Munster, and strengthening his position by marry-
ing a daughter of Richard de Burgh, earl of Ulster, was created
earl of Desmond {ix. south Munster) on the 22nd of August
1329, and Kerry was made a palatine liberty for him. The
greatest Irish noble of his day, he led the Anglo-Irish party
against the English representatives of the king, and was attacked
as the king's enemy by the viceroy in 1345. He surrendered in
England to the king and was imprisoned, but eventually regained
favour, and was even made viceroy himself in 1355. He died,
however, the following year. Two of his sons succeeded in
turn, Gerald, the 3rd earl (1350-1398), being appointed justiciar
(«.«. viceroy) in 1367, despite his adopting his father's policy
which the crown still wished to thwart. But he was superseded
two years later, and defeated and captured by the native king
of Thomond shortly after. Yet his sympathies were distinctly
Irish. The remote position of Desmond in the south-west of
Ireland tended to make the succession irregular on native lines,
and a younger son succeeded as 6th or 7th earl about 1422.
His son Thomas, the next earl (1462-1467), governed Ireland
as deputy from 1463 to 1467, and upheld the endangered English
rule by stubborn conflict with the Irish. Yet Tiptof t , who super-
seded him, procured his attainder with that of the earl of Kildare,
on the charge of alliance with the Irish, and he was beheaded on
the 14th of February 1468, his followers in Munster avenging his
death by invading the Pale. His younger son Maurice, earl
from 1487 to x 520, was one of Perkin Warbeck's Irish supporters,
and besieged Waterford on his behalf. His son James (1520-
1529) was proclaimed a rebel and traitor for conspiring with the
French king and with the emperor. At his death the succession
reverted to his uncle Thomas (1529-1534), then an old man. at
whose death there was a contest between his younger brother
Sir John " of Desmond " and his grandson James, a court page
of Henry VIII. Old Sir John secured possession till his death
(1536), when his son James succeeded de facto, and dejure oiUhe
rightful earl being murdered by the usurper's younger brother
in 1540. Intermarriage with Irish chieftains had by this time
classed the earls among them, but although this James looked
to their support before 1540, he thenceforth played so prudent
a part that in spite of the efforts of the Butlers, the hereditary
foes of his race, he escaped the fate of the KxMbuw branch and
kept Munster quiet and in order for the English till his death
in 1558. His four marriages produced a disputed wiccu n oa
and a break-up of the family. His eldest ion Thomas * Roe •
(the Red) was disinherited, and failed to obtain the earidem,
which was confirmed by Elizabeth to his half-brother Gerald
" the rebel earl " (1558-1582), but Gerald had other enemies in
his uncle Maurice (the murderer of 1540) and his son especially,
the famous James " Fitz Maurice " Fitz Gerald Gerald's
turbulence and his strife with the Butlers led to his detention
in England (1 562-1 564) and again in 1565-1566. In 1567
Sidney imprisoned him in Dublin Castle, whence, with hisbrotber,
Sir John " of Desmond," he was sent to England and the Tower,
and not allowed to return to Ireland till 1573. Meanwhile the
above James, in spite of the protests of Thomas " Roe," had
usurped his position in his absence and induced the satires to
choose him as r> captain " or chieftain of Desmond. He famed
a strong Irish Catholic party and broke into revolt In 1569.
Suppressed by Sidney, he rebelled again, till crushed by Perrat
in 1573. As Earl Gerald on his return would not join James in
revolt, the latter withdrew to France. But Gerald himself,
after some trimming, rose in rebellion (July 1-574), though he
soon submitted to the queen's forces. On the continent James
Fitz Maurice offered the crown of Ireland in succession to France
and to Spain, and finally to the nephew of Pope Gregory X1IL
With the papal nuncio and a few troops he landed at Dingle in
Kerry (June x 579) and called on the earls of Kildare and Desmond
to join him, but the latter assured the English government oJ
his loyalty, and James was killed in a skirmish. Yet Desmond
was viewed with suspicion and finally forced, by being proclaimed
as a traitor (Nov. tst, 1579), into a miserable rebellion. His
castles were soon captured, and he was hunted as a fugitive,
till surprised and beheaded on the nth of November 1583, after
long wanderings, his head being fixed on London Bridge. His
ruin is attributable to his restless turbulence and lack of settled
policy. The vast estates of the earls, estimated at 600,000 acres,
were forfeited by act of parliament.
But the influence of his mighty house was still great among
the Irish. The disinherited Thomas n Roe " left a son James
" Fitz Thomas," who, succeeding him in 1595 and finding that
the territory of the earls would never be restored, assumed the
earldom and joined O'Neill's rebellion in 1508, at the head of
8000 of his men. Long sheltered from capture by the fidelity
of the peasantry, he was eventually seized (1601) by his kinsman
the White Knight, Edmund Fits Gibbon, whose sister-in-law he
had married, and sent to the Tower. The " sugan " (sham)
earl lingered there obscurely as "James M'Thomas" till his
death. In consequence of his rebellion and the devotion of the
Irish to his race, James, son of Gerald " the rebel earl," who
had remained in the Tower since his father's death (1583), was
restored as earl of Desmond and sent over to Munster in 1600, but
he, known as " the queen's earl," could, as a Protestant, do
nothing, and he died unmarried in x6ox. The " sugan " earl's
brother John, who had joined in his rebellion, escaped into Spain,
and left a son Gerald, who appears to have assumed the title
and was known as the Conde de Desmond He was killed in the
service of the emperor Ferdinand in 1632. The common origin
of the earls of Desmond and of Kildare had never been forgotten,
and intermarriage had cemented the bond. Just before bis
death the exile wrote as " Desmond alias Gerratt Fitz Gerald "
to his " Most Noble Cosen " the earl of Kildare, that " wee must
not be oblivious of the true amity and love that was inviolably
observed betweene our antenates and elders."
There can be no doubt that the house of Fitzmaurice was also
of this stock, although their actual origin, in the xath century,
is doubtful. From a very early date they were feudal lords of
Kerry, and their dignity was recognized as a peerage by Henry
VII. in 1489. The isolated position of their territory (" Clan*
maurice ") threw them even more among the Irish than the earls
of Desmond, and they often adopted the native form of their
name, " MacMorrish." Under Elizabeth the lords of Kerry
narrowly escaped sharing the ruin of the earls. The conduct
FITZGERALD, EDWARD— FITZGERALD, LORD E. 443
of Thomas la the rebellion of James " Fits Maurice " was
suspicions, and his sons joined in that of the earl of Desmond,
^rhik he himself was a rebel in 1582. Patrick, his successor
(1500-1600), was captured in rebellion (1587), and when free,
joined the revolt of 1598, as did his son and heir Thomas, who
continued in the field till he obtained pardon and restoration in
1603, though suspect till his death in 1630. His grandson with-
drew to France with James II., but the next peer became a
supporter of the Whig cause, married the eventual heiress of Sir
William Petty, and was created earl of Kerry m 1725. From
iiim descend the family of Petty-Fitzmaurice, who obtained the
xnarquessate of Lansdowne (q.v.) in 1S18, and still hold among
their titles the feudal barony of Kerry together with vast estates
in that county.
From the three sons by a second wife of one of the earls of
Desmond's ancestors, descended the hereditary White Knights,
Knights of Glin and Knights of Kerry, these feudal dignities
having, it is said, been bestowed upon them by their father,
as Lord of Decies and Desmond. Clin Castle, county Limerick,
is still the seat of the (Fitsgerald) Knight of Glin. Valencia
Island is now. the seat of the Knights of Kerry, who received a
baronetcy in 188a
AuTJioajT!ii3>— Calendars of Irish doru meats and state papers and
Carew papers; Gilbert'* Viceroys pf Inland; Lord Kildarc's Earls
ef Kildare; G, E. C^kaynel'* CwipltK Per* age; Haymond Graves,
Unpublished Gtwl&tttt Dernwrnrj; An*ah of Ike Four Masters',
Calendar of the duke of Leirmtr t MSS, in gth Report on Historical
JLfSS., part ji.; Ware's Anmatsl J. 1L Hound's "Origin of the
Fitzgeralds" and "Origin of ilw Caw*'*" in the Ancestor; his
" Earldom of Kildare and Barony of tiflsfey " in Genealogist, ix.,
and *' Barons of ihc Kaae " an GittHhMV, xv.; and his r * Decies
and Desmond " in Eig> Hist Rev. x\uL (J- H. R.)
FITZGERALD, EDWARD (1800-1883), English writer, the
poet of Omar Khayyam, was born as Edward Puacxu, at
Bredneld House, in Suffolk, on the 31st of March 1809. His
father, John Purcell, who had married a Miss FitsGerald, assumed
in x8i8 the name and arms of his wife's family. From x8x6 to
1821 the FitsGeralds lived at St Germain and at Paris, but in
the latter year Edward was sent to school at Bury St Edmunds.
In 1826 he proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, where,
some two years later, he became acquainted with Thackeray
and W. H. Thompson. With Tennyson, " a sort of Hyperion,"
his intimacy began about 1835. In 1830 he went to live in
Paris, but in 183 x was in a farm-house on the battlefield of
Naseby. He adopted no profession, and lived a perfectly
stationary and rustic life, presently moving into his native
county of Suffolk, and never again leaving it for more than a
week or two. Until 1835 the FitsGeralds lived at Wberstced;
from that year until 1853 the poet resided at Boulge, near
Woodbridge; until i860 at Farlingay Hall; until 1873 in the
town of Woodbridge; and then until his death at his own house
hard by, ealled Little Grange.
During most of this time FitsGerald gave his thoughts almost
without interruption to his flowers, to music and to literature.
He allowed friends like Tennyson and Thackeray, however, to
push on far before him, and long showed no disposition to
emulate their activity. In 1851 he published his first book,
Euphranor, a Platonic dialogue, born of memories of the old
happy life at Cambridge. In 1852 appeared Polouius l a collection
of " saws and modern instances," some of them his own, the rest
borrowed from the less familiar English classics. FitzGerald
began the study of Spanish poetry in 1850, when he was with
Professor E. B. Cowdl at Elmsett and that of Persian in Oxford
in 2853. In the latter year be issued Six Dramas of Calderon,
freely translated. He now turned to Oriental studies, and in
1856 he anonymously published a version of the Saldmdn and
Absdl of Jami in Miltonic verse. In March 1857 the name with
which he has been so closely identified first occurs in FitzGerald's
correspondence—" Hafiz and Omar KhayyAm ring like true
metal." On the 15th of January 1859 a little anonymous
pamphlet was published as The Rubdiydl of Omar Kkayydm.
In the world at large, and in the circle of FitzGerald's particular
friends, the poem seems at first to have attracted no attention.
The publisher allowed it to gravitate to the fourpenny.or even
(as he afterwards boasted) to the penny box on the bookstalls.
But in i860 Rosaetti discovered it, and Swinburne and Lord
Houghton quickly followed. The Rubdiydl became slowly
famous, but it was not until 1868 that FitsGerald was encouraged
to print a second and greatly revised edition. Meanwhile he
had produced in 1865 a version of the Agamemnon, and two more
plays from Calderon. In 1880-1881 he issued privately transla-
tions of the two Oedipus tragedies; his last publication was
Readings in Crabbc, 1882. He left in manuscript a version of
Attar's Mantic-UUair under the title of The Bird Parliament.
From 1861 onwards FitzGerald's greatest interest had centred
in the sea. In June 1863 he bought a yacht, " The Scandal,"
and in 1867 he became part-owner of a herring-lugger, the
" Meum and Tuum." For some years, till 1871, he spent the
months from June to October mainly in "knocking about
somewhere outside of Lowestoft." In this way, and among his
books and flowers, FitsGerald gradually became an old man.
On the 14th of June 1883 be passed away painlessly in his sleep.
He was " an idle fellow, but one whose friendships were more
like loves." In 1885 a stimulus was given to the steady advance
of his fame by the fact that Tennyson dedicated his Tiresias
to FitzGerald's memory, in some touching reminiscent verses
to " Old Fits." This was but the signal for that universal
appreciation of Omar Khayyam in his English dress, which has
been one of the curious literary phenomena of recent years.
The melody of FitzGerald's verse is so exquisite, the thoughts
he rearranges and strings together are so profound, and the
general atmosphere of poetry in which he steeps his version is
so pure, that no surprise need be expressed at the universal
favour which the poem has met with among critical readers.
But its popularity has gone much deeper than this; it is now
probably better known to the general public than any single
poem of its class published since the year i860, and its admirers
have almost transcended common sense in the extravagance
of their laudation. FitsGerald married, in middle life, Lucy, the
daughter of Bernard Barton, the Quaker poet. Of FitsGerald
as a man practically nothing was known until, in 1889, Mr W.
Aldis Wright, his intimate friend and literary executor, published
his Letters and Literary Remains in three volumes. This was
followed in 1895 by the Letters to Fanny Kemble. These letters
constitute a fresh bid for immortality, since they discovered that
FitsGerald was a witty, picturesque and sympathetic letter-
writer. One of the most unobtrusive authors who ever lived,
FitzGerald has, nevertheless, by the force of bis extraordinary
individuality, gradually influenced the whole face of English
bcllts-UUres, in particular as it Was manifested between 1800 and
1900.
The Works of Edward FitsGerald appeared in 1887. See also
a chronological list of FitzGerald's works (Caxton Club, Chicago,
1899); notes for a bibliography by Col. w. F. Prideaux, in Notes
and Queries (9th series, vol. vU, published separately In 1901;
Letters and Literary Remains (o
Aldis Wright, 1902-1903);
and the Life of Edvard FitsGerald, by Thomas Wright (1904).
which contains a bibliography (vol. ii. pp. 241-243) and a bat of
sources (vol i. pp. xvi.«xvu\). The volume on FitzGcrald'ln the
" English Men of Letters " series is by A. C. Benson. The Fitz-
Gerald centenary was celebrated in Ngarcb 1909. See the Centenary
Celebrations Souvenir (Ipswich, 1909) and The Times for March 25,
1909. (E. G.)
FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD (1763-1708), Irish con-
spirator, fifth son of James, xst duke of Leinster, by his wife
Emilia Mary, daughter of Charles Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond,
was born at Carton House, near Dublin, on the 15th of October
1763. In 1773 the duke of Leinster died, and his widow soon
afterwards married William Ogilvie, who superintended Lord
Edward's early education. Joining the army in x?79> Lord
Edward served with credit in America on the staff of Lord
Rawdon (afterwards marquess of Hastings), and at the battle
of Eutaw Springs (8th of September 1781) be was severely
wounded, bis life being saved by a negro named Tony, whom
Lord Edward retained in his service till the end of his life. In
1783 Fitzgerald returned to Ireland, where bis brother, the duke
of Leinster, had procured his election to the Irish parliament
as member for Atby. In parliament he acted with the small
FITZGERALD, LORD E.
Opposition group led by Grattan (4.*.), but took no prominent
part in debate. After spending a short time at Woolwich to
complete his military education, he made a tour through Spain
In 1787; and then, dejected by unrequited love for his cousin
Georgina Lennox (afterwards Lady Bathurst), he sailed for New
Brunswick to join the 54th regiment with the rank of major.
The love-sick mood and romantic temperament of the young
Irishman found congenial soil in the wild surroundings of un-
explored Canadian forests, and the enthusiasm thus engendered
for the "natural" life of savagery may have been already
fortified by study of Rousseau's writings, for which at a later
period Lord Edward expressed his admiration. In February
1780, guided by compass, he traversed the country, practically
unknown to white men, from Frederickstown to Quebec, falling
in with Indians by the way, with whom he fraternized; and in
a subsequent expedition he was formally adopted at Detroit
by the Bear tribe of Hurons as one of their chiefs, and made his
way down the Mississippi to New Orleans, whence he returned to
England.
Finding that his brother had procured his election for the
county of Kildare, and desiring to maintain political independ-
ence, Lord Edward refused the command of an expedition against
Cadiz offered him by Pitt, and devoted himself for the next few
years to the pleasures of society and his parliamentary duties.
He was on terms of intimacy with his relative C. J. Fox, with
R. B. Sheridan and other leading Whigs, According to Thomas
Moore, Lord Edward Fitzgerald was the only one of the numerous
suitors of Sheridan's first wife whose attentions were received
with favour; and it is certain that, whatever may have been
its limits, a warm mutual affection subsisted between the two.
His Whig connexions combined with his transatlantic experiences
to predispose Lord Edward to sympathize with the doctrines of
the French Revolution, which he embraced with ardour when
he visited Paris in October 1 793. He lodged with Thomas Paine,
and listened to the debates in the Convention. At a convivial
gathering on the z8th of November he supported a toast to " the
speedy abolition of all hereditary titles and feudal distinctions,"
and gave proof of his zeal by expressly repudiating his own
title— a performance for which he was dismissed from the army.
While in Paris Fitzgerald became enamoured of a young girl
whom be chanced to sec at the theatre, and who is said to have
had a striking likeness to Mrs Sheridan. Procuring an intro-
duction he discovered her to be a prottgBe of Madame de Sillery,
comtesse de Genlis. The parentage of the girl, whose name was
Pamela (?x 776-1831), is uncertain; but although there is some
evidence to support the story of Madame de Genlis that Pamela
was born in Newfoundland of parents called Seymour or Sims,
the common belief that she was the daughter of Madame de
Genlis herself by Philippe (figalitl), duke of Orleans, was prob-
ably well founded. On the 27th of December 1792 Fitzgerald
and Pamela were married at Tournay, one of the witnesses
being Louis Philippe, afterwards king of the French; and in
January 1793 the couple reached Dublin.
Discontent in Ireland was now rapidly becoming dangerous,
and was finding a focus in the Society of the United Irishmen,
and in the Catholic Committee, an organization formed a few
years previously, chiefly under the direction of Lord Ken ma re,
to watch the interests of the Catholics. French revolutionary
doctrines had become ominously popular, and no one sympa-
thised with them more warmly than Lord Edward Fitzgerald,
who, fresh from the gallery of the Convention in Paris, returned
to his seat in the Irish parliament and threw himself actively
into the work of opposition. Within a week of his arrival he
denounced in the House of Commons a government proclamation,
which Grattan had approved, in language so violent that he
was ordered into custody and required to apologize at the bar
of the House. As early as 1 704 the government had information
that placed Lord Edward under suspicion; bat it was not till
1796 that he joined the United Irishmen, whose aim after the
recall of Lord FitzwiUiam in 1795 -was avowedly the establish-
ment of an independent Irish republic. In May 1796 Theobald
Wolfe Tone was in Paris endeavouring to obtain French assist-
ance for an insurrection in Ireland. Is the same month fits-
gerald and his friend Arthur O'Connor proceeded to Hambcr^.
where they opened negotiations with the Directory through
Reinhard, French minister to the Hanseatic towns. The dike
of York, meeting Pamela at Devonshire House on her way
through London with her husband, had told her that " all w*»
known " about his plans, and advised her to persuade him sot.
to go abroad. The proceedings of the conspirators at lUmbarg
were made known to the government in London by an informer.
Samuel Turner. Pamela was entrusted with all her husband's
secrets and took an active part in furthering Ms designs; and
she appears to have fully deserved the confidence placed in hca\
though there is reason to suppose that at times she counselled
prudence. The result of the Hamburg negotiations was Hocbe*s
abortive expedition to Bantry Bay in December 1796. In
September 1797 the government leant from the informer
MacNally that Lord Edward was among those directing the
conspiracy of the United Irishmen, which was now quickly
maturing. He was specially concerned with the military organ-
ization, in which he held the post of colonel of the Kildare
regiment and head of the military committee. He bad papers
showing that 280,000 men were ready to rise. They possessed
some arms, but the supply was insufficient, and the leaders were
hoping for a French invasion to make good the deficiency and to
give support to a popular uprising. But French help proving
dilatory and uncertain, the rebel leaders in Ireland were divided
in opinion as to the expediency of taking the field without
waiting for foreign aid. Lord Edward was among the advocates
of the bolder course. His opinions and his proposals for action
were alike violent. He was on intimate terms with apologists
for assassination; there is some evidence that he favoured a
project for the massacre of the Irish peers while in procession
to the House of Lords for the trial of Lord Kingston in May
1798. .It was probably abhorrence of such measures that
converted Thomas Reynolds from a conspirator to an informer;
at all events, by him and several others the authorities were kept
posted in what was going on, though lack of evidence producible
in court delayed the arrest of the ringleaders. But on the 13th
of March 1798 Reynolds' information led to the seizure of a
number of conspirators at the house of Oliver Bond. Lord
Edward Fitzgerald, warned by Reynolds, was not among them.
The government were anxious to save him from the consequences
of his own folly, and Lord Clare said to a member of his family.
" for God's sake get this young man out of the country; the ports
shall be thrown open, and no hindrance whatever offered."
Fitzgerald with chivalrous recklessness refused to desert others
who could not escape, and whom he had himself led into danger.
On the 30th of March a proclamation establishing martial law
and authorizing the military to act without orders from the civil
magistrate, which was acted upon with revolting cruelty in
several parts of the country, precipitated the crisis.
The government had now no choice but to secure if possible
the person of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, whose social position
more than his abilities made him the most important factor
in the conspiracy. On the nth of May a reward of £1000 was
offered for his apprehension. The 23rd of May was the date
fixed for the general rising. Since the arrest at Bond's, Fitzgerald
had been in hiding, latterly at the house of one Murphy, a feather
dealer, in Thomas Street, Dublin. He twice visited his wife in
disguise; was himself visited by his stepfather, OgUvie, and
generally observed less caution than his situation required.
The conspiracy was honeycombed with treachery, and it was
long a matter of dispute to whose information the government
were indebted for Fitzgerald's arrest; but it is no longer open
to doubt that the secret of his hiding place was disclosed by a
Catholic barrister named Magan, to whom the stipulated reward
was ultimately paid through Francis Higgins, another informer.
On the 19th of May Major Swan and a Mr. Ryan proceeded to
Murphy's house with Major H. C. Sirr and a few soldiers. Lord
1 Edward was discovered in bed. A desperate scuffle took place,
Ryan being mortally wounded by Fitzgerald with a dagger,
while Lord Edward himself was only secured after Sirr had
FITZGERALD, R.— FITZGERALD, LORD T.
445
disabled him with a pistol ballet in the shoulder. He was
conveyed to Newgate gaol* where by the kindness of Lord Clare
he was visited by two of his relatives, and where he died ©i his
wound on the 4th of June 1798. An Act of Attainder (repealed
in 1819) was passed, confiscating his property; and his wife —
against whom the government probably possessed sufficient
evidence to secure a conviction for treason — was compelled
to leave the country before her husband had actually
expired.
Pamela, who was scarcely less celebrated than Lord Edward
himself, and whose remarkable beauty made a lasting impression
on Robert Southey, repaired to Hamburg, where in 1800 she
married J. Fitcairn, the American consul Since her marriage
with Lord Edward she had been greatly beloved and esteemed
by the whole Fitzgerald family; and although after her second
marriage her intimacy with them ceased, there is no sufficient
evidence for the tales that represented her subsequent conduct
us open to grave censure. She remained to the last passionately
devoted to the memory of her first husband; and she died in
Paris in November 1831. A portrait of Pamela is in the Louvre.
She had three children by Lord Edward Fitzgerald: Edward
Fox (1704-1863); Pamela, afterwards wife of General Sir Guy
Campbell; and Lucy Louisa, who married Captain Lyon, R.N.
Lord Edward Fitzgerald was of small stature and handsome
features. His character and career have been made the subject
of eulogies much beyond their merits. He had, indeed, a winning
personality, and a warm, affectionate and generous nature,
which made him greatly beloved by his family and friends;
he was humorous, light-hearted, sympathetic, adventurous.
But he was entirely without the weightier qualities requisite
for such a part as he undertook to play in public affairs. Hot-
headed and impulsive, he lacked judgment He was as con-
spicuously deficient in the statesmanship as he was in the oratori-
cal genius of such men as Flood, Plunket or Grattan. One of
his associates in conspiracy described him as " weak and not fit
to command a sergeant's guard, but very zealous. 1 ' Reinhard,
who considered Arthur O'Connor " a far abler man," accurately
read the character of Lord Edward Fitzgerald as that of a young
man " incapable of falsehood or perfidy, frank, energetic, and
likely to be a useful and devoted instrument; but with no
experience or extraordinary talent, and entirely unfit to be
chief of a great party or leader in a difficult enterprise."
See "Thomu Moor?, L\fe and Death nf Lord Edirtird Fitzgerald
(3 vols,. London* 1832), alwa revised edition entitled The Memoirs
cf Lord Edward Fitzgerald* edified with supplementary particular*
by Martin MacDmnott (London* 1 897); Madden. The
Untied Irishmen (7 voti.
Fersenal N&mitit
W. J. Fitipatrick.
iceltng.
Personal Nurmtitr of the Irith Rebellion of Y;ptf (BeJfa*i, i8%i7;
W. J. Fitipatnck, The Sham Squirt, He RehfUUm of Ireland and the
Informers of ijgi (Dublin, 1866L and Secret Service *nd*r Pitt
(London. 1892); J. A, Fronde, TheEngtisk in Ireland t* theEithttntk
CmHery (3 vol*,, London, iajrs-1874); W. E, H. Leoky, Htitory of
Emgtand m the Ei^kUenth £entwy> vols r vii. and viiL (Lonrk>n,
1 890 } r Thomas Reynolds the younger. The Lift of Thorn* 1 Reynolds
(London, (839.): The Life and Letters of Lady Satah ten nix,
edited by the coon tew of IlchesLer and Lop J Suvorctale (London.
1901)4 Ida A. Taylor, The Life of Lord Edward Fiititrald (London,
1303), Sfbkb give* a prejudiced and distorted picture of Pamela.
Foe particulars of Pamela, and tsptcUlly a* to the question of
her parentage, see Gerald Campbell, Edward and Pamela FiU-
fffafd {London. 1904!; Memmri af Madame de Genii i (London,
iflij): Georgette Ducrett. Chremtoun populairet [Parii, 1855);
Thomai Moore, Memoirs of the Life of R, JL Sheridan i London,
(fi-5J- (R- J- M.J
FITZGERALD, RAYMOND, or Redmond (d. cc 1x82),
surnamed Le Gros, was the son of William Fitzgerald and brother
of Odo de Carew. He was sent by Strongbow to Ireland in x 1 70,
and landed at Dundunnolf, near Waterford, where he was
besieged in his entrenchments by the combined Irish and Ostmen,
whom he repulsed. He was Stroogbow's second in command,
and had the chief share in the capture of Waterford and in the
successful assault on Dublin. He was sent to Aquitainc to
hand over Strongbow's conquests to Henry II., but was back
in Dublin in July 1x71, when he led one of the sallies from the
town. Strongbow offended him later by refusing him the
marriage of his sister Basilea, widow of Robert de Quend, con-
stable of Leinster. Raymond then retired to Wales, and Hervey
de Mountmaurice became constable in his place. At the outbreak
of a general rebellion against the earl in 1174 Raymond returned
with his uncle Meiler Fits Henry, after receiving a promise of
marriage with Basilea. Reinstated as constable be secured a
series of successes, and with the /all of Limerick in October
xx 75 order was restored. Mountmaurice meanwhile obtained
Raymond's recall on the ground that his power threatened the
royal authority, but the constable was delayed by a fresh out-
break at Limerick, the earl's troops refusing to march without
him. On the death of Strongbow he was acting governor until
the arrival of William Fitx Aldhelm, to whom he banded over
the royal fortresses. He was deprived of his estates near Dublin
and Wexford, but the Geraldines secured the recall of Fits
Aldhelm early in 1183, and regained their power and influence.
In 1182 he relieved his uncle Robert Fitzstephen, who was
besieged in Cork. The date of his death, sometimes stated to
be 11S2, is not known.
FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS (10th earl of Kildare).
(1513-153"), the eldest son of Gerald Fitzgerald, 9th earl of
Kildare, was born in London in 15 13. He spent much of his
youth in England, but in 1534 when his father was for the
third time summoned to England to answer for his maladministra-
tion as lord deputy of Ireland, Thomas, at the council held at
Drogheda, in February was made vice-deputy. In June the
Ormond faction spread a report in Ireland that the earl had been
executed in the Tower, and that his son's life was to be attempted.
Inflamed with rage at this apparent treachery, Thomas rode
at the head of his retainers 1 into Dublin, and before the council
for Ireland (the nth of June 1534) formally renounced his
allegiance to the king and proclaimed a rebellion. His enemies,
including Archbishop John Allen (of Dublin), who had been set
by Henry VIII. to watch Fitzgerald, took refuge in Dublin
Castle. In attempting to escape to England, Allen was taken
by the rebels, and on the 28th of July 1534, was murdered by
Fitzgerald's servants in his presence, but whether actually by
his orders is uncertain. In any case he sent to the pope (or
absolution, but was solemnly excommunicated by the Irish
Church. Leaving part of his army (with the consent of the
citizens) to besiege Dublin Castle, Fitzgerald himself went against
Piers Butler, earl of Ossory, and succeeded at first in making
a truce with him. But the citizens of Dublin now rose against
him, Ossory invaded Kildare, and the approach of an English
army forced Fitzgerald to raise the siege. Fart of the English
army landed on the 17th of October, the rest a week later, but
taking advantage of the inactivity of the new lord deputy, Sir
William Skcffington, Fitzgerald from his stronghold at Maynooth
ravaged Kildare and Meath throughout the winter. He had now
succeeded to the earldom of Kildare, his father having died in
the Tower on the 13th of December 1534, but he docs not seem
to have been known by that title. In March Skcffington
stormed the castle, the stronghold of the Geraldines, which was
defended, and some said betrayed, by Christopher Parese,
Fitzgerald's foster-brother. It fell on the 23rd of March 1535,
and most of the garrison were put to the sword. This proved
the final blow to the rebellion. The news of what is known as
the "pardon of Maynooth" reached Fitzgerald as be was
returning from levying fresh troops in Offaley; his men fell
away from him, and he retreated to Thomond, intending to sail
for Spain. Changing* his mind he spent the next few months
in raids against the English and their allies, but his party gradu-
ally deserting him, on the x8th of August 1535 he surrendered
himself to Lord Leonard Grey (d. 1541). It seems likely that he
made some conditions, but what they were is very uncertain.
He was taken to England and placed in the Tower. In February
1536 his five uncles were also, some of them with great injustice,
seized and brought to England, The six Geraldines were hanged
at Tyburn on the 3rd of February 1537. Acts of attainder
against them and Gerald the 9th earl were passed by both the
1 Fitzgerald was known by the sobriquet of " Silken Thomas,"
either from the silken fringes on his helmet, or from his distinguished
446
FTTZHERBBRT, SIR A.— FITZ-OSBERN, W.
Irish and EngBsh parliaments; but the family estates were
restored by Edward VI. to Gerald, nth earl of Kildare (step-
brother of Thomas), and the attainder was repealed by Queen
Elizabeth. Lord Thomas Fitzgerald married Frances, youngest
daughter of Sir Adrian Fortescue, but had no children.
Bibliography.— Richard Stanihurst, Chronicles of Ireland (vol. u.
of Holinshats Chronicles)! Sir Janes Ware. Rerum Hiberntcantm
annates (Dublin, 1664); The Earls ofKMare, by C. W. Fittgerald.
duke of Leinster (3rd ed., 1858); Richard Bagwell, Ireland, under
the Tutors (3 vols., 1885, vol. i. passim); Calendar StaU Papers,
Hen. VI II., Irish; G. E. C/s Peerage-, John Lodge, Peerage of
Ireland, ed. M. ArchdaU (1789). vol. i
FITZHBRBERT, SIR ANTHONY (1470-1 538), English Jurist,
was born at Norbury, Derbyshire. After studying at Oxford,
he was called to the English bar, and in 1523 became justice of
the Court of Common Pleas, the duties of which office he con-
tinued to discharge till within a short time of his death in 1538.
As a judge he left behind him a high reputation for fairness and
integrity, and his legal learning is sufficiently attested by his
published works.
He b the author of La Gnunde Abridgment, a digest of important
lent cases written in Old French, first printed in 15 14; The Office
and Authority of Justices of the' Peace, first printed In 1538 (last ed.
1794); the New Nature Breoium (1534, last •*• 1 794>i witn a
commentary ascribed to Sir Matthew Hale. To Fitzherbcrt are
sometimes attributed the Book of Hushandry{iS2^,X\M first published
work on agriculture in the English language, and the Book of Surveying
and Improvements (1523) (•«* Agriculture).
FITZHKRBBRT, THOMAS (1552-1640), English Jesuit,
was the eldest son and heir of William FiUberbert of Swynnerton
in Staffordshire, and grandson of Sir Anthony Fitzherbcrt,
judge of the common pleas. He was educated at Oxford, where,
at the age of twenty, he was imprisoned for recusancy. On
bis release be went to London, where he was a member of the
association of young men founded in 1580 to assist the Jesuits
Edmund Campion and Robert Parsons. In 1582 he withdrew
to the continent, where he was active In the cause of Mary,
queen of Scots. He married in this year Dorothy, daughter of
Edward East of Bledlow in Buckinghamshire After the death
of his wife (1588) he went to Spain, where on the recommendation
of the duke of Feria he received a pension from the king. He
continued his intrigues against the English government, and in
1508 he was charged with complicity in a plot to poison Queen
Elizabeth. After this he was for a short while in the service of
the duke of Feria~at Milan, then went to Rome, where he was
ordained priest (1601-1602) and became agent for the English
clergy. He was unpopular with them, however, owing to his
subserviency to the Jesuits, and resigned the agency in 1607
owing to the remonstrances of the English arch-priest George
Birkhcad. In 1613 he joined the Society of Jesus, and was
appointed superior of the English mission at Brussels in 1616,
and in 1618 rector of the English college at Rome. He held
this post to within a year of his death, which occurred at Rome
on the 7th of August (O.S.) 1640.
Father Fitxherbert. who is described as " a person of excellent
parts, a notable politician, and of graceful behaviour and generous
spirit," wrote many controversial works, a list of which is given in
the article on him by Mr Thompson Cooper in the Dictionary of
National Biography, together with authorities for his life.
FITZ NEAL or (Fitz Nigel), RICHARD (d. 1198), treasurer
of Henry II. and Richard I. of England, and bishop of London,
belonged to a great administrative family whose fortunes were
closely linked with those of Henry I., Henry II. and Richard I.
The founder of the family was Roger, bishop of Salisbury, the
great minister of Henry I. Before the death of that sovereign
(1135) the care of the treasury passed from Roger to his nephew,
Nigel, bishop of Ely (d. 1169), who held that office until the
whole family were disgraced by Stephen (1139). Becoming a
partisan of the empress, Nigel reaped his reward at the accession
of her son, Henry II., who made him at first chancellor and
then treasurer. Nigel's son, Richard, who was born before bis
father's elevation to the episcopate (1133)1 succeeded to the
office of treasurer in 1158, and held it continuously for forty
years. His name appears in the lists of itinerant justices for
1 1 79 and 1194, but these are the only occasions on which he
exercised that office. Before 1184 he became dean of liacsb,
and was in that year presented by the chapter of Lincoln aansg
three select candidates for the vacant see. The king passed
him over in favour of Hugh of Avaton, having resolved on tb*
occasion to make a disinterested appointment. Richard L,
however, rewarded the treasurer's services with the see of Londoa
("So).
Richard Fits Neal is best remembered as an author. He lacked
the broad statesmanship of his father and great-uncle; he Avoided
any connexion with political parties; he is only once mentioned
as taking part in a debate of the Great Council (x 193), and thea
spoke, in his character as a bishop, to support a royal demand far
a special aid. But his work De neeessariis observanliis Scaaaru
dialogus, commonly called the Dialogus de Scaccario, is of unique
interest to the historian. It is an account, in two books, of the
procedure followed by the exchequer in the author's time.
Richard handles his subject with the more enthusiasm because,
as he explains, the " course " of the. exchequer was largely the
creation of his own family. When read in connexion with the
Pipe Rolls the Dialogus furnishes a most faithful and detailed
picture of English fiscal arrangements under Henry H. The
speakers in the dialogue are Richard himself and an anonymous
pupil. The latter puts leading questions which Richard answers
in elaborate fashion. The date of the conversation ii given
in the prologue as 1176-1177. This probably marks the date
at which the book was begun; it was not completed before 1178
or 1 1 79. Soon after the author's death we find it already recog-
nized as the standard manual for exchequer officials. It was
frequently transcribed and has been used by English antiquarians
of every period. Hence it is the more necessary to insist that
the historical statements which the treatise contains are some-
times demonstrably erroneous; the author appears to have
relied excessively upon oral tradition. But, as the work is onfy
known to us through transcripts, it is possible that some of the
blunders which it now contains are due to the misdirected seal
of editors. Richard Fitz Neal also compiled in his earlier years
a register or chronicle of contemporary affairs, arranged in three
parallel columns. This was preserved in the exchequer at the
time when he wrote the Dialogus, but has since disappeared.
Stubbs 1 conjectural identification of this Liber tricalumnis with
the first part of the Gesla Htnrici (formerly attributed to
Benedictus Abbas) is now abandoned as untenable.
See Madox's edition in hts History of the Exchequer (1769); and
that of A. Hughes, C G. Crump and C. Johnson (Oxford, 19WJ.
F. Liebermann s Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccorio (Gottingeo,
1875) contains the fullest account of the author. (H. W. C. D.)
FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER (fl. 1070), succeeded to the earldom
of Hereford and the English estate of William Fitz-Osbern in
107 1. He did not keep on good terms with William the Con-
queror, and in 1075, disregarding the king's prohibition, married
his sister Emma to Ralph Guader, earl of Norfolk, at the famous
bridal of Norwich. Immediately afterwards the two earls
rebelled. But Roger, who was to bring his force from the west
to join the earl of Norfolk, was held in check at the Severn by the
Worcestershire fyrd which the English bishop Wulfstan brought
into the field against him. On the collapse of his confederate's
rising, Roger was tried before the Great Council, deprived of
his lands and earldom, and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment;
but he was released, with other political prisoners, at the death
of William I. in 1087.
FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM. Earl of Hereford (d. 1071),
was an intimate friend of William the Conqueror, and the
principal agent in preparing for the invasion of England. He
received the earldom of Hereford with the special duty of pushing
into Wales. During William's absence in 1067, Fita-Osbern
was left as his deputy in central England, to guard it from
the Welsh on one side, and the Danes on the other. He also
acted as William's lieutenant during the rebellions of 1060.
In 1070 William sent him to assist Queen Matilda in the govern-
ment of Normandy. But Richilde, widow of Baldwin VI. of
Flanders, having offered to marry him if he would protect her
son Arnulf against Robert the Frisian, Fita-Osbern accepted
FITZ OSBERT — P1TZRQY
4+7
Oe proposal and joined Bichildt ia Flanders, lie was hilled,
fighting against Robert, at Caasel in 1071.
See Freeman, Neman Conquest, vols, i*. and av,j Hrjames
Ramsay, Foundations of England, voL u. ,
FITZ OSBERT, WOUAK (d. X196), was a Londoner of good
position who had served in the Third Crusade, and on his return
took up the cause of the poorer citixens against the magnates
who monopolized the government of London and assessed the
taxes, as he alleged, with gross partiality. It is affirmed that
be entered on this course of action through a quarrel with his
elder brother who had refused him money. But this appears
to be mere scandal; the chronicler Roger of Hoveden gives
Fitx Osbert a high character, and he was implicitly trusted by
the poorer citizens. He attempted to procure redress for them
from the king; but the city magistrates persuaded the justiciar
Hubert Walter that Fit* Osbert and his followers meditated
plundering the houses of the rich. Troops were sent to seise
the demagogue. He was smoked out of the sanctuary of St
Mary le Bow, in which he had taken refuge, and summarily
dragged to execution at Tyburn.
FITZ PBTRR, OBOFFRRY (d. 12x3), earl of Essex and chief
justiciar of England, began his official career in the later years
of Henry II., whom he served as a sheriff, a justice itinerant and
a justice of the forest. During Richard's absence on Crusade
he was one of the five justices of the king's court who stood next
in authority to the regent, Longchamp. It was at this time
(1 100) that Fitx Peter succeeded to the earldom of Essex, in the
right of his wife, who was descended from the famous Geoffrey
de Mandeville. In attempting to assert his hereditary rights
over Waldcn priory Fitx Peter came into conflict with Long-
champ, and revenged himself by taking an active part in the
baronial agitation through which the regent was expelled from
his office. The king, however, forgave Fits Peter for his share
in these proceedings; and, though refusing to give him formal
investiture of the Essex earldom, appointed him justiciar in
succession to Hubert Walter (119S). In this capacity Filz
Peter continued his predecessor's policy of encouraging foreign
trade and the development of the towns, many of the latter
received, during his administration, charters of self-government.
He was continued in his office by John, who found him a useful
instrument and described him in an official letter as " indispens-
able to the king and kingdom." He proved himself an able
instrument of extortion, and profited to no small extent by the
spoliation of church lands in the period of the interdict. But
he was too closely counected with the baronage to be altogether
trusted by the king. The contemporary Hisloire des dues
describes Fitx Peter as living in constant dread of disgrace and
confiscation. In the last years of his life he endeavoured to act
as a mediator between the king and the opposition. It was by his
mouth that the king promised to the nation the laws of Henry I.
(at the council of St Albans,' August 41b, 1213). But Fitx
Peter died a few weeks later (Oct. 2), and his great office passed
to Peter des Roches, one of the unpopular foreign favourites.
Fitx Peter was neither a far-sighted nor a disinterested statesman;
but he was the ablest pupil of Hubert Walter, and maintained
the traditions of the great bureaucracy which the first and
second Henries had founded.
See tbe original authorities specified for the reigns of Richard I.
and John. Also Mi» K. Norgate's Angevin England, vol. ii. (1887),
and John Lackland (iftOa): A. Ballard in English Historical R*view,
xiv. p. 93 ; H. W. C. Davie' England under the Normans and Anttwins
(1905). (H. W. C. D.)
FIYZROT, ROBERT (1805-1865), English vice-admiral,
distinguished as a hydrographer and meteorologist, was bom
at Ampton Hall, Suffolk, on the 5th of July 1805, being a grand-
son, on the father's side, of the third duke of Grafton, and on the
mother's, of the first marquis of Londonderry. He entered the
navy from the Royal Naval College, then a school for cadets,
on the 19th of October 1819, and on the 7th of September 1824
was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. After serving in the
" Thetis " frigate in the Mediterranean and on the coast of South
America, under tbe command of Sir John Phittimoreand Captain
Bingham, he was in August 1828 appointed to the " Ganges,"
aa nag-lieuUnant to Rea»Admiral Sir Robert Otwey, the
commandexvw-chief on the South American station; end on tbe
death of Commander Stokes of the "Beagle," on the 13th of
November 1828, was promoted to the vacant command. The
"Beagle/' a small brig «f about S40 tons, was then, and had
been for the two previous years, employed on the survey of the
coasts of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, under the orders of
Commander King In the " Adventure," and, together with the
M Adventure," returned to England in the autumn of 183a
Fitzroy had brought home with him four Fuegians, one of whom
died of smallpox a few weeks after arriving in England; to the
others he endeavoured, with but slight success, to impart a
rudimentary knowledge of religion and of some useful hands*
crafts; end, as he had pledged himself to restore them to their
native country, he was making preparations in the summer of the
following year to carry them back in a merchant ship bound to
Valparaiso, when he received his reappointment to the " Beagle,"
to continue the survey of the same wild coasts. The " Beagle "
sailed from Plymouth on the 27th of December 1831, carrying
as a supernumerary Charles Darwin, the afterwards famous
naturalist. After an absence of nearly five years, and having)
in addition to the survey of the Straits of Magellan and a great
part of the coast of South America, run a chronometric line round
the world, thus fixing, the longitude of many secondary meridians
with sufficient exactness for all the purposes of ordinary naviga-
tion, the " Beagle " anchored at Falmouth on the 2nd of October
1 836. In 1835 Fitxroy had been advanced to the rank of captain
and was now for the nest few years principally employed in
reducing and discussing his numerous observations. In 1837 he
was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society;
and in 1839 he published, in two thick 8vo volumes, the narrative
of the voyage of the " Adventure " and " Beagle," 1826-1830,
and of the " Beagle," 1831-1836, with a third volume by Darwin
— a book familiarly known as a record of scientific travel. Of
Fitxroy's work as a surveyor, carried on under circumstances
of great difficulty, with scanty means, and with an outfit that
was semi-officially denounced as " shabby," Sir Francis Beaufort,
the Hydrographer to the Admiralty, wrote, in a report to the
House of Commons, 10th of February 2848, that " from the
equator to Cape Horn, and from thence round to the river
Plat* on the eastern side of America, all that is immediately
wanted has been already achieved by the splendid survey of
Captain Robert Fitxroy." This was written before steamships
made the Straits of Magellan a high-road to the Pacific. The
survey that was sufficient then became afterwards very far
from sufficient.
In 1841 Fitxroy unsuccessfully contested the borough of
Ipswich, and in the following year was returned to parliament
as member for Durham. About the same time he accepted the
post of conservator of the Mersey, and in his double capacity
obtained leave to bring in a bill for improving the condition and
efficiency of officers in the mercantile marine. This was not
proceeded with at the time, but gave rise to the u voluntary
certificate" instituted by the Board of Trade m 1845, and
furnished some important clauses to the Mercantile Marine Act
of 1850.
Early m 1843 Fitxroy was appointed governor and commander-
in-chief of New Zealand, then recently established as a colony.
He arrived in his government in December, whilst the excitement
about the Wairau massacre was still fresh, and the questions
relating to the purchase of land from the natives were in a very
unsatisfactory state. The early settlers were greedy and un-
scrupulous; Fitxroy, on the other hand, had made no secret of
his partiality for the aborigines. Between such discordant
elements agreement was impossible; the settlers insulted the
governor; the governor did not conciliate the settlers, who
denounced his policy as adverse to their interests, as unjust
and illegal; colonial feeling against him ran very high; petition
after petition for his recall was sent home, and the government
was compelled to yield to the pressure brought to bear on it.
Fitxroy was relieved by Sir George Grey in November 1845.
In September 1848 be was appointed acting superintendent
+ + 8
FTTZKOY— FITZWALTER
of the dockyard at Woolwich, and in the following March to the
command of the " Arrogant/ 1 one of the early screw frigates
which had been fitted out under his supervision, and with
which it was desired to carry out a series of experiments and
trials. When these were finished he applied to be superseded,
on account at once of his health and of his private affairs. In
February 1850 he was accordingly placed on half-pay; nor
did he ever serve again, although advanced in due course by
seniority to the ranks of rear- and vice-admiral on the retired
list (1857, 1863). In 1851 he was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society, and in 1854, after serving for a few months as private
secretary to his uncle, Lord Hardinge, then commander-in-chief
of the army, he was appointed to the meteorological department
of the Board of Trade, with, in the first instance, the peculiar
title of " Meteorological Statist."
From the date of his joining the " Beagle " in 1828 he had
paid very great attention to the different phenomena foreboding
or accompanying change of weather, and his narratives of the
voyages of the " Adventure " and " Beagle " are full of interest-
ing and valuable details concerning these. Accordingly, when
in 1854 Lord Wrottesley, the president of the Royal Society,
was asked by the Board of Trade to recommend a chief for its
newly forming meteorological department, he, almost without
hesitation, nominated Fitxroy, whose name and career became
from that time identified with the progress of practical meteor-
ology. His Weather Book, published in 1863, embodies in broad
outline his views, far in advance of those then generally held;
and in spite of the rapid march of modern science, it is still
worthy of careful attention and exact study. His storm warnings,
in their origin, indeed, liable to a charge of empiricism, were
gradually developed on a more scientific basis, and gave a high
percentage of correct results. They were continued for eighteen
months after his death by the assistants he had trained, and
though stopped when the department was transferred to the
management of a committee of the Royal Society, they were
resumed a few months afterwards; and under the successive
direction of Dr R. H. Scott and Dr W. N. Shaw, have been
developed into what we now know them. But though it is
perhaps by these storm warnings that Fitzro/s name has been
most generally known, seafaring men owe him a deeper debt of
gratitude, not only for his labours in reducing to a more practical
form the somewhat complicated wind charts of Captain Maury,
but also for his great exertions in connexion with the life-boat
association. Into this work, in its many ramifications, he threw
himself with the energy of an excitable temperament, already
strained by his long and anxious service in the Straits of Magellan.
His last years were fully and to an excessive degree occupied
by it; his health, both of body and mind, threatened to give
way; but he refused to take the rest that was prescribed. In
a fit of mental aberration he put an end to his existence on the
30th of April 1865.
Besides his works already named mention may be made of Remarks
on New Zealand (1846); Sailing Directions for South A meriea (1*48) ;
his official reports to the Board of Trade (1857-1865) ; and occasional
papers in the journal of the Royal Geographical Society and of the
Royal United Service Institution. (J. K. L.)
FITZROY, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia,
a.m. by rail N.E. of and suburban to Melbourne. Fop. (xooi)
31 ,610. It is a prosperous manufacturing town, well served with
tramways and containing many fine residences.
FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT (fl. 11 50), son of Nesta, a Welsh
princess and former mistress of Henry I., by Stephen, constable
of Cardigan, whom Robert succeeded in that office, took service
with Dermot of Leinster when that king visited England (1167).
In 1 169 Robert led the vanguard of Dermot 's Anglo- Welsh
auxiliaries to Ireland, and captured Wexford, which he. was then
allowed to hold jointly with Maurice Fit* Gerald. Taken
prisoner by the Irish in 1171, he was by them surrendered to
Henry II., who appointed him lieutenant of the justiciar of
Ireland, Hugh de Lacy. Robert rendered good service in the
troubles of 1x73, and was rewarded by receiving, jointly with
Miles Cogan, a grant of Cork (1 177). He had difficulty in main-
taining his position and was nearly overwhelmed by a 1
Desmo nd in 1 1 82. The date of his death is uncertain.
FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM (d. a xxoo), biographer of '
Becket and royal justice, was a Londoner by origin. He entered
Becket's service at some date between 11 54 and 116 2. The
chancellor employed Fitx Stephen in legal work, made him
sub-deacon of his chapel and treated him as a confidant. Fit*
Stephen appeared with Becket at the council of Northampton
(1164) when the disgrace of the archbishop was published to the
world; but he did not follow Becket into exile. He joined
Becket's household again in 1170, and was a spectator of the
tragedy in Canterbury cathedral. To his pen we owe the most
valuable among the extant biographies of his patron. Though
he writes as a partisan he gives a precise account of the differ-
ences between Becket and the king. This biography contains
a description of London which is our chief authority for the
social life of the city in the x 2th century. Despite his connexion
with Becket, William subsequently obtained substantial prefer-
ment from the king. He was sheriff of Gloucestershire from 1x71
to 1 190, and a royal justice in the years 1x76-1x80 and 1180-
1100.
See his " Vita S. Thomae " in t. C. Robertson's Materials for tie
History of Thomas Becket, vol. iu. (Rolls series, 1877). StrT. D.
Hardy, in his Catalogue of Materials, ii. 330 (Rolls series. 1865),
discusses the manuscripts of this biography and its value. W. H.
Hutton, St Thomas of Canterbury, pp. 272-274 (1880), gives an
xipts of this biography and its value.
of Ca * '
account of the author.
FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD (d. 1374), London chronicler and
merchant, was born in London on the 9th of August 1 aoi. Both
his parents were of German extraction. The family of his mother
migrated to England from Cologne in the reign of Henry II.;
his father, Thedmar by name, was a citizen of Bremen who had
been attracted to London by the privileges which the Flanlagenets
conferred upon the Teutonic Hanse. Arnold succeeded in
time to his father's wealth and position. He held an honourable
position among the Hanse traders, and became their " alderman."
He was also, as he tells us himself, alderman of a London ward
and an active partisan in municipal politics. In the Barons'
War he took the royal side against the populace and the mayor
Thomas Fitz Thomas. The popular parly planned, in 1265, to
try him for his life before the folk-moot, but he was saved by the
news of the battle of Evesham which arrived on the very day
appointed for the trial. Even after the king's triumph Arnold
suffered from the malice of his enemies, who contrived that
he should be unfairly assessed for the tallages imposed upon
the city. He appealed for help to Henry III., and again to
Edward I., with the result that his liability was diminished.
In 1270 he was one of the four citizens to whose keeping the
muniments of the dty were entrusted. To this circumstance
we probably owe the compilation of his chronicle. Chronica
Maiorum et Victamiium, which -begins at the year 11 88 and is
continued to 1274. From 1239 onwards this work is a mine of
curious information. Though municipal in its outlook, it is
valuable for the general history of the kingdom, owing to the
important part which London played in the agitation against
the misrule of Henry III. We have the king's word for the fact
that Arnold was a consistent royalist; but this is. apparent from
the whole tenor of the chronicle. Arnold was by no means
blind to the faults of Henry's government, but preferred an
autocracy to the mob-rule which Simon de Montfortcountenanced
in London. Arnold died in 1274; the last fact recorded of him
is that, in this year, he joined in a successful appeal to the king
against the illegal grants which had been made by the mayor,
Walter Hervey.
The Chronica Maiorum et Vicecomitum, with the other contents of
Arnold's common-place book, were edited for the Camden Society
by T. Stapleton (1846), under the title Liber de Antiquis Legibns.
Our knowledge of Arnold's life comes from the Chronica and bis
own biographical notes. Extracts, with valuable notes, are edited
tn G. H. Fertz's Mon. Cermaniae kistorica, Scriptores, vol. xxviii.
See also J. M. Lappenberg's Urhundliche Guckichte des Hansisdun
StaUhofes mm London (Hamburg, 1851). (H.WCD)
FITZWALTER, ROBERT (d. 1235), leader of the baronial
opposition against King John of England, belonged to the
FITZWILUAM— FIUME
4+9
official aristocracy created by Henry I. and Henry II. He
served John in the Norman wars, and was taken prisoner by
Philip of France, and forced to pay a heavy ransom. He was
implicated in the baronial conspiracy of 1 2 1 2. According to hb
own statement the king had attempted to seduce his eldest
daughter; but Robert's account of his grievances varied from
time to time. The truth seems to be that he was irritated by
the suspicion with which John regarded the new baronage.
Fitzwalter escaped a trial by flying to France. He was outlawed,
but returned under a special amnesty after John's reconciliation
with the pope. He continued, however, to take the lead in the
baronial agitation against the king, and upon the outbreak of
hostilities was elected " marshal of the army of God and Holy
Church " (1 2t 5). To his influence in London it was due that his
party obtained the support of the city and used it as their base
of operations. The famous clause of Magna Carta (§ 39) pro-
hibiting sentences of exile, except as the result of a lawful trial,
refers more particularly to his case. He was one of the twenty-
five appointed to enforce the promises of Magna Carta; and his
aggressive attitude was one of the causes which contributed to
the recrudescence of civil war (1 21 5). His incompetent leadership
made it necessary for the rebels to invoke the help of France.
He was one of the envoys who invited Louis to England, and
was the first of the barons to do homage when the prince entered
London. Though slighted by the French as a traitor to his
natural lord, he served Louis with fidelity until captured at the
battle of Lincoln (May 1217). Released on the conclusion of
peace he joined the Damietta crusade of 1210, but returned at an
early date to make his peace with the regency The remainder of
his career was uneventful; he died peacefully in \2 35,
See the list of chronicles for the reign of John. a The Histoire des
dues de NormandU et des rois d'AngUterre (etf. F Michel, Paris, 1840)
gives the fullest account of his quarrel with the king. Miss K.
Norgate's John Lackland (1902), \V. McKechnie's Juatna Carta
(too?), and Stubbs's Constitutional History , vol. L ch. xo. (1897),
should also be consulted*
FITZWILUAM. SIR WILLIAM (1526-1599), lord deputy of
Ireland, was the eldest son of Sir William Fitzwilliam (d. 1576)
of Milton, Northamptonshire, where he was born, and grandson
of another Sir William Fiuwilliara (d. 1554)* alderman and.
sheriff of London, who was also treasurer and chamberlain to
Cardinal Wolscy, and who purchased Milton in 1506. On his
mother's side Fitzwilliam was related to John Russell, 1st carl of
Bedford, a circumstance to which he owed his introduction to
Edward VI. In 1559 he became vice-treasurer of Ireland and a
member of the Irish House of Commons; and between this date
and 1 571 he was (during the absences of Thomas Radclyffe,
earl of Sussex, and of his successor, Sir Henry Sidney) five times
lord justice of Ireland. In 1 57 1 Fitzwilliam himself was appointed
lord deputy, but like Elizabeth's other servants he received little
or no money, and his period of government was marked by
continuous penury and its attendant evils, inefficiency, mutiny
and general lawlessness. Moreover, the deputy quarrelled with
the lord president of Connaught,. Sir Edward Fitton (15*7-1579).
but he compelled the earl of Desmond to submit in 1574. He
disliked the expedition of Walter Deveroux, earl of Essex; he
had a further quarrel with Fitton, and after a serious illness
he was allowed to resign his office. Returning to England in
1575 he was governor of Fotheringhay Castle at the time of
Mary Stuart's execution. In 1588 Fitzwilliam was again in
Ireland as lord deputy, and although old and ill he displayed
great activity in leading expeditions, and found time to quarrel
with Sir Richard Bingham (1528-1590), the new president of
Connaught. In 1594 he finally left Ireland, and five years later
he died at Milton. From Fitzwilliam, whose wife was Anne,
daughter of Sir William Sidney, were descended the barons and
earls Fitzwilliam.
See R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudor s, vol. iL (1885).
FITZWILUAM, WILLIAM WEMTWOHTH FITZWILUAM,
2St> EABL (1748-1833), English statesman, was the son of the
1st earl (peerage of the United Kingdom), who died in 1756.
The English family of Fitzwilliam claimed descent from a natural
sea of William the Conqueror, and among its earlier members
were a Sir William Fitawilliam (1460-1534)* sheriff of London,
who in 1506 acquired the family seat of Milton Manor in North-
amptonshire, and his grandson Sir William Fitawtlnam (see
above) . The latier's grandson was made an Irish baron in 1 6ao;
and in later generations, the Irish titles of Viscount Milton and
Earl Fitzwilliam (1716) and the English titles of Baron Milton
(174s) and Viscount Milton and Earl Fitxwilham (1746), were
added. These were all in the English house of the Fitzwilhams
of Milton Manor. They were distinct from the Irish FlUwilliams
of Mcryon, who descended from a member of the English family
who went to Ireland with Prince John at the end of the lath
century, and whose titles of Baron and Viscount Fitzwilliam
died out with the 8th viscount in 1833; the best known of these
was Richard, 7th viscount (1745-1816), who left the Fitzwilliam
library and a fund for creating the Fitzwilliam Museum to
Cambridge University.
The and earl inherited not only Use Fitzwilliam estates in
Northamptonshire, but also, on the death of his uncle the
marquess of Rockingham in 1782, the valuable Wentwortzi
estates In Yorkshire, and thus became one of the wealthiest'
noblemen of the day. He had been at Eton with C. J* Foi,
and became an active supporter of the Whig party; and in 1794,
with the duke of Portland, Windham and other " old Whigs"
he joined Pitt's cabinet, becoming president of the council. At
the end of the year, however, he was sent to Ireland as viceroy.
Fitzwilliam, however, had set his face against the jobbery of the
Protestant leaders, and threw himself warmly into Grattan's
scheme for admitting the Catholics to political power; and in
March 1705 he was recalled, his action being disavowed by Pitt,
the result of a series of misunderstandings which appeared to
Fitzwilliam to give him just cause of complaint. The quarrel
was, however, made up, and in 1798 Fitzwilliam was appointed
lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire. He continued
to take an active part in politics, and in 1806 was president
of the council, but his Whig opinions kept him mainly in
opposition. He died in February 1833, his son, Charles William
Went worth, the 3rd earl (1786-1857), and later earls, being
notable figures in the politics and social life of the north of
England.
FIUME (Slav. Rjeka, Rieka or Reka, Gcr. Si Veil am Flaum),
a royal free town and port of Hungary; situated at the northern
extremity of the Gulf of Quarnero.an inlet of the Adriatic, and
on a small stream called the Rjeka, Retina or Fiumara, 70 m.
by rail S.E. of Trieste. Pop. (1900) 38.955; including 17,354
Italians, 14*885 Slavs (Croats, Serbs and Slovenes), 348a Hun-
garians and 1045 Germans. Geographically, Fiume belongs to
Croatia; politically the town, with its territory of some 7 sq. m.,
became a part of Hungary in August 1870. The picturesque
old town occupies an outlying ridge of the Croatian Karst;
while the modern town, with its wharves, warehouses, electric
light and electric trams, is crowded into the amphitheatre left
between the hills and the shore. On the north-west there is a
fine public garden. The most interesting buildings are the
cathedral church of the Assumption, founded in 1377, and com-
pleted with a modern facade copied from that of the Pantheon
in Rome; the church of St Vcit, on the model of Santa Maria
dclla Salute in Venice; and the Pilgrimage church, hung with
offerings from shipwrecked sailors, and approached by a stairway
of 400 steps. In the old town is a Roman triumphal arch, said
to have been erected during the 3rd century aj>. in honour
of the emperor Claudius II. Fiume also possesses a theatre and
a music-hall; palaces for the governor and the Austrian emperor;
a high court of justice for commerce and marine; a chamber of
commerce; an asylum for lunatics and the aged poor; an
industrial home for boys; and several large schools, including
the marine academy (1856) and the school of seamanship (1003).
Municipal affairs are principally managed by the Italians, who
sympathize with the Hungarians against the Slavs.
Fiume is the only seaport of Hungary, with which country
it was connected, in 1809, by the Maria Louisa road, through
Karlstadt. It has two railways, opened in 1873; one a branch
of the southern railway from Vienna to Trieste, the other of the
4-5°
FIVES
Hungarian state railway from Kartstadt. There are several
harbours, including the Porto Canale, for coasting vessels; the
Porto Baross, for timber; and the Porto Grande, sheltered by
the Maria Tkeresia mote and breakwater, besides four lesser
moles, and flanked by the quays, with their grain-elevators.
The development of the Porto Grande, originally named the
Porto Nuovo, was undertaken in 1847, and carried on at intervals
aa trade increased. In 1002, arrangements were made* for the
construction of a new mole and an enlargement of the quays
and breakwater; these works to be completed within 5 years,
at a cost of £420,000. The exports, worth £6,460,000 in 1002,
chiefly consisted of grain, flour, sugar, timber and horses; the
imports, worth £3,678,000 in the same year, of coal, wine, rice,
fruit, jute and various minerals, chemicals and oils. A large
share in the carrying trade belongs to the Cunard, Adria, Ungaro-
Croat and Austrian Lloyd Steamship Companies, subsidised
by the state. A steady stream of Croatian and Hungarian
emigrants, officially numbered in 1002 at 7500, passes through
Flume. Altogether 11,550 vessels, of 1,063,000 tons, catered
at Fiume in 1902; and ii,53S, of 1,056,000, cleared. Foremost
among the industrial establishments are Whitehead's torpedo
factory, Messrs Smith & Meynie's paper-mill, the royal tobacco
factory, a chemical factory, and several flour-mills, tanneries
and rope manufactories. In xooa the last shipbuilding yard
was closed. The soil of the surrounding country is stony, but
the climate is warm, and wine is extensively produced. The
Gulf of Quarnero yields a plentiful supply of fish, and the tunny
trade with Trieste and Venice is of considerable importance.
Steamboats ply daily from Fiume to the Istrian health-resort
of Abbazia, the Croatian port of Buccari, and the islands of
Veglia and Cherso.
Fiume is supposed to occupy the site of the andent Liburnian
town Tcnatico; later it received the name of VUopolis, and
eventually that of Fanum Soncti Viti ad Flumen, from which its
present name is derived. It was destroyed by Charlemagne
in 709, from which time it probably long remained under the
dominion of the Franks. It was held in feudal tenure from the
patriarch of Aquileia by the bishop of Pola, and afterwards,
in 1 139, by the counts of Duino, who retained it till the end
of the 14th century. It next passed into the hands of the counts
of Wallsee, by whom it was surrendered in 1471 to the emperor
Frederick III., who incorporated it with the dominions of the
house of Austria. Prom this date till 1776 Fiume was ruled by
imperial governors. In 17 23 it was declared a free port by Charles
VI. , in 1 776 united to Croatia by the empress Maria Theresa, and
in 1779 declared a corpus separatum of the Hungarian crown.
In 1809 Fiume was occupied by the French; but it was retaken
by the British in 1813, and restored to Austria in the following
year. It was ceded to Hungary in 182 s, but after the revolution
of 1848-1849 was annexed to the crown lands of Croatia, under
the government of which it remained till it came under Hungarian
control in 1870.
FIVES, a ball-game played by two or four players in a court
enclosed on three or four sides, the ball being struck with the
hand, usually protected by a glove, whence the game is known
in America as " handball." The origin of the game is probably
the French jeu de paume, tennis played with the hand, the hand
in that case being eventually superseded by the racquet. Fives
and racquets are probably both descended from the jeu de paume,
of which they are simplified forms. The name fives may be
derived from la tongue paume, in which five on a side played, or
from the five fingers, or from the fact that five points had to be
made by the winners (in modern times the game consists of
fifteen points). Fives is played in Great Britain principally
at the schools and universities, although its encouragement Is
included in the functions of the Tennis Racquets and Fives
Association, founded in 1008. In America it is much affected
for training purposes by professional athletes and boxers. There
are two forms of fives — the Eton game and the Rugby game —
which require separate notice, though the main features of
the two games are the serving of the ball to the laker of the
service, the necessity of hitting the ball before the second
bounce, and of hitting it above a line and within the limits of
the court.
Eton Frnw.— The peculiar features of the Eton <ourt arose
from the fact that in early times the game was played against
the chapel-wall, so that buttresses formed side walla and Use
balustrade of the chapel-steps projected into the court, while
a step divided the court latitudinally. These were reproduced
in the regular courts, the buttress being known as the " pepper-
box " and the space between It and the step as the " hole."
The riser of the step is about 5 in. The floor of the court is paved;
there is no back walL On the front wall is a ledge, known as
the " line," 4 ft. 6 in. from the floor, and a vertical line, painted,
3 f L 8 in. from the right-hand watt. Four people usually play,
two against two; one of each pair plays in the forward court,
the other in the back court. The server stands on the left of
the forward court, bis partner in the right-hand corner of the back
court, the taker of the service by the right wall of the forward
court, his partner at the left -hand corner of the back court. The
forward court is known as " on-wall," the other as " off-wall."
The server must toss the ball gently against the front wall,
above the line, so that it afterwards hits the right wall and falls
on the " off-wall," but the server's object is not, as at tennis
and racquets, to send a service that cannot be returned. At
fives he must send a service that hand-out can take easily; indeed
hand-out can refuse to take any service that he does not like, and
if he fails to return the ball above the line no stroke is counted.
After the service has been returned cither of the opponents
returns the ball if be can, and so on, each side and cither member
of it returning the ball above the line alternately till one side
or the other hits it below the line or out of court. Only hand-is
can score. If hand-in wins a stroke, his side scores a point;
if he misses a stroke he loses his innings and his partner becomes
server, unless he has already served in this round, in which case
the opponents become hand-in. The game is fifteen points.
If the score is " 13 all," the out side may " set " the game to
5 or 3; U. the game becomes one of 5 or 3 points; at " 14 alt "
it may be set to three. The game and its terminology being
somewhat intricate, can best be learnt in the court. No apparatus
is required except padded gloves and fives-balls, which are
covered with white leather tightly stretched over a hard founda-
tion of cork, strips of leather and twine. The Eton balls are
if in. in diameter and weigh about i\ oz. apiece.
Rugby Fives is much less complicated owing to the simpler
form of the court. The rules as to service, taking the balls, ftc,
are the same as in Eton Fives. The balls are rather smaller. The
courts are larger, measuring about 34 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in. and may
be roofed or open. The side walls slope from so ft. to 1 * ft.
Some courts have a dwarf back wall, some have none. The
back wall, when there is one, is 5 ft. 8 in. in height. In some
courts the side walls are plain; in others, where there is no
back wall, a projection about 3 in. deep is built at right angles
to the two side walls; in others a buttress, similar to the tambour
of the tennis-court, is built out from the left-hand wall about 10 ft
from the front wall, and continued to the end of the court
The line is generally a board fixed across the front wall, its
upper edge 34 in. from the ground, but the height varies slightly.
Handball, of ancient popularity in Ireland and much played
in the United States, is practically identical with fives, though
there are minor differences. The usual American court is about
60 ft. long, 24I ft. wide and 35 ft. high at the front, tapering to
S3 ft. at the back wall The front wall is of brick faced with
marble, the sides of cement and the floor of white pine laid on,
beams 10 in. apart. These are the dimensions of the Brooklyn
court of the former American champion, Phil Casey (d. 1004),
which has been extensively copied. Twenty-one aces constitute
a game and gloves arc not usually worn. The American ball
is a trifle larger and softer than the Irish, which is called a " red
ace " when made of solid red rubber, and " black ace "vWhen
made of black rubber. Baggs of Tipperary, who was in his
prime about 1855, was the most celebrated Irish handball player.
In his day nearly every village tavern in Ireland had a court.
Browning and Lawlor, who won the Irish championship in 1885,
FIX— FIXTURES
♦5*
woe hit most prominent successors, In America Phil Casey
and Michael Egan are the best-known names.
See A. Tail's Fives in the AU England Series: " Fives " in the
-Jncyckp—di* of Sport; and Official Ha*
Athletic Library.
Encychpoidi* of Sport; and OffidafMandbaU Guide in Spalding's
FIX. THfiDDOM (1800-1846), French journalist and econo-
mist, was born at Solcure in Switzerland in 1800. His
father was a French physician whose ancestors had been, ex-
patriated by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. At first a
land surveyor, he in 1830 became connected with the Bulletin
universal dts sciences, to which he contributed most of the
geographical articles. In 1833 he founded the Revue tnensuelle
</' economic politique, which he edited during the three years
of its existence. He then became engaged in journalistic work,
till his essay on V Association dts douanes allemandes won him a
prize from the* Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiqucs in
X840, and also procured him work on the report on the progress
of sciences since the Revolution, which the Institute was prepar-
ing. A few months before his death he published Observations
sur les classes ouvrieres, in which he argued against all attempts
to regulate artificially the rate of wages, and attributed the
condition of the working classes to their own thrifllessness and
intemperance. He died suddenly at Paris on the 31st of July
X846.
FIXTURES (Lat. figere, to fix), in law, chattels which have
been so fixed or attached to land (as it is expressed in English law,
" so annexed to the freehold "), as to become, in contemplation
of law, a part of it. All systems of law make a marked distinction
for certain purposes, between immovables and movables, between
real and personal property, between land and all other things.
In the case of fixtures the question arises under which set of
rights they are to fall— under those of real or of personal property.
The general rule of English law is that everything attached to
the land goes with the land — quicquid planlatur solo, solo cedit.
This, like many other rules of English law, is all in favour of the
freeholder; but its hardship has been modified by a large
number of exceptions formulated from lime to time by the
courts as occasion arose.
In order to constitute a fixture there must be some degree
of annexation to the land, or to a building which forms part of it.
Thus it has been held that a barn laid on blocks of timber, but
not fixed to the ground itself, is not a fixture; and the onus
of showing that articles not otherwise attached to the land than
by their own weight have ceased to be chattels, rests with those
who assert the fact. On the other hand, an article, even slightly
affixed to the land, is to be considered part of it, unless the
circumstances show that it was intended to remain a chattel.
The question is one of fact in each ease — depending mainly on
the mode, degree and object of the annexation, and the possi-
bility of the removal of the article without injury to itself or the
freehold. In certain cases the courts have recognized a construc-
tive annexation, when the articles, though not fixed to the soil,
pass with the freehold as if they were, e.g. the keys of a house,
the stones of a dry wall, and the detached or duplicate portions
of machines.
Questions as to the property in fixtures principally arise—
(1) between landlord and tenant, (2) between heir and executor,
(3) between executor and remainder-man or reversioner, (4)
between seller and buyer.
1. At common law. if the tenant has affixed anything to the
freehold during his occupation, he cannot remove it without the
permission of bis landlord. But an exception was established in
favour of trade fixtures. In a case before Lord Holt it was held that
a soap-boiler might, during his term, remove the vats he had set up
for trade purposes, and that not by virtue of any special custom,
but "by the common law in favour of trade, and to encourage
industry,** and it may be stated as a general rule that things which
a tenant has fixed to the freehold for the purpose of trade or manu-
facture may be taken away by him, whenever the removal is not
contrary to any prevailing practice, or the particular terras of the
contract of tenancy, and can be effected without causing material
injury to the estate or destroying the essential character of the
articles themselves (Lambowrn v. U* Leila*. 1903. 2 Ch. 269). Agri-
cultural tenants are not entitled, at common law, to remove trade
fixtures. But the Landlord and Tenant Act 1851 granted such
a right of removal in the case of buildings or machinery erected by a
tenant at his own expense, and with his landlord's consent in writing,
provided that the freehold was not injured or that any injury was
mode good, and that before removal a month's written notice was
given to the landlord, who had an option of purchase. Under the
Agricultural Holdings Act 1883 the tenant might, under similar
conditions, remove fixtures, although the landlord had not consented
to their erection. The Agricultural Holdings Act 1900 extended
this provision to fixtures orbuildings acquired, although not annexed
or erected, by the tenant. Similar rights were created by the Allot-
ments Compensation Act 1887, and by the Market Gardeners'
Compensation Act 1895. AU these provisions were re-enacted by
the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908.
Again, ornamental fixtures, set up by the tenant for ornament and
convenience, such as hangings and looking-glasses, tapestry, iron-
backs to chimneys, wainscot fixed by screws, marble chimney-pieces,
are held to belong to the tenant, and to be removable without the
landlord's consent. Here again the extent of the privilege has been a
matter of some uncertainty.
fn all these cases the fixtures must be removed during the term.
If the tenant gives up possession of the premises without removing,
the fixtures, it will be presumed, it appears, that he has made a
gift of them to the landlord, and that presumption probably could
not be rebutted by positive evidence of a contrary intention. His
right to the fixtures is not, however, destroyed by the mere expiry
of the term, If he still remains in possession: but if he has once
left the premises he cannot come back and claim his fixtures. In
one case where the fixtures had actually been severed from the free*
hold after the end of the term, it was held that the tenant had no
right to recover them.
2. As between heir and executor or administrator. The question
of fixtures arises between these parties on the death of a person
owning land. The executor has no right to remove trade fixtures.
set up lor the benefit of the inheritance. As regards ornamental
objects, the rule quicquid plantatur solo, sola cedit was in early times
somewhat relaxed in favour of the executor. As far back as 1701,
it was held that hangings fixed to a wall for ornament passed to the
executor; and, although the effect of this relaxation was subsequently
cut. down, it is supported by the decisions of the courts affirming
the executor's right to valuable tapestries affixed by a tenant for
life to the walls ot a house for ornament and their better enjoyment
as chattels [Leigh v. Taylor, 1902, App. Cas. 157); and the same
has been held as to statues and bronse groups set on pedestals in
the grounds of a mansion house.
3. When a tenant for life of land dies, the question of fixtures
arises between his representatives and the persons next entitled to
the estate (the remainder-man or reversioner). The remainder-man
is not so great a favourite of the law as the heir, and the right to
fixtures is construed more favourably for executors than in the
preceding cases between heir and executor. Whatever are executor's
fixtures against the heir would therefore be executor's fixtures
against the remainder- man. And the result of the cases seem* to
be that, as against the remainder, the executor of the tenant for life
would be certainly entitled to trade, fixtures. Agricultural fixtures
arc not removable by the executor of a tenant for life.
4. As between seller and buyer, a purchase of the lands includes
a purchase of alt the fixtures. But here the intention of the parties
is of great impor tance. Similar questions may arise in other cases.
e.g. as between mortgagor and mortgagee. When land is mortgaged
the fixtures pass with it, unless a contrary intention is expressed in
the conveyance; and this even where the chattels affixed are the
subject of a hire purchase agreement (Reynolds v. Ashby, 1903,
1 K.B. 87). Again, in reference to bills of sale the question arises.
Bills of sale are dispositions of personal property similar to mort*
gages, the possession remaining with the person selling them. To
make them valid they must be registered, and so the question has
arisen whether deeds conveying fixtures ought not to have been
registered as bills of sale. Unless it was the intention of the parties
to make the fixtures a distinct security, it seem* that a deed of
mortgage embracing them does not require to be registered as a bill
of safe. The guest ion of what is or is not a fixture must also often
be considered in questions of rating or assessment.
The law of Scotland as to fixtures is the same as that of England.
The Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1883 (ss. 35, 42} and too©
(as to market gardens) give a similar statutory right of removal.
The law of Ireland has been the subject of the special legislation
sketched in the article Landlord and Tenant. The French Code
Civil recognises the right of the usufructuary to remove articles
' *■•- * **-* -*"--- *■■■ **■• m,
i>;
attached by him to the subject of his estate on the expiry of his term,
on making good the place from which they were taken (Art. 399) I
and there are similar provisions in the Civil Codes of Italy (Art.
49S>. Spain (Arts. 487, 489), Portugal (Art. 2217) and Germany
(Arts. 1037, 1049).
The law of the United Statesas to fixtures is substantially identical
with English common law. Constructive, as well asactual. annexa-
tion is recognized. The same relaxations (from the common law
rule quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit) as regards trade fixtures, and
ornamental fixtures, such as tapestry, have been recognized.
In Mauritius the provisions of the Code Civil are in force without
modification. In Quebec (Civil Code, Arts. 374 et seq.) and St
Lucia (Civil Code, Arts. 368 et seq.) they have been re-enacted in
45*
FIZEAU— FLACH
substance. Some of the British colonies have conferred a statutory
right to remove fixtures on tenants (cf. Tasmania, Landlord and
Tenant Act 1874). In certain of the colonies acquired by cession or
settlement (e.g. New Zealand) the English Landlord and Tenant Act
1851 is in force.
Authorities,— English law: Amos and Ferard. Law of Fixtures
(3rd ed. t London, 1883) ; Brown, Lav of Fixtures (3rd ed. f London,
1875); Ryde, on Rating_(ind ed., London, 1905). Scots Law:
Hunter, Landlord and Tenant; Erskine's Principles (aoth cd. t
Ed in., 1903). American Law: Bronson, Law of Fixtures (St Paul,
1904) ; Reeves, Real Properly (Boston, 1004); Ruling Cases (London
and Boston, 1894-1901). Tit. * Fixtures " (American Notes).
(A. W» R./
FIZEAU. ARMAND HIFPOLTTB LOUIS (1819-1806), French
physicist, was born at Paris on the 23rd of September 1819.
His earliest work was concerned with improvements in photo-
graphic processes; and then, in association with J. B. L. Foucault,
he engaged in a series of investigations on the interference of
light and heat. In 1849 he published the first results obtained
by his method for determining the speed of propagation of light
(see Light), and in 1850 with E. Gounelle measured the velocity
of electricity. In 1853 he described the employment of the con-
denser as a means for increasing the efficiency of the induction-
coiL Subsequently he studied the expansion of solids by heat, and
applied the phenomena of interference of light to the measure-
ment of the dilatations of crystals. He died at Venteuil on the
18th of September 1896. He became a member of the French
Academy in i860 and of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1878.
FJORD, or Fiord, the anglicized Norwegian word for a long
narrow arm of the sea running far inland, with more- or less
precipitous cliffs on each side. These " sea-lochs/' as they are
sometimes called, present many peculiar features. They differ
entirely from an estuary in the fact that they are bounded sea-
wards by a rocky sill, covered by shallow water, and they deepen
inland for some distance before the bottom again curves up to
the surface. They arc thus true rock basins drowned in sea*
water. It is pointed out by Dr H. R. Mill that Loch Montr on
the west coast of Scotland, a fresh-water basin 178 fathoms deep,
with its surface 30 ft. above sea-level, which is connected with
the sea by a short river, is exactly similar in configuration to
Loch Etive, 80 fathoms deep, filled with sea-water which pours
over the seaward sill in a waterfall with the retreating tide;
that Loch Nevis with a depth of 70 fathoms has its sill 8 fathoms
below the surface, while the gigantic Sogne Fjord in Norway,
more than 100 m. in length, is a rock basin with a maximum
depth of 700 fathoms. Any inland rock basin such as Loch
Morar would become a fjord if the seaward portion sank below
sea-level. The origin of these rock basins has not yet been
satisfactorily determined. Recent work upon somewhat similar
basins in the high Alps has suggested local weathering of surface
rock in fracture belts or faulted areas, or dikes, where material
is easily eroded, thus producing a trough bounded by high walls
in which a lake forms under favourable conditions. But in-
vestigations in such regions as the Rocky Mountains and the
Yosemite Valley, where there is frequently a " reversed grade "
similar to that near the seaward end of rock basins and fjords,
seem to show, in some cases at least, that such a formation may
be due to the " gouging " effect of a glacier coming down the
valley which it constantly deepens where the ice pressure and
t he supply of eroding material are greatest. There may be several
causes, but the results are the same in all these drowned valleys.
The mass of sea-water in the depth of the basin is cither un-
affected by the seasonal changes in surface temperature, which
in Norway penetrate no deeper than 200 fathoms, or else, as in
Loch Goil, the fresher film of surface water responds quickly to
seasonal changes, while the heat of advancing summer penetrates
so slowly to the depth of the basin that it takes six months
to reach the bottom, arriving there in winter. It has been found
that where the fresher surface water has been frozen over, the
temperature may be as much as 45° F. at a few fathoms from
the surface. When the surface is warmest, on the other hand,
the depths are coldest.
FLACCUS, a cognomen in the plebeian gens Fulvia, one of the
most illustrious in ancient Rome. Cicero and Pliny state that
the family came from Tuscutum, where some were still living in
the middle of the 1st century B.C. Of the Fulvii Flacri the mast
important were the following:
Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, son of the first of the family,
Marcus, who was consul with Appius Claudius Caudex in 364.
He especially distinguished himself during the second Panic
War. He was consul four times (237, 224, 212, 209), censor (23 1)
pontifex maximus (216), praetor urbanus (2x5). During his
first consulships he did good service against the Ligurians, Gauls
and Insubrians. In 212 he defeated Hanno near Beneventam,
and with his colleague Appius Claudius Pulcher began the siege
of Capua. The capture of this place was considered so important
that their imperium was prolonged, but on condition that they
should not leave Capua until it had been taken. Hannibal's
unexpected diversion against Rome interfered with the operations
for the moment, but his equally unexpected retirement enabled
Flaccus, who had been summoned to Rome to protect the city,
to return, and bring the siege to a successful conclusion. He
punished the inhabitants with great severity, alleging in excuse
that they had shown themselves bitterly hostile to Rome. He
was nominated dictator to hold the consular elections at which
he was himself elected (209) . He was appointed to the command
of the army in Lucania and Bruttium, where he crushed all further
attempts at rebellion. Nothing further is known of him. The
chief authority for his life is the part of Livy dealing with the
period (see Punic Wars).
His brother Gnaeus was convicted of gross cowardice against
Hannibal near Hcrdoniae in 210, and went into voluntary exile
at Tarquinii. His son, Quintus, waged war with signal success
against the Celtibcrians in 182-181, and the Ligurians in 179.
Having vowed to build a temple to Fort una Equestris, he
dismantled the temple of Juno Lacinia in Bruttium of its marble
slabs. This theft became known and he was compelled to
restore them, though they were never put back in their places.
Subsequently he lost his reason and hanged himself.
Marcus Fulvius Flaccus, grandnephew of the first Quintus,
lived in the times of the Gracchi, of whom he was a strong
supporter. After the death of Tiberius Gracchus (133 B.C.)
he was appointed in his place one of the commission of three
for the distribution of the land. He was suspected of having
had a hand in the sudden death of the younger Scipio (129),
but there was no direct evidence against him. When consul
in 125, he proposed to confer the Roman citizenship on all the
allies, and to allow even those who had not acquired it the right
of appeal to the popular assembly against penal judgments.
This proposal, though for the time successfully opposed by the
senate, eventually led to the Social War. The attack made upon
the Massilians (who were allies of Rome) by the Salluvii (Salves)
afforded a convenient excuse for sending Flaccus out of Rome.
After his return in triumph, he was again sent away (122), this time
with Gaius Gracchus to Carthage to found a colony, but did not
remain absent long. In 121 the disputes between the optimales
and the party of Gracchus culminated in open hostilities,
during which Flaccus was killed, together with Gracchus and a
number of his supporters. It is generally agreed that Flaccus was
perfectly honest in his support of the Gracchan reforms, but his
hot-headedness did more harm than good to the cause. Cicero
(Brutus, 28) speaks of him as an orator of moderate powers, but
a diligent student.
See Livy, EPit. 59-61; Val. Max. ix. 5, I; Veil. Pat. il. 6;
Appian, Bell. Civ. i. 18, 21, 24-26; Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 10. 13:
also A. H. J. Grcenidge, Hist, of Rome (1904), and authorities quoted
under Gracchus.
FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES (1846- ), French jurist and
historian, was born at Strassburg, Alsace, on the 16th of February
1846, of a family known at least as early as the 16th century, when
Sigismond Flach was the first professor of law at Strassburg
University. G. J. Flach studied classics and law at Strassburg,
and in 1869 took his degree of doctor of law. In his theses as
well as in his early writings—such as De la subrogation rttUc,
La Bonorum posstssio, and Sur la durte des tjftts de la minoriU
(1870)— he endeavoured to explain the problems of laws by
FLACIUS
453
means of history, an idea which was new to France at that time.
The Franco-German War engaged Flach's activities, in other
directions, and he spent two years (described in his Strasbourg
aprks te bombardemtnt, 1873) at work on the rebuilding of the
library and the museum, which had been destroyed by Prussian
shells. When the time came for him to choose between Germany
and France, he settled definitely in Paris, where he completed
his scientific training at the £cole des Chartes and the £cole des
Hautes Etudes, Having acted for some time as secretary to
Jules Senard, ex-president of the Constituent Assembly, he
published an original paper on artistic copyright, but as soon as
possible resumed the history of law. In 1879 he became assistant
to the jurist Edouard Laboulaye at the College de France, and
succeeded him in 1884 in the chair of comparative legislation.
Since 1877 he had been professor of comparative law at the free
school of the political sciences. To qualify himself for these
two positions he had to study the most diverse civilizations,
including those of the East and Far East (e.g. Hungary, Russia
and Japan) and even the antiquities of Babylonia and other
Asiatic countries. Some of his lectures have been published,
particularly those concerning Ireland: Histoirt du regime
agraire de Clrlande (1883); Considerations sur Vkisloire politique
de Vlrlande (1885); and Jonathan Swift, son action politique
en Irlande (1886).
His chief efforts, however, were concentrated on the history
of ancient French law. A celebrated lawsuit in Alsace, pleaded
by his friend and compatriot Ignace Chauffeur, aroused his
interest by reviving the question of the origin of the feudal
laws, and gradually led him to study the formation of those
laws and the early growth of the feudal system. His great work,
Les Ongines de Fancienne France, was produced slowly. In the
first volume, Le Regime seigneurial (1886), he depicts the triumph
of individualism and anarchy, showing how, after Charlemagne's
great but sterile efforts to restore the Roman principle of
sovereignty, the great landowners gradually monopolized the
various functions in the state; how society modelled on antiquity
disappeared; and how the only living organisms were vassalage
and clientship. The second volume, Les Origines communales, la
feodaliti et la chevalcrie (1893), deals with the reconstruction of
society on new bases which took place in the 10th and nth
centuries. It explains how the Gallo-Roman villa gave place to
the village, with its fortified castle, the residence of the lord;
how new towns were formed by the side of old, some of which
disappeared; how the townspeople united in corporations; and
bow the communal bond proved to be a powerful instrument
of cohesion. At the same time it traces the birth of feudalism
from the germs of the Gallo-Roman personal comUatus; and
shows how the bond that united the different parties was the
contract of the fief; and how, after a slow growth of three
centuries, feudalism was definitely organized in the 12th century.
fn 1904 appeared the third volume, La Renaissance de Fetal,
in which the author describes the efforts of the Capetian kings
to reconstruct the power of the Frankish kings over the whole
of Gaul; and goes on to show how the clergy, the heirs of the
imperial tradition, encouraged this ambition; how the great lords
of the kingdom (the " princes," as Flach calls them), whether as
iftcs or foes, pursued the same end; and how, before the close
of the 1 ath century, the Capetian kings were in possession of
tt»* organs and the means of action which were to render them
80 powerful and bring about the early downfall of feudalism.
In these three volumes, which appeared at long intervals,
*hc author's theories arc not always in complete harmony, nor
jut they always presented in a very luminous or coherent manner,
but they are marked by originality and vigour. Flach gave
them a solid basis by the wide range of his researches, utilizing
^rters and cartularies (published and unpublished), chronicles,
byes of saints, and even those dangerous guides, the chansons
*Jf«<e. He owed little to the historians of feudalism who knew
*o*t feudalism was, but not bow it came about He pursued the
*me method in his L'Origine de l' habitation et des lieux habitU
ttfrafK* (1809), in which he discusses some of the theories
™uated by A. Meitzen in Germany and by Arbois de Jubain-
ville in France. Following in the footsteps of the jurist F. C.
von Savigny, Flach studied the teaching of law in the middle
ages and the Renaissance, and produced Cujas, les glossaleurs
el Us Bartolistet (1883), and £tudes critiques sur Vhisloire du
droit ronain au moyen Age, avtc lextes inidits (1800).
FLACIUS (Gcr. Flach; Slav. Vlakkh), MATTHIAS (1520-
1575), surnamed Iixvricus, Lutheran reformer, was born at
AJbona, in Ulyria, on the 3rd of March 152a Losing his father
in childhood, he was in early years self-educated, and made
himself able to profit by the instructions of the humanist,
Baptista Egnatius in Venice. At the age of seventeen he
decided to join a monastic order, with a view to sacred learning.
His intention was diverted by his uncle, Baldo Lupetino, pro-
vincial of the Franciscans, in sympathy with the Reformation,
who induced him to enter on a university career, from 1539,
at Basel, Tubingen and Wittenberg. Here he was welcomed
(1541) by Mclanchthon, being well introduced from Tubingen,
and here he came under the decisive influence of Luther. In
1544 he was appointed professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg.
He married in the autumn of 1545, Luther taking part in the
festivities. He took his master's degree on the 24th of February
1 $46, ranking- first among the graduates. Soon he was prominent
in the theological discussions of the time, opposing strenuously
the "Augsburg Interim," and the compromise of Melancbthon
known as the " Leipzig Interim " (see Adiaphorists). Melan-
cbthon wrote of him with venom as a renegade (" aluimus in sinu
serpentem"), and Wittenberg became too hot for him. He
removed to Magdeburg (Nov. 9, 1551), where his feud with
Melancbthon was patched up. On the x 7 th of May 1 557 he was
appointed professor of New Testament theology at Jena; but
was soon involved in controversy with Slrigel, his colleague, on
the synergistic question (relating to the function of the will in
conversion). Affirming the natural inability of man, he un-
wittingly fell into expressions consonant with the Manichaean
view of sin, as not an accident of human nature, but involved in
its substance, since the Fall. Resisting ecclesiastical censure,
he left Jena (Feb. 1562) to found an academy, at Rcgensburg.
The project was not successful, and in October 1566 he accepted
a call from the Lutheran community at Antwerp. Thence he
was driven (Feb. 1567) by the exigencies of war, and betook
himself to Frankfort, where the authorities set their faces
against him. He proceeded to Strassburg, was well received
by the superintendent Marbach, and hoped he had found an
asylum. But here also his religious views stood in his way;
the authorities eventually ordering him to leave the city by May-
day 1573. Again betaking himself to Frankfort, the prioress,
Catharina von Meerfeld, of the convent of White Ladies,
harboured him and his family in despite of the authorities.
He fell ill at the end of 1574; the city council ordered him to
leave by Mayday 1575; but death released him on the nth
of March 1575. His first wife, by whom he had twelve children,
died in 1564; in the same year he remarried and had further
issue. His son Matthias was professor of philosophy and
medicine at Rostock. Of a life so tossed about the literary
fruit was indeed remarkable. His polemics we may pass over;
he stands at the fountain-head of the scientific study of church
history, and— if we except, a great exception, the work of
Laurentius Valla— of hermeneutics also. No doubt his impelling
motive was to prove popery to be built on bad history and bad
exegesis. Whether that be so or not, the extirpation of bad
history and bad exegesis is now felt to be of equal interest to
all religionists. Hence the permanent and continuous value of
the principles embodied in Flacius' Calalogus teslium veritalis
(1556; revised edition by J. C. Dietericus, 1672) and his Clavis
scripturae sacrae (1567), followed by his Gossa compendiaria
in N. Testamentum (1570). His characteristic formula," historia
est fundamentum doctrinae," is better understood now than
in his own day.
See J. B. Ritter, Flacius* s Leben u. Tod (172$); M. Twesten, 11.
Flacius IUyricux (1844); W. Preger, U. Planus Illyricus u. seine
JZeit (1899-1861); G. Kawerau, in Henog-Hauck's Rtolencykhpidie
O899).
(A. Go.*>
45+
FLACOURT— FLAG
FLACOURT, frlENNB DB (1607-1660), French governor
of Madagascar, was born at Orleans in 1607. He was named
governor of Madagascar by the French East India Company
in 1648. Flacourt restored order among the French soldiers,
who had mutinied, but in his dealings with the natives he was
less successful, and their intrigues and attacks kept him in
continual harassment during all his term of office. In 1655 he
returned to France. Not long after be was appointed director
general of the company; but having again returned to Mada-
gascar, he was drowned on his voyage home on the xoth of June
1660. He is the author of a Histoire de la grande isle Madagascar
(1st edition 1658, 2nd edition 1661).
Sec A. Malotct, £l. de Flacourt, ou Us orients de la colonisation
francaise 4 Madagascar (1648-1661), (Paris, 1898).
FLAG (or " Flacce," a common Teutonic word in this sense,
but apparently first recorded in English), a piece of bunting
or similar material, admitting of various shapes and colours,
and waved in the wind from a staff or cord for use in display
as a standard, ensign or signal. The word may simply be derived
onomatopoeically, or transferred from the botanical " flag ";
or an original meaning of " a piece of cloth " may be connected
with the z 2th-ccntury English "flage," meaning a baby's garment;
the verb " to flag," i.e. droop, may have originated in the idea
of a pendulous piece of bunting, or may be connected with the
O. Fr. Jlaguir, to become flaccid. It is probable that almost as
soon as men began to collect together for common purposes
some kind of conspicuous object was used, as the symbol of the
common sentiment, for the rallying point of the common force.
In military expeditions, where any degree of organization and
discipline prevailed, objects of such a kind would be necessary
to mark out the lines and stations of encampment, and to keep
in order the different bands when marching or in battle. In
addition, it cannot be doubted that flags or their equivalents
have often served, by reminding men of past resolves, past deeds
and past heroes, to arouse to enthusiasm those sentiments of
esprif de corps, of family pride and honour, of personal devotion,
patriotism or religion, upon which, as well as upon good leader-
ship, discipline and numerical force, success in warfare depends.
History. — Among the remains of the people which has left
the earliest traces of civilization, the records of the forms of
objects used as ensigns are frequently to be found. From their
carvings and paintings, supplemented by ancient writers, it
appears that several companies of the Egyptian army had
their own particular standards. These were formed of such
objects as, there is reason to believe, were associated in the
minds of the men with feelings of awe and devotion. Sacred
animals, boats, emblems or figures, a tablet bearing a king's
name, fan and feather-shaped symbols, .were raised on the end
of a staff as standards, and the office of bearing them was looked
upon as one of peculiar privilege and honour (fig. 1). Somewhat
similar seem to have been the customs of the Assyrians and
Jews. Among the sculptures unearthed by Layard and others
at Nineveh, only two different designs have been noticed for
standards: one is of a figure drawing a bow and standing on
a running bull, the other of two bulls running in opposite direc-
tions (fig. 2). These may resemble the emblems of war and
peace which were attached to the yoke of Darius's chariot.
They are borne upon and attached to chariots; and this method
of bearing such objects was the custom also of the Persians,
and prevailed during the middle ages. That the custom survived
to a comparatively modern period is proved from the fact that
the " Guns," which are the " standards " of the artillery, have
from time immemorial been entitled to all the parade honours
prescribed by the usages of war for the flag, that is, the symbol
of authority. In days comparatively recent there was a " flag
gun," usually the heaviest piece, which emblemized authority
and served also as the " gun of direction " in the few concerted
movements then attempted. No representations of Egyptian
or Assyrian naval standards have been found, but the sails of
ships were embroidered and ornamented with devices, another
custom which survived into the middle ages.
In both Egyptian and Assyrian examples, the staff bearing the
emblem is frequently ornamented immediately below vita
flag-like streamers. Rabbinical writers have assigned the
different devices of the different Jewish tribes, but the authen-
ticity of their testimony is extremely doubtful. Banners,
standards and ensigns are frequently mentioned in the Bible.
" Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his standard,
Fio. 1.— Egyptian Standards.
with the ensign of their father's house " (Num. ii. 1). " Who
is she that looketh forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear
as the sun, terrible as an army with banners?" (Cant, vi
10. See also Num. ii. 10, x. 14; Ps. xx.5, lx. 4; Cant. 11.4;
Is. v. 26, x. 18, lix. 19; Jer. iv. 21).
The Persians bore an eagle fixed to the end of a lance, and the
sun, as their divinity, was also represented upon their standards,
which appear to have been formed of some kind of textile, and
were guarded with the greatest jealousy by the bravest men of
Fie. 2. — Assyrian Standards
the army. The Carian soldier who slew Cyrus, the brother of
Artaxerxes, was allowed the honour of carrying a golden cock
at the head of the army, it being the custom of the Carians to
wear that bird as a crest on their helmets. The North American
Indians carried poles fledged with feathers from the wings of
eagles, and similar customs seem to have prevailed among other
semi-savage peoples.
The Greeks bore a piece of armour upon a spear in early
times; afterwards the several cities bore sacred emblems ox
FLAG
455
letters chosen for their particular associations— the Athenians
the olive and the owl, the Corinthians a pegasus, the Thebans
a sphinx, in memory of Oedipus, the Messenians their initial
M, and the Lacedaemonians A. A purple dress was placed on
the end of a spear as the signal to advance. The Dacians carried
a standard representing a contorted serpent, while the dragon
was the military sign of many peoples — of the Chinese, Dacians
and Parthians among others— and was probably first used by
the Romans as the ensign of barbarian auxiliaries (see fig. 3).
Fie. 3.— Roman Standards.
The question of the tigna mil it aria of the Romans is a wide
and very important one, having direct bearing on the history
of heraldry, and on the origin of national, family and personal
devices. With them the custom was reducedto system. " Each
century, or at least each maniple," says Mcyrick, " had its
proper standard and standard-bearer." In the early days of the
republic a handful of hay was borne on a pole, whence probably
came the name manipulus (Lat. manus, a hand). The forms
of standards in later times were very various; sometimes a
cross piece of wood was placed at the end of a spear and sur-
mounted by the figure of a hand in silver, below round or oval
discs, with figures of Mars or Minerva, or in later times portraits
of emperors or eminent generals (fig. 3). Figures of animals,
as the wolf, horse, bear and others, were borne, and it was not
till a later period that the eagle became the special standard
of the legion. According to Pliny, it was Caius Marius who, in
his second consulship, ordained that the Roman legions should
only have the eagle for their standard; " for before that time
the eagle marched foremost with four others— wolves, minotaurs,
horses and bears— each one in its proper order. Not many years
passed before the eagle alone began to be advanced in battle,
and the rest were left behind in the camp. But Marius rejected
them altogether, and since this it is observed that scarcely is
there a camp of a legion wintered at any time without having
a pair of eagles."
The vexillum, which was the cavalry flag, is described by
Livy as a square piece of cloth fastened to a piece of wood fixed
crosswise to the end of a spear, somewhat resembling the medieval
gonfalon. Examples of these vexilla are to be seen on various
Roman coins and medals, on the sculptured columns of Trajan
and Antoninus, and on the arch of Titus. The tabor urn, which
was the imperial standard of later emperors, resembled in shape
and fixing the vexillum. It was of purple silk, richly embroidered
with gold, and sometimes was not suspended as the vexillum
from a horizontal crossbar, but displayed as our modern flags,
that is to say. by the attachment of one of its sides to a staff.
After Constant ine, the 1 aba rum bore the monogram of Christ
(fig. 5, A). It is supposed that the small scarf, which in medieval
days was often attached to the pastoral staff or crook of a bishop,
was derived from the labarum of the first Christian emperor,
Constantine the Great. The Roman standards were guarded
with religious veneration in the temples at Rome; and the
reverence of this people for their ensigns was in proportion to
their superiority to other nations in all that tends to success in
war. It was not unusual for a general to order a standard to be
cast into the ranks of toe enemy, to add zeal to the onset of
his soldiers by exciting them to recover what to them was perhaps
the most sacred thing the earth possessed. The Roman soldier
swore by his ensign.
Although in earlier times drapery was occasionally used for
standards, and was often appended as ornament to those of
other material, it was probably not until the middle ages that
it became the special material of military and other ensigns;
and perhaps not until the practice of heraldry had attained to
definite nomenclature and laws does anything appear which is in
the modern sense a flag.
Early flags were almost purely of a religious character. In
Bede's description of the interview between the heathen king
/Ethelberht and the Roman missionary Augustine, the followers
of the latter are said to have borne banners on which silver
crosses were displayed. The national banner of England for
centuries— the red cross of St George — was a religious one; in
fact the aid of religion seems ever to have been sought to give
sanctity to national flags, and the origin of many can be traced
to a sacred banner, as is notably the case with the oriflamme
of France and the Dannebrog of Denmark. Of the latter the
legend runs that King Waldemar of Denmark, leading his troops
to battle against the enemy in 12 19, saw at a critical moment
a cross in the sky. This was at once taken as an answer to his
prayers, and an assurance of celestial aid. It was forthwith
adopted as the Danish flag and called the " Dannebrog," i.e. the
strength of Denmark. Apart from all legend, this flag un-
doubtedly dates from the 13th century, and the Danish flag is
therefore the oldest now in existence.
The ancient kings of France bore the blue hood of St Martin
upon their standards. The Chape de St Martin was originally
in the keeping of the monks of the abbey of Marmoutier, and the
right to take this blue flag into battle with them was claimed
by the counts of Anjou. Clovis bore this banner against Alaric
in 507, for victory was promised him by a verse of the Psalms
which the choir were chanting when his envoy entered the church
of St Martin at Tours. Charlemagne fought under it at the bat tie
of Narbonne, and it frequently led the French to victory. At
what precise period the oriflamme, which was originally simply
the banner of the abbey of St Denis, supplanted the Chape de
St Martin as the sacred banner of all France is not known.
Probably, however, it gradually became the national flag after
the kings of France had transferred the seat of government to
Paris, where the great local saint, St Denis, was held in high
honour, and the banner hung over the tomb of the saint in the
abbey church. The king of France himself was one of the vassals
of the abbey of St Denis for the fief of the Vexin, and it was in his
quality of count of Vexin that Louis VI., lc Gros, bore this banner
from the abbey to battle, in 11 24. He is credited with having
been the first French king to have taken the banner to war, and
it appeared for the last time on the field of fight at Agincourt
in 1415- The accounts also of its appearance vary considerably.
Guillaume Gaiart, in his Chronicle says:—
" Oriflambe est une banmdre
De cendai voujoiant ct simple
Sans portraiture d autre affaire."
It would, therefore, seem to have been a plain scarlet flag; whilst
an English authority stales " the celestial auriffamb, so by the
French admired, was but of one colour, a square redde banner."
The Chromque de Flandret describes it as having three points
with tassels of green silk attached. The banner of William the
Conqueror was sent to him by the pope, and the early English
kings fought under the banners of Edward the Confessor and
St Edmund; while the blended crosses of St George, St Andrew
and St Patrick still form the national ensign of the united
456
FLAG
kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, whose patron
saints they severally were.
The Bayeux tapestry, commemorating the Norman conquest
of England, contains abundant representations of the flags of
the period borne upon the lances of the knights of William's
army. They appear small in size, and pointed, frequently
indented into three points and bearing pales, crosses and roundels.
One, a Saxon pennon, b triangular, and roundly indented into
four points; one banner is of segmental shape and rayed, and
Fie. 4.— Pennons and Standard* from the Bayeux Tapestry.
bears the figure of a bird, which has been supposed to represent
the raven of the war-flag of the Scandinavian Vikings (fig. a)-
In all, thirty-seven pennons borne on lances by various knights
are represented in the Bayeux tapestry, and of these twenty-eight
have triple points, whilst others have two, -four or five. The
devices on these pennons are very varied and distinctive, although
the date is prior to the period in which heraldry became definitely
established. In fact, the flags and their charges are probably
not really significant of the people bearing them; for, even
admitting that personal devices were used at the time, the
figures may have been placed without studied intention, and
so give the general figure only of such flags as happened to have
come under the observation of the artists. The figures are
probably rather ornamental and symbolic than strictly heraldic,
—that is, personal devices, for the same insignia do not appear
on the shields of the several bearers. The dragon standard
which he is known to have borne is placed near Harold; but
similar figures appear on the shields of Norman warriors, which
fact has induced a writer in the Journal of the Archaeological
Association (vol. xiii. p. 113) to suppose that on the spears of
the Saxons they represent only trophies torn from the shields
of the Normans, and that they are not ensigns at all. Standards
in form much resembling these dragons appear on the Arch of
Titus and the Trajan column as the standards of barbarians.
At the battle of the Standard in 1138 the English standard
was formed of the mast of a ship, having a silver pyx at the
top and bearing three sacred banners, dedicated severally to
St Peter, St John of Beverley and St Wilfrid of Ripon, the
whole being fastened to a wheeled vehicle. Representations
of three-pointed, cross-bearing pennons arc found on seals of
as early date as the No man era, and the warriors in the first
crusade bore three-pointed pennons. It is possible that the
three points with the -three roundels and cross, which so often
appear on these banners, have some reference to the faith of
the bearers in the Trinity and in the Crucifixion, for in con-
temporary representations of Christ's resurrection and descent
into hell he bears a three-pointed banner with cross above.
The triple Indentation so common on the flags of this period has
been supposed to be the origin of one of the honourable ordinaries
—the pile. The " pile/' it may be explained, is in the form of a
wedge, and unless otherwise specified in the blazon, occupies
the central portion of the escutcheon, issuing from the middle
chief. It may, however, issue from any other extremity of the
shield, and there may be more than one. More secular characters
were, however, not uncommon. In 1244 Henry III. gave order
for a " dragon to be made in fashion of a standard of red silk
sparkling ail over with fine gold, the tongue of which should be
made to resemble burning fire and appear to be continually
moving, and the eye& of sapphires or other suitable stones."
The Siege of Carlaverock, an Anglo-Norman poem of the 14th
century, describes the heraldic bearings on the banners of the
knights at the siege of that fortress. Of the king himself the
writer says: —
M En sa banniere trots luparte
Dc or fin cstoient mis en rouge;**
and he goes on to describe the kingly characteristics these may
be supposed to symbolize. A MS. in the British Museum (one
of Sir Christopher Barker's heraldic collection, Harl. 4632)
gives drawings of the standards of English kings from Edward
III. to Henry VIII., which are roughly but artistically
coloured.
The principal varieties of flags borne during the middle
ages were the pennon, the banner and the standard. The
" guydhommes " or " guidons," " banderolls," " pennonceils,"
" streamers " or pendants, may be considered as minor varieties.
The pennon (fig. 5, B) was a purely personal ensign, sometimes
pointed, but more generally forked or swallow-tailed at the
end. It was essentially the flag of the knight simple, as apart
from the knight banneret, borne by him on his lance, charged
with his personal armorial bearings so displayed that they
stood in true position when he couched his lance for action.
A MS. of the 1 6th century (Harl. 2358) in the British Museum,
which gives minute particulars as to the size, shape and bearings
of the standards, banners, pennons, guydhommes, pennonceils,
&c, says " a pennon must be two yards and a half long, made
round at the end, and conteyncth the armes of the owner,"
and warns that " from a standard or streamer a man may flee
but not from his banner or pennon bearing his arms.'
A pennoncell (or pensclle) was a diminutive pennon carried
by the esquires. Flags of this character were largely used on
Fie. 5. — A. Labarum from medallion of Cunstantine; B, Medieval
Pennon ; C, Medieval Banner; D, Standard of Henry V.
any special occasion of ceremony, and more particularly at state
funerals. For instance, we find " XII. doz. penscllcs " amongst
the items that figured at the funeral of the duke of Norfolk in
I5S4, and in the description of the lord mayor's procession in the
following year we read of " ij goodly pennes (state barges) deckt
with flages and strcmers, and a m (1000) pcnselles." Amongst
FLAGS
Plate I.
Niagara fttho G>., Buffalo. S. )
FLAGS
Plate II.
ARGENTINA.
Naval.
VENEZUELA.
Naval.
Niagara f.itho Co.. B*#*lo, S V
FLAG
457
the items that ran the tot*! cost of die funeral of Oliver Cremwefl
up to an enormous sum of money, we find mention of thirty dote*
of pennoncells a foot long and costing twenty shillings a dozen,
and twenty dozen of the same kind of flags at twelve shillings a
dozen.
The banner was, in the earner days of chivalry, a square flag*
though at a later date it is often found greater in length than in
depth, precisely as is the case in the ordinary national flags of
to-day. In some very early examples it is found considerably
longer in the depth on the staff than in its outward projection
from the staff. The banner was charged in a manner exactly
similar to the shield of the owner, and it was borne by knights
banneret and all above them in rank. As a rough guide it may
be taken that the banner of an emperor was 6 ft. square; of a
king, 5 ft.; of a prince or duke, 4 ft.; of a marquis, earl, viscount
or baron, 3 ft. square. As the function of the banner was to
display the armorial bearings of the dignitary who had the
right to carry it, it is evident thai the square form was the most
convenient and akin to the shield of primal heraldry. In fact,
flags were originally heraldic emblems, though Jn modern devices
the strict laws of heraldry have often been departed from.
The rank of knights bannerets was higher than that of ordinary
knights, and they could be created on the field of battle only.
To create a knight banneret, the king or commander-in-chief
in person tore off the fly of the pennon on the lance of the knight,
thus turning it roughly into the square flag or banner, and so
making the knight a banneret. The date in which this dignity
originated is uncertain, but it was probably about the period of
Edward L John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret
by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Najara on the 3rd
of April 1367; John of Copeland was made a banneret in the
reign of Edward III., he having taken prisoner David Bruce, the
Scottish king, at the battle of Durham. In more modern times
Captain John Smith, of Lord Bernard Stuart's troop of the
King's Guards, who saved the royal banner from the parlia-
mentary troops at Edgehill, was made a knight banneret by
Charles I. From this time the custom of creating knights
banneret ceased until it was revived by George II. after Dettingen
"*» 743, when the dignity was again conferred. It is true, however,
that, when in 1763 Sir William Erskine presented to George HI.
sixteen stands of colours captured by his regiment [now the
15th (king's) Hussars) at Emsdorf, he was raised to the dignity
of knight banneret, but as the ceremony was not performed on
the field of battle, the creation was considered irregular, and his
possession of the rank was not generally recognised.
The banner was therefore not only a personal ensign, but it
also denoted that he who bore it was the leader of a military
force, large or small according to his degree or estate. It was,
in fact, the battle flag of the leader who controlled the particular
force that followed it into the fight. Every baron who in time
of war had furnished the proper number of men to his liege was
entitled to charge with his arms the banner which they followed.
There could indeed be at present found no belter representative
of the medieval " banner " than what we now term the " royal
standard "; it is essentially the personal battle flag of the king of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It and other
royal and imperial standards have now become " standards,"
inasmuch as they are to-day used for display in the same fashion,
snd for the same purposes as was the " standard " of old. The
" gonfalon " or " gonfannon " was a battle flag differing from
the ordinary banner in that it was not attached to the pole but
hung from* it crosswise, and was not always square in shape
. but serrated, so that the lower edge formed streamers. The
gonfalon was in action borne close to the person of the commander-
' in-chief and denoted his position. In certain of the Italian
cities chief magistrates had the privilege of bearing a gonfalon,
-nd for this reason were known as " gonfaloniere."
The standard (fig. 5, D) was a flag of noble size, long, tapering
towards the fly (the " fly " is that portion of the flag farther
from the pole, the " hoist " the portion of the flag attached to
the pole), the edges of the flag fringed or bordered, and with
the ends split and rounded off. The shape was not, however, by
any means uniform during Hie middle ages nor were there any
definite rules as to its charges. It varied in size according to
the rank of the owner. The Tudor MS. mentioned above says
of the royal standard of that time—" the Standard to be sett
before the king's pavilion or tente, and not to be borne in
battayle; to be in length eleven yards." A MS. of the time
of Henry VII. gives the following dimensions for standards:
'* The King's had a length of eight yards; that of a duke, seven;
a marquis, six and a half; an earl, six; a viscount, five and a
half; a baron, five, a knight banneret, four and a half; and
a knight four yards." The standard was, in fact, from its size,
and as its very name implies, not meant to be carried into action,
as was the banner, but to denote tjie actual position of its pos-
sessor on occasions of state ceremonial, or on the tilling ground,
and to denote the actual place occupied by him and his following
when the hosts were assembled in camp preparatory for battle.
It was essentially a flag denoting position, whereas the banner
was the rallying point of its followers in the actual field. Its
uses are now fulfilled, as far as royalties are concerned, by the
" banner M which has now become the " royal standard," and
which floats over the palace where the king is in residence, is
hoisted at the saluting point -when he reviews his troops, and is
broken from the mainmast of any ship in his navy the moment
that his foot treads its deck. The essential condition of the
standard was that it should always have the cross of St. George
conspicuous in the innermost part of the hoist immediately con-
tiguous to the staff; the remainder of the flag was then divided
fesse-wise by two or more stripes of colours exactly as the
heraldic " ordinary " termed " fesse " crosses the shield horizon*
tally. The colours used as stripes, as also those used in the fringe
or -bordering of the standard, were those which prevailed in the
arms of the bearer or were those of his livery. The standard
here depicted (fig. 5, D) is that of Henry V.; the colours white
and blue, a white antelope standing between two red rases, and
in the interspaces more red roses. To quote again from the
Harleian MS. above mentioned: " Every standard and guidon
to have in the chief the cross of St George, the beast or crest with
his devyce and word, and to be slitt at the end." The motto
indeed usually figured on most standards, though occasionally
it was missing. An excellent type of the old standard is that
of the earls of Percy, which bore the blue lion, the crescent,
and the fetterlock— all badges of the family— whilst, as tokens
of matrimonial alliances with the families of Poynings, Bryan
and Fitzpaync, a silver key, a bugle-horn and a falchion were
respectively displayed. There was also the historic Percy mot to,
Esptranct en Dieu. No one, whatsoever his rank, could possess
more than one banner, since it displayed his heraldic arms, which
were unchangeable. A single individual, however, might possess
two or three standards since this flag displayed badges that he
could multiply at discretion, and a motto that he could at any
time change. For example, the standards of Henry VII., mostly
green and white— the colours of the Tudor livery— had in one
11 a red firye dragon," in another " a donnc kowe," in a third
" a silver greyhound and two red roses." The standard was
always borne by an eminent person, and that of Henry V. at
Agincourt is supposed to have been carried upon a car that
preceded the king. At Nelson's funeral his banner and standard
were borne in the procession, and around his coffin were the
bandcrolls— square, banncrlike flags bearing the various arms
of his family lineage. Nelson's standard bore his motto, Palma m
qui meruit ferat, but, in lieu of the cross of St George, it bore the
union of the crosses of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick,
the medieval England having expanded into the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland. Again, at the funeral of the duke
of Wellington we find amongst the flags his personal banner
and standard, and ten banderolls of the duke's pedigree and
descent.
The guidon, a name derived from the Fr. Guyd-komne, was
somewhat similar to the standard, but without the cross of St
George, rounded at the end, less elongated and altogether less
ornate. It was borne by a leader of horse, and according to a
medieval writer " must be two and a half yards or three yards
45«
FLAG
long, and therein shall no armes be put, but only the- man's
crest, cognisance, and devyce."
The streamer, 'so called in Tudor days but now better known
as the pennant or pendant, was a long, tapering nag, which it was
directed " shall stand in the top of a ship or ia.Lhe forecastle,
and therein be put no armes, but the man's cognisance or devyce,
and may be of length twenty, thirty, forty or sixty, yards, and
is slitt as well as a guidon or standard/' Amongst the fittings
of the ship that took Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, to France in
the reign of Henry VII. was a " grete stremour for the shippe
xl yardea in length viij yardes in brede." In the hoist was
" a grete here holding a raggid staffe," and the rest of the fly
" powdrid full of raggid staves."
National Flacs. — British. The royal standard of England
was, when it was hoisted on the Tower on the ist of January
1 80 1, thus .hcraldically described: — "Quarterly; first and
fourth, gules, three lions passant gardant, in pale, or, for England;
second, or, a lion rampant, gules, within a double treasure flory
counter flory of the last, for Scotland; third, azure, a harp or,
stringed argent, for Ireland." The present standard connects
in direct descent from the arms of the Conqueror. These were
two leopards passant on a red field, and remained the same
until the reign of Henry II., when lions were substituted for
leopards, and a third added. The next change that took place
was in the reign of Edward III. when the royal arms were for
the first time quartered; JUurs-de4is in the first and fourth
quarters, and the three lions of England in the second and third.
The fleurs-de-lis were assumed in token of the monarch's claim
to the throne of France. In the " coats " of Edward III. and
the two monarchs that succeeded him, the fleurs-de-lis were
powdered over a blue ground, but under Henry V. xht fleurs-de-lis
were reduced in number to three, and the " coat " so devised
remained the same until the death of Queen Elizabeth. The lion
of Scotland and the Irish harp were added to the flag on the
accession of James I., and the flag then had the French and
English arms quartered in the first and fourth quarters, the lion
of Scotland, red on a yellow ground, in the second quarter, and
the harp of Ireland, gold on a blue ground, in the third quarter.
With the exception of the period of the Commonwealth, to
which reference will be made later, the flag remained thus until
the accession of William III., who imposed upon the Stuart
standard a central shield carrying the arms of Nassau. Queen
Anne made further alterations; the first and fourth quarters were
subdivided, the three lions of England being in one half, the lion of
Scotland in the other. Thtflews-de-lis were in the second quarter;
the Irish harp in the third. Under George I. and George II.
the first, second and third quarters remained the same, the arms
of Hanover being placed in the fourth quarter, and this continued
to be the royal standard until 1801, when the standard was re-
arranged as first described with the addition of the Hanoverian
arms displayed on a shield in the centre. On the accession of
Queen Victoria, the Hanoverian arms were removed, and the
flag remained as it to-day exists. It is worthy of note, however,
that in the royal standard of King Edward VII. which hangs in
the chapel of St George at Windsor, the ordinary " winged
woman " form of the harp in the Irish third quartering is altered
to a harp of the old Irish pattern. At King Edward's accession
this banner replaced that of Queen Victoria which for sixty-two
years had hung in this, the chapel of the order of the Garter.
Up to the time of the Stuarts it had been the custom of
the lord high admiral or person in command of the fleet to fly
the royal standard as deputy of the sovereign. When royalty
ceased to be, a new flag was devised by the council of state for
the Commonwealth, which comprised the "arms of England
and Ireland in two several escutcheons in a red flag within a
Compartment." In other words, it was a red flag containing
two shields, the one bearing the cross of St George, red on a white
ground, the other the harp, gold on a blue ground, and round the
shields was a wreath of palm and shamrock leaves. One of these
flags is still in existence at Chatham dockyard, where it is kept
in a wooden chest which was taken out of a Spanish galleon at
Vigo by Admiral Sir George Rooke in 1704. When Cromwell
became protector of the commonwealth of England, Scotland
and Ireland, he devised for himself a personal standard. This
had the cross of St George in the first and fourth quarters* the
cross of St Andrew, a white sallire on a blue ground, in the
second, and the Irish harp in the third. His own arms—a lion
on a black shields-were imposed on the centre of the flag. No
one but royalty has a right to fly the royal standard, and though
it is constantly seen flying for purposes of decoration its use is
irregular. There has, however, always been one exception,
namely, that the lord high admiral when in executive command
of a fleet has always been entitled to fly the royal standard.
For example, Lord Howard flew it from the mainmast of the
" Ark Royal " when he defeated the Spanish Armada, the
duke of Buckingham flew it as lord high admiral in the reign
of Charles I., and the duke of York fought under it when fee
commanded during the Dutch Wars.
The national flag of the British empire is the Union Jack.
in which are combined in union the crosses of St George, St
Andrew and St Patrick. St George had long been a patron
saint of England, and his banner, argent, a cross gules, its
national ensign. St Andrew in the same way was the patron
saint of Scotland, and his banner, azure, a saltire argent, the
national ensign of Scotland. On the union of the two crowns
James I. issued a proclamation ordaining, that " henceforth all
our subjects of this Isle and Kingdom of Greater Britain and
the members thereof, shall bear in their main-top/ the red cross
commonly called St George's cross, and the white cross commonly
called St Andrew's cross, joined together according to a form
made by our heralds, and sent by us to our admiral to be pub*
hohed to our said subjects; and in their fore-top our subjects
of south Britain shall wear the red cross only, as they were wont,
and our subjects of north Britain in their fore-top, the white
cross only as they were accustomed." This was the first Union
Jack, as it is generally termed, though strictly the name of the
flag is the " Great Union," and it is only a "Jack" when flown
on the jackstaff of a ship of war. Probably the nam^ of the
Stuart king "Jacques," which James I. always signed, gave
the name to the flag, and then to the staff at which it was hoisted.
At the death of Charles I., the union with Scotland being dissolved,
the ships of the parliament reverted to the simple cross of St
George, but the union flag was restored when Cromwell became
protector, with the Irish harp imposed upon its centre. On the
Restoration, Charles II. removed the harp and so the original
union flag was restored, and continued as described until the
year 1801, when, on the legislative union with Ireland, the cross
of St Patrick, a saltire gules, on a field argent, was incorporated
in the union flag. To so combine these three crosses without
losing the distinctive features of each was not easy; each cross
must be distinct, and retain equally distinct its fimbriation, or
bordering, which denotes the original ground. In the first
union flag, the red cross of St George with the white fimbriation
that represented the original white field was simply imposed
upon the white saltire of St Andrew with its blue field. To
place the red. saltire of St Patrick on the white sallire of St
Andrew would have been to obliterate the latter, nor would the
red sallire have its proper bordering denoting its original white
field; even were the red saltire narrowed in width the portion
of the white saltire that would appear would not be the St
Andrew saltire, but only the fimbriation appertaining to the
saltire of St Patrick. The difficulty has been got over by making
the white broader on one side of the red than the other. In fact,
the continuity of direction of the arms of the St Patrick red
saltire has been broken by its portions being removed from the
centre of the oblique points that form the St Andrew's saltire.
Thus both the Irish and Scottish saltires can be easily distin-
guished from one another, whilst the red saltire has its due white
fimbriation.
The Union Jack is the most important of all British ensigns,
and is flown by representatives of the empire all the world over.
It flies from the jackstaff of every man-of-war in the navy.
With the Irish harp on a blue shield displayed in the centre, it is
flown by the lord-lieutenant of Ireland. When flown by the
FLAG
459
Cuwernor-general of India the star and device of the order of
the Star of India are borne in the centre. Colonial governors fly
it with the badge of their colony displayed in the centre. Diplo-
matic representatives use it with the royal arms in the centre
As a military flag, it is flown over fortresses and headquarters,
and on all occasions of military ceremonial. Hoisted at the
mainmast of a man-of-war it is the flag of an admiral of the
fleet.
Military flags in the shape of regimental standards and colours,
and flags used for signalling, are described elsewhere, and it will
fcere be only necessary to deal with the navy and admiralty
flags.
The origin of the three ensigns— the red, white, and blue-
had its genesis in the navy. In the days of huge fleets, such as
prevailed in the Tudor and Stuart navies, there were, besides
the admiral in supreme command, a vice-admiral as second in
command, and a rear-admiral as third in command, each con*
trolling his own particular group or squadron. These were
designated centre, van, and rear, the centre almost invariably
being commanded by the admiral, the Vice-admiral taking the
van and the rear-admiral the rear squadron, In order that any
vessel in any group could distinguish its own admiral's ship*
the flagship* of centre, van, and rear flew respectively a plain
red, white, or bine flag, and so came into being those naval
ranks of admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral of the red, white,
and blue which continued down to at late as 1864. As the
admiral in supreme command flew the union at the main, there
was no rank of admiral of the red, and it was not until November
1805 that the rank of admiral of the red was added to the navy
as a special compliment to reward Trafalgar. About 1652, so
that each individual ship in the squadron should be distinguish-
able as well as the flagships/each vessel carried a large red.
white, or blue flag according as to whether she belonged to the
centre, van, or rear, each flag having in the left-hand upper
comer a canton, as it is termed, of white bearing the St George's
cross. These flags were called ensigns, and it is, of course, due
to the fact that the union with Scotland was for the time dissolved
that they bore only the St George's cross. Even when the
restoration of the Stuarts restored the status quo the cross of St
George still remained alone on the ensign, and it was not altered
until 1707 when the bill for the Union of England and Scotland
passed the English parliament. In 1801, when Ireland joined
the Union, the flag, of course, became as we know it to-day. All
these three ensigns belonged to the royal navy, and continued
to do so until 1864, but as far back as 1707 ships of the mercantile
marine were instructed to fly the red ensign. As ironclads
replaced the wooden vessels and fleets became smaller the
inconvenience of three naval ensigns was manifest, and in 1864
the grades of flag officer were reduced again to admiral, vice-
admiral, and rear-admiral, and the navy abandoned the use
of the red and blue ensigns, retaining only the white ensign as
its distinctive flag. The mercantile marine retained the red
ensign which they were already using, whilst the bhie ensign
was allotted to vessels employed on the public service whether
home or colonial.
The white ensign is therefore essentially the flag of the royal
navy. It should not be flown anywhere or on any occasion
except by a ship (or shore establishment) of the royal navy,
with but one exception. By a grant of William IV. dating from
1829 vessels belonging to the Royal Yacht Squadron, the chief
of all yacht clubs, are allowed, to fly the white ensign. From
1831 to 1839 ships of the squadron flew the red ensign, as that of
highest dignity, but as it was also used by merchant ships, they
then obtained the grant of the white ensign as being more
distinctive. Some few other yacht dubs flew it until 1 842, when
the privilege was withdrawn by an admiralty minute. By some
oversight the order was not conveyed to the Royal Western
of Ireland, whose ships flew the white ensign until in 1857 the
usage was stopped. Since that date the Royal Yacht Squadron
has alone bad the privilege. Any vessel of any sort flying the
white ensign, or pennant, of the navy is committing a grave
offence, and the ship can be boarded by any officer of His
Majesty's service, the colours seised, the vessel reported to the
authorities, and a penalty inflicted on the owners or captain or
both. The penalty incurred is £50© fine for each offence, as
laid down in the 73rd section of the Merchant Shipping Act 1804.
In 1883 Lord Annesley's yacht, belonging to the Royal Yacht
Squadron, was detained at the Dardanelles in consequence of
her frying the white ensign of the royal navy which brought her
under the category of a man-of-war, and no foreign man-of-war
is allowed to pass the Dardanelles without first obtaining an
imperial trade. Since then owners belonging to the squadron
have been warned that they must either sail their ships through
the straits under the red ensign common to all ships British
owned, or obtain imperial permission if they wish to display
the white ensign.
Besides the white ensign the ship of war flies a long streamer
from the maintopgallant masthead. This, which is called a
pennant, is flown only by ships in commission; it is, in fact,
the sign of command, and is first hoisted when a captain com-
missions bis ship. The pennant, which was really the old
" pennoncell," was of thate colours for the whole of its length,
and towards the end left separate in two or three tails, and so
continued till the end of the great wars in 1816. Now, however,
the pennant is a long white streamer with the St George's cross
in the inner portion close to the mast. Pennants have been
carried by men-of-war from the earliest times, prior to 1653 at
the yard-arm, but since that date at the maintopgallant mast-
head.
The blue ensign is exclusively the flag of the public service
other than the royal navy, and is as well the flag of the royal
naval reserve, it is flown also by certain authorised vessels
of the British mercantile marine, the conditions governing this
privilege being that the captain and a certain specified portion
of the officers and crew shall belong to the ranks of the royal
naval reserve. When flown by ships belonging to British
government offices the seal or badge of the office is displayed
in the fly. For example, hired transports fly it with the yellow
anchor in the fly; the marine department of the Board of Trade
has in the fly the device of a ship under sail; the telegraph
branch of the post-office shows in the fly a device representing
Father Time with his hour-glass shattered by lightning; the
ordnance department displays upon the fly a shield with •
cannon and cannon balls upon it Certain yacht clubs are also
authorized by special admiralty warrant to fly the blue ensign.
Some of these display it plain; others show in the fly the distinc-
tive badge of the dub. Consuls-general, consuls and consular
agents also have a right to fly the blue ensign, the distinguishing
badge in their case being the royal arms.
The red ensign is the distinguishing flag of the British merchant
service, and special orders to this effect were issued by Queen
Anne in 1707, and again by Queen Victoria in 1864. The order
of Queen Anne directed that merchant vessels should fly a red
flag " with a Union Jack described in a canton at the upper
corner thereof next the staff," and this is probably the first
time that the term " Union Jack " was officially used. In some
cases those yacht dubs which fly the red ensign change it slightly
from that flown by the merchant service, for they are allowed
to display the badge of the club in the fly. Colonial merchant'
men usually display the ordinary red ensign, but, provided they
have a warrant of authorisation from the admiralty, they can
use the ensign with the badge of the colony in the fly.
In regard to ensigns it is important to remember that they
are purely maritime flags, and though the rule is more honoured
in the breach than in the observance, the only flag that a private
individual or a corporation has a right to display on shore is the
national flag, the Union Jack, in its plain condition and without
any emblaaonmcnt.
There are two other British sea flags which are worthy of
brief notice. These are the admiralty flag and the flag of the
master of Trinity House. The admiralty flag is a plain red
flag with a clear anchor in the centre in yellow. In a sense it is
a national flag, for the sovereign hoists it when afloat in conjunc-
tion with the royal standard and the Union Jack. It '
460
FLAG
appear to have been first used by the duke of York as lord high
admiral, who flew it when the sovereign was afloat and had the
royal standard flying in another ship. When a board of com-
missioners was appointed to execute the office of lord high
admiral this was the flag adopted, and in 169 1 we find the
admiralty, minuting the navy board, then a subordinate depart-
ment, " requiring and directing it to cause a fitting red silk
flag, with the anchor and cable therein, to be provided against
Tuesday morning next, for the barge belonging to this board."
In 1725, presumably as being more pretty and artistic, the cable
in the device was twisted round the stock of the anchor. It
was thus made into a " foul anchor," the thing of all others that
a sailor most hates, and this despite the fact that the first lord
at the time, the earl of Berkeley, was himself a sailor. The
anchor retained its unseamanlike appearance, and was not
M cleared " till 1815, and even to this day the buttons of the
naval uniform bear a " foul anchor." The " anchor " flag is
solely the emblem of an administrative board; it does not carry
the executive or combatant functions which are vested in the
royal standard, the union or an admiral's flag, but on two
occasions it has been made use of as an executive flag. In 1710
the earl of Berkeley, who at the time was not only first lord
of the admiralty, but vice-admiral of England, obtained the
special permission of George I. to hoist it at the main instead of
the union flag. Again in 1869, when Mr Childers, then first
lord, accompanied by some members of his board, went on
board the " Agincourt " he hoisted the admiralty flag and took
command of the combined Mediterranean and Channel squadrons,
thus superseding the flags of the two distinguished officers who
at the time were in command of these squadrons. It is hardly
necessary to add that throughout the navy there was a very
distinct feeling of dissatisfaction at the innovation. When the
admiralty flag is flown by the sovereign it is hoisted at the fore,
his own standard being of course at the main, and the union at
the mizxen.
The flag of the master of the Trinity House is the red cross
of St George on its white ground, but with an ancient ship on
the waves in each quarter; in the centre is a shield with a
precisely similar device and surmounted by a lion.
The sign of a British admiral's command afloat is always
the same. It is the St George's cross. Of old it was borne
on the main, the fore, or the mizzen, according as to whether
the officer to whom it pertained was admiral, vice-admiral,
or rear-admiral, but, as ironclads superseded wooden ships,
and a single pole mast took the place of the old three masts,
a different method of indicating rank was necessitated. To-day
the flag of an admiral is a square one, the plain St George's
cross. When flown by a vice-admiral it bears a red ball on the
white ground in the upper canton next to the staff; if flown
by a rear-admiral there is a red ball in both the upper and lower
cantons. As nowadays most battleships have two masts, the
admiral's flag is hoisted at the one which has no masthead
semaphore. The admiral's flag is always a square one, but that
of a commodore is a broad white pennant with the St George's
cross. If the commodore be first class the flag is plain, if of
the second class the flag has a red ball in the upper canton next
to the staff. The same system of differentiating rank prevails
in most navies, though very often a star takes the place of the ball.
In some cases, however, the indications of rank are differently
shown. For instance, both in the Russian and Japanese navies
the distinction is made by a line of colour on the upper or lower
edges of the flag.
The flags of the British colonies are the same as those of the
mother country, but differentiated by the badge of the colony
being placed in the centre of the flag if it is the Union Jack, or
in the fly if it be the blue or red ensign. Examples of these are
shown in the Plate, where the blue ensign illustrated is that of
New Zealand, the device of the colony being the southern cross
In the fly. Precisely the same flag, with a large six-pointed
star, emblematic of the six states immediately under the union,
forms the flag of the federated commonwealth of Australia.
The red ensign shown is that of the Dominion of Canada, the
device in the fly being the armorial bearings of the Dominion.
As the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, as the representative of royalty,
flies the Union Jack with a harp in the centre, or the viceroy
of India flies the same flag with, in the centre, the badge of the
order of the Star of India, so too colonial governors or high
commissioners fly the union flag with the arms of the colony
they preside over on a while shield in the centre and surrounded
by a laurel wreath. In the case of Canada the wreath, however,
is not of laurel but of maple, which is the special emblem of the
Dominion.
French.—To come to flags of other countries, nowhere have
historical events caused so much change in the standards and
national ensigns of a country as in the case of France. The
oriflamme and the Chape de St Martin were succeeded at the
end of the 16th century, when Henry III., the last of the house
of Valois, came to the throne, by the white standard powdered
wilhjUun-de4is. This in turn gave place to the famous tricolour.
The tricolour was introduced at the time of the Revolution, but
the origin of this flag and its colours is a disputed question.
Some maintain that the intention was to combine in the flag
the blue of the Chape de St Martin, the red of the oriflamme,
and the white flag of the Bourbons. By others the colours are
said to be those of the city of Paris. Yet again, other aut horittes
assert that the flag is copied from the shield of the Orleans family
as it appeared after Philippe £galit6 had knocked off the jfocrs-
de-iis. The tricolour is divided vertically into three parts of equal
width— blue, white and red, the red forming the fly, the while
the middle, and the blue the hoist of the flag During the first
and second empires the tricolour became the imperial standard,
but in the centre of the white stripe was placed the eagle, whilst
aO three stripes were richly powdered over with the golden bees
of the Napoleons. The tricolour is now the sole flag of France.
American. — Before the Declaration of Independence the
flags of those colonies which now form the United States of
America were very various. In the early days of New England
the Puritans objected to the red cross of St George, not from
any disloyalty to the mother country, but from a conscientious
objection to what they deemed an idolatrous symbol. By the
year 1700 most of the colonies had devised badges to distinguish
their vessels from those of England and of each other. In the
early stages of the revolution each state adopted a flag of its
own; thus, that of Massachusetts bore a pine tree, South
Carolina displayed a rattlesnake, New York had a white flag
with a black beaver, and Rhode Island a white flag with a blue
anchor upon it. Even after the Declaration of Independence,
and the introduction of the stars and stripes, the latter under-
went many changes in the manner of their arrangement before
taking the position at present established. In 1 77 5 a commit lee
was appointed to consider the question of a single flag for the
thirteen states. It recommended that the union be retained
in the upper corner next to the staff, the remainder of the field
of the flag to be of thirteen horizontally disposed stripes, alter-
nately red and white. This flag, curiously enough, was precisely
the same as the flag of the old Honourable East India Company
On the laih of June 1777 congress resolved " that the flag
of the United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and
white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field,
representing a new constellation." This was the origin of the
national flag, but at first, as the number of the stripes were
unequal, the flag very often varied, sometimes having seven
white and six red stripes, and at other times seven rod and six
white, and it was not for some considerable time that it was
authoritatively laid down that the latter arrangement was the
one to be adopted. It has also been held that the stars and
stripes of the American national flag, as well as the eagle, were
suggested by the crest and arms of the Washingon family
The latter supposition is absurd, for the Washington crest was a
raven. The Washington arms were a white shield having two
horizontal red bars, and above these a row of three red stars.
This might, by a stretch of imagination, be supposed to have
inspired the original idea of the flag which was that each state
in the Union should be represented in the national flag by a star
FLAG
461
and stripe. Naturally other states coming into the Union
expected the same privilege. After Vermont in 1790 and
Kentucky in 1792 had entered the Union, the stars and stripes
were changed in number from thirteen to fifteen. Later on other
states Joined, and soon the flag came to consist of twenty stars
and stripes. It was, however, found objectionable to be con-
stantly altering the national flag, and in the year 1818 it was
determined to go back to the original thirteen stripes, but to
place a star for each state in the blue union canton in the top
corner of the flag next the staff. Thus the stars always show the
exact number of states that are in the Union, whilst the stripes
denote the original number of the states that formed the union. 1
The presidential flag of the president of the United States is
an eagle on a blue field, bearing on its breast a shield displaying
stripes, and above the national motto B pluribus unum, and a
design of the stars of the original* thirteen states of the union.
Other Countries. — The most general and important of the
various national flags are figured in the Plate. In the top line
representing Great Britain are shown the royal standard, the
Union Jack (the national flag), the white ensign of the royal
navy, the blue ensign of government service, and the red ensign
of the commercial marine, colonial flags being shown in the case
of the two latter ensigns. The two Japanese flags shown are the
man-of-war ensign— a rising sun, generally known as the sun-
burst— and the flag of the mercantile marine, in which the red ball
is used without the rays and placed in the centre of the white
field. The imperial standard of Japan is a golden chrysanthemum
on a red field. It is essential that the chrysanthemum should
invariably have sixteen petals. Heraldry in Japan is of a simpler
character than that of Europe, and is practically limited to the
employment of " Mon," which correspond very nearly to the
" crests " of European heraldry. The great families of Japan
possess at least one, and in many cases even three, " Mon."
The imperial family use two, the one Kiku no go Mon (the august
chrysanthemum crest) and Kiri no go Mon (the august Kiri
crest) . The first represents the sixtcen-petalled chrysanthemum,
and, although the use of the chrysanthemum flower as a badge
is not necessarily confined to the imperial family, they alone
have the right to use the sixtecn-petalled form. If used by any
other family, or society or corporation, it must be with a number
of petals less or more than sixteen. The second imperial " Mon "
is composed of three leaves and three flower spikes of the Kiri
(Paulownio impcrialxs). This, however, is not displayed as an
official emblem, that being reserved for the chrysanthemum.
The Kiri is used for more private purposes. For example, the
chrysanthemum figures in the imperial standard, and the Kiri
" Mon " adorns the harness of the emperor's horses. It is very
probable that the chrysanthemum crest did not originally repre-
sent the chrysanthemum flower at all but the sun with sixteen
rays, and it will be noticed that in the "sun-burst" flag the
sun's rays are sixteen in number. The use of the number sixteen
is probably traceable to Chinese geomantic ideas.
The German imperial navy and mercantile marine flags are next
depicted. The " iron cross ' in the navy flag is that of the Teutonic
Order, and dates from the close of the 12th century. For five
centuries black and white have been the Hohenzouern colours,
and the first verse of the German war song, Ick bin tin Preusse,
runs: —
M I am a Prussian ! Know ye not my banner ?
Before me floats my flag of black and white !
My fathers died for freedom, 'twas their manner,
So say these colours- floating in your right.*'
The mercantile marine tricolour of black, white and red is em-
blematic of the joining of the Hohenzollern black and white with
the red and white, which was the ensign of the Hanseatic League.
This flag came into being when the North German Confederacy
was established (November 25th, 1867) at the close of the Austro-
Prussian War.
The German imperial standard has the iron cross with its white
border displayed on a yellow field, diapered over in each of the four
quarters with three black eagles and a crown. In the centre of the
cross is a shield bearing the arms of Prussia surmounted by a crown,
1 By the admission of Oklahoma as a state in 1007 the number of
stars became 46, arranged from the top in horizontal rows thus:
and surrounded by a collar of the Order of the Black Eagle. In the
war and ships of the mercantile marine.
The nest depicted are the imperial navy and the mercantile
marine flays of the Au«ro- Hungarian empire. En the letter the
introduction of the green half stripe denote* the combination of the
Austrian rerf t white and: red with the Hungarian red, white and
green* The fields with which the flag is charged coma in respectively
the arms of Austria and of Hungary. The former shiHtl only 11
borne on the man-of-war ensign, and displays the heraldic device of
the ancient dukes of Austria., which dates hack to the year 1 lot.
The Austrian imperii J standard has, on a yellow ground h the black
double-headed eagle, on the breast and wings of which are imposed
shields bearing the arms of the provinces of the empire. The nag
is bordered all round, the border being composed of equal-skied
triangles with their spites alternately inwards and outwards, those
with thdr oak** pointing toward* being alternately yellow and
white, the other* alternately scarlet and black.
The green, white and red Italian tricolour was 1 adopted in ($05,
when Napoleon L formed Italy into one kingdom* It was adopted
again in tft^A hy the Nationalist* of the peninsula, accepted by the
king of Sardinia, and, charred by him with the arms of Savuy,.it
became the Hag of a united Italy. The man-of-war fl&% h precisely
similar to that ot the mercantile marine, except thjt in tin i.l-< . f
the former the shield of Savoy is t-iirtnounted by a crown. The royal
standard is a blue flag. In the centre is a black cagte crowned and
ditplayinc on its breast the arm a ol Savoy, thy whole surrounded
by the collar of the ±MotL Sactctl /Wmntwta, the third in rank of all
European orders. In each corner of the flag is the royal crown.
For Portugal the flag is one of the few national flags that are parti-
coloured. It is half blue, half white, with, in the centre, the arms of
Portugal surmounted by the royal crown, and it is the same both
in the mercantile marine and in the Portuguese navy. The royal
standard of Portugal is an all-red flag charged in the centre with the
royal arms, as shown in the national flag.
In the Spanish ensigns red and yellow are the prevailing colours,
and here again the arrangement differs from that generally used.
The navy nag has a yellow central stripe, with red above and below.
To be correct the yellow should be half the width of the flag, and each
of the red stripes a quarter of the width of the flag. The central
yellow stripe is charged in the hoist with an escutcheon containing
the arms of Castile and Leon, and surmounted by the royal crown.
In the mercantile flag the yellow centre is without the escutcheon,
and is one-third of the entire depth of the flag, the remaining thirds
being divided into equal stripes of red and yellow, the yellow above
in the upper part of the flag, the red in the lower. Of all royal
standards that of Spain is the most elaborate, for it contains quarter*
ings of the Spanish royal escutcheon, many of the bearings being as
much an anachronism as if the royal arms of England were to-day
to be quartered with the/Ieur-de-to. In all, the quarterings displayed
are those of Leon, Castile, Aragon, Sicily, Austria, Burgundy,
Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant, Portugal and France. The nag is
usually depicted as composed entirely of the quarterings. We
believe, however, that it is more correctly a purple flag in the centre
of which the quarterings are displayed on an oval shield surmounted
a. crown and encircled by the collar of the order of the Golden
The flag of the Russian mercantile marine is a horizontal tricolour
of white, blue and red. Originally, it was a tricolour of blue, white
and red. and it is said that the idea of its colouring was taken by
Peter the Great when learning shipbuilding in Holland, for as the
flag then stood it was simply the Dutch ensign revetted. Later, to
make it more distinctive, the blue and white stripes changed places^
leaving the tricolour as it stands to-day. The flag of the Russian
navy is the blue saltire of St Andrew on a white ground. St Andrew
is the patron saint of Russia, from whence the emblem. The imperial
standard b of a character akin to that of Austria: the ground is
yellow, and the centre bears the imperial double-headed eagte, a
badgo that dates back to 147a, when Ivan the Great married a
niece of Constantine Palaeoldgus and assumed the arms of the Greek
empire. On the breast of the eagle is an escutcheon charged with
the emblem of St George and the Dragon on a red ground, and this
Is surrounded by the collar of the order of St Andrew. On the splayed
wings of the eagle are small shields bearing the arms of the various
provinces of the empire.
ft
The Rumanian flag is a blue, yellow and red tricolour, the stripes
vertical, with the blue stripe forming the Hy. The Servian flag is a
horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the middle blue and the lower
white. When these tricolours are flown as royal standards the royal
arms are displayed on the central stripe. The flag of Montenegro it
a horizontal tricolour, the top stripe red, the centre blue, the lower-
most white. The Bulgarian flag is a similar tricolour, white, green
and red, the white stripe uppermost, but when flown as a war ensign
there is a canton in the upper comer of the hoist in which is a golden
lion on a red ground.
The flags of all the three Scandinavian kingdoms are somewhat
similar in design. That of Denmark, the Dannebrog, has been already
alluded to, and it is shown in our ill u str ati on as flown by the Demsh
4-62
FLAG
navy. ThemercantilemariaefUgbpfecadysunilafflmtrectaiigular
instead of being swallow-tailed. The Swedish flag is a yeUow cross
on a blue ground. When flown from a man-of-war it is forked as
in the Danish, but the longer arm of the cross is not cut off but
pointed, thus making it a three-pointed flag as illustrated. For the
mercantile marine the flag is rectangular. When Norway separated
from Denmark in 1814, the first flag was red with a white cross on it,
and the arms of Norway in the upper corner of the hoist, but as this
was found to resemble too closely the Danish flag, a blue cross
with a white border was substituted for the white cross. This, It
will be aeen, is the Danish flag with a blue cross Imposed upon the
white one. For a man-of-war the flag is precisely similar to that of
Sweden in shape; that is to say, converted from the rectangular
into the three-pointed design. While Sweden and Norway remained
united the flag of each remained distinct, but each bore in the top
canton of the hoist a union device, being the combination of the
Norwegian and Swedish national colours and crosses. In each of the
three above nationalities the flag used for a royal standard is the
man-of-war flag with the royal arms imposed on the centre of the
cross.
The Belgian tricolour is vertical, the stripes being black next the
hoist, yellow in the centre and red in the fly. That of the Nether-
lands is a horizontal tricolour, red above, white in the centre and
blue below. I n both countries the same flag is common to both navy
and mercantile marine, but when the flag is used as a royal standard
the royal arms are displayed in the central stripe. The black,
yellow and red of the Belgian flag are the colours of the duchy of
Brabant, and were adopted in 183 1 when the monarchy was founded.
The original Dutch colours adopted when Holland declared its
independence were orange, white and blue, the colours of the house
of Orange, and when and how the orange became red is not quite clear,
though it was certainly prior to 1643.
The blue and white which form the colouring of the Greek flag
shown in our illustration are the colours of the house of Bavaria,
and were adopted in 183a, when Prince Otho of Bavaria was elected
to the throne of Greece. The stripes are nine in number— five blue
and four white — with, in the upper corner of the hoist, a canton
bearing a white cross on a blue ground. The flag for the royal navy
is similar to that flown by the mercantile marine, with the exception
that it has the addition of a golden crown in the centre of the cross.
The royal standard is a blue flag with a white cross, on the centre
of which the royal arms are imposed. The cross is exactly similar
to that in the Danish flag, that is to say, the arms of the cross are
not of equal length, the shorter end being in the hoist of the flag.
The very simple flag of Switzerland is one of great antiquity, for
it was the emblem of the nation as far back as 1330, and probably
considerably earlier. In addition to the national flag of the Swiss
confederation, each canton has its own cantonal colours. In each
case the flag hasits stripes disposed horizontally. Basel, for instance,
is half black, half white; Berne, half black, half red; Glarus, red,
black and white, &c, Ac
The Turkish crescent moon and star were the device adopted by
Mahomet II. when he captured Constantinople in 1453. Originally
they were the symbol of Diana, the patroness of Byzantium, and
were adopted by the Ottomans as a triumph, for they had always
been the special emblem of Constantinople, and even now in Moscow
and el s e w her e the crescent emblem and the cross may be seen
combined in Russian churches, the crescent badge, of course, indicat-
ing the Byzantine origin of the Russian church. The symbol origin-
ated at the time of the siege of Constantinople by Philip the father
of Alexander the Great, when a night attempt of the besiegers to
undermine the walls was betrayed by the light of a crescent moon,
and in acknowledgment of their escape the Byzantines raised a
statue to Diana, ana made her badge the symbol of the city. Both
the man-of-war and mercantile marine flags are the same, but the
imperial standard of the sultan is scarlet, and bears in its centre
the device of the reigning sovereign. This device is known as the
" Tughra," and consists of the name of the sultan, the title of khan,
and the epithet at-Mwaffar Daimc, which means " the ever vic-
torious." The origin of the " Tughra " is that the sultan Murad 1.,
who was not of scholarly parts, signed a treaty by wetting his open
hand with ink, and pressing it on the paper, the first, second and
third fingers making smears close together, the thumb and fourth
finger leaving marks apart. Within the marks thus made the
scribes wrote in the name of Murad, bis title, and the epithet above
quoted. The " Tughra " dates from the latter part of the 14th
century. The smaller characters in the" Tughra "change, of course,
on the accession of every fresh sovereign, but the leading form of the
device always remains the same, namely, rounded lines to the left
denoting the thumb, lines to the right denoting where the little
finger made, impression, and three upright lines indicating the other
fingers.
The A
i Mahommedan states tributary to Turkey also display the
crescent and star. Morocco, Muscat and other Arab states where
they use an ensign display a red flag, that of the Zanzibar protectorate
having the British union in the centre of the red field.
The Persian flag U white with a border, green on the upper edge
of the flag and in the fly, and red in the hoist and on the lower edge.
On the white ground are the lion and sun.
The flag of Siam is a white elephant on a red ground. That of
Korea, a white flag with, in the centre, a ball, half red, half blue,
the colours being curiously intermixed, the whole being precisely
as if two large commas of equal size, one red and the other blue,
were united to form a complete circle.
The Chinese flag isa yellow one, bearing on it the emblem of the*
dragon devouring the sun. As at preseat used, it is a square flag,
but an earlier version was a triangular right-angled flag, hoisted with
the right-angle in the base of the hoist. The merchant flag is red
with a yellow ball in the centre*
Among the South American republics the Brazilian flag is peculiar
luchasiti " ' ' ' " -*•-*- f -
. 1 it is the only national flag which carries a motto.
Mexico flies precisely the same tricolour as Italy, but plain in
the case of the merchant ensign, and charged on the central stripe
with the Mexican arms (as illustrated) when flown as a man-of-war
ensign.
The Argentine flag is as illustrated flown by the navy, but, when
used by the mercantile marine, the sun emblazoned on the central
white stripe is omitted, the flag otherwise being precisely the same.
The Venezuelan flag shown is also that of the navy. The flag of the
mercantile marine is the same, but the shield bearing the arms of
the state is not introduced into the yellow top stripe in the corner
near the hoist, as in the naval flag.
The Chilean ensign illustrated is used alike by men-of-war and
vessels in the mercantile marine, but, when flown as the standard of
the president, the Chilean arms and supporters are placed in the
centre of the flag.
The plain red, white, red in vertical stripes, is the flag of the mer-
cantile marine of Peru, and becomes the naval ensign when charged
on the central stripe -with the Peruvian arms as shown in our illus-
tration. In fact, in nearly every case with the South American
republics, the ordinary mercantile marine flag becomes that of the
war navy by the addition of the national arms, and in some cases is
used in the same way as a presidential flag.
In nearly every case the 'flags of the lesser American republics
are tricolours, and in a very great many of them the flags are by no
means such combinations as would meet with the approval of Euro-
pean heralds. All flag devising should be in accordance with
heraldic laws, and one of the most important of these is that colour
should not be placed on colour, nor metal on metal, yellow in blazonry
being the equivalent of gold and white of silver. Hence, properly
devised tricolours are such as, for example, those of France, where
the red and blue are divided by white, or Belgium, where the black
and red are divided by yellow. On the other hand, the yellow, blue,
red of Venezuela is beraldicatly an abomination.
Manufacture and Miscellaneous Uses. — Flags, the manufacture
of which is quite a large industry, are almost invariably made
from bunting, a very light, tough and durable woollen material
The regulation bunting as used in the navy is made in 9 in.
widths, and the flag classes in size according to the number of
breadths of bunting of which it is composed. The great centre
of the manufacture of flags, as far as the royal navy is concerned,
is the dockyard at Chatham. Ensigns and. Jacks are made in
different sizes; the largest ensign made is 33 ft. long by 16} ft.
in width; the largest Jack issued is 24 ft. long and 12 ft. wide.
The dimensions of a flag according to heraldry should be
either square or in the proportion of two to one, and it is this
latter dimension that is used in the navy and generally.
Signalling flags are dealt with elsewhere (see Signal), and here
it will only be necessary to make brief allusion to some inter-
national customs with regard to the use of flags to indicate
certain purposes. For long a blood-red flag has always been
used as a symbol of mutiny or of revolution. The black flag
was in days gone by the symbol of the pirate; to-day, in the only
case in which it survives, it is flown after an execution to indicate
that the requirements of the law have been duly carried out.
All over the world a yelfow flag is the signal of infectious illness.
A ship hoists it to denote that there are some on board suffering
from yellow fever, cholera or some such infectious malady, and
it remains hoisted until she has received quarantine. This flag
is also hoisted on quarantine stations. The white flag is univers-
ally used as a flag of truce.
At the sea striking of the flag denotes surrender. When the
flag of one country is placed over that of another the victory of
the former is denoted, hence in time of peace it would be an
insult to hoist the flag of one friendly nation above that of another.
If such were done by mistake, say in " dressing ship " for instance,
an apology would have to be made. This custom of hoisting
the flag of the vanquished beneath that of the victor is of com-
paratively modern date, as up to about a century ago the sign of
victory was to trail the enemy's flag over the taff rail in the water.
BIAGELLANTB
463
Each national flag must be flown from its own flagstaff, and this
is often seen when the allied forces of two or moie powers are
in joint occupation of a town or territory. To denote honour
and respect a flag is " dipped." Ships at sea salute each other
by " dipping " the flag, that is to say, by running it smartly
down from the masthead, and then as quickly replacing it.
When troops parade before the sovereign the regimental flags
are lowered as they salute him. A flag flying half-mast high is
the universal symbol of mourning. When a ship has to make
the signal of distress, this is done by hoisting the national ensign
reversed, that is to say , upside down. If it is wished to accentuate
the imminence of the danger it is done by making the flag into a
" weft/' that is, by knotting it in the middle. This means of
showing distress at sea is of very ancient usage, for in naval
works written as far back as the reign of James I. we find the
" weft " mentioned as a method of showing distress.
We have already alluded to the Union Jack as used for denoting
nationality, and as a flag of command, but it also serves many
other purposes. For instance, if a court-martial is being held
on board any ship the Union Jack is displayed while the court
is sitting, its hoisting being accompanied by the firing of a gun.
In a fleet in company the ship that has the guard for the: day
flies it. With a white border it forms the signal for a pilot, and
in this case is known as a Pilot Jack. In all combinations of
signalling flags which denote a ship's name the Union Jack
forms a unit. Lastly, it figures as the pall of every sailor or
soldier of the empire who receives naval or military honours
at his funeral.
Bibliography.— See Flags: Some Account of fair History and
Uses, by A. MacGeorge (1881); National Banners: Their Hutory
and Construction, by W. Bland (180a) (one of a series of Heraldic
Tracts, 1650-1 893, Br. Museum Library, No. 9906, b. 9* this
pamphlet gives the design of the national banners of St George,
St Andrew and St Patrick, and illustrates and tells the story of the
composition of the three flags into the great union flag, commonly
knownastheUnionJack) ; Our Flags: Their Origin, Use and Traditions,
by Raw-Admiral S. Eardley-Wilmot (1901), an excellent treatise,
historical and narrative, on all the flags of the British empire; A
graph on the subject, illustrated with a very complete series of plates.
Admiralty Booh of Flags of all Nations, printed for H.M. Stationery
office, 1889. kept up to date by the publication periodically of Errata,
officially issued under an admiralty covering letter; Flags of Mart-
the navy, printed by authority (Washington, 1899). the last two
works nave no letterpress beyond titles, but contain, to scale,
delineations of all the nags at present used officially by all nations.
Between the two there are no discrepancies, and the delineation
of a flag taken from either may be assumed as absolutely correct.
Both are respectively the guides for flag construction in the royal
navy and the United States navy. (H. L. S.)
FLAGELLANTS (from Lat fitgeUare, to whip), in religion,
the name given to those who scourge themselves, or are scourged,
by way of discipline or penance. Voluntary flagellation, as a
form of exalted devotion, occurs in almost all religions. Accord-
ing to Herodotus (ii. 40. 61), it was the custom of the ancient
Egyptians to beat themselves during the annual festival in
honour of their goddess Isis. In Sparta children were flogged
before the altar of Artemis Orthia till the blood flowed (Plutarch,
Instil. Laced. 40). At Aka, in the Peloponnese, women were
flogged in the temple of Dionysus (Pausanias, Arcad. 23). The
priests of Cybele, or archigalli t submitted to the discipline in the
temple of the goddess (Plutarch, Adv. Colot. p. 11 37; Apul.,
id dam. viii. 173). At the Roman Lupercalia women were
flogged by the celebrants to avert sterility or as a purificatory
ceremony (W. Mannhardt, Mythci. Forstk., Strassburg, 1884,
p. 7a aeq.).
Ritual flagellation existed among the Jews, and, according
to Buxtorf (Synagoga judcica, Basel, 1603), was one of the
ceremonies of the day of the Great Pardon. In the Christian
church flagellation was originally a punishment, and was
practised not only by parents and schoolmasters, but also by
bishops, who thus corrected offending priests and monks (St
Augustine, Ep. i$q ad Mar ceil.; d. Cow. Agd. 506, can. ii.).
Gradually, however, voluntary flagellation appeared in the
libri poemUntialts as a very efficacious means of penance. In
the 1 itb century this new form of devotion was extolled by some
of the most ardent reformers in the monastic houses of the west,
such aa Abbot Popon of Stavelot, St Dominic Loricatus (so
catted from his practice of wearing next his skin an iron lorica,
or cuirass of thongs), and especially Cardinal Pietro Damiani.
Damiani advocated the substitution of flagellation for the recita-
tion of the penitential psalms, and drew 'up a scale according
to whkh 1000 strokes were equivalent to ten psalms, and 15,000
to the whole psalter. The majority of these reformers exemplified
their preaching in their own persons, and St Dominic gamed
great renown by inflicting upon himself 300,000 strokes in six
days. The custom of collective flagellation was introduced into
the monastic houses, the ceremony taxing place every Friday
alter confession.
The early Franciscans flagellated themselves with character-
istic rigour, and it is no matter of surprise to find the Franciscan,
St Anthony of Padua, preaching the praises of this means of
penance. It is incorrect, however, to suppose that St Anthony
took any part in the creation of the flagellant fraternities, which
were the result of spontaneous popular movements, and later
than the great Franciscan preacher; while Ranieri, a monk of
Perugia, to "whom the foundation of these strange communities
has been attributed, was merely the leader of the flagellant
brotherhood in that region. About 1259 these fraternities were
distributed over the greater part of northern Italy. The con-
tagion spread very rapidly, extending as far as the Rhine pro-
vinces, and, across Germany, into Bohemia. Day and night,
long processions of all dasses and ages, headed by priests carrying
crosses and banners, perambulated the streets in double file,
reciting prayers and drawing the blood from their bodies with
leathern thongs. The magistrates in some of the Italian towns,
and especially Uberto PaUavidno at Milan, expelled theflagellants
with threats, and for a time the sect disappeared. The disorders
of the 14th century, however, the numerous earthquakes, and
the Black Death, which had spread over the greater part of
Europe, produced a condition of ferment and mystic fever which
was very favourable to a recrudescence of morbid forms of
devotion. The flagellants reappeared, and made the state of
religious trouble in Germany, provoked by the struggle between
the papacy and Louis of Bavaria, subserve their cause. In the
spring of 1349 bands of flagellants, perhaps from Hungary,
began their propaganda in the south of Germany. Each band
was under the command of a leader, who was assisted by two
lieutenants; and obedience to the leader was enjoined upon
every member on entering the brotherhood. The flagellants
paid for their own personal maintenance, but were allowed
to accept board and lodging, if offered. The penance lasted
33I days, during which they flogged themselves' with thongs
fitted with four iron points. They read letters which they said
had fallen from heaven, and which threatened the earth with
terrible punishments if men refused to adopt the mode of penance
taught by the flagellants. On several occasions they incited
the populations of the towns through whkh they passed against
the Jews, and also against the monks who opposed their propa-
ganda. Many towns shut their gates upon them; but, in spite
of discouragement, they spread from Poland to the Rhine, and
penetrated as far as Holland and Flanders. Finally, a band
of xoo marched from Basel to Avignon to the court of Pope
Clement VI., who, in spite of the sympathy shown them by
several of his cardinals, condemned the sect as constituting a
menace to the priesthood. On the 20th of October 1349 Clement
published a bull commanding the bishops and inquisitors to
stamp out the growing heresy, and in pursuance of the pope's
orders numbers of the sectaries perished at the stake or in the
cells of the inquisitor* tnd the episcopal justices. In 1389 the
leader of a flagellant band In Italy called the bianchi was burned
by order of the pope, and his following dispersed. In 1417,
however, the Spanish Dominican St Vincent Ferrer pleaded
the cause of the flagellants with great warmth at the council
of Constance, and elicited a severe reply from John Gerson
FLAGELLATA
Pic. 2.— Flagellate.
1. Salpingoeca fusiformis, S.
Kent (Choanoflagellata). The
protoplasmic body is drawn to-
gether within the goblet-shaped
shell, and divided into numerous
spores.
2. Escape of the spores of the
same as roonoflagellate and
swarm-spores.
%. Codosiga umbdlata, Tatcm
(Choanoflagellata) ; adult colony
formed by dichotomous growth .
4. A tingle tooid of the same.
a -nucleus.
b •contractile vacuole.
c ■ the characteristic " col-
lar " of naked stream-
ing protoplasm.
5. Hexamita inflate, Duj. (Dis-
tomatidae); normal
adult
6, 7. Salpingoeca urceolat*, S.
Kent (Choanoflagellata) .'— 6.
with collar extended; 7, with
collar retracted within the
stalked cup.
8. PolyUma uveUa, Mull. sp.
(Cklamydomonadidae) .
9. Lopkomonas bkUtarmm,
Stein (TrickonrmPkidae) from
the intestine of Blotto orientolis.
10. Bodo lens, Mull.
(Bodonidae), the wavy filament
is a tractellum, the straight one
is a trailing thread.
11. Tetramilus snlcatms, Stein
(Teiramitidae) .
12. Anthophysa vegetans, O. F.
Muller {Monodidae).
A typical, erect, shortly-branch-
ing colony stock with four ter-
minal monad-clusters.
13. Monad cluster of the same
in optical section, show-
ing the relation of the individual
monads or flagellate zooids to the
stem d.
14. Tdranutms rostra tut, Perty
{Teiramitidae) .
a « nucleus.
6 "contractile vacuole.
15. Proterospongia Haecheli,
Saville Kent (Choanoflagellata).
A social colony of about
forty flagellate zooids.
a- nucleus.
A « contractile vacuole.
c -araoebifdrra cell sunk
within the colonial gela-
tinous test compared by
S. Kent to a mesoderm
cell of the sponges.
4 m similar cell reproducing
by transverse fission.
«■• normal cells, with their
collars contracted.
/ a substance of test.
f ■» individual reproducing
by multiple fission, pro-
ducing microzoospores,
comparable to the sper-
matozoa of sponges.
anterolateral flagella ; Costia necatrix (Leclcrq) is also 3-
flagellate; causes destructive epidemics in fish-hatcheries.
Family 8.— Tetramitidab. Body pyriform. the pointed end
posterior; flagella 4 anterior.
Tetramilus (Perty) (J. calyctnus of Kent, fie. 2. U, Id).
is the "calycine monad" of Dallinger and- Dryadale;
Trichomonas, Donnd, possesses a longitudinal undulating
membrane, and is an innocuous human parasite; it is
possibly related to
Hae mo flagellates
on one hand and
to Trkhonymtki-
dae on the other.
Family 9. — Distoma-
tidab. Mouth-
spots two, or one,
*with a distinct
construction : fla-
gella symmetri-
cally arranged;
nucleus bilobed
or geminate. Hex-
amttus (Duj.) (fig.
2, <), saprophytic
and parasitic ; Tre~
tomonas (Duj.),
freshwater; Mega-
stoma (Grassi) (-
Lamblia of Blan-
chard), with con-
stricted mouth-
spot and blepba-
roplast (kineto-
' nucleus) parasitic
in the small intes-
tine of Mammals,
including Man.
Family 10.— Trjciio-
nymphidab. Fla-
gella numerous,
sometimes accom-
panted by one or Fie. 3.
more undulating 1. Trkkonympka agists, Leidy, Cram
membranes; cvto- gut of White Ant (Termite),
plasm highly 2. Opalina ranarum, Purkinje para-
different i ated ; sitic in frog rectum multinucleate adult .
contractile vac-
uole absent ; all 3, 4. Binary fissions of same, i-nudeat
parasitic in in- individual at final stage of fission.
sects (atl except 5. Same encysted dejected from
Lopkomonas in rectum to be swallowed by tadpole.
Termites— the so- 6. Young 1- nucleate individual
called White emerged from cyst, destined to grow.
Ants.) proliferating its nuclei to adult form.
LopkomonasiSt.) a =» nucleus,
(fig- 2. P); para- 6 » food (?) particles in fig. 1.
sitic in the cock-
roach ; Dinenympka (Leidy), Pyrumympka (Leidy); Trick*-
nympha (Leidy) (fig. 3, /).
Family 11.— Opalinidae. Flagella short, numerous, ciliform.
uniformly distributed over the flat oval body; nuclei small,
numerous, uniform.
Only genus, Opalina (Purkinje and Valentin) (fig. 3, 2-6),
in bladder and cloaca of the frog (usually regarded as an
aberrant ciliate, but E. R. Lankester expressed doubts as
t o its position in the oth edition of this encyclopaedia).
Order 2.— CHR YSOMONADACRAB. Contractile vacuole simple (in
fresh-water forms) or absent; plastids yellow or brown always
present ; reserves fat.
Famity 1.— Chrysomonadidab. Body naked, often amoeboid
in active state, or sometimes with a cup-like theca, a gela-
tinous investment, a firm cuticle, or silicified shell ; reserves
fat or leucosin (starch in Zooxaniketta) ; eye-spot present.
Ckromtdina (Cienk.) often forms a golden scum on tanks;
Cktysamocba (Klebs) ; Hydrurus (Agardh), theca of colony
FLAGELLATA
467
forming branching tubes, simulating a yellow Conferva in
mountain torrents; Dinobryon (EnrbJ) (fig. 1, 8. /$);
Sljlockrysalu (St.); UrogUna (Ehrb.); Synerypta (Ehrb.).
and Synura (Ehrb.) (fig. 1, 5) form floating spherical
colonies; Zooxautkeiia (Brandt), symbiotic as A yellow
cells" in RadioSaria Foramimifera. Millepara. and many
Actinozoa.
Family a.— Coccolit iiophoridab. Body invested in a spheri-
cal test strengthened by calcareous dements, tangential
circular plates, " coccolkhs," " discoliths," " cyatholithsj"
or radiating rods " rhabdoliths." These are often found in
Foraminiferal ooze and its fossil condition, chalk; when
coherent as in the complete test, they are known as " cocco-
Spheres " and " rhabdospheres." Coccolitkophora (Loh-
mann), Rkabdospkaera (Haeckel).
Order 3.— CRYPTOMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuole (in fresh-
water forms) simple; plastids green, more rarely red, brown or
absent; reserves starch; holophytic or saprophytic Crypto-
monas (Ehrb.); Paramoeba (Grceff) has yellow plastids and
shows two cycles, in the one amoeboid, finally encysting to pro-
duce a brood of flagdlulac; in the other flagellate, and multiply-
ing by longitudinal fission (it differs from Mastigamaeba in possess-
ing no flagellum in the amoeboid state, though it takes in food
amoeba-fashion); CkUomonas (Ehrb.).
Order 4.— CHLOROMONADACEAE. Contractile vacuoles 1-3, a
complex of variable arrangement; pellicle delicate; plastids dis-
coid chlorophyll-bodies; reserves oil} eye-spot absent even in
active state; holophytic or saprophytic, though with an anterior
blind tubular depression simulating a pharynx. Coeiomonas (St.),
Vatuolaria (Cienk.).
Order 5. — EUGLENACEAB. Vacuole large, a reservoir for one or
more accessory vacuoles, contractile and opening to the surface
by a canal (" pharynx ") in which are planted one or two strong
flagella; pellicle strong often striated; nucleus large, chromato-
pbores green, complex or absent; reserves paramylum granules
of definite shape, and oil; nutrition variable; body stiff or
" metabolic," never amoeboid. Among the true Flagellates these
are the largest, few being below 40 m and several attaining 130 m
in length of cell-body (excluding flagellum). Encysted condition
common; the green forras> sometimes multiply. in this state and
simulate unicellular Algae.
Family 1— Euglbnidae. Radial (monaxial) forms; nutrition
saprophytic or holophytic, mostly one flagellate. (1)
Chromatophore large; eye-spot conspicuous. EugUna
(Ehrb.) (fig. 1. 13. 17). with flexible cuticle and metabolic
movements (this is probably Priestley's "green matter"
through which he obtained oxygen gas) — a very common
genus; Cclacium (Ehbg.), in its resting state epizoic on
Copcpoda, which it colours green; Euireptia (Perty), bi-
ftagellatc; Ascoglena (St.); Trachelomonas (Ehrb.), with
a hard brown cuticle; Phacus (Nitszche), with a firm rigid
pellicle, of ten symmetrically flattened; Cryptoglena (Ehbg.).
(2) Chromatcphorcs absent. Astasia (Duj.), body meta-
bolic; Menoidtum (Perty), body not metabolic, somewhat
inflected and crescentic; Sphenotnonas (Stein), with a short
accessory trailing flagellum in front peeled; Disiigma
ibg.) (fig. 1, 37. z8\ very metabolic, with two unequal
jetla and two dark pigment spots.
Family 2. — Peranbmidae. Bilaterally symmetrical, often
creeping, pharynx highly developed, with a firm rod-like
skeleton, sometimes protrusible; nutrition saprophytic
and holozoic Peranema (Ehbg.) and Urceolus (Mcre-
schowsky), uni-flagcllate creeping, very metabolic Peta-
lomonas (St.), uni-flagellate flattened with a deep ventral
groove, not metabolic; Hetcronema (Duj.) and Tropido-
scyphus (St.), with a small accessory anterior trailing
flagellum; Anisonema (Duj.) and Entcsipkon (St.), with
the trailing flagellum as long as the tractellum or even much
longer.
Order 6.— VOLVOCACBAE. Contractile vacuole simple anterior;
cell always enclosed in a cellulose wall (sometimes gelatinous)
perforated by the two (more rarely four, five) diverging anterior
flagella: reserves starch; chlorophyll almost always present,
except in Potytoma, sometimes masked by a red pigment; nutri-
tion usually holophytic, rarely saprophytic, never holozoic.
Brood-division in active state common, radial.
Family 1. — Chlamydomomadidab. Cell-wall firm not
gelatinous, rarely forming colonies. Fore-end of the body
with two or four (seldom five) flagella. Almost always
green in consequence of the presence of a very large single
chromatophore. Generally a delicate shell-like envelope
of membranous consistence. 1 to a simple contractile
vacuoles at the base of the flagella. Usually one eye-
speck. Division of the protoplasm within the envelope may
produce four, eight or more new individuals. This may
occur in the swimming or in a resting stage. Also by more
continuous fission microga metes of various sizes are
formed. Conjugation is frequent.
Genera. — Cklorangium (Stein), lacking green chlorophyll;
Ckiorogonium (Ehr.) (fig. 1, 6. 7): Potytoma (Ehr.) (fig. *. 8);
Cklam y do mana s (Ehr.) (fig; I, 1, a. 3); Ha ema UHOt cus (Agardh)
(-CUomydococcus, A. Braun, Stein); Protococcus (Conn, Huxley
and Martin) t CUamydomonas (Cienkowski), causes red snow and
"bloody rain"; Carteria (Diesing), auadri-flagellate; Spoudyio-
morum (Ehrb.). forming floating colonies; CoUomonas (St.);
Phacotus (Perty); Zoocklorella (Brandt), is the name given to un-
determined Cbiamydomonads found multiplying in the resting state
within and in symbiotic relation to other Protozoa, to the fresh-
water sponge. Epkydatid, Hydra wiridu. and to the TurbeUarian,
Comoltda vtndis (in which last species the active form has bean
lized as a Carteria)*
amily a.— Volvocidabv- Cell-wall gelatinous; always as-
sociated in colonies; cells, as in Family 1. The number
of individuals united to form a colony varies very much,
as does the shape of the colony. Reproduction by the
continuous division of all or of only certain individuals of
the colony, resulting in the production of a daughter colony
(from each such individual). In some, probably in all,
at certain times copulation of the individuals of distinct
sexual colonies takes place, without or with a differentiation
of the colonies and of the copulating cellsasmaleaad female.
The result of the copulation is a resting zygospore (also
called zygote or oospermo or fertilized egg), which after a
time develops itself into one or more new colonics.
Genera.— Gonium (O. F. Mailer) (fig. 1, 14)', Stepkanosfkaera
(Conn); Pandorina (Bory de Vine); Eudorina (Ehr.); Vobtx
(Ehr.) (fig. 1, 18,20).
The sexual reproduction of the colonies of the Volvocaceae is one
of the most important phenomena presented by the Protozoa. In
some families off Flagellata full-grown individuals become amoeboid,
fuse, encyst, and then break up into flagellate spores which develop
simply to the parental form (fig. it 24 to 26). In the Chlamydomonas
didae a single adult individual By division produces small individuals,
so-called microgametes." These conjugate with one another or
with similar microgametes formed by other adults (as in Chtoro-
gonium, fig. 1, 7); or more rarely in certain genera a mkrogamete
conjugates with an ordinary individual megagamete. The result
in cither case is a " zygote, a cell formed by fusion of two which
divides in the usual way to produce new individuals. The micro-
gamete in this case is the male element and equivalent to a sperma-
tozoon; the megagamete is the female and equivalent to an egg-
cell. The zygote is a " fertilized egg," or oosperm. In some colony-
building forms we find that only certain cells produce by division
microgametes; and, regarding the colony as a multicellular in-
dividual, we may consider these cells as testhvceUs and their micro-
gametes as spermatozoa.
CYSTOFLAOBLLATA(RllYNCHOFLAOBLLATAofE.R.Lankester)and
Dinoflacellata are scarcely more than subdivisions of Flagellata;
but, following O. Biltschli. we describe them separately; the three
groups being united into his Mastigophora.
Further Remarks on the IfajptfateJ.— Besides the work of special
Protoroologkta, such as F. Cienkowski, O. Batschli, F. v. Stem, F»
Schaudinn, W. Saville Kent, 8k.. the Flagellates have been a
favourite study with botanists, especially algologists: we may cite
N. Pringsheim, F. Cohn, W. C. Williamson, WTZopf, P. A. Dangeard,
G. Klebs, G. Senn, F. SchOtt; the reason for this is obvious. They
present a wide range of structure, from the simple amoeboid genera
to the highly differentiated cells of Euglenaceae, and the complex
colonies of Proterospongia and Volvox. By some they are regarded
as the parent-j -* **■ — *—*- ' ^~ ** ~ — : **"" --^-^
may perhaps 1
as the parent-group of the whole of the Protozoa-— a position w
nay perhaps better be assigned to the Proteomyxa ; but they a
ndoubtedly ancestral to Dinoflagcllates and to Cystoflagellates, as
well as to Sporoxoa, and presumably to Infusoria. Moreover, the
only distinction between the Chlamydomonadidae and the true green
Algae or Chlorophyceae is that when the former divide in the resting
condition, or are held together by gclatinization of the older cell-
walls (PolmeUa state), they round off and separate, while the latter
divufe hvt" nsrtv wall so as to rive rise either to a cylindrical
filament when (he partitions art paraJlet and the 3xis of growth
constant {Ccnjrrvo type}, or to a plate of tissue when the directions
alternate in a plant The same balds good for the Chry lomonadaceae
■1 >aidaccae, » that these little groups are included in
«oks of botany. Again among Fungi, the zoospores of
porous Phycomyceies (Chytrydiaceati Pcronosporaceae,
inaccac) have the character! of the fiodomdae. Thus in
:tion* the Flagellate* lead up to undoubted Plants. Prob-
1 the Chtamydoraonads have an antejrtral relation to the
„_toe in the w-tOMt sen§e s and the Chrysomonadaceae to the
Di.» torndteao:* both groups of obscure alfimty, iince even the repro-
dii' live bodies have no special oreani of locomotion. For these
reasons the Volvocaceae, Chloromonadaccat-. omonadaceae
and Crvptomonadaeeac have Leen united as PhytoMLtgeltates; and
the Eu^lfoaceie might well be atMed to these. It 15 easy to under-
stand the relation of the faprophytjc and the holophytic Flagellates
to true plants. The capacity to abwf b nutritive matter in solution
(as contrasted with (he ingestion of solid nutter) rendtrs the encysted
co nd i tio n compat ibEe w it h act i v* growth . and wl lolozoic forms
is a true ftypnoeysA, a state in which all Function* ore put to-slcep,
is here only a rest from active locomotion, nutrition bcing^ only
limited by tbc supply of nutritive matter from without, and— in the
4 68
FLAGEOLET— FLAMBARD
case or holophytic specie*— by the. illumination: this latter con-
dition naturally limits the possible growth in thickness in holophytes-
with undifferentiated tissues. The same considerations apply
indeed to the larger parasitic organisms among Sporoeoa, such as
Crcgarines and Myxosporidia ana Dolichosporidia, which are giants
am^flE Protraaa.
Lit K b a tu be. — W, S, Kc m t Mm w$l of the Infusoria, vol. i. Protozoa
O&Bo-i&az} ; O. BQtwhli, Die Flngrilaten (in Bronn's Thierreich, vol.
i. Protozoa, t&&$) ; these two worts contain full bibliographies of the
a ntecedc At authors Sec a) k> T . Gortnchankin (on Chlamydomonads)
in Bull. 5flc Nat. { Moscow, iv. v, 1890-1891); G. Klebs, " Flagel-
lattrnrtuilwn '* in Ztitsck. Wist. ZooL Iv. (1893); Doflein, Prototoen
ah KnmbhtilstTrtger {1900); Senn. 4i Flagellatcn," in Engler and
Prantl's PflatutnfaTHilic*, 1 Teil. Abt. la (1900); R. France, Der
Qr&ntfmui der Cnup^damonadcn [ 1 H07) ; Grass! and Sandias, " Tri-
tJicrtiympfcidat." in Quart. J. Micr. Set. xxxix.-xl. (1897); Bezzen-
bf-nu-r. '" Om inMac 4 in Atrh. Frrtist, iii. (1903); Marcus Hartog,
" Protozoa." in Cambridge Plat. Mil. vol. i. (1906). (M. Ha.)
FLAGEOLET, in music, a kind of fl<-a-bec with a new
fingering, invented in France at the end of the 16th century, and
in vogue in England from the end of the 17th to the beginning of
the 19th century. The instrument is described and illustrated
by Mersenne, 1 who states that the most famous. maker and
player in bis day was Le Vachcr. The flageolet differed from
the recorder in that it had four finger-holes in front and two
thumb-holes at the back instead of seven finger-holes in front
and one thumb-hole at the back. This fingering has survived
in the French flageolet still used in the provinces of France in
small orchestras and for dance music. The arrangement of the
holes was as follows: 1, left thumb-hole at the back near
mouthpiece; 2 and 3, finger-holes stopped by the left hand;
4, finger-hole stopped by right hand; 5, thumb-hole at the back;
6, hole near the open end. According to Dr Burncy (History
of Music) the flageolet was invented by the Sieur Juvigny, who
played it in the Ballet comique de la Royne, 1581. Dr Edward
Browne, 1 writing to his father from Cologne on the 20th of June
1673, relates, " We have with us here one . . . and Mr Hadly
upon the flagelet, which instrument he hath so improved as to
invent large ones and outgoe in swectnesse all the basses whatso-
ever upon any other instrument." About the same time was
published Thomas Greeting's Pleasant Companion; or New
Lessons and Instructions for the Flagelet (London, 1675 or 1682),
a rare book of which the British Museum does not possess a
copy. The instrument retained its popularity until the beginning
of the 19th century, when Bainbridgc constructed double and
triple flageolets.' The three tubes were bored parallel through
one piece of wood communicating near the mouthpiece which
was common to all three. The lowest notes of the respective
tabes were j
The word flageolet was undoubtedly derived from the medieval
Fr. ftajol, the primitive whistle-pipe. (K. S.)
FLAGSHIP, the vessel in a fleet which carries the flag, the
symbol of authority of an admiral.
FLAHAUT DB LA BILLARDERIE, AUGUSTS CHARLES
JOSEPH, Comte de (1 785-1870), French general and statesman,
son of Alexandre Sebasticn de Flahaut de la Billarderie, comte
de Flahaut, beheaded at Arras in February 1793, and bis wife
Adelaide Filleul, afterwards Mme de Souza {q.v.), was born in
Paris on the 2 1st of April 1 785. Charles de Flahaut was generally
recognized to be the offspring of his mother's liaison with Talley-
rand, with whom he was closely connected throughout his life.
His mother took him with her into exile in 1792, and they
remained abroad until 1 798. He entered the army as a volunteer
in 1800, and received bis commission after the battle of Marengo.
He became aide-de-camp to Murat, and was wounded at the
battle of Landbach in 1805. At Warsaw he met Anne Ponia-
towski, Countess Potocka, with whom he rapidly became inti-
mate. After the battle of Fricdland he received the Legion of
1 Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636), bk. v. pp. 232-237.
1 See Sir Thomas Browne's Works, vol. i. p. 206.
* Sec Capt. C. R. Day, Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instruments
ondon, 1891), pp. 18-22 and pi. 4; also Complete Instructions for
the Double Flageolet (London, 1825); and The Preceptor ', or a Key
to the Double Flageolet (London, 1815).
Honour, and returned to Paris in 1807. He served in Spain in
x8o8, and then in Germany. Meanwhile the Countess Potocka
had established herself in Paris, but Charles de Flahaut had by
this time entered on his liaison with Hortense de Beauharnais,
queen of Holland. The birth of their son was registered in Paris
on the 2 1 st of October 181 x as Charles Auguste Louis Joseph
Demorny, known later as the due de Moray. Flahaut fought
with distinction in the Russian campaign of 18x2, and in 1813
became general of brigade, aide-de-camp to the emperor, and,
after the battle of Leipzig, general of division. After Napoleon's
abdication in 1814 he submitted to the new government, but
was placed on the retired list in September. He was assiduous
in his attendance on Queen Hortense until the Hundred Days
brought him into active service again. A mission to Vienna to
secure the return of Marie Louise resulted in failure. He was
present at Waterloo, and afterwards sought to place Napoleon IL
on the throne. He was saved from exile by Talleyrand's influence,
but was placed under police surveillance. Presently he elected
to retire to Germany, and thence to England, where be 'married
Margaret, daughter of Admiral George Keith Elphinstone,
Lord Keith, and after the hitter's death Baroness Keith in her
own right. The. French ambassador opposed the marriage, and
Flahaut resigned his commission. His eldest daughter, Emily
Jane, married Henry, 4th marquess of Lansdowne. TheFlahauts
returned to France in 1827, and in 1830 Louis Philippe gave the
count the grade of lieutenant-general and made him a peer of
France. He remained intimately associated with Talleyrand's
policy, and was, for a short time in 183 1, ambassador at Berlin,
He was afterwards attached to the household of the duke of
Orleans, and in 1841 was sent as ambassador to Vienna, where
he remained until 1848, when he was dismissed and retired from
the army. After the coup d'tlat 0*4851 he was again actively
employed, and from i860 to 1862 was ambassador at the court
of St James's. He died on the xst of September 1870. The
comte de Flahaut is perhaps better remembered for bis exploits
in gallantry, and the elegant manners in which he had been
carefully trained by his mother, than for his public services,
which were not, however, so inconsiderable as they have some-
times been represented to be.
See A. de Haricourt, Madame de Souza el safamille (1907).
FLAIL (from Lat. flagellum, a whip or scourge, but used in
the Vulgate in the sense of " flail "; the word appears in Dutch
vUgel, Ger. Plegtl t and Fr.JUau), a farm hand-implement formerly
used for threshing corn. It consists of a short thick dub called
a " swingle " or " swipple " attached by a rope or leather thong
to a wooden handle in such a manner as to enable it to swing
freely. The " flail " was a weapon used for military purposes
in the middle ages. It was made in the same way as a threshing-
flail but much stronger and furnished with iron spikes. It also
took the form of a chain with a spiked iron ball at one end
swinging free on a wooden or iron handle. This weapon was
known as the " morning star " or " holy water sprinkler."
During the panic over* the Popish plot in England from 1678
to 1681, clubs, known as " Protestant flails," were carried by
alarmed Protestants (see Green Ribbon Club).
FLAMBARD, RANULF, or Ralph (d. 1x28), bishop of Durham
and chief minister of William Ruf us, was the son of a Norman
parish priest who belonged to the diocese of Bayeux. Migrating
at an early age to England, the young Ranutf entered the
chancery of William I. and became conspicuous as a courtier.
He was disliked by the barons, who nicknamed him Flambard
in reference to his talents as a mischief-maker; but be acquired
the reputation of an acute financier and appears to have played
an important part in the compilation of the Domesday survey.
In that record he is mentioned as a clerk by profession, and as
holding land both in Hants and Oxfordshire. Before the death
of the old king he became chaplain to Maurice, bishop of London,
under whom he had formerly served in the chancery. But
early in the next reign Ranulf returned to the royal service.
He is usually described as the chaplain of Rufus; he seems in
that capacity to have been the head of the chancery and the
custodian of the great seaL But he is also called treasurer,
FLAMBOROUGH HEAD— FLAME
469
and there can be no doubt that his services were chiefly of a
fiscal character. His name is regularly connected by the
chroniclers with the ingenious methods of extortion from which
all classes suffered between 1087 and ixoo. He profited largely
by the tyranny of Rufus, farming for the king a large proportion
of the ecclesiastical preferments which were Ulegaly kept vacant,
and obtaining for himself the wealthy see of Durham (1099).
His fortunes suffered an eclipse upon the accession of Henry I.,
by whom he was imprisoned in deference to the popular outcry.
A bishop, however, was an inconvenient prisoner, and Flambard
soon suceeded in effecting his escape from the Tower of London.
A popular legend represents the bishop as descending from the
window of his celLhy a rope which friends had conveyed to him
in a cask of wine. He took refuge with Robert Curthose in
Normandy and became one of the advisers who pressed the
duke to dispute the crown of England with his younger brother;
Robert rewarded the bishop by entrusting him with the ad-
ministration of the see of Lisieux: . After the victory of Tinchebrai
(1x06) the bishop was among the first to make his peace with
Henry, and was allowed to return to his English see. At D urham
he passed the remainder of his life. His private hfc was lax;
he had at least two sons, for whom he purchased benefices before
they. had entered on their teens; and scandalous tales are told
of the entertainments with which he enlivened bis seclusion.
But he distinguished himself, even among the bishops of that
age, as a builder and a pious founder. He all but completed
the cathedral which his predecessor, William of St Carilcf , had
begun; fortified Durham; built Norham Castle; founded the
priory of Mottisfout and endowed the college of Christchurch,
Hampshire. As a politician he ended his career with his sub-
mission to Henry, who found in Roger of Salisbury a financier
not less able and infinitely more acceptable to the nation. Ranulf
died on the 5th of September na§.
See Orderic Vitafis, Historic eccUsiastica, vols. Hi. and tv. (cd.
le Prevost, Paris, 1845) ; the first continuation of Symeon's Historic
Ecdesios Dundmensis (Rolls ed. f 1882); William of Malmesbury
in the Cesta tontificum (Rous ed., 1870) ; and the Peterborough
Chronicle (Rous ed., 1861). Of modern writers E. A. Freeman in
His William Rufus (Oxford, 1882) gives the fullest account See also
T. A. Archer in the English Histonoat Review, ii. p. 103; W. Stubbs's
OmstituHonol History of England, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897): J. H.
Round's Feudal England (London, 1895). (H. W. C. D.)
FLAHBOROUQH HEAD, a promontory on the Yorkshire
coast of England, between the Filey and Bridlington bays of
the North Sea, It is a lofty chalk headland, and the resistance
it offers to the action of the waves may be well judged by contrast
with the low coast of Holderness to the south. The cliffs of the
Head, however, are pierced with caverns and fringed with rocks
of fantastic outline. Remarkable contortion of strata is seen
at various points in the chalk. Sea-birds breed abundantly on
the cliffs. A lighthouse marks the point, in 54° 7' N., o° 5* W.
FLAMBOTAJIT STYLE, the term given to the phase of Gothic
architecture in France which corresponds in period to the
Perpendicular style. The word literally means " flowing " or
" flaming," in consequence of the resemblance to the curved
lines of flame in window tracery. The earliest examples of
flowing tracery are found in England in the later phases of the
Decorated style, where, in consequence of the omission of the
enclosing circles of the tracery, the carrying through of the
foliations resulted in a curve of contrary flexure of ogee form
and hence the term flowing tracery. In the minster and the
church of St Mary at Beverley, dating from 1320 and 1330, are
the earliest examples in England; in France its first employment
dates from about 1460, and it is now generally agreed that the
flamboyant style was introduced from English sources. One of
the chief characteristics of the flamboyant style in France is
that known as " interpenetration," in which' the base mouldings
of one shaft are penetrated by those of a second shaft of which
the faces are set diagonally. This interpenetration, which was
in a sense a tour de force of French masons, was carried to such
an extent that in a lofty rood-screen the mouldings penetrating
the base-mould would be found to be those of a diagonal buttress
situated so to 30 ft. above it. It was not limited, however, to
interna] work; in late 15th and early 16th century ecclesiastical
architecture it is found on the facades of some French
cathedrals, and often on the outside of chapels added in later
times.
FLAME (Lat JUtmma; the root flag- appears in Jlagrare, to
burn, blaze, and Gr. ^XtYeur). There is no strict scientific
definition of flame, but for the purpose of this article it will be
regarded as a name for gas which is temporarily luminous in
consequence of chemical action. It is well known that the
luminosity of gases can be induced by the electrical discharge,
and with rapidly alternating high-tension discharges in air an
oxygen-nitrogen flame is produced which is long and flickering,
can be blown out, yields nitrogen peroxide, and is in fact in-
distinguishable from an ordinary flame except by its electrical
mode of maintenance. The term " flame " ia also applied to
solar protuberances, which, according to the common view,
consist of gases whose glow is of a purely thermal origin. Even
with the restricted definition given above, difficulties present
themselves. It is found, for example, with a hydrogen flame
that the luminosity diminishes as the purity of the hydrogen
is increased and as the air is freed from dust, and J. S. Stas
declared that under the most favourable conditions he was only
able, even in a dark room, to localise the flame by feeling for it,
an observation consistent with the fact that the line spectrum
of the flame lies wholly in the ultra-violet. On the other hand,
there are many examples of chemical combination between gases
where the attendant radiation is below the pitch of visibility,
as in the case of ethylene and chlorine. It will be obvious from
these facts that a strict definition of flame is hardly possible*
The common distinction between luminous and non-luminous
flames is, of course, quite arbitrary, and only corresponds to a
rough estimate of the degree of luminosity.
The chemical energy necessary for the production of flame may
be liberated during combination or decomposition. A single
substance like gun-cotton, which is highly endothennic and
gives gaseous products, will produce a bright flame of decom-
position if a single piece be heated in an evacuated flask. Com-
bination is the more common case, and this means that we have
two separate substances involved. If they be not mixed en
masse before combination, the one which flows as a current into
the other is called conventionally the " combustible," but the
simple experiment of burning air in coal gas suffices to show
the unreality of this distinction between combustible and sup*
porter of combustion, which, in fact, is only one of the many
partial views that are explained and perhaps justified by the
dominance of oxygen in terrestrial chemistry.
Although hydrocarbon flames are the commonest and most
interesting, it will be well to consider simpler flames first in
order to discuss some fundamental problems. In hydrocarbon
flames the complexity of the combustible, its susceptibility
to change by heating, and the possibilities of fractional oxidation,
create special difficulties. In the flame of hydrogen and oxygen
or carbon monoxide and oxygen we have simpler conditions,
though here, too, things may be by no means so simple as they
seem from the equations sH* + Ot » aHjO and 2CO + 0» « aCOr
The influence of water vapour on both these actions is well
known, and the molecular transactions may in reality be com-
plicated. We shall, however, assume for the sake of clearness
that in these cases we have a simple reaction taking place through-
out the mass of flame. There axe various ways in which a pair
of gases may be burned, and these we shall consider separately.
Let us first suppose the two gases to have been mixed en mass*
and a light to be applied to the stationary mixture. If the
mixture be made within certain limiting proportions, which
vary for each case, a flame spreads from the point where the light
is applied, and the flame traverses the mixture. This flame
may be very slow in its progress or it may attain a velocity of
the order of one or two thousand metres per second. Until
comparatively recent times great misunderstanding prevailed
on this subject.. The slow rate of movement of flame in short
lengths of gaseous mixtures was taken to be the velocity of
explosion, but more recent researches by M. P. E. Bcrtbeiot*
47©
FLAME
E. Mallard andiL L. le Chateher and H. B. Dixon have shown
that a distinction roust be made between the slow initial rate
of inflammation of gaseous mixtures and the rapid rate of detona-
tion, or rate of the explosive vave, which in many cases is subsc*
qnently set up. We shall here deal only with the slow movements
of flame. The development of a flame in such a gaseous mixture
requires that a small portion of it should be raised to a tempera*
ture called the temperature of ignition. Here again considerable
misunderstanding has prevailed The temperature of ignition
has often been regarded as the temperature at which chemical
combination begins, whereas it is really the temperature at
'which com bination has reached a certain rote. The combination
of hydrogen and oxygen begins at temperatures far below that
Of ignition. It may indeed be supposed that the combination
occurs with extreme slowness even at ordinary temperatures,
and that as the temperature is raised the velocity of the reaction
increases in accordance with the general expression according
to which an increase of io° C. will approximately double the rate.
However that may be, it has been proved experimentally by
J. H. van't Hoff, Victor Meyer and others that the combination
of hydrogen and oxygen proceeds at perceptible rates far below
the temperature of ignition. The phenomenon appears to be
greatly influenced by the solid surfaces which are present; thus
in a plain glass vessel the combination only began to be per*
ceptible at 448 , whilst in a silvered glass vessel it would be
detected at 182° C.
The same kind of thing is true for most oxidizable substances,
including ordinary combustibles. We must look upon the
application of heat to a combustible mixture as resulting in an
increase of the rate of combination locally. Let us suppose
that we are dealing with a stratum of the mixture in small
contiguous sections. If we raise the temperature of the first
section «• C, an increased* rate of combination is set up. The
heat produced by this combination will be dissipated by conduc-
tion and radiation, and we will suppose that it does not quite
suffice to raise the adjacent section of the mixture to a° C. The
combination in that section, therefore, will not be as rapid as in
the fust one, and so evidently the impulse to combination will
go on abating as we pass along the stratum. Suppose now we
start again and heat the first section of the mixture to a tempera-
ture c° C, such that the rate of combination is very rapid and the
heat developed by combination suffices, to raise the adjacent
section of the mixture to a temperature higher than c° C. The
rate of combination will then be greater than in the first section,
and the impulse to combination will be intensified in the same
way from section to section along the stratum until a maximum
temperature is reached. It is obvious that there must be a
temperature of b° C. between a° and c* which will satisfy this
condition, that the heat which results from the combination
stimulated in the first section just suffices to raise the temperature
of the second section to b°. This temperature b° is the tempera-
ture of ignition of the mixture; so soon as it is attained by a
portion of the mixture the combustion becomes self-sustaining
and flame spreads through the mixture. Ignition temperature
may be defined briefly as the temperature at which the initial
loss of heat due to conduction, &c, is equal to the heat evolved
in the same time by the chemical reaction (van't Hoff)- From
the above considerations we see that the temperature of ignition
will vary not only when the gases are varied, but when the
proportions of the same gases are varied, and also when the
pressure is varied. We can see also that outside certain limiting
proportions a mixture of gases will have no practicable ignition
temperature, that is to say, the cooling effect of the gas which
is in excess will carry off so much heat that no attainable initial
heating will suffice to set up the transmission of a constant
temperature. Thus in the case of hydrogen and air, mixtures
containing less than $ and more than 7a % of hydrogen are not
inflammable. The theory of ignition temperature enables us
to understand why in an explosive mixture a very small electric
spark may not suffice to induce explosion. Combination will
indeed take place in the path of the spark, but the amount of it
it not sufficient to meet the loss of heat by conduction, &c. It
must be added that the theory of ignition temperatures given
above does not explain all the observed facta. F. Emich state*
that the inflammability of gaseous mixtures is not necessarily
greatest when the gases are mixed in the proportions theoretically
required for complete combination, and the influence of foreign
gases does not appear to follow any simple law. The presence
of a small quantity of a gas may exercise a profound influence
on the ignition temperature as in the case of the addition of
ethylene to hydrogen (Sir Edward Frankland), and again when a
mixture of methane and air is raised to its ignition temperature
a sensible interval (about xo seconds) elapses before inflammation
occurs.
The rate at whkh a flame will traverse a mixture of two gases
which has been ignited depends on the proportions in which the
gases are mixed. Fig. x (Bunte) represents this relationship
for several common gases.
Fig. i.— Rates of Inflamm a tio n of combus t ibl e gases with air.
If a ready-made gaseous mixture is to be used for the produc-
tion of a steady flame, it may be forced through a tube and
ignited at the end; it is obvious that the velocity of efflux must
be greater than the initial rate of inflammation of the mixture,
for otherwise the mixture would fire back down the tube. If
the velocity of efflux be considerably greater than the rate of
inflammation, the flame will be separated from the end of the tube,
and only appear as a flickering crown where the velocity and
inflammability of the issuing gas have been diniinished by
admixture with air. With much increased velocity of efflux
the flame will be blown out. J. B. A. Dumas used to show the
experiment of blowing out a candle with electrolytic gas. A
steady flame formed by burning a ready-made gaseous mixture
at the end of a tube of circular section has the form shown in
fig. s. The small internal cone marks the lower limiting surface
of the flame; it is the locus of all points where the velocity of
efflux is just equal to the velocity of Inflammation,
and its conical form is explained by the fact that the
rate of efflux of gas is greatest in the vertical axis of
the tube where the flow is not retarded by friction
with the walls, as well as by the further fact that
the gas issuing from such an orifice spreads outwards,
the inflammation proceeding directly against it. The
flame, it will be seen, is of considerable thickness.
If the gaseous mixture be hydrogen and oxygen, or
carbon monoxide and oxygen, it will have no obvious
features of structure beyond those shown in the figure ;
that is to say, the shaded region of burning gas has
the appearance of homogeneity and uniform colour
which might be expected to accompany a uniform
chemical condition. Some admixture of the external Fig. a.
air will, of course, take place, especially in the upper
parts of the flame, and detectable quantities of oxides of nitrogen
may be found in the products of combustion, but this is an
inconsiderable feature* The flame just described is essentially
that of a blowpipe.
A second way of producing a flame is the more common one of
allowing one gas to stream into the other. Using the same gases
as before, hydrogen or carbon monoxide with oxygen, we find
FLAME 1
471-
mil In that the dame is conical in form and uniform in colour,
but in this case, if the velocity of efflux be not immoderate,
the burning gas only extendi over a comparatively thin shell,
limited on the inside by the pure combustible and on the outside
by a mixture of ihe products of combustion with oxygen. The
combustible gas has to make its own inflammable mixture with
the circumambient oxygen, and we may suppose the column of
gas to be burned through as it ascends, The core of unbumed
gas thus becomes thinner as it ascends and the flame tapers to a
point. The external surface of a flame of this kind will for
the same consumption of gas be larger than that of a flame where
the ready-made mixture of gases is used. If a jet of one gas be
sent with a sufficient velocity into another, turbulent admixture
takes place and an unsteady sheet of flame of uniform colour is
obtained.
A third way of forming a flame is to allow the whole of one
gas, mixed with a less quantity of the second than is sufficient
for complete combustion, to issue into an atmosphere of the
second. This is the case with what are generally known as
atmospheric burners, of which the Bunsen burner is the prototype.
The development of a flame of this kind can be well studied in
the case of carbon monoxide and air. The carbon monoxide is
fed into a Bunsen burner with closed air-valve, the burner-tube
being prolonged by affixing a glass tube to it by means of a
cork. The name consists of a single conical blue sheet. If now
the air-valve be opened very slightly, an internal cone of the same
blue colour makes its appearance. The air which has entered
through the air-valve (" primary " air) has become mixed with
the carbon monoxide and so oxidises its quota in an internal
cone, the rest of the carbon monoxide (diluted now, of course,
with carbon dioxide and nitrogen) wandering into the external
atmosphere to bum (with " secondary " air) in a second cone.
The existence of the internal cone and the subsequent thermal
effect lead to slight convexity of surface in the outer cone. If
the quantity of primary air be increased more internal combustion
can take place. This, however, does not lead to an enlargement
of the inner cone, for the increase of air increases the rate of
inflammation of the mixture, and the inner cone (which only
maintains its stability because the rate of efflux of the mixture is
greater than the velocity of inflammation) contracts, and will, as
the proportion of primary air is increased, soon evince a tendency
to enter the burner-tube. At this stage an interesting pheno-
menon is to be noticed. When we have reached the point of
aeration where the velocity of inflammation of the mixture
just surpasses the velocity of efflux, the inner cone enters the
burner-tube as a disk and descends, but this downward motion
checks the suction flow of air through the valve at the base of
the burner, whilst it does not appreciably check the pressure
flow of the carbon monoxide through the gas nozzle. The
result is that a stratum of gas-mixture poor in air, and therefore
oi low rate of inflammation, is formed, and when the descending
disk of flame meets it, the descent is arrested and the disk
returns to the top of the tube, reproducing the inner cone. The
full air suction is now restored and the course of events is repeated.
This oscillatory action can be maintained almost indefinitely
long if the pressure and other conditions be maintained constant.
With still more primary air the inner cone of flame simply fires
back to the burner nozzle, or, in the last stage, we may have
enough air entering to produce a flame of the blast blowpipe
type, namely, one where the carbon monoxide mixed with an
excess of primary air burns with a single cone in a steady
flame.
By means of a simple contrivance devised by A. Smithells
a two-coned flame of the kind described may be resolved into
its components. The apparatus is like a half-extended telescope
made of two glass tubes, and it is evident that the velocity of
a mixture of gases flowing through it must be greater in the
narrow tube than in the wider one. If the end of the narrower
tube be fixed to a Bunsen burner and the flame be formed at the
end of the wider one, then when the air-supply is increased to a
certain point the inner cone will descend into the wide tube and
attach itself to the upper end of the narrower one. This occurs
when the velocity of inflammation is just greater than the
upward velocity of the gaseous stream in the wide tube and less
than the upward velocity in the narrow tube. If the outer
tube be now drawn down, a two-coned flame burns at the end
of the inner tube; if the outer tube he slid up again, it
detaches the outer cone and carries it upward. This apparatus
has been of use in investigating the progress of combustion in
various flames.
Temperature of F/amcj.— The term " flame-temperature " is
used very vaguely and has no clear meaning unless -qualified by
some description. It it least ambiguous when used in reference
to flames where the combining gases are mixed in theoretical
proportions before issuing from the burner. The flame In such
a case has considerable thickness and uniformity, and, though
the temperature is not constant throughout, flames of this
type given by different combustibles admit of comparison. In
other flames where the shells of combustion are thin and envelop
large regions of uriburned or partly-burned gas, it is not clear how
temperature should be specified. An ordinary gas flame will
not, from the point of view of the practical arts, give a sufficient
temperature for melting platinum, yet a very thin platinum
wire may be melted at the edge of the lower part of such a flame.
The maximum temperature of the flame is therefore not in any
serious sense an available temperature. It will suffice to point
out here that in order to burn a gas so that it may have the
highest available temperature, we must burn it with the smallest
external flame-surface obtainable. This is done when the com-
bining gases are completely mixed before issuing from the burner.
Where this is impracticable we may employ a burner of the
Bunsen type, and- arrange matters so that a large amount of
primary air is supplied. It is in this direction that modern
improvements have been made with a view to obtaining hot
flames for heating the Wclsbach mantle. The Kern burner,
for example, employs the principle of the Vcnturi tube. Where
much primary air is drawn in it is usual to provide for it being
well mixed with the gas, otherwise an unsteady flame may be
produced with a great tendency to light back. The burner head
is therefore usually provided with a mixing chamber and the
mixture issues through a slit or a mesh. A great many modified
Bunsen burners have been produced, the aim in all of them being
to produce a flame which shall combine steadiness with the
smallest attainable external surface.
To estimate the temperature of flames several methods have
been employed. The method of calculation, based on the
supposition that the whole heat of combustion is localised in
the product (or products) of combustion and heats it to a tem-
perature depending on its specific heat, cannot be applied in a
simple way. Apart from the assumption (which there is reason
to suppose incorrect) that none of the chemical energy assumes
the radiant form directly, we have to regard the possible change
of specific heat at high temperatures, the likelihood of dissociation
and the time of reaction. Any practical consideration of tem-
perature must have regard to a large assemblage of molecules
and not to a single one, and therefore any influence which means
delay in combination will result in reduction of temperature by
radiation and conduction. It can hardly be maintained that
in the present state of knowledge we have the requisite data for
the calculation of flame temperature, though good approxima-
tions may be made. Many attempts have been made to deter-
mine flame temperatures by means of thermo-electric couples
and by radiation pyrometers. The couple most employed is that
known as H. L. le Ghatdier's, consisting of two wires, one of
platinum and the other an alloy of 00% platinum and 10% of
rhodium. When all possible precautions are taken it is possible
by means of such thermocouples to measure local flame tempera-
tures with a considerable degree of accuracy. Subjoined are
some results obtained at different times and by different observers
with regard to the maximum temperatures of flames. —
Coal gas In Bunsen burner (Waggener, 1896). .
„ „ „ „ (Berkenbusch, 1 809).
„ • „ „ „ (White & Traver, 1902)
....«„ (Fiery, 1905). . .
47*
FLAME
The following are given by Fe^rys— »
Acetylene 2548* C.
Alcohol 1705*
Hydrogen (in air) ...... 1900°
Oxy-hydrogen .»...' 2420*
Oxy-coal gas blowpipe . • • • • 2200°
Source of Light in Flames.— -We may consider first those
flames where solid particles are out of the question; for example,
the flame of carbon monoxide in air. The old idea that the
luminosity was due to the thermal glow of the highly heated
product of combustion has been challenged independently by a
number of observers, and the view has been advanced that the
emission of light is due to radiation attendant upon a kind of
discharge of chemical energy between the reacting molecules.
E. Wiedemann proposed the name ' ' chemi-luminescence "
for radiation of this kind. The fact is that colourless gases
cannot be made to glow by any purely thermal heating at present
available, and products of combustion heated to the average
temperature of the flames in which they are produced are non-
luminous. On the other hand, it must be remembered that in a
mass of burning gas only a certain proportion of the molecules
are engaged at one instant in the act of chemical combination,
and that the energy liberated in such individual transactions,
if localized momentarily as heat, would give individual molecules
a unique condition of temperature far transcending that of the
average, and the distribution, of heat in a flame would be very
different from that existing in the same mixture of gases heated
from an external source to the same average temperature. The
view advocated by Smithells is that in the chemical combination
of gases the initial phase of the formation of the new molecule
is a vibratory one, which directly furnishes light, and that the
damping down of this vibration by colliding molecules is the
source of that translatory motion which is evinced as heat
This, it will be seen, is an exact reversal of the older view.
The view of Sir H. Davy that " whenever a flame is remarkably
brilliant and dense it may always be concluded that some solid
matter is produced in it " can be no longer entertained. The
flames of phosphorus in oxygen and of carbon disulphide in
nitric oxide contain only gaseous products, and Frankland
showed that the flames of hydrogen and carbon monoxide became
highly luminous under pressure. From his experiments Frank-
land was led to the generalization that high luminosity of flames
is associated with high density of the gases, and he docs
not draw a distinction in this respect between high density due
to high molecular weight and high density due to the close
packing of lighter molecules. The increased luminosity of a
compressed flame is not difficult to understand from the kinetic
theory of gases, but no explanation has appeared of the luminosity
considered by Frankland to be due merely to high molecular
weight. It is possible that the electron theory may ultimately
afford a better understanding of these phenomena.
Structure of Flame. — The vagueness of the term Structure,
as applied to flames, is to be seen from the very conflicting
accounts which are current as to the number of differentiated
parts in different flames.- Unless this term is restricted to
sharp differences in appearance, there is no limit to the number
of parts which may be selected for mention. The flame of carbon
monoxide, when the gas is not mixed with air before it issues
from the burner, shows no clearly differentiated structure, but is
a shell of blue luminosity of shaded intensity—a hollow cone if
the orifice of the burner be circular and the velocity of the gas
not immoderate, or a double sheet of fan shape if the burner have
a slit or two inclined pores which cause the jets of issuing gas
to spread each other out. Such a flame has but one single
distinct feature, and this is not surprising, as there is no reason
to suppose that there is any difference in the chemical process
or processes that are occurring in different quarters of the flame.
The amount of materials undergoing this transformation in
different parts of the flame may and does vary; the gases
become diluted with products of combustion, and the molecular
vibrations gradually die down. These things may cause a
variation in the intensity of the light in different quarters, but
the differences induced are not sharp or in any proper sense
structural. A flame of this kind may develop a secondary
feature of structure. If carbon mon o xide be burnt in oxygen
which is mixed or combined with another element there may
be an additional chemical process that will give light; flames in
air are sometimes surrounded by a faintly luminous fringe of a
greenish cast, apparently associated with the combination of
nitrogen with oxygen (H. B. Dixon). Carbon monoxide on being
strongly heated begins to dissociate into carbon and carbon
dioxide; if the unburnt carbon monoxide within a flame of
that gas were so highly heated by its own burning walk as to
reach the temperature of dissociation, we might expect to see
a special feature of structure due to the separated carbon. Such
a temperature does not, however, appear to be reached.
Apart from hydrocarbon flames not much has been published
in reference to the structure of flames. The case of cyanogen is
of peculiar interest. The beautiful flame of this gas consists
of an almost crimson shell surrounded by a margin of bright blue.
Investigations have shown that these two colours correspond]
to two steps in the progress of the combustion, in the first of
which the carbon of the cyanogen is oxidized to carbon monoxide
and in the second the carbon monoxide oxidized to carbon
dioxide.
The inversion of combustion may bring new features of
structure into existence; thus when a jet of cyanogen is burnt
in oxygen no solid carbon can be found in the flame, but when
a jet of oxygen is burnt in cyanogen solid carbon separates on
the edge of the flame.
Hydrocarbon Flames. — As already stated the flames of carbon
compounds and especially of hydrocarbons have been much more
studied than any other kind, as is natural from their common
use and practical importance. The earliest investigations were
made with coal gas, vegetable oils and tallow, and the composite
and complex nature of these substances led to difficulties and
confusion in the interpretation of results. One such difficulty
may be illustrated by the fact, often overlooked, that when a
mixed gaseous combustible issues into air the individual com-
ponent gases will separate spontaneously in accordance with
their diffusibUities: hydrogen will thus tend to get to the outer
edge of a flame and heavy hydrocarbons to lag behind.
The features of structure in a hydrocarbon flame depend of
course on the manner in which the air is supplied. The extreme
cases are (i.) when the issuing gas is supplied before it leaves the
burner with sufficient air for complete combustion, as in the
blast blowpipe, in which case we have a sheet of blue undiffer-
entiated flame; and (ii.) when the gas has to find all the air it
requires after leaving the burner. The intermediate stage is
when the issuing gas is supplied before leaving the burner with
a part of the air that is required. In this case a two-coned flame
is produced. The general theory of such phenomena has already
been discussed. It must be remarked that the transition of one
kind of flame into. the others can be effected gradually, and this
is seen with particular ease and distinctness by burning benzene
vapour admixed with gradually increasing quantities of air.
The key to the explanation- of the structure of an ordinary
luminous flame, such as that of a candle, is to be found, according
to Smithells, by observing the changes undergone by a well-aerated
Bunsen flame as the " primary " air is gradually cut off by
closing the air-ports at the base of the burner: It is then seen
that the two cones of flame evolve or degenerate into the two
recognizable blue parts of an ordinary luminous flame, whilst
the appearance of the bright yellow luminous patch becomes
increasingly emphasized as a hollow dome lying within the upper
part of the blue sheath. There are thus three recognizable
features of structure in an ordinary luminous flame, each region
being as it were a mere shell and the interior of the flame filled
with gas which has not yet entered into active combustion.
If, as is suggested, the blue parts of an ordinary luminous flame
are the relics of the two cones of a Bunsen flame, the chemistry
of a Bunsen flame msy be appropriately considered first. What
happens chemically when a hydrocarbon is burned in a Bunsen
burner ? The air sent in with the gas is insufficient for complete
FLAME
473
combustion so that the inner cone of the flame may be mnstdered
as ak burning in an excess of coal gas. What will be the products
of this combustion? This question has been answered at
different times in very different ways. There an many conceiv-
able answers: put of the hydrocarbon might be wholly oxidised
and the rest left unaltered to mix with the outside air and burn
as dm outer cone; on the other hand, there might be (as has
been so commonly assumed) a selective oxidation in the inner
cone whereby the hydrogen was fully oxidised and the carbon
set free or oxidised to carbon monoxide; or again the carbon
might be oxidised to carbon dioxide or monoxide and the
hydrogen set free. There might of course be other intermediate
kinds of action. Now it is important at this point to insist upon
a distinct km between what can be found by direct analysis as
to the products of partial combustion, and what can be imagined
or inferred as the transitory existence of substances of which
the products actually found in analysis are the outcome. We
shall consider only in the first instance what substances are
sound by analysis* Earlier experiments on the Bnnsen burner
in which coal gas was used, and the gases withdrawn directly
from the name by aspiration, gave no very clear results, but the
introduction of the cone-separating apparatus and the use of
single hydrocarbons led to more definite conclusions. The
analysis of the interzonal gases from an ethylene flame gave
the following numbers:— carbon dioxide «= 3*6; water — 9*5;
carbon monoxide » x 5-6; hydrocarbons *■ 1*3; hydrogen » 9-4;
nitrogen •» 6o*6.
It appears therefore, and it may be stated as a fact, that a
considerable amount of hydrogen is left unoxidized, whilst
practically all the carbon is converted into monoxide or dioxide.
As the gases have cooled down before analysis and as the reaction
CO + HiO^±CO, + Hi is reversible, it may be objected that the
Inter-cenal gases may have a composition when they are hot
very different from what they show when cold. Experiments
made to test this Question have not sustained the objection.
Subsequent experiments on the oxidation of hydrocarbons
have made it appear undesirable to use the expression " pre-
ferential combustion " or " selective combustion " in connexion
with the facts just stated; but for the purpose of describing in
brief the chemistry of a hydrocarbon flame it is necessary to say
that in the inner cone of a Bunsen flame hydrogen and carbon
monoxide are the result of the limited oxidation, and that the
combustion of these gases with the external air generates the
outer cone of the flame. As to the actual stages in the limited
oxidation of a hydrocarbon a large amount of very valuable
work has been carried out by W. A. Bone and his collaborators.
Different hydrocarbons mixed with dxyfeen have been circulated
continuously through * vessel heated to various temperatures,
beginning with that (about 950° C.) at which the rate of oxidation
is easily appreciable. Proceeding in tins way, Bone, without
effecting a complete transformation of the hydrocarbon into
partially oxidised substances, has isolated large quantities of
such products, and concludes that the oxidation of a hydrocarbon
involves nothing in the nature of * selective or preferential
oxidation of either the hydrogen or the carbon. He maintains
that it occurs in several well-defined stages during which oxygen
enters into and is incorporated with the hydrocarbon molecule,
forming oxygenated intermediate products among which are
alcohols and aldehydes. The reactions between ethane and
ethylene with an equal volume of oxygen would be represented
as follows:—
Stage t. Stage a_
CHrCH, > CH.CHjOrT — , — ? CH r CH(OH)t
Ethane. Ethyl alcohol. , — * ■ >
CHrCHO+H*0
Acetaldehyde.
CH* : CHi •
Ethylene.
\ C,H«+H,0 I
CH, :CHOH
CH4+CO I
C+2H a +COt
]10CH:CHOH
2CH*0-2CO+2H,
i2C+H>+rtf>$ _ Formaldehyde.
The affinity between the hydrocarbon and oxygen at a high
< C,H,+H,0 \
12C4 ~*
temperature is so great that, when the supply of oxygen la
sufficient to carry the oxidation as far as the second stage*
practically no decomposition of the- monohydroxy molecule
formed in the first stage occurs. This, is especially the case
with unsaturated hydrocarbons.
As a crucial test decisive against the hypothesis of preferential
carbon oxidation, Bone cites the experiment of firing a mixture
of equal volumes of ethane and oxygen sealed up in a glass bulb.
In such a case a lurid flame fills the vessel, accompanied by a
black, cloud of carbon particles and considerable condensation
of water. About 10% of methane is also found. It is impossible
within the limits of this article to give a more extended account
of these later researches on the oxidation of hydrocarbons.
They make it evident that the relative oxidizability of carbon
and hydrogen cannot form the basis of a general theory of the
combustion of hydrocarbons, and that both the a priori view
that hydrogen is the more oxidisable element, and the inference
from the behaviour of ethylene when exploded with its own
volume of oxygen, viz. that carbon is the more oxidisable element
in hydrocarbons, are not in harmony with experimental facts.
The view that the bright luminosity of hydrocarbon flames is
due " to the deposition of solid charcoal " was first put forward
by Sir Humphry Davy in 1816. In explaining the origin of
this charcoal, Davy used somewhat ambiguous language, stating
that it " might be owing to a decomposition of a part of the gat
towards the interior of the flame where the air was in smallest
quantity*' 1 This statement was interpreted commonly as
implying that the charcoal became free by the preferential
combustion of the hydrogen, and such an interpretation was
given explicitly by Faraday. Whatever may have been Davy's
view with regard to this part of the theory, his conclusion that
finely divided carbon was the cause of luminosity in hydrocarbon
flames was not questioned until 1867, when E. Frankland, in
connexion with researches already alluded to, maintained that
the luminosity of such flames was not due in any important
degree to solid particles of carbon, but to the incandescence of
dense hydrocarbon vapours. Among the arguments adduced
against this view the most decisive is furnished by the optical
test first used by J. L. Soret. If the image of the sun be focussed
upon the glowing part of a hydrocarbon flame the scattered
light is found to be polarized, and it is indisputable that the
luminous region is pervaded by a cloud of finely divided solid
matter. The quantity of this solid (estimated by H. H. C. Bunte
to be o- x milligram in a coal-gas flame burning 5 cub. ft. per hour)
is sufficient to account for the luminosity, so that Davy's original
view .may be said to be now universally accepted.
The remaining question with regard to the luminosity of a
hydrocarbon flame relates to the manner in which the carbon is
set free. The fact that hydrocarbons when strongly heated in
absence of air will deposit carbon has long been known and is
daily evident in the operation of coal-gas making, when gas
carbon accumulates as a hard deposit in the highly-heated
crown of theretorts. There is no difficulty in supposing therefore
that the carbon in a flame is separated from the hydrocarbon
within it by the purely thermal action of the blue burning walls
of the flame. Many experiments might be addnced to confirm
this view. It is sufficient to name two. If a ring of metal wire
be so disposed in a small flame as to make a girdle within the
blue walls towards the base, the withdrawal of heat is rapid
enough to prevent the maintenance of a temperature sufficient
to cause a separation of carbon, and the bright luminosity
disappears. Again, if the flame of a Bunsen burner be fed
through the air-ports not with air but with some neutral
gas such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide or steam, the dilution of
the burning gas and the hydrocarbon within it becomes so great
that the temperature of separation is not attained, no carbon is
separated and the flame consists of a single blue shell.
Whilst it is thus easy to understand generally why carbon
becomes separated as a solid within a flame, it is not easy to
trace the processes by which the carbon becomes separated in
the case of a given hydrocarbon. According to M. P. E.
Berthelot, who made prolonged and elaborate researches on the
474
FLAMEL
pyrogenetic relationships of hydrocarbons, these compounds
only liberate carbon by a process of the continual coalescence
of hydrocarbon molecule* with the elimination of hydrogen,
until there is left the limiting solid hydrocarbon hardly distin-
guishable from carbon itself and constituting the glowing soot
of flames.
V. B. Lewes, on the other band, basing his conclusions on a
study of the thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons, on tempera*-
lure measurements of flames and analysis of their gases, has
more recently developed a theory of flame luminosity in which
the formation and sudden exothermic decomposition of acetylene
are regarded as. the essential incidents productive of carbon
separation and luminosity. Smithells has disputed the evidence
on which this theory is based and it appears to have gained no
adherence from those who have worked in the same field; but
as it has not been formally disavowed by the author and has
found its way into some text-books, it is mentioned here.
W. A. Bone and H. F. Coward (J own. Ckem. Soe. t 1008)
published the results of a very careful study of the decomposition
of hydrocarbons when heated in a stationary condition and when
continually circulated through hot vessels. Their results disclose
once more the great difficulty of tracing the processes of decom-
position and of arriving at a generalization of wide applicability,
but they appear to be conclusive against the views both of
Berthelot and of Lewes.
They do not think that the decomposition of hydrocarbons
can be adequately represented by ordinary chemical equations
owing to the complexity of the changes which really take place.
Methane, which is the most stable of the hydrocarbons, appears
to be resolved at high temperatures directly into carbon and
hydrogen, hut the phenomenon is dependent mainly on surface
action; ethane, ethylene and acetylene undergo decomposition
throughout the body of the eas (he. cit. p. 1x97 et seq.).
" In the cases of ethane and ethylene it may be supposed that the
Primary effect of high temperatuBe is to cause an elimination of
hydrogen with a simultaneous loosening or dissolution of the bond
between the carbon atoms, giving rise to On the event of dissolution)
residues such as : CH, and • CH. These residues, which can only
have a very fugitive separate existence, may either (a) form
H,C : CHi and HC ; CH, as the result of encounters with other
similar residues, or (ft) break down directly into carbon and hydrogen,
or (c) be directly hydrogenized to methane in an atmosphere rich in
hydrogen. These three possibilities may all be realized simul-
taneously in the same decomposing gas in proportions dependent
oa the temperature, pressure and amount of hydrogen present.
The whole process may be represented by the following scheme, the
dotted line indicating the tendency to dissolve a bono between the
carbon atoms which becomes actually effective at higher tem-
peratures:—
H-H (<e)C»H 4 +H» ,
ff£7£H-|2<:CH,)+H4- ) # SE+^tcH*
JKlH
SSJ^WOO+W"
■I
[t)*fe*Ht-2Crl
CH.+H,
2C+Ht+H,
^w2H,-CH«.
" In the case of acetylene, ttte main primary change may be either
one of polymerization or of dissolution according to the temperature,
and if the latter, it may be supposed that the molecule breaks down
across the triple bond between the carbon atoms, giving rise to
2( i CH),andthat these residues are subsequently either resolved into
carbon and hydrogen or " hydrogenized " according to circumstances,
thus:—
HOCH -[2(:CH)J - j ^J&.JCH*
Polymerization.
"Acetylene is, moreover, distinguished by its power of poly-
merization at moderate temperatures so that whether it is the gas
initially heated or whether it is a prominent product of the decom-
position of another hydrocarbon polymerization will occur to an
extent dependent on temperature."
We may describe briefly the view to which we an led as to
the genesis of an ordinary luminous hydrocarbon flame.—-
The gaseous hydrocarbon issues from the burner or wfck,
let us suppose, in a cylindrical column. This column is not
sharply marked off from the air but is so penetrated by it that
we must suppose a gradual transition from the pure hydrocarbon
in the centre of column to the pure air on the outside. Let us
take a thin transverse slice of the flame, star the lower part of
the wick or dose to the burner tube. At what lateral distant*
from the centre will combustion begin ? Clearly, where enough
oxygen has penetrated the column to give such partial combus-
tion as takes place in the inner cone of a Bunsen burner. This
then defines the blue region. Outside this the combustion of
the carbon monoxide, hydrogen and any hydrocarbons which
pass from the blue region takes place in a faintly luminous
fringe* These two layers form a sheath of active combustion,
surrounding and intensely heating the enclosed hydrocarbons
in the middle of the column. These heated hydrocarbons rise
and are heated to a higher temperature as they ascend. They
are accordingly decomposed with separation of carbon in the
higher parts of the flame, giving the region of bright yellow
luminosity. There remains a central core in which neither is
there any oxygen for combustion nor a sufficiently high tempera*
ture to cause carbon separation. This constitutes the dark
interior region of the flame. We thus account, for the different
pans of the flame. It is to be noted, however, that the bright
blue layer only surrounds the lower part of the flame, whilst
the pale, faintly-luminous fringe surrounds the whole flame.
The flame also is conical and not cylindrical. The foregoing
explanation is therefore not quite complete. Let us suppose
that the changes have gone on in the small section of the flame
exactly as described and consider how the processes wul differ
in parts above this section. The central core of unburned gases
will pass upwards and we may treat it as a new cylindrical
column which will undergo changes just as the original one,
leaving, however, a smaller core of unburned gases, or, in other
words, each succeeding section of the flame will be of smaller
diameter. This gives us the conical form of the flame. Again,
the higher we ascend the flame the greater proportionally is the
amount of separated carbon, for we have not only the heat of
laterally outlying combustion to effect decomposition, but also
that of the lower parts of the flame. Thelower part of a luminous
flame accordingly contains less separated carbon than the upper.
Where the hydrocarbon is largely decomposed before combustion
we have no longer the conditions of the Bunsen flame, and so in
the upper parts of a luminous flame the bright blue part fades
away. The luminous fringe would, however, be continued,
for the separated hydrogen has still to burn. In this way
then we may reasonably account for the existence, position
and relative sixes of. the four regions of an ordinary luminous
flame. (A. SO
FLAMEL, NICOLAS (e. 2330-1418), reputed French alchemist
and scrivener to the university of Paris, was bom in Paris or
Pontoise about 1330, and died in Paris in 1418, bequeathing the
bulk of his property to the church of Saint- Jacques-la-Boucherie,
where he was buried. During his life he contributed freely to
charitable and religious purposes from the considerable wealth
he amassed either by the practice of his craft, or. as some surmise
without definite proof, by fortunate speculation or money
lending, or, as legend has it, by alchemy. According to a docu-
ment purporting to be written by himself in 1413 (printed in
Waite's Lives 0/ Ike Alckemyttkal Philosophers, London, 1888),
there fell into his hands in 1357, at the cost of two florins, a book
on alchemy by Abraham the Jew, which taught in plain words
the transmutation of metals. It did not, however, explain the
materia prima, but merely figured or depicted it, and for more
than so years Flamel strove in vain to find out the secret. Then,
returning from a journey to Spain, he fell in with a Christian
Jew, named Canches, who gave him the explanation, and after
three more years' work he succeeded in preparing the materia
prima, thus being enabled in 1382 to transmute mercury into
both silver and gold. But this fantastic story was disposed
of by the facts, derived from parish records, set forth in VUsina
Essai sur VkUioire de Saint-Jacque34a-BoHcherie, 1758, and his
Eistoirt critique de Nicolas Flamel et de Perndle sa femme,
recueillie d'actes anciens qui justifient V origin* el la midiecriU de
lew f or tune centre les imputations des akkimistes, X76x«
A book on alchemy in the Paris Bibfiotheque. te Trisor de phile*
sophie, professing to be written and illuminated by Flamel with his
FLAMEN— FLAMINGO
475
own hand, is of very doubtful authenticity, and other treatises bear-
ing his name, such as the Sommairg pkihsophigue <U Nicolas tlamd,
published in 1561 In a collection of alchemist treatises entitled Trans*
formation mHaUique, are certainly spurious.
FLAMEN (from flare, " to blow up " the altar fire), a Roman
sacrificial priest. The flamens were subject to the pontifex (q.v.) .
maximus, and were consecrated to the service of some particular
deity. The highest in rank were the flamen Dialis, flamen
if art talis and flamen Qiiirinalis, who were always selected
from among the patricians. Their institution is generally
ascribed to Numa. When the number of flamens was raised
from three to fifteen, those already mentioned were entitled
majores, in contradistinction to the other twelve, who were
called minora, as connected with less important deities, and were
chosen from the plcbs. Towards the end of the republic the
number of the lesser flamens seems to have diminished. The
flamens were held to be elected for life, but they might be com-
pelled to resign office for neglect of duty, or on the occurrence
of some CD-omened event (such as the cap falling off the head)
during the performance of their rites. The characteristic dress
of the flamens in general was the apex, a white conical cap, the
laena or mantle, and a laurel wreath. The official insignia
of the flamen Dialis (of Jupiter), the highest of these priests,
were the white cap (pileus, dbogalerus), at the top of which was
an olive branch and a woollen thread; the laena, a thick woollen
toga praetexta woven by his wife; the sacrificial knife; and a
rod to keep the people from him when on his way to offer sacrifice.
He was never allowed to appear without these emblems of office,
every day being considered a holy day for him. By virtue of his
office he was entitled to a seat in the senate and a curule chair.
The sight of fetters being forbidden him, his toga was not allowed
to be tied in a knot but was fastened by means of clasps, and the
only kind of ring permitted to be worn on his finger was a broken
one. If a person m fetters took refuge in his house he was
immediately loosed from his bonds; and if a criminal on his
way to the scene of his punishment met him and threw himself
at his feet he was respited for that day. The flamen Dialis was
not allowed to leave the city for a single night, to ride or even
touch a horse (a restriction which incapacitated him for the
consulship), to swear an oath, to look at an army, to touch any-
thing unclean, or to look upon people working. His marriage,
which was obliged to be performed with the ceremonies of
eonfarreatio (7.*.), was dissoluble only by death, and on the death
of his wife (called flaminka Dialis) he was obliged to resign his
office. Tbtflaminka Dialis assisted her husband at the sacrifices
and other religious duties which he performed. She wore long
woollen robes; a veil and a kerchief for the head, her hair being
plaited up with a purple band in a conical form (Midus); and
shoes made of the leather of sacrificed animals; like her husband,
she carried the sacrificial knife. The main duty of the flamens
was the offering of daily sacrifices; on the xst of October the
three major flamens drove to the Capitol and sacrificed to Fides
Publico, (the Honour of the People). Some of the municipal
towns in Italy had flamens as well as Rome.
We may mention, as distinct from the above, the flamen
curtails, who assisted the curio, the priest who attended to the
religious affairs of each curia (q.v.); the flamens of various
sacerdotal corporations, such as the Arval Brothers; the flamen
Augustalis, who superintended the worship of the emperor in
the provinces.
See "
exhaustive
des antiquiUs.
FLAMINGO (Port. Flamingo, Span. Flamenco), one of the
tallest and most beautiful birds, conspicuous for the bright
flame-coloured or scarlet patch upon its wings, and long known
oy Its classical name Phoenicopterus, as an inhabitant of most
of the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. Flamingos
-have a very wide distribution, and the sole genus comprises
only a few spedes. Ph. roseus or antiquorum, white, with a rosy
tinge above, and with scarlet wing-coverts, while the remiges
are black (as in all species), ranges from the Cape Verde Islands
to India and Ceylon, north as far as Lake Baikal; southwards
through Africa and Madagascar, eventually as P. minor. P. ruber,
entirely light vermilion, extends from Florida to Para and the
Galapagos; P. ckUensis a. ignipatliatus, from Peru to Patagonia*
more resembles the classical species; while P. andinus, the tallest
of all, which lacks the hallux, inhabits the salt lakes of the
elevated desert of Atacama, whence it extends into Chile and
Argentina. Fossil remains of flamingos have been described
from the Lower Miocene of France as P. croizeti, and from the
Pliocene of Oregon. From Use Mid-Miocene to the OUgocene
of France are known several spedes of Paladodus, Elarnis and
Agnopterus, which have relatively shorter legs, longer toes and a
complicated bypotarsus, and represent an earlier family, less
specialized although not directly ancestral to the flamingos*
PalaeMidat and Phoemkopterida* together form the larger group
Phoenicopuri. These are in many respects exactly intermediate
between Anserine and stork-like birds, so much so in fact that
The Flamingo.
T. H. Huxley preferred to keep tbera separate as Ampkimorphae.
However, if we carefully sift their characters, the flamingos
obviously reveal themselves as much nearer related to the
Ckoniae, especially to Plalalea and Ibis, than to the Anseres. This
is the opinion arrived at by W. F. R. Weldon, M. Fuerbringcr
and Gadow, while others prefer the goose-like voice and the
webbed toes as reliable characters. (For a detailed analysis of this
instructive question see Bronn's Thierrekh, Avcs Syst, p. 146.)
The food of the flamingo seems to consist chiefly of small
aquatic invertebrate animals wheh live in the mud of lagoons,
for instance Molluscs, but also of Confervae and other low
salt-water algae. Whilst feeding, the bird wades about, stirs
up the mud with its feet, and, reversing the ordinary position
of its head so as to hold the crown downwards and to look
backwards, sifts the mud through its bilL* This is abruptly:
bent down in the middle, as if broken; the upper jaw is rather
flat and narrow, while the lower jaw is very roomy and furnished
with numerous lamellae, which, together with the thick and
476
FLAMINIA, VIA— FLAMININUS
large tongue, act like a sieve, an arrangement enhanced by the
considerable movability of the upper jaw. Then the bird
erects its long neck to swallow the selected food. When flying,
flamingos present a striking and beautiful sight, with legs and
neck stretched out straight, looking like white and rosy or scarlet
crosses with black arms. Not less fascinating is a flock of these
sociable birds when at rest, standing on one or both legs, with
their long necks twisted or coiled upon the body in any conceiv-
able position.
The nest is likewise peculiar. It is built of mud, a somewhat
conical structure rising above the water according to the depth,
of which the cone is from a few inches to 2 ft. in height. If, as
often happens, the water-level sinks, the nests stand out higher.
On the top is a shallow cup for the reception of the one or two
eggs, which have a bluish-white shell with chalky incrustation.
Of course the hen sits with her legs doubled up under her, as
does any other long-legged bird. It seems strange that many
ornithologists should have given credence to W. Dampier's
statement of the mode of incubation (New Voyage round the
World, ed. 2, i. p. 72, London, 1609): " And when they lay their
eggs, or hatch them, they stand all the while, not on the hillock,
but close by it with their legs on the ground and in the water,
resting themselves against the hillock, and covering the hollow
nest upon it with their rumps," &c. P. S. Pallas (Zoograph.
Rosso-Asiatica, ii. p. 208) tried to improve upon this by stating
that the standing bird leans upon the nest with its breast 1 The
young, which are hatched after about four weeks' incubation,
look very different from the adult. The small bill is still quite
straight and the legs are short. The whole body is covered with
a thick coat of short nestling feathers, pure white in colour.
These ncossoplilts or first feathers bear no resemblance to those
of the Anserif orm birds, but agree in detail with those of spoonbills,
the young of which the little flamingos resemble to a striking
extent, but they leave the nest soon after their. birth to shift
for themselves like ducks and geese. (H. F. G.)
FLAMINIA, VIA, an ancient high road of Italy, constructed
by C. Flaminius during his censorship (220 B.C.). It led from
Rome to Ariminum, and was the most important route to the
north. We hear of frequent improvements being made in it
during the imperial period. Augustus, when he instituted a
general restoration of the roads of Italy, which he assigned for
the purpose among various senators, reserved the Flaminia for
himself, and rebuilt all the bridges except the Pons Mulvius, by
which it crosses the Tiber, 2 m. N. of Rome (built by M. Scaurus
in 109 B.C.), and an unknown Pons Minudus. Triumphal
arches were erected in his honour on the former bridge and at
Ariminum, the latter of which is still preserved. Vespasian
constructed a new tunnel through the pass of IAtercisa, modern
Furlo, in a.d. 77 (see Cales), and Trajan, as inscriptions show,
repaired several bridges along the road.
The Via Flaminia runs due N. from Rome, considerable
remains of its pavement being extant in the modern high road,
passing slightly E. of the site of the Etruscan Falcrii, through
Ocriculi and Narnia. Here it crossed the Nar by a splendid
four-arched bridge to which Martial alludes (Epigr. vii. 93, 8), one
arch of which and all the piers are still standing; and went on,
followed at first by the modem road to Sangemini which passes
over two finely preserved ancient bridges, past Carsulae to
Mevania, and thence to Forum Flaminii. Later on a more
circuitous route from Narnia to Forum Flaminii was adopted,
passing by Interamna, Spoletium and Fulginium (from which
a branch diverged to Perusia), and increasing the distance by
X2 m. The road thence went on to Nuccria (whence a branch
road ran to Septempeda and thence either to Ancona or to
Tolentinum and Urbs Salvia) and Helvillum, and then crossed
the main ridge of the Apennines, a temple of Jupiter Apenninus
standing at the summit of the pass. Thence it descended to
Cales (where it turned N.E.), and through the pass of Intercisa
to Forum Sempronii (Fossombrone) and Forum Fortunae,
where it reached the coast of the Adriatic. Thence it ran N.W.
through Pisaurum to Ariminum. The total distance from Rome
was 210 m. by the older road and 222 by the newer. The road
gave its name to a juridical district of Italy from the 2nd century
a.d. onwards, the former territory of the Senones, which was
at first associated with Umbria (with which indeed under
Augustus it had formed the sixth region of Italy), but which after
Constantine was always administered with Picenum. (T.As.) .
FLAMINIKUS, TITUS QU1NCTIUS (c. 228-174 B.C.), Roman
general and statesman. He began his public life as a military
tribune under M. Claudius Marcellus, the conqueror of Syracuse
In 199 he was quaestor, and the next year, passing over the
regular stages of aedile and praetor, he obtained the consulship.
Flamininus was one of the first and most successful of the
rising school of Roman statesmen, the opponents of the narrow
patriotism of which Cato was the type, the disciples of Greek
culture, and the advocates of a wide imperial policy. His
winning manners, his polished address, his knowledge of men,
his personal fascination, and his intimate knowledge of Creek,
all marked him out as the fittest representative of Rome in the
East Accordingly, the province of Macedonia, and the conduct
of the war with Philip V. of Macedon, in which, after two years,
Rome had as yet gained little advantage, were assigned to him.
Flamininus modified both the policy and tactics of his pre-
decessors. After an unsuccessful attempt to come to terms, he
drove the Macedonians from the valley of the Aous by skilfully
turning an impregnable position. Having thus practically
made himself master of Macedonia, he proceeded to Greece,
where Philip still had allies and supporters. The Achaean
League (q.v.) at once deserted the cause of Macedonia, and Nabis,
the tyrant of Sparta, entered into an. alliance with Rome;
Acarnania and Bocotia submitted in less than a year, and, with
the exception of the great fortresses, Flamininus had the whole
of Greece under his control The demand of the Greeks for the
expulsion of Macedonian garrisons from Demetrias, Chalcis and
Corinth, as the only guarantee for the freedom of Greece, was
refused, and negotiations* were broken off. Hostilities were
renewed in the spring of 197, and Flamininus took the fidd
supported by nearly the whole of Greece. At Cynoscephalae
the Macedonian phalanx and the Roman legion for the first tine
met in open fight, and the day decided which nation was to be
master of Greece and perhaps of the world. It was a victory of
superior tactics. The left wing of the Roman army was retiring
in confusion before the Macedonian right led by Philip in persea,
when Flamininus, leaving them to their fate, boldly charged
the left wing under Nicanor, which was forming on the heights.
Before the left wing had time to form, Flamininus was upon
them, and a massacre rather than a fight ensued. This defeat
was turned into a general rout by a nameless tribune, who
collected twenty companies and charged in the rear the victorious
Macedonian phalanx, which in its pursuit had left the Romas
right far behind. Macedonia was now at the mercy of Rome,
but Flamininus contented himself with his previous demands.
Philip lost all his foreign possessions, but retained his Macedoniaa
kingdom almost entire. He was required to reduce his army,
to give up all his decked ships except five, and to pay an indemnity
of 1000 talents (£244,000). Ten commissioners arrived from
Rome to regulate the final terms of peace, and at the Isthmian
games a herald proclaimed to the assembled crowds that " the
Roman people, and T. Quinctius their general, having conquered
King Philip and the Macedonians, declare all the Greek stales
which had been subject to the king henceforward 'free tod
independent." Fkmininus's last act before returning home
was characteristic. Of the Achaeans, who vied with one another
in showering upon him honours and rewards, he asked but one
personal favour, the redemption of the Italian captives who had
been sold as slaves in Greece during the Hannibalic War. TTjese,
to the number of 1200, were presented to him on the eve of his
departure (spring, 194), and formed the chief ornament of his
triumph.
In 192, on the rupture between the Romans and Antiochttsin-
the Great, Flamininus returned to Greece, this time as the crril
representative of Rome. His personal influence and skfli" 1
diplomacy secured the wavering Achaean states, cemented the
alliance with Philip, and contributed mainly to the Roman
FLAMINIUS, GAIUS— FLAMSTEED
477
victory at Thermopylae (19s)* In 1*3 be undertook an embassy
to Prusias, king of Bithynia, to induce him to deliver up Hannibal,
who forestalled his fate by taking poison. Nothing more is
known of Flamininus, except that, according to Plutarch, hia
end was peaceful and happy.
There seems no doubt that Flamininus was actuated by a
genuine love of Greece and its people. To attribute to him a
Machiavellian policy, which foresaw the overthrow of Corinth
fifty years later and the conversion of Achaea into a Roman
province, is absurd and disingenuous. There is more force in
the charge that his Hellenic sympathies prevented him from
seeing the innate weakness and mutual jealousies of the Greek
states of that period, whose only hope of peace and safety by
in submitting to the protectorate of the Roman republic. But
if the event proved that the liberation of Greece was a political
mistake, it was a noble and generous mistake, and reflects
nothing but honour on the name of Flamininus, " the liberator
of the Greeks."
His life has been written by Plutarch, and in modern times by
F. D. Gerlach (1871); sec also Mommsen, HisL of Rome (Eng. tr.J,
bk, iu. chs. 8, 9.
FLAMINIUS, GAIUS, Roman statesman and general, of
plebeian family. During his tribuneship (232 B.C.), in spite of
the determined opposition of the senate and his own father, he
carried a measure for distributing among the plebeians the agtr
GaUkus Piunus, an extensive tract of newly-acquired territory
to the south of Ariminum (Gcero, De s eu ec tu te , 4, Brutus, xa).
As praetor in 227, he gained the lasting gratitude of the people
of his province (Sicily) by his excellent administration. In 223,
when consul with P. Furius Philus, be took the field against the
Gauls, who were said to have been roused to war by his agrarian
law. Having crossed the Po to punish the Insubrians, he at
first met with a severe check and was forced to capitulate.
Reinforced by the Cenomani, he gained a decisive victory on the
banks of the Addua. He had previously been recalled by the
optimates, but ignored the order. The victory seems to have
been due mainly to the admirable discipline and fighting qualities
of the soldiers, and he obtained the honour of a triumph only
after the decree of the senate against it had been overborne by
popular clamour. During his censorship (a so) he strictly
limited the frecdmen to the four city tribes (see Comitia). His
name is further associated with two great works. He erected
the Circus FUminius on the Campus Martins, for the accommoda-
tion of the plebeians, and continued the military road from
Rome to Ariminuin, which had hitherto only reached as far as
Spolethim (see Flaionia, Via). He probably also instituted
the " plebeian " games. In 2x8, as a leader of the democratic
opposition, Flaminius was one of the chief promoters of the
measure brought m by the tribune Quintus Claudius, which
prohibited senators and senators' sons from possessing sea-going
vessels, except for the transport of the produce of their own
elates, and generally debarred them from all commercial
speculation (Lrvy xxi. 63). His effective support of this measure
vastly increased the popularity of Flaminius with his own order,
and secured his second election as consul in the following year
(317), shortly after the defeat of T. Sempronius Longus at the
Trebia. He hastened at once to Arrethun, the termination of
the western high road to the north, to protect the passes of the
Apennines, but was defeated and killed at the battle of the
Trasimene lake (see Punic Wars).
The testimony of Livy (xxi., xxii.) and Polybius (ii., iii.) —
no friendly critics— shows that Flaminius was a man of ability,
energy and probity. A popular and successful democratic
leader, he cannot, however, be ranked among the great statesmen
of the republic As a general he was headstrong and self-
sufficient and seems to have owed bis victories chiefly to personal
boldness favoured by good fortune.
His son, Gaxtjs Flaminius, was quaestor under P. Sdpio
Africanus the elder in Spain in 2x0, and took part in the capture
of New Carthage. Fourteen years later, when curule aedBe, he
distributed large quantities of grain among the citixens at a very
ww price. In 103, as praetor, he carried on a successful war
against the insubordinate populations of his recently constituted
province of Hisponia Citerior. In 187 he was consul with M.
Aemilius Lepidus, and subjugated the warlike Ligurian tribes.
In the same year the branch of the Via Aemilia connecting
Bononia with Arretium was constructed by him. In 181 he
founded the colony of Aquileia. The chief authority for his life
is the po rtion o f Livy dealing with the history of the period.
FLAMSTEBO, JOHN (1646-1 7 19), English astronomer, was
born at Denby, near Derby, on the 19th of August 1646. The
only son of Stephen Flamsteed, a maltster, he was educated at
the free school of Derby, but quitted it finally in May 1662, in
consequence of a rheumatic affection of the joints, due to a
chill caught while bathing. Medical aid having proved of no
avail, he went to Ireland in 1665 to be " stroked " by Valentine
Grcatrakes, but " found not his disease to stir." Meanwhile,
he solaced his enforced leisure with astronomical studies. Begin-
ning with J. Sacrobosco's De sphaera, be read all the books
on the subject that he could buy or borrow; observed a partial
solar eclipse on the 12th of September x66s; and attempted the
construction of measuring instruments. A tract on the equation
of time, written by him in 1667, was published by Dr John Wallis
with the Posthumous Works of J. Horrocks (1673); and a paper
embodying his calculations of appulscs to stars by the moon,
which appeared in the Philosophical. Transactions (iv. xooo),
signed In Moihesi a sole funics, an anagram of " Johannes
Flamsteedius," secured for him, from 1670, general scientific
recognition.
On his return from a visit to London in 1670 he became
acquainted with Isaac Newton at Cambridge, entered his name
at Jesus college, and took, four years later, a degree of M.A.
by letters-patent. An essay composed by him in 1673 on the
true and apparent diameters of the planets furnished Newton
with data for the third book of the Principia, and he fitted
numerical elements to J. Horrocks's theory of the moon. In
1674, and again in 1675, he was invited to London by Sir Jonas
Moore, governor of the Tower, who proposed to establish him in
a private observatory at Chelsea, but the plan waa anticipated
by the determination of Charles IL to have the tables of the
heavenly bodies corrected, and the places of the fixed stars
rectified " for the use of his seamen," and Flamsteed was ap-
pointed " astronomical obscrvator " by a royal warrant dated
4th of March 1675. His salary of £100 a year was cut down by
taxation to £90; he had to provide his own instruments, and to
instruct, into the bargain, two boys from Christ's hospital
Sheer necessity drove him, in addition, to take many private
pupils; but having been ordained in 1675, he was presented by-
Lord North in 1684 to the living of Buxatow in Surrey; and his
financial position was further improved by a small inheritance
on his father's death in x688. He now ordered, at an expense of
£120, a mural arc from Abraham Sharp, with which he began
to observe systematically on the 12th of September 1689 (see
Astronomy: History). The latter part of Flamsteed's life
passed in a turmoil of controversy regarding the publication of
his results. He struggled to withhold them until they could be
presented in a complete form; but they were urgently needed
for the progress of science, and the astronomer-royal was a public
servant. Sir Isaac Newton, who depended for the perfecting
of his lunar theory upon " places of the moon " reluctantly
doled out from Greenwich, led the movement for immediate
communication; whence arose much ill-feeling between him
and Flamsteed. At last, in 1704, Prince George of Denmark
undertook the cost of printing; a committee of the Royal
Society was appointed to arrange preliminaries, and Flamsteed,
protesting and exasperated, had to submit. The work was only
partially through the press when the prince died, on the sSth of
October 1708, and its completion devolved upon a board of
visitors to the observatory endowed with ample powers by a
royal order of the 12th of December 171s. As the upshot, the
Hisloria coelestis, embodying the first Greenwich star-catalogue,
together with the mural arc observations made 1680-1705, was.
issued under Edmund Halley's editorship in 171a. Flamsteed
denounced the production as surreptitious; he committed to
47»
FLANDERS
the flames three hundred copies, of which he obtained
through the favour of Sir Robert Walpole, and, in defiance of
bodily infirmities, vigorously prosecuted his designs for the
entire and adequate publication of the materials he continued
to accumulate. They were but partially executed when he died
on the 31st of December 1719. The preparation of his monu-
mental work, Historic coelestis BrUanniea (3 vols, folio, 1735),
was finished by his assistant, Joseph Crosthwait, aided by
Abraham Sharp. The first two volumes included the whole of
Flamsteed's observations at Derby and Greenwich ; the third
contained the British Catalogue of nearly 3000 stars. Numerous
errors in this valuable record having been detected by Sir William
Herschel, Caroline Herschel drew up a list of 560 stars observed,
but not catalogued, while 1 zx of those catalogued proved to have
never been observed (Phil. Trans, lxxxvii. 293; see also F.
Baily, Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society, iv. 129). The appearance
of the Alias coelestis, corresponding to the British Catalogue,
was delayed until 1739. A portrait of Fhunsteed, painted by
Thomas Gibson in 1 7 1 a, hangs in the rooms of the Royal Society.
The extent and quality of his performance were the more remark-
able considering his severe physical sufferings, his straitened
means, and the antagonism to which he was exposed. Estimable
in private life, he was highly susceptible in professional matters,
and hence failed to keep on terms with his contemporaries.
Francis Bafly's Account of the Rev. John Plamsteed (1835) is the
leading authority for his hfe. It comprises an autobiographical
narrative pieced together from various sources, a large collection of
Flamsteed's letters, a revised and enlarged edition of the British
Catalogue, besides authoritative and detailed introductory dis-
cussion*. Some clamour was raised by a publication in which blame
for harsh dealings was freely imputed to Newton, but W, Whewell
vindicated his character in Flamsteed and Newton (1836).
See also Central Dictionary, vol. v. (1737), from materials supplied
by James Hodgson, Flamsteed's nephew-in-law ; Biografhia Britan-
mca, iii. 1043 (1750); S. Rigaud's Correspondence of Scientific Ate*;
Cunningham s Lives of Eminent Englishmen, iv. 366 (1835); Mark
Noble's Continuation of James Granger's Biog. Hist, of England,
ii. 132; R. Grant's Hist, of Phys. Astronomy, p. 467; W. WhewclTs
Hist, of the Inductive Sciences, ii. 162; I. S. Bailly's Hist, de
VastroHomie moderne, ii. 423. 589* 650: J. Delambre's Hist, de
V astr ononis au XVJII 9 siicle, p. 931 Observatory, xv. 353, 379,
382. (A.M.C.)
FLANDERS (Flem. Vlaanderen), a territorial name for part of
the Netherlands, Europe. Originally it applied only to Bruges
and the immediate neighbourhood. In the 8th and 9th centuries
it was gradually extended to the whole of the coast region from
Calais to the Scheldt. In the middle ages this was divided into
two parts, one looking to Bruges as its capital, and the other to
Ghent. The name is retained in the two Belgian provinces of
West and East Flanders.
1. West Flanders is the portion bordering the North Sea, and
its coast-line extends from the French to the Dutch frontier for
a little over 40 m. Its capital is Bruges, and the principal towns
of the province are Ostend, Courtrai, Ypres and Roulcrs. Agri-
culture is the chief occupation of the population, and the country
is under the most careful and skilful cultivation. The admiration
of the foreign observer for the Belgian system of market gardening
is not diminished on learning that the subsoil of most of this
tract is the sand of the "dunes." Fishing employs a large
proportion of the coast population. The area of West Flanders
is officially computed at 808,667 acres or 1 263 sq. m. In 1004 the
population was 845,732, giving an average of 669 to the sq. m.
2. East Flanders lies east and north-east of the western
province, and extends northwards to the neighbourhood of
Antwerp. It is still more productive and richer than Western
Flanders, and is well watered by the Scheldt. The district of
Waes, land entirely reclaimed within the memory of man, is
supposed to be the most productive district of its we in Europe.
The principal towns are Ghent (capital of the province), St
Nicolas, Alost, Tennonde, Eecloo and Oudenarde. The area is
given at 749,987 acres or 1172 sq. m. In 1004 the population
was 1,073,507, showing an average of 916 per sq. m.
History.— The andent territory of Flanders comprised not
only the modern provinces known as East and West Flanders,
but the southernmost portion of the Dutch province of Zeeland
and a considerable district in north-western France. In the time
of Caesar it was inhabited by the Morini, Atrebates and other
Celtic tribes, but in the centuries that followed the land was
repeatedly overrun by German invaders, and finally became
a part of the dominion of the Franks. On the break-up of the
Carolingian empire the river Scheldt was by the treaty of Verdun
(843) made the line of division between the kingdom of East
Francia (Austrasia) under the emperor Lothaire, and the
kingdom of West Francia (Ncustria) under Charles the Bald
In virtue of this compact Flanders was henceforth attached to
the West Frankish monarchy (France). It thus acquired a
position unique* among the provinces of the territory known in
later times as the Netherlands, all of which were included in that
northern part of Austrasia assigned on the death of the cr np ci o t
Lothaire (855) to King Lothaire II., and from his name called
Lotharingia or Lorraine.
The first ruler of Flanders of whom history has left any record
is Baldwin, surnamed Bras-de-fer (Iron-arm). This man, a brave
and daring warrior under Charles the Bald, fell in love with
the king's daughter Judith, the youthful widow of two English
kings, married her, and fled with his bride to Lorraine. Charles,
though at first very angry, was at last conciliated, and made
his son-in-law margrave (Marchio Flandriae) of Flanders, which
he held as an hereditary fief. The Northmen were at this time
continually devastating the coast lands, and Baldwin was
entrusted with the possession of this outlying borderland of the
west Frankish dominion in order to defend it against the invaders.
He was the first of a line of strong rulers, who at some date
early in the xotb century exchanged the title of margrave for
that of count. His son, Baldwin II . — the Bald — from Ids strong*
hold at Bruges maintained, as did his father before him, a
vigorous defence of his lands against the incursions of the North-
men. On his mother's side a descendant of Charlemagne, he
strengthened the dynastic importance of his family by marrying
Adfthryth, daughter of Alfred the Great. On his death in 918
his possessions were divided between his two sons Anrutf the
Elder and Adolphus, but the latter survived only a abort time
and Arnulf succeeded to the whole inheritance. His reign was
filled with warfare against the Northmen, and he took an active
part in the struggles in Lorraine between the emperor Otto I.
and Hugh Capet. In his old age he placed the government in the
bands of Baldwin, his son by Adela, daughter of the count of
Vermandois, and the young man, though his reign was a very
short one, did a great deal for the commercial and industrial
progress of the country, establishing the first weavers and
fullers at Ghent, and instituting yearly fairs at Ypres, Bruges
and other places.
On Baldwin III.'s death in 961 the old count resumed the
control, and spent the few remaining years of his life in securing
the succession of his grandson Arnulf II. — the Younger. The
reign of Arnulf was terminated by his death in 989, and he was
followed by his son Baldwin IV., named Barbatus or the Bearded.
This Baldwin fought successfully both against the Capetian
king of France and the emperor Henry II. Henry found himself
obliged to grant to Baldwin IV. in fief Valenciennes, the bur-
graveship of Ghent, the land of Waes, and Zeeland. The count
of Flanders thus became a feudatory of the empire as well as of
the French crown. The French fiefs are known in Flemish
history as Crown Flanders (Kroon- Vlaanderen), the German fiefs
as Imperial Flanders (Rijhs-Vlaanderen). Baldwin's son—
afterwards Baldwin V. — rebelled in 1028 against his father at
the instigation of his wife Adela, daughter of Robert II. of
France; but two years later peace was sworn at Oudenaarde,
and the old count continued to reign till his death in 1036.
Baldwin V. proved a worthy successor, and acquired from the
people the surname of Deoonnolre. He was an active enter-
prising man, and greatly extended his power by wars and
alliances. He obtained from the emperor Henry IV. the territory
between the Scheldt and the Dender as an imperial fief, and the
margraviate of Antwerp. So powerful had he become that the
Flemish count on the decease of Henry I. of France in 1060
was appointed regent during the minority of Philip I. (see
FLANDERS
479
France), Before his death he saw his eldest daughter Matilda
(d. 1083) sharing the English throne with William the Conqueror,
bis eldest son Baldwin of Mons in possession of Hainaut in right
of his wife Richilde, heiress of Regnicr V. (d. 1036) and widow
of Hermann of Saxony (d. 1050/1) (sec Hainaut), and his second
son Robert the Frisian regent (tcogd) of the county of Holland
during the minority of Dirk V., whose mother, Gertrude of
Saxony, widow of Floris I. of Holland (d. icoi), Robert had
married (see Holland). On bis death in 1067 his son Baldwin
of Mons, already count of Hainaut, succeeded to the cotuitshap
of Flanders. Baldwin V. had granted to Robert the Frisian
on his marriage in 1063 his imperial fiefs. His right to these was
disputed by Baldwin VI., and war broke out between the two ;
brothers. Baldwin was killed in battle in 1070. Robert now
claimed the tutelage of Baldwin's children and obtained the
support of the emperor Henry IV-, while Rkhiide, Baldwin's
widow, appealed to Philip I. of France. The contest was decided
at Ravensboven, near Cassd, on the sand of Febnutry 1071*
where Robert was victorious. Rkhiide was taken prisoner and j
ber eldest son Arnulf IIL was slain. Robert obtained from
Philip I. the investiture of Crown Flanders, and from Henry IV.
the fiefs which formed Imperial Flanders.
The second son of Richilde was recognized as count of Hainaut
(see Hainaut), which was thus after a brief union separated from
Flanders. Robert died in 1003, and was succeeded by his son
Robert IL, who acquired great renown by his exploits in the
first crusade, and won the name of the Lance and Sword of
Christendom. His fame was second only to that of Godfrey
of Bouillon. Robert returned to Flanders in 1 100. He fought
with his suzerain Louis the Fat of France against the English,
and was drowned in mi by the breaking of abridge. His son
and successor, Baldwin VII., or Baldwin with the Axe, also,
fought against the English in France. He died at the age of
twenty-seven from the wound of an arrow, in 11 to, leaving no
heir. He nominated as his successor his cousin Charles, son of
Knut IV. of Denmark and of Adda, daughter of Robert the
Frisian. Charles tried his utmost to put down oppression and to
promote the welfare of his subjects, and obtained the surname
of " the Good." His determination to enforce the right made
him many enemies, and he was foully murdered on Ash
Wednesday, 1x27, at Bruges. He died childless, and there
were no less than six candidates to the countship. The contest
lay between two of these, William Ctito, son of Robert of
Normandy and grandson of William the Conqueror and Matilda
of Flanders, and Thierry or Dirk of Alsace, whose mother
Gertrude was a daughter of Robert the Frisian. William Clito,
through the support of Louis of France, was at first accepted by
the Flemish nobles as count, but he gave offence to the com-
munes, who supported Thierry. A struggle ensued and William
was killed before Most. Thierry then became count without
further opposition. He married the widow of Charles the Goad,
Marguerite of Clermont, and proved himself at home a wise
and prudent prince, encouraging the growth of popular liberty
and of commerce. In 1x46 he took part in the second crusade
and distinguished himself by his exploits. In 1157 he resigned
the countship to his son Philip of Alsace and betook himself
once more to Jerusalem. On his return from the East twenty
years later Thierry retired to a monastery to die in bis own
land.
Count Philip of Alsace was a strong and able man. He did
much to promote the growth of the municipalities for which
Flanders was already becoming famous. Ghent, Bruges, Ypres,
Lille and Douai under him made much progress as flourishing
industrial towns. He also conferred rights and privileges on
a number of ports, Hulst, Nicuwport, Sluis, Dunkirk, Axel,
Damme, Gravelines and others. But while encouraging the
development of the communes and " free towns," Philip sternly
repressed any spirit of independence or attempted uprisings
against his authority. This count was a powerful prince. He
acted for a time as regent in France during the minority of bis
godson Philip Augustus, and married his ward to his niece
- Isabella of Hainaut (1180). Philip took part in the third
crusade, and died in the camp before Acre of the pestilence
in riox.
As he had no children, the succession passed to Baldwin of
Hainaut, who bad married Philip's sister Margaret. The count-
ships of Flanders and HaJuaut were thus united under the same
ruler. Baldwin did not obtain possession of Flanders without
strong opposition on the part of the French king, and he was
obliged to cede Artots, St Omer, Lens, Hesdin and a great part
of southern Flanders to France, and to allow Malt Ida of Portugal,
the widow- of Philip of Alsace, tote tain certain towns in right of
her dowry. Margaret died in 1x94 and Baldwin the following
year, and -their eldest son Baldwin IX. succeeded to both count-
ships. Baldwin IX. fa famous in history as the founder of the
Latin empire at Constantinople. He perished in Bulgaria it
xso6. The emperor's two daughters were both under age, and
the government was carried on by their uncle Philip, marquess
of Namnr, whom Baldwin had appointed regent on bis departure
to Constantinople. Philip proved faithless to his charge, and
he allowed bis. nieces toiall into the hands of Philip Augustus,
who married the elder sister Johanna of Constantinople to ms
nephew Ferdinand of Portugal. The Flemings were averse to
the French king's supremacy, and Ferdinand, who acted an
governor in the name of his wife, joined himself to the confederacy
formed by Germany, England, and the leading states of the
Netherlands against Philip Augustus. Ferdinand was, however,
taken prisoner at the disastrous battle of Bouvines (lata) and
was kept for twelve years a prisoner in the Louvre* The countess
Johanna ruled the united countships with prudence and courage.
On Ferdinand's death she married Thomas of Savoy, but died
in 1244, leaving no heirs. She was succeeded in her dignities
by her younger sister Margaret of Constantinople, commonly
known amongst her contemporaries as " Black Meg " (Zworfe
Gtiai). Margaret had been twice married. Her first husband
was (121 2) Buchard of Avesnes, one of the first of Hainaut'*
nobles and a man of knightly prowess, but originally destined
for the church. On this ground he was excommunicated by
Innocent III. and imprisoned by the countess Johanna, with
the result that Margaret at last was driven to repudiate him.
She married in second wedlock (1225) William of Dampierre.
Two sons were the issue of the first marriage, three sons and three
daughters of the second.
When Margaret in 1244 became countess of Flanders and
Hainaut, she wished her son William of Dampierre to be acknow*
ledged as her successor. John of Avesnes, her eldest son, strongly
protested against this and was supported by the French king.
A civil war ensued, which ended in a compromise (1346), the
succession to Flanders being granted to William of Dampierre,
that of Hainaut to John of Avesnes. Margaret, however, ruled
with a strong hand for many yean and survived both her sons,
dying at the age of eighty in iaSo. On ber death her grandson,
John II. of Avesnes, became count of Hainaut : Guy of Dampierre,
her second son by her second marriage, count ef Flanders.
The two counties were once more under separate dynasties,
The government of Guy of Dampierre was unfortunate. It was
the interest of the Flemish weavers to be on good terms with
England, the woel-producing country, and Guy entered into an
alliance with Edward I. against France. This led to an invasion
and conquest of Flanders by Philip the Fair. Guy with his sons
and the leading Flemish nobles were taken prisoners to Paris,
and Flanders was ruled as a French dependency. But though
in the principal towns, Ghent, Bruges and Ypres, there was a
powerful French faction— known as Leliacrts (adherents of the
lilyX — the arbitrary rule Of the French governor and officiate
stirred up the mass of the Flemish people to rebellion. The
anti-French partisans (known as CJauwaerts) were strongest at
Bruges under the leadership of Peter de Conync, master of
the cloth- weavers, and John Breydel, master of the butcher!
The French garrison at Bruges were massacred (May xoth, 130a),
and on the following nth of July a splendid French army of
invasion wss utterly defeated near Courtray. Peace was con-
cluded in 1305, but owing to Guy of Dampierre, and the leading
Flemish nobles being in the hands of the French king, on terms
+8o
FLANDRIN— FLANNEL
very disadvantageous to Flinders. Very shortly afterwards the
aged count Guy died, as did also Philip the Fair. Robert of
Bethune, his son and successor, had continual difficulties with
France daring the whole of his reign, the Flemings offering a
stubborn resistance to all attempts to destroy their independence.
Robert was succeeded in 132a by his grandson Louis of Nevers.
Louis had been brought up at the French court, and had married
Margaret of France. His sympathies were entirely French, and
he made use of French help in his contests with the communes.
Under Louis of Nevers Flanders was practically reduced to the
Status of a French province. In his time the long contest between
Flanders and HoDand for the possession of the island of Zeeland
was brought to an end by a treaty signed on the 6th of March
13231 hy which West Zeeland was assigned to the count of Holland,
the rest to the count of Flanders. The latter part of the reign of
Louis of Nevers was remarkable for the successful revolt of the
Flemish communes, now rapidly advancing to great material
prosperity under Jacob van Artevelde (see Artevelde, Jacob
vam). Artevelde allied himself with Edward III. of England in
his contest with Philip of Valois for the French crown, while
Louisof Nevers espoused the cause of Philip. He fell at the battle
of CrGcy (2346). He was followed in the countship by his son
Louts II. of Male. The reign of this count was one long struggle
with the communes, headed by the town of Ghent, for political
supremacy. Louis was as strong in his French sympathies as
his father, and relied upon French help in enforcing his will
upon his refractory subjects, who resented his arbitrary methods
of government, and the heavy taxation imposed upon them by
his extravagance and love of display. Had the great towns with
their organized gilds and great wealth held together in their
opposition to the count's despotism, they would have proved
successful, but Ghent and Bruges, always keen rivals, broke out
into open feud. The power of Ghent reached its height under
Philip van Artevelde (see Artevelde, Philip van) in 1382.
|fe defeated Louis, took Bruges and was made ntwardoi Flanders.
But the triumph of the White Hoods, as the popular party was
called, was of short duration. On the 27th of November 1382
Artevelde suffered a crushing defeat from a large French army at
Roosebekc and was himself slain. Louis of Male died two years
later, leaving an only daughter Margaret, who had married in
1369 Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy.
Flanders now became a portion of the great Burgundian
domain, which in the reign of Philip the Good, Margaret's
grandson, had absorbed almost the whole of the Netherlands
(see Burgundy; Netherlands). The history of Flanders as
a separate state ceases from the time of the acquisition of the
countship by the Burgundian dynasty. There were revolts
from time to time of great towns against the exactions even of
these powerful princes, but they were in vain. The conquest
and humiliation of Bruges by Philip the Good in 1440, and the
even more relentless punishment inflicted on rebellious Ghent
by the emperor Charles V. exactly a century later are the most
remarkable incidents in the long-continued but vain struggle of
the Flemish communes to maintain and assert their privileges.
The Burgundian dukes and their successors of the house of
Habsburg were fully alive to the value to them of Flanders
and its rich commercial cities. It was Flanders that furnished
to them no small part of their resources, but for this very reason,
while fostering the development of Flemish industry and trade,
they were the more determined to brook no opposition which
sought to place restrictions upon their authority.
The effect of the revolt of the Netherlands and the War of
Dutch Independence which followed was ruinous to Flanders.
Albert and Isabel on their accession to the sovereignty of the
southern Netherlands in 1509 found " the great cities of Flanders
and Brabant had been abandoned by a large part of their in-
habitants; agriculture hardly in a less degree than commerce
and industry had been ruined." In 1633 with the death of
Isabel, Flanders reverted to Spanish rule (1633). By the treaty
of Munster the north-western portion of Flanders, since known
as States (or Dutch) Flanders, was ceded by Philip IV. to the
United Provinces (1648). By a succession of later treaties— of
the Pyrenees (1650), Aix-k-ChapeUe (1668), Nijmwegen (1679)
and others— a large slice of the southern portion of theoldcouMy
of Flanders became French territory and was known as French
Flanders.
From 1795 t0 i8*4 Flanders, with the rest of the Belpc
provinces, was incorporated in France, and was divided into
two departments— dipartcmenl de VEscaui and dipartcmaUdtU
Lyt. This division has since been retained, and is represented
by the two provinces of East Flanders and West Flanders is the
modern kingdom of Belgium. The title of count of Flaaden
was revived by Leopold I. in 1840 in favour of his second soa,
Philip Eugene Ferdinand (d. 1005). (G.E)
FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE (1809-1864), French painter,
was born at Lyons in 1809. His father, though brought op to
business, had great fondness for art, and sought himself to follow
an artist's career. Lack of early training, however, disabled
him for success, and he was obliged to take up the prec ari ous
occupation of a miniature painter. Hippolyte was the second
of three sons, all painters, and two of them eminent, the third
son Paul (b. 18x1) ranking as one of the leaders of the modem
landscape school of France. Auguste (1804-1842), the eldest,
passed the greater part of his life as professor at Lyons, where he
died. After studying for some time at Lyons, Hippolyte ud
Paul, who had long determined on the step and economized to
it, set out to walk to Paris in 1829, to place themselves under tie
tuition of Hersent. They chose finally to enter the atelier of
Ingres, who became not only their instructor but their friend te
life. At first considerably hampered by poverty, Hippoiytc's
difficulties were for ever removed by his taking, in 1832, the
Grand Prix de Rome, awarded for his picture of the " Recognition
of Theseus by his Father." This allowed him to study five yens
at Rome, whence he sent home several pictures which coasida-
ably raised his fame. " St Clair healing the Blind " was dost
for the cathedral of Nantes, and years after, at the exhihitioo of
1855, brought him a medal of the first class. " Jesus and the
Little Children" was given by the government to the town of
Lisieux. " Dante and Virgil visiting the Envious Men struck
with Blindness," and " Euripides writing his Tragedies," belong
to the museum at Lyons. Returning to Paris through Lyons in
1838 he soon received a commission to ornament the chapd of
St John in the church of St Severin at Paris, and reputation
increased and employment continued abundant for the rest of
his life. Besides the pictures mentioned above, and otben of •
similar kind, he painted a great number of portraits. The works,
however, upon which his fame most surely rests are his monu-
mental decorative paintings. Of these the principal are those
executed in the following churches:— in the sanctuary of St
Germain des Pre* at Paris (1842-1844), in the choir of the same
church (1846-1848), in the church of St Paul at Nismes (1*4*-
1849), of St Vincent de Paul at Paris (1850-1854), in the chord*
of Ainay at Lyons (1855), in the nave of St Germain des Pre)
(1855-1861). In 1856 Hippolyte Flandrin was elected to the
Acadlmie des Beaux-Arts. In 1863 his failing health, rendered
worse by incessant toil and exposure to the damp and draughts
of churches, induced him again to visit Italy. He died of usiB-
pox at Rome on the aist of March 1864. As might naturally
be expected in one who looked upon painting as but the veWdt
for the expression of spiritual sentiment, he had perhaps too
little pride in the technical qualities of his art. There is shows
in his works much of that austerity and coldness, expressed ia
form and colour, which springs from a faith which feels itself is
opposition to the tendencies of surrounding life. He has bees
compared to Fra Angelico; but the faces of his long processions
of saints and martyrs seem to express rather the austerity of
souls convicted of sin than the joy and purity of never-corrupted
life which shines from the work of the early master.
See Delaborde, Leltres el bensUs de H. Flandrin (Paris, 1865):
Beule, Notice hutoriqne sur H. P. (1869).
FLANNEL, a woollen stuff of various degrees of weight «JJ
fineness, made usually from loosely spun yarn. The origin of
the word is uncertain, but in the x6th century flannel was a
well-known production of Wales, and a Welsh origin has bees
FLANNELETTE— FLAT
481
Suggested. The French form fianeik was used late m the 17th
century, and the Ger. FlontU early in the 18th century. Btiac,
a kind of coarse flannel with a long nap, it said to have been first
introduced to England about the middle of the 16th century
by refugees from France and the Netherlands. The manufacture
of flannel has naturally undergone changes, and, in some cases,
deteriorations. Flannels are frequently made with an admixture
of silk or cotton, and in low varieties cotton has tended to become
the predominant factor. Formerly-* short staple wool of fine
quality from a Southdown variety of the Sussex breed was
principally in favour with the flannel manufacturers of Rochdale,
who also used largely the wool from the Norfolk breed, a cross
between the Southdown and Norfolk sheep. In Wales the short
staple wool of the mountain sheep was used, and in Ireland that
of the Wicklow variety of the Cottagh breed, but now the New
Zealand, Cape and South American wools are extensively
employed, and English wools are not commonly used alone.
Over sooo persons are employed in flannel manufacture in
Rochdale alone, which is the historic seat of the industry, and a
good deal of flannel is now made in the Spen Valley district,
Yorkshire. Blankets, which constitute a special branch of the
flannel trade, are largely made at Bury in Lancashire and
Dewsbury in Yorkshire. Welsh flannels have a high reputation,
and make an important industry in Montgomeryshire. There
are also flannel manufactories in Ireland.
A moderate export trade in flannel is done by Great Britain.
'The following table gives the quantities exported during three
years: —
1904% 1905. 1906.
Varda . . 9,758,300 9,220,500 8,762,200
In 1877 the export was 9,273,420 yds., so it appears that this
trade has varied comparatively little. The imports of flannel
are not very large.
Many so-called flannels have been made with a large admixture
of cotton, but the Merchandise Marks Act has done something
to limit the indiscriminate use of names. Unquestionably the
development of the flannel trade has been checked by the great
increase in the production of flannelettes, the better qualities
of which have become formidable competitors with flannel.
There must, however, be a regular and large demand for flannel
while theory and experience confirm its value as a clothing
partic ularly suitab le for immediate contact with the body.
FLAOTfELETTB, a cotton cloth made ,lo imitate flannel.
The word seems to have been first used in the early 'eighties,
and there is a reference in the Daily News of 1887 to " a poverty-
stricken article called flannelette." Now it is used very exten-
sively for underclothing, night gear, dresses, dressing-gowns,
shirts, &c It is usually made with a much coarser weft than
wazp, and its flannel-like appearance is obtained by the raising
or scratching up of this weft, and by various finishing processes.
Some lands are raised equally on both sides, and the nap may
be long or short according to the purpose for which the cloth is
required. A considerable trade is done in plain cloths dyed,
and also in woven coloured stripes and checks, but almost any
heavy or coarse cotton cloth can be made into flannelette. It is
now largely used by the poorer classes of the community, and
the flimsier kinds have been a frequent source of accident by
fire. It is, however, when used discreetly and in a fair quality,
a cheap and useful article. A flannelette, patented under the
title of " Non-flam," has been made with fire-resisting properties,
but its sale has been more in the better qualities than in the lower
and more dangerous ones. Flannelette is made largely on the
continent of Europe, and in the United States as well as in Great
Britain.
FLASK, in its earliest meaning in Old English a vessel for
carrying liquor, made of wood or leather. The principal applica-
tions in current usage are (1) to a vessel of metal or wood,
formerly of horn, used for carrying gunpowder; (2) to a long-
necked, round-bodied glass vessel, usually covered with plaited
straw or maize leaves, containing olive or other oil or Italian
wines — it is often known as a "Florence flask": similarly
shaped vessels are used for experiments. Ac., in a laboratory;
(3) to a small metal or glass receptacle for spirits, wine or other
liquor, of a size and shape to fit into a pocket or holster, usually
covered with leather, basket-work or other protecting substance,
and with a detachable portion of the case shaped to form a cup.
" Flask " is also used in metal-founding of a wooden frame or
case to contain part of the mould. The word " flagon," which
is by derivation a doublet' of " flask," is usually applied to a
larger type of vessel for holding liquor, more particularly to a
type of wine-bottle with a short neck and circular body with
flattened sides. The word is also used of a jug-shaped vessel
with a handle, spout and lid, into which wine may be decanted
from the bottle for use at table, and of a similarly shaped vessel
to contain the Eucharistic wine till it is poured into the chalice.
" Flask" (in O. Eng. flasu otflaxe) is represented both in Teutonic
and Romanic languages. The earliest examples are found in
Med. Lat. flcsca, ftasconis, whence come Ital. ficscone, O. Fr.
ftasctm(mod. fleam), adapted in the Eng. "flagon." Another
Lat. form is fiasco, this gave a Fr. flasque, which in the sense of
44 powder flask " remained in use till later than the 16th century.
In Teutonic languages the word, in its various forms, is the
common one for " bottle," so in Ger. Flascke, Dutch JUsck, ice
If the word is of Romanic origin it is probably a metaihesised
form of the Lat. wseulum, diminutive of wts, vessel. There is
no very satisfactory etymology if the word is of Teutonic origin;
the New English Dictionary considers a connexion with " flat "
probable phonetically, but finds no evidence that the word was
used originally for a flat-shaped vessel.
FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. fiet, an obsolete word of
Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet), a term
commonly used as an adjective, signifying level in surface, level
with the ground, and so, figuratively, fallen, dead, inanimate,
tasteless, dull; or, by another transference, downright; or, in
musk, below the true pitch. In a substantival form, the term is
used in physical geography for a level tract.
The word is also generally applied by modern usage to a
self-contained residence or separate dwelling (in Scots law, the
term flatted house is still used) , consisting of a suite of rooms which
form a portion, usually on a single floor, of a larger building,
called the tenement house, the remainder being similarly divided.
The approach to it is over a hall, passage and stairway, which
are common to all residents in the building, but from which each,
private flat is divided off by its own outer door (Clode, Tenement
Houses and Flats, pp. x, 2).
There is in England a considerable body of special law applic-
able to flats. The following points deserve notice:— (i.) The
occupants of distinct suites of rooms in a building divided into
flats are generally, and subject, of course, to any special terms
in their agreements, not lodgers but tenants with exclusive .
possession of separate dwelling-houses placed one above the
other. They are, therefore, liable to distress by the immediate
landlord, and each flat is separately rateable, though as a general
rule by the contract of tenancy the rates are payable by the
landlord. Flats used solely for business purposes arc exempt
from house tax, by the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1878
(see Grant, v. LongsUm, 1000, A.C. 383); and, by the Revenue
Act 1003 (s. xi), provision is made for excluding from assessment
or for assessing at a low rate buildings used for providing separate
dwellings at rents not exceeding £60 a year. It appears that
tenants of a flat would not come within the meaning of " lodger "
for the purposes of the Lodgers' Goods Protection Act 1871.
(u.) The owner of an upper storey, without any express grant or
enjoyment for any given time, has a right to the support of the
lower storey (Dalton v. Angus, 1881, 6 A.C. 740, 793). The owner
of the lower storey, however, so long as he does nothing actively
in the way of withdrawing its support, is not bound to repair,
in the absence of a special covenant imposing that obligation
upon him. The right of support being an easement in favour of
the owner of the upper storey, it is for him to repair. He is in
law entitled to enter on the lower storey for the purpose of doing
the necessary repairs. It appears, however, that there is an
implied obligation by the landlord to the tenants to keep the
common stair and the lift or elevator in repair, and, for. breach
482
FIATBUSH— FLATHEADS
of this duty, he will be liable to a third party who, while visiting
i tenant in the course of business, is injured by its defective
condition {Miller v. Hancock, 1893, 2 Q.fi. 177). No such
liability would be involved in a mere licence to the tenants to
use a part of the building not essential to the enjoyment of their
flats, (iii.) In case of the destruction of the flat by fire, the rent
abates pro tanto and an apportionment is made; pari ralione,
where a flat is totally destroyed, the rent abates altogether
(Clode, p. 14); unless the tenant has entered into an express
and unqualified agreement to pay rent, when he will remain
liable till the expiration of his tenancy, (iv.) Where the agree-
ments for letting the flats in a single building are in common
form, an agreement by the lessor not to depart from the kind of
building there indicated may be held to be implied. Thus an
injunction has been granted to restrain the conversion into a
club of a large part of a building, adapted to occupation in
residential flats, at the instance of a tenant who held under an
agreement in a common form binding the tenants to rules
suitable only for residential purposes (Hudson v. Cripps, 1&96,
r Ch. 265). (v.) The porter is usually appointed and paid by
the landlord, who is liable for his acta while engaged .on
his general duties; while engaged on any special duty for any
tenant the porter is the servant of the latter, who is liable for
his conduct within the scope of his employment.
In Scots law the rights and obligations of the lessors arid
lessees of flats, or— as they are caned— 4 ' flatted houses," spring
partly from the exclusive possession by each lessee of his own
flat, partly from the common interest of all in the tenement as a
whole. The " law of the tenement " may be thus summed up.
The solum on which the flatted house stands, the area in front
and the back ground are presumed to belong to the owner of the
lowest floor or the owners of each floor severally, subject to
the common right of the other proprietors to prevent injury
to their flats, especially by depriving them of light. The external
walls belong to each owner in so far as they enclose his flat;
but the other owners can prevent operations on them which
would endanger the security of the building. The roof and
uppermost storey belong to the highest owner or owners, but
he or they may be compelled to keep them in repair and to refrain
from injuring them. The gables are common to the owner of
each flat, so far as they bound his property, and to the owner of
the adjoining house; but he and the other owners in the building
have cross rights of common interest to prevent injury to the
stability of the building. The floor and ceiling of each fiat are
divided in ownership by an ideal line drawn through the middle
of the joists; they may be used for ordinary purposes, but may
not be weakened or exposed to unusual risk from fire. The
- common passages and stairs are the common property of all to
whose premises they form an access, and the walls which bound
them are the common property of those persons and of the owners
on their farther side.
In the United States the term " apartment-house " is applied
to what in England are called flats. The general law is the same
as in England. The French Code Civil provides (Art. 664) that
where the different storeys of a house belong to different owners
the main walls and roof are at the charge of all the owners,
each one in proportion to the value of the storey belonging
to him. The proprietor of each storey is responsible for his own
flooring. The proprietor of the first storey makes the staircase
which leads to it, the proprietor of the second, beginning from
where the former ended, makes the staircase leading to his and
so on. There are similar provisions in the Civil Codes of Belgium
(Art. 664), Quebec (Art. 521), St Lucia (Art. 471).
Authorities.— English Law: Clode, Law of Tenement-Houses
and Fiats (London, r8«9); Daniels. Manual of the Law of Flats
(London, 1905). Scots Law: Erskine, Principles of the Low of
Scotland (20th ed., Edinburgh, 1903) ; Bell, Principles of the Law
of Scotland (loth ed., Edinburgh, 1899). American Law: Bouvier,
Law Victy. (Boston and London, 1897). Foreign Laws: Burge,
Foreign and Colonial Laws (and ed., London, 1906), (A. W. R.)
FLATBOSH, formerly a township of Kings county, Long
Island, New York, U.S.A., annexed to Brooklyn in 1894. and
after the xst of January 1898 a part of the borough of Brooklyn, I
New York City. The first settlement was made here by the
Dutch about 165 1, and was variously called " Midwout," " Mid-
woud " and " Medwoud " (from the Dutch words, mod, " middle "
and woud, " wood ") for about twenty years, when it became mom
commonly known as Vlachte Bos (riackte, " wooded "; fas,
"plain") or Flackebos, whence, by further corruption, the
present name. Farming was the chief occupation of the early
settlers. On the 23rd of August 1776 the village was occupied
by General Cornwallis's division of the invading force under Lord
Howe, and on the 27th, at the disastrous battle of Long Island
(or " battle of Flatbush," as it is sometimes called), " Flatbiuh
Pass," an important strategic point, was vigorously defended by
General Sullivan's troops.
FLAT-FISH (Plemroneclidae), the name common to all those
fishes which swim on their side, as the halibut, turbot, brill,
plaice, flounder, sole, &c. The side which is turned towards the
bottom, and in some kinds is the right, in others the left, is
generally colourless, and called " blind," from the absence of an
eye on this side. The opposite side, which is turned upwards and
towards the light, is variously, and in some tropical species even
vividly, coloured, both eyes being placed on this side of the head.
All the bones and muscles of the upper side are more strongly
developed than on the lower; but it is noteworthy that these
fishes when hatched, and for a short time afterwards, are sym-
metrical like other fishes.
Assuming that they are the descendants of symmetrical fishes,
the question has been to determine which group of Tekosteans
may be regarded as the ancestors of the flat-fishes. The old
notion that they are only modified Gadids (Anacanthini) was
the result of the artificial classification of the past and is now
generally abandoned. The condition of the caudal fin, which
in the cod tribe departs so markedly from that of ordinary
Teleosteans, is in itself a sufficient reason for dismissing the idea
of the homocercal flat-fishes being derived from the Anacanthini,
and the whole structure of the two types of fishes speaks against
such an assumption. On the other hand it has been shown, as
noticed in the article Dory, that considerable, deeopeated
resemblances exist between the Zeidae or John Dories and the
more generalized of the Pleuronectidae; and that a fossil fish
from the Upper Eocene, Amphislktm paradexum, evidently
allied to the Zeidae, appears to realise in every respect the
prototype of the Pleuronectidae before they had assumed the
asymmetry which characterises them as a group. In accordance
with these views tne flat-fishes are placed by G. A. Boulcnger
in the suborder Acanthopterygii, in a division called Zeorkombi
The three families included in that division can be traced back
to the Upper Eocene, and their common ancestors will probably
be found in the Upper Cretaceous associated with the Berycidat,
to which they will no doubt prove to be related. The very young
are transparent and symmetrical, with an eye on each side, and
swim in a vertical position. As they grow, the eye of one side
moves by degrees to the other side, where it becomes the upper
eye. If at that age the dorsal fin does not extend to the frontal
region, the migrating eye simply moves over the line of the profile,
temporarily assuming the position which it preserves in some
of the less modified genera, such as Pstttodes; in other genera,
the dorsal fin has already extended to the snout before the
migration takes place, and the eye, passing between the frontal
bone and the tissues supporting the fin, appears to make its
way from side to side through the head, as was believed by some
of the earlier observers.
About 500 species of flat-fish are known, mostly marine, a
few species allied to the sole being confined to the fresh waters
of South America, West Africa, and the Malay Archipelago,
whilst a few others, such as the English flounder, ascend streams,
though still breeding in the sea. They range from the Arctic
Circle to the southern coasts of the southern hemisphere and
may occur at great depths. (G. A. B.)
FLATHEADS, a tribe of North American Indians of Salishan
stock. They formerly occupied the mountains of north-western
Montana and the country around. They have always been
friendly to the whites. Curiously enough they have not the
FLAUBERT
♦«3
custom, so general among American tribes, of flattening the
beads of their infants. Father P. J. de Smet in 1841 founded
among them a mission which proved the most successful in
the north-west. With the Pend d*Oreille tribe and some
Kutenats they are on a reservation in Montana, and number
a few hundreds.
FLAUBERT, GUSTAVB (1831-1880), French novelist, was
born at Rouen on the 12th of December 182 1. His lather,
of whom many traits are reproduced in Flaubert 't character of
Charles Bovary, was a surgeon in practice at Rouen; his mother
was connected with some of the oldest Norman families. He was
educated in his native city, and did not leave it until 1840, when
he came up to Paris to study law. He is said to have been idle at
school, but to have been occupied with literature from the age
of eleven. Flaubert in his youth " was like a young Greek,"
full of vigour of body and a certain shy grace, enthusiastic,
intensely individual, and apparently without any spedes of
ambition. He loved the country, and Paris was extremely
distasteful to him. He made the acquaintance of Victor Hugo,
and towards the dose of 1840 he travelled in the Pyrenees and
Corsica. Returning to Paris, be wasted his time in sombre
dreams, living on his patrimony. In 1846, his mother being left
quite alone through the deaths of his father and his sister Caroline,
Flaubert gladly abandoned Paris and the study of the law
together, to make a home for her at Croisset, dose to Rouen.
This estate, a house in a pleasant piece of ground which ran down
to the Seine, became Flaubert's home for the remainder of his
life. From 1846 to 1854 he carried on relations with the poetess,
Mile Louise Colet; their letters have been preserved, and accord-
ing to M. £mile Faguet, this was the only sentimental episode
of any importance in the lite of Flaubert, who never married.
His principal friend at this time was Maxime du Camp, with
whom be travelled in Brittany in 1846, and through the East in
1840. Greece and Egypt made a profound impression upon the
imagination of Flaubert. From this time forth, save for occa-
sional visits to Paris, he did not stir from Croisset.
On returning from the East, in 1850, he set about the com-
position of Madame Bovary. He had hitherto scarcely written
anything, and had published nothing. The famous novel took
him six years to prepare, but was at length submitted to the
Rente da Paris, where it appeared in serial form in 1857. The
government brought an action against the publisher and against
the author, on the charge of immorality, but both were acquitted;
and when Madame Bovary appeared in book-form it met with
a very warm reception. Flaubert paid a visit to Carthage in
1858, and now settled down to the archaeological studies which
were required to equip him for Salemmhd, which, however, in
spite of the author's ceaseless labours, was not finished until
i86».„ He then took up again the study of contemporary
manners, and, making use of many recollections of his youth
and childhood, wrote L' Education sentimeniale, the composition
of which occupied him seven years; it was published in 1869.
Up to this time the sequestered and laborious life of Flaubert
had been comparatively happy, but misfortunes began to gather
around him. He felt the anguish of the war of 1870 so keenly
that the break-up of his health has been attributed to it; he
began to suffer greatly from a distressing nervous malady. His
best friends were taken from him by death or by fatal misunder-
standing; in 1873 he lost his mother, and his circumstances
became greatly reduced. He was very tenderly guarded by
his niece, Mme Commonville; he enjoyed a rare intimacy of
friendship with George Sand, with whom he carried on a corre-
spondence of immense artistic interest, and occasionally he saw
his Parisian acquaintances, Zola, A. Daadet, Tourgenieff, the
Goncourts; but nothing prevented the dote of Flaubert's hie
from being desolate and melancholy. He did not cease, however,
to work with the same intensity and thoroughness. La Ttntotion
de Saint- Antoint, of which fragments had been published as early
as 1857, was at length completed and sent to press in 1874. In
that year be was subjected to a disappointment by the failure
of bis drama Ia Candida*. In 1877 Flaubert published, in one
volume, -entitled Trait conies, Un Camr simple, La Legend* de
Saint-Jniien^HaspUdier and Htrodias. After this something of
his judgment certainly deserted him; he spent the remainder of
his life in the toil of building up a vast satire on the futility of
human knowledge and the omnipresence of mediocrity, which he
left a fragment. This is the depressing and bewildering Barnard
et Picuckct (posthumously printed, x88i), which, by a curious
irony, he believed to be his masterpiece. Flaubert had rapidly
and prematurely aged since 1870, and he was quite an old man
when he was carried off by a stroke of apoplexy at the age of only
58, on*the 8th of May x 880. He died at Croisset, but was buried
in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen. A beautiful
monument to him by Chapu was unveiled at the museum of
Rouen in 1890.
The personal character of Flaubert offered various peculiarities.
He was shy, and yet extremely sensitive and arrogant; he passed
from silence to an indignant and noisy flow of language. The
same inconsistencies marked his physical nature; he had the
build of a guardsman, with a magnificent Viking head, but his
health was uncertain from childhood, and he was neurotic to
the last degree. This ruddy giant was secretly gnawn by mis-
anthropy and disgust of life. His hatred of the " bourgeois "
began in his childhood, and developed into a kind of monomania.
He despised his fellow-men, their habits, their lack of intelligence,
their contempt for beauty, with a passionate scorn which has
been compared to that of an ascetic monk. Flaubert's curious
modes of composition favoured and were emphasized by these
peculiarities. He worked in sullen solitude, sometimes occupying
a week in the completion of one page, never satisfied with what
he had composed, violently tormenting his brain for the best
turn of a phrase, the most absolutely final adjective. It cannot
be said that his incessant labours were not rewarded. His
private letters show that he was not one of those to whom
easy and correct language is naturally given; he gained his
extraordinary perfection with the unceasing sweat of his brow.
One of the most severe of academic critics admits that " in all his
works, and in every page of his works, Flaubert may be con-
sidered a model of style." That he was one of the greatest writers
who ever lived in France is now commonly admitted, and his
greatness principally depends upon the extraordinary vigour
and exactitude of his style. Less perhaps than any other
writer, not of France, but of modern Europe, Flaubert yields
admission to the inexact, the abstract, the vaguely inapt ex-
pression which is the bane of ordinary methods of composition.
He never allowed a dichi to pass him, never indulgently or
wearily went on, leaving behind him a phrase which " almost "
expressed his meaning. Being, as he is, a mixture in almost
equal parts of the romanticist and the realist, the marvellous
propriety of his style has been helpful to later writers of both
schools, of every school. The absolute exactitude with which
he adapts his expression to his purpose is seen in all parts of his
work, but particularly in the portraits he draws of the figures in
his principal romances. The degree and manner in which, since
his death, the fame of Flaubert has extended, form an interesting
chapter of literary history. The publication of Madame Bovary
in 1857 had been followed by more scandal than admiration;
it was not understood at first that this novd was the beginning
of a new thing, the scrupulously truthful portraiture of life.
Gradually this aspect of his genius was accepted, and began. to
crowd out all others. At the time of his death he was famous as
a realist, pure and simple. Under this aspect Flaubert exercised
an extraordinary influence over £. de Goncourt, Alphonse
Daudet and M. Zola. But even since the decline of the realistic
school Flaubert has not lost prestige; other facets of his genius
have caught the light. It bis been percdved that he was not
merely realistic, but real; that his clairvoyance was almost
boundless; that he saw certain phenomena more dearly than
the best of observers had done. Flaubert is a writer who
must always appeal more to other authors than to the world at
large, because the art of writing, the indefatigable pursuit of
perfect expression, were always before him, and because he hated
the lax felidties of improvisation as a disloyalty to the most
sacred procedures of the literarv artist
4*4
FLAVEL— FLAX
HiaCEuvres completes (8 vols., 1885) were printed from the original
manuscript*, and included, besides the works mentioned already,
the two plays, Le Candidal and Le Chdteau des cetuts. Another
edition (10 vols.) appeared in 1873-1885. Flaubert's com sjxinrk nee
with George Sand was published in 1884 with an intr< bunion by
Guy de Maupassant. Other posthumous works are Par tei :homp$
el par les gripes (1885), the result of a tour in Brittany ; and Tour
volumes of Correspondence (1 887-1 893). See also Paul Dourfict,
Essais de psychologic contemporaine (1883); Emile FagtR't, Flauhrrt
(1890) ; Henry lames, French Poets and Novelists (1878) ; Emile /■ -la,
Les Romanciers naturalistes (1881); C A. Sainte-Beuve. Cauteries
du lundi, vol. xiii., Nouveaux lundis % vol iv.: and tl u S&un n\rs
UlUraires (2 vols., 1882-1883) of Maxime du Camp. (JL C;
FLAVEL, JOHN (c. 1627-1691), English Presbyterian divine,
was born at Bromsgrovc in Worcestershire, probably in 1627.
He was the elder son of Richard Flavel, described in con-
temporary records as *' a painful and eminent minister." After
receiving his early education, partly at home and partly at the
grammar-schools of Bromsgrovc and Haslar, he entered Uni-
versity College, Oxford. Soon after taking orders in 1650 he
obtained a curacy at Diptford, Devon, and on the death of the
vicar he was appointed to succeed him. From Diptford he re-
moved in 1656 to Dartmouth. He was ejected from his living
by the passing of the Act of Uniformity in 1662, but continued
to preach and administer the sacraments privately till the Five
Mile Act of 1665, when he retired to Slapton, 5 m. away. He
then lived for a time in London, but returned to Dartmouth,
where he laboured till his death in 1691. He was married four
times. He was a vigorous and voluminous writer, and not without
a play of fine fancy.
His principal works are his Navigation Spiritualized (1671); The
Fountain of Life, in forty-two Sermons (1672) ; The Method of Crate
Q680); Pneumatologia, a Treatise on the Soul of Man (1698); A
Token for Mourners; Husbandry Spiritualized (1699). Collected
editions appeared throughout the 18th century, and in 1823 Charles
Bradley edited a 2 vol. selection.
FLAVIAN I. (d. 404), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was
born about 320, most probably in Antioch. He inherited great
wealth, but resolved to devote his riches and his talents to the
service of the church. In association with Diodorus, afterwards
bishop of Tarsus, he supported the Catholic faith against the
Arian Leontius, who had succeeded Eustathius as bishop of
Antioch. The two friends assembled their adherents outside
the city walls for the observance of the exercises of religion;
and, according to Theodore t, it was in these meetings that the
practice of antiphonal singing was first introduced in the services
of the church. When Meletius was appointed bishop of Antioch
in 361 he raised Flavian to the priesthood, and on the death of
Meletius in 381 Flavian was chosen to succeed him. The
schism between the two parties was, however, far from being
healed; the bishop of Rome and the bishops of Egypt refused to
acknowledge Flavian, and Paulinus, who by the extreme Eus-
tathians had been elected bishop in opposition to Meletius,
still exercised authority over a portion of the church. On the
death of Paulinus in 383, Evagrius was chosen as his successor,
but after the death of Evagrius (c. 393) Flavian succeeded in
preventing his receiving a successor, though the Eustathians still
continued to hold separate meetings. Through the intervention
of Chrysostom, soon after his elevation to the patriarchate of
Constantino le (398), and the influence of the emperorTheodosius,
Flavian was acknowledged in 309 as legitimate bishop of Antioch
by the Church of Rome; but the Eustathian schism was not
finally healed till 415. Flavian, who died in February 404, is
venerated in both the Western and Eastern churches as a saint.
See also the article Meletius of Antioch, and the article
" Flavianus von Antiochien " by Loofs in Herzog-Hauck's Real-
encyklop. (ed. 3). For the Meletian schism see also A. Harnack's,
Hist, of Dogma, iv. 95.
FLAVIAN II. (d. 518), bishop or patriarch of Antioch, was
chosen by the emperor Anastasius I. to succeed Palladius, most
probably in 498. He endeavoured to please both parties by
steering a middle course in reference to the Chalcedon (q.v.)
decrees, but was induced after great hesitation to agree to the
request of Anastasius that he should accept the Henoticon,
or decree of union, issued by the emperor Zeno. His doing so,
while it brought upon him the anathema of the patriarch of
Constantinople, failed to secure the favour of Attastasns, who
in 51 x found in the riots which were occurring between the rhnl
parties in the streets of Antioch a pretext for deposing flariu,
and banishing him to Petra, where be died in 518. Flavian**
soon after his death enrolled among the mints of the Greek
Church, and after some opposition he was also canonised by the
Latin Church.
FLAVIAN (d. 449), bishop of Constantinople, and an adherent
of the Antiochene school, succeeded Proems in 447. He presided
at the council which deposed Eutyches (q.v.) in 448, but in the
following year he was deposed by the council of Ephesus (the
" robber synod "), which reinstated Eutyches in ms 06a.
Flavian's death shortly afterwards was attributed, by a pw»
fiction, to ill treatment at the hands of bis theological opponents
The council of Chalcedon canonized him as a martyr, and in the
Latin Church he is commemorated on the 18th of February.
FLAVIGNY, a town of eastern Fiance, in the department of
Cdte-d'Or, situated on a promontory overlooking the riva
Ozecain, 33 m. W.N.W. of Dijon by road. Pop. (1006) 715.
Among its antiquities are the remains of an abbey of the 8th
century, which has been rebuilt as a factory for the manufactare
of anise, an industry connected with the town as early as the
17th century. There is also a church of the 13th and 15th
centuries, containing carved stalls (15th century) and a fine
rood-screen (early x6th century). A Dominican convent, soot
old houses and ancient gateways are also of interest About
3 m. north-west of Flavigny rises Mont Auzois, the probable
site of the ancient Alesia, where Caesar in a.d. 5a defeated the
Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix, to whom a statue has been erected
on the summit of the height Numerous remains of the Gaflo-
Roman period have been discovered on the bilL
FLAVIN (Lat. flavus, yellow), the commercial name f or as
extract or preparation of quercitron bark (Querau tincterU),
which is used as a yellow dye in place of the ground and powdered
bark (see Quercitron).
FLAX. The terms flax or lint (Ger. Flacks, Fr. lin t Lai
linum) arc employed at once to denote the fibre so called, sad
the plant from which it is prepared. The flax plant {Linvm
usilaiissimum) belongs to the natural order Linoceae, and, like
most plants which have been long under cultivation, it possesses
numerous varieties, while its origin is doubtful. As cultivated
it is an annual with an erect stalk rising to a height of from
20 to 40 in., with alternate, sessile, narrowly lance-shaped leaves,
branching only at the top, each branch or branchlet ending in »
bright blue flower. The flowers arc regular and symmetrical,
having five sepals, tapering to a point and hairy on the margin,
five petals which speedily fall, ten stamens, and a pistil bearing
five distinct styles. The fruit or boll is round, containing five
cells, each of which is again divided into two, thus forming tea
divisions, each of which contains a single seed. The seeds of the
flax plant, well known as linseed, are heavy, smooth, glossy *nd
of a bright greenish-brown colour. They are oval in section,
but their maximum contour represents closely that of a pax
with the stalk removed. The contents are of an oily nature,
and when liquefied are of great commercial value.
The earliest cultivated flax was Linum angustifolium, a sm&De*
plant with fewer and narrower leaves than L. nsitaUssimvm,
and usually perennial. This is known to have been cultivated by
the inhabitants of the Swiss lake-dwellings, and is found wild
in south and west Europe (including England), North Africa,
and western Asia. The annual flax (L. usitalissiutum) has been
cultivated for at least four or five thousand years in Mesopotamia,
Assyria and Egypt, and is wild in the districts included between
the Persian Gulf, the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea. This
annual flax appears to have been introduced into the north of
Europe by the Finns, afterwards into the west of Europe by
the western Aryans, and perhaps here and there by the Phoe-
nicians; lastly, into Hindustan by the eastern Aryans after
their separation from the European Aryans. (De Candolk,
Origin of Cultivated Plants.)
The cultivation and preparation of flax are among the most
ancient of all textile industries, very distinct traces of theif
FLAX
485
existence daring the stone age being preserved to the present
day. " The use of flax," says Ferdinand Keller (Lakt Dwellings
o] Switzerland, translated by J. E. Lee), " reaches back to the
Toy earliest periods of drilization, and it was roost extensively
and variously applied in the lake-dwellings, even in those of the
stone period. But of the mode in which it was planted, steeped,
heckled, cleansed and generally prepared for use, we can form
no idea any more than we can of the mode or tools employed by
the settlers in its cultivation. . . Rough or unworked flax is
found in the lake-dwellings made into bundles, or what ate
technically called heads, and, as much attention was given to
this last operation, it was perfectly dean and ready for use."
As to its applications at this early period, Keller remarks:
" Flax was the material for making tines and nets for nshing*and
catching wild animals, cords for carrying the earthenware vessels
and other heavy objects; in fact, one can hardly imagine how
Fie. 1.— Flax Plant (Linum usilatissimum).
navigation could be carried on, or the lake-dwellings themselves
be erected, without the use of ropes and cords; and the erection
of memorial stones (menhirs, dolmens), at whichever era, and to
whatever people these monuments may belong, would be alto-
gether impracticable without the use of strong ropes."
Id anufacture.— That flax was extensively cultivated and was
regarded as of much importance at a very early period in the
world's history there is abundant testimony. Especially in
ancient Egypt the fibre occupied a most important place, linen
having been there not only generally worn by all classes, but it
was the only material the priestly order was permitted to wear,
while it was most extensively used as wrappings for embalmed
bodies and for general purposes. In the Old Testament we are
told that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph " in vestures of fine linen "
(Gen. xlU. 4a), and among the plagues of Egypt that of hail
destroyed the flax and barley crops, " for the barley was in the
ear, and the flax was boiled " (Exod. ix. 31). Further, numerous
pictorial representations of flax culture and preparation exist
to the present day on the walls of tombs and in Egypt Sir J.
G. Wilkinson in his description of andent Egypt shows dearly
the great antiquity of the ordinary processes of preparing flax.
" At Beni Hassan," he says, " the mode of cultivating the plant,
in the same square beds now met with throughout Egypt (much
resembling our salt pans), the process of beating the stalks and
making them into ropes, and the manufacture of a piece of doth
are distinctly pointed out." The preparation of the fibre as
conducted in Egypt is illustrated by Pliny, who says: " The
stalks themselves are immersed in water, warmed by the
heat of the sun, and are kept down by weights placed upon
them, for nothing is lighter than flax. The membrane, or rind,
becoming loose is a sign of their being suffitiently macerated.
They are then taken out and repeatedly turned over in the sun
until perfectly dried, and afterwards beaten by mallets on stone
slabs. That which is nearest the rind is called stupa [' tow '],
inferior to the inner fibres, and fit only for the wicks of lamps.
It is combed out with iron hooks until the rind is all removed.
The inner part is of a whiter and finer quality. Men are not
ashamed to prepare it " (Pliny, N.H. xix. 1). For many ages,
even down to the early part of the 14th century, Egyptian flax
occupied the foremost place in the commerdal world, being sent
into all regions with which open intercourse was maintained.
Among Western nations it was, without any competitor, the
most important of all vegetable fibres till towards the dose of
the iStb century, when, after a brief struggle, cotton took its
place as the supreme vegetable fibre of commerce.
Flax prospers most when grown upon land of firm texture
resting upon a moist subsoil It does well to succeed oats or
potatoes, as it requires the soil to be in fresh condition without
being too rich. Lands newly broken up from pasture suit it
well, as these are generally freer from weeds than those that have
been long under tillage. It is usually inexpedient to apply
manure directly to the flax crop, as the tendency of this is to
produce over-luxuriance, and thereby to mar the quality of the
fibre, on which its value chiefly depends. For the same reason
it must be thickly seeded, the effect of this being to produce tall,
slender stems, free from branches. The land, having been
ploughed in autumn, is prepared for sowing by working it with
the grubber, harrow and roller, until a fine tilth is obtained.
On the smooth surface the seed is sown broadcast by hand or
machine, at the rate of 3 bushels per acre, and covered in the
same manner as clover seeds. It is advisable immediately to
hand-rake it with common hay-rakes, and thus to remove all
stones and clods, and to secure a uniform dose cover of plants
When these arc about 2 to 3 in. long the crop roust be carefully
hand-weeded. This is a tedious and expensive process, and
hence the importance of sowing the crop on land as free as
possible from weeds of all kinds. The weeders, faces to the wind,
move slowly on hands and knees, and should remove every vestige
of weed in order that the flax plants may receive the full benefit
of the land. When flax is cultivated primarily on account of
the fibre, the crop ought to be pulled before the capsules are
quite ripe, when they are just beginning to change from a green
to a pale-brown colour, and when the stalks of the plant have
become yellow throughout about two-thirds of their height.
The various operations through which the crop passes from
this point till' flax ready for the market is produced are — (1)
Pulling, (2) Rippling, (3) Retting, (4) Drying, (5) Rolling,
(6) Scutching.
Pulling and rippling may be dismissed very briefly. Flax is
always pulled up by the root, and under no circumstances is it
cut or shorn like cereal crops. The pulling ought to be done in
dry clear weather; and care is to be taken in this, as in all the
subsequent operations, to keep the root-ends even and the stalks
parallel. At the same time it is desirable to have, as far as
possible, stalks of equal length together,— all these conditions
having considerable influence on the quality and appearance
of the finished sample. As a general rule the removal of the
" bolls " or capsules by the process of rippling immediately
follows the pulling, the operation being performed in the field;
but under some systems of cultivation, as, for example, the
Courtrai method, alluded to below, the crop u made up into
sheaves, dried and stacked, and is only boiled and retted in the
early part of the next ensuing season. The best ripplcr, or
apparatus for separating the seed capsules from the branches,
consists of a kind of comb having, set in a wooden frame, iron
teeth made of round-rod iron i^ths of an inch asunder at
the bottom, and half an inch at the top, and 18 in. long, to
allow a sufficient spring, and save much breaking of flax. The
points should begin to taper 3 in. from the top. A sheet or other
cover being spread on the field, the apparatus is placed in the
middle of it, and two ripplers sitting opposite each other, with
4 86
FLAX
the machine between them, work at the same time. It is un-
advisable to ripple the flax so severely as to break or tear the
delicate fibres at the upper part of the stem. The two valuable
commercial products of the flax plant, the seeds and the stalk,
are separated at this point. Wc have here to do with the latter
only.
Retting or rotting is an operation of the greatest importance,
and one in connexion with which in recent years numerous
experiments have been made, and many projects and processes
put forth, with the view of remedying the defects of the primi-
tive system or altogct her supplanting it. From the earliest times
two leading processes of retting have been practised, termed re-
spectively water-retting and dew-retting; and as no method
has yet been introduced* which satisfactorily supersedes these
operations, they will first be described.
Watcr-rdting.— For this— the process by which flax is generally
prepared— pure soft water, free from iron and other materials
which might colour the fibre, is essential. Any water much
impregnated with lime is also specially objectionable. The dams
or ponds in which the operation is conducted arc of variable size,
and usually between 4 and 5 ft. in depth. The rippled sulks
are tied in small bundles and packed, roots downwards, in the
dams till they are quite full; over the top of the upper layer
is placed a stratum of rushes and straw, or sods with the grassy
side downwards, and above all stones of sufficient weight to
keep the flax submerged. Under favourable circumstances a
process of fermentation should immediately be set up, which
soon makes itself manifest by the evolution of gaseous bubbles.
After a few days the fermentation subsides; and generally in
from ten days to two weeks the process ought to be complete.
The exact time, however, depends upon the weather and upon
the particular kind of water in which the flax is immersed.
The- immersion itself is a simple matter; the difficulty lies in
deciding when the process is complete. If allowed to remain
under water too long, the fibre is weakened by what is termed
" over-retting," a condition which increases the amount of
codilla in the scutching process; whilst " under-retting " leaves
part of the gummy or resinous matter in the material, which
hinders the subsequent process of manufacture. As the steeping
is such a critical operation, it is essential that the stalks be
frequently examined and tested as the process ncars completion.
When it is found that the fibre separates readily from the woody
" shove " or core, the beets or small bundles are ready for remov-
ing from the dams. It is drained, and then spread, evenly and
equally, over a grassy meadow to dry. The drying, which takes
from a week to a fortnight, must be uniform, so that all the
fibres may spin equally well. To secure this uniformity, it is
necessary to turn the material over several times during the
process. It is ready for gathering when the core cracks and
separates easily from the fibre. At this point advantage is
taken of fine dry weather to gather up the flax, which is now
ready for scutching, but the fibre is improved by stocking
and stacking it for some time before it Is taken to the scutching
mill.
Dcw-rctting is the process by which all the Archangel flax
and a large portion of that sent out from St Petersburg are pre*
pared. By this method the operation of steeping is entirely
dispensed with, and the flax is, immediately after pulling, spread
on the grass where it is under the influence of air, sunlight,
night-dews and rain. The process is tedious, the resulting fibre
Is brown in colour, and it is said to be peculiarly liable to undergo
heating (probably owing to the soft heavy quality of the flax) if
exposed to moisture and kept close packed with little access of
air. Archangel flax is, however, peculiarly soft and silky in
structure, although in all probability water-renting would result
in a fibre as good or even better in quality.
The theory of retting, according to the investigations of J. Kolb,
is that a peculiar fermentation is set up under the influence
of heat and moisture, resulting in a change of the intercellular
substance— pectose or an analogue of that body— into pectin
and pectic acid. The former, being soluble, is left in the water;
but the latter, an insoluble body, is in part attached to the
fibres, from which it is .only separated by changing into sohbk
mctapcttic add under the action of hot alkaline ley in the
subsequent process of bleaching.
To a large extent retting continues to be conducted in the
primitive fashions above described, although numerous and
persistent attempts have been made to improve upon it, or to
avoid -the process altogether The uniform result of all ex-
periments has only been to demonstrate the scientific soundness
of the ordinary process of water-retting, and all the proposed
improvements of recent times seek to obviate the tediousness,
difficulties and uncertainties of the process as carried on in the
open air. In the early part of the 19th century much attention
was bestowed, especially in Ireland, on a process invented by
Mr James Lee, He proposed to separate the fibre by purely
mechanical means without any retting whatever; but after the
Irish Linen Board had expended many thousands of pounds
and much time in making experiments and in erecting fcis
machinery, his entire scheme ended in complete failure. About
the year 1851 Chevalier Claussen sought to revive a process of
'* amortizing " flax— a method of proceeding which bad been
suggested three-quarters of a century earlier. Claussen 's process
consisted in steeping flax fibre or tow for twenty-four hours
in a weak solution of caustic soda, next boiling it for about tvo
hours in a similar solution, and then saturating it in a solution
containing 5% of carbonate of soda, after which it was immersed
in a vat containing water acidulated with \% of sulphuric
acid. The action of the acid on the carbonate of soda with which
the fibre was impregnated caused the fibre to split up into 1
fine cotton-like mass, which it was intended to manufacture io
the same manner as cotton. A process to turn good flax into
bad cotton had, however, on the face of it, not much to recom-
mend it to public acceptance; and Claussen's process therefore
remains only as an interesting and suggestive experiment.
The only modification of water-retting which has hitherto
endured the test of prolonged experiment, and taken a firm
position as a distinct improvement, is the warm-water retting
patented in England in 1846 by an American, Robert B. Scheaci
For open pools and dams Schcnck substitutes large wooden vats
under cover, into which the flax is tightly packed in an upright
position. The water admitted into the tanks is raised to and
maintained at a temperature of from 75 to 95 F. during the
whole time the flax is in steep. In a short time a brisk fennenta*
lion is set up, gases at first of pleasant odour, but subsequently
becoming very repulsive, being evolved, and producing a frothy
scum over the surface of the water. The whole process occupies
only from 50 to 60 hours. A still further improvement, doe
to Mr Pownall, comes into operation at this point, wbu*
consists of immediately passing the stalks as they are takes
out of the vats between heavy rollers over which a streaffl
of pure water is kept flowing. By this means, not only is **
the slimy glutinous adherent matter thoroughly separated, but
the subsequent processes of breaking and scutching are much
facilitated.
A process of retting by steam was introduced by W. Witt of
Glasgow in 1851, and subsequently modified and improved by
J. Buchanan. The system possessed the advantages of rapidity.
being completed in about ten hours, and freedom from & D 7
noxious odour; but it yielded only a harsh, ill-spinning fibre.
and consequently failed to meet the sanguine expectation* «
its promoters.* % .
In connexion with improvements in retting, Mr Mich** 1
Andrews, secretary of the Belfast Fkx Supply Association'
made some suggestions and experiments which deserve dose
attention. In a paper contributed to the International FUi
Congress at Vienna in 1873 he entered into details regarding an
experimental rettery he had formed, with the view of unit* 1 ^
by artificial means the best results obtained by the °"ji°?2
methods. In brief, Mr Andrews* method consists in introducing
water at the proper temperature into the retting vat, and aw""
taining that temperature by keeping the air of the chamDer
at a proper degree of heat. By this" means the flax is kept at
uniform temperature with great certainty, since even should toe
FLAX
4*7
JicaI of tfee sir vary considerably through nejjleet, the water fa the
vat only by alow degrees follows such fluctuations. " It may be
remarked/' says Mr Andrews, M that the superiority claimed
for this method of retting flax over What is known as the
'hot-water steeping' is uniformity of temperature; in fact
the experiments have demonstrated that an absolute control
can be exercised over the means adopted to produce the
artificial climate m which the vats containing the flax are
situated."
Several other attempts have been made with a view of obtain-
ing a quick and practical method of retting flax. The one by
Messrs Doumer and Deswarte appears to have been well received
in France, but in Ireland the invention of Messrs Loppens and
Deswarte has recently received the most attention. The
apparatus consists of a tank with two chambers, the partition
being perforated. The flax is placed in the' upper chamber and
covered by two sets of rods or beams at right angles to each other.
Fresh water is allowed to enter the lower chamber immediately
under theperforatcd partition. As the tank fills, the water enters
the upper chamber and carries with it the flax and the beams,
the latter being prevented from rising too high. The soluble
substances are dissolved by the water, and the liquid thus formed
being heavier than water, sinks to the bottom of the tank
where it is allowed to escape through an outlet. By this arrange-
ment the flax is almost continually immersed in fresh water, a
condition which hastens the retting. The flow of the liquids,
in and out, can be so arranged that the motion is very slow,
and hence the liquids of different densities do not mix. When the
operation is completed, the whole of the water is run off, and the
flax remains on the perforated floor, where it drains thoroughly
before being removed to dry.
The Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for
Ireland, and the Belfast Flax Supply Association, have jointly
made some experiments with this method, and the following
extract from the Association's report for 1905 shows the success
which attended their efforts:—
•' By desire of the department (which has taken up the position
of an impartial critic of the experiment) a quantity of flax straw was
divided into two equal lots. One part was retted at Mil lisle by the
patent-system of Loppens and Deswarte; the other was sent to
Courtrai and steeped in the Lys, Both lou when retted and scutched
were examined by an inspector of the department and by several
flax spinners. That which was retted at Millisle was pronounced
superior to the other "...
'• To summarise results up to date—
z. It has been proved that flax can be thoroughly dried in
the field in Ireland.
2. That the seed can be saved, and is of first quality.
3. That the system of retting (Loppens and Dcswartc's
patent) is at least equal to the Lys, as to quality and
yield of fibre produced."
Since these results appear to be satisfactory, it is natural to
expect further attempts with the same object of supplanting
the ordinary steeping. A really good chemical, mechanical
or other method would probably be the means of reviving the
flax industry in the remote parts of the British Isles.
Scutching is the process by which the fibre is freed from its
woody core and rendered fit for the market. For ordinary water-
retted flax two operations are required, first breaking and then
scutching, and these arc done either by hand labour or by means
of small scutching or lint mills, driven either by water or steam
power. Hand labour, aided by simple implements, is still much
used in continental countries; also in some parts of Ireland
where labour is cheap or when very fine material is desired;
but the use of scutching mills is now very general, these being
more economical. The breaking is done by passing the stalks
between grooved or fluted rollers of different pitches; these
rollers, of which there may be from 5 to 7 pairs, arc sometimes
arranged to work alternately forwards and backwards in order to
thoroughly break the woody material or " boon " of the straw,
while the broken " shoves " are beaten out by suspending the
fibre in a machine fitted with a series of revolving blades, which,
striking violently against the flax, shake out the bruised and
broken woody cores. A great many modified scutching machines
and processes have been proposed and introduced with the view
of promoting economy of labour and improving the turn-out of
fibre, both in respect of cleanness and in producing the least
proportion of codilla ojr scutching tow. .
The celebrated Courtrai. flax of Belgium is the most valuable
staple in the market, -on account of its fineness, strength and
particularly bright colour. There the flax is dried in the field,
and boused or sucked' during the winter succeeding its growth,
and in the spring of the following year it is retted in crates sunk
in the sluggish waters of the river Lys. After the process has
proceeded a certain length, the crates are withdrawn, and the
sheaves taken out and stooked. It is thereafter once more tied
up, placed in the crates, and sunk in the river to complete the
retting process; but this double steeping is not invariably
practised. When finally taken out, it is unloosed and put up in
cones, instead of being grassed, and when quite dry it is stored
for some time previous to undergoing the operation of scutching.
In all operations the greatest care is taken, and the cultivator*
being peculiarly favoured as to soil, climate and water, Courtrai
flax is a staple of unapproached excellence.
An experiment made by Professor Hodge* of Belfast on 7770 lb
7770 lt>
ling he
of air-dried flax yielded the following results. By rippling
separated 1046 lb of bolls which yielded 910 lb of seed. The 5SJ4
(52 cwt.) of flax straw remJinirtg lost in steeping 13 est., fcjvii
39 cwt. of retted stalks, and from that o c*t I qt\ 2 lb £702 Th) of
finished flax was procured- Thus the weight of the fibre was equal
to about 9% of the dried itax with the bulls, o %d the boiled straw,
and over 16% of the retted straw, One hundred tons treated by
Schenck's method gave 33 itm* bolls, with 27 < Jo terns of loss in steep*
ing: 32-13 tons were separated 1"- scutching, leaving voo tons of
finished fibre, with I 47 tona of tow and plucking*. The following
analysis of two valines of heckled Belgian (last is by Dr Hugo
M (lifer (Hoffmann*! Btricktt ubtr 4it iLnixmk<l*ni far ckemuckt*
Induslrit) : —
Ash 0-70 1-32
Water 805 10-70
Extractive matter .... 1 . 3-65 6-02
Fat and wax 2-39 237
Cellulose 82-57 71-50,
Intercellular substance and pectose bodies 2-74 941
According to the determinations of Julius Wiesner {Die RdhsLqffg
des Pfianzenretches), the fibre ranges in length from so to 140 centi-
metres, the length of the individual cells being from 2-0 to 4-0
millimetres, and the limits of breadth between 0*012 and 0*025 mm -«
the average being 0-016 mm.
Among the circumstances which have retarded improvement
both in the growing and preparing of flax, the fact that, till
comparatively recent times, the whole industry was conducted
only on a domestic scale has had much influence. At no very
remote date it was the practice in Scotland for every small
farmer and cotter not only to grow " lint " or flax in small
patches, but to have it retted, scutched, cleaned, spun, woven,
bleached and finished entirely within the limits of his own
premises, and all by members or dependents of the family.
The same practice obtained and still largely prevails in other
countries. Thus the flax industry was long kept away from the
most powerful motives to apply to it labour-saving devices,
and abart from the influence of scientific inquiry for the improve*
ment of methods and processes. As cotton came to the front,
just at the time when machine-spinning and power-loom weaving
were being introduced, the result was that in many localities
where flax crops had been grown for ages, the culture gradually
drooped and ultimately ceased. The linen manufacture by
degrees ceased to be a domestic industry, and began to centre
in and become the characteristic factory employment of special
localities, which depended, however, for their supply of raw
material primarily on the operations of small growers, working,
for the most part, on the poorer districts of remote thinly
populated countries. The cultivation of the plant and the
preparation of the fibre have therefore, even at the present day,
not come under the influence (except in certain favoured localities)
oi scientific knowledge and experience. _ •
Cultivation.— -The approximate number of acres (1905) under
cultivation in the principal flax-growing countries is at
follows*—
4-88
FLAX
Russia
Caucasia
Austria
Italy
Poland
Rumania
Germany
France
Belgium
Hungary
Ireland
3,500400 acres.
450*000 ,.
175.000 „
120,000 „
95.ooo „
8O400 „
75400 „
05,000 „
53.000 „
50,000 „
46.000 „
Holland 36,000
Although the amount grown in Russia exceeds considerably
the combined quantity grown in the rest of the above-mentioned
countries, the quality of the fibre is inferior. The fibre is culti-
vated in the Russian provinces of Archangel, Courland, Esthonia,
Kostroma, Livonia, Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Tver, Vyatka,
Vitebsk, Vologda and Yaroslav or Jaroslav, while the bulk of the
material is exported through the Baltic ports. Riga and St
Petersburg (including Cronstadt) are the principal ports, but
flax is also exported from Revel, Windau, Pernau, Libau,
Narva and Konigsberg. Sometimes it is exported from
Archangel, but this port is frost-bound for a great period
of the year; moreover, most of the districts are nearer to the
Baltic.
The raw flax is almost invariably known by the same name as
the district in. which it is grown, and it is further classified by
The marks In the Crown flaxes have the following sfgttficatkaF--
K means Crown and is usually, the base mark.
H „ Light and represents a rise of about £1
P „ Picked „ ,. „ h
c M c y j " •• •• fi
W „ White „ ., „ S
Z „ Zins „ „ „ £10
Each additional mark meant a rise in the price, but it must be
understood that it is quite possible for a quality denoted by two
letters to be more valuable than one indicated by three or more,
since every mark has not the same value.
If we take £25 as the value of the base mark, the value per too for j
the different groups would be:—
K.
HK.
PK.
HPK.
CPK.
SPK.
HSPK .
GSPK .
W5PK .
ZK .
HZK .
GZK
__ Ac
The Hoffs flaxes are reckoned in a similar way. Here H it far
Hoffs, D for Dricband, P for picked, F for fine. S for superior, and
R for Risten. In addition to these marks, an X may appear before,
after or in both places. With £20 as base mark we have: —
HD . . . £20 per ton.
PHD ... £23 „ „
FPHD . . . ht „ ,.
SFPHD . . . £29 .. .,
XHDX . . . £32 „ „
XRX . . . £35 „ „
Tkt following Prices, taken from the Dundee Year Books, show the Change in Price of a few well-known Varieties*
Dec. 1897. Dec. 1893. Dec. 1899- Dec. 1900.
r, show Ike Change tn Price of a few well-known Varieties,
Dec. 1901. Dec. 1902. Dec. 1903. Dec. 1904. Dec. 1905. Dec. 1006.
Riga—
SPK . .
XHDX . .
W . .
St Petersburg—
Bajetsky
Jaropol . .
Tows—
Mologin . .
Novgorod
Archangel —
i and 1 tow .
andCodina
27
16 to i6J
28 to 29
24 to 25
24 to 24}
'2311024!
»5
*5
£
21 to 22
26*
15} to 16
26 to 27
3S t0 23J
23 to 23J
24J
28 to 32
32J to 33
22 J to 24
32 t0 32j
30
24* to 25
'26 to 26)
26 to 27
25 \ to 26
£
31
46
31*
33
32
3*
28 to 32
18 to 19
37
3a
3*
31*
3t
3»
£
32
35
33
30
IU
3*
32
£
39
42
29
49
4«
4a
41
41
41
£
33
34
23
36
33
3*
31}
31}
32
8
24
4*
35
34
37
32*
33
£
3*
33
24
3«
33
**!
341
31
3»
special marks. The following names amongst others are given to
the fibre: — Archangel, Bajetsky, Courish, Dorpat, Drogobushcr,
Dunaberg, Fab rich not, Fellin, Gjstsk, GlazofT, Griazourtz,
Iwashkowcr, Jaransk, Janowitz, Jaropol, Jaroslav, Kama,
Kashin, Konigsberg, Kostroma, Kotelnitch, Kowns, Krasno-
holm, Kurland (Courland), Latischki, Livonian Crowns, Mai-
nun's h, Marienbcrg, Mochenetz, Mologin, Newel, Nikolsky,
NoHnsk, Novgorod, Opotchka, Ostroff, Ostrow, Otbornoy,
Ouglitch, Pernau, Pskoff, Revel, Riga, Rjcff, St Petersburg,
Seretz, Slanitz, Slobodskoi, Smolensk, Sytchcffka, Taroslav,
Tchesna, Totma, Twer, Ustjuga, Viatka, Vishni, Vologda,
Werro, Wiasma, Witcbsk.
These names indicate the particular district in which the flax
has been grown, but it is more general to group the material
into classes such as Livonian Crowns, Rija Crowns, Hoffs,
Wracks, Dricband, Zins, Ristens, Pernau, Archangel, &c.
The quotations for the various kinds of flaxes are made with one
or other special mark termed a base mark; this usually, but not
necessarily, indicates the lowest quality. The September-October
1906 quotations appeared as under: —
Livonian . . basis K £26 to £27 per ton.
Hoffs HD * ---*--
Pernau „ D
Dorpat „ D
cleaned.
It will, of coarse, be understood that the base mark is subject to
variation, the ruling factors being the amount of crop, quality and
demand.
£21 to £22
£28 to £28 : 10
£32 to £32 : 10
1 8 and 2, which means 80 % of one quality and 20 % of
another. Sometimes other proportions obtain, while it is not
unusual to have quotations for flaxes containing four different
Of the lower qualities of Riga flax the following may be named:
W, Wrack flax.
WPW, White picked wrack.
D, Dreiband (Threeband).
LD, Livonian Dreiband.
SD, Slanitz Dreiband.
PW, Picked wrack flax.
CPW, Grey picked wrack flax.
PD, Picked Dreiband flax.
PLD, Picked Livonian Dreiband.
PSD, Picked Slaniu Dreiband-
The last-named (SD and PSD) are dew-retted qualities shipped
from Riga either as Lithuanian Slanitz, Wellish Slaniu or
Wiasma Slanitz, showing from what district they come, as theie
are differences in the quality of the produce of each district. The
lowest quality of Riga flax is- marked DW, meaning Drcsbaad
Wrack.
Another Russian port from which a large quantity of flax is ha*
ported is Pernau. where the marks in use are comparatively few.
The leading marks are : —
LOD, indicating Low Ordinary Dreiband (Threeband).
OD,
D,
HD,
R.
G,
M,
Ordinary Dreiband.
Dreiband.
Light Dreiband.
Ristcn.
Cut.
Marienburg.
Pernau flax is shipped as Livonian and Fellin sorts, the latter banc
the best.
Both dew-retted and water-retted flax are exported from St Peters-
burg, the dew-retted or Slanitz flax being marked 1st, and, 3rd
and 4th Crown, also Zebrack No. 1 and Zebrack No. a, while all the
Archangel flax is dew-retted.
Some idea of the extent of the Russian flax trade may be gathered
from the fact that 233,000 tons were exported in 1905. Out of this
quantity a little over 53,000 tons came to the United Kingdom.
The chief British ports for the landing of flax are: — Belfast, Dundee.
Leith, Montrose, London and Arbroath, the two former being the
chief centres of the flax industry.
The following table, taken from the annual report of the Belfast
Flax Supply Association, shows the quantities received from aO
sources into the different parts of the United Kingdom.—
FLAXMAN
489
Year.
Imports to
the United
Kingdom.
Imports to
Ireland.
Imports to
England and
Scotland.
\®
l«99
1900
1 901
1903
■90S
1904
Tons.
103,633
ss
97^&J
*$
75.503
73.611
94.701
74-917
90,098
Tons.
3o!o5©
37.7«5
34^40
♦0.145
3«.563
38,783
253
33.034
40.063
Tons.
67,116
58.549
61,087
63,813
58.907
40,033
46,780
43.884
56.533
41.893
50,035
The extent of flax cultivation in Ireland b considerable, but the
acreage has been gradually diminishing during late years. In 1864
it reached the maximum, 301,693 acres; next year it Tell to 251433.
After 1869 it declined, there bemg 339,253 acres in flax crop that
year, and only 133,003 In 1873. From this year to 1 889 it fluctuated
considerably, reaching 157.534 acres in 1880 and dropping to
89,335 acres in 1884. Then for five successive years the acreage
was above 108,000. From 1890 to 1905 it only once reached 100,000,
while the average in 1903, 1904 and 190$ was a little over 45,000
acres. (T. wo.)
FLAIMAX, JOHN (1755-1826), English sculptor and draughts-
man, was born on the 6th of July 1755, during a temporary
residence of his parents at York. The name John was hereditary
in the family, having been borne by his father after a forefather
who, according to the family tradition, had fought on the side of
parliament at Naseby, and afterwards settled as a Carrier or
farmer, or both, in Buckinghamshire. John Flaxman, the father
of the sculptor, carried on with repute the trade of a moulder
and seller of plaster casts at the sign of the Golden Head, New
Street, Covent Garden, London. His wife's maiden name was
See, and John was their second son. Within six months of his
birth the family returned to London, and in his father's back
ib>p he spent an ailing childhood. His figure was high-shouldered
tod weakly, the head very large for the body. His mother
having died about his tenth year, his father Look a second wife,
of whom all we know is that her maiden name was Gordon, and
that she proved a thrifty housekeeper and kind stepmother.
Of regular schooling the boy must have had some, since be is
reputed as having remembered in after life the tyranny of some
pedagogue of his youth; but bis principal education he picked
op for himself at home. He early took delight in drawing and
modelling from bis father's stock-in-trade, and early endeavoured
to understand those counterfeits of classic art by the light of
translations from classic literature.
Customers of his father took- a fancy to the child, and helped
him with books, advice, and presently with commissions. The
two special encouragers of his youth were the painter Romney,
and a cultivated clergyman, air Mathew, with bis wife, in whose
bouse in Rathbone Place the young Flaxman used to meet the
best " blue-stocking " society of those days, and, among
associates of his own age, the artist* Blake and Stotbard, who
became his closest friends. Before this he had begun to work
with precocious success in clay as well as in pencil. At twelve
ytare old he won the first prize of the Society of Arts for a medal,
tad became a public exhibitor in the gallery of the Free Society
of Artists; at fifteen he won a second prise from the Society of
Aits and began to exhibit in the Royal Academy, then in the
second year of its existence. In the same year, 1 770, he entered
as an Academy student and won the silver medal. But all these
■accesses were followed by a discomfiture. In the competition
for the gold medal of the Academy in 17 73, Flaxman, who had
made sure of victory, was defeated, the prise being adjudged
by the president, Sir Joshua Reynolds, to another competitor
named Engleheart. But this reverse proved no discouragement,
and indeed seemed to have had a wholesome effect in curing
the successful lad of a tendency to conceit and self-sufficiency
which made Thomas Wedgwood say of him in 1775: " It is but
a few years since he was a most supreme coxcomb."
He continued to ply bis art diligently, both as a student in the
schools and as an exhibitor in the galleries of the Academy,
occasionally also attempting diversiom into the sister art of
painting. To the Academy be contributed a wax model of
Neptune (1770); four portrait models in wax (1771)1 a terra-
cotta bust, a wax figure of a child, a figure of History (1773);
a figure of Comedy, and a relief of a Vestal (1773). During these
years he received a commisaion from a friend of the Mathew
family, for a statue of Alexander. But by heroic and ideal work
of this class he could, of count, make no regular livelihood. The
means of suck a tivelibood, however,, presented themselves in
his twentieth year, when he first received employment from
Josiah Wedgwood and bis partner Bentley, as a modeller of
classic and domestic friezes, plaques, ornamental vessels and
medallion portraits, in those varieties of " jasper " and " basalt "
ware which earned in their day so great a reputation for the
manufacturers who had conceived and perfected the invention.
In the same year, 1775, John Flaxman the elder moved from
New Street, Covent Garden, to a more commodious house in
the Strand (No. 410). For twelve years, from his twentieth to
his thirty-second (1775-1787). Flaxman subsisted chiefly by his
work for the firm of Wedgwood. It may be urged, of the minute
refinements of figure outline and modelling which these manu-
facturers aimed at in their ware, that they were not the qualities
best suited to such a material; or it may be regretted that the
gifts of an artist like Flaxman should have been spent so long
upon such a minor and half-mechanical art of household decora-
tion; but the beauty of the product it would be idle to deny, or
the value of the training which the sculptor by this practice
acquired in the delicacies and severities of modelling in low
relief and on a minute scale.
By 1780 Flaxman had begun to earn something in another
branch of his profession, which was in the future to furnish
bis chief source of livelihood, vis. the sculpture of monuments for
the dead. Three of the earliest of such monuments by his hand
are those of Chatterton in the church of St Mary Redcliffe at
Bristol (1780), of Mrs Morley in Gloucester cathedral (1784),
and of the Rev. T. and Mrs Margaret Ball in the cathedral at
Chichester (1 785). During the rest of Flaxman's career memorial
bas-reliefs of the same class occupied a principal part of bis
industry; they are to be found scattered in many churches
throughout the length and breadth of England, and in them the
finest qualities of his art are represented. The best are admirable
for pathos and simplicity, and for the alliance of a truly Greek
instinct for rhythmical design and composition with that spirit
of domestic tenderness and innocence which is one of the secrets
of the modern souL
In 178s, being twenty-seven years old, Flaxman was married
to Anne Dcnznan, and had in her the best of helpmates until
almost his life's end. She was a woman of attainments in letters
and to some extent in art, and the devoted companion of her
husband's fortunes and of his travels. They set up house at first
in Wardour Street, and lived an industrious life, spending their
summer holidays once and again in the house 01 the hospitable
poet Hayley, at Eartham in Sussex. After five years, in 1787,
they found themselves with means enough to travel, and set out
for Rome, where they took up their quarters in the Via Felice.
Records more numerous and more consecutive of Flaxman's
residence in Italy exist in the shape of drawings and studies than
in the shape of correspondence. He soon ceased modelling
himself for Wedgwood, but continued to direct the work of other
modellers employed for the manufacture at Rome. He had
intended to return after a stay of a little more than two years,
but was detained by a commission for a marble group of a Fury
of Athamas, a commission attended in the sequel with circum-
stances of infinite trouble and annoyance, from the notorious
Comte-£veque, Frederick Hervey, ear) of Bristol and bishop of
Deny. He did not, as things fell out, return until the summer
of z 794, after an absence of seven years,— having in the meantime
executed another ideal commission (a " Cephalus and Aurora ")
for Mr Hope, and having sent home models for several sepulchral
monuments, including one in relief for the poet Collins in
Chichester cathedral, and one in the round for Lord Mansfield
in Westminster Abbey.
+9©
FLAXMAN
But what gained for Flaxman in this interval a general and
European fame was not hi* work in sculpture prjoper, but those
outline designs to the poets, in which he showed not only to what
purpose he had made his own the principles of ancient design
in vase-paintings and bas-reliefs, but also by what a natural
affinity, better than all mere learning, he was bound to the
ancients and belonged to them. The designs for the Iliad and
Odyssey were commissioned by Mrs Hare Nay lor; those for
Dante by Mr Hope; those for Aeschylus by Lady Spencer;
they were all engraved by Piroti, not without considerable loss
of the finer and more sensitive qualities of Flaxman's own lines.
During their homeward journey the Flazmans travelled
through central and northern Italy. On their return they took
a house, which they never afterwards left, in Buckingham Street,
Fitzroy Square. Immediately afterwards we find the sculptor
publishing a spirited protest against the scheme already enter-
tained by the Directory, and carried out five years later by
Napoleon, of equipping at Paris a vast central museum of art
with the spoils of conquered Europe.
The record of Flaxman's life is henceforth an uneventful record
of private affection and contentment, and of happy and tenacious
industry, with reward not brilliant but sufficient, and repute not
loud but loudest in the. mouths of those whose praise was best
worth having— -Canova, Schlegel, Fuseli. He took for pupil a
son of Hayley's, who presently afterwards sickened and died.
In 1 707 he was made an associate of the Royal Academy. Every
year he exhibited work of one class or another:' occasionally a
public monument in the round, like those of Paoli (1798), or
Captain Montague (1802) for Westminster Abbey, of Sir William
Jones for St Mary's, Oxford (1 797-1 801), of Nelson or Howe for
St Paul's; more constantly memorials for churches, with symbolic
Acts of Mercy or illustrations of Scripture texts, both commonly
in low relief [Miss Motley, Chertsey (1797)1 Miss Cromwell,
Chichester (1800), Mrs Knight, Milton, Cambridge (1802)) and
many more]; and these pious labours he would vary from time
to time with a classical piece like those of his earliest predilection.
Soon after his election as associate, he published a scheme, hall
grandiose, half childish, for a monument to be erected on Green-
wich Hill, in the shape of a Britannia 900 ft. high, in honour of
the naval victories of his country. In 1800 he was elected full
Academician. During the peace of Amiens he went to Paris to
see the despoiled treasures collected there, but bore himself
according to the spirit of protest that was in him. The next
event whkh makes any mark in his life is his appointment to a
chair specially created for him by the Royal Academy— the
chair of Sculpture: this took place in 1810. We have ample
evidence of his thoroughness and- judiciousness as a teacher in
the Academy schools, and his professorial lectures have been
often reprinted. With many excellent observations, and with
one singular merit— that of doing justice, as in those days
justice was hardly ever done, to the sculpture of the medieval
schools—these lectures lack point and felicity of expression,
just as they are reported to have lacked fire in delivery, and are
somewhat heavy reading. The most important works that
occupied Flaxman in the years next following this appointment
were the monument to Mrs Baring in MlcheJdever church, the
richest of all his monuments in relief (1805-1811); that for the
Worsley family at Campsall church, Yorkshire, which is the next
richest; those to Sir Joshua Reynolds for St Paul's (1807),
to Captain Webbe for India (1810); to Captains Walker and
Beckett for Leeds (i8ri); to Lord Cornwall!* for Prince of
Wales's Island (181 2) ; and to Sir John Moore for Glasgow (1813);
At this time the antiquarian world was much occupied with the
vexed question of the merits of the Elgin marbles, and Flaxman
was one of those whose evidence before the parliamentary
commission had most weight in favour of the purchase which
was ultimately effected in 18 16.
After his Roman period he produced for a good many years
no outline designs for the engraver except three for Cowper's
translations of the Latin poems of Milton (18x0). Other sets
of outHne illustrations drawn about he same time, but not
published, were one to the Pilgrim's Progress, and one to a
Chinese tale in verse, called " The Casket," which he wrote to
amuse Ms womenkind. In 181 7 we find him returning to his
old practice of classical outline illustrations and publishing the
happiest of all his series in that kind, the designs, to Hesiod,
excellently engraved by the sympathetic hand of Blake. Im-
mediately afterwards he was much engaged designing for the
goldsmiths— * testimonial cup in honour of John Kemhle, and
following that, the great labour of the famous and beautiful
(though quite un-Homeric) " Shield of Achilles." Almost at the
same time he undertook a frieze of " Peace, Liberty and Plenty"
for the duke of Bedford's sculpture gallery at Woburn, and an
heroic group of Michael overthrowing Satan, for Lord Egremont's
house at Petworth. His literary industry at the same time is
shown by several articles on art and archaeology contributed
to Rees's Encyclopaedia (1810-1830).
In 1820 Mrs Flaxman died, after a first warning from paralysis
six years earlier. Her younger sister, Maria Denman, and the
sculptor's own sister, Maria Flaxman, remained in his house,
and his industry was scarcely at all relaxed. In iSsz he
delivered at the Academy a lecture in memory of his old friend
and generous fellow-craftsman, Canova, then lately dead;
in 1823 he received from A. W. von Schlegei a visit of which
that writer has left us the record. From an illness occurring
soon after this he recovered sufficiently to resume both work
and exhibition, but on the 3rd of December 1826 he caught cola
in church, and died four days later, in his seventy<flecond year.
Among a few intimate associates, he left a memory singularly
dear; having been in companionship, although susceptible and
obstinate when his religious creed— a devout Christianity with
Swedenborgian admixtures— was crossed or slighted, yet in other
things genial and sweet-tempered beyond most men, full of
modesty and playfulness and withal of a homely dignity, a true
friend and a kind master, a pure and blameless spirit.
Posterity will doubt whether it was the fault of Flaxman or
of his age, which in England offered neither training nor much
encouragement to a sculptor, that he is weakest when he is
most ambitious, and most inspired when he makes the least
effort; but so it is. Not merely does he fail when he seeks to
illustrate the intensity of Dante, or to rival the tnmultuousness
of Michelangelo — to be intense or tumultuous be was never
made; but he fails, it may- almost be said, in proportion as his
work b elaborate and far carried, and succeeds in proportion as
it is partial and suggestive. Of his completed ideal sculptures,
the M St Michael " at Petworth is the best, and is indeed admirably
composed from all points of view; but it lacks fire and force,
and it lacks the finer touches of the chisel; a little bas-relief like
the diploma piece of the " Apollo " and " Marpessa " in the' Royal
Academy compares with it favourably. This is one of the very
few things which he is recorded to have executed in the martie
entirely with his own hand; ordinarily he entrusted the finishing
work of the chisel to the Italian workmen in his employ, and
was content with the smooth mechanical finish which they
imitated from the Roman imitations (themselves often reworked
at the Renaissance) of Greek originals. Of Flaxman's com-
plicated monuments in the round, such as the three in West-
minster Abbey and the four in St Paul's, there is scarcely one
which has not something heavy and infelicitous in the arrange-
ment, and something empty and unsatisfactory in the surface
execution. But when we come to his simple monuments in
relief, in these we find almost always a far finer quality. The
truth is that he did not thoroughly understand composition on
the great scale and in the round, but he thoroughly understood
relief, and found scope in it for his remarkabje gifts of harmonious
design, and tender, grave and penetrating feeling. But if we
would see even the happiest of his conceptions at their best,
we must study them, not in the finished marble but rather in
the casts from his studio sketches (marred though they have been
by successive coats of paint intended for their protection) of
which a comprehensive collection is preserved in the Flaxman
gallery at University College And the same b true of bis
happiest efforts in the classical and poetical vein, like the well-
known relief of " Pandora conveyed to Earth by Mercury." Nay,
FLEA—FLECHIER
49 *
going farther back itffl among the ntdinents and first concep-
tions of his art, we can realize the most essential charm of his
genius in the study, not of his modelled work at all, but of his
sketches in pea and wash on paper. Of these the principal
public collections are at University College, in the British
Museum, and the Victoria & Albert Museum; many others are
dispersed in public and private cabinets. Every one knows the
excellence of the engraved designs to Homer, Dante, Aeschylus
and Hesiod, in all cases save when the designer aims at that which
he cannot hit, the terrible or the grotesque. To know Flaxman
st his best it is necessary to be acquainted not only with the
original studies for such designs as these (which, with the excep-
tion of the Hesiod series, are far finer than the engravings), but
•UU more with those almost innumerable studies from real life
which he was continually producing with pen, tint or pencil.
These are the most delightful and suggestive sculptor's notes in
existence; in them it was his habit to set down the leading and
expressive lines, and generally no more, of every group that
struck his fancy. There are groups of Italy and London,
groups of the parlour and the nursery, of the street, the
garden and the gutter; and of each group the artist knows
how to seize at once the structural and the spiritual secret,
expressing happily the value and suggestiveness, for his art
of sculpture, of the contacts, intervals, interlacements and
btlandngs of the various figures in any given group, and not
lets happily the charm of the affections which link the figures
together and inspire their gestures.-
The material* for ihc lift of Flaxman are scattered m variout bio-
graphi ^d other publication*; the principal aj-e the f allowing :—
An am mam kkeftcc in the [iurvptnAMtitaime for iBiy, an anony-
mous" Brief Memoir/ 1 pressed to Fl&xmon'i Lttturti Mi- iBMh and
reprinted In subceriucnt editions) ; thr chapter in Allan I unningnam's
Lists i ' Ik* Mott Bminttti Brtiuk Paiitrrs. &c. t vol iii . nocircs in
the Lijf pf NettrittmSi by John Thoina* Smith, in the Lif* PjT JOfiah
Wedp.?$J, by Mivi (i. Metevard (London, 1865}; in ihe Dmrmi and
Rtmntctntti ef H. Crabbc Rt?bi*itftt (London, i860), the Utter an
authority of (feet importance; in \heLwei of Stofhafd H by Mr* Br.iy.
of Coaxal ile, by Leslie, of Watson, ty Dr Lonsdale and uf Blake, by
Meur Mlchrift and kowiti; auric* of illustrated eaaayi, [■■ ici-
PftUy U— wt, iw^lUVtVw .^U.^*...*. iim I *mi*.HmLii, U *.4V mi/* J-wtiMil
tor 1867 and 1868, by Mr G. F. Tcniswood; Essay t in English Art,
by Frederick Wedmore; The Drawings of Flaxman, in 32 plates,
wttt Descriptions, and an Introductory Essay on the Life and Genius
of Flaxman, by Sidney Colvin (London, 1876). and the article
' Flaxman " in the Dictionary of National Biography. (S. C.)
FLEA (0. Eng. fliak, or flta, cognate with flee, to run away
from, to take flight), a name typically applied to Pulex ir titans,
a well-known blood-sucking insect-parasite of man and other
mammals, remarkable for its powers of leaping, and nearly
cosmopolitan. In ordinary language the name is used for any
species of SipkonaPUra (otherwise known as AphanipUra).
which, though formerly regarded as a suborder of Diptera
(*•••)• are now considered to be a separate order of insects. All
Siphonaptera, of which more than 100 species are known, are
parasitic on mammals or birds. The majority of the species
belong to the family Pulicidae, of which P. irrUans may be taken
as the type; but the order also includes the SarcopsyUidac, the
females of which fix themselves firmly to their host, and the
Ceratopsyllidae, or bat-fleas.
Fleas are wingless insects, with a laterally compressed body,
tnall and indistinctly separated bead, and short thick antennae
situated in cavities somewhat behind and above the simple eyes,
which are always minute and sometimes absent. The structure
of the mouth-parts is different from that seen in any other insects.
The actual piercing organs are the mandibles, while the upper
lip or labrum forms a sucking tube. The maxillae are not pierc-
ing organs, and their function is to protect the mandibles and
labrum and separate the hairs or feathers of the host. Maxillary
and Ubial palpi are also present, and the latter, together with
tke labrum or lower lip, form the rostrum.
Fleas are oviparous, and undergo a very complete metamor-
phosis. The footless larvae are elongate, worm-like and very
•ctive; they feed upon almost any kind of waste animal matter,
tod when full-grown form a silken cocoon. The human flea is
coa *iderably exceeded in size by certain other species found
upon much smaller hosts; thus the European HystrbkopsylU
taipom, a parasite of the mole, shrew and other small mammals,
attains a length of 5} millimetres; another large species infests
the Indian porcupine. Of the SarcopryUidae the beat -known
species is the ** jigger " or " chigoe " (Dermetopkiius penetrans).
iiMligfuons in tropical South America and introduced into West
Africa during the second half of last century. Since then this
pest has spread across the African continent and even reached
Madagascar. The impregnated female jigger burrows into the
feet of men and dogs, and becomes distended with eggs until
its abdomen attains the size and appearance of a small pea.
If in extracting the insect the abdomen be ruptured, serious
trouble may ensue from the resulting inflammation. At least
four species of fleas (including Pulex irritant) which infest the
common rat are known to bite man, and are believed to be the
active agents in the transmission of plague from rats to human
beings. (E. E. A.)
FLECHB (French for " arrow "), the term generally used in
French architecture for a spire, but more especially employed
to designate the timber spire covered with lead, which was
erected over the intersection of the roofs over nave and transepts;
sometimes these were small and unimportant, but in cathedrals
they were occasionally of Urge dimensions, as in the flccbe of
Notre-Dame, Paris, where it is nearly 100 ft. high, this, however,
is exceeded by the example of Amiens cathedral, which measures
148 ft. from its base on the cresting to its finial.
FLftCHIBR, ESPRIT (1632-1710), French preacher and author,
bishop of Nlmes, was born at Pernes, department of Vaucluse,
on the 10th of June 163a. He was brought up at Tarascon by
his uncle, Hercule Audiffrct, superior of the Congregation des
Doctrinaires, and afterwards entered the order. On the death of
his uncle, however, he left it, owing to the strictness of its rules,
and went to Paris, where he devoted himself to writing poetry.
His French poems met with Utile success, but a description in
Latin verse of a tournament (carrousel, circus regius), given
by Louis XIV in 1662, brought him a great reputation. He
subsequently became tutor to Louis Urbain Lefevre de Cau-
martln, afterwards inUndanl of finances and counsellor of stale,
whom he accompanied to Clermont-Fcrrard (e.s.), where the
king had ordered the Grands Jours to be held (1665), and where
Caumartin was sent as representative of the sovereign. There
Flechier wrote his curious Memoires sur Us Grand Jours Unus 4
Clermont, in which he relates, in a half romantic, half historical
form, the proceedings of this extraordinary court of justice.
In 1668 the duke of Montausier procured for him the post of
Ucieur to the dauphin. The sermons of Flechier increased his
reputation, which was afterwards raised to the highest pitch
by his funeral orations. The most important arc those on
Madame de Montausier (167 a), which gained him the membership
of the Academy, the duchesse d'Aiguillon (1675), and, above all,
Marshal Turenne (1676). He was now firmly established in the
favour of the king, who gave him successively the abbacy of St
Severin, in the diocese of Poitiers, the office of almoner to the
dauphiness, and in 1685 the bishopric of Lavaur, from which
he was in 1687 promoted to that of Nlmes. The edict of Nantes
had been repealed two years before; but the Calvinists were still
very numerous at Nlmes. Flechier, by his leniency and tart,
succeeded in bringing over some of them to his views, and even
gained the esteem of those who declined to change their faith.
During the troubles in the Cevennes (see Huguenots) he softened
to the utmost of his power the rigour of the edicts, and showed
himself so indulgent even to what he regarded as error, that his
memory was long held in veneration amongst the Protestants of
that district. It is right to add, however, that some authorities
consider the accounts of his leniency to have been greatly
exaggerated, and even charge him with going beyond what the
edicts permitted. He died at Montpellier on the 16th of February
171a Pulpit eloquence is the branch of belles-lettres in which
Flechier excelled. He is indeed far below Bossuet, whose robust
and sublime genius had no rival in that age; he does not equal
Bourdaloue in earnestness of thought and vigour of expression;
nor can he rival the philosophical depth or the insinuating and
492
FLECKEISEN— FLEET PRISON
impressive eloquence of Massfllon. But he is always ingenious,
often witty, and nobody has carried farther than he the harmony
of diction, sometimes marred by an affectation of symmetry
and an- excessive use of antithesis. His two historical works,
the histories of Theodosius and of Ximenes, are more remarkable
for elegance of style than for accuracy and comprehensive
insight.
1844 Dy B * Gorod ( 3Rd •*• &* Mtm - sur to ***- J - d'Auvergt .
notice by Sainte-Beuve and an appendix by M . Cheruel, 1 862) . His
chief works are; Histoire de Theodose U Grand, Oraisons funeores,
Histoire du Cardinal Ximenes, Sermons de morale, Panigyriques des
saints. He left a portrait or caractere of himself, addressed to one of
his friends. The Life of Theodosius has been translated into English
by F. Manning (1693), and the " Funeral Oration of Marshal
Turenne " in H. C. Fish's History and Repository of Pulpit Eloquence
iiL, 1857)* On Flechier generally see Antomn V. D. Fibre, La
r euness* de FUchier (1882), and Adolphe Fabre, FUchier, orateur
(1886); A. Delacroix, HisL de FUchier (1865).
FLECKEISEN, CARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM ALFRED
(1820-1809), German philologist and critic, was born at Wolfen-
bUttel on the 23rd of September 182a He was educated at the
Helmstcdt gymnasium and the university of Gottingen. Alter
holding several educational posts, he was appointed in 1861 to
the vice-prindpalship of the Vitzthum'sches Gymnasium at
Dresden, which he held till his retirement in 1889. He died on
the 7th of August 1899. Fleckeiscn is chiefly known for his
labours on Plautus and Terence; in the knowledge of these
authors he was unrivalled, except perhaps by Ritschl, his life-
long friend and a worker in the same field. His chief works are;
Exercilaliones Ploutinae (1842), one of the most masterly pro-
ductions on the language of Plautus; "Analccta Plautina,"
printed in PhUobgus, ii. (1847); Plauti Comocdioe, I, ii. (1850-
1851, unfinished), introduced by an Epistula critica ad P.
RUschdium; P. Tertnti Afri Comoediae (new ed., 1898). In
his editions he endeavoured to restore the text in accordance
with the results of his researches on the usages of the Latin
language and metre. He attached great importance to the ques-
tion of orthography, and his short treatise FUnfsig Arlikel (1861)
is considered most valuable. Fleckeiscn also contributed largely
to the Jakrbilchcr ftir Philologit, of which he was for many years
editor.
See obituary notice by G. G&z in C. Bursian's Biograpkisckes
Johrbuchfilr AUerhmskunde (xxiii., 1901), and article by H. Usener
in AMgemevu deutscke Biograpku (where the date of birth is given
as the 20th of September).
FLBCKMOB. RICHARD (c. 1600-1678?), English dramatist
and poet, the object of Dryden's satire, was probably of English
birth, although there is no corroboration of the suggestion of
J. Gillow (Bibliog. Did. of the Eng. Catholics, voL 0., 1885), that
he was a nephew of a Jesuit priest, William Flecknoe, or more
properly Flexney, of Oxford. The few known facts of his life
are chiefly derived from his Relation of Ten Years' Travels in
Europe, Asia, Afrique and America (1655?), consisting of letters
written to friends and patrons during his travels. The first of
these is dated from Ghent (1640), whither he had fled to escape
the troubles of the Civil War. In Brussels he met Beatrix de
Cosenza, wife of Charles IV., duke of Lorraine, who sent him
to Rome to secure the legalization of her marriage. There in
1645 Andrew Marvell met him, and described his leanness and
his rage for versifying in a witty satire, " Flecknoe, an English
Priest at Rome." He was probably, however, not in priest's
orders. He then travelled in the Levant, and in 1648 crossed
the Atlantic to Brazil, of which country he gives a detailed
description. On his return to Europe he entered the household
of the duchess of Lorraine in Brussels. In 1645 he went back
to England. His royalist and Catholic convictions did not
prevent him from writing a book in praise of Oliver Cromwell,
The Idea of His Highness Oliver . . (1659), dedicated to Richard
CromwelL This publication was discounted at the restoration
by the Heroich Portraits (1660) of Charles II. and others of the
Stuart family. John Dryden used his name as a stalling horse
from behind which to assail Thomas Shadwell in Mac Flecknoe
(1682). The opening lines run:—
" All human things are subject to decay,
And, when fate summons, monarchs must obey.
This Flecknoe found, who, like Augustus, young
Was called to empire, and had governed long;
In prose and verse was owned, without dispute.
Throughout the realms of nonsense, absolute."
Dryden's aversion seems to have been caused by Flecknoe's
affectation of contempt for the players and bis attacks oa
the immorality of the English stage. His verse, which hardly
deserved his critic's sweeping condemnation, was much of it
religious, and was chiefly printed for private circulation. None
of bis plays was acted except Low's Dominion, announced as a
" pattern for the reformed stage " (1654), that title being altered
in 1664 to Love's Kingdom, with a Discourse of the English Stage.
He amused himself, however, by adding lists of the acton whom
be would have selected for the parts, had the plays been staged
Flecknoe had many connexions among English Catholics, and
is said by Gerard Langbaine, to have been better acquainted
with the nobility than with the muses. He died probably about
1678.
A Discourse of the English Stage, was reprinted in W. C HazCtt*s
English Drama and Stag* (Roxburgbe Library, 1869); Robot
Southey, in his Omniana (1812), protested against the wholesale
depreciation of Flecknoe's works. See also Richard Flecknoe "
(Leipzig, 1005, in Xfunchener Beilr&ge sur . . . Philologie), by A.
Lohr, who has given minute attention to his life and works.
FLEET, a word in all its significances, derived from the not
of the verb " to fleet," from O. Eng. fieotan, to float or flow,
which ultimately derives from an Indo-European root seen in
Gr. s-Xten>, to sail, and Lat. pluere, to rain; d . Dutch vliessen, and
Ger. fliessen. In English usage it survives in the name of many
places, such as Byfleet and Northfleet, and in the Fleet, a stream
in London that formerly ran into the Thames between the
bottom of Ludgate Hill and the present Fleet ' Street. From
the idea of " float " comes the application of the word to ships,
when in company, and particularly to a large number of warships
under the supreme command of a single officer, with the
individual ships, or groups of ships, under individual and sub-
ordinate command. The distinction between a fleet and a
squadron is often one of name only. In the British navy the
various main divisions are or have been called fleets and
squadrons indifferently. 1 he word is also frequently used of
a company of fishing vessels, and in fishing is also applied to a
row of drift-nets fastened together. From the original meaning
of the word " flowing " comes the adjectival use of the word,
swift, or speedy; so also " fleeting," of something evanesceat
or fading away, with the idea of the fast-flowing lapse of time.
FLEET PRISON, an historic London prison, formerly situated
on the east side of Farringdon Street, and deriving its name from
the Fleet stream, which flowed into the Thames. Concerning
its early history little is known, but it certainly dated back to
Norman times. It came into particular prominence from bang
used as a place of reception for persons committed by the Star
Chamber, and, afterwards, for debtors, and persons imprisoned
for contempt of court by the court of chancery. It was burnt
down in the great fire of 1666; it was rebuilt, but was destroyed
in the Gordon riots of 1780 and again rebuilt in 1781-1782.
In pursuance of an act of parliament (5 & 6 Vict. c. 22, 1842),
by which the Marshalsea, Fleet, and Queen's Bench prisons were
consolidated into one under the name of Queen's prison, it was
finally closed, and in 1844 sold to the corporation of the city of
London, by whom it was pulled down. The head of the prison
was termed " the warden," who was appointed by patent. It
became a frequent practice of the holder of the patent to " farm
out " the prison to the highest bidder. It was this custom which
made the Fleet prison long notorious for the cruelties inflicted
on prisoners. One purchaser of the office was of particularly
evil repute, by name Thomas Bambridge, who in 1728 paid,
with another, the sum of £5000 to John Huggins for the wardeo-
ship. He was guilty of the greatest extortions upon prisoners,
and, in the words of a committee of the House of Commons
appointed to inquire into the state of the gaols of the kingdom,
" arbitrarily and unlawfully loaded with irons, put into dungeons,
FLEETWOOD, C— FLEETWOOD, W.
493
and destroyed prisoners for debt, treating them in the most
barbarous and cruel manner, in high violation and contempt of
the laws of this kingdom/' He was committed to Newgate, and
an act was passed to prevent his enjoying the office of warden
or any other office whatsoever. The liberties or rules of the
Fleet were the limits within which particular prisoners were
allowed to reside outside the prison walls on observing certain
conditions.
FUe* Marriages.— By the law of England a marriage was
recognized as valid, so long as the ceremony was conducted by
a person in holy orders, even if those orders were not of the
Church of England. Neither banns nor licence were necessary,
and the time and place were alike immaterial. Out of this
state of the marriage law, in the period of laxness which succeeded
the Commonwealth, resulted innumerable clandestine marriages.
They were contracted at first to avoid the expenses attendant
on the public ceremony, but an act of 1606, which imposed a
penally of £xoo on any clergyman who celebrated, or permitted
another to celebrate, a marriage otherwise than by banns or
licence, acted as a considerable check. To clergymen imprisoned
for debt in the Fleet, however, such a penalty had no terrors,
for they had " neither liberty, money nor credit to lose by any
proceedings the bishop might institute against them." The
earliest recorded date of a Fleet marriage is 1613, while the
earliest recorded in a Fleet register took place in 1674, but it
was only on the prohibition of marriage without banns or licence
that they began to be clandestine Then arose keen competition,
and " many of the Fleet parsons and tavern-keepers in the
neighbourhood fitted up a room in their respective lodgings or
houses as a chapel," and employed touts to solicit custom for
them. The scandal and abuses brought about by these clan-
destine marriages became so great that they became the object
of special legislation. In 17 S3 Lord Hardwicke's Act (26 Geo. ii.
c 33) was passed, which required, under pain of nullity, that banns
should be published according to the rubric, or a licence obtained,
and that, in cither case, the marriage should be solemnized in
church; and that in the case of minors, marriage by licence must
be by the consent of parent or guardian. This act had the effect
of putting a stop to these clandestine marriages, so far as England
was concerned, and henceforth couples had to fare to Gretna
Green (f.a).
The Fleet Registers, consisting of " about two or three hundred
large registers " and about a thousand rough or " pocket " books,
eventually came into private hands, but were purchased by the
government in 18a 1, and are now deposited in the office of the
registrar-general, Somerset House. Their dates range from 1 686
to 1754. In 1840 they were'declared not admissible as evidence
to prove a marriage.
Authorities.— J. S. Bum, The Fleet Registers; comprising (he
History of Fleet Marriages, and some Account of the Parsons and
Marriage-house Keepers, &c. (London, 1833) ; I. Ashton, The Fleet:
its Rioer, Prison and Marriages (London, 1888).
FLEETWOOD, CHARLES (d. 1692), English soldier and
politician, third son of Sir Miles Fleetwood of Aldwinkle,
Northamptonshire, and of Anne, daughter of Nicholas Luke of
Woodend, Bedfordshire, was admitted into Gray's Inn on the
30th of November 1638. At the beginning of the Great Rebellion,
like many other young lawyers who afterwards distinguished
themselves in the field, he joined Essex's life-guard, was wounded
at the first battle of Newbury, obtained a regiment in 1644 and
fought at Naseby. He had already been appointed receiver of
the court of wards, and in 1646 became member of parliament
for Marlborough. In the dispute between the army and parlia-
ment he played a chief part, and was said to have been the
principal author of the plot to seize King Charles at Holmby,
but he did not participate in the king's trial. In 1649 he was
appointed a governor of the Isle of Wight, and in 1650, as
lieutenant-general of the horse, took part in Cromwell's campaign
in Scotland and assisted in the victory of Dunbar. The next
year he was elected a member of the council of state, and being
recalled from Scotland was entrusted with the command of the
forces in England, and played a principal part in gaining the
final triumph at Worcester. In 1659 he married 1 Cromwell's
daughter, Bridget, widow of Ireton, and was made commander*
in-chief in Ireland, to which title that of lord deputy was added:
The chief feature of his administration, which lasted from
September 165a till September 1655, was the settlement of the
soldiers on the confiscated estates and the transplantation of
the original owners, which he carried out ruthlessly. He showed
also great severity in the prosecution of the Roman Catholic
priests, and favoured the Anabaptists and the extreme Puritan
sects to the disadvantage of the moderate Presbyterians, exciting
great and general discontent, a petition being finally sent in for
his recall.
Fleetwood was a strong and unswerving follower of Cromwell's
policy. He supported his assumption of the protectorate and
his dismissal of the parliaments. In December 1654 he became
a member of the council, and after his return to England in 1655
was appointed one of the major-generals. He approved of the
" Petition and Advice," only objecting to the conferring of the
title of king on Cromwell; became a member of the new House
of Lords; and supported ardently Cromwell's foreign policy in
Europe, based on religious divisions, and his defence of the
Protestants persecuted abroad. He was therefore, on Cromwell's
death, naturally regarded as a likely successor, and it is said
that Cromwell had in fact so nominated him. He, however,
gave his support to Richard's assumption of office, but allowed
subsequently, if he did not instigate, petitions from the army
demanding its independence, and finally compelled Richard
by force to dissolve parliament. His project of re-establishing
Richard in close dependence upon the army met with failure,
and he was obliged to recall the Long Parliament on the 6th of
May 1659. He was appointed immediately a member of the
committee of safety and of the council of state, and one of the
seven commissioners for the army, while on the 9th of June
he was nominated commander-in-chief. In reality, however, his
power was undermined and was attacked by parliament, which
on the xx th of October declared his commission void. The next
day he assisted Lambert in his expulsion of the parliament
and was reappointed commander-in-chief. On Monk's approach
from the North, he stayed in London and maintained order.
While hesitating with which party to ally his forces, and while on
the point of making terms with the king, the army on the 24th
of December restored the Rump, when he was deprived of his
command and ordered to appear before parliament to answer
for his conduct. The Restoration therefore took place without
him. He was included among the twenty liable to penalties
other than capital, and was finally incapacitated from holding
any office of trust. His public career then closed, though he
survi ved til l the 4th of October 1692.
FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM (1656-1723), English divine, was
descended of an ancient Lancashire family, and was born in the
Tower of London on New Year's Day 1656. He received his
education at Eton and at King's College, Cambridge. - About
the time of the Revolution he took orders, and was shortly
afterwards made rector of St Austin's, London, and lecturer of
St Dunstan's in the West. He became a canon of Windsor in
1702, and in 1708 he was nominated to the see of St Asaph, from
which he was translated in 17 14 to that of Ely. He died at
Tottenham, Middlesex, on the 4th of August 17 23. Fleetwood
was regarded as the best preacher of his time. . He was accurate
in learning, and effective in delivery, and his character stood
deservedly high in general estimation. In episcopal administra-
tion he far excelled most of his contemporaries. He was a
zealous Hanoverian, and a favourite with Queen Anne in spite
of his Whiggism. His opposition to the doctrine of non-resistance
brought him into conflict with the tory ministry of 171 2 and with
Swift, but he never entered into personal controversy.
His principal writings ace — An Essay on Miracles (1701); Chronir
cum preciosnm (an account of the English coinage, 1707) ; and Free
Sermons (1712), containing discourses on the death of Queen Mary,
1 He had lost his first wife, Frances Smith; and later he had a
third wife, Mary, daughter of Sir John Coke and widow of Sir Edward
Hartopp. *
49+
FLEETWOOD— FLEMING, SIR S.
the duke of Gloucester and King William. The preface to this last
was condemned to public burning by parliament, but, as No. 384
of The Spectator, circulated more widely than ever. A collected
edition of his works, with a biographical preface, was published in
1737-
FLEETWOOD, a seaport and watering-place in the Blackpool
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, at the mouth of
the Wyre, 230 m. N.VV. by N. from London, the terminus of a
joint branch of the London & North-Western and Lancashire
& Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1801) 9274; (ioox) 12,082. It
dates its rise from 1836, and takes its name from Sir Peter
Hesketh Fleetwood, by whom it was laid out. The seaward
views, especially northward over Morecambe Bay, are fine,
but the neighbouring country is flat and of little interest. The
two railways jointly are the harbour authority. The dock is
provided with railways and machinery for facilitating traffic,
including a large grain elevator. The shipping traffic is chiefly
in the coasting and Irish trade. Passenger steamers serve
Belfast and Londonderry regularly, and the Isle of Man and other
ports during the season. The fisheries are important, and there
are salt-works in the neighbourhood. There is a pleasant
promenade, with other appointments of a watering-place.
There are also barracks with a military hospital and a rifle
range. Rossall school, to the S.W., is one of the principal public
schools in the north of England. Rossall Hall was the scat of Sir
Peter Fleetwood, but was converted to the uses of the school
on its foundation in 1844. The school is primarily divided
into classical and modern sides, with a special department for
preparation for army, navy or professional examinations. A
number of entrance scholarships and leaving scholarships
tenable at the universities are offered annually. The number
of boys is about 350.
FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT (1855-1886), German traveller
in West Africa, was born on the 1st of October 1855 at Wilna,
Russia. After receiving a commercial education he obtained in
2875 a position in Lagos, West Africa. In 1879 he ascended
the Benue river some 125 m. above the farthest point hitherto
reached. His careful survey of the channel secured him a
commission from the German African Society to explore the
whole Benue district. In 1880 he went up the Niger to Gomba,
and then visited Sokoto, where he obtained a safe-conduct
from the sultan for his intended expedition to Adamawa. This
expedition was undertaken in 1882, and on the z8th of August
in that year Flegel discovered the source of the Benue at
Ngaundere. In 1883- 1884 he made another journey up the
Benue, crossing for the second time the Benue-Congo watershed.
After a short absence in Europe Flegel returned to Africa in
April 1885 with a commission from the German African Company
and the Colonial Society to open up the Niger-Bcnue district
to German trade. This expedition had the support of Prince
Bismarck, who endeavoured, unsuccessfully, to obtain for
Germany this region, already secured as a British sphere of
influence by the National African Company (the Royal Niger
Company). Flegel, despite a severe illness, ascended the Benue
to Yola, but was unable to accomplish his mission. He returned
to the coast and died at Brass, at the -mouth of the Niger, on the
xith of September 1886. (See further Goldie, Sis George.)
Flegel wrote Lose Bl&Ucr aus dem Tagebuche meiner Haussaajrtunde
(Hamburg, 1885), and Vom Niger-Behui. Briefe aus Afrika (edited
by K. Flegel, Leipzig, 1890).
FLEISCHER, HEINR1CH LEBBRBCHT (1801-1888), German
Orientalist, was born at Schandau, Saxony, on the 21st of
February 1801. From 1810 to 1824 he studied theology and
oriental languages at Leipzig, subsequently continuing his
studies in Paris. In 1836 he was appointed professor of oriental
languages at Leipzig University, and retained this post till his
death. His most important works were editions of Abulfeda's
Historia ank-Islamica (1831-1834), and of Beidhawi's Com-
mentary on the Koran (1846-1848). He compiled a catalogue
of the oriental MSS. in the royal library at Dresden (1831);
published an edition and German translation of Ali's Hundred
Sayings (1837); the continuation of Babicht's edition of The
Thousand and One Nights (vols. ix.-xii., 1842-1843); and an
edition of Mahommed Ibrihim's Persian Grammar (1847). Be
also wrote an account of the Arabic, Turkish and Persian MSS
at the town library in Leipzig. He died there on the loth of
February 1888. Fleischer was one of the eight foreign members
of the French Academy of Inscriptions and a knight of the
German Ordre pour le merit*.
FLEMING, PAUL (1600-1640), German poet, was born at
Hartenstein in the Saxon Erzgebirge, on the 5th of October
1609, the son of the village pastor. At the age of fourteen he vis
sent to school at Leipzig and subsequently studied medjdac
at the university. Driven away by the troubles of the Thirty
Years' War, be was fortunate enough to become attached to a
embassy despatched in 1634 by Duke Frederick of Hokteb-
Gottorp to Russia and Persia, and to which the famous travel
Adam Oicarius was secretary. In 1639 the mission returned
to Reval, and here Fleming, having become betrothed, determkri
to settle as a physician. He proceeded to Leiden to procure 1
doctor's diploma, but died suddenly at Hamburg on his way
home on the 2nd of April 1640.
Though belonging to the school of Martin Opitz, Flemiag
is distinguished from most of his contemporaries by the ring d
genuine feeling and religious fervour that pervades his lync
poems, even his occasional pieces. In the sonnet, his favourue
form of verse, he was particularly happy. Among his reiigioes
poems the hymn beginning " In alien meinen Taten lass ich de&
Hdchsten raten " is well known and widely sung.
Fleming's Tcutsche Pobnala appeared posthumously in 1642;
they are edited by J. M. Lappenberg, in the Bibliothek dea Htten*
riscnen Vereins (2 vols., 1863; a third volume, 1866, conraim
Fleming's Latin poems). Selections have been edited by J . Ttttmana
in the second volume of the series entitled Deutsche D tenter des sub-
zehnten Jahrkunderts (Leipzig, 1870), and by H. Ostericy (Stuttgart,
1885). A life of the poet will be found in Varnhagen von Ease's
Biographische Denkmale, Bd. iv. (Berlin . 1826). Sec also J . Srrauoff,
Paul Flemings Leben und Orientreise (1802); L. G. Wysocky, De
Pauli Flemingi Cermanice scriptis et ingerno (Paris, 1892).
FLEMING, RICHARD (d. 1431), bishop of Lincoln, and
founder of Lincoln College, Oxford, was born at Crofton ia
Yorkshire. He was descended from a good family, and was
educated at University College, Oxford. Having taken his
degrees, he was made prebendary of York in 1406, and the next
year was junior proctor of the university. About this time he
became an ardent Wycliffite, winning over many persons, some
of high rank, to the side of the reformer, and incurring the
censure of Archbishop Arundel. He afterwards became one d
Wycliffe's most determined opponents. Before 1415 he vas
instituted to the rectory of Bostonin Lincolnshire, and in 14*0
he was consecrated bishop of Lincoln. In 1428-1 429 he attended
the councils of Pavia and Siena, and in the presence of the pope,
Martin V., made an eloquent speech in vindication of his native
country, and in eulogy of the papacy. It was probably on this
occasion that he was named chamberlain to the pope. To
Bishop Fleming was entrusted the execution of the decree of
the council for the exhumation and burning of Wydife's
remains. The see of York being vacant, the pope conferred it on
Fleming; but the king (Henry V.) refused to confirm the
appointment. In 1427 Fleming obtained the royal licence
empowering him to found a college at Oxford for the special
purpose of training up disputants against Wycliffe's heresy.
He died at Sleaford, on the 26th of January 1431. Lincoln
College was, however, completed by his trustees, and its endow-
ments were afterwards augmented by various benefactors.
FLEMING, SIR SAKDFORO (1827- ), Canadian engineer
and publicist, was born at Kirkcaldy, Scotland, on the 7th of
January 1827, but emigrated to Canada in 1845. Great powers
of work and thoroughness in detail brought him to the front,
and he was from 1867 to 1880 chief engineer of the Dominion
government. Under his control was constructed the Inter-
colonial railway, and much of the Canadian Pacific After his
retirement in 1880 he devoted himself to the study of Canadian
and Imperial problems, such as the unification of time reckoning
throughout the world, and the construction of a state-owned
system of telegraphs throughout the British empire. After
FLEMING, SIR, T.~ FLEMISH LITERATURE
495
*ears of labour he saw the first link forged in the chain, fa the
•pening in 1903 of the Pacific Cable between Canada and
Australia. Though not a party man he strongly advocated
federation in 1864-1867, and in 1801 vehemently attacked the
liberal policy of unrestricted reciprocity with the United States.
rie took the deepest interest in education, and in 1880 became
rhancellor of Queen's University, Kingston.
He published The Intercolonial: a History (Montreal and London,
1 876) : England and Canada (London, 1884; ; and numerous brochures
lac! magazine articles on scientific, social and political subjects.
FLEMING. SIR THOMAS (1544-1613), English judge, was
born at Newport, Isle of Wight, in April. 1544. and was called
to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1574. He represented Winchester
in parliament from 1584 to 1601, when he was returned for
Southampton. In 1504 he was appointed recorder of London,
and in 1595 was chosen solicitor-general in preference to Bacon.
1 his office he retained under James I. and was knighted in 1603.
In x 604 he was created chief baron of the exchequer and presided
over many important state trials. Jn 1607 he was promoted
to the chief justiceship of the king's bench, and was one of the
judges At the trial of the poM-neti in 1608, siding with the majority
of tbe judges in declaring that persons born in Scotland after
the accession of James I. were entitled to tbe privileges of
natural-born subjects in England He was praised by bis
contemporaries, more particularly Coke, for his " great judg-
ments, integrity and discretion." He died on the 7th of August.
1613 at his seat, Stoneham Park, Hampshire.
See Foss, Lnts of the Judge*.
FLEMISH LITERATURE. The older Flemish writers are
dealt with in the article on Dutch LtretATuaE; after the
separation of Belgium, however, from the Netherlands in 1830
there was a great revival of Flemish literature. Tbe immediate
result of the revolution was a reaction against everything
associated with Dutch, and a disposition to regard the French
language as the speech of liberty and independence. The
provisional government of 1830 suppressed the official use of the
Flemish language, which was relegated to the rank of a patois.
For some years before 1830 Jan Frans Willems l (1793-1846)
had been advocating the claims of the Flemish language. He
had done his best to alby the irritation bet w een Holland and
BHghim and to prevent a separation. As archivist of Antwerp
be made use of his opportunities by writing a history of Flemish
letters. After the revolution his Dutch sympathies had made
it necessary for him to live in seclusion, but in 1835 he settled
at Ghent, and devoted himself to the cultivation of Flemish.
He edited old Flemish classics, Relnaert de Vos (1836), tbe
rhyming Chronicles of Jan van Heelu and Jan le Clerc, &c,
and gathered round him a band of Flemish enthusiasts, the
chevalier Phillpp Blommaert (1800*1871), Karel Lodewijk
Ledeganck (1805-1847)1 Fr* Rens (1805-1874), F. A. Sneliaert
(1800-1872), Pnidens van Duyse (1804-1850), and others.
Blommaert,, who was bom at Ghent on the 97th of August 1809,
founded in 1834 in bis native town the NederdnUsche lettereefen*
ttjea, a review for the new writers, and it was speedily followed
by other Flemish organs, and by literary societies for the promo-
tion of Flemish. In 1851 a central organization for the Flemish
propaganda was provided by a society, named after the father
of the movement, the " Willemsfonds." The Catholic Flemings
founded in 1874 a rival " Davidsfonds," called after the energetic
J. B. David (1 801-1866), professor at the university of Lou vain,
and the author of a Flemish history of Belgium ( Vaderlandscke
historie, Louvain, 1843-1860). As a result of this propaganda
the Flemish language was placed on an equality with French in
law, and in administration, in 1873 and 1878, and in the schools
In 1883. Finally in 1886 a Flemish Academy was established
by royal authority at Ghent, where a course In Flemish literature
had been established as early as 1854.
The claims put forward by the Flemish school were justified
by the appearance (1837) of In* t Wonderjaar 1566 (In the Wonder-
t See Max Rooses, Kent van Dicht- en Prnawerken van J. F.
Wtitens, and his Brieven in the publications of the Willemsfonds
(Ghent, i*7»-l874)-
ful year) of Hendrik Conscience (q.n), who roused national
enthusiasm by describing the heroic struggles of the Flemings
against the Spaniards. Conscience was eventually to make hf*
greatest successes in the description of contemporary Flemish
life, but his historical romances and his popular history of
Flanders helped to give a popular basis to a movement which
had been started by professors and scholars.
The first poet of the new school was Ledeganck, the best
known of whose poems are those on the " three sister cities "
of Bruges, Ghent and Antwerp (Die drie eusterstedat, voder-
landstke trUogie, Ghent, 1846), in which he makes an im-
passioned protest against the adoption of French ideas, manners
and language, and the neglect of Flemish tradition. The book
speedily took its place as a Flemish classic. Ledeganck, who
was a magistrate, also translated the French code into Flemish.
Jan Theodoor van Rijswijck (1811-1849), after serving as a
volunteer in the campaign of 1830, settled down as a derk in
Antwerp, and became one of the hottest champions of the
Flemish movement. He wrote a series of political and satirical
songs, admirably suited, to his public The romantic and
sentimental poet, Jan van Been (?.v.), was typically Flemish
in his sincere and moral outlook on We. Pnidens van Duyse,
whose most ambitious work was the epic Arlemlde (1859), ia
perhaps best remembered by a collection (1844) °' poems for
children. Peter Frans Van Kerckhoven (1828-1857), a native
of Antwerp, wrote novels, poems, dramas, and a work on .the
Flemish revival {De Vlaemscke Beweging, 1847)*
Antwerp 'produced a realistic • novelist in Jan Lambrecht
Damien Sleeckx (1818*4901). An inspector of schools by
profession, he was an indefatigable journalist and literary critic
He was one of the founders in 1844 of the Vlaemsdt Betgie\ the
first dairy paper in the Flemish interest. His works include a>
long fist of plays, among them Jan Stem (185s), a comedy)
Grdtry, which gained a national prise in 1861; De Vistckert
son Blankenbcrg (1863); and the patriotic drama of Zannekin
(1865). His talent as a novelist was diametrically opposed to
the Idealism of Conscience. He was precise, sober and concrete
in his methods, relying for his effect on the accumulation of
carefully observed detail. He was particularly successful in
describing the life of the shipping quarter of his native town.
Among his novels are: It? t Schipperskwartkr (1856), Dirk Meyer
(i860), TybaerttonK"{i*67),X«**enLitjde( u Art and Love,"
1870), and VeeeUm i* Sponje (1895). His complete works were
collected in 17 vols. (1877-1884).
' Jan Renier Snieders Ci8i*-i888) wrote novels dealing with
North Brabant; his brother, August Snieders (b. 1825), began by
writing historical novels in the manner of Conscience, but bis"
later novels are satires on contemporary society. A more original
talent was displayed by Anton Bergmann (1835-1874), who,
under the pseudonym of " Tony," wrote Ernest Sfaas, Advecat,
which gained the quinquennial prize of literature in 1874. In
the same year appeared the NovcUen of tbe sisters Rosalie (1834-
1875) and Virginie Loveling (h. 1836). These simple and
touching stories were followed by a second collection in 1876.
Tbe sisters had published a volume of poems in 187a Virginie
Loveling's gifts of fine and exact observation soon placed her in
the front rank of Flemish novelists. Her political sketches,
In erne Vhamscke. gewesten (1877), were published. under tbe
name of " W. G. E. Walter." Sophie (1885), Bern dure Eed
(1892), and Hei Land der VerbeeUing (1896) are among the more
famous of her later works. Reimond Styns (b. 1650) and Isfdoor
Teuiinck (b. i8cr) produced in collaboration one very popular
novel, Arm Vlaanderen (1884), and some others, and have since
written separately. Cyril Buysse, a nephew of Mme Loveling,
is a disciple of Zola. Hei Recht tan den Sterns* C The Right of
the Strongest/ 1 1893) is a picture of vagabond life in Flaadersi
Sckoppenboer ("The Knave of Spades," 1808) deals with
bratalised peasant life; and Sursumcorda (1895) describes tbe
narrowness and religiosity of village life
In poetry Julius de Geyter (b. 1830), author of a rhymed
translation of Reinaert (1874), an epic poem on Charles V. (1888),
Ac, produced a social epic in three parts, Drie memscken van en
496
FLENSBURG— FLETCHER, ANDREW
dowUg tot inhetgraf(" Three Men from the Cradle to the Grave,"
1861), in which he propounded radical and humanitarian views.
The songs of Julius Vuylsteke (1836-1903) are full of liberal and
patriotic ardour; but his later life was devoted to politics rather
than literature. He had been the leading spirit of a students'
association at Ghent for the propagation of "ftamingant " views,
and the " Willemsfonds n owed much of its success to his
energetic co-operation. His Uit hot studenten leoen appeared in
x868, and his poems were collected in 1881. The poems of
Mme van Ackere (1803-1884), nie Maria Doolaeghe, were
modelled on Dutch originals. Joanna Courtmans (181 1-1890),
net Berchmans, owed her fame rather to her tales than her
poems; she was above all a moralist, and her fifty tales are
sermons on economy and the practical virtues. Other poets
were Emmanuel Hid (q.v.), author of comedies, opera libretti
and some admirable songs; the abbe* Guido Gezelle (1830-1899),
who wrote religious and patriotic poems in the dialect of West
Flanders; Lodewijk de Koninck (b. 1838), who attempted a
great epic subject in Menschdon Vesiost (1872); J. M. Dautzen-
berg (1808-1869), author of a volume of charming Volksliederen.
The best of Dautzenberg's work is contained in the posthumous
volume of 1869, published by his son-in-law, Frans de Cort
(1834-1878), who was himself a song-writer, and translated songs
from Burns, from Jasmin and from the German. The Makamen
en Ckaulen (1866), adapted from Rilckert's version of Hariri,
and other volumes by " Jan Ferguut " (J. A. van Droogen-
broeck, b. 1835) show a growing preoccupation with form, and
with the work of Theodoor Antheunis (b. 1840), they prepare
the way for the ingenious and careful workmanship of the
younger school of poets, of whom Charles Polydore de Mont is
the leader. He was born at Wambeke in Brabant in 1857, and
became professor in the academy of the fine arts at Antwerp.
He introduced something of the ideas and methods of con-
temporary French writers into Flemish verse; and explained
his theories in 1898 in an I nl tiding tot de Pofzit. Among Pol
de Mont's numerous volumes of verse dating from 1877 onwards
are ClaribeUa (1893), and Iris (1894), which contains amongst
other things a curious " Uit de Legende von Jeschoea-ben-Jossef"
a version of the gospel story from a Jewish peasant.
Mention should also be made of the history of Ghent {Gent
van den vroegsten Tijd tot keden, 1882-1889) of Frans de Potter
(b. 1834), and of the art criticisms of Max Rooses (b. 1839),
curator of the Plantin museum at Antwerp, and of Julius Sabbe
(b. 1846).
See Ida van Dilrifig&reld. \ r cn drr Stkrldi hn tur Mmj. Dos
geislige Leben d*r Viamingen (Lcipqg, 3 vol*.. i&CjI); J. Steelier,
Hittotre de la litthotove nfotlandviM zn Btiniqut 0630): Ctschicdenis
der Vlaamsthe letter* and* WW hH jaar isjo tol fiedtrt {1899), by
Theodoor Cooprru.n And L. Scharp*; A. d& Koninck, Bi&tiacraphte
notionoJe (3 vols- iftsib-ittQ?}; And ItiUvin potiliqut tt Mtttmim du
mouotment fiomand ii&<un by Paul Ma melius The Vtaamscke
BMiographte, be Lied by the Flemish Academy of Ghent, by Fr.tns
de Potter, contain? a fiat Of publication* bt'tuttn 1830 and 1&90;
and there is a p ■ »[ ■-h L z\ of information In the excellent Bwpapkjseh
wootdenboeck a*' Noofd* tn Zuid* Nedtrbindscht: Uit^tkundr ith/8)
of Dr W.J. A. Hubert* and others, (E.G.)
FLENSBURG (Danish, Flensborg), a seaport of Germany, in
the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, at the head of the
Flensburg Fjord, 20 m. N.W. from Schleswig, at the junction
of the main line Altona-Vamdrup (Denmark), with branches
to Kiel and GlUcksburg. Pop. (1905) 48,92a. The principal
public buildings are. the Nikolai Kirche (built 1300, restored
1894), with a spire 295 ft. high; the Marienkirche, also a medieval
church, with a lofty tower; the law courts; the theatre and the
exchange. There are two gymnasia, schools of marine engineer-
ing, navigation, wood-carving and agriculture. The cemetery
contains the remains of the Danish soldiers who fell at the battle
of Idstedt (25th of July 1850), but the colossal Lion monument,
erected by the Danes to commemorate their victory, was removed
to Berlin in 1864. Flensburg is a busy centre of trade and
industry, and is the most important town in what was formerly
the duchy of Schleswig. It possesses excellent wharves, does a
large import trade in coal, and has shipbuilding yards, breweries,
distilleries, doth and paper factories, glass-works, copper-works,
soap-works and rice mills. Its former extensive trade with tat
West Indies has lately suffered owing to the enormous develop*
meat of the North Sea ports, but it is still largely engaged in tht
Greenland whale and the oyster fisheries.
Flensburg was probably founded in the 12th century. It
attained municipal privileges in 1284, was frequently pillaged
by the Swedes after 1643, and in 1848 became the capital, under
Danish rule, of Schleswig.
See Holdt, Flensburg Jruher undjetMt (1884).
FLERS, a manufacturing town of north-western France, is
the arrondissement of Domfront, and department of Orne, oa
the Vere, 41 m. S. of Caen on the railway to Laval. Pop. (too*)
xx, 188. A modern church in the Romanesque style and 1
restored chateau of the 15th century are its principal budding
There is a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrator*,
a communal college and a branch of the Bank of France. Ftes
is the centre of a cotton and linen-manufacturing region which
includes the towns of Conde-sur-Noireau and La FcrtcVMaoi
Manufactures are very important, and include, besides eottaa
and linen fabrics, of which the annual value is about £1,500,000,
drugs and chemicals; there are large brick and tile works, fkrcr
mills and dyeworks.
FLETAf a treatise, with the sub-title sen Commenlarhu /am
Angliconi, on the common law of England. It appears, from
internal evidence, to have been written in the reign of Edward
I., about the year 1200. It is for the most part a poor imitation
of Bracton. The author is supposed to have written it during
his confinement in the Fleet prison, hence the name. It has
been conjectured that he was one of those judges who were im-
prisoned for malpractices by Edward I. Flcta was first printed
by J. Selden in 1647, with a dissertation (2nd edition, 1685).
FLETCHER, AUCB CUNNINGHAM (1845- ), American
ethnologist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 184s. She
studied the remains of Indian civilization in the Ohio and
Mississippi valleys, became a member of the Archaeological
Institute of America in 1879, and worked and lived with the
Omahas as a representative of the Pcabody Museum of American
Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. In 1883 she
was appointed special agent to allot lands to the Omaha tribes,
in 1884 prepared and sent to the New Orleans Exposition as
exhibit showing the progress of civilization among the Indians of
North America in the quarter-century previous, in 1886 visited
the natives of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands on a missoa
from the commissioner of education, and in 1887 was United
States special agent in the distribution of lands among the
Winnebagoes and Nez Perces. She was made assistant in
ethnology at the Peabody Museum in 1882, and received the
Thaw fellowship in 1891; was president of the Anthropological
Society of Washington and of the American Folk-Lore Society,
and vice-president of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science; and, working through the Woman's National
Indian Association, introduced a system of making small loans
to Indians, wherewith they might buy land and houses. In
1888 she published Indian Education and Civilization, a special
report of the Bureau of Education. In 1898 at the Congres
of Musicians held at Omaha during, the Trans-Mississippi Ex-
position she read " several essays upon the songs of the North
American Indians ... in illustration of which a number of
Omaha Indians . . . sang their native melodies." Out of this
grew her Indian Story and Song from North America (1000),
illustrating " a stage of development antecedent to that in which
culture music appeared."
FLETCHER, ANDREW, of Saltoun (1655-1716), Scottish
politician, was the son and heir of Sir Robert Fletcher (1615-
1664), and was born at Saltoun, the modern Salton, in East
Lothian. Educated by Gilbert Burnet, afterwards bishop of
Salisbury, who was then the parish minister of Saltoun, he
completed his education by spending some years in travel and
study, entering public life as member of the Scottish parliament
which met in 1681. Possessing advanced political ideas, Fletcher
was a fearless and active opponent of the measures introduced
by John Maiiland, duke of Lauderdale, the representative of
FLETCHER, GILES
497
Cfatufcs It in totfaad, and fab miisnii, the dob* of York,
afterwards King Jam* II.; but he kit Scotland about 168*,
voJbsiequentzy spending some time in Holland as an associate
of the duke of Itojuuonth and other malcontent*.
Although en groiinds of prudence Fletcher objected to the
rising of 1685, he accompanied Monmouth to the west of England,
but left the army after killing one of the duke's trusted advisers.
This incident is thus told by Sir John Dalrymple:
" Betas: wot upon an expedition, and not esteeming timet of
danger to be times of ceremony, he had seized for his own riding the
horse of a country gentleman (the mayor of Lynne) which stood
ready equipt for its mas «-....-..
to Fletcher, gave him
attempted to strike. F
vet having been accustomed to foreign services both by sea an<
land in which he had acquired high ideas of the honour of a soidie
and a gentleman and at the affront of a cane, pulled out his piste
and shot him dead on the spot. The action was unpopular in
countries where such refinements were not understood. A clamour
later. The master hearing this ran in a passion
■ opprobrious language, shook his cane and
Fletcher, though rigid in the duties of morality.
a
soldier
army, to
Another, but leas probable account, represents Fletcher as
quitting the rebel army because he disapproved of the action of
Monmouth in proclaiming himself king.
His history during the next few yean is rather obscure.
He probably travelled in Spain, and fought against the Turks
in Hungary; and having in his absence lost his estates and been
sentenced to death, he joined William of Orange at the Hague,
and returned to Scotland in 1689 in consequence of the success
of the Revolution of 1688. His estates were restored to him;
and be soon became a leading member of the " club," an organisa-
tion which aimed at reducing the power of the crown in Scotland,
and in general an active opponent of the English government.
In 1703, at a critical stage in the history of Scotland, Fletcher
again became a member of the Scottish parliament. The failure
of the Darien expedition had aroused a strong feeling of 'resent-
ment against England, and Fletcher and the national party
seixed the opportunity to obtain a greater degree of independence
for their country.
His attitude In this matter, and also to the proposal for the
union of the two crowns, is thus described by a writer in the third
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britonnkoi—
" The thought of England's domineerine over Scotland was what
his generous soul could not endure. The indignities and oppsession
which Scotland lay under galled him to the heart, so that in his
learned and elaborate discourses he exposed them with undaunted
courage and patbetical eloquence. In that great event, the Union,
he performed essential service. He got the act of security passed,
which declared that the two crowns should not pass to the same head
till Scotland was secured in her liberties civil and religious. There-
fore Lord Codolphin was forced into the Union, to avoid a civil war
after the queen's demise. Although Mr Fletcher disapproved of some
of the artKles, and indeed of the whole frame of the Union, yet, as
the act of security was his own work, he had all the merit of that
important transaction."
Soon after the passing of the Act of Union Fletcher retired
from public life. Employing his abilities in another direction,
he did a real, if homely, service to his country by introducing
from Holland machinery for sifting grain. He died unmarried
in London in September 1716.
Contemporaries speak very highly of Fletcher's integrity, but
he was also choleric and impetuous. Burnet describes him as
" a Scotch gentleman of great parts and many virtues, but a
most violent republican and extremely passionate." In appear-
ance be was " a low, thin man, of a brown complexion; full of
fire; with a stem, sour look." Fletcher was a fine scholar and
a graceful writer, and both his writings and speeches afford
bright glimpses of the manners and state of the country in his
time. His chief works are: A Discourse of Govern me nt relating
to Militias (1608); Two Discourses concerning the Affairs of
Scotland (1698); and An Account of a Conversation concerning
a right regulation of Governments for the common good of Mankind
(1704). In Two Discourses he suggests that the numerous
vagrants who infested Scotland should be brought into com-
pulsory ami hereditary servitude; and in An Account, of a
x.a
C o nvertiti en occurs Ins well-known remark, " I knew a very
wise man so much of Sir Christopher's (Sir C. Musgrave) senti-
ment, that he believed if a man were permitted to make all the
ballads, he need not care who shouId*make the laws of a nation."
The Political Works ef Andrew Fletcher were published in London
in 1737* See D. 6. Erskine, nth earl of Buchan, Essay on the Lives
of Fletcher of Salloun and the Poet Thomson (1792); J. H. Burton,
History of Scotland, vol.. viii. (Edinburgh, 1905) ; and A. Lang,
History of Scotland, vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1907).
FLETCHER, GILES (c. 1548*1611), English author, son of
Richard Fletcher, vicar of Cianbrook, Kent, and father of the
poets Phineas and Giles Fletcher, was born in 1548 or 1549.
He was educated at Eton and at King's College, Cambridge,
taking-bis B.A. degree in 2569. He was s fellow of his college, and
was made LL.D. in 1581. In 1580 he had married Joan Sheafe
of Cranbrook. In that year he was commissary to Dr Bridg-
water, chancellor of Ely, and in 1585 he sat in parliament for
Winchelsea. He was employed on diplomatic service in Scotland,
Germany and Holland, and in 2588 was sent to Russia to the
court of the czar Theodore with instructions to conclude an
alliance between England and Russia, to restore English trade;
and to obtain better conditions for the English Russia Company,
The factor of the company, Jerome Horsey, had already obtained
large concessions through the favour of the protector, Boris
Godunov, but when Dr Fletcher reached Moscow in 1588 he
found that Godunov's interest was alienated, and that the Russian
government was contemplating an alliance with Spain. The
envoy was badly lodged, and treated with obvious contempt,
and was not allowed to forward letters to England, but the
English victory over the Armada and his own indomitable
patience. secured among other advantages for English traders
exclusive rights of trading on the Volga and their security from
the infliction of torture. Fletcher's treatment at Moscow was
later made the subject of formal complaint by Queen Elizabeth.
He returned to England in 1589 in company with Jerome
Horsey, and in 1591 he published Of the Russe Commonwealth,
Or Manor of Government by the Russe Emperour {commonly called
The Emperour of Moskovia) with the manners and fashions of the
people of that Countrey, In this comprehensive account of
Russian geography, government, law, methods of warfare,
church and manners, Fletcher, who states that he began to
arrange his material during the return journey, doubtless
received some- assistance from the longer experience of his
travelling companion, who also wrote a narrative of his travels,
published in Purchas his Pilgrimes (1626). The Russia Company
feared that the freedom of Fletcher's criticisms would give
offence to the Muscovite authorities, and accordingly damage
their trade. The book was consequently suppressed, and was
not reprinted in its entirety until 1856, when it was edited from
a copy of the original edition for the Hakluyt Society, with an
introduction by Mr Edward A. Bond.
Fletcher was appointed "Remembrancer" to the city of
London, and an extraordinary roaster of requests in 1596, and
became treasurer of St Paul's in 1597. He contemplated a
history of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and in a letter to Lord
Burghley he suggested that it might be well to begin with an
account from the Protestant side of the marriage of Henry VIII.
and Ann Boleyn. But personal difficulties prevented the execu-
tion of this plan. He had become security to the exchequer for
the debts of his brother, Richard Fletcher, bishop of London,
who died in 1596, and was only then saved from imprison-
ment by the protection of the earl of Essex. He was actually
in prison in 1601, when he addressed a somewhat ambiguous
letter to Burghley from which it may be gathered that his prime
offence had been an allusion to Essex's disgrace as being the work
of Sir Walter Raleigh. Fletcher was employed in 1610 to
negotiate with Denmark on behalf of the "Eastland
Merchants," and he died next year, and was buried on the nth
of March in the parish of St Catherine Colman, London
The Russe Commonwealth was Issued in an abridged form in
Hakluyt s Principal Navigations, Voyages, &c (yol. i. p. 473, ed. of
I598)t a somewhat completer version in Purchas his Pilgrimes
(pt» iu. ed. 1625), also as History of Russia in 1643 and 1657.
2a
4-9*
FLETCHER, GILES— FLETCHER, P.
Fletcher also wrote De Uteris anUouae Britannia* fed. by Phineas
Fletcher, ifaj). a treatise on " The Tartars," printed in Israel Redux
(ed. by Sfamuel) L(ee), 1677), to prove that they were the ten lost
tribes of Israel, Latin poems published in various miscellanies, and
Licia, or Poemes of Love in Honour of lie admirable and singular
virtues of his Lady, to the imitation of Ike best Latin Poets. . .where-
unto is added Ike Rising to the Crowne of Richard the third (1593)«
This series of love sonnets, followed by some other poems, was pub-
lished anonymously* Most critics, with the notable exception of
Alexander Dyce (Beaumont and Fletcher, Works, i. p. xvi., 1843)
have accepted it as the work of Dr Giles Fletcher on the evidence
afforded in the first of the Piscatory Eclogues ol his son Phineas, who*
represents his father (Thelgon), as having raised his rime to sing
oT Richard's climbing."
See E. A. Bond's Introduction, to the MaUuyt Society's edition;
also Dr A. B. Grosart's prefatory matter to Luia (Fuller Worthies
Library, Miscellanies, vol. iii., 1871), and to the works (1869) of
Phineas Fletcher in the same series. Fletcher's letters relative to
the college dispute with the provost, Dr Roger Goad, are preserved
in the Lansdowne MSS. (xxui. art. 18 etscq.), and are translated in
Grosart's edition.
FLETCHER, GILES (e. X584-1023I, English poet, yotinger
son of the preceding, was born about x 584. Fuller in bis Worthies
of England says that he was a native of London, and was educated
at Westminster school. From there he went to Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in 1606, and became
a minor fellow of his college in 1608. He was reader in Greek
grammar (16x5) and in Greek language (x.618). In 1603 he con-
tributed a poem on the death of Queen Elizabeth to Sorrow's
Joy. His great poem of Christ s Victory appeared in 1610, and
in 161 2 he edited the Remains of his cousin Nathaniel PownalL
It is not known in what year he was ordained, but his sermons at
St Mary's were famous. Fuller tells us that the prayer before
the sermon was a continuous allegory. He left Cambridge about
1618, and soon after received, it is supposed from Francis Bacon,
the rectory of Alderton, on the Suffolk coast, where " his clownish
and low-parted parishioners . . . valued not their pastor
according to his worth; which disposed him to melancholy
and hastened his dissolution." (Fuller, Worthies of England,
ed. x8i 1 , vol. ii. p. 82). His last work, The Rewdrd of the Faithful,
appeared in the year of his death (1623).
The principal work by which Giles Fletcher is known is
Christ's Victorie and Triumph, in Heaven, in Earth, over and
after Death (1610). An edition in 1640 contains seven full-page
.illustrative engravings by George Tate. It is in four cantos
and is epic in design. The first canto, " Christ's Victory in
Heaven," represents a dispute in heaven between Justice and
Mercy, assuming the facts of Christ's life on earth; the second,
11 Christ's Victory on Earth," deals with an allegorical account
of the Temptation; the third, " Christ's Triumph over Death,"
treats of the Passion; and the fourth, " Christ's Triumph after
Death," treating of the Resurrection and Ascension, concludes
with an affectionate eulogy of his brother Phineas Fletcher
(tj.v.) as " Thyrsilis." The metre is an eight-line stanza owing
something to Spenser. The first five lines rhyme ababb, and
the stanza concludes with a rhyming triplet, resuming the conceit
which nearly every verse embodies. Giles Fletcher, like his
brother Phineas, to whom he was deeply attached, was a dose
follower of Spenser. In his very best passages Giles Fletcher
attains to a rich melody which charmed the ear of Milton, who
did not hesitate to borrow very considerably from the Chriit's
Victory and Triumph in his Paradise Regained. Fletcher lived
in an age which regarded as models the poems of Marini and
Gongora, and his conceits are sometimes grotesque in connexion
with the sacredness of his subject. But when he is carried away
by his theme and forgets to be ingenious, he attains great
solemnity and harmony of style. His descriptions of the Lady
of Vain Delight, in the second canto, and of Justice and of
Mercy in the first, are worked out with much beauty of detail
into separate pictures, in the manner of the Faerie Queene.
Giles Fletcher's poem was edited (1868) for the Fuller Worthies
Library, and (1876) for the Early English Poets by Dr A. B. Grosart.
It is also reprinted for The Ancient and Modern Library of Theo-
logical Literature (1888), and in R. Cattermole's and H. Stebbing's
Sacred Classics (1834, Ac.) vol. 20. In the library of King's College.
Cambridge, is a MS. Aegidii Fletcherii versio poetica Lamentationum
Jeremiae.
FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM (l7»o-X7*$). English drrint,
was born at Nyon in Switzerland on the 12th ol S cptnnin
1799, his original name being ds XA Ft£cm£x£. He was
educated at Geneva, but, preferring an army career to a clerical
one, went to Lisbon' and enlisted. An accident prevented bis
sailing with his regiment to Brazfl, and after a visit to Flanders,
where an uncle offered, to secure a commission for him, he west
to England, picked up the language, and in 1752 became tutet
in a Shropshire family. Here he came under the influence of
the new Methodist preachers, and in 1757 took orders, beiag
ordained by the bishop of Bangor. He often preached with
John Wesley ami for htm, and became known ma a fervent
supporter of the revival Refusing the wealthy living of Dunham,
he accepted the humble one of Madelcy, where for twenty-eve
years (1700*1785) he lived and worked with unique devotion and
zeaL Fletcher was one of the few parish clergy who understood
.Wesley and bis work, yet he never wrote or said any thing
inconsistent with his own Anglican position. In theology he
upheld the Anninian against the Calvihist position, but always
with courtesy and fairness; his resignation on doctrinal grounds
of the superintendency (1768-1771) 'of the countess of Hunting-
don's college at Trevecca kit no unpleasantness. Tbeoutstandisg
feature of his life was a transparent simplicity *and «»<«Qif»—
of spirit, and the testimony of his contemporaries to his godliness
is unanimous. Wesley preached his funeral sermon from the
words " Mark the perfect man." Southey said that " no age
ever provided a man of more fervent piety or more perfect
charity, and no church ever possessed a more apostolic minister."
His fame was not confined to his own country, f or H is said
that Voltaire, when challenged to produce a character as perfect
as that of Christ, at once mentioned Fletcher of Madesey. He
died on the 14th of August 1785..
Complete editions of his works were published in 1803 and 1836.
The chief of them, written against Calvinism, are Five Checks to
Antinomianism, Scripture Scales to weigh Ike Gold of Gospel Truth,
and the Portrait of St Paul. See lives by J. Wesley (1786); L.
Tyerman (1882); P. W. Macdonald (1885); J. Maratt <iooa>; also
C J. Ryle, Christian Leaders of the 18th Century, pp. 584-423 (i860).
FLETCHER, PHINEAS (1583-1650), English poet, elder son
of Dr Giles Fletcher, and brother of Giles the younger, noticed
above, was born at Cranbrook, Kent, and was baptised on the
8th of April 1582. He was admitted a scholar of Eton, and m
1600 entered King's College, Cambridge, . He graduated BJL
in 1604, and M.A. in 1008, and was one ox the contributors to
Sorrow's Joy (1603). His pastoral drama, Sicdides or Piscatory
(pr. 1631) was written (1614) for performance before James L,
but only produced after the lung's departure at King's College.
He had been ordained priest and before 161 1 became a feuow
of his college, but he left Cambridge before 16x6, apparently
because certain emoluments were refused him. He became
chaplain to Sir Henry Willoughby, who presented him in 16*1
to the rectory of Hilgay, Norfolk, where he married and spent
the rest of his life. In 1627 he published Locusiae, vet Pietes
Jesuitica. The Locusts or Apollyonists, two parallel poems in
Latin and English furiously attacking the Jesuits. &r Gmsart
saw in this work one of the sources of Milton's conception of
Satan. Next year appeared an exotic poem, Britteins Ida,
with Edmund Spenser's name on the title-page. It is certainly
not by Spenser, and is printed by Dr Grosart with the works
of Phineas Fletcher. Sicelides, a play acted at King's College
in 1614, was printed in 1631. In 1632 appeared two theological
prose treatises, The Way to Blessedness and Joy m Tribulation,
and in 1633 his magnum opus, The Purple Island. The book was
dedicated to his friend Edward Benlowes, and included bis
Piscatorie EcUgs and other Poetical Miscellanies. He died in
1650, his will being proved by his widow on the 13th of December
of that year. The Purple Island, or ike Isle of Man, is a poem
in twelve cantos describing in cumbrous allegory the physiological
structure of the human body and the mind of man. The in-
tellectual qualities are personified, while the. veins are rivers,
the bones the mountains of the island, the whole analogy being
worked out with great ingenuity. The manner of Spenser b
preserved throughout, but Fletcher never lost sight of his moral
FLEURANGES— FLEURUS
499
aim to lose himself in digressions like those of the Faerie Queene.
What he gains in unity of design, however, he more than loses
in human interest And action. The chief charm of the poem
lies in its descriptions of rural scenery. The Piscatory Eclogues
axe pastorals the characters of which are represented as fisher
boys on the banks of the Cam, and are interesting for the light
they cast on the biography of the poet himself (Thyrsil) and
bis father (Thelgon). The poetry of Phineas Fletcher has not
the sublimity sometimes reached by his brother Giles. The
mannerisms are more pronounced and the conceits more far-
fetched, but the verse is fluent, and lacks neither colour nor
music.
A complete edition of hif works (4 vols.) was privately printed
by Or A. B. Grosart (Fuller Worthies Library, 1869).
FLEURANGES, ROBERT (HI.) DB LA MARCK, Seigneu*
UE (1491-1537), marshal of France and historian, was the son
of Robert H. de la Marck, duke of Bouillon, seigneur of Sedan
and Fleuranges, whose uncle was the celebrated William de
la Marck, " The Wild Boar of the Ardennes." A fondness for
military exercises displayed itself in his earliest years, and at
the age of ten he was sent to the court of Louis XII., and placed
in charge of the count of Angouleme, afterwards King Francis L
In his twentieth year he married a niece of the cardinal d'Amboise,
but after three months be quitted his home to join the French
army in the Milanese. With a handful of troops he threw himself
into Verona, then besieged by the Venetians; but the siege was
protracted, and being impatient for more active service, he
rejoined the army. He then took part in the relief of Mirandola, '
besieged by the troops of Pope Julius II., and in other actions
of the campaign. In 151 2 the French being driven from Italy,
Tleuranges was sent into Flanders to levy a body Of 10,000 men,
in command of which, under his father, he returned to Italy-
in 1 513, seized Alessandria, and vigorously assailed Novara.
But the French were defeated, and Flcuranges narrowly escaped
-with his life, having received more than forty wounds. He was
rescued by his father and sent to Vcrcellae, and thence to Lyons.
Returning to Italy with Francis I. in 15x5, he distinguished
himself in various affairs, and especially at Marignano, where
he had a horse shot under him, and contributed so powerfully
to the victory of the French that the king knighted him with
bis own hand. He next took Cremona, and was there called
home by the news of his father's illness. In 1519 he was sent
into Germany on the difficult errand of inducing the electors
to -give their votes in favour of Francis I.; but in this he failed.
The war in Italy being rekindled, Fleuranges accompanied the
king thither, fought at Pavia {1535), atad was taken prisoner
with his royal master. The emperor, irritated by the defection
of his father^ Robert II. de la Marck, sent him into confinement
in Flanders, where he remained for some years. During this,
imprisonment he was created marshal of France. He employed
his enforced leisure in writing his Histoire des ckosts mbnorahUs
advenues du regne de Louis XII ct de Francpis /, depute 1400
jusqu'at Van. 15*1. In this work he designates himself J tune
Adtcnturenx. Within a small compass he gives many curious
and interesting details of the time, writing only of what he had
seen, and in a very simple but vivid style. The book was first-
published in 1735, by Abbe" Lambert, who added historical and
critical notes; and it has been reprinted in several collections.
The last occasion on which Fleuranges was engaged in active
service was at the defence of Peronne, besieged by the count of
Nassau in 1536. In the following year he heard of his father's
death, and set out from Amboise for his estate of La Marck;
but he was seized with illness at Longjumeau, and died there in
December 1537.
See his own book in the NoteveBt Collection des mimotres pour
unit a Vhistoire de France (edited by J. F. Mfchaud and J. J. F,
Pou joulat, genes i. vol. v. Paris, 1 836 *eq.).
FLEUR-DB-US (Fr. " lily flower "), an heraldic device, Wry
widespread in the armorial bearings of all countries, but more
particularly -associated with the royal house of France. The
conventional fleur-de-lis,, as Littre says, represents very im-
perfectly three flowed of the white lily (IMium) joined together,
the central one erect, and each of the other two curving outwards.
The fleur-de-lis is a common device in ancient decoration, notably
in India and in Egypt,where it was the symbol of life and resur-
rection, the attribute of the god Horus. It is common also in
Etruscan bronzes. It is uncertain whether the conventional
fleur-de-lis was originally meant to represent the lily or white
iris— the flower-de-luce of Shakespeare— or an arrow-head, a
spear-head, an amulet fastened on date-palms to ward off the
evil eye, && la Roman and early Gothic architecture the
fleur-de-lis is a frequent sculptured ornament. As early as
xi 20 three fleurs-de-lis were sculptured on the capitals of the
ChapeUe Saint-Aignan at Paris. The fleur-de-lis was first
definitely connected with the French monarchy in an ordonnance
of Louis le Jeune (c. 1147), and was first figured on a seal of
Philip Augustus in 1x80. The use of the fleur-de-lis in heraldry
dates from the 12th century, soon after which period it became
a very common charge in France, England and Germany, where
every gentleman of coat-armour desired to" adorn his shield
Sis W
Middle Ages. 17th century. 18th and 19th centuries.
with a loan from the shield of France, which was at first d'azur,
semi de flews de lis d'or. In February 13 76 Charles V. of France
reduced the number of fleurs-de-lis to three— in honour of the
Trinity— and the kings of France thereafter bore d'azur, d trots
fleurs de lis d f or. Tradition soon attributed the. origin of the
fleur-de-lis to Clovis, the founder of the Frankish monarchy*
and explained that it represented the lily given to him by an
angel at his baptism. Probably there was as much foundation
for this legend as for the more rationalistic explanation of William
Newton (Display of Heraldry, p. 145), that the fleur-de-lis was
the figure of a reed or flag in blossom, used instead of a sceptre
at the proclamation of the Frankish kings. Whatever be the
true origin of the fleur-de-lis as a conventional decoration, it
Is demonstrably far older than the Frankish monarchy, and*
history does not record the reason of its adoption by the royal
house of France, from which it passed into common use as aa
heraldic charge in most European countries. An order of the
Lily, with a fleur-de-lis for badge, was established in the Roman
states by Pope Paul III. in 1546; its members were pledged
to defend the patrimony of St Peter against the enemies of the
church. Another order of the Lily was founded by Louis XVIII.
.in x8x6, in memory of the silver fleurs-de-lis which the comic
d'Artois had given to the troops in 18x4 as decorations; it was
abolished by the revolution of 1830.
FLEURUS, a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau,
5 m. N.E. of Charlcroi, famous as the scene of several battles.
The first of these was fought on August 19/20, 1622, between
the forces of Count Mansfcid and Christian of Brunswick and
the Spaniards under Cordovas, the latter being defeated. The
second is described below, and the third and fourth, incidents
of Jouraan's campaign of 17041 under French Revolutionary
Wars* The ground immediately north-east of Fleurus forms
the battlefield of Ligny (June 16, 1815), for which see Waterloo
Campaign.
The second battle was fought on the xst of July 1690 between
45,000 French under Francois-Henri de Montgomery-Boutevifle,
duke of Luxemburg, and 37,000 allied Butch, Spaniards and
Imperialists under George Frederick, prince of WaJdeck. The
latter had formed up his army between Heppignies and St
Amand in what was then considered an ideal position; a double
barrier of marshy brooks was in front, each flank rested on a
village, and the space between, open upland, fitted his army
exactly. But Luxemburg, riding up with his advanced guard
.from Velaiae, decided, a/ter a cursory .survey of the ground, to
5oo
FLEURY— FLEURY, A. H. DE
attack the front and both flanks of the Allies' position at once—
adecision which few t if any, generals then living would have dared -
to make, and which of itself places Luxemburg in the same rank
as a tactician as his old friend and commander Condi. The
left wing of cavalry was to move under cover of woods, houses
and hollows to gain Wangenies, where it was to connect with the
frontal attack of the French centre from Fleurus and to envelop
Waldeck's right. Luxemburg himself with the right wing of
cavalry and some infantry and artillery made a wide sweep
round the enemy's left by way of Ligny and Les Trois Burettes,
concealed by the high-standing corn. At 8 o'clock the frontal
attack began by a vigorous artillery engagement, in which
the French, though greatly outnumbered in guns, held their
own, and three hours later Waldeck, whose attention had been
absorbed by events on the front, found a long line of the enemy
FLEURUS 1690
already formed up in his rear. He at once brought his second
line back to oppose them, but while he was doing so the French
leader filled up the gap between himself and the frontal assailants
by posting infantry around Wagnelee, and also guns on the
neighbouring hill whence their fire enfiladed both halves of the
enemy's army up to the limit of their ranging power.' At x p.m.
Lu xcmburg ordered a general attack of his whole line. He him-
self scattered the cavalry opposed to him and hustled the Dutch
infantry into St Amand, where they were promptly surrounded.
The left and centre of the French army were less fortunate, and
in their first charge lost their leader, Lieutcnant-General Jean
Christophe, comte de Gournay, one of the best cavalry officers
in the service. But Waldeck, hoping to profit by this momentary
success, sent a portion of his right wing towards St Amand,
where it merely shared the fate of his left, and the day was decided.
Only a quarter of the cavalry and 14 battalions of infantry
(English and Dutch) remained intact, and Waldeck could do no
more, but with these he emulated the last stand of the Spaniards
at Rocroi fifty years before. A great square was formed of the
infantry, and a handful of cavalry joined them — the French
cavalry, eager to avenge Gournay, had swept away the rest.
Then slowly and in perfect order, they retired into the broken
ground above Mellet, where they were in safety. The French
slept on the battlefield, and then returned to camp with their
trophies and 8000 prisoners. They had lost some 2500 killed,
amongst them Gournay and Berbier du Metz, the chief of artillery,
the Allies twice as many, as well as 48 guns, and Luxemburg
was able to send 150 colours and standards to decorate Notre-
Dame. But the victory was not followed up, for Louis XIV.
ordered Luxemburg to keep in line with other French armies
which were carrying on more or less desultory wars of manatxrtt
on the Meuse and Moselle.
FLEURY [Abraham Joseph Benaed] (x 750-182*) , French
actor, was born at Chartres on the 26th of October 1750, aid
began his stage apprenticeship at Nancy, where his father was
at the head of a company of actors attached to the court of King
Stanislaus. After four years in the province*, he came to Paris
in 1778, and almost immediately was made socittairc at the
Comedie Francaise, although the public was slow to recognize
him as the greatest comedian of his time. In 1703 Fleury, like
the rest of his fellow-players, was arrested in consequence of
the presentation of Laya's L*Ami des lots, and, when liberated,
appeared at various theatres until, in 1799, he rejoined the
rehabilitated Comtdie Francaise. After forty years of service
he retired in 1818, and died on the 3rd of March 182a. He wis
notoriously illiterate, and it is probable that the interesting
Mlmo ire de Fleury owes more to its author, Lafitte, than to the
subject whose " notes and papers " it is said to contain.
FLEURY, ANDRft HERCULB DE (1653-1743). French
cardinal and statesman, was born at Lodeve (Hexault) on the
22nd of June 1653, the son of a collector of taxes. Educated
by the Jesuits in Paris, he entered the priesthood, and became
in 1679, through the influence of Cardinal Bonzi, almoner to
Maria Theresa, queen of Louis XIV., and in 1698 bishop of
Frejus. Seventeen years of a country bishopric determined
him to seek a position at court. He became tutor to the king's
great-grandson and heir, and in spite of an apparent lack of
ambition, he acquired over the child's mind an influence which
proved to be indestructible. On the death of the regent Orleans
in 17 23 Fleury, although already seventy years of age, deferred
his own supremacy by suggesting the appointment of Louis
Henri, duke of Bourbon, as first minister. Fleury was present
at all interviews between Louis XV. and his first minister, and
on Bourbon's attempt to break through this rule Fleury retired
from court. Louis made Bourbon recall the tutor, who on the
nth of July 1726 took affairs into his own hands, and secured
the exile from court of Bourbon and of his mistress Madame
de Prie. He refused the title of first minister, but his elevation
to the cardinalate in that year secured his precedence over the
other ministers. He was naturally frugal and prudent, and
carried these qualities into the administration, with the result
that in 1 738-1739 there was a surplus of x 5,000,000 livres instead
of the usual deficit. In 17 26 he fixed the standard of the currency
and secured the credit of the government by the regular payment
thenceforward of the interest on the debt. By exacting forced
labour from the peasants he gave France admirable roads, though
at the cost of rousing angry discontent. During the seventeen
years of his orderly government the country found time to
recuperate its forces after the exhaustion caused by the extra-
vagances of Louis XIV. and of the regent, and the general
prosperity rapidy increased.. Internal peace was only seriously
disturbed by the severities which Fleury saw fit to exercise
against the Jansenists. tie imprisoned priests who refused to
accept the bull Unigenitus, and he met the opposition of the
parlcment of Paris by exiling forty of its members.
In foreign affairs his chief preoccupation was the maintenance
of peace, which was shared by Sir Robert Walpok, and therefore
led to a continuance of the good understanding between France
and England. It was only with reluctance that he supported
the ambitious projects Of Elizabeth Farnese, queen of Spain,
in Italy by guaranteeing in 1729 the succession of Don Carlos
to the duchies of Parma and Tuscany. Fleury had economized
in the army and navy, as elsewhere, and when in 1733 war was
forced upon him he was hardly prepared. He was compelled
by public opinion to support the claims of Louis XV.'s father-in-
law Stanislaus Leszczynski, ex-king of Poland, to the Polish
crown on the death of Frederick Augustus I., against the Russo-
Austrian candidate; but the despatch of a French expedition
of x 500 men to Danzig only served to humiliate Prance. Fleury
was driven by Chauvelin to more energetic measures; he con-
cluded a close alliance with the Spanish Bourbons and sent
two armies against the Austrians. Military successes on the
FLEURY, C— FLIEDNER
501
Rhine and in Italy secured the favourable terms of the treaty
of Vienna (1735-1738). France had joined with the other
powers in guaranteeing the succession of Maria Theresa under
the Pragmatic sanction, but on the death of Charles VL in 1740
Fleury by a diplomatic quibble found an excuse for repudiating
his engagements, when he found the party of war supreme
in the king's counsels. After the disasters of the Bohemian
campaign he wrote in confidence a humble letter to the Austrian
general Konigsegg, who immediately published it. Fleury dis-
avowed his own letter, and died a few days after the French
evacuation, of Prague on the 20th of January 1743. He had
enriched the royal library by many valuable oriental MSS., and
was a member of the French Academy,of the Academy of Science,
and the Academy of Inscriptions.
Bibliography.— F. J. Batailte, Elote kistoriquc de M. le Cardinal
A. H. da Fleury (Strassburg, 1737); C. Frey de Neuville, Oration
funibre de S.E. Affr U Cardinal A. H. Fleury (Paris, 1743); P.
Vicaire, Oraison funibre du Cardinal A. tl.de tleury (Caen, 1743);
M. van Hoey, Lettres et negotiations pour sertir d Vkistoire de la vie
dm Cardinal de Fleury (London, 1743); Leben des Cardinals A. H.
Fleury (Freiburg. 1743); F. Morenas, Parallile du minislire du
Cardinal Richelieu et du Cardinal de Fleury (Avignon, 1743); Nach-
ridUen von dent Leben und der Verwollung des Cardinals Fleury
(Hamburg, 1744).
FLEURY, CLAUDE (1640-17 23), French ecclesiastical historian,
was born at Paris on the 6th of December 1640. Destined for
Che bar, he was educated at the aristocratic college of Clermont
(now that of Louis-Ie-Grand). In 1658 he was nominated an
advocate to the parlement of Paris, and for nine years followed
the legal profession. But he had long been of a religious disposi-
tion, and in 1667 turned from law to theology. He had been
some time In orders when Louts XIV., in 1672, selected him as
tutor of the princes of Conii, with such success that the king
next entrusted to him the education of the count of Vermandois,
one of his natural sons, on whose death in 1683 Fleury received
for his services the Cistercian abbey of Loc-Dieu, in the diocese
of Rhodes. In 1680 he was appointed sub-preceptor of the dukes
of Burgundy, of An jou, and of Berry, and thus became intimately
associated with Fendon, their chief tutor. In 1696 he was
elected u> fill the place of La Bruyere in the French Academy;
and on the completion of the education of the young princes
the king bestowed upon htm the rich priory of Argenteuil, in the
diocese of Paris (1706). On assuming this benefice he resigned,
with rare disinterestedness, that of the abbey of Loc-Dieu.
About this time he began his great work, the first of the kind in
France, and one for which he had been collecting materials
for thirty years — the Histoin eecUsiaslique. Flcury's evident
intention was to write a history of the church for aU classes of
society; but at the time in which his great work appeared it
was less religion than theology that absorbed the attention of
the clergy and the educated public; and his work accordingly
appealed to the student rather than to the popular reader,
dwelling as it does very particularly on questions of doctrine,
of discipline, of supremacy, and of rivalry between the priest-
hood and the imperial power. Nevertheless it had a great success.
The first edition, printed at Paris in 20 volumes 4 to, 1601, was
followed by many others, among which may be mentioned that
of Brussels, in 3a vols. 8vo, 1602, and that of Ntsmes, in 25 vols.
8vo, 1778 to 1780. The work of Fleury only comes down to the
year 14x4. It was continued by J. Claude Fabre and Goujet
down to 1595, in 16 vols. 4to. In consulting the work of Fleury
and its supplement, the general table of contents, published
by Rondel, Paris, 1758, 1 vol. 4to, will be found vety useful
Translations have been made of the entire work into Latin,
German and Italian. The Latin translation, published at
Augsburg, 1758-1750, 85 vols. 8vo, carries the work down to
1684. Fleury, who had been appointed confessor to the young
king Louis XV. in 1716, because, as the duke of Orleans said,
he was neither Jansenist nor Molinist, nor Ultramontanist, but
Catholic, died on the 14th of July 1 723. His great learning was
equalled by the modest simplicity of his life and the uprightness
of his conduct.
Fleury left many works besides his Histoin eccttsiastique. The
following deserve special mention >-HUtaire du «>«< J)u«0»u.(l674,
nam); Mamrs des Israelites (1681, tamo): Mmttrs des Chretiens
(1682, tamo): TraiU du choix et de la metkode des ttudes (1686,
a vols. 1 2 mo); Let Devoirs des matlres et des domestiques (1688,
i2mo). A number of the smaller works were published in one volume
at Paris in 1 807. The Roman Congregation of the 1 ndex condemned
his Catcchisme kistotique (1679) and the Institution du droit euUsi-
astique (1687).
See C. Ernst Simonetti. Der Character eines Ceschichtsschreibers
in Mem Leben und aus den Schriften des Abts C. Fleury (Gfttingen,
1746, 410): C F. P. Jaeger. Notice sw C. Fleury, considtrf cbmme
hislorien de I'eglise (Strassburg, 1847, 8vo); Rdchlin-Meldegg.
CeschUhte des Christeutums. i.
FLIEDNER, THBODOR (1800-1864), German Protestant
divine, was born on the 21st of January 1S00 at Epstein (near
Wiesbaden), the small village in which his father was pastor.
He studied theology at the universities of Giessen and Gdttingen,
and at the theological seminary of Herborn, and at the age of
twenty he passed his final examination. After a year spent
in teaching and preaching, in 182 1 he accepted a call from the
Protestant church at Kaiserswerth, a little town on the Rhine,
a few miles below Dusseldorf. To help his people and to provide
an endowment for his church, he undertook Journeys in 1822
through part of Germany, and then in 1823 to Holland and
England. He met with considerable success, and had oppor-
tunities of observing what was being done towards prison reform;
in England he made the acquaintance of the philanthropist
Elizabeth Fry. The German prisons were then in a very bad
state. The prisoners were huddled together in dirty rooms,
badly fed, and left in complete idleness. No one dreamed of
instructing them, or of collecting statistics to form the basis
of useful legislation on the subject. Fliedner, at first singly,
undertook the work. He applied for permission to be imprisoned
for some time, in order that he might look at prison life from the
inside. This petition was refused, but he was allowed to hold
fortnightly services in the Dteseldorf prison, and to visit the
Inmates individually. Those interested in the subject banded
themselves together, and on the 18th of June 1826 the first
Prison Society of Germany (Rktinisch-WcsljMschcr Gef&nenis-
vtrem) was founded. In 1833 Fliedner opened in his own
parsonage garden at Kaiserswerth a refuge for discharged
female convicts. His circle of practical philanthropy rapidly
increased. The state of the sick poor had for some time ex-
cited his interest, and it seemed to him that hospitals might be
best served by an organized body of specially trained women.
Accordingly in 1836. he began the first deaconess house, and
the hospital at Kaiserswerth. By their ordination vows the
deaconesses devoted themselves to the care of the poor, the sick
and the young; but their engagements were not final — they
might leave their work and return to ordinary life if they chose.
In addition to these institutions Fliedner founded in 1835 a»
infant school, then a normal school for infaat school mistresses
(1836), an orphanage for orphan girls of the middle class (1842),
and an asylum for female lunatics (1847). Moreover, he assisted
at the foundation and in the management of similar institutions,
not only in Germany, but in various parts of Europe.
In 1849 he resigned his pastoral charge, and from 1849 to 1851
he travelled over a large part of Europe, America and the East
—the object of his journeys being to found " mother bouses,"
which were to be not merely training schools for. deaconesses, but
also centres whence other training establishments might arise.
He established a deaconess house in Jerusalem, and after his
return assisted by counsel and money in the erection of establish*
ments at Constantinople, Smyrna, Alexandria and Bucharest.
Among his later efforts may be mentioned the Christian bouse of
refuge for female servants in Berlin (connected with which other
institutions soon arose) and the u house of evening rest " for
retired deaconesses at Kaiserswerth. In 1855 Fliedner received
the degree of doctor in theology from the university of Bonn, in
recognition rather of his practical activity than of his theological
attainments. He died on the 4th of October 1 864, leaving behind
him over 100 stations attended by 430 deaconesses; and these
by 1876 had increased to 1 so with an attendance of 600. '
Fliedner's son Fritz Fliedner (1845-1901), after studying
in Halle and Tubingen, became in 1870 chaplain to the embassy in
502
FLIGHT AND FLYING
Madrid. He followed in his father's footsteps by founding
several philanthropic institutions in Spain. He was also the
author of a number of books, amongst which was an auto-
biography, Aus meinem Leben. Erinturungtn und Erfahrungcn
Gooi).
Thcodor Fliedner's writings arc almost entirely of a practical
character. He edited a periodical, Der Armen und Kranken Freund.
which contained information regarding the various institutions, and
also the yearly almanac of the Kaiserswerth institution. Besides purely
educational and devotional works, he wrote Buck der Martyrer (1852) ;
Kurzc Ceschichte der Entstehung der ersten axing. Liebcsanstalten zu
Kaiserswerth (1856); NachruM uber das Diakonissen-Werk in der
Christ. Kircke (5th ed.. 1867); Die evangel. Martyrer Ungarns und
Siebenbur gens; and Beschreibung der Rene nock Jerusalem und
Constantinopel. All were published at Kaiserswerth. There is a
translation of the German life by C. Wink worth (London, 1867).
See also C. Fliedner, Theodor Fliedner, kurter Abriss seines Lebens
und Wirkens forded., 1892). See also on Fliedner and his work
Kaiserswerth Deaconesses (London, 1857); Dean John S. Howson's
Deaconesses (London, 1862); The Service of the Poor, by E. C.
Stephen (London, 1871); W. F. Stevenson's Praying and Working
(London, 1865).
FLIGHT and FLYING. Of the many scientific problems of
modern times, there are few possessing a wider or more enduring
interest than that of aerial navigation (see also Aeronautics).
To fly has always been an object of ambition with man; nor
will this occasion surprise when we remember the marvellous
freedom enjoyed by volant as compared with non-volant animals.
The subject of aviation is admittedly one of extreme difficulty.
To tread upon the air (and this is what is really meant) is, at
first sight, in the highest degree Utopian; and yet there are
thousands of living creatures which actually accomplish this
feat. These creatures, however varied in form and structure,
all fly according to one and the same principle; and this is a
significant fact, as it tends to snow that the air must be attacked
in a particular way to ensure flight. It behoves us then at the
outset to scrutinize very carefully the general configuration of
flying animals, and in particular the size, shape and movements
of their flying organs.
Flying animals differ entirely from sailing ships and from
balloons, with which they are not unfrequently though errone-
ously compared; and a flying machine constructed upon proper
principles can have nothing in common with either of those
creations. The ship floats upon water and the balloon upon air;
but the ship differs from the balloon, and the ship and the balloon
differ from the flying creature and flying machine. The water
and air, moreover, have characteristics of their own. The
analogies which connect the water with the air, the ship with the
balloon, and the ship and the balloon with the flying creature
and flying machine are false analogies. A sailing ship is sup-
ported by the water and requires merely to be propelled; a
flying creature and a flying machine constructed on the living
type require to be both supported and propelled. This arises
from the fact that water is much denser than air, and because
water supports on its surface substances which fall through air.
While water and air are both fluid media, they are to be dis-
tinguished from each other in the following particulars. Water
is comparatively very heavy, inelastic and incompressible;
air, on the other hand, is comparatively very light, elastic and
compressible. If water be struck with violence, the recoil
obtained is great when compared with the recoil obtained from
air similarly treated. In water we get a maximum recoil with a
minimum of displacement; in air, on the contrary, we obtain a
minimum recoil with a maximum of displacement. Water and
air when unconfined yield readily to pressure. They thus form
movable fulcra to bodies acting upon them. In order to meet
these peculiarities the travelling organs of aquatic and flying
animals (whether they be feet, fins, flippers or wings) are made
not of rigid but of elastic materials. The travelling organs,
moreover, increase in size in proportion to the tenuity of the fluid
to be acted upon. The difference in size of the travelling organs
of animals becomes very marked when the land animals are
contrasted with the aquatic, and the aquatic with the aerial,
as in figs. 1, 2 and 3.
The peculiarities of water and air as supporting media are well I
illustrated by a reference to swimming, diving and flying hoik
A bird when swimming extends its feet simultaneously or alter-
nately in a backward direction, and so obtains a forward recoil
The water supports the bird, and the feet simply propeL la
this case the bird is lighter than the water, and the long us«
the body is horizontal (a of fig. 4). When the bird dives, or fiio
under water, the long axis of the body is inclined obliquely dova-
wards and forwards, and the bird forces itself into and beneath ux
water by the action of its feet, or wings, or both. In divingorsob-
aquatic flight the feet strike upwards and backwards, the viap
downwards and backwards (b of fig. 4). In aerial flying everyrhiaf
Flo. 1.— Chillingham Bull (Bos Sc otic us). Small travelling" es-
trcmities adapted for land, r, s, I, u, figure-of-8 described by ttt
feet in walking.
Fig. 2.— The Turtle (Chelonia imbrkala). Enlarged travdfisf.
extremities (flippers) adapted for water.
Fig. 3.— The Bat (PhyUocina gracilis). Greatly
travelling extremities adapted for air.
is reversed. The long axis of the bird is inclined oJ>u< ' , *J
upwards and forwards, and the wings strike, not down****
and backwards, but downwards and forwards (c of fig. 4)- T^*
changes in the direction of the long axis of the bird in swimming.
diving and flying, and in the direction of the stroke 0/ the *v>P
in sub-aquatic and aerial flight, are due to the fact that the bird
is heavier than the air and lighter than the water.
The physical properties of water and air explain in a «?***
measure how the sailing ship differs from the balloon, and bow
the latter differs from the flying creature and flying machine
constructed on the natural type. The sailing ship is, as it were,
immersed in two oceans, viz. an ocean of water and an ocean
of air— the former being greatly heavier and denser than U*
latter. The ocean of water buoys or floats the ship, and tx
ocean of air, or part of it in motion, swells the sails which pf°P*j
the ship. The moving air. which strikes the sails directly, sin" 5
the hull of the vessel indirectly and forces it through the wat ?j
which, as explained, is a comparatively dense fluid. W^**
_ — -1
FLIGHT AND FLYING
5«3
ship is in motion it can be steered either by the sails alone, or by
the rudder alone, or by both combined. A balloon differs from
m sailing ship in being immersed in only one ocean, vis. the ocean
of air. It resembles the ship in floating upon the air, as the ship
Fio. 4.— The King Penguin in the positions assumed by a bird in (a) swimming,
(b) diving, and (c) flying.
floats upon the water; in other words, the balloon is. lighter than
Che air, as the ship is lighter than the water. But here ail analogy
ceases. The ship, in virtue of its being immersed in two fluids
having different densities, can be steered and made to tack about
in a horizontal plane in any given direction. This in the case of
the balloon, immersed in one fluid, is impossible. The balloon
in a calm can only rise and fall in a vertical line. Its horizontal
movements, which ought to be the more important, are accidental
movements due to air currents, and cannot be controlled; the
balloon, in short, cannot be guided. One might as well attempt
to steer a boat carried along by currents of water in the absence
of oars, sails and wind, as to steer a balloon carried along by
currents of air. The balloon has no bold upon the air, and this
consequently cannot be employed as a fulcrum for regulating
its course. The balloon, because of its vast size and from its
being lighter than the air, is completely at the mercy of the wind.
It forms an integral part, so to speak, of the wind for the time
being, and the direction of the wind in every instance determines
the horizontal motion of the balloon. The force required to
propel a balloon against even a moderate breeze would result in its
destruction. The balloon cannot be transferred with any degree
of certainty from one point of the earth's surface to another,
and hence the chief danger in its employment. It may, quite as
likely as not, carry its occupant* out to sea. The balloon is a
mere lifting machine and is in no sense to be regarded as a flying
machine. It resembles the flying creature only in this, that it is
immersed in the ocean of air in which it sustains itself. The mode
of-suspension is wholly different. The balloon floats because it
is lighter than the air; the flying creature floats because it extracts
from the air, by the vigorous downward action of its wings,
a certain amount of upward recoil. The balloon is passive; the
flying creature is active. The balloon is controlled by the wind;
the flying creature controls the wind. The balloon in the absence
of wind can only rise and fall in a vertical line; the flying creature
can fly in a horizontal plane in any given direction The balloon
is inefficient because of its levity; the flying creature is efficient
because of its weight.
Weight, however paradoxical it may appear, is necessary to
flight. Everything which flies is vastly heavier than the air.
The inertia of the mass of the flying creature enables it to control
and direct its movements in the air. Many are of opinion that
flight is a mere matter of levity and power. This is quite a mis-
take. No machine, however light and powerful, will ever fly
whose travelling surf aces are not properly fashioned and properly
applied to the air.
It was supposed at one time that the air sacs of birds contributed
in some mysterious way to flight, but
this is now known to be erroneous.
The bats and some of the best-flying
birds. have no air sacs. Similar re*
marks are to be made of the heated
air imprisoned within the bones of
certain birds. 1 Feathers even are not
necessary to flight. Insects and bats
have no feathers, and yet fly well.
The only facts in natural history
which appear even indirectly to
countenance the flotation theory are
the presence of a swimming bladder
in some fishes, and the existence of
membranous expansions or pseudo-
wings in- certain animals, such as
the flying fish, flying dragon and
flying squirrel.. As, however, the
?* animals referred to do not actually
fly, but merely dart into the air and
there sustain themselves for brief
intervals, they afford no real support
to the theory. The so-called floating
animals are depicted at figs. 5, 6 and 7.
It has been asserted, and with some
degree of plausibility, that a fish
lighter than the water might swim, and that a bird lighter
than the air might fly: it ought, however, to be borne m mind
Fio. S-— The Red-throated Dragon Fig. 6.— The Flying Colugo
(Draco hatmalopoion). (Gateo&ithecus volant) ; also called
flying lemur and flying squirrel.
FlC. 7.— The Frying Fish (Exocoehts exitiens).
that, in point of fact, a fish lighter than the water could not hold
its own if the water were in the least perturbed, and that a bird
lighter than the air would be swept into space by even a moderate
1 According to Dr Crisp, the swallow, martin, snipe and many birds
of passage have no air to their bone*. — Proc. loot. Soc. Land, part
x«v., 1*57, p. 13.
5°4
FLIGHT AND FLYING
breeze without hope of return. Weight and power are always
associated in living animals, and the fact that living animals are
made heavier than the medium they are to navigate may be
regarded as a conclusive argument in favour of weight being
necessary alike to the swimming of the fish and the flying of the
bird. It may be stated once for all that flying creatures are for
the most part as heavy, bulk for bulk, as other animals, and that
flight in every instance is the product, not of superior levity,
but of weight and power directed upon properly constructed
flying organs.
This fact is important as bearing on the construction of flying
machines. It shows that a flying machine need not necessarily
be a light, airy structure exposing an immoderate amount of
surface. On the contrary, it favours the belief that it should
be a compact and moderately heavy and powerful structure,
which trusts for elevation and propulsion entirely to its flying
appliances— whether actively moving wings, or screws, or aero-
planes wedged forward by screws. It should attack and subdue
the air, and never give the air an opportunity of attacking or
subduing it. It should smite the air intelligently and as a master,
and its vigorous well-directed thrusts should in every instance
elicit an upward and forward recoil. The flying machine must be
muttum in part*. It must launch itself in the ocean of air, and
must extract from that. air, by means of its travelling surfaces—
however fashioned and however applied— the recoil or resistance
necessary to elevate and carry it forward. Extensive inert
surfaces indeed are contra-indicated in a flying machine, as they
approximate it to the balloon, which, as has been shown, cannot
maintain its position in the air if there are air currents. A flying
machine which could not face air currents would necessarily be
a failure. To obviate this difficulty we are forced to fall back
Upon "weight, or rather the structures and appliances which weight
represents. These appliances as indicated should not be un-
necessarily expanded, but when expanded they should, wherever
practicable, be converted into actively moving flying surfaces,
in preference to fixed or inert dead surfaces.
The question of surface is a very important one in aviation:
it naturally resolves itself into one of active and passive surface.
As there are active and passive surfaces in the flying animal,
so there are, or should be, active and passive surfaces in the flying
machine. Art should follow nature in this matter. The active
surfaces in flying creatures are always greatly in excess of the
passive ones, from the fact that the former virtually increase in
proportion to the spaces through which they are made to travel.
Nature not only distinguishes between active and passivesurfaces
in flying animals, but she strikes a just balance between them,
and utilizes both. She regulates the surfaces to the strength and
weight of the flying creature and the air currents to which the
surfaces arc to be exposed and upon which they are to operate.
In her calculations she never forgets that her flying subjects are
to control and not to be controlled by the air. As a rule she
reduces the passive surfaces of the body to a minimum; she
likewise reduces as far as possible the actively moving or flying
surfaces. While, however, diminishing the surfaces of the flying
animal as a whole, she increases as occasion demands the active
or wing surfaces by wing movements, and the passive or dead
surfaces by the forward motion of the body in progressive
flight. She knows that if I he wings are driven with sufficient
rapidity they practically convert the spaces through which they
move into solid bases of support; she also knows that the body
in rapid flight derives support from all the air over which it passes.
The manner in which the wing surfaces are increased by the
wing movements will be readily understood from the accompany-
ing illustrations of the blow- fly with its wings at rest and in
motion (figs. 8 and 9). In fig. 8 the surfaces exposed by the body
of the insect and the wings are, as compared with those of fig. 9,
trifling. The wing would have much less purchase on fig. 8 than
on fig. o, provided the surfaces exposed by the latter were passive
or dead surfaces. But they are not dead surfaces^ they represent
the spaces occupied by the rapidly vibrating wings, which are
actively moving flying organs. As, moreover, the wings travel. at
a much higher speed than any wind that blows, they are superior
to and control the wind; they enable the i
the wind in whatever direction it pleases.
The reader has only to imagine figs. 8 and 9 cut out in paper to
realize that extensive, inert, horizontal aeroplanes 1 in a flying
machine would be a mistake. It is found to be so practically,
as will be shown by and by. fig. 9 so cutout would be heavier
than fig. 8, and if both were exposed to a current of air, fig, 9
would be more blown about than fig. 8.
It is true that in beetles and certain other insects there are the
elytra or wing cases— thin, light, horny structures iprHnrd
Fie. 8.— Blow-fly (Jftuai Mm iforta) Fig. o.— Blow-fly with its
with its wings at rest. in motion as in flight.
slightly upwardsT-which in the act of flight are spread oat
and act as sustainers or gliders. The elytra, however, are com-
paratively long narrow structures which occupy a position in
front of the wings, of which they may be regarded as forming
the anterior parts. The elytra are to the delicate wings of some
insects what the thick anterior margins are to stronger wings.
The elytra," moreover, are not wholly passive structures. They
can be moved, and the angles made by their under surfaces with
the horizon adjusted. Finally, they are not essential to flight,
as flight in the great majority of instances is performed without
them. The elytra serve as protectors to the wings when the
wings are folded upon the back of the insect, and as they are
extended on cither side of the body more or less horizontally when
the insect is flying they contribute to flight indirectly, in virtue
of their being carried forward by the body in motion.
Natural Flight. — The manner in which the wings of the insect
traverse the air, so as practically to increase the basis of support,
raises the whole subject of natural flight. It is necessary, there-
fore, at this stage to direct the attention of the reader somewhat
fully to the subject of flight, as witnessed in the insect, bird and
bat, a knowledge of natural flight preceding, and being in some
sense indispensable to, a knowledge of artificial flight. The
bodies of flying creatures are, as a rule, very strong, compara-
tively light and of an elongated form,— the bodies of birds being
specially adapted for cleaving the air. Flying creatures, however,
are less remarkable for their strength, shape and comparative
levity than for the size and extraordinarily rapid and complicated
movements of their wings. Prof. J. Bell Pettigrew first satis-
factorily analysed those movements, and reproduced them by
the aid of artificial wings. This physiologist in 1867* showed
that all natural wings, whether of the insect, bird or bat, are
screws structurally, and that they act as screws when they are
made to vibrate, from the fact that they twist in opposite
directions during the down and up strokes. He also explained
that all wings act upon a common principle, and that they
present oblique, kite-like surfaces to the air, through which they
pass much in the same way that an oar passes through water
in sculling. He further pointed out that the wings of flying
creatures (contrary to received opinions, and as has been already
indicated) strike downwards and forwards during the down
strokes, and upwards and forwards during the up strokes. Lastly
he demonstrated that the wings of flying creatures, when the
1 By the term aeroplane Is meant a thin, light, expanded structure
inclined at a slight upward angle to the horizon intended to float or
rest upon the air, and calculated to afford a certain amount of support
to any body attached to it.
1 " On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to Aeronautics,
by J. Bell Pettigrew, Proc. Roy. Inst., 1867; "On the Mechanical
Appliances by which Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom.*
by the same author, Trans. Linn. Soc. % 1867.
FLIGHT AND FLYING
bodies of said creatures are fixed, describe Jigure-of-8 tracks in
space — the figure-of-8 tracks, when the bodies are released and
advancing as in rapid flight, being opened out and converted
into nosed tracks.
It may be well to explain here that a claim has been set up by his
admire/* for the celebrated artist, architect and engineer, Leonardo
da Vinci, to be regarded as the discoverer of the principles and
Attn Materie, written in 1505, consists of a short manuscript of
twenty-seven small quarto pages, with simple sketch illustrations
interspersed in the text. In addition he makes occasional references
tp flight in his other manuscripts, which are also illustrated. In
none of Leonardo's manuscripts, however, and in none of his figures.
is the slightest hint given of his having any knowledge of the spiral
movement* made by the wing in flight or of the spiral structure of the
wine itself. It is claimed that Leonardo knew the direction of the
stroke of the wing, as revealed by recent researches and proved by
modern instantaneous photography. As a matter of fact, Leonardo
gives a wholly inaccurate account of the direction of the stroke of
the wing. He states that the wing during the down stroke strikes
downwards and backwards, whereas m reality it strikes downwards
and forwards. In speaking of artificial flight Leonardo says: "The
wings have to row downwards and backwards to support the machine
on high, so that it moves forward." In speaking of natural flight he
remarks: " If in its descent the bird rows backwards with its wings
the bird will move rapidly; this happens because the wines strike
the air which successively runs behind the bird to fill the void
wh en ce k comes." There is nothing in Leonardo's writings to show
that be knew either the anatomy or physiology of the wing in the
Pettigrew's discovery of the figure-of-8 and waved movements
made by the wing in stationary and progressive flight was con-
firmed some two years after it was made by Prof. E. J. Marey
of Paris 1 by the aid of the " spbygmogtaph. M > The movements
in question are now regarded as fundamental, from the fact
that they are alike essential to natural and artificial flight.
The following is Pettigrew's description of wings and wing
movements published in 1867: —
" The wings of insects and birds are, as a rule, more or less tri-
angular in shape, the base of the triangle being directed towards the
body, its sides anteriorly and posteriorly. They are also conical on
section from within outwards and from before backwards, this shape
converting the pinionsjnto delicately graduated instruments balanced
with the utmost nicety to satisfy the requirements of the muscular
system on the one hand and the resistance and resiliency of the air
on the other. While all wings are graduated as explained, innumer-
able varieties- occur as to their general contour, some being falcated
or scythe-like, others oblong, others rounded or circular, some lanceo-
late and some linear. The wings of insects may consist either of one
or two pairs— the anterior or upper pair, when two are present,
being in tome Instances greatly modified and presenting a corneous
condition. They are then known as elytra, from the Cr. IXvrpor,
a sheath. Both pairs are composed of a duplicature of the integu-
ment, or investing membrane, and are strengthened in various direc-
tions by a system of hollow, horny tubes, known to entomologists as
the neurae or nervures. These nervures taper towards the extremity
of the wing, and are strongest towards its root and anterior margin,
where they supply the place of the arm in birds and bats. The neurae
are arranged at the axis of the wing after the manner of a fan or
spiral statr— the anterior one occupying a higher position than that
farther back, and so of the others. As this arrangement extends also
to the margins, the wings art more or less twisted upon th emse lv e s
and present a certain degree of convexity on their superior or upper
surface, and a corresponding concavity on their inferior or under
surface,-— their free edges supplying those fine curves which act with
such efficacy upon the air in obtaining the maximum of resistance
and the minimum of displacement. As illustrative examples of the
form of wings alluded to, those of the beetle, bee and fly may be cited
— the pinions in those insects acting as helices, or twisted lite rs, and
1 Revue des cours scicntifiques de la France etdeP Stranger. 1 869.
* The sphygmograph, as its name indicates, is a recording instru-
ment. It consists of a smoked cylinder revolving by means of clock-
work at a known speed, and a style or pen which inscribes its surface
by scratching or brushing away the lampblack. The movements to
be registered are transferred to the style or pen by one or more levers,
and the pen in turn transfers them to the cylinder, where they appear
as legible tracings. In registering the movements of the wings the
tips and margins of the pinions were, by an ingenious modification,
employed as the styles or pens. By this arrangement the different
parts of the wings were made actually to record their own movements.
As will be seen from this account, the figure-of-8 or wave theory of
stationary and progressive flight has been made the subject of a
rigorous experimenlum cruets.
505
elevating weights much greater than the area of the wings would seem
to warrant " (figs. 10 and 11) " To confer on the wings the
multiplicity of movements which they require, they are supplied
with double hinge or compound joints, which enable them to move
not only in an upward, downward, forward and backward direction,
but also at various intermediate degrees of obliquity. An insect with
wings thus hinged may. as far as steadiness of body is concerned, be
not inaptly compared to a compass set upon gimbals, where the uni-
versality of motion In one direction ensures comparative fixedness
in another." ..." All wings obtain their leverage by presenting'
oblique surfaces to
the air, the degree
of obliquity gradu-
ally increasing in a
direction from be-
hind, forwards and
downwards, during
extension when the
sudden or effective
stroke is being given, Flo. 10.— R«ht Wing of the Beetle (Coliathus
and gradually de- micans) when at rest ; seen from above,
creasing in an oppo-
site direction during
flexion, or when the
wing is being more
slowly r eco ver ed pre-
paratory to making
a second 1 ""*
effective „
insects, and this
holds true also of
birds, is therefore delivered downwards and forwards, and not, is the
majority of writers believe, vertically, or even slightly backwards . . .
The wing in the insect is more flattened than in the bind ; and advan-
tage is taken on some occasions of this circumstance, particularly in
heavy-bodied, small-winged, qutdo-flying insects, to reverse the pinion
mar* or less completely during the dawn and up strokes." . . . This
is effected in the following manner. The posterior margin of
the wing is made to rotate, during the down stroke, in a direction
from above downwards and from behind forwards— the anterior
margin travelling in an opposite direction and reciprocating.
The wing may thus be said to attack the air by a screwing
movement from above. During the up or return stroke, on the other
hand, the posterior margin rotates in a direction from below upwards
and from before backwards, so that by a similar but reverse screwing
motion the pinion attacks the air from beneath." . . ." A figure-off,
compressed laterally and placed obliquely with its long axis running
from left to right of the spectator, represents the movements in
question. The down and up strokes, as will be seen from this account,
cross each other, the wing smiting the air during its descent from
above, as in the bird and bat, and during Its ascent from below as
in the flying fish and boy's kite " (fig. 12).
Fig. 11.— Right Wing of the Beetle (Coli-
twists
forms
a true screw.
f to maki ng ,A*°' »•— "ugwwmg 01 tne Beetle {
1 ^LuTThm °lkuS mtcans) when in motion ; seen
tfmfcV in behind. This figure shows how the wing t
Urj , K £ and untwists when in action, and how it I
Fig. \2 shows the figure-of-8 made by the margins of the wing In
extension (continuous line), and flexion (dotted line). As the tip of
the wing is mid-way between its margins, a line between the continu-
ous and dotted lines gives the figure-of-8 made by the tip. The
arrows indicate the reversal of the planes of the wing, and show how
the down and up strokes cross each other.
..."The flgure-of'S action of ng explains how an insect
or bird may fix itself tn fh* air, ihtr backward and forward recipro-
cating action of the ynciion affording support, but no propulsion.
In these instance* the backward ami forward strokes are made to
counterbalance ejrh othet. Alfhuufh the figure-of-8 represents with
considerable fidelity the twisting- of ih, wing upon its axis during
extension and fU-*v.m, & hen (he ii«**t k playing its wings before an
object, or still betlm when it Is ■jfEfidally fixed, it is otherwise when
the down stroke- U .id.V-J and ihtHnwct i-c fairly on the wing and pro-
gressing rapidly. I n this cave 1 he wlntf, in virtue of its being carried
forward by the body in motion, describes an undulating or spiral
course, as shown in ng. 13."
..." The down and up strokes are compound movements —
the termination of the down stroke embracing the beginning of the
up stroke, and the termination of the up stroke including the begin-
ning of the down stroke. This is necessary m order that the down
and up strokes may glide into each other in such a manner as to
prevent jerking and unnecessary retardation." * . . .
» This continuity of the down into the up stroke and the converse
is greatly facilitated by the clastic ligaments at the root and in the
506
FLIGHT AND FLYING
" The wing of the bird, like that of the insect, U concavo-convex,
and more or less twisUd upon itself when extended, so that the anterior
or thkk margin of the pinion presents a different degree of curvature
to that of the posterior or thin margin. This twisting is in a great
measure owing to the manner in which the bones of the wing are
twisted upon themselves, and the spiral nature of their articular
surfaces— the long axes of the joints always intersecting each other
Fig. 13. — Wave track made by the wing in progressive flight, a, b t
Crests of the wave; . c, d, e, up strokes; x, x, down strokes; /, point
corresponding to the anterior margin of the wing, and forming a centre
for the downward rotation of the wing (a, g) ; g, point corresponding
to the posterior margin of the wing, and forming a centre for the
upward rotation of the wing (d,f).
at right angles, and the bones of the elbow and wrist making a quarter
of a turn or so during extension and the same amount during flexion.
As a result of this disposition of the articular surfaces, the wing may
be shot out or extended, and retracted or flexed in nearly the same
plane, the bones composing the wing rotating on their axes during
either movement (fig. 1 4). The secondary action, or the revolving 01
Extension (elbow). Flexion (wrist).
Flexion (elbow).
Extension (wrist).
Fio. 14.— «, b, line along which the wing travels during extension
and flexion. The arrows indicate the direction in which the wing is
spread out in extension and closed or folded in flexion.
the component bones on their own axes, is of the greatest importance
in the movements of the wing, as it communicates to the hand and
forearm, and consequently to the primary and secondary feathers
which they bear, the precise angles necessary for flight. It in fact
ensures that the wing, and the curtain or fringe of the wing which
the primary and secondary feathers form, shall be screwed into and
down upon the wind in extension, and unscrewed or withdrawn
from the wind during flexion. The wing of the bird may therefore
be compared to a huge gimlet or auger, the axis of the gimlet repre-
senting the bones of the wing, the flanges or spiral thread of the gimlet
the primary and secondary,
feathers " (figs. 15 and 16).
..." From this descrip-
tion it will be evident that
by the mere rotation of the
bones of the forearm and
hand the maximum and
minimum of resistance is
Fig. 15.— Right Wing of the Red- secured much in the same
legged Vinrid&(Perdix rubra). Dorsal *»*. *■* *» «*»«* . ls
a^asseenLmabove. JgJ-^ fejjg-g
an oar." ..." The wing, both when at rest and when in motion,
may not inaptly be compared to the blade of an ordinary screw
propeller as employed in navigation. Thus the general outline of
the wing corresponds closely
with the outline of the
propeller (figs. 11, 16 and
18), and the track described
by the wing in space is
twisted upon itself propeller
Fig. 16.— Right Wing of the Red- fashion* (figs. 12, 20, 21,
legged Partridge (Perdix rubra). Dorsal «. 23). The great velocity
and ventral aspects as seen from be- Wl . th wh,ch the wing is
hind; showing auger-like conformation dnven converts the impres-
ofwing. Compare with figs, u and 18. ?»°n or blur made by it
into what is equivalent to a
solid for the time being, in the same way that the spokes of a wheel
in violent motion, as is well understood, more or less completely
substance of the wing. These assist in elevating, and, when necessary,
in flexing and elevating it. They counteract in some measure what
may be regarded as the dead weight of the wing, and are especially
useful in giving it continuous play.
1 " The importance of the twisted configuration or screw-like form
cannot be over-estimated. That this shape is intimately associated
with flight is apparent from the fact that the rowing feathers of the
wing of the bird are every one of them distinctly spiral in their
nature; in fact, one entire rowing feather is equivalent — morpho-
logically and physiologically — to one entire inject wing. In the
occupy the space contained within the rim or circumference d. tkt
wheel " (figs. 9, 20 and 21).
..." The wing of the bat bears a considerable .
that of the insect* inasmuch as it consists of a delicate. 1
parent, continuous
membrane, supported in
divers directions, par-
ticularly towards its
anterior margin, by a
system of osseous stays
or stretchers which con-
fer upon it the degree
of rigidity requisite for
flight. It is, as a rule,
deeply concave on its Fig. 17.— Right Wing of the Bat (Pty
under or ventral surface, locina gracilis). Dorsal aspect as seen free
and in this respect re- ..above,
sembles the wing of the
heavy-bodied birds. The movement of the bat's wins; in cxteruka
is a spiral one, the spiral running alternately from below upwardi
and forwards and from above downwards and backwards. Tt*
action of the wing of the bat, and the movements of its composes?
bones, are essentially
the same as in the bird
(figs. 17 and 18).
. . . "The wing strikes
the air precisely as a
boy's kite would if it
^il^ff^if"& Fw- »*•— Wght Wing of the Bat («*
!w° n # d £? re ""iX;5 /«^sTactfi»).T5orsalandveiPtfalaspects.
that the kite is puUed M „£ (n £ hAkidt j^ mh ^T^
&°%i S Z%H ^"IS! •crew-like configuration of the wing. aad
E y i J£22! "* Ik also h °" the wing twists and untwists
K.tSr.nd & <-ng its actio*
the wing is pushed forwards on the wind by the weight of the body
and the power residing in the pinion itself " (fig. 19).*
Fig. 19. — The Cape Barn-owl (Strix capensis), showing the kite-
like surfaces presented by the ventral aspect of the wings and body
in flight.
' The figure-of-8 and kite-like action of the wing referred to
lead us to explain how it happens that the wing, which in many
instances is' a comparatively small and delicate organ, can yet
attack the air with such vigour as to extract from it the recoil
necessary to elevate and propel the flying creature. The accom-
panying figures from one of Pcttigrew's later memoirs* wiD
serve to explain the rationale (figs. 20, 21, 22 and 23).
As will be seen from these figures, the wing during its vibratioa
sweeps through a comparatively very large space. This space,
as already explained, is practically a solid basis of support for
the wing and for the flying animal The wing attacks the air
in such a manner as virtually to have no slip — this for two
reasons. The wing reverses instantly and acts as a kite during
nearly the entire down and up strokes. The angles, moreover,
made by the wing with the horizon during the down and up
strokes are at no two intervals the same, but (and this is a
wing of the martin, where the bones of the pinion are short, and ia
some respects rudimentary, the primary and secondary feathers are
greatly developed, and banked up in such a manner that the wing
as a whole presents the same curves as those displayed by the
insect's wing, or by the wing of the eagle, where the bones, muscles
and feathers have attained a maximum development. The coo-
formation of the wing is such that it presents a waved appearance
in every direction — the waves running longitudinally, transversely
and obliquely. The greater portion of the wing may consequently
be removed without essentially altering either its form or hs func-
tions. This is proved by making sections in various directions,
and by finding that in some instances as much as two-thirds of the
...: w_f 1 ^a ....i_... — » — s-ii__ : :^ n g ^ p^ef of
326.
to Aeronaut! s,"
Proc. Roy. Inst., 1867; " On the Mechanical Appliances by which
Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom," Trans. Linn. Sec.,
1867.26.
1 " On the Physiology of Wings; being an analysis of the move-
ments by which flight is produced in the Insect, Bat and Bird,"
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edtn. vol. 26.
ana Dy nnaing mat in some instances as mucn as iwo-i
wing may be lopped off without materially impairing t
flight." — Trans. Roy. Soc. Edtn. vol. xxvi. pp. $25, 326.
* " On the Various Modes of Flight in relation to A
FLIGHT AND FLYING
507
remarkable dtcunsUnce) they are always adapted to the speed
at which the wing is travelling for the time being. The increase
and decrease in the angles made by the wing as it hastens to
and fro are due partly to the resistance offered by the air, and
partly to the mechanism and mode of application of the wing
to the air. The wing, during its vibrations, routes upon two
separate centres, the tip routing round the root of the wing as
an axis (short axis of wing), the posterior margin routing around
Flo. 90.
Fig. 21.
Fie. 22. Fio. 23.
Figs, so, 21, 22 and 23 show the area mapped out by the left wing
of the Wasp when the insect is fixed and the wing made to vibrate.
These figures illustrate the various angles made by the wing with the
horizon as it hastens to and fro, and snow how the wing reverses and
reciprocates, and how it twists upon itself in opposite directions, and
describes a figure-of-8 track in space. Figs. 20 and 22 represent the
forward or down stroke (a b c d « / g) f figs. 21 and 23 the backward
or up stroke (1 h ii k I a). The terms forward and back strokes are
here employed with reference to the head of the insect, x, ar*, line
to represent the horizon. If fig. 22, representing the down or forward
stroke, be placed upon fig. 23, representing the up or backward
stroke, it will be seen that the wing trows its awn track more or less
completely at every stage of the down and up strokes.
the anterior margin (long axis of wing). The wing is really
eccentric in its nature, a remark which applies also to the rowing
feathers of the bird's wing, The compound rotation goes on
throughout the entire down and up strokes, and is intimately
associated with the power which the wing enjoys of alternately
seizing and evading the air.
The compound rotation of the wing is greatly facilitated by
the wing being elastic and flexible. It is this which causes the
wing to twist and untwist-diagonally on its long axis when it is
made to vibrate. The twisting referred to is partly a vital and
partly a mechanical act;— that is, it is occasioned in part by
the action of the muscles and in part by the greater resistance
experienced from the air by the tip and posterior margin of the
wing as compared with the root and anterior margin,— the re-
sistance experienced by the tip and posterior margin causing
them to reverse always subsequently to the root and anterior
margin, which has the effect of throwing the anterior and posterior
margins of the wing into figure-of-8 curves, as shown at figs.
9, 11, is, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22 and 23.
The compound rotation of the wing, as seen in the bird, is
represented in fig. 24.
Not the least curious feature of the wing movements is the
remarkable power which the wing possesses of making and
utilizing iu own currents. Thus, when the wing descends it
draws after it a strong current, which, being met by the wing
during iu ascent, greatly increases the efficacy of the up stroke.
Similarly and conversely, when the wing ascends, it creates an
upward current, which, being met by the wing when it descends,
powerfully contributes to the efficiency of the down stroke.
This statement can be readily verified by experiment both with
natural and artificial wings. Neither the up nor the down strokes
are complete in themselves.
The wing to act efficiently must be driven at a certain speed,
and in such a manner that the down and up strokes shall glide
into each other. It is only m this way that the air can be made
to pulsate, and that the rhythm of the wing and the air waves
can be made to correspond. The air must be seized and let go
in a certain order and at a certain speed to extract a maximum
recoil. The rapidity of the wing movements Is regulated by the
size of the wing, small wings being driven at a very much higher
speed than larger ones. The different parts of the wing, more-
over, travel at different degrees of velocity — the tip and posterior
margin of the wing always rushing through a much greater
space, in a given time, than the root and anterior margin.
Fio. ax.— Wing of the Bird with Its root (a, •) cranked forwards.
their long axis (they are
eccentrics) enables them
to open or separate during
a, 4, Short axis of the wing (axis
for tip of wing, h).
c, d, Long axis (axis for posterior
margin of wing, A, i,j, *, /).
mi, w, Short axis of rowing
feathers of wing,
r, «, Long axis of rowing feathers «/, g p. concave shape presented
of wing. The rotation of by the under surface of the
the rowing feathers on
the up, and close or come
together during the down
byt
wing.
The rapidity of travel of the Insect wing Is in some eases
enormous. The wasp, for instance, is said to ply its wings at
the rate of no, and the common house-fly at the rate of 330
beats per second. Quick as are the vibrations of natural wings,
the speed of certain parts of the wing is amazingly increased.
Wings as a rule. are long and narrow. As a consequence, a
comparatively slow and very
limited movement at the root
confers great range and im-
mense speed at the tip, the
speed of each portion of the
wing increasing as the root of
the wing is receded from. This
b explained on a principle well
understood in mechanics, vis.
that when a wing or rod
hinged at one end is made to
move in a circle, the tip or
free end of the wing or rod
^^tTo^t'no^on Flc ' « ,' h ™ b ™ diffc ™<
m a mven time than a portion ^0^ f ^ ^^ travel at
of the wing or rod nearer the different degrees of speed. In this
hinge (fig. 25). figure the rod a, b, hinged at x,
One naturally Inquires why represents the wing. When the
.k-u-lT.™i „f i!«.. *Ja *">*: » »«» to vibrate, its several
the high speed of wings, and portVis travel through the spaces
why the progressive increase d b f. j h i, g h «, and e a c in
of speed at their tips and exactly the same interval of time.
posterior margins? The Th ?.P art <* tte jl wln f, m *? w l.^
'l^ f ._T A «^ t t* which corresponds with the tip,
answer is not tar to seek, It consequently travels very much
the wings were not driven at m ore rapidly than the part marked
a high speed, and if they were a, which corresponds with the root,
not eccentrics made to revolve «• *V> P> < = urve8 # ™f d * bv l } e - win *
„^« +-~ *..*.*»»» .... «k* v at tne «» d of tft e up and. down
upon two separate axes, they rtroke$ . f| position of the wing at
would of necessity be laige the middle of the stroke,
cumbrous structures; but
large heavy wings would be difficult to work, and what is
worse, they would (il too large), instead of controlling the
air, be controlled by it, and so cease to be flying organs.
There is, however, another reason why wings should be made
to vibrate at high speeds. The air, as explained, is a very light,
thin, elastic medium, which yields on the slightest pressure, and
unless the wings attacked it with great violence the necessary
recoil or resistance could not be obtained. The atmosphere,
because of its great tenuity, mobility and comparative imponder-
ability, presents little resistance to bodies passing through it at
low velocities. If, however, the speed be greatly accelerated,
508
FLIGHT AND FLYING
the action of even an ordinary cane is sufficient to elicit a recoil.
This conies of the action and reaction of matter, the resistance
experienced varying according to the density of the atmosphere
and the shape, extent and velocity of the body acting upon it.
While, therefore, scarcely any impediment is offered to the pro-
gress of an animal in motion in the air, it is often exceedingly
difficult to compress the air with sufficient rapidity and energy
to convert it into a suitable fulcrum for securing the necessary
support and forward impetus. This arises from the fact that
bodies moving in air experience a minimum of resistance and
occasion a maximum of displacement. Another and very obvious
difficulty is traceable to the great disparity in the weight of air
as compared with any known solid, and the consequent want of
buoying or sustaining power which that disparity involves. If
we compare air with water we find it is nearly xooo times lighter.
To meet these peculiarities the insect, bird and bat are furnished
with extensive flying surfaces in the shape of wings, which they
apply with singular velocity and power to the air, as levers of
the third order. In this form of lever the power is applied
between the fulcrum and the weight to be raised. The power
is represented by the wing, the fulcrum by the air, and the
weight by the body of the flying animal. Although the third
order of lever is particularly inefficient when the fulcrum is rigid
and immobile, it possesses singular advantages when these
conditions are reversed, that is, when the fulcrum, as happens
with the air, is elastic and yielding. In this instance a very slight
movement at the root of the pinion, or that end of the lever
directed towards the body,
is followed by an immense
sweep of the extremity of
the wing, where its elevat-
^ ing and propelling power
'"M is greatest — this arrange-
t i ment ensuring that the
W large quantity of air
""> necessary for support and
A propulsion shall be com-
U - -
Fig. a6. — In thtsfigurc/./'represei
the movable fulcra furnished by tl
j pressed under the most
favourable conditions.
nt In this process the
d by the
me muvduic micro lurmsnea uy uie _,_;_u* ~t *U- U~A„ .«_.
air. pp' the power residing in the wing, ™& it of . tnc bodv P"'
and b the body to be moved. In order forms an important part,
to make the problem of flight more in- by acting upon the in-
telligible, the lever formed by the wine dincd planc5 formcd by
» prolonged beyond the body (b), and 4k- -jJI. ;„ -u.. -j.«. It
to the root of the wing so extended the the mn & m l |* P lan « «*
weight (i»,iO is attached ;x represents progression. The power
the universal joint by which the wing and the weight may thus
is attached to the body. When the be said to reciprocate, .the
wing ascends as shown at p, the air # ___ .,„■__ __ j, ' '_ ;j-
(fulcVum f) resists its upward passage. * wo """*** ll *"* ? d . c
and forces the body (I) or its repre- by side and blending their
scntative (w) slightly downwards, peculiar influences to pro-
When the wing descends as shown at duce a common result, as
fr t the air (fulcrum f) resists its down- .•_,!;„, .j at e, m „*
ward passage, and forces the body (6) ^cated at fig. 26.
or its representative («r*) slightly up- When the wings descend
wards. From this it follows that when they elevate the body, the
the wing rises the body falls, and vice w i ng5 being active and
versa— the wing describing the arc of tll _ |L^i„ «„««:„«. «,k*«
a large circle (/}•). the body (6),or the £• body passive; when
weights (w, w'J representing it, describ- the body descends it con-
ing the arc of a small circle. tributes to the elevation of
the wings, 1 the body being
active and the wings more or less passive. It is in this way that
weight forms a factor in flight, the wings and the weight of the body
reciprocating and mutually assisting and relieving each other.
This is an argument for employing four wings in artificial flight, —
the wings being so arranged that the two which are up shall
always by their fall mechanically elevate the two which are
down. Such an arrangement is calculated greatly to conserve
the driving power, and as a consequence, to reduce the weight.
1 The other forces which assist in elevating the wings are — (a) the
elevator muscles of the wings, (6) the elastic properties of the wings,
and (c) the reaction of the compressed air on the under surfaces of
the wings.
rS^^*
That the weight of the body plays an important pan is the
production of flight may be proved by a very simple expexisicBt.
If two quill feathers are fixed man ordinary cork, and so a
that tbey expand and arch
above it (fig. 27), it is found
that if the apparatus be
dropped from a vertical \£
height of 3 yds. it does \J e
not fall vertically down-
wards, but downwards and
forwards in a curve, the
forward travel amounting
in some instances to a yard
and a half. Here the cork,
in falling, acts upon the St
feathers (which arc to all * f — **^ f
intents and purposes wings), y
and these in turn act upon Fig. 27.— a, b t qufll feather*: c
the air, in such a manner as cork: d, ej, g, downwardaad fe^
to produce a horizontal dLZttSXX£&&
transference. ground (A, *).
In order to utilize the air
as a means of transit, the body in motion, whether it moves
in virtue of the life it possesses, or because of a force super-
added, must be heavier than air. It must tread with its
wings and rise upon the air as a swimmer upon the water,
or as a kite upon the wind. This is necessary for the simple
reason that the body must be active, the air passive. Tbe
flying body must act against gravitation, and elevate and
carry itself forward at the expense of the air and of the force
which resides in it, whatever that may be. If it were other-
wise — if it were rescued from the law of gravitation on the
one hand, and bereft of independent movement on the other.
it would float about uncontrolled and uncontrollable like an
ordinary balloon.
In flight one of two things is necessary. Either the wings must
attack the air with great violence, or the air in rapid motion must
attack the wings: either suffices. If a bird attempts to fly in a
calm, the wings must be made to smite the air after the manner
of a boy's kite with great vigour and at a high speed. In this
case the wings fly the bird. If, however, the bird is fairly
launched in space and a stiff breeze is blowing, all that is required
in many instances is to extend the wings at a slight upward
angle to the horizon so that the under parts of the wings present
kite-like surfaces. In these circumstances the rapidly moving
air flies the bird. The flight of the albtftross supplies the necessary
illustration. If by any chance this magnificent bird alights
upon the sea he must flap and beat the water and air with his
wings with tremendous energy until he gets fairly launched.
This done he extends his enormous pinions* and sails majestically
along, seldom deigning to flap his wings, the breeze doing the
work for him. A familiar illustration of the same principle may
be witnessed any day when children are engaged in the pastime
of kite-flying. If two boys attempt to fly a kite in a calm, the
one must hold up the kite and let go when the other runs. In
this case the under surface of the kite is made to strike the still
air. If, however, a stiff autumn breeze be blowing, it suffices if
the boy who formerly ran when the kite was let go stands stfll
In this case the air in rapid motion strikes the under surface
of the kite and forces it up. The string and the hand are to tbe
kite what the weight of the flying creature is to the inclined
planes formed by its wings.
The area of the insect, bird and bat, when the wings are fully
expanded, is greater than that of any other class of animal,
their weight being proportionally less. As already stated,
however, it ought never to be forgotten that even the lightest
insect, bird or bat is vastly heavier than the air, and that no
fixed relation exists between the weight of body and expanse
of wing in any of the orders. We have thus light-bodied and
* The wings of the albatross, when fully extended, measure across
the back some 14 ft. They arc exceedingly narrow, being sometimes
under a Toot in width.
PLIGHT AND FLYING
5°9
Urge-winged insects and birds, as the butterfly and heron; and
others with heavy bodies and small wings, as the beetle and
partridge. Similar remarks are to be made of bats. Those
apparent inconsistencies in the dimensions of the body and wings
are readily explained by the greater muscular development
of the heavy-bodied, small-winged insects, birds and bats, and
the increased power and rapidity with which the wings in them
are made to oscillate. This is of the utmost importance in the
science of aviation, as showing that flight may be attained by a
heavy powerful animal with comparatively small wings, as well
as by a lighter one with greatly enlarged wings. While, therefore,
there is apparently no correspondence between the area of the
wing and the .animal to be raised, there is, except in the case of
sailing insects, birds and bats, an unvarying relation as to the
weight and number of oscillations; so that the problem of flight
would seem to resolve itself into one of weight, power, velocity
and small surfaces, versus buoyancy, debility, diminished speed
and extensive surfaces— weight in either case being a sine qua
non.
That no fixed relation exists between the area of the wings and
the size and weight of the body to
be elevated is evident on comparing
the dimensions of the wings and
bodies of the several orders of insects,
bats and birds. If such comparison
be made, it will be found that the
pinions in some instances diminish
while the bodies increase, and the
converse. No practical good can
therefore accrue to aviation from
elaborate measurements of the wings
and body of any flying thing; neither
can any rule be laid down as to the
extent of surface required for sus-
taining a given weight in the air.
The statements here advanced are
borne out by the fact that the wings
of insects, bats and birds may be
materially reduced without impair-
ing their powers of flight. In such
cases the speed with which the
wings are driven is increased in
the direct ratio of the mutilation.
The inference to be deduced from the foregoing is plainly this,
that even in large-bodied, small-winged insects and birds the
wing-surface is greatly in excess, the surplus wing area supplying
this we have a partial explanation of the buoyancy of insects,
and the great lifting power possessed by birds and bats,— the
bats carrying their young without inconvenience, the birds elevat-
ing surprising quantities of fish, game, carrion, &c. (fig. 28).
While as explained, no definite relation exists between the
weight of a flying animal and the size of its flying surfaces, there
being, as stated, heavy-bodied and small-winged insects, birds
and bats, and the converse, and while, as has been shown, flight
is possible within a wide range, the wings being, as a rule, in
excess of what are required for the purposes of flight, — still it
appears from the researches of L. de Lucy that there is a general
law, to the effect that the larger the volant animal, the smaller,
by comparison, are its flying surfaces. The existence of such
a law is very encouraging so far as artificial flight is concerned,
for it shows that the flying surfaces of a large, heavy, powerful
flying machine will be comparatively small, and consequently
comparatively compact and strong. This is a point of very
considerable importance, as the object desiderated in a flying
machine is elevating capacity.
De Lucy tabulated his results as under. —
Insects,
Birds.
Flying Surface
referred to the
Names.
Kilogramme
»2lb8oz. jdwt.
Names.
Flying Surface
referred to the
2 gr. avoird.
-2 ft 3 oz. 4*428
Kilogramme.
dr. troy.
yds. ft. in.
sq.
yds. ft. in.
Gnat
11 8 92
Swallow . *
1 1 104!
Dragon-fly (small) . .
Coccindla (Lady-bird) .
7 2 56
5 «J »7
Sparrow • *
Turtle-dove *
5 142J
4 IOOj
Dragon-fly (common)
Tipula,or Daddy-long-legs
3 2 89
Pigeon ....
2 113
3 5 11
Stork .
2 20
Bee
" a 74*
1 3 54*
I 2 2Q
Vulture
1 116
Meat-fly . . . . ,
Drone (blue) . . .
Crane of Australia .
130
Cockchafer ....
i a 50
f Stag-beetle >
Lucanusj (female) >
1 1 391
corpus \ Stag-beetle J
I Tmale) \ '
8 33
Rhinoceros-beetle . .
6 1.22^
Fig. 28.— Hawk and Pigeon.
tlut degree of elevating and sustaining power whkh is necessary
*° prevent undue exertion on the part of the volant animal. In
" It is easy, by the aid of this table, to follow the order, always
decreasing, of the surfaces, in proportion as the winged animal in*
creases in size and weight. Thus, in comparing the insects with one
another, we find that the gnat, which weighs 460 times less than the
stag-beetle, has 14 times more of surface. The lady-bird weighs
150 times less than the stag-beetle, and possesses 5 times more of
surface, Ac It is the same with the birds. The sparrow weighs
about 10 times less than the pigeon, and has twice as much surface.
The pigeon weighs about 8 times less than the stork, and has twice
as much surface. The sparrow weighs 339 times less than the
Australian crane, and possesses 7 times more surface, &c. If now
we compare the insects and the birds, the gradation will become
even much more striking. The gnat, for example, weighs 97 t ooo
times leas than the pigeon, and has 40 times more surface ; it weighs
three millions of times less than the crane of Australia, and possesses
140 times more of surface than this latter, the weight of which is
about 9 kilogrammes 500 grammes (25 lb 5 oz. 9 dwt. troy, 20 lb 15 oz.
2\ dr. avoirdupois).
The Australian crane, the heaviest bird weighed, is that which has
the smallest amount of surface, for, referred to the kilogramme, it
does not give us a surface of more than 899 square centimetres (139
sq. in.), that is to say, about an eleventh part of a square metre.
But every one knows that these graUatorial animals are excellent
birds of flight. Of all travelling birds they undertake the longest
and most remote journeys. They are, in addition, the eagle excepted,
the birds which elevate themselves the highest, and the flight of which
is the longest maintained.'' 1
The way in which the natural wing rises and falls on the air,
and reciprocates with the body of the flying creature, has a very
obvious bearing upon artificial flight. In natural flight the body
of the flying creature falls slightly forward in a curve when the
1 On ike Flight of Birds, of Bats and of Insects, in referent* to the
subject of Aortal Locomotion, by L. de Lucy (Paris).
5io
FLIGHT AND FLYING
wing ascends, and is slightly elevated in a curve when the wing
descends. The wing and body are consequently always playing
at cross purposes, the wing rising when the body is falling and
vice versa. The alternate rise and fall of the body and wing of
the bird are well seen when contemplating the flight of the gull
4**»^
Fig. 29 shows how in progressive flight the wing and the body
describe waved tracks, — the crests of the waves made by the wing
(a. c, e, g, •") being placed opposite the crests of the waves made by
the body i, 2, 3, 4, 5).
from the stern of a steamboat, as the- bird is following in the wake
of the vessel. The complementary movements referred to are
indicated at fig. 29, where the continuous waved line represents
the trajectory made by the wing, and the dotted waved line that
made by the body. As will be seen from this figure, the wing
advances both when it rises and when U falls. It is a peculiarity
of natural wings, and of artificial wings constructed on the
principle of living wings, that when forcibly elevated or depressed,
even in a strictly vertical direction, they inevitably dart forward.
If, for instance, the wing is suddenly depressed in a vertical
direction, as at a b of fig. 29, it at once darts downwards and
forwards in a double curve (see continuous line of figure) to c,
thus converting the vertical down stroke into a down, oblique,
forward stroke. If, again, the wing be- suddenly elevated in a
strictly vertical direction, as at c d , the wing as certainly darts
upwards and forwards in a- double curve to e, thus converting
the vertical up strokes into an upward, oblique, forward stroke.
The same thing happens when the wing is depressed from e to /
and elevated from g to h, the wing describing a waved track as at
« t, t *•
There are good reasons why the wings should always be in
advance of the body. A bird when flying is a body in motion;
but a body in motion tends to fall not vertically downwards,
but downwards and forwards. The wings consequently must
be made to strike forwards and kept in advance of the body of the
bird if they are to prevent the bird from falling downwards and
forwards. If the wings were to strike backwards in aerial flight,
the bird would turn a forward somersault.
That the wings invariably strike forwards during the down and
up strokes in aerial flight is proved alike by observation and
experiment. If any one watches a bird rising from the ground
or the water, he cannot fail to perceive that the bead and body
are slightly tilted upwards, and that the wings are made to
descend with great vigour in a downward and forward direction.
The dead natural wing and a properly constructed artificial
wing act in precisely the same way. If the wing of a gannet,
just shot, be removed and made to flap in what the operator
believes to be a strictly vertical downward direction, the tip of
the wing, in spite of him, will dart forwards between 2 and 3 ft.
—the amount of forward movement being regulated by the
rapidity of the down stroke. This is a very striking experiment.
The same thing happens with a properly constructed artificial
wing. The down stroke with the artificial as with the natural
wing is invariably converted into an oblique, downward and
forward stroke. No one ever saw a bird in the air flapping its
wings towards its tail. The old idea was that the wings during
the down stroke pushed the body of the bird in an upward and
forward direction; in reality the wings do not push but puil, and
in order to pull they must always be in advance of the body to
be flown. If the wings did not themselves fly forward, they could
not possibly cause the body of the bird to fly forward. It is the
wings which cause the bird to fly.
It only remains to be stated that the wing acts as a true kite,
during both the down and the up strokes, its under concave
or biting surface, in virtue of the forward travel communicated
to it by the body of the flying creature, being closely applied
to the air, during both its ascent and its descent. This explains
how the wing furnishes * persistent buoyancy alike when, it rises
and when it fails (fig. 30).
The natural kite formed by the wing differs from the artificial
kite only in this, that the former is capable of being moved in
all its parts, and b more or less flexible and elastic, whereas the
latter is comparatively rigid. The flexibility and elasticity of
the Jute formed by the natural wing are rendered necessary by
the fact that the wing, as already stated, is practically biased
at its root and along its anterior margin, an arrangement which
necessitates its several parts travelling at different degrees of
speed, in proportion as they are removed from the axes of
rotation. Thus the tip travels at a higher speed than the root,
and the posterior margin than the anterior margin. This begets*
twisting diagonal movement of the wing on its long axis, which, but
for the elasticity referred to, would break the wing into fragments.
The elasticity contributes also to the continuous play of the wing,
and ensures that no two pans of it shall reverse at exactly the
same instant. If the wing was inelastic, every part of it would
reverse at precisely the same moment, and its vibration would be
characterized by pauses or dead points at the end of the down
and up strokes which would be fatal to it as a flying <
Fig. 30 shows the kite-like action of the wing during the down and
up strokes, how the angles made by the wing with the horizon (a, 6)
vary at every stage of these strokes, and how the wing evades the
superimposed air during the up stroke, and seizes the nether air
during the down stroke. In this figure the spaces between the double
dotted lines (c g, i b) represent the down strokes, the single dotted line
(a, 1) representing the up stroke. The kite-like surfaces and angles
made by the wing with the horizon (a, b) during the down strokes
arc indicated ztcdefg.jhl m, — those made during the up stroke*
being indicated at g h t. As the down and up strokes run into each
other, and the convex surface of the wing is always directed upwards
and the concave surface downwards, it follows that the upper surface
of the wing evades in a great measure the upper air, while the under
surface seizes the nether air. It is easy to understand from this
figure how the wing always flying forwards furnishes a persistent
buoyancy.
The elastic properties of the wing are absolutely essential, when
the mechanism and movements of the pinion are taken into
account. A rigid wing can never be an effective flying instru-
ment.
The kite-like surfaces referred to in natural flight are those
upon which the constructors of flying machines very properly
ground their hopes of ultimate success. These surfaces may be
conferred on artificial wings, aeroplanes, aerial screws or similar
structures; and these structures, if we may judge from what
we find in nature, should be of moderate sue and elastic. The power
of the flying organs will be increased if they are driven at a com-
paratively high speed, and particularly if they are made to
reverse and reciprocate, as in this case they will practically
create the currents upon which they are destined to rise and
advance. The angles made by the kite-like surfaces with the
horizon should vary according to circumstances. They should
be small when the speed is high, and vice versa. This, as stated,
is true of natural wings. It should also be true of artificial wings
and their analogues.
Artificial Flight. — We arc now in a position to enter upon a
consideration of artificial wings and wing movements, and of
artificial flight and flying machines.
We begin with artificial wings. The first properly authenti-
cated account of an artificial wing was given by G. A. Boreili
in 1670. This author, distinguished alike as a physiologist,
mathematician and mechanician, describes and figures a bird
with artificial wings, each of which consists of rigid rod in front
and flexible feathers behind. The wings are represented as striking
vertically downwards, as the annexed duplicate of Borelli's figure
shows (fig. 31).
Borelti wasof opinion that flight resulted from the application
of an' inclined plane, which beau the air, and which has a wedge
FLIGHT AND FLYING
5"
He, m fact, endeavours to prove that a bird wedges
itself forward upon the air by tbe perpendicular vibration of its
wings, the wings during their action forming a wedge, the bate of
which (c b «) is directed to-
wards the head of the bird,
the apex (« f) being directed
towards the tail (d). In the
196th proposition of his work
(De motu —imolium, Leiden*
1685) he states that—
" If the expanded wings of a
bird suspended in the air shall
strike the undisturbed air be-
neath it with a motion perpen-
dicular to the horiton, the bird
will fly with a transverse motion
BoreflTs bird with artificial wings, in a plane parallel with the
r e. Anterior margin of the right borison." " If "he adds, "the
wiiig^nststingofarigXdrod. wings of the bird be expanded,
Posterior margin of the -~ Ufc *"d *** «»<1** -irk", «f the
ght and the under surface* of the
Dsterior margin or the right «»« ™» »«"* wukwxm «* uk
wing, consisting of flexible *»g» be struck by the air
tetters, ascending perpendicularly to Ike
interior* and horison with such a force as
Posterior margins of the left *baU prevent tbe bwd gliding
wing tame as the right. downwards (u*. with a ten*
'"til of the bird. «°cy to ghoB downwards) from
- » falling, it will be urged in a
i"
wini
d. Tail of the bircL
r g . d a. Vertical direction of the . . -. , .. . ,
down stroke of the wing, bomontal direction.
The same argument is re-
'ttated in different words as under: — M If the air under the wings be
struck by the flexible portions of the wings (flabdla, literally fly
flaps or small fans) with a motion perpendicular to tbe borison, the
sails (nsla) and flexible portions of the wings (JabeUa) will yield in
an upward direction and form a wedge, the point of which is
directed towards the tail. Whether, therefore, the air strikes the
wings from below, or the wings strike the air from above, the result
is the same.— the posterior or flexible margins of the wings yield
m on upward direction, and in so doing urge the bird in a hori-
zontal dtrtction."
There are three points in Borelli's argument to which it is
necessary to draw attention: (x) the direction of the down
stroke: it is stated to be vertically downwards; (a) the construc-
tion of the anterior margin of the wing: it is stated to consist
of a rigid rod; (3) the function delegated to the posterior margin
of the wing: it is said to yield in an upward direction during the
down stroke.
With regard to the first point. It is incorrect to say the wing
strikes vertically downwards, for, as already explained, the body
of a flying bird is a body in motion; but as a body in motion
tends to fall downwards and forwards, the wing must strike
downwards and forwards in order effectually to prevent its fall.
Moreover, in point of fact, all natural wings, and all artificial
wings constructed on the natural type, invariably strike down-
wards and forwards.
With regard to the second point, viz. the supposed rigidity
of the anterior margin of the wing, itis only necessary to examine
the anterior margins of natural wings to be convinced that they
are in every case flexible and elastic. Similar remarks apply to
properly constructed artificial wings. If the anterior margins of
natural and artificial wings were rigid, it would be impossible
to make them vibrate smoothly and continuously. This is a
matter of experiment. If a rigid rod, or a wing with a rigid
anterior margin, be made to vibrate, the vibration is characterized
by an unequal jerky motion, at the end of the down and up
strokes, which contrasts strangely with the smooth, steady
fanning movement peculiar to natural wings.
As to tbe third point, viz. the upward bending of tbe posterior
margin of the wing during the down stroke, it is necessary to
remark that the statement is true if it means a slight upward
bending, but that it is untrue if it means an extensive upward
bending.
Borelli does not state the amount of upward bending, but one
of his followers, E. J. Marey, maintains that during tbe down
stroke the wing yields until its under surface makes a backward
angle with the horizon of 45°- Marey further states that during
the up stroke tbe wing yields to a corresponding extent in an
opposite direction— the posterior margin of the wing, according
to him, passing through an angk of oo°, plus or minus according
to circumstances, every time the wing rises and falls.
That the posterior margin of the wing yields to a slight extent
during both the down and up strokes will readily be admitted,
alike because of tbe very delicate and highly elastic properties
of the posterior margins of the wing, and because of the com*
parattvdy great force employed in its propulsion; but that it
does not yield to tbe extent stated by Marey is a matter of
absolute certainty. This admits of direct proof. If any one
watches the horizontal or upward flight of a large bird he will
observe that the posterior or flexible margin of the wing never
rises during the down stroke to a perceptible extent, so that the
under surface of the wing, as a whole, never looks backwards.
On the contrary, he will perceive that the under surface of the
wing (during the down stroke) invariably looks forwards and
forms a true kite with the horizon, the angles made by the kite
varying at every part of the down stroke, as shown more
particularly at c d efg, ij k I m of fig. 30.
The authors who have adopted Borelli's plan of artificial wing,
and who have endorsed his mechanical views of the wing's action
moat fully, are J. Chabrier, H. E. G. Strauss-DUrckheim and
Marey. Borelli 's artificial wing, it will be remembered, consists
of a rigid rod in front and a flexible sail behind. It is also made
to strike vert ically downwards. According to Chabrier, tbe wing
has only one period of activity. He believes that if the wing be
suddenly lowered by the depressor muscles, it is elevated solely
by the reaction of the air. There is one unanswerable objection
to this theory: the birds and bats, and some if not all the insects,
have distinct elevator muscles, and can elevate their wings at
pleasure when not flying and when, consequently, the reaction
of the air is not elicited. Strauss-Durckheim agrees with Borelli
both as to the natural and the artificial wing. He is of opinion
that the insect abstracts from the air by means of the inclined
plane a component force (composant) which it employs to support
and direct itself. In his theology of nature he describes a sche-
matic wing as consisting of a rigid ribbing in front, and a flexible
sail behind. A membrane so constructed will, according to him,
be fit for flight. It will suffice if such a sail elevates and lowers
itself successively. It will of its own accord dispose itself as an
inclined plane, and receiving obliquely the reaction of the air,
it transfers into tractile force a part of the vertical impulsion k
has received.. These two parts of tbe wing, moreover, are equally
indispensable to each other.
Marey repeats Borelli and Dfirckheim with very trifling
modifications, so late as 1869. He describes two artificial wings,
the one composed of a rigid rod and sail— the rod representing
the stiff anterior margin of the wing; the sail, which is made of
paper bordered with cardboard, the flexible posterior margin.
The other wing consists of a rigid nervure in front and behind of
thin parchment which supports fine rods of steel. He states that
if tbe wing only elevates and depresses itself, " tbe resistance of
tbe air is sufficient to produce all the other movements. In
effect (according to Marey) the wing of an insect has not the power
of equal resistance in every part. On the anterior margin the
extended nervures make it rigid, while behind it is fine and
flexible. During the vigorous depression of the wing, the nervure
has the power of remaining rigid, whereas tbe flexible portion,
being pushed in an upward direction on account of tbe resistance
it experiences from the air, assumes an oblique position which
causes the upper surface of the wing to look forwards." The
reverse of this, in Marey's opinion, takes place during the eleva-
tion of the wing — the resistance of the air from above causing
the upper surface of the wing to look backwards. ..." At first,"
he says, " the plane of the wing is parallel with the body of the
animal. It lowers itself— the front -part of the wing strongly
resists, the sail which follows it being flexible yields. Carried by
the ribbing (the anterior margin of the wing) which lowers itself,
the sail or posterior margin of the wing being raised meanwhile
by the air, which sets it straight again, the sail will take an inter-
mediste position and incline it self about 4 5° plusor minus accord-
ing to circumsi a nces. . . . The wing continues its movements
of depression inclined to the horizon; but the impulse of the air,
512
FLIGHT AND FLYING
which continues its effect, and naturally acts upon the surface
which it strikes,haa the power of resolving itself into two forces,
a vertical and a horizontal force; the first suffices to raise the
animal, the second to move it along." 1 Marey, it will be
observed, reproduces Borelh's artificial wing, and even his text,
at a distance of nearly two centuries.
The artificial wing recommended by Pettigrew is a more exact
imitation of nature than either of the foregoing. It is of a more
or less triangular form, thick at the root and anterior margin,
and thin at the tip and posterior margin. No part of it is rigid.
It is, on the contrary, highly elastic and flexible throughout.
It is furnished with springs at its root to contribute to its con-
tinued play, and is applied to the air by a direct piston action
in such a way that it descends in a downward and forward
direction during the down stroke, and ascends in an upward and
forward direction during the up stroke. It elevates and propels
both when it rises and falls. It, moreover, twists and untwists
during its action and describes figure-of-8 and waved tracks in
space, precisely as the natural wing does. The twisting is most
marked at the tip and posterior margin, particularly that half of
the posterior margin next the tip. The wing when in action may
be divided into two portions by a line running diagonally between
the tip of the wing anteriorly and the root of the wing posteriorly.
The tip and posterior parts of the wing are more active than the
root and anterior parts, from the fact that the tip and posterior
parts (the wing is an eccentric) always travel through greater
spaces, in a given time, than the root and anterior parts.
FUc 32.— Elastic Spiral Wins;, which twists and untwists during
its action, to form a mobile kHix or screw. This wing is made to
vibrate by a direct piston action, and by a slight adjustment can be
propelled vertically, horizontally or at any degree of obliquity.
ci,
a b. Anterior margin of wing, to
which the neurae or ribs
arc affixed.
Posterior margin of wing
crossing anterior one.
x, Ball-and-socket joint at foot,
of wing, the wing being'
attached to the side of the
cylinder by the socket.
f. Cylinder.
r r, Piston, with cross heads
(w, w) and piston head («).
0. Stuffing boxes.
e,f. Driving chains.
m, Superior elastic band, which
in elevating the
wing.
Inferior elastic band, which
antagonizes m. The alter*
nate stretching of the
superior and inferior elastic
bands contributes to the
continuousplay of the wing,
by preventing dead points
at the end of the down and
up strokes. The wing; is
free to move in a vertical
and horizontal direction
and at any degree of
obliquity.
The wing is so constructed that the posterior margin yields
freely in a downward direction during the up stroke, while it
yields comparatively little in an upward direction during the
down stroke; and this is a distinguishing feature, as the wing
is thus made to fold and elude the air more or less completely
during the up stroke, whereas it is made to expand and seize
the air with avidity during the down stroke. The oblique line
referred to us running diagonally across the wing virtually divides
the wing into an active and a passive part, the former elevating
and propelling, the latter sustaining.
It is not possible to determine with exactitude the precise
function discharged by each part of the wing, but experiment
tends to show that the tip of the wing elevates, the posterior
margin propels, and the root sustains.
The wing— and this is important— is driven by a direct piston
1 E. J. Marey, Rewut ies court uiaUifiques de la France et de
Wronger (1869).
action with an irregular hammer-like movement, the '
having communicated to it a smart dick at the beginning of
every down stroke— the up stroke being more uniform. The
following is the arrangement (fig. 33). If the artificial wing here
represented (fig. 3s) be compared with the natural wing as
depicted at fig. 33, it will be seen that there is nothing in the one
which is not virtually reproduced in the other. In addition to
the foregoing, Pettigrew recommended a double elastic wing to
be applied to the air like a steam-hammer, by being fixed to the
Flo. 33 shows the Spiral Elastic Winga of the Giut Each
wing forma a mobile helix or screw,
a ft, Anterior margin of left wing, x. Root of right wing with ball-
c d, Posterior margin of ditto. and-sockst j '
d g , Primary or rowing feathers i. Elbow joint,
of left wing. a* Wrist joint.
g a, Secondary feathers ditto. »,o. Hand and f
head of the piston. This wing, like the single wing described,
twists and untwists as it rises and falls, and possess^ ail the
characteristics of the natural wing (fig. 34).
He also recommends an elastic aerial screw co n s isti n g of two
blades, which taper and become thinner towards the tips and
Fio. 34. — Double Elastic Wing driven by direct piston i
During the up stroke of the piston the wing is very decidedly convex
on its upper surface (abed, A A') ; its under surface (ef g h, A AO
being deeply concave and inclined obliquely upwards and forwards.
It thus evades, to a considerable extent, the air during the up stroke.
During the down stroke of the piston the wing is flattened out in every
direction, and its extremities twisted in such a manner as to form
two screws, as seen at o # V cf d', e 1 f g* h', B, B'. The active area of
the wing is by this arrangement considerably diminished during
the upstroke, and considerably augmented during the down stroke;
the wing seizing the air with greater avidity during the down than
during the up stroke, i, j, k, clastic band to regulate the expansion
of the wing: I, pUton; m, piston head; », cylinder.
posterior margins. When the screw is made to rotate, the blades,
because of their elasticity, assume a great variety of angles, the
angles being least where the speed of the blades is greatest and
vice versa. The pitch of the blades is thus regulated by the
speed attained (fig. 35).
The peculiarity of Pettigrew's wings and screws consists in
their elasticity, their twisting action, and their great comparative
length and narrowness. They offer little resistance to the air
when they are at rest, and when in motion the speed with which
they are driven is such as to ensure that the comparatively
large spaces through which they travel shall practically be
converted into solid bases of support.
After Pettigrew enunciated his views (i86» as to the screw
configuration and elastic properties of natural wings, and more
especially after his introduction of spiral, elastic artificial wings.
and elastic screws, a great revolution took place in the construc-
tion of flying models. Elastic aeroplanes were advocated by
FLIGHT AND FLYING
Plate I.
ft
I -\
Fig. i.— Paulhan Flying on Farman Biplane. ***». Topical Press -
Fig. 2.— Wright Biplane.
Photo, Topical Press,
Plate II.
FLIGHT AND FLYING
Fig. 3.— Blfcriot Monoplane.
Phdo, Topical Press*
Fig. 4.— A. V. Roe's Triplane.
Photo, Topical Press.
FLIGHT AND FLYING
5«3
T>. S. Brown, 1 elastic aerial strews by J. Armour, 1 and elastic
aeroplanes, wings and screws by Alpbonse Penaud.*
Peneud's experiments are alike interesting and instructive.
He constructed models to fly by three different methods.— *
(a) by means of screws acting vertically upwards; (b) by aero-
planes propelled horizontally by screws; and (c) by wings which
FlC. 35.— Elastic Aerial Screw with twisted blades resemMiag
wings (a be d, efg k).
*, Bnd of driving shaft. ing anterior or thick
s%», Sockets in which the roots marginaof bladesof screw.
of the blades of the screw d c, * g , Posterior or thin elastic
route, the degree of rota- margins of blades of screw.
tion being limited by steel The arrows m. «, o, p, q , r
springs (*, s). indicate the direction of
a b, «/, tapering elastic rods form- travel.
flapped in an upward and downward direction. An account of
bii helicopters or screw model appeared in the Aeronaut for
January 1872, but before giving a description of it, it may be well
to state very briefly what is known regarding the history of the
screw as applied to the air.
The first suggestion on this subject was given by A. J. P.
Paucton in 1768. This author, in his treatise on the Thiorie
de la vis d'Arckimide, describes a machine provided with two
screws which he calls a " pterophores." In 1796 Sir George
Fig. 36.— Cayley's Flying ModeL
Cayley gave a practical illustration of the efficacy of the screw
as applied to the air by constructing a small machine, consisting
of two screws made of quill feathers, a representation of which
we annex (fig. 36). Sir George writes as under.—
" As It may be an amusement to some of your readers to see a
machine rise in the air by mechanical means, I will conclude my
present communication by describing an instrument of this kind,
which any one can construct at the expense of ten minutes' labour.
1 " The Aero-bi-pknc, or First Steps to Flight," Ninth Annual
Report of Iks Aeronautical Society, of Great Britatn, 1874.
' " Resistance to Falling Planes on a Path of Translation,'* Ninth
Annual Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, 1874.
• TW Aeronaut for January 187a and February 1875.
" a and a, fig. 36, art two corks, into each of which are insetted
tour wing feathers from any bird, so as to be slightly inclined like
the sails of a windmill, but in opposite directions in each set. A
round shaft b fixed in the cork a, which ends In a sharp point. A*
the upper part of the cork b is fixed a whalebone bow, having a treat!
pivot hole in its centre to receive the point of the shaft. The bow is
then to be strung equally on each side to the upper portion of the
shaft, and the little machine is completed. Wind up the string by
turning the flyers different ways, so that the spring of the bow may
unwind them with their anterior edges ascending; then place the
cork with the bow attached to it upon a table, and with a finger on
the upper cork press strong enough to prevent the string from un-
winding, and, taking it away suddenly, the instrument will rise to the
ceiling..
Cayley's screws were peculiar, inasmuch as they were super-
imposed and rotated in opposite directions. He estimated that
if the area of the screws was increased to 200 sq. ft!, and
moved by a man, they would elevate him. His interesting
experiment is described at length, and the apparatus figured
in N kelson's Journal, 1800, p. 172.
Other experimenters, such as J. Degen in 1816 and Ottoris
Sarti in 1823, followed Cayley at moderate intervals, constructing
flying models on the vertical screw principle. In 1842 W. H.
Phillips succeeded, it is stated, in elevating a steam model by
the aid of revolving fans, which according to his account flew
across two fields after having attained a great altitude; and In
1859 H. Bright took out a patent for a machine to be sustained
by vertical screws. In 1863 the subject of aviation by vertical
screws received a fresh impulse from the experiments of Gustave
de Ponton d'Amecourt, G. de la Landelle, and A. Nadar, who
exhibited models driven by clock-work springs, which ascended
with graduated weights a distance of from 10 to 12 ft. These
models were so fragile that they usually broke in coming in contact
with the ground in their descent. Their flight, moreover, was
unsatisfactory, from the fact that it only lasted a few seconds.
Fig. 37.— De la Landelle's Flying-machine, m, n w o,p; p r, x, I,
Screws arranged on vertical axes to act vertically upwards. The
vertical axes are surmounted by two parachutes, and the body of the
machine is furnished with an engine, propeller, rudders and an exten-
sive aeroplane.
Stimulated by the success of his spring models, Ponton
d'Amecourt had a small steam model constructed. This model,
which was shown at the exhibition of the Aeronautical Society
of Great Britain at the Crystal Palace in 1868, consisted of two
superposed screws propelled by an engine, the steam for which
was generated (for lightness) in an aluminium boiler. This
Steam model proved a failure, inasmuch as St only lifted a third
of its own weight. Fig. 37 embodies de la Landelle's ideas.
5H
FLIGHT AND FLYING
All the models referred to (Cayley's excepted 1 ) were provided
with rigid screws. In 1872 P6naud discarded the rigid screws
in favour of elastic ones, as Pettigrcw had done some years before.
Penaud also substituted india-rubber under torsion for the
whalebone and clock springs of the smaller models, and the steam
of the larger ones. His h£licoptere or screw-model is remarkable
for its lightness, simplicity and power. The accompanying
sketch will serve to illustrate its construction (fig. 38). It con-
- /
*-
Fig. 38.— H61icoptere or Screw-Model, by Pdnaud.
sists of two superposed elastic screws (aa,bb), the upper of which
(a <*) is fixed in a vertical frame (c), which i& pivoted in the central
part (d) of the under screw. From the centre of the under
screw an axle provided with a hook (e), which performs the part
of a crank, projects in an upward direction. Between the hook
or crank (e) and the centre of the upper screw (a a), the india-
rubber in a state of torsion (J) extends. By fixing the lower
screw and turning the upper one a sufficient number of times
the requisite degree of torsion and power is obtained. The
apparatus when liberated flies into the air sometimes to a height
of 50 ft., and gyrates in large circles for a period varying from
15 to 30 seconds.
Penaud next directed his attention to the construction of a
model, to be propelled by a screw and sustained by an elastic
aeroplane extending horizontally. Sir George Cayley proposed
such a machine in 18x0, and W. S. Henson constructed and
patented a similar machine in 1 842. Several inventors succeeded
in making models fly by the aid of aeroplanes and screws, as,
e.g. J. Stringfellow in 1847,' and F. du Temple in 1837. These
models flew in a haphazard sort of a way, it being found exceed-
ingly difficult to confer on them the necessary degree of stability
fore and aft and laterally. Plnaud succeeded in overcoming
the difficulty in question by the invention of what he designated
an automatic rudder. This consisted of a small elastic aeroplane
placed aft or behind the principal aeroplane which is also elastic.
The two elastic aeroplanes extended horizontally and made a
slight upward angle with the horizon, the angle made by the
smaller aeroplane (the rudder) being slightly in excess of that
made by the larger. The motive power was india-rubber in the
condition of torsion; the propeller, a screw. The reader will
understand the arrangement by a reference to the accompanying
drawing (fig. 39).
Models on the aeroplane screw type may be propelled by two
screws, one fore and one aft, rotating in opposite directions;
and in the event of only one screw being employed it may be
placed in front of or behind the aeroplane.
When such a model is wound up and let go it descends about
2 ft., after which, having acquired initial velocity, it rises and
flies in a forward direction at a height of from 8 to 10 ft. from
1 Cayley** screws, as explained, were made of feathers, and con-
sequently elastic. As, however, no allusion is made in his writings
to the superior advantages possessed by elastic over rigid screws, it is
to be presumed that feathers were employed simply for convenience
and lightness. Pcttigrew, there is reason to believe, was the first to
advocate the employment of elastic screws for aerial purposes.
• Stringfellow constructed a second model, which is described and
figured further on (fig. 44).
the ground for a distance of from 120 to 130 ft. It flies this
distance in from 10 to 1 1 seconds, Us mean speed being something
like it ft. per second. From experiments made with this model,
Penaud calculates that one horse-power would elevate and
support 85 lb.
D. S. Brown also wrote (1874) in support of elastic aero-
biplancs. His experiments proved that two elastic aeroplanes
united by a central shaft or shafts, and separated by * wide
Fie. 30,— Aeroplane Model with Automatic Rudder.
a a. Elastic aeroplane. torsion, attached to hook
b b, Automatic rudder. or crank at /. By hotdins
c c t Aerial screw centred at /. the aeroplane (a a) and
d, Frame supporting aeroplane. turning the screw (c c) the
rudder a nd screw. necessary power boMatned
€, India-rubber, in a state of by torsion. (Penaud.)
interval, always produce increased stability. The production
of flight by the vertical flapping of wings is in some respects
the most difficult, but this also has been attempted and achieved.
Penaud and. A. H. de Villeneuve each constructed winged
models. Marey was not so fortunate. He endeavoured to
construct an artificial insect on the plan advocated by Borclli,
Strauss-DUrckheim and Chabrier, but signally failed, his insect
never having been able to lift more than a third of its own
weight.
De Villeneuve and Penaud constructed their winged models
on different types, the former selecting the bat, the latter the bird.
FlC. 40.— Penaud's Artificial Flying Bird.
abcd.a'b' C* d' r Elastic wings,
which twist and untwist
when made to vibrate.
o b, o' b'. Anterior margins 0/
■rings.
t\ Post
cd,c*d'. Posterior margins of
wings.
C, <f. Inner portions of wings
attached to central shaft of
model by elastic bands at e.
/, India-rubber in a state of
torsion, which provides the
motive power, by causing
the crank situated between
the vertical wing supports
(r) to rotate; as the crank
revolves the wings are made
to vibrate by means of two
rods which extend between
the crank and the roots of
the wings.
k, Tail of artificial btnL
De Villeneuve made the wings of bis artificial bat conks! in
shape and comparatively rigid. He controlled the movements
of the wings, and made them strike downwards and forwards
in imitation of natural wings. His model possessed great power
of rising. It elevated itself from tjje ground with ease, and flew
in a horizontal direction for a distance of 24 ft., and at a velocity
of 30 m. an hour. Penaud 's model differed from de Villeneuve "s
in being provided with elastic wings, the posterior margins
of which in addition to beingelastic were free to move sound the
FLIGHT AND FLYING
5*5
Ulterior margins as round axes (see fig. 24). India-rubber
spring? were nude to extend between the inner posterior parts
off the wings and the frame, corresponding to the backbone of
the bird.
A vertical movement having been communicated by means
of india-rubber in a state of torsion to the roots of the wings,
the wings themselves, in virtue of their elasticity, and because
of the resistance experienced from the air, twisted and untwisted
and formed reciprocating screws, precisely analogous to those
originally described and figured by PeUigrew in 1867. Penaud's
arrangement is shown in fig. 40.
If the left wing of P6naud's model (ab,cd of fig. 40) be com-
pared with the wing of the bat (fig. 18), or with Pettigrew's
artificial wing (fig. 3a), the identity of principle and application
is at once apparent.
In Penaud's artificial bird the equilibrium is secured by the
addition of a tail. The model cannot raise itself from the ground,
but on being liberated from the hand it descends 2 ft. or so, when,
having acquired initial velocity, it flies horizontally for a distance
of 50 ok more feet, and rises as it flies from 7 to 9 ft. The following
are the measurements of the model in question:— length of wing
from tip to tip t 32 in.; weight of wing, tail, frame, india-rubber,
&c, 73 grammes (about 2 J ounces). 0- B. P.)
Flying Machines.— Henson's flying machine, designed in
1843, was the earliest attempt at aviation on a great scale.
H enson was one of the first to combine aerial screws with exten-
sive supporting structures occupying a nearly horizontal position.
The accompanying illustration explains the combination (fig. 41).
Fie. 41.— Hensoa's Aerostat.
" The chief feature of the invention was the very great expanse
of ru sustaining planes, which were larger in proportion to the weight
it had to carry than those of many birds. The machine advanced
with its front edge a little rated, the effect of which was to present
its under surface to the air over which k passed, the resistance of
which, acting upon k like a strong wind on the sails of a windmill,
prevented the descent of the machine and its burden. The sustaining
of -the whole, therefore, depended upon the speed at which it travelled
through the air, and the angle at which its under surface impinged
on the air in its front. . . . The machine, fully prepared for flight,
was started from the top of an inclined plane, in descending which it
attained a velocity necessary to sustain it in its further progress.
That velocity would be gradually destroyed by the resistance of the
air to the forward flight; it was, therefore, the office of the steam-
engine and the vanes it actuated simply to repair the loss of velocity ;
it was made, therefore, only of the power and weight necessary for
that small effect." The editor of Newton's Journal of Arts and
Sciences speaks of it thus:—" The apparatus consists of a car con-
taining the goods, passengers, engines, fuel, Ac, to which a rect-
angular frame, made of wood or bamboo cane, and covered with canvas
or oiled silk, is attached. This frame extends on either side of the car
in a similar manner to the outstretched wings of a bird ; but with this
difference, that the frame is immovable. Behind the wings are two
vertical fan wheels, furnished with oblique vanes, which are intended
to propel the apparatus through, the an*. The rainbow-like circular
wheels are the p r opell e rs, answering to the wheels of a steam-boat,
and acting upon the ah* after the manner of a windmill. These wheels
receive motions from bands and pulleys from a steam or other engine
contained in the car. To an axis at the stern of the car a triangular
frame is attached, resembling the tail of a bird, which is also covered
with canvas or oiled silk. This may be expanded or contracted at
pleasure, and is moved up and down for the purpose of causing the
machine to ascend or descend. Beneath the tail b a rudder for dwect-
ing the course of the machine to the right or to the left; and to
facilitate the steering a sail is stretched between two masts which rise
from the car. The amount of canvas or oiled silk necessary for buoy-
[ up the machine is stated to be equal to one square foot for each
f pound of weight."
ing u
half]
F. H. Wenbam, thinking to improve upon Henson, invented
in 1866 what he designated his aeroplanes. 1 These were thin,
light, long, narrow structures, arranged above each other in
tiers like so many shelves. They were tied together at a slight
upward angle, and combined strength and lightness. The idea
was to obtain great sustaining area in comparatively small space
with comparative ease of control. It was hoped that when the
aeroplanes were wedged forward in the air by vertical screws,
or by the body to be flown, each aeroplane would rest or float
upon a stratum of undisturbed air, and that practically the
aeroplanes would give the same support as if spread out horizon-
tally. The accompanying figures illustrate Wenham's views
(figs. 4a and 43).
Stringfellow, who was originally associated with Henson,
and built a successful flying model in 1847, made a second model
Fig. 42. — Wenham's system of Aeroplanes designed to carry a man.
a, a, Thin planks, tapering at each
end, and attached to a
triangle.
b, Similar plank for supporting
the aeronaut.
c,c, Thin bands of iron with truss
planks o, a, and
d, d, Vertical rods. .Between
these are stretched five
bandsof holland 15 inbroad
and 16 ft. long, the total
length of the web being
80 ft. This apparatus
when caught by a gust of
wind, actually lifted the
in 1868, in which Wenham's aeroplanes were combined with
aerial screws. This model was on view at the exhibition of the
Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, held at the Crystal Palace,
Fio. 43.— A similar system, planned by Wcnham.
a, a. Main spar 16 ft. long ;
b, b, Panels, with base board for
aeronaut attached to main
e,e, Thin tie-band of steel with
stmts starting from main
aeroplanes, consisting of six
webs of thin holland 13 in.
broad. The aeroplanes are
kept in parallel plane by
vertical divisions of holland
2 ft. wide.
spar. This forms a strong c,c*, Wing propellers driven by
light framework for the the feet.
London, in 1868. It was remarkably compact, elegant and
light, and obtained the £100 prize of the exhibition for its engine,
which was the lightest and most powerful so far constructed.
The illustration below (fig. 44), drawn from a photograph, gives a
Fig. 44.— Stringfcllow's Flying Machine.
very good idea of the arrangement— d, b, c representing the
superimposed aeroplanes, d the tail, *, / the screw propellers.
The superimposed aeroplanes (a, b, c) in this machine contained
a sustaining area of s8sq. ft.,inaddition to the tail (d). Itsengine
represented a third of a horse power, and the weight of the
whole (engine, boiler, water, fuel, superimposed aeroplanes and
1 "On Aerial Locomotion,' 1 AermauHcml Society's Report toe i86t.
5*6
FLIGHT AND FLYING
propellers) was under is lb. Its sustaining area, if that of the
tail (J) be included, was something like 36 sq. ft., i.e. 3 sq. ft. for
every pound. The model was forced by its propellers along a
wire at a great speed, but so far as an observer could determine,
failed to lift itself, notwithstanding its extreme lightness and
the comparatively very great power employed. Stringfellow,
however, stated that it occasionally left the wire and was sus-
tained by its aeroplanes alone.
The aerial steamer of Thomas Moy (fig. 45), designed in 1874,
consisted of a light, powerful, skeleton frame resting on three
wheels; a very effective light engine constructed on a new
principle, which dispensed with the old-fashioned, cumbrous
boiler; two long, narrow, horizontal aeroplanes; and two
comparatively very large aerial screws. The idea was to get
up the initial velocity by a preliminary run on the ground. This
accomplished it was hoped that the weight of the machine,
would gradually be thrown upon the aeroplanes in the same way
that the weight of certain birds — the eagle, e.g .— is thrown upon
Fie. 45. — Moy's Aerial Steamer.
the wings after a few hops and leaps. Once in the air the aero-
planes, it was believed, would become effective in proportion to
the speed attained. The machine, however, did not realize
the high expectations formed of it, and like all its predecessors
it was doomed to failure.
Two of the most famous of the next attempts to solve the
problem of artificial flight, by means of aeroplanes, were those
of Prof. S. P. Langley and Sir Hiram S. Maxim, who began
their aerial experiments about the same time (1889-1890). By
1893-1894 both had embodied their views in models and large
flying machines.
Langley, who occupied the position of secretary to the
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A., made many small
dying models and one large one. These he designated " aero-
dromes." They were all constructed on a common principle,
and were provided with extensive flying surfaces in the shape of
rigid aeroplanes inclined at an upward angle to the horizon, and
more or less fixed on the plan advocated by Henson. The
cardinal idea was to force the aeroplanes (slightly elevated at
their anterior margins) forwards, kite-fashion, by means of power-
ful vertical screw propellers driven at high speed — the greater
the horizontal speed provided by the propellers, the greater, by
implication, the lifting capacity of the aerodrome. The bodies,
frames and aeroplanes of the aerodromes were strengthened
by vertical and other supports, to which were attached aluminium
wires to ensure absolute rigidity so far as that was possible.
Langley aimed at great lightness of construction, and in this he
succeeded to a remarkable extent. His aeroplanes were variously
shaped, and were, as a rule, concavo-convex, the convex surface
being directed upwards. He employed a competent staff of
highly trained mechanics at the Smithsonian Institution, and
great secrecy was observed as to his operations. He flew his
smallest models in the great lecture room of the National Museum,
and his larger ones on the Potomac river about 40 m. below
Washington.
While Langley conducted his preliminary experiments in
1889, he did not construct and test his steam-driven flying
models until 1893. These were made largely of seed and
aluminium, and one of them in 1896 made the longest flight
then recorded for a flying machine, namely, fully half a mile
on the Potomac river. The largest aerodrome, intended to carry
passengers and to be available for war purposes, was built to
the order and at the expense of the American government,
which granted a sum of fifty thousand dollars for its construction.
Langley's machine shown in fig. 46 was a working; model, not
"» the body
1 to carry passengers. In configuration
y-poruoo
Fig. 46. — Langley's Flying Machine, a, Large aeroplane:
ft, Small aeroplane; c, Propelling screws.
closely resembled a mackerel. The backbone was a light but very
rigid tube of aluminium steel. 15 ft. in length, and a little more than
2 in. in diameter. The engines were located in the portion of the
framework corresponding to the head of the fish; they weighed
60 0Z4 and developed one horse-power. There were four boilers made
of thin hammered copper and weighing a little more than 7 lb each;
these occupied the middle portion of the fish. The fuel used was
refined gasoline, and the extreme end of the tail of the fish was
utilized Tor a storage tank with a capacity of one quart. There were
twin screw propellers, which could be adjusted to different angles in
practice, to provide Tor steering, and made 1700 revolutions a minute.
The wings, or aeroplanes, four in number, consisted of light frames
of tubular aluminium steel covered with china silk. The pair in front
were 42 in. wide and 40 ft. from tip to tip. They could be adjusted at
different angles. The machine required to be dropped from a height,
or a preliminary forward impetus had to be given to it, before it could
be started. Fixity of all the parts was secured by a tubular mast
extending upwards and downwards through about the middle of the
craft, and from its extremities ran stays of aluminium wire to the tips
of the aeroplanes and the end of the tubular backbone. By this
trussing arrangement the whole structure was rendered exceedingly
stiff.
In the larger aerodrome (fig. 47) the aeroplanes were concavo-
convex, narrow, greatly elongated and square at their free e
Pig. 47. — Langley's Aerodrome in flight.
the two propellers, which were comparatively very large, being placed
amidships, so to speak. At the first trial of this machine, on the 7th
of October 1903, just as it left the bunching track it was jerked
violently down at the front (being caught, as subsequently a p pea r ed,
by the falling ways), and under the full power of its engine was pulled
into the water, carrying with it its engineer. When the aerodrome
rose to the surface, it was found that while the front sustaining
surfaces had been broken by their impact with the water, yet the rear
ones were comparatively uninjured. At the second and last attempt,
on the 8th of December 1903, another disaster, again due to the
bunching ways, occurred as the machine was leaving the track. This
time the back part of the machine, in some way still unexpbined,
was caught by a portion of the launching car, which caused the rear
sustaining surface to break, leaving the rear entirely without support.
FLIGHT AND FLYING
5i7
t vertically into the water. Darkness had
come before the engineer, who hid been in extreme danger, could aid
in the recovery of the aerodrome. The boat and machine had drifted
apart, and one of the tugs in its zeal to render assistance had fastened
a rope to the frame of the machine in the reverse position from what
it should have been attached, and had broken the frame entirely in
two. Owing to lack of funds further trials were abandoned (see
Annual Report of Ik* Smithsonian Institution. 1904, p. 12a).
Sir Hiram S, Maxim, like Langley, employed a staff of highly
skilled workmen. His machine (fig. 48) consisted of a platform, on
which stood a large water-tube boiler, a number of concavo-convex
aeroplanes arranged in tiers like shelves, each making a slight upward
angle with the horizon, two very large vertical screws placed alt and
Sropelled by steam engines, tanks for the storage of water, naphtha,
3C. The boiler was especially noteworthy. The water was contained
in about 2000 bent copper tubes, only | in. in external diameter,
heated by over 7000 gas jets arranged in rows. The fuel was naphtha
or gasoline. Steam could be got up in the short space of half a minute.
The steam-generating appliances, which weighed only 1000 lb in
all, were placed in the front of the machine. The motive power was
Fie. 48.— Sir H. Maxim's Flying Machine.
rovided by a pair of two-cylinder, compound engines, poised about
ft. from the ground, and about 6 ft. apart. Each of them was in-
dependently governed, and furnished together 363 horse-power in
actual effect, an amount which, considering that their total weight
was only 600 lb, gave the extraordinary efficiency of over 1 hone-
power for every 2 n> weight. The high and the low pressure cylinders
were 5 and 8 tn. in diameter respectively, and the stroke was 12 in.
When going at full speed these engines conferred 425 revolutions per
minute on the two gigantic propellers that drove the machine along.
These were in appearance like two-bladed marine propellers except
that they were square instead of rounded at the ends, and were broad
and thin. They were built from overlapping strips of American pine,
planed smooth and covered with glued canvas. They weighed
135 lb each, the length of each blade being close upon 9 ft. and the
width at the ends 3$ ft. The pitch was 16 ft. They were carefully
stayed by steel wires to their shafts, or the first revolution would have
snapped them off short. The material of which the framework was
built was thin steel tubing, exceedingly light. All the wires and ties
were of the best steel, capable of standing a strain of 100 tons to the
square inch. The body of the machine was oblong in shape, with the
fore-part cut away like a water-chute boat, and a long counter at the
stern over which the propellers revolved. It had canvas stretched all
over it. High overhead, like a gigantic awning, was the slightly
concavo-convex main aeroplane, tilted towards the front at an
imperceptible angle, and stretched taut. Its area was 1400 aq. ft.,
increased by side wings to 2700 sq. ft. There were also side aeroplanes
arranged in tiers, and large aeroplanes in front, which were pivoted
and served for vertical steering. The machine was strengthened In
every direction by vertical and other supports and securely wired
together at all points. It was furnished with four strong flanged
wheels and ran alone a tight broad-gauge (9 ft.) railway track,
1800 ft. long, in the nope that when the speed reached a certain
point it would leave the rails, but it was prevented from rising more
than an inch or so by four arms, or outriggers, furnished with wheels,
which projected from its sides and ran under an inverted wooden
upper or safety track outside the railway track proper.
At a trial carried out in 1894 at Bexley, Kent, only the main aero-
plane, the fore and aft rudders, and the top and bottom side planes
were in position. After everything had been got in readiness, careful
observers were stationed along the track, and the machine was con-
nected to a dynamometer. The engines were then started and the
pump set so as to deliver over 5000 lb of water per hour into t he boiler.
The gas was then carefully turned on until the pressure amounted
to 310 lb per sq. in., and the dynamometer showed a thrust of more
than 2100 lb. A small safety-valve placed in the steam pipe had
been adjusted so as to blow off slightly at 310 lb and with a strong
blast at 320 lb. The signal being given to let go, the machine darted
forward at a terrific pace, and the safety-valve ceased to blow. More
gaa was instantly turned on, and before the machine had advanced
300 ft., the steam had mounted to 320 lb per sq. in., and the safety-
valve was blowing off a steady blast. When the machine had
travelled only a few hundred feet, all four of the small outrigger
wheels were fully engaged, which showed that the machine was
lifting at least 8000 lb. The apeed rapidly increased until when the
machine bad ran about 900 ft. one of (he rear axletrees, which were
of 2 in. steel tubing, doubled up and set the rear end of the machine
ree. When the machine had trai " * ' '
heel became disengages
track, and shortly after this the right-hand wheel broke the upper
completely free. When the machine had travelled about 1000 ft.,
the left-hand forward wheel became disengaged from the safety
track— 3 in. by 9 in. Georgia pine— and a plank became entangled
in the framework of the machine. Steam had already been shut oft,
and the machine coming to rest fell directly to the ground, all four
of its wheels sinking deeply into the tun without leaving other
marks. Before making this run the wheels which were to engage the
Upper track were painted, and the paint left by them on the upper
track indicated the exact point where the machine lifted. The area
of the aeroplanes was very nearly 4000 aq. ft. and the total lifting
effect was fully 10,000 lb. The planes therefore lifted 2-5 lb per
sq. ft., and 5 lb for each pound thrust. Nearly half of the power of
the engines was lost in the screw slip. This showed that the diameter
of the screws was not great enough; it should have been at least 22 ft.
In 1897 M. C. Ader, who had already tested, with Indifferent
results, two full-sized flying machines, built a third apparatus
with funds furnished by the French government. This repro-.
doced the structure of a bird with almost servile imitation, save
that traction was obtained by two screw-propellers. The steam
engine weighed, about 7 lb per horse-power, but the equilibrium
of the apparatus was defective.
Largely with the view of studying the problem of maintaining
equilibrium, several experimenters, including Otto Lilienthal,
Percy Pilcher and Octave Chanute, cultivated gliding flight
by means of aeroplanes capable of sustaining a man. They
depended mainly on the utilization of natural air currents, trust-
ing for stability and balance to movements In their own bodies,
or in portions of their machines which they could control. They
threw themselves from natural or artificial elevations, or, facing
the wind, they ran or were dragged forwards against it until
they got under way and the wind caught hold of their aeroplanes.
To Lilienthal in Germany belongs the double credit of demon-
strating the superiority of arched over flat surfaces, and of
reducing gliding flight to regular practice, He made over 2000
glides safely, using gravity as his motive power, with concave,
bathke wings, in some cases with superposed surfaces (fig. 49).
Fig. 49. — Lilienthal'* Gliding Machine,
It was with a machine of the latter type that he was upset by
a sudden gust of wind and killed in 1896. Pilcher in England
improved somewhat on LilienthaTs apparatus, but used the same
general method of restoring the balance, when endangered, by
shifting the weight of the operator's body. He too made several
hundred glides in safety, but finally was thrown over by a gust
of wind and killed in 1899. Chanute in America confined his
endeavours to the production of automatic stability, and made
the surfaces movable instead of the man. He used several
different forms of apparatus, including one with five su per po sed
pain of wings and a tail (fig. 50) and another with two continuous
aeroplanes, one above the other (fig. 51). He made over 1000
glides without accident.
Similar experiments were meanwhile conducted by Wilbur
and Orville Wright of Dayton, Ohio, in whose hands the glider
developed into a successful flying machine. These investigators
began their work in 1900, and at an early stage introduced two
characteristic features— a horizontal rudder in front for steering
ia the vertical plant, and the flexing or bending of the ends of
5 i8
FLIGHT AND FLYING
the main supporting aeroplanes as a means of m ai nt ai nin g the
structure in proper balance. Their machines to begin with were
merely gliders, the operator lying upon them in a horizontal
position, but in 1003 a petrol motor was added, and a flight
lasting 59 seconds was performed. In 1905 they made forty-five
flights, in the longest of which they remained in the air for half
Fig. 50. — Chanute's Multiple Gliding Machine.
an hour and covered a distance of 24) m. The utmost secrecy,
however, was maintained concerning their experiments, and in
consequence their achievements were regarded at the time with
doubt and suspicion, and it was hardly realized that their suc-
cess would reach the point later achieved.
Thanks, however, to the efforts of automobile engineers, great
improvements were now being effected in the petrol engine, and,
although the certainty and trustworthiness of its action still
left something to be desired, it provided the designers of flying
machines with what they had long been looking for— a motor
Fie. 51.— Chanute's Biplane Gliding Machine.
very powerful in proportion to its weight. Largely in consequence
of this progress, and partly no doubt owing to the stimulus
given by the activity of builders of dirigible balloons, the con-
struction of motor-driven aeroplanes began to attract a number
of workers, especially in France. In 1006 A. Santos Dumont,
after a number of successful experiments with dirigible cigar-
shaped gas balloons, completed an aeroplane flying machine.
It consisted of the following parts >— (a) A system of aeroplanes
arranged like the capital letter T at a certain upward angle to
the horizon and bearing a general resemblance to box kites;
(a) a pair of very light propellers driven at a high speed; and
ic) an exceedingly light and powerful petrol engine. The drivei
occupied a position in the centre of the arrangement, which is
shown in fig. $2. The machine was furnished with two wheels
and vertical supports which depended from the anterior parts
of the aeroplanes and supported it when it touched the ground
Fig. 52. — Santos Dumont's Flying Machine.
on either side. With this apparatus he traversed on the 12th
of November 1006 a distance of 220 metres in 21 seconds.
About a year later Henry Farman made several short flights
on a machine of the biplane type, consisting of two main sup-
porting surfaces one above the other, with a box-shaped vertical
rudder behind and two small balancing aeroplanes in front.
The engine was an eight-cylinder Antoinette petrol motor,
developing 49 horse-power at 1100 revolutions a minute, and
driving directly a single metal screw propeller. On the 27th of
October 1906 he flew a distance of nearly half a mile at Issy-lcs-
Molincaux, and on the 13th of January 1008 he made a circular
flight of one kilometre, thereby winning the Deutsch-Archdcacon
prize of £2000. In March he remained in the air for 3} minutes,
covering a distance of ij m.; but in the following month a rival,
Leon Delagrange, using a machine of the same type and con-
structed by the same makers, Messrs Voisin, surpassed this
performance by flying nearly 2} m. in 6} minutes. In July
Farman remained in the air for over 20 minutes; on the 6th of
September Delagrange increased the time to nearly 30 minutes,
and on the 29th of the same month Farman again came in front
with a flight lasting 42 minutes and extending over nearly 24} m.
But the best results were obtained by the Wright brothers —
Orville Wright in America and Wilbur Wright in France. On
the 9th of September 1008 the former, at Fort Myer, Virginia,
made three notable flights; in the first he remained in the air
57} minutes and in the second 1 hour 3 minutes, while in the third
he took with him a passenger and covered nearly 4 m. in 6 minutes.
Three days later he made a flight of 45 m. in 1 hour 14 J minutes.
but on the 1 7th he had an accident, explained as being due to one
of his propellers coming into contact with a stay, by which his
machine was wrecked, he himself seriously injured, and Lieu-
tenant Self ridge, who was with him, killed. Four days afterwards
Wilbur Wright at Le Mans in France beat all previous records
with a flight lasting x hour 31 minutes 25$ seconds, in which he
covered about 56 m.; and subsequently, on the nth of October,
he made a flight of 1 hour 9 minutes accompanied by a passenger.
On the 31st of December he succeeded in remaining in the air
for 2 hours 20 minutes 23 seconds.
Wilbur Wright's machine (fig. 53), that used by his brother
being essentially the same, consisted of two slightly arched
supporting surfaces, each 12} metres long, arranged parallel
one above the other at a distance of 1$ metres apart. As they
were each about 2 metres wide their total area was about 50 sq.
metres. About 3 metres in front of them was arranged a pair
of smaller horizontal aeroplanes, shaped like a long narrow
ellipse, which formed the rudder that effected changes of eleva-
tion, the driver being able by means of a lever to incline them up
or down according as he desired to ascend or descend. The rudder
for lateral steering was placed about z\ metres behind the main
surfaces and was formed of two vertical pivoted aeroplanes.
The lever by which they were turned was connected with the
device by which the ends of the main aeroplanes could be flexed
simultaneously though in opposite directions; i.e. if the ends of
the aeroplanes on one side were bent downwards, those on the
FLINCK
519
other were bent upwards! By the aid of thii arrangemait the
natural caat of the machine when making a turn could be
checked, if it became excessive. The four-cylinder petrol engine
was placed on the lower aeroplane a little to the right of the
central line, being counterbalanced by the driver (and
Fig. 53. — Wright Flying Machine; diagrammatic sketch.
A, B, Main supporting surfaces. F, Vertical rudder.
G, Motor.
H, Screws*
, 1 supporting __ ._
C. D, Aeroplanes of horizontal rudder
with fixed semilunar fin E.
if one was carried), who sat a little to the left of the same line.
Making about 1200 revolutions a minute, it developed about 24
borse-power, and was connected by chain gearing to two wooden
propellers, 21 metres in diameter and 3} metres apart, the
speed of which was about 450 revolutions a minute. The whole
machine, with aeronaut, weighed about 1 100 lb, the weight of
the motor being reputed to be 200 lb.
A feature of the year 1009 *as the success obtained with
monoplanes having only a single supporting surface, and it was
on a machine of this type that the Frenchman Bleriot on July
25th flew across the English Channel from Calais to Dover in
31 minutes. Hubert Latham all but performed the same feat on
an Antoinette monoplane. The year saw considerable increases
in the periods for which aviators were able to remain in the air,
and Roger Son-men's flight of nearly 2} hours on. August 7th
was surpassed by Henry Fannan on November 3rd, when he
covered a distance estimated at 137J m. in 4 hr. 17 min. 53 sec.
In both these cases biplanes were employed. Successful aviation
meetings were held, among other places, at Reims, Juvisy,
Doncastcr and Blackpool; and at Blackpool a daring flight was
made in a wind of 40 m. an hour by Latham. This aviator also
proved the possibility of flying at considerable altitudes by
attaining on December 1st a height of over 1500 ft., but this
record was far surpassed in the following January by L. Paulhan,
who on a biplane rose to a height of 1383 yds. at Los Angeles.
In the course of the year three aviators were killed — Lefevbre
and Ferber in September and Fernandez in December; and
four men perished in September by the destruction of the French
airship " Republique," the gas-bag of which was ripped open by
a broken propeller. In January 1910 Delagrange was killed
by the fracture of one of the wings of a monoplane on which
he was flying. On April 27th-28th, 1910, Paulhan successfully
flew from London to Manchester, with only one stop, within
24 hours, for the DaUy Mail's £10,000 prize.
The progress made by all these experiments at aviation
had naturally created widespread interest, both as a matter of
00k of Aeronautics, trans, by W. Msnwryb Vdrivy (London, toor);
it Hiram S. Maxim, Artificial and Atoaruf hhghi (London, lotw);
'. W. Lanchester, Aerodynamics and A rrfldwulits (London, 1907 ■ nd
sport and also as indicating a new departure in the possibilities of
machines of war. And in 1909 the British government appointed
a scientific committee, with Lord Rayleigh as chairman, as a con-
sultative body for furthering the development of the science in
England.
The table below gives tome details, approximately correct,
of the principal experiments made with flying machines up to
1908.
RsnamCBS.— Some of the books men tioned u nder As nott avtic 9
contain details of flying machines; see 11. W, L. Maedefceck,^ Packei-
fo* -M M _.„...„ __ %,.. Mf %*.
Sir
F.i
1908); C C Turner, Atrial Napigasian vf 7Wsv {London, ujou);
also two papers on "Aerial Navigation u*d by Colonel G. O.
FuHerton before the Royal United Service Ln»t Umkui in t&$? and
1906: papers read by Major B. F. S, Baien- Powell and E- S. Bruc*
before the Society of Arts, London, In April 1007 nn<3 December 1908
respectively; Cantor Lectures by F- W. Lanchester (Society of
Arts, 1909); and the Proceeding* of the Aeronautical Society
(founded 1865), &c.
FLINCK, GOVBRT (1615-1660), Dutch painter, born at Cleves
in 161 s, was apprenticed by his father to a silk mercer, but
having secretly acquired a passion for drawing, was sent to
Leu warden, where he boarded in the house of Lambert Jacobszon,
a Mennonite, better known as an itinerant preacher than as a
painter. Here Flinck was joined by Jacob Backer, and the
companionship of a youth determined like himself to be an artist
only confirmed his passion for painting. Amongst the neighbours
of Jacobsson at Leuwarden were the sons and relations of
Rombert Ulenburg, whose daughter Saske married Rembrandt
in 1634. Other members of the same family lived at Amsterdam,
cultivating the arts either professionally or as amateurs. The
pupils of Lambert probably gained some knowledge of Rembrandt
by intercourse with the Ulenburgs. Certainly J. von Sandrart,
who visited Holland in 1637, found Flinck acknowledged as
one of Rembrandt's best pupils, and living habitually in the house
of the dealer Hendrik Ulenburg at Amsterdam. For many years
Flinck laboured on the lines of Rembrandt, following that master's
style in all the works which he executed between 1636 and 1648;
then he fell into peculiar mannerisms by imitating the swelling
forms and grand action of Rubens's creations. Finally he sailed
with unfortunate complacency into the Dead Sea of official
and diplomatic painting. Flinck 's relations with Cleves became
in time very important. He was introduced to the court of the
Great Elector, Frederick William of Brandenburg, who married
in 1646 Louisa of Orange. He obtained the patronage of John
Maurice of Orange, who was made stadtholder of Cleves in 1649.
In 1652 a citizen of Amsterdam, Flinck married in 1656 an heiress,
daughter of Ver Hoeven, a director of the Dutch East India
Company. He was already well known even then in the patrician
circles over which the burgomasters De Graef and the Echevin
Six presided; be was on terms of intimacy with the poet Vondel
and the treasurer Uitenbogaard. In his house, adorned with
antique casts, costumes, and a noble collection of prints, he often
Year.
Experimenter.
Tip
to
Tip.
Surface.
Weight.
Pounds
sq.ft.
Speed
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hour.
Maximum
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Pounds
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1879
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1897
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1908
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560
630
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FLINDERS
received the stallholder John Maurice, whose portrait is still
preserved in the work of the learned Barleius.
The earliest of Flinck's authentic pieces is a likeness of a lady,
dated 1636, in the gallery of Brunswick. His first subject picture
is the " Blessing of Jacob," in the Amsterdam museum (1638).
Both are thoroughly Rembrandtesque in effect as well as in
vigour of touch and warmth of flesh tints. The four " civic
guards" of 1642, and "the twelve musketeers" with their
president in an arm-chair (1648), in the town-hall at Amsterdam,
are fine specimens of composed portrait groups. But the best
of Flinck's productions in this style is the peace of Munster in
the museum of Amsterdam, a canvas with 10 life-size figures full
of animation in the faces, "radiant with Rembrandtesque
colour," and admirably distributed. Flinck here painted his
own likeness to the left in a doorway. The mannered period of
Flinck is amply illustrated in the " Marcus Curius eating Turnips
before the Samnite Envoys," and " Solomon receiving Wisdom,"
in the palace on the Dam at Amsterdam. Here it is that Flinck
shows most defects, being faulty in arrangement, gaudy in tint,
flat and shallow in execution, and partial to whitened flesh that
looks as if it had been smeared with violet powder and rouge.
The chronology of Flinck's works, so far as they are seen in
public galleries, comprises, in addition to the foregoing, the
" Grey Beard " of 1639 at Dresden, the " Girl " of 1641 at the
Louvre, a portrait group of a male and female (1646) at Rotter-
dam, a lady (1651) at Berlin. In November 1659 the burgo-
master of Amsterdam contracted with Flinck for 12 canvases to
represent four heroic figures of David and Samson and Marcus
Curius and Horatius Codes, and scenes from the wars of the
Batavians and Romans. Flinck was unable to finish more than
the sketches. In the same year he received a flattering acknow-
ledgment from the town council of Cleves on the completion of a
picture of Solomon which was a counterpart of the composition
at Amsterdam. This and other pictures and portraits, such as
the likenesses of Frederick William of Brandenburg and John
Mauriceof Nassau, and the allegoryof ' ' Louisa of Orange attended
by Victory and Fame " and other figures at the cradle of the
first-born son of the elector, have disappeared. Of several
pictures which were painted for the Great Elector, none are
preserved except the " Expulsion of Hagar " in the Berlin
museum. Flinck died at Amsterdam on the 22nd of February
2060.
FLINDERS, MATTHEW (1 774-1814), English navigator,
explorer, and man of science, was born at Donington, near
Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the 16th of March 1774. Matthew
was at first designed to follow his father's profession of surgeon,
but his enthusiasm in favour of a life of adventure impelled him
to enter the royal navy, which he did on the 23rd of October
1789. After a voyage to the Friendly Islands and West Indies,
and after serving in the " Bellerophon " during Lord Howe's
" glorious first of June " (1704) off Us hunt, Flinders went out
in 179s as midshipman in the " Reliance " to New South Wales.
For the next few years he devotedhimself to the task of accurately
laying down the outline and bearings of the Australian coast,
and he did his work so thoroughly that he left comparatively
little for his successors to do, With his friend George Bass, the
surgeon of the " Reliance," in the year of his arrival he explored
George's river; and, after a voyage to Norfolk Island, again in
March 1796 the two friends in the same boat, the "Tom Thumb,"
only 8 ft. long, and with only a boy to help them, explored a
stretch of coast to the south of Port Jackson. After a voyage
to the Cape of Good Hope, when he was promoted to a lieutenancy,
Flinders was engaged during February 1798 in a survey of the
Furneaux Islands, lying to the north of Tasmania. His delight
was great when, in September of the same year, he was com-
missioned along with Bass, who had already explored the sea
between Tasmania and the south coast to some extent and
inferred that it was a strait, to proceed in the sloop " Norfolk "
(25 tons) to prove conclusively that Van Diemcn's Land was an
island by circumnavigating it. In the same sloop, in the summer
of next year, Flinders made an exploration to the north of Port
Jackson, the object being mainly to survey Glasshouse Bay
(Moreton BayV and Hervey's Bay. Returning to England he
was appointed to the command of jm expedition for the thorough
exploration of the coasts of Terra Australia, as the southern
continent was still called, though Flinders is said to have been
the first to suggest for it the name Australia. On the 18th of
July 1801 the sloop " Investigator " (334 tons), in which the
expedition sailed, left Spithead, Flinders being furnished with
instructions and with a passport from the French government
to all their. officials m the Eastern seas. Among the scientific
staff was Robert Brown, one of the most eminent English
botanists; and among the midshipmen was Flinders's relative,-
John Franklin, of Arctic fame. Cape Lecuwin, on the south-
west coast of Australia, was reached on November 6, and King
George's sound on the 9th of December. Flinders sailed round
the Great Bight, examining the islands and indentations on the
east side, noting the nature of the country, the people, products,
&c, and paying special attention to the subject of the variation
of the compass. Spenser and St Vincent Gulfs were discovered
and explored. On the 8th of April 2802, shortly after leaving
Kangaroo Islands, at the mouth of St Vincent Gulf, Flinders
fell in with the French exploring ship, " Le Geographe," under
Captain Nicolas Baudin, in the bay now known as Encounter
Bay. In the narrative of the French expedition published m
1807 (when Flinders was a prisoner in the Mauritius) by M.
Pteron, the naturalist to the expedition, much of the land west
of the point of meeting was claimed as having been discovered
by Baudin, and French names were extensively substituted for
the English ones given by Flinders. It was only in 1814, when
Flinders published his own narrative, that the real state of the
case was fully exposed. Flinders continued his examination
of the coast along Bass's Strait, carefully surveying Port Phillip.
Port Jackson was reached on the 9U1 of May 1802.
After staying at Port Jackson for about a couple of months,
Flinders set out again on the 22nd of July to complete his
circumnavigation of Australia. The Great Barrier Reef was
examined with the greatest care in several places. The north-
east entrance of the Gulf of Carpentaria was reached early in
November; and the next three months were spent in an examina-
tion of the shores of the gulf, and of the islands that skirt them.
An inspection of the " Investigator " showed that she was in so
leaky a condition that only with the greatest precaution could
the voyage be completed in her. Flinders completed the survey
of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and after touching at the island of
Timor, the " Investigator " sailed round the west and south of
Australia, and Port Jackson was reached on the oth of June
1803. Much suffering was endured by nearly all the members
of the expedition: a considerable proportion of the men suc-
cumbed to disease, and their leader was so reduced by scurvy
that his health was greatly impaired.
Flinders determined to proceed home in H.M.S. " Porpoise "
as a passenger, submit the results of his work to the Admiralty,
and obtain, if possible, another vessel to complete his exploration
of the Australian coast. The " Porpoise " left Port Jackson on
the 10th of August, accompanied by the H.E.I.C.'s ship " Bridge-
water " (750 tons) and the " Cato " (450 tons) of London. On the
night of the 17th the " Porpoise " and " Cato " suddenly struck
on a coral reef and were rapidly reduced to wrecks. The officers
and men encamped on a small sandbank near, 3 or 4 ft. above
high-water, a considerable quantity of provisions, with many
of the papers and charts, having been saved from the wrecks.
The reef was in about 22 n' S. and 155° E., and about 800 m.
from Port Jackson. Flinders returned to Port Jackson in a
six-oared cutter in order to obtain a vessel to rescue the party.
The reef was again reached on the 8th of" October, and all the
officers and men having been satisfactorily disposed of, Flinders
on the nth left for Jones Strait in an unsound schooner of 29
tons, the " Cumberland," with ten companions, and a valuable
collection of papers, charts, geological specimens, &c. On the
15th of December he put in at Mauritius, when he discovered
that France and England were at war. The passport he possessed
from the French government was for the " Investigator ";
still, though he was now on board another ship, his mission was
FLINSBERG^-FLINT
5*1
essentially the same, and the work he was on was srnaply a con-
tinuation of that commenced in the unfortunate vessel. Never-
theless, on her arrival at Port Louis the " Cumberland " was
seized by order of the governor-genera! de Caen. FKnders's
papers were taken possession of, and he found himself virtually
a prisoner. - We need not dwelt on the sad details of this un-
justifiable captivity, which lasted to June 18x0. But there can
be no doubt that the hardships and inactivity Flinders was com*
petted to endure for upwards of six years told seriously on his
health, and brought his life to a premature end. He reached
England 1 in October 1810, after an absence of upwards of nine
years. The official red-tapeism of the day barred alt promotion
to the unfortunate explorer, who- set himself to prepare an
account of his explorations, though unfortunately an important
part of his record had been retained by de Caen. The results of
his labours were published in two large quarto volumes, entitled
A Voyage to Terra A ustrahs, with a folio volume of maps. The
very day (July 19, 1814) on which his work was published
Flinders died, at the early age of forty. The great work is a
model of its kind, containing as it does not only a narrative of
his own and of previous voyages, but masterly statements of
the scientific results, especially with regard to magnetism,
meteorology, hydrography and navigation. Flinders paid great
Attention to the errors of the compass, especially to those caused
by the presence of iron in ships. He is understood to have been
Che first to discover the source of such errors (which had scarcely
been noticed before), and after investigating the laws of the
variations, he suggested counter-attractions, an invention for
which Professor Barlow got much credit many years afterwards.
Numerous experiments on ships' magnetism were conducted at
Portsmouth by Flinders, by order of the admiralty, m 181 a.
•Besides the Voyage, Flinders wrote Observations on the Coast
cf Van Diemen*s Land, Bass's Strait, &e., and two papers
in the Phil. Trans.— one on the M Magnetic Needle " (1805),
and the other, "Observations on the Marine Barometer"
(1806). (J.S. K.)
FLINSBERG, a village and watering-place of Germany, in
the Prussian province of Silesia, on the Queis, at the foot of the
Ioerkamm, 1450 ft. above the sea, 5 m. W. of Friedcberg, the
terminus station of the railway from Greiffenberg. Pop. (1000)
1957. It contains an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church,
and has some manufactures of wooden wares. Flinsberg is
celebrated for its chalybeate waters, specific in cases of feminine
disorders, and used both for bathing and drinking. It is also
a climatic health resort of some reputation, and the visitors
number about 8500 annually.
See Adam, Bad Flinsberg ais Uimatiscker Kurort (Gdrliu, 1891).
PUNT, AUSTIN (181 3-1886), American physician, was born
At Petersham, Massachusetts, on the 20th of October 1812,
And graduated at the medical department of Harvard University
in 1835. From 2847 to 1852 he was professor of the theory and
practice of medicine in Buffalo Medical College, of which he was
one of the founders, and from 1852 to 1856 he filled the same
chair in the university of Louisville. From 1861 to 1886 he was
professor of the principles and practice of medicine and clinical
medicine in BeUevue Hospital Medical College, New York. He
wrote many text-books on medical subjects, among these being
Diseases of the Heart (1850-1870); Principles aiul Practice of
Medicine (i860); Clinical Medicine (1879); and Physical
Exploration of the Lungs by means of Auscultation and Percussion
(1882). He died in New York on the 13th of March 1886.
His son, Austin Flint, junr., who was bom at Northampton,
Massachusetts, on the 28th of March 1836, after studying at
Harvard and at the university of Louisville, graduated at the
Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, in 1857. He then became
professor of physiology at the university of Buffalo (1858) and
subsequently at other centres, his last connexion being with the
Cornell University Medical College ( 1898-1906). He was better
known as a teacher and writer on physiology than as a practi-
tioner, and his TexUeok of Human Physiology {1876) was
for many years a standard book in American medical colleges.
He also published an extensive Physiology of Man (5 vols., 1866-
1874), Chemical Examination of the Urine in Disease (1S76),
Effects of Severe and Protracted Muscular Exercise (187 1), Sourte
of Muscular Power (1878), and Handbook of Physiology (1005).
In 1896 he became a consulting physician to the New York State
Hospital for the Insane.
PUNT, ROBERT ( 1838- ), Scottish divine and philosopher,
was born near Dumfries and educated at the university of
Glasgow. After A few years of pastoral service, first in Aberdeen
and then at Kilconquhar, Fife, he was appointed professor of
moral philosophy and political economy at St Andrews in 1864.
From 1876 to 1003 he was professor of divinity at Edinburgh.
He contributed a number of articles to the 9th edition of the
Encyclopaedia Brilannica. His chief works are Christ's Kingdom
upon Earth (Sermons, 1865); Philosophy of History in Europe
(1874; partly rewritten with reference to France and Switzerland,
1894); Theism and Anli-thctslic Theories (2 vols., being the
Baird Lectures for 1876-187 7; often reprinted); Socialism
(1894); Ser mons and Addresses (1899); Agnosticism (1903).
FLINT, TIMOTHY (1 780-1840), American clergyman and
writer, was born in Reading, Massachusetts, on the nth of July
1780. He graduated at Harvard in 1800, and in 1802 settled as
a Congregational minister in Lunenburg, Mass., where he pursued
scientific studies with interest; and his labours in his chemical
laboratory seemed so strange to the people of that retired region,
that some persons supposed and asserted that he was engaged in
counterfeiting. This, together with political differences, led to
disagreeable complications, which resulted in his resigning his
charge (1814) and becoming a missionary (1815) in tn * valley of
the Mississippi. He was also for a short period a teacher and a
farmer. His observations on the manners and character of the
settlers of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys were recorded in a
picturesque work called Recollections of the Last Ten Years passed
in the Valley of the Mississippi (1826; reprinted in England
and translated into French), the first account of the western
states which brought to light the real life and character of the
people. The success which this work met with, together with t he
failing health of the writer, led him to relinquish his more active
labours for literary pursuits, and, besides editing the Western
Review in Cincinnati from 1825 to 18x8 and Knickerbocker's
Magazine (New York) in 1833, he puhnshed a number of books,
including Fronds Berrion, or the Mexican Patriot ( 1826), his best
novel; A Condensed Geography and History of the Western States,
or the Mississippi Valley (2 vols., 1828); Arthur denning (1828),
a novel; and Indian Wars in the West (1833). His style is vivid,
plain and forcible, and his matter interesting; and his works on
the western states are of great value. He died in Salem, Mass.,
on the 16th of August 1840.
PUNT, a city and the county-seat of Genesee county, Michigan,
U.S.A., on Flint river, 68 m. (by rail) N.W, of Detroit. Pop.
(1800) 9803; (1000) 13,103, of whom 2165 were foreign-born;
(19x0, census) 38,550. It is served by the Grand Trunk and
the Pere Marquette railways, and by an electric line, the
Detroit United railway, connecting with Detroit. The city has *
fine court-house (1004), a federal building (1008), a city hall
(1008) and a public library. The Michigan school for the deaf,
established in 1854, and the Oak Grove hospital (private) for the
treatment of mental and nervous diseases, are here. Flint has
important manufacturing interests, its chief manufactures being
automobiles, wagons, carriages— Flint is called " the vehicle
city,"— flour, woollen goods, iron goods, cigars, beer, and bricks
and tiles; and its grain trade is of considerable importance.
In 1004 the total value of the city's factory product was
86,177,170, an increase of 31*1 % over that of 1900. The settle-
ment of the place, then called the Grand Traverse of the Flint,
began In 1820, but Flint's growth was very slow until 183 1,
when it was platted as a village; it was chartered as a city in
1855-
PUNT, or Flintshire (str Callestr), a county of North Wales,
the smallest in the country, bounded N. by the Irish Sea and the
Dee estuary, N.E. by the Dee, E. by Cheshire, and S.W. by
Denbighshire. Area, 257 sq.m. Included in Flint is the detached
hundred ofMaelor, lying 8 m. SJS. of the main part of the county,
522
FLINT
and shut in by Cheshire on the N. and N.E., by Shropshire
on t he S. , and by Denbighshire on the W. and N. W. The Clwyd
valley is common to Flint and Denbigh. Those of the Alyn and
Wepre (from Ewloe Castle to the Dee) are fine. The Dee, entering
the county near Overton, divides Maelor from Denbigh on the
W., passes Chester and bounds most of the county on the N.
The Clwyd enters Flint near Bodfary, and joining the Elwy near
Khuddlan, reaches the Irish Sea near Rhyl. The Alyn enters the
county under Moel Fammau, passes Cilcen and Mold (y Wydd-
grug), runs underground near Hesb-Alyn (Alyn's drying-up),
bends south to Caergwrlc, re-enters Denbighshire and joins the
Dee. Lly n Helyg (willow-pool) , near Whitf ord, is the chief lake.
Both for their influence upon the physical features and for their
economic value the carboniferous rocks of Flintshire are the most
important. From Prestatyn on the coast a band of carboniferous
limestone passes close by Holywell and through Caerwcn; it forms
the Halkin Mountain east of Halkin, whence it continues past Mold
to beyond the county boundary. The upper portion of this series
is chcrty in the north— the chert is quarried for use in the potteries
of Staffordshire — but traced southward it passes into sandstones and
grits; above these beds come the Holywell shales, possibly the
equivalent of the Pendlcside series of Lancashire and Derbyshire,
while upon them lies the Gwespyr sandstone, which has been thought
to correspond to the Gannister coal measures of Lancashire, but may
be a representative of the Millstone Grit. Farther to the east, the
coal measures, with valuable coals, some oil shale, and with fireclays
and marls which are used for brick and tile-making, extend from
Talacre through Flint, Northop, Hawarden and Broughton to Hope.
The carboniferous rocks appear again through the intervention of a
fault, in the neighbourhood of St Asaph. Saurian strata, mostly of
Wenlock age, lie below the carboniferous limestone on the western
border of the county. Triassic red beds of the Bunter fill the Clwyd
valley and appear again on the coal measures S.E. of Chester. Lead
and zinc ores have been worked in the lower carboniferous rocks in
the north of the county, and caves in the same formation, at Caer
Gwyn and Ffynnon Beuno, have yielded the remains of Pleistocene
mammals along with palaeolithic implements. Much glacial drift
obscures the older rocks on the cast and north and in the vale of
Clwyd. Short stretches of blown sand occur on the coast near Rhyl
and Talacre.
The London & North- Western railway follows the coast-line.
Other railways which cross the county are the Great Western,
and the Wrexham, Mold & Connab's Quay, acquired by the
Great Central company. For pasture the vale of Clwyd is weH
known. Oats, turnips and swedes are the chief crops. Stock
and dairy farming prospers, native cattle being crossed with
Herefords and Downs, native sheep with Leicestcrs and South-
downs, while in the thick mining population a ready market is
found for meat, cheese, butter, &c. The population (81,700 in
1 001) nearly doubled in the 19th century, and Flintshire to-day
is one of the most densely populated counties in North Wales.
The area of the ancient county is 164,744 acres, and that of
t he administrative county 163,025 acres. The collieries begin at
Llanasa, run through Whitford, Holywell, Flint, Halkin (Halcyn),
Northop, Buckley, Mold and Hawarden (Penarlag). At Halkin,
Mold, Holywell, Prestatyn and Talacre lead is raised, and is
sometimes sent to Bagillt, Flint or Chester to be smelted. Zinc,
formerly only worked at Dyserth, has increased in output, and
copper mines also exist, as at Talargoch, together with smelting
works, oil, vitriol, potash and alkali manufactories. Potteries
around Buckley send their produce chiefly to Connah's Quay,
whence a railway crosses the Dee to the Birkenhead (Cheshire)
district. Iron seams are now thin, but limestone quarries yield
building stone, lime for burning and small stone for chemical
works. Fisheries are unproductive and textile manufactures
small.
The county returns one member to parliament. The parlia-
mentary borough district (returning one member), consists of
Caergwrlc, Caerwys, Flint, Holywell, Moid, Overton, St Asaph
and Rhuddlan. In addition, there is a small part of the Chester
parliamentary borough. There is one municipal borough,
Flint (pop. 4625). The other urban districts are: Buckley
(5780), Connah's Quay (3369), Holywell (2651), Mold (4263),
Prestatyn (1361) and Rhyl (8473). Flint is in the North Wales
and Chester circuit, assizes being held at Mold. The Flint
borough has a separate commission of the peace, but no separate
court of quarter sessions. The ancient county, which is in the |
dioceses of Chester, Lichfield and St Asaph, contains forty six
entire ecclesiastical parishes and districts, with parts of eleven
others.
Among sites of antiquarian or historical interest, besides the
fragmentary ruin of Flint Castle, the following may be mentioned:
—Caerwys, near Flint, still shows traces of Roman occupation.
Bodfary (Bodfari) was traditionally occupied by the Romans.
Moel y gaer (bald hill of the fortress), near Northop, is a re-
markably perfect old British post. Maes y Gannon (perhaps
for Mcusydd Gannon, as y, the article, has no significance before
a proper name, and so to be translated, battlefields of Germanus).
A mile from Mold is the reputed scene of unc victoire sans lames,
gagnie nan par Its arnus, mats par la joi (E. H. Vollet). The
Britons, says the legend, were threatened by the Picts and
Saxons, at whose approach the Alleluia of that Easter (aj>. 450)
was sung. Panic duly seized the invaders, but the victor, St
Germanus, confessor and bishop of Auxerre (a.d. 380-448), had
to return to the charge in 446. He has, under the name Gannon,
a great titular share in British topography. At Bangor Iscoed,
w the great high choir in Maelor," was the monastery, destroyed
with over 2000 monks, by jEthelired of Northumberland in 607,
as (by a curious coincidence) its namesake Bangor in Ireland
was sacked by the Danes in the 9th century. Bede says (u. 2)
that Bangor monastery was in seven sections, with three hundred
(working) monks. The supposed lines of direction of Watt's and
Offa's dykes .were: Basingwerk, Halkin, Hope, Alyn valley,
Oswestry {Crocs OswaUt, " Oswald's cross "), for Watt's, and
Prestatyn, Mold, Mincra, across the Severn (Hafren, or Sabrina)
for Offa's. Owain Gwynedd (Gwynedd or Venedocia, is North
Wales) defeated Henry II. at Coed Ewloe (where is a tower)
and at Coleshill (Cynsyllt). Near Pant Asa (pant is a bottom)
is the medieval Maen Achwynfan (ackwyn, to complain, macn,
stone)> and tumuli, menhirs (meini kirion) and inscribed stones
are frequent throughout the county. There is a i4th-cratury
cross in Newmarket churchyard. Caergwrle Castle seems early
Roman, or even British; but most of the castles in the county
date from the early Edwards.
See H. Taylor, Flint (London, 1883).
FLINT, a municipal borough and the county town of the
above; a seaport and contributory parliamentary borough, on
the south of the Dee estuary, 192 m. from London by the London
& North-Western railway. Pop. (1001) 4265. The seat of
great alkali manufactures, it imports chiefly sulphur and other
chemicals, exporting coal, soda, potash, copper, &c. The county
gaol here, as at Haverfordwest, occupied an angle of the castle,
was removed to Mold, and is now Chester Castle (jointly with
Cheshire.)
Flint Castle was built on a lonely rock by the riverside by
Edward L Here met Edward II. and Piers Gaveston. Edward
III. bestowed its constableship upon the earls of Chester, and
here Richard II. surrendered to Bolingbroke. It was twice
taken, after siege, by the parliamentarians, and finally dismantled
in 1647. There remain a square court (with angle towers),
round tower and drawbridge, all three entrusted to a constable,
appointed by the crown under the Municipal Corporations
Reforms Act. Made a borough by Edward I., Flint was chartered
by Edward III., and by Edward the Black Prince, as earl of
Chester.
FLINT (a word common in Teutonic and Scandinavian
languages, possibly cognate with the Gr. rXutfor, a tile), in
petrology, a dark grey or dark brown crypto-crystalline substance
which has an almost vitreous lustre, and when pure appears
structureless to the unaided eye. In the mass it is dark and
opaque, but thin plates or the edges of splinters are pale yellow
and translucent. Its hardness is greater than that of steel, so
that a knife blade leaves a grey metallic streak when draws
across its surface. Its specific gravity is 2-6 or only a little
less than that of crystalline quartz. It is brittle, and when
hammered readily breaks up into a powder of angular grains.
The fracture is perfectly conchoidal, so that blows with a hammer
detach flakes which have convex, slightly undulating surfaces.
At the point of impact a bulb of percussion, which is a somewhat
FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS
5*3
elevated conical mark, is produced.* This' serves to distinguish
flints which have been fashioned by human agencies from those
which have been split merely by the action of frost and the
neather. The bulb is evidence of a direct blow, probably
intentionally made, and is a point of some important* tt>
archaeologists investigating Palaeolithic implements. With
skill and experience a mass of flint can be worked to any simple
shape by well directed strokes, and further trimming can be
effected with pressure by a pointed stone in a direction slightly
across the edge of the weapon. The purest flints have the
most perfect conchoidal fracture, and prehistoric man h known
to have quarried or mined certain bands -of flint which were
specially suitable for his purposes.
Sflka forms nearly the whole substance of flint: calrite ami
dolomite nay occur in it in smaH amounts, and analysts >
detected minute quantities of volatile ingredients, organic com-
?)unds, &c, to which the dark colour is ascribed by some aul horitiw.
hese are dispelled b» heat and the flint becomes white and duller
in lustre. M icroscopic sections show that flint is very finely cry «t a I-
line and consists of quartz or chalcedonic silica; colloidal or amorph-
ous silica may also be present but cannot form any cooaidcriLble part
or the rock. Spicules of sponges and fragments of other or ,
such as molluscs, poly roa.Toraminif era and brachiopods, often occur
in flint, and may be partly or wholly silidfied with retention of their
original structure. Nodules of flint when removed from the chalk
which encloses them have a white dull rough surface, and exposure
to the weather produces much the same appearance on broken Hints.
At first they acquire a bright and very smooth surface, btt this is
subsequently replaced by a dull crust, resembling white or 3 ' 1
porcelain, it has been suggested that this change is due * . -
moval of the colloidal silica in solution, leaving behind the fibres
and grains of more crystalline structure. This process m<.-t be a
very slow one as, from its chemical composition, flint is a material
of great durability. Its great hardness also enables it to resist
attrition. Hence on beaches and in rivers, such as those of tlie sou t ti-
es* of England, flint pebbles exist in vast numbers. Their ?u rf a ces
often show minute creacentic or rounded cracks which are the edges
of small conchoidal fractures produced by the impact of one pebufs
on another during storms or floods.
Flint occurs primarily as concretions, veins and tabular bi:i=s5ct in
the white chalk of such localities as the south of England (see Ch alkJ.
It is generally nodular, and forms rounded or highly irregular mtis&cs
which may be several feet in diameter. Although the flint nodules
often lie m bands which closely follow the bedding, they v. ere not
deposited simultaneously with the chalk; very often the flint frandi
cut across the beds of the limestone and may traverse them at riyht
ancles. Evidently the flint has accumulated along fissures. such it
bedding planes, joints and other cracks, after the chalk had to some
extent consolidated. The silica was derived from the f
radiolaria and the spicular skeletons of sponges. It has pai^-J into
solution, filtered through the porous matrix, and has been again
precipitated when the conditions were suitable. Its form mi on is
consequently the result of (< concretionary action." Where t he ilin 1 1
lie the chalk must have been dissolved away; we have in fat t ■ band
of metasomatic replacement in which a siliceous rock ha* slomly
replaced a calcareous one. The process has been very gradual a n£
the organisms of the original chalk often have.their outlines preserved
in the flint. Shells may become completely ailicified, or may have
their cavities occupied by flint with every detail of the interi -r oi the
shell preserved in the outer surface of the cast. Objects of this kind
arc familiar to all collectors of fossils in chalk districts.
Chert is a coarser and less perfectly homogeneous substan e of the
same nature and composition as flint. It is grey, black or bn >wn . a n A
commonly occurs in limestone (e.g. the Carboniferous Lime 1
the same way as flint occurs.in chalk. Some cherts contain tests of
radiolaria, and correspond fairly closely to the siliceous ratliulariaa
oozes which are gathering at the present day at the bottom e
of the deepest parts of the oceans. Brownish cherts are found i n the
English Greensand ; these often contain remains of sponges
m The principal uses to which flint has been put are the fabrica-
tion of weapons in Palaeolithic and Neolithic times. Other
materials have been employed where flint was not available,
'•*• obsidian, chert, chalcedony, agate and quartzite, but to
Prehistoric man (see Flint Implements below) flint muit have
been of great value and served many of the uses to which steel
J» P«t at the present .day. Flint gravels are widely ei 1
for dressing walks and roads, and for rough-cast work in archi-
tecture. For road-mending flint, though very hard, is not
regarded with favour, as it is brittle and pulverizes readily;
wads badly, yielding a surface which breaks up with htavy
traffic and in bad weather; and its fine sharp-edged chips do
much damage to tires of motors and cycles. Seasoned flints
from the land, having been long exposed to the atmosphere,
are preferred to flints freshly dug from the chalk pits. Formerly
flint and steel were everywhere employed for striking a light;
and gun flints were required for fire-arms. A special industry
in the shaping of gun flints long existed at Brandon in Suffolk.
In 1870 about thirty men were employed. Since then the trade
has become almost extinct as gun flints are in demand only in
semi-savage countries where modern fire-arms are not obtainable.
P ow d e r ed flint was formerly used in the manufacture of glass,
and is still one of the ingredients of many of the finer varieties
of pottery. (J- S. F.)
FLINT MPUUMKNTB AND WEAPONS. The excavation of
these remains of the prehistoric races of the globe in river-drift
gravel-beds has marked a revolution in the study of Man's
history (see Archaeology). Until almost the middle of the 10th
century no suspicion had arisen in the minds of British and
European archaeologists that the momentous results of the
excavations then proceeding in Egypt and Assyria would be
dwarfed by discoveries at home which revolutionized all previous
ideas of Man's antiquity. It was in 1841 that Boucher de Perthes
observed in some sand containing mammalian remains, at
Menchecourt near Abbeville, a flint, roughly worked intoa cutting
implement. This M find " was rapidly followed by others, and
Boucher de Perthes published his first work on the subject,
AntiquUts cdtiques el anUdiluviatnes: mtmoire sur V Industrie
primitive et Us arts d leur origin (1847), in which he proclaimed
his discovery of human weapons in beds unmistakably belonging
to the age of the Drift. It was not until 1859 that the French
archaeologist convinced the scientific world. An English mission
then visited his collection and testified to the great importance
of his discoveries. The "finds" at Abbeville were followed
by others in many places in England, and in fact in every
country where siliceous stones which are capable of being flaked
and fashioned into implements are to be found. The implements
occurred in beds of rivers and lakes, in the tumuli and ancient
burial-mounds; on the sites of settlements of prehistoric man in
nearly every land, such as the shell-heaps and lake-dwellings;
but especially embedded in the high-level gravels of England
and France which have been deposited by river-floods and long
left high and dry above the present course of the stream. These
gravels represent the Drift or Palaeolithic period when man
shared Europe with the mammoth and woolly-haired rhinoceros.
The worked flints of this age arc, however, unevenly distributed;
for while the river-gravels of south-eastern England yield them
abundantly, none has been found in Scotland or the northern
English counties. On the continent the same partial distribution
is observable: while they occur plentifully in the north-western
area of France, they are not discovered in Sweden, Norway or
Denmark. The association of these flints, fashioned for use by
chipping only, with the bones of animals either extinct or no
longer indigenous, has justified their reference to the earlier
period of the Stone Age, generally called Palaeolithic Those flint
implements, which show signs of polishing and in many cases
remarkably fine workmanship, and are found in tumuli, peat-bogs
and lake-dwellings mixed with the bones of common domestic
animals, are assigned to the Neolithic or later Stone Age. The
Palaeolithic flints 'are hammers, flakes, scrapers, implements
worked to a cutting edge at one side, implements- which resemble
rude axes, flat ovoid implements worked to an edge all round,
and a great quantity of spear and arrow heads. None of these
is ground or polished. The Neolithic flints, on the other hand,
exhibit more variety of design, are carefully finished, and the
particular use of each weapon can be easily detected. Man hat
reached the stage of culture when he could socket a stone into
a wooden handle, and fix a flaked flint as a handled dagger or
knife. The workmanship is superior to that shown in any of the
stone utensils made by savage tribes of historic times. The
manner of making flint implements appears to have been in. all
ages much the same. Flint from its mode of fracture is the only
kind of stone which can be chipped or flaked into almost any
shape, and thus forms the principal material of these earliest
weapons. The blows must be carefully aimed or the flakes
5 H
FLOAT— FLOE
dislodged will be shattered: a gun-flint maker at Brandon,
Suffolk, stated that it took him two years to acquire the art.
For accounts of the gun-flint manufacture at Brandon, and
detailed descriptions of ancient flint-working, see Sir John Evans,
Ancient Stone Implements (1897). Lord Aveb'ury's Prehistoric Times
(1865, 1900); also Thomas Wilson, " Arrow-heads, Spear-heads and
Knives of Prehistoric Times," in Smithsonian Report for 1897 ; and
W. K. Moorehead, Prehistoric Implements (1900).
FLOAT (in O. Eng. ftot andjfota, in the verbal lormfliolan; the
Teutonic root is fiul- t another form of flu-, seen in " flow,!' cf.
" fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. v\ktv, to sail, Lat. pi Here, to
rain; the Lat, flucre and fluclus, wave, is not connected), the
action of moving on the surface of water, or through the air.
The word is used also of a wave, or the flood of the tide, river,
backwater or stream, and of any object floating in water, as
a mass of ice or weeds; a movable landing-stage, a flat-bottomed
boat, or a raft, or, in fishing, of the cork or quill used to support
a baited line or fishing-net. It is also applied to the hollow or
inflated organ by means of which certain animals, such as the
" Portuguese man-of-war," swim, to a hollow metal ball or piece
of whinstone, &c, used to regulate the level of water in a tank or
boiler, and to a piece of ivory in the astern of a barometer.
" Float " is also the name of one of the boards of a paddle-wheel
or water-wheel. In a theatrical sense, it is used to denote the
footlights. The word is also applied to something broad, level
and shallow, as a wooden frame attached to a cart or wagon
for the purpose of increasing the carrying capacity; and to a
special kind of low, broad cart for carrying heavy weights, and
to a platform on wheels used for shows in a procession. The term
is applied also to various tools, especially to many kinds of trowels
oscd in plastering. It is also used of a dock where vessels may
float, as at Bristol, and of the trenches used in " floating " land.
In geology and mining, loose rock or ore brought down by water
is known as " float," and in tin-mining it is applied to a large
trough used for the smelted tin. In weaving the word is used of
the passing of weft threads over part of the warp without being
woven in with it, also of the threads so passed. In the United
States a voter not attached to any particular party and open to
bribery is called a " float " or " floater."
FLOCK. 1. (A word found in Old English and Old Norwegian,
from which come the Danish and Swedish words, and not in
other Teutonic languages), originally a company of people, now
mainly, except in figurative usages, of certain animals when
gathered together for feeding or moving from place to place.
For birds it is chiefly used of geese; and for other animals most
generally of sheep and goats. It is from the particular applica-
tion of the word to sheep that " flock " is used of the Christian
Church in its relation to the " Good Shepherd," and also of
a congregation of worshippers in its relation to its spiritual
head.
2. (Probably from the Lat. Jhccus, but many Teutonic
languages have the same word in various forms), a tuft of wool,
cotton or similar substance. The name " flock " is given to a
material formed of wool or cotton .refuse, or of shreds of old
woollen or cotton rags, torn by a machine known as a " devil."
This material is used for stuffing mattresses or pillows, and also
in upholstery. The name is also applied to a special kind of
wall-paper, which has an appearance almost like cloth, or, in
the more expensive kinds, of velvet. It is made by dusting on a
specially prepared adhesive surface finely powdered fibres of
cotton or silk. The word " flocculcnt " is used of many substances
which have a fleecy or " flock "-like appearance, such as a
precipitate of ferric hydrate.
FLODDEN, or Floodem Field, near the village of Branxton,
an Northumberland, England (10 m. N.W. of VVooler), the scene
of a famous battle fought on the 9th of September 1513 between
the English and the Scots. On the 2 and of August a great
Scottish army under King James IV. had crossed the border.
For the moment the earl of Surrey (who in King Henry VIII.'s
absence was charged with the defence of the realm) had no
organized force in the north of England, but James wasted much
precious time among the border castles, and when Surrey
appeared at Wooler, with an army equal in strength to his own,
which was now greatly weakened by privations and de ac t tfaa .
he had not advanced beyond Ford Castle. The English com-
mander promptly sent in a challenge to a pitched battle, which
the king, in spite of the advice of his most trusted counsellors,
accepted. On the 6th of September, however, he left Ford and
took up a strong position facing south, on Flodden Edge. Surrey's
reproaches for the alleged breach of faith, and a second challenge
to fight on Millfield Plain were this time disregarded. The
English commander, thus foiled, executed a daring and skilful
march round the enemy's flank, and on the 9th drew up for battle
in rear of the hostile army. It is evident that Surrey was con-
fident of victory, for he placed his own army, not less than the
enemy, in a position where defeat would involve utter ruin.
On his appearance the Scots hastily changed front and took
post on Branxton Hill, facing north. The battle began at 4 p.m.
Surrey's archers and cannon soon gained the upper hand, and the
Scots, unable quietly to endure their losses, rushed to dose
quarters. Their left wing drove the English back, but Lord
Dacre's reserve corps restored the fight on this side. In all other
parts of the field, save where James and Surrey were personally
opposed, the English gradually gained ground. The king's
corps was then attacked by Surrey in front, and by Sir Edward
Stanley in flank. As the Scots were forced back, a part of Dacre's
force closed upon the other flank, and finally Dacre himself,
boldly neglecting an almost intact Scottish division in front of
him, charged in upon the rear of King James's corps. Sur-
rounded and attacked on all sides, this, the remnant of the
invading army, was doomed. The circle of spearmen around
the king grew less and less, and in the end James anda few of his
nobles were alone left standing. Soon they too died, fighting to
the last man. Among the ten thousand Scottish dead were all
the leading men in the kingdom of Scotland, and there was no
family of importance that had not lost a member in this great
disaster. The " King's Stone," said to mark the spot where
James was killed, is at some distance from the actual battlefield.
" Sybil's Well," in Scott's Marmion, is imaginary.
FLODOARD (894-066), French chronicler, was born at
Epernay, and educated at Reims in the cathedral school which
had been established by Archbishop Fulcon (822-000). As
canon of Reims, and favourite of the archbishops Herivaeus
(d. 922) and Seulfus (d. 925), he occupied while still young an
important position at the archiepiscopal court, but was twice
deprived of his benefices by Heribert, count of Vermandois, on
account of his steady opposition to the election of the count's
infant son to the archbishopric Upon the final triumph of
Archbishop Artold in 947, Flodoard became for a time his chief
adviser, but withdrew to a monastery in 952, and spent the
remaining years of his life in literary and devotional work. His
history of the cathedral church at Reims (Historic Kemensis
EccUsiae) is one of the most remarkable productions of the 10th
century. Flodoard had been given charge of the episcopal
archives, and constructed his history out of the original texts,
which he generally reproduces in full; the documents for the
period of Hincmar being especially valuable. The Annates
which Flodoard wrote year by year from 919 to 966 are doubly
important, by reason of the author's honesty and the central
position of Reims in European affairs in his time. Flodoard's
poetical works are of hardly less historical interest. The long
poem celebrating the triumph of Christ and His saints was called
forth by the favour shown him by Pope Leo VII., during whose
pontificate he visited Rome, and he devotes fourteen books to
the history of the popes.
Flodoard's works were published in full by J. P. Migne (Palrologie
Latina, vol. 135) ; a modern edition of the Annates is the one edited
by P. Lauer (Paris, 1906). For bibliography see A. Motinier, Sources
de I'histoire de France (No. 932).
FLOE (of uncertain derivation; cf. Norse flo, layer, level
plain), a sheet of floating ice detached from the main body of
polar ice. It is of less extent than the field of " pack " ice,
which is a compacted mass of greater depth drifting frequently
under the influence of deep currents, while the floating floe a
driven by the wind.
FLOOD, H.
5*5
ftOftD, sttttY (f?jt»f79t), Irish statesman, son of Warden
Flood, chief justice of the king's bench in Ireland, was born
in 173*, and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and after-
wards at Christ Church, Oxford, where he became proficient in
the classic*. His father was a man el good birth and fortune,
and he himself married a member of the influential fieresford
family, who brought him a large fortune. In his carry years
he was handsome, witty, flood-tempered, and a brilliant con-
versationalist. His judgment was sound, and he had a natural
gift of eloquence which had been cultivated and developed by
study of classical oratory and the practice of elocution. Flood
therefore possessed every personal advantage when, in 1759,
he entered the Irish parliament as member for Kilkenny in his
twenty-seventh year. There was at that time no party in the
Irish House of Commons that could truly be called national,
and until a few years before there had been none that deserved
even the name of an opposition.' The Irish parliament was still
constitutionally subordinate to the English privy council; it
had practically no powers of independent legislation, and none
of controlling the policy of the executive, which was nominated
by the ministers in London (see Gkattan, Henky). Though
the great majority of the people were Roman Catholics, no
person of that faith could either enter parliament or exercise the
franchise; the penal code, which made it almost impossible for
a Roman Catholic to hold property, to followalearned profession,
or even to educate his children, and which in numerous particulars
pressed severely on the Roman Catholics and subjected them to
degrading conditions, was as yet unrepealed, though in practice
largely obsolete; the industry and commerce of Ireland were
throttled by restrictions imposed, in accordance with the
economic theories of the period, in the interest of the rival trade
of Great Britain. Men like Anthony Maloncand Hely-Hutchison
fully realized the necessity for far-reaching reforms, and it only
needed the ability and eloquence of Flood in the Irish House of
Commons to raise up an independent party in parliament, and
to create in the country a public opinion with definite intelligible
aims.
The chief objects for which Flood strove were the shortening
of the duration of parliament — which had then no legal limit
in Ireland except that of the reigning sovereign's life,— the
reduction of the scandalously heavy pension list, the establish-
ment of a national militia, and, above all, the complete legislative
independence of the Irish parliament. For some years little
was accomplished; but in 1768 the English ministry, which
had special reasons at the moment for avoiding unpopularity
in Ireland, allowed an octennial bill-to pass, which was the first
step towards making the Irish House of Commons in some
measure representative of public opinion. It had become the
practice to allow crown patronage in Ireland to be exercised by
the owners of parliamentary boroughs in return for their under-
taking to manage the House in the government interest. But
during the viceroyalty of Lord Townscnd the aristocracy, and
more particularly these "undertakers" as they were called,
were made to understand that for the future their privileges in
this respect would be curtailed. When, therefore, an opportunity
was taken by the government in 1768 for reasserting the con-
stitutional subordination of the Irish parliament, these powerful
classes were thrown into temporary alliance with Flood. In the
following year, in accordance with the established procedure,
a money bill was sent over by the privy council in London for
acceptance by the Irish House of Commons. Not only was it
rejected, but contrary to custom a reason for this course was
usigned, namely, that the bill had not originated in the Irish
House. In consequence parliament was peremptorily prorogued,
and a recess of fourteen months was employed by the government
>n securing a majority by the most extensive corruption. 1 Never-
theless when parliament met in February 1771 another money
bill was thrown out on the motion of Flood; and the next year
Lord Townsend, the lord lieutenant whose policy had provoked
this conflict, was recalled. The struggle was the occasion of a
Publication, famous in its day, called Baratariana, to which
» Walpole's George UU iv. 348.
Flood contributed A series of powerful letters after the
manner of Junius, one of his collaborators being Henry
Grattan.
The success which had thus far attended Flood's efforts had
placed him in a position such as no Irish politician had previously
attained. He had, as an eminent historian of Ireland observes,
" proved himself beyond all comparison the greatest popular
orator that his country had yet produced, and also a consummate
master of parliamentary tactics. Under parliamentary conditions
that were exceedingly unfavourable, and in an atmosphere
charged with corruption, venality and subserviency, he had
created a party before which ministers had begun to quail, and
had inoculated the Protestant constituencies with a genuine
spirit of liberty and self-reliance."' Lord Harcourt, who
succeeded Townsend as viceroy, saw that Flood must be con-
ciliated at any price M rather than risk the opposition of so
formidable a leader." Accordingly, in 1775, Flood was offered
and accepted a seat in the privy council and the office of vice-
treasurer with a salary of £3500 a year. For this step he has
been severely criticized. The suggestion that he acted corruptly
in the matter is groundless; and although it is true that he lost
influence from the moment he became a minister of the crown,
Flood may reasonably have held that he had a better prospect
of advancing bis policy by the leverage of a ministerial position
than by means of any opposition party he could hope to muster
in an unreformed House of Commons. 3 The result, however,
was that the leadership of the national party passed from Flood
to Grattan, who entered the Irish parliament in the same session
that Flood became a minister.
Flood continued in office for nearly seven years. During this
long period he necessarily remained silent on the subject of the
independence of the Irish parliament, and had to be content
with advocating minor reforms as occasion offered. He was
thus instrumental in obtaining bounties on the export of Irish
corn to foreign countries and some other trifling commercial
concessions, On the other hand he failed to procure the passing
of a Habeas Corpus bill and a bill for making the judges irre-
movable, while his support of Lord North's American policy
still more gravely injured his popularity and reputation. But
an important event in 1778 led indirectly to his recovering to
some extent his former position in the country; this event Was
the alliance of France with the revolted American colonies.
Ireland was thereby placed in peril of a French invasion, while
the English government could provide no troops to defend the
island. The celebrated volunteer movement was then set on
foot to meet the emergency; in a few weeks more than 40,000
men, disciplined and equipped, were under arms, officered by
the country gentry, and controlled by the wisdom and patriotism
of Lord Charicmont. This volunteer force, in which Flood was
a colonel, while vigilant for the defence of the island, soon
made itself felt in politics. A Volunteer Convention, formed
with all the regular organization of a representative assembly,
but wielding the power of an army, began menacingly to demand
the removal of the commercial restrictions which were destroying
Irish prosperity. Under this pressure the government gave way ;
the whole colonial trade was in 1779 thrown open to Ireland for
the first time, and other concessions were also extorted. Flood,
who had taken an active though not a leading part in this move-
ment, now at last resigned his office to rejoin his old party. He
found to his chagrin that his former services had been to a great
extent forgotten, and that he was eclipsed by Grattan. When
in a debate on the constitutional question in 1779 Flood com-
plained of the small consideration shown him in relation to a
subject which he had been the first to agitate, he was reminded
that by the civil law " if a man should separate from his wife,
and abandon her for seven years, another might then take her
and give her his protection." But though Flood had lost
control of the movement for independence of the Irish parliament,
the agitation, backed as it now was by the Volunteer Convention
• W. E. H. Lecky, Leaders of Pttblic Opinion in Ireland (enlarged
edition, a vols., 1903), i. 48.
* See Hardy's Lift of CkorUmont, t. 356.
526
FLOOD— FLOOD PLAIN
and by increasing sfgns of popular disaffection, led at last in
1 782 to the concession of the demand, together with a number
of other important reforms (see Grattan, Henry).
No sooner, however, was this great success gained than a
question arose— known as the Simple Repeal controversy —
as to whether England, in addition to the repeal of the Acts on
which the subordination of the Irish parliament had been based,
should not be required expressly to renounce for the future all
claim to control Irish legislation. The chief historical importance
of this dispute is that it led to the memorable rupture of friendship
between Flood and Grattan, each of whom assailed the other with
unmeasured but magnificently eloquent invective in the House of
Commons. Flood's view prevailed— for a Renunciation Act such
as he advocated was ungrudgingly passed by the English parlia-
ment in 1783— and for a time he regained popularity at the
expense of his rival. Flood next (a8th of November 1783)
introduced a reform bill, after first submitting it to the Volunteer
Convention. The bill, which contained no provision for giving
the franchise to Roman Catholics— a proposal which Flood
always opposed— 'was rejected, ostensibly on the ground that the
attitude of the volunteers threatened the freedom of parliament.
The volunteers were perfectly loyal to the crownand the connexion
with England. They carried an address to the king, moved by
Flood, expressing the hope that their support of parliamentary
reform might be imputed to nothing but " a sober and laudable
desire to uphold the constitution . . . and to perpetuate the
cordial union of both kingdoms." The convention then dissolved,
though Flood had desired, in opposition to Grattan, to continue
it as a means of putting pressure on parliament for the purpose
of obtaining reform.
In 1776 Flood had made an attempt to enter the English House
of Commons. In 1783 he tried again, this time with success.
He purchased a seat for Winchester from the duke of Chandos,
and for the next seven years he was a member at the same time
of both the English and Irish parliaments. He reintroduced,
but without success, his reform Dill in the Irish House in 1784;
supported the movement for protecting Irish industries; but
short-sightedly opposed Pitt's commercial propositions in 178s.
He remained a firm opponent of Roman Catholic emancipation,
even defending the penal laws on the ground that after the
Revolution they " were not laws of persecution but of political
necessity "; but after 1786 he does not appear to have attended
the parliament in Dublin. In the House at Westminster, where
he refused to enrol himself as a member of either political party,
he was not successful. His first speech, in opposition to Fox's
India Bill on the 3rd of December 1783, disappointed the ex-
pectations aroused by his celebrity. His speech in opposition
to the commercial treaty with France in 1787 was, however,
most able; and in 1700 he introduced a reform bill which Fox
declared to be the best scheme of reform that had yet been
proposed, and which in Burke's opinion retrieved Flood's reputa-
tion. But at the dissolution in the same year he lost his seat in
both parliaments, and he then retired to Farmlcy, his residence
in county Kilkenny, where he died on the 2nd of December 1701.
When Peter Burrowes, notwithstanding his close personal
friendship with Grattan, declared that Flood was " perhaps the
ablest man Ireland ever produced, indisputably the ablest man
of his own times," he expressed what was probably the general
opinion of Flood's contemporaries. Lord Charlemont, who knew
him intimately though not always in agreement with his policy,
pronounced him to be " a man of consummate ability." He also
declared that avarice made no part of Flood's character. Lord
Mountmorres, a critic by no means partial to Flood, described
him as a pre-eminently truthful man, and one who detested
flattery. Grattan, who even after the famous quarrel never lost
his respect for Flood, said of him that he was the best tempered and
the most sensible man in the world. In his youth he was genial,
frank, sociable and witty; but in later years disappointment
made him gloomy and taciturn. As an orator he was less polished,
less epigrammatic than Grattan; but a closer reasancr and a
greater master of sarcasm and invective. Personal ambition
often governed his actions, but his political judgment was usually
sound; and it waa the opinion of Bentham that Flood would have
succeeded in carrying a reform bill which might have preserved
Irish parliamentary independence, if he had been supported by
Grattan and the rest of his party in keeping alive the Volunteer
Convention in 1 783. Though he never wavered in loyalty to the
British crown and empire, Ireland never produced a more sincere
patriot than Henry Flood.
See Warden Ft*c«i, Hemsirs of Ihnty FUad (London, 1838);
Henry Grattan, Memoirs of the Life and T iiw** nf tke R^gnt Hon. H.
Grattan (5 vols., London, i $39-1046); Charles Phillips, RctaUectjmu
of Curran and some 0/ his Cvnttm far arte* (London, ]#22); Tke Irish
Parliament 177s, from an official and contemporary manuscript,
edited by William Hunt (London, 1907) : W. J. O'Neill Daunt,
Ireland and her A*ilaHtrti Lord Mount moires History of tke Irish
Parliament (2 vols.* London, 1791) ; W. E, i.L Usky, History ef
Entland in the EifWxU Ccntvry (a vols., London, 1878-1890);
and Leaders of Puttie Opinion in Ireland (enlarged edition, a vols..
London, 1903) ; J. A. Fronde. Tkt En^tisk ■■ Jretomi. vols, il and iia.
(London, 1881) ; Horace Walpclp, Memoirs of ike Reign at Gtortjt III.
(4 vols., London, ltf& 1G94); ^k Jonah Barringttm. Riseamd Fall
of the Irish Nation (London, 1833); Francis Flowdcn, Historical
Review of the Stab of Irrland (London, iSoj)t Alfred Webb, Com-
pendium of Irish Bittzraphy (Dublin. 18TS); F. Hardy, Memoirs ef
Lord Charlemont t London, 181 2). especially (or the volunteer move-
ment, on which m jjIm Procttdin^s i?f the Volunteer Delegates ef
Ireland 1784 (Anon. Pamphlet, Brit, Mu* r ); also Tkt Charlemont
Papers, and Irish rod. Dtbatei, vols. i.4\\). (R. J. M.)
FLOOD (in O. Eng. J?A/,aword common to Teutonic languages,
cf . Ger. Flui, Dutch viocd, from the same root as is seen in " flow,"
" float "), an overflow of water, an expanse of water submerging
Iand,a deluge, hence " the flood/'spedfically, the Noechian deluge
of Genesis, but also any other catastrophic submersion recorded
in the mythology of other nations than the Hebrew (see Delugx,
The). In the sense of " flowing water," the word is applied to
the inflow of the tide, as opposed to " ebb."
FLOOD PLAIN* the term in physical geography for a plain
formed of sediment dropped by a riven When the slope down
which a river runs has become very slight, it is unable to carry
the sediment brought from higher regions nearer its source,
and consequently the lower portion of the river valley becomes
filled with alluvial deposits; and since in times of flood the rush
of water in the high regions tears off and carries down a greater
quantity of sediment than usual, the river spreads this also over
the lower valley where the plain is flooded, because the rush of
water is checked, and the stream in consequence drops its extra
load. These flood plains are sometimes of great extent. That
of the Mississippi below Ohio has a width of from 20 to 80 m.,
and its whote extent has been estimated at 50,000 sq. m. Flood
plains may be the result of planation, with aggradation, that is,
they may be due to a graded river working in meanders from side
to side, widening its valley by this process and covering the
widened valley with sediment. Or the stream by cutting into
another stream (piracy), by cutting through a barrier near its
head waters, by entering a region of looser or softer rock, and by
glacial drainage, may form a flood plain simply by filling up
its valley (alluviation only). Any obstruction across a river's
course, such as a band of hard rock, may form a flood plain behind
it, and indeed anything which checks a river's course and causes
it to drop its load will tend to form a flood plain; but it is most
commonly found near the mouth of a large river, such as the
Rhine, the Nile, or the Mississippi, where there are occasional
floods and the river usually carries a large amount of sediment.
" Levees " are formed, inside which the river usually flows,
gradually raising its bed above the surrounding plain. Occasional
breaches during floods cause the overloaded stream to spread in
a great lake over the surrounding country, where the silt covers
the ground in consequence. Sections of the Missouri flood plain
made by the United States geological survey show a great variety
of material of varying coarseness, the stream bed being scoured
at one place, and filled at another by currents and floods of varying
swiftness, so that sometimes the deposits are of coarse gravel,
sometimes of fine sand, or of fine silt, and it is probable that any
section of such an alluvial plain would show deposits of a similar
character. The flood plain during its formation is marked by
meandering, or anastomosing streams, ox-bow lakes and bayous,
FLOOR— FLOR, ROGER DI
527
marshes or stagnant pools, lad is occasionally completely covered
with water. When the drainage system has ceased to act or is
entirely diverted owing to any cause, the flood plain may become
a level area of great fertility, similar in appearance to the floor of
an old lake. The flood plain differs, however, inasmuch as it is
not altogether Hat. It has a gentle slope down-stream, and often
for a distance from the sides towards the centre.
FLOOR (from 0. Eng. fior, a word common to many Teutonic
languages, cf. Dutch vlotr, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine,
and a floor, masculine), generally the lower horizontal surface of
a room, but specially employed for one covered with boarding
or parquetry. The various levels of rooms m a house are desig-
nated as -" ground-floor," " first-floor," " mezzanine-floor," &c.
The principal floor is the storey which contains the chief apart-
ments whether on the ground- or first-floor; in Italy they are
always on the latter and known as the " piano nobile." The
storey below the ground-floor is called the " basement-floor,"
even if only a little below the level of the pavement outside; the
storey in a roof is known as the " attic-floor." The expressions
one pair, two pair, &c, apply to the storeys above the first
flight of stairs from the ground (see also Carpentry),.
FLOORCLOTH, a rough flannel cloth used for domestic
cleaning; also a generic term applied to a variety of materials
used in place of carpets for covering floors, and known by such
trade names as kamptulicon, oil-cloth, linoleum, corticine, cork*
carpet, &c Kamptulicon (Ka/wrros, flexible, o&Xor, thick) was
patented in 1844 by £. Galloway, but did not attract much
attention till about 1862. It was essentially a preparation of
indiarubber masticated up with ground cork, and rolled out
into sheets between heavy steam-heated rollers, sometimes
over a backing of canvas. Owing to its expensiveness, it has
given place to cheaper materials serving the same purpose.
Oil-doth is a coarse canvas which has received a number of
coats of thick oil paint, each coat being rubbed smooth with
pumice stone before the application of the next. Its surface
is ornamented with patterns printed in oil colours by means of
wooden blocks. Linoleum {linum, flax, okum, oil), patented by
F. Walton in i860 and 1863, consists of oxidized linseed oil and
ground cork. These ingredients, thoroughly incorporated with
the addition of certain gummy and resinous matters, and of
pigments such as ochre and oxide of iron as required, are pressed
on to a rough canvas backing between steam-heated rollers.
Patterns may be printed on its surface with oil paint, or by an
improved method may be inlaid with coloured composition
so that the colours are continuous through the thickness of the
linoleum, instead of being on the surface only, and thus do not dis-
appear with wear. Lincrusta-Walton is a similar material to lino-
leum, also having oxidized linseed oil as its base, which is stamped
out in embossed patterns and used as a covering for walls.
FLOQUST, CHARLES THOMAS (1828-1896), French states-
nan, was born at St Jean-Pied-de-Pcct (Basses-Pyrinlcs) on
the 2nd of October 1828. He studied law in Paris, and was
called to the bar in 1851. The coup dUtat of that year aroused
the strenuous opposition of Floquet, who had, while yet a student,
given proof of his republican sympathies by taking part in the
fighting of 1848. He made his name by his brilliant and fearless
attacks on the government in a series of political trials, and at
the same time contributed to the Temps and other influential
journals. When the tsax Alexander II. visited the Palais de
Justice in 1867, Floquet was said to have confronted him with
the cry " Vive la Pologne, monsieur! " He delivered a scathing
indictment of the Empire at the trial of Pierre Bonaparte for
killing Victor Noir in 1870, and took a part in the revolution
of the 4th of September, as well as in the subsequent defence
of Paris. In 1871 he was elected to the National Assembly
by the department of the Seine. During the Commune he formed
the Ligut $ union rtpubikainc its droits de Paris to attempt a
reconciliation with the government of Versailles. When his
effort* failed, he left Paris, and was imprisoned by order of Thiers,
but soon released. He became editor of the Rtpublique Franqaist,
*as chosen president of the municipal council, and in 1876 was
elected deputy for the eleventh arrondissement. He took a
prominent place among the extreme radicals, and became
president of the group of the " Union repubiicaine." In x88a
he held for a short time the post of prefect of the Seine. In
1885 he succeeded M. Brisson as president of the chamber.
Tats difficult position he fiUed with such tact and impartiality
that he was re-elected the two following yean. Having
approached the Russian ambassador in such a way as to remove
the prejudice existing against him in Russia since the incident
of 1S67, he rendered himself eligible for office; and on the fall
of the Tirard cabinet in x 888 he became president of the council
and minister of the interior in a radical ministry, which pledged
itself to the revision of the constitution, but was forced to combat
the proposals of General Boulanger. Heated, debates in the
chamber culminated oa the 13th of July in a duel between Floquet
and Boulanger in which the latter was wounded. In the following
February the government fell on the question of revision, and
in the new chamber of November Floquet was re-elected to
the presidential chair. The Panama scandals, in which he was
compelled to admit his implication, dealt a fatal blow to his
career: he lost the presidency of the chamber in 189a, and bis
seat in the house in 1893, but in 1804 was elected to the senate.
He died in Paris on the 28th of January 1806.
See Ducomrs tt opinio** to M, Charles Floquet, edited by Albeit
Faiyre (1885)/
FLOR, ROGER 1)1, a military adventurer of the i3th~i4th
century, was the second son of a falconer in the service of the
emperor Frederick II., who fell at Tagliacoaso (x 26S), and when
eight years old was sent to sea in a galley belonging to the
Knights Templars. He entered the order and became com*
rounder of a galley. At the siege of Acre by the Saracens in
xaox he was accused and denounced to the pope as a thief and
an apostate, was degraded from his rank, and. fled to Genoa,
where he began to play the pirate. The struggle between the
kings of Aragon and the French kings of Naples for the possession
of Sicily was at this time going on; and Roger entered the
service of Frederick, king of Sicily, who gave him the rank of
vice-admiral. At the close of the war, in 1302, as Frederick was
anxkras to free the island from his mercenary troops (called
Alntugavares), whom he had no longer the means of paying,
Roger induced them under his leadership to seek new adventures
in the East, in fighting against the Turks, who were ravaging
the empire. The emperor Andronicus IL accepted his offer of
service; and in September 1303 Roger with his fleet and army
arrived at Constantinople. He was adopted into the imperial
family, was married to a grand-daughter of the emperor, and
was made grand duke and commander-in-chief of the army and
the fleet. After some weeks lost in dissipation, intrigues and
bloody quarrels, Roger and his men were sent into Asia, and after
some successful encounters with the Turks they went into winter
quarters at Cyzkus. In May 1304 they again took the field,
and rendered the important service of relieving Philadelphia,
then invested and reduced to extremities by the Turks. But
Roger, bent on advancing his own interests rather than those
of the emperor, determined to found in the East a principality
for himself. He sent his treasures to Magnesia, but the people
slew his Catalans and seized the treasures. He then formed the
siege of the town, but his attacks were repulsed, and he was
compelled to retire. Being' recalled to Europe, he settled his
troops in GaUipoti and other towns, and visited Constantinople
to demand pay for the Alm&gavarcs. Dissatisfied with the small
sum granted by the emperor, he plundered the country and
carried on intrigues both with and against the emperor, receiving
reinforcements all the while from all parts of southern Europe.
Roger was now created Caesar, but shortly afterwards the young
emperor Michael Palacologus, not daring to attack the fierce
and now augmented bands of adventurers, invited Roger to
Adrianople, and there contrived his assassination and the
massacre of his Catalan cavalry (April 4, 1306). His death was
avenged by his men in a fierce and prolonged war against the
Greeks.
See Moncada, Expedition de los Catalans* y Amfoneses <mtn
Turcot y Criegos (Paris, 1640).
528
FLORA— FLORENCE
FLORA, in Raman mythology, goddess of spring-time and
flowers, later identified with the Greek Colons. Her festival
at Rome, the Floralia, instituted 238 B.C. by order of the
Sibylline books and at first held irregularly, became annual
after 1 73. It lasted six days (April 28-May 3) , the first day being
the anniversary of the foundation of her temple. It included
theatrical performances and animal hunts in the circus, and
vegetables were distributed to the people. The proceedings
were characterized by excessive merriment and licentiousness.
According to the legend, her worship was instituted by Titus
Tatius, and her priest, the flamen Floralis, by Numa. In art
Flora was represented as a beautiful maiden, bedecked with
flowers (Ovid, Fasti, v. 183 ff.; Tacitus, Annals, ii. 49).
The term " flora " is used in botany collectively for the plant-
growth of a district; similarly " fauna " is used collectively
for the animals.
FLORB AND BLANCHEFLEUR, a 13th-century romance.
This tale, generally supposed to be of oriental origin, relates the
passionate devotion of two children, and their success in over-
coming all the obstacles put in the way of their love. The
romance appears in differing versions in French, English, German,
Swedish, Icelandic, Italian, Spanish, Greek and Hungarian.
The various forms of the tale receive a detailed notice in £.
Hausknecht's version of the 13th-century Middle English poem
of " Fbris and Blauncheflur " (JSamml. eng. DernkmOler, voL v.
Berlin, 1885). Nothing definite can be stated of the origin of
the story, but France was in the z 2th and 13th centuries the
chief market of romance, and the French version of the tale,
Floire ct Blanchefleur, is the most widespread. Floire, the son
of a Saracen king of Spain, is brought up in constant companion-
ship with Blanchefleur, the daughter of a Christian slave of
noble birth. Floire's parents, hoping to destroy this attachment ,
send the boy away at fifteen and sell Blanchefleur to foreign
slave-merchants. When Floire returns a few days later he is
told that bis companion is dead, but when he threatens to kill
himself, his parents tell him the truth. He traces her to the
tower of the maidens destined for the harem of the emir of
Babylon, into which be penetrates concealed in a basket of
flowers. The lovers are discovered, but their constancy touches
the hearts of their judges. They are married, and Floire returns
to his kingdom, when he and all bis people adopt Christianity.
Of the two 12th-century French poems (ed. Edelcstand du
Merit, Paris, 1856), the one contains the love story with few
additions, the other is a romance of chivalry, containing the
usual battles, single combats, &c. Two lyrics based on episodes
of the story are printed by Paulin Paris in his Romancero
francais (Paris, 1883). The English poem renders the French
version without amplifications, such as are found in other
adaptations. Its author has less sentiment than his original,
and less taste for detailed description. Among the other forms
of the story must be noted the prose romance (e. 1340) of
Boccacdo, // Filocofo, and the 14th-century Leggenda delta
reina Rosana di Rosana suafxgliuola (pr. Leghorn, 1871). The
similarity between the story of Floire and Blanchefleur and
Ckante-fable of Aucassiu el NicoUle l has been repeatedly pointed
out, and they have even been credited with a common
source.
See also editions by I. Bekker (Berlin, 1844) and E. Hausknecht
(Berlin, 1885) ; also H. Sundmacher, Die altfr. und miUethochdentsche
Bearbeilung der Sage von Fiore et Blansckeflur (Gottingen, 1872);
H. Hcrzog, Die beiden Sagcnkreisevon Flore und Blansckeflur (Vienna,
1884); Zeilschrift fir deut. AUertum (vol. xxi.) contains a Rhenish
version; the Scandinavian Flares Saga ok Blanhiflur, ed. E. Kolbing
/u-n- .«-*v. .u u -— -f Konrad Fleck, flore ws3
' * ; the Swedish by G. E.
. , T . «. 1 poem was also edited
by Hartschorne (English Metrical Tales, 1829), by Lain]? (Abbotsford
Club, 1829), and by Lumly (Early Eng. Text Sec., 1866, re-edited
G- H. Mcknight, 1901). J. Rcinhold (Floire el Blanchefleur, Paris,
19C6) suggests a parallelism with the story of Cupid and Psyche as
1 Ed. H. Suchier (Paderborn, 1878, 5th cd. 1903) : modern French
by G. Michaut, with preface by J. bedicr (Tours, 1901); English
by Andrew Lang (1887). by F. W. Bourdittoo (Oxford, 1896), and
by Laurence Housman (1902).
told by Apuleius; also that the oriental setting does not isrirfssariW
imply a connexion with Arab tales, as the circumstances might wits
•mall alteration have been taken from the Vulgate version of tht
book of Esther.
FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN (2831-1890, Amcricia
actor, of Irish descent, whose real name was Bernard ConLn,
was born on the 26th of July 1831 at Albany, N.Y., and first
attracted attention as an actor at Brougham's Lyceum in 1851.
Two years later he married Mrs Malvina Pray Littcli (</- 1 906), is
association with whom, until her retirement in 1889, he won all
his successes, notably in Benjamin Woolf's The Highly DaUcr,
said to have been presented more than 2500 times. In 1856
they had a successful London season, Mrs Florence being one of
the first American actresses to appear on the English stage
In 1889 Florence entered into partnership with Joseph Jefferson
playing Sir Lucius OTrigger to his Bob Acres and Mrs John
Drew's Mrs Malaprop on a very successful tour. His last
appearance was with Jefferson on the 14th of November 1891,
as Ezekiel Homespun in The Heir-at-law, and he died on the 1 8th
of November in Philadelphia.
FLORENCE OF WORCESTER (d. it 18), English chronicler,
was a monk of Worcester, who died, as we learn from his coo-
tinuator, on the 7th of July 11 18. Beyond this fact nothing is
known of his life. He compiled a chronicle called Ckronhcn
ex chronkis which begins with the creation and ends in 1117-
The basis of his work was a chronicle compiled by Marianus
Scotus, an Irish recluse, who lived first at Fulda, afterwards at
Mainz. Marianus, who began his work after 1069, carried it up
to X082. Florence supplements Marianus from a lost version
of the English Chronicle, and from Asscr. He is always worth
comparing with the extant English Chronicles; and from 1 106
he is an independent annalist , dry but accurate. Either Florence
or a later editor of his work made considerable borrowings from
the first four books of Eadmer's Historic nervorum. Florence's
work is continued, up to 1141, by a certain John of Worcester,
who wrote about 1150. John is valuable for the latter years
of Henry I. and the early years of Stephen. He is friendly to
Stephen, but not an indiscriminate partisan.
The first edition of these two writers is that of 1592 (by William
Howard). The most accessible is that of B. Thorpe (Eng. Hist. Soc,
2 vols., 1 848-1849) ; but Thorpe's text of John's continuation needs
revision. Thorpe gives, without explanations, the insertions of as
ill-informed Gloucester monk who has obscured the accurate chrono-
logy of the original. Thorpe also prints a continuation by John
Taxter (died c. 1295), a 13th-century writer and a monk of Bury St
Edmunds. Florence and John of Worcester are translated by J.
Stevenson in his Church Historians of England, vol. fi. pt. i. (London.
1833): T. Forester's translation in Bonn's Antiquarian Library
(London, 1 854) gives the work of Taxter also. (H. W. C D.)
FLORENCE, the county-seat of Lauderdale county, Alabama,
U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Tennessee river, at the foot of
Muscle Shoals Canal, and about 560 ft. above sea-lcveJ. Pop.
(1880) 1359; (1890) 6012; (1900) 6478 (1952 negroes); (1910)
6680. It it served by the Southern, the Northern Alabama
(controlled by the Southern), and the Louisville it Nashville
railways, and by electric railway to Sheffield and Tuacumbia,
and the Tennessee river is here navigable. Florence is situated
in the fertile agricultural lands of the Tennessee river valley on
the edge of the coal and iron districts of Alabama, and has
various manufactures, including pig-iron, cotton goods, wagons,
stoves, fertilizers, staves and mercantile supplies. At Florence
are the state Normal College, the Florence University for
Women, and the Burrell formal School (for negroes; founded
in 2003 by the American Missionary Association). Florence
was founded in 18x8, Andrew Jackson, afterwards president
6f the United States, and ex-president James Madison being
among the early property holders. For several years Florence
and Nashville, Tennessee, were commercial rivals, being situated
respectively at the head of navigation on the Tennessee and
Cumberland rivers. The first invasion of Alabama by Federal
troops in the Civil War was by a gunboat raid up the Tennessee
to Florence on the 8th of February 1862. On the x ith of April
1863 another Federal gunboat raid was attempted, but the vessels
were repulsed by a force under Gen. S> A. Wood. On the roth
FLORENCE
529
of May following, Federal troops entered Florence, and destroyed
cotton mills and public and private property; but they were;
driven back by Gen. Philip D. Roddy (1820-1*97). On the
nth of December 1863 the town was again raided, but the
Federals did not secure permanent possession. Florence was
chartered as a city in 1889.
FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia), formerly the capital
of Tuscany, now, the capital of a province of the kingdom of
Italy, and the sixth largest city in the country. It is situated
43° 46V N. f 11* 14' £., on both banks of the river Arno, which at
this point flows through a broad fertile valley enclosed between
spurs of the Apennines. The city is 165 ft. above sea4evel, and
occupies an area of 3 sq. m. (area of the commune; 16} sq. m.).
The geological formation of the soil belongs to the Quaternary
and Pliocene period in its upper strata, and to the Eocene and
Cretaceous in the lower. Pietra forte of the Cretaceous period
is quarried north and south of the city, and has been used for
centuries as paving stone and for the buildings. Pietra serena
or maeigno, a stone of a firm texture also used for building
purposes, is quarried at Monte Cectri below Fiesoie. The soil
is very fertile; wheat, Indian corn, olives, vines, fruit trees of
many kinds cover both the plain and the surrounding hills;
the chief non-fruit-bearing trees are the stone pine, the' cypress,
the ilex and the poplar, while many other varieties are repre-
sented. The gardens and fields produce an abundance of
flowers, which justify the city's title of la citld dei fieri.
Climate and Sanitary Conditions. — The climate of Florence
is very variable, ranging from severe cold accompanied by high
winds from the north In winter to great heat in the summer,
while in spring-time sudden and rapid changes of temperature
are frequent. At the same time the dimate k usually very
agreeable from the end of February to the beginning of Jury,
and from the end of September to the middle of November.
The average temperature throughout the year is about si 9
Fahr.; the maximum heat is about 06-8*, and the minimum
j6- 5 , sometimes sinking to 2 r*. The longest day is 1 5 hours and
33 minutes, the shortest 8 hours and 50 minutes. The average
rainfall is about 37) inches. Epidemic diseases are rare and
children's diseases mild; cholera has visited Florence several
times, but the city has been free from it for many years.
Diphtheria first appeared in 1868 and continued as a severe
epidemic until 1872, since when it has only occurred at rare inter-
vals and in isolated cases. Typhoid, pneumonia, tuberculosis,
measles and scarlatina, and influenza are the commonest illnesses.
The drainage system is still somewhat imperfect, hat the water
brought from the hills or from the Arno in pipes is fairly good,
and the general sanitary conditions are satisfactory.
Public Buildings.— Of the very numerous Florentine churches
the Duomo (Santa Maria del Fiore) is the largest and most
Ckarciws. important, founded in 1208 on the plans of* Arnolfo
di Cambio, completed by Brunelleschi , and consecrated
in 1436; the facade, however, was not finished until the 10th
century — it was begun in 1875 on the designs of de Fabris and
unveiled in x888. Close by the Duomo is the no less famous
Campanile built by Giotto, begun in 1339, and adorned with
exquisite bas-reliefs. Opposite is the Baptistery built by Arnolfo
di Cambio in the 13th century- on the site of an earlier church,
and adorned with beautiful bronze doors by Ghrberti in the 1 5th
century. The Badia, Santo Spirito, Santa Maria Novella, are
a few among the many famous and beautiful churches of Florence.
The existence of these works of art attracts students from all
countries, and a German art school subsidized by the imperial
government has been instituted.
The streets and piazze of the city are celebrated for their
splendid palaces, formerly, and in many cases even to-day the
residences of the noble families of Florence. Among others we
may mention the Palazzo Vecchio, formerly the seat of the govern*
ment of the Republic and now the town hall, the Palazzo Rkcardi;
the residence of the Medici and now the prefecture, the palaces of
the Strozzi, Antinori (one of the most perfect specimens of
Florentine quattrocento architecture), Corsini, Davanzati, Pitti
(the royal palace), &c. The palace of the Arte della Lana or
X. v
gild of wool merchants, tastefully and intelligently restored, is
the headquarters of the Dante Society. The centre of Florence,
which was becoming a danger from a hygienic point of view,
was pulled down in 1880-1800, but, unfortunately, sufficient cart
was not taken to avoid destroying certain buildings of historic
and artistic value whkh might have been spared without im-
pairing the work of sanitation, while the new structures erected
in their place, especially those in the Piaaa Vittorio Emanuele,
are almost uniformly ugly and quite out of keeping with
Florentine architectuxe. The question aroused many polemics
at the time both in Italy and abroad. After the new centre was
built, a society called the Sockta far la-difesa di Firtnu antka
was formed by many prominent citizens to safeguard the ancient
buildings and prevent them from destruction, and a spirit of
intelligent conservatism seems now to prevail in this coonexioa.
The city is growing in all directions, and a number of new quarters
have sprung up where the houses are more sanitary than in the
older parts, but unfortunately few of them evince much aesthetic
feeling. The viali or boulevards form pleasant residential street*
with gardens, and the system of building; separate houses for
each family (villini) instead of largo blocks of flats is becoming
more and more general
Florence possesses- four important libraries besides a number
of smaller collections, The BiUUkea NanonaU, originally
founded by Antonio Magiiabecchi in 1 747, enjoys the fiVari ^
right, shared by the Vittorio Emanuel* library of
Rome, of receiving a copy of every work printed in Italy, since
1870 (since 1848 it had enjoyed a. similar privilege with regard
to works printed in Tuscany). It contains some 500,000 printed
volumes, 700,000 pamphleta, over 0000 prints and drawings
(including 284 by Albert Dttrer), nearly 20^000 MSS,, and 401*00
letter*, The number of readers in 10304 was over 50,000, Un-
fortunately, however, the confusion engendered by a defective
organisation has long been a byword among the people; there
is no printed catalogue, quantities of books are buried an packing-
cases and unavailable, the collection of foreign boo! s is very poor,
hardly any new works being purchased, and the building itself
is quite inadequate and far from safe; but the site of a new
one has now been purchased and the plans are agreed upon,
so that eventually the whole collection will be transferred to
more suitable quarters. The Biblioteca MarnctUiana, founded in
1752, contains 150,000 books, including 620 incunabula, 17,000
engravings and 1500- MSS.; it is well managed and chiefly
remarkable for its collection of illustrated works and art publica-
tions. The BibHoteea Medicee-Lanrenziana, founded in 1571,
has its origin in the library of Cosimo de' Medici the Elder, and
was enlarged by Piero, Giovanni and above all by Lorenzo the
Magnificent. Various princes and private persons presented it
with valuable gifts and legacies, among the most important of
VfhlchvftethccoUcctionoiedilionesprincipcs given by Count d'Elci,
in 1 84 1, and the Ashburnham collection of MSS. purchased by
the Italian Government in 1885. It contains nearly 10,000 MSS.,
including many magnificent illuminated missals and Bibles and a
number of valuable Greek and Latin texts, 242 incunabula and
11,000 printed books, chiefly dealing with palaeography; it is
in some ways the most important of the Florentine libraries.
The Biblioteca Rkcardiana, founded in the 16th century by
Romok) Riccardi, contains nearly 4000 MSS., over 32,000 books
and 650 incunabula, chiefly relating to Florentine history. The
state archives are among the most complete in Italy, and contain
over 450,000 ftlzt and rtgistri and 126,000 charters, covering the
period from 726 to 1856.
Few cities are as rich as Florence in collections of works of
artistic and historic interest, although the great majority of
them belong to a comparatively limited period— from aaffcrfc*
the 13th to the 16th century. The chief art galleries •/«■•
are the Uifizi, the Pitti and Accademia. The two j jf j*
former are among the finest in the world, and are *•""*•
filled with masterpieces by Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, Perugfaq,
Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, the Lippi, and many other Florentine,
Umbrian, Venetian, Dutch and Flemish artists, as well as numer-
ous admirable examples of antique, medieval and Renaissance
53©
FLORENCE
sculpture. The Pitti collection is in the royal palace (formerly
the residence of the grand dukes), and a fine new stairway
and vestibule have been constructed by royal munificence.
In the Ufnri the pictures are arranged in strict chronological
order. In the Accademia, which is rich in early Tuscan
masters, the Botticelli and Perugino rooms deserve special-
mention. Other pictures are scattered about in the churches,
monasteries and private palaces. Of the monasteries, that of
St Mark should be mentioned, as containing many works of
Fra Angelico, besides relics of Savonarola, while of -the private
collections the only one of importance is that of Prince Corsini.
There is a splendid museum of medieval and Renaissance
antiquities in the Bargcllo, the ancient palace of the Podesla,
itself one of the finest buildings in the city; among its many
treasures are works of Donatello, Ghiberti, Verrochio and other
sculptors, and large collections of ivory, enamel and bronze
ware. The Opera del Duomo contains models and pieces of
sculpture connected with the cathedral; the Etruscan and
Egyptian museum, the gallery of tapestries, the Michelangelo
museum, the museum of natural history and other collections
are all important in different ways.'
The total population of Florence in 1905, comprising foreigners
and a garrison of 5500 men, was 220,879. In 1861 it was 1 14,363 *,
->. it increased largely when the capital of Italy was in
^ y * Florence ( 1 865-1 87 a) , but decreased or increased very
slightly after the removal of the capital to Rome, and
increased at a greater rate from 1881 onwards. At present the
rate of increase is about 22 per 1000, but it is due to immigration,
as the birth rate was actually below the death rate down to 1903,
since when there has been a slight increase of the former and a
decrease of the latter.
Florence is the capital of a province of the same name, and the
central government is represented by a prefect (prefclt*), while
local government is carried on by a mayor (sindaco)
and an elective town council {consiglio comunale).
The city is the seat of a court of cassation (for civil
cases only), of a court of appeal, besides minor tribunals. It is
the headquarters of an army corps, and an archiepiscopal see.
There are 22 public elementary schools for boys and 18 for girls
(education being compulsory and gratuitous), with about 20,000
r - , to pupils, and $6 private schools with 5700 pupils. Secondary
1 *' ■""" education 11 provided by one higher and four lower
technical schools with 1375 pupils, three gtnruuii or lower classical
schools, and three licet or higher classical schools, with 1000
pupils, and three training colleges with over 700 pupil*. **' L er
education is imparted at the university (Istitstta di itudu tu^rivri
e di perfeaionameido), with 600 to 650 students: although only
comprising the faculties of literature, medicine and MSfUfftl ideate,
it is, as regards the first-named faculty, one of the most
important institutions in Italy. The original Studio Ftortnlin*
was founded in the 14th century, and acquired 00 ne
as a centre of learning under the Medici, enhanced bj in
Florence of many learned Greeks who had fled from Con .-1.1 >le
after its capture by the Turks (U53)- Although in 147 j mm «4 Jie
faculties and several of the professors were transferred to Pisa, it
still retained importance, and in the 17th and 18th centuries it
originated a number of learned academies. In 1859 after the annexa-
tion of Tuscany to the Italian kingdom itwas revived and reorganized;
since then it has become to some extent a national centre of learning
and culture, attracting students from other parts of Italy, partly on
account of the fact that it is in Florence that the purest Italian is
spoken. The revival of classical studies on scientific principles in
activity has also been displayed in reviving the study of Dante,
Dante lectures being given regularly by scholars and men of letters
from all parts of the country, above the church of Or San Mtchele
as in the middle ages, under the auspices of the Socitta DanUsau
Palaeography, history and Romance languages are among the other
subjects to which especial importance isgiven. Besides the IstUutodi
studii superiori there is the Istituto di scienze social* " Cesar* Al/Uri,"
founded by the marchese Alfieri di Sostegno for the education of
aspirants to the diplomatic and consular services, and for students
of economics and social sciences (about 50 students) ; an academy
of fine arts, a conservatoire of music, a higher female training-college
with 150 students, a number of professional and trade schools, and
an academy of recitation. Therearealso many academiesand learned
societies of different kinds of which one of the most important is the
Accademia delta Crusca for the study of the Italian language, which
undertook the publication of a monumental dictionary.
Several of the Florence hospitals arc of great antiquity, the -most
impprtajtf bring that of Santa Maria Nuova, which, founded by Fslco
Fortiiuri, the father of Dante's Beatrice, has been
thoroughly renovate! .■ ■ ■ "ding to modern scientific IZ^^*
principle*- There Are numerous other hospitals both V**
general and tpevial* a foundling hospital dating from the 13th century
(Santa Maria dc^lk Innocent;), an institute for the blind, one for the
oW and dunvb, &£. M:*t of the hospitals and other charitable
hum ut ion* in endowed, but the endowments' are supplemented by
private Contriljuttonv
Florence is f he centre of a large and fertile agricultural district.
and don considerable business in wine, oil and grain, and supplies
the neighbour! nt; peasantry with goods of all kinds. There „
itc no important Industrie;, except a few flour-mills, some l^J
gLisa work*, iron foundries, a motor car factory, straw w .j^__*__
hat factor^, and po^^f-hauaessupplyingclectricity for "" *"'"
lighting and for iho iiuum rou* tramcars. There are, however, some
aiv.»k kutlubUtu. i*i <»ii<i *i V 4..id the city, of which the most important
is the Ginori- Richard porcelain works, and the CantagalH majolica
works. There are many other smaller establish menu, and the
Florentine artificer seems to possess an exceptional skill in all kinds
of work in which art is combined with technical ability. m Another
very important source of revenue is the so-called " tourist industry-.'*
which in late years has assumed immense proportions: the city
contains a large number of hotels and boarding-houses which every
year are filled to overflowing with strangers from all parts of the
world. (L. V.»)
History
Florentia was founded considerably later than Faesulae
(Ficsolc), which lies on the hill above it; indeed, as its name
indicates, it was built only in Roman tiroes and probably in
connexion with the construction by C. Flaminius in 187 b.c
of a road from Bononia to Arretium (which later on formed part
of the Via Cassia) at the point where this road crossed the river
Arnus. We hear very little of it in ancient times; it appears to
have suffered at the end of the war between Marius and Sulla,
and in a.d. 15 (by which period it seems to have been already
a colony) it successfully opposed the project of diverting pan of
the waters of the Clanis into the Arno (see Chun a). Tacitus
mentions it, and Floras describes it as one of the munuipia
splcndidissimo* A bishop of Florence is mentioned in a.d. 313.
A group of Italic cremation tombs a Potto of the Villanova
period were found under the pavement of the medieval Vicolo
dd Campidoglio. This took its name from the Capiiolium of
Roman times, the remains of which were found under the Piazza
Luna; the three ccUae were clearly traceable. The capitals
of the columns were Corinthian, about 4 ft. in diameter, and it
became clear that this temple had supplied building materials
for S. Giovanni and S. Miniato. Fragments of a fine octagonal
altar, probably belonging to the temple, were found. Remains
of baths have been found close by, while the ancient amphi-
theatre has been found near S. Croce outside the Roman town,
which formed a rectangle of about 400 by 600 yds., with four
gates, the Decumanus being represented by the Via Stroxzi and
Via del Corso, and the Cardo by the Via Calcinaim, while the
Mercato Vecchio occupied the site of the Forum.
See L. A. Milani, " Reliquie di Firenze antica," in liommmtnti da
Lined, vi. (1896), 5 seq. (T. Aa>)
The first event of importance recorded is the siege of the city
by the Goths, a.d. 405, and its deliverance by the Roman general
Stilicho. Totila besieged Florence in 543, but was repulsed by
the imperial garrison under Justin, and later it was occupied
by the Goths. We find the Longobards in Tuscany in 570, and
mention is made of One Gudibrandus Dux civUoiis Fkrenlinorum,
which suggests that Florence was the capital of a duchy (one of
the regular divisions of the Longobard empire). Charlemagne
was in Florence in 786 and conferred many favours on the city,
which continued to grow in importance owing to its situation
on the road from northern Italy to Rome. At the time of the
agitation against simony and the corruption of the clergy, the
head of the movement in Florence was San Giovanni Gualberto,
of the monastery of San Salvi. The simoniacal election of Pietro
Mezzabarba as bishop of Florence (1068) caused serious dis-
turbances and a long controversy with Rome, which ended in the
triumph, after a trial by fire, of the monk Petrus Igneus, champion
of the popular reform movement; this event indicates the
beginnings of a popular conscience among the Florentines.
FLORENCB
53»
Under the Caroliagiaa emperors Tuscany wis a March or
margraviate, and the marquises became to powerful as to be
even s danger to the Empire. Under the emperor Otto I. one
Ugo (d. iooi) was marquis, and the emperor Conrad 11. (elected
in 1024) appointed Boniface of Caaossa marquis of Tuscany,
a territory then extending from the Po to the borders of the
Roman state. Boniface died in 105 a, and in the following year
the margraviate passed to hit daughter* the famous
i,— J,,, countess Matilda, who rukd for forty feats and played
Mmumm, s prominent part in the history of Italy in that period.
In the Wars of the Investitures Matilda was ever on
the papal (afterwards called Guelph) side against the emperor
and the faction afterwards known as Ghibelfine, and
she herself often led armies to battle, It is at this
time that the people of Florence first began to acquire
influence, and while the countess presided at the courts
of justice in the name of the Empire, she was assisted by a group
of great feudal nobles, Judges, lawyers, &c, who formed, as
elsewhere in Tuscany, the boni homines or eapienks. As the
countess was frequently absent these boni homines gave judgment
without her, thus paving the way for a free communev The
citizens found themselves in opposition to the nobility of the
hills around the city, Teutonic feudatories of Ghifaelllne
sympathies, who interfered with their commerce. Florence
frequently waged war with these nobles and with other cities
on its own account, although in the name of the countess, and
the citizens began to form themselves into groups and associations
which were the germs of the arti or gilds. After the death of
Btgj^m Countess Matilda in 11x5 the grand* or boni homines
mimgB «/ continued to rule and administer justice, but in the
*** name of the people— a change hardly noticed at first,
commwm* ^ wn | Cn matKt the foundation of the commune.
After 1 138 the boni homines began to be called consults, while
the population was divided into the grondi or idle torri, t\e. the
noble families who had towers, and the arti or trade and merchant
gilds. At first the consults, of whom there seem to have been
twelve, two for each sestiere or ward, were chosen by the men
of the towers, and assisted by a council of 100 boni homines, in
which the arti were predominant; the government thus came to
be in the hands of a few powerful families. The republic now
proceeded to extend its power. In 11 as Fiesole was sacked and
destroyed, but the feudal nobles of the contado (surrounding
country), protected by the imperial margraves, were still power-
ful. The early margraves had permitted the Florentines to wage
war against the Alberti family, whose castles they destroyed.
The emperor Lothair when in Italy forced Florence to submit
to bis authority, but at his death in 1 137 things returned to their
former state and the Florentines fought successfully against the
powerful counts Guidi. Frederick Barbarossa, however, elected
emperor in 1152, made his authority felt in Tuscany, and ap-
pointed one Wclf of Bavaria as margrave. Florence and other
cities were forced to supply troops to the emperor for his Lombard
campaigns, and he began to establish a centralized imperial
bureaucracy in Tuscany, appointing a potestas, who resided at
San Miniato (whence the name of " San Miniato al Tedesco "),
to represent him and exercise authority in the contado; this
double authority of the consoli in the town and the potestas or
podestd outside generated confusion. By 11 76 the Florentines
were masters of all the territory comprised in the dioceses of
Florence and Fiesole; but civil commotion within
the dty broke out between the consoli And the greater
" nobles, headed by the Alberti and strengthened by
the many feudal families who had been forced to leave their
castles and dwell in the city (1 1 77- » 1 80). In the end the Alberti,
though not victorious, succeeded in getting occasionally admitted
to the consulship. Florence now formed a league with the chief
cities of Tuscany, made peace with the Guidi, and humbled the
Alberti whose castle of Semifonte was destroyed (1 to?). Later
we find a pottstas within the city, elected for a year
and assisted by seven councillors and seven tectores
super capitibus arlium. This represented the triumph
of the feudal party, which had gained the support of the arti
The polestaies subsequently were
foreigners, and in x 307 the dignity was conferred on Gualfredotto
of Milan; a new council was formed, the consigtio id comune,
while the older senate still survived. The Florentines now
undertook to open the highways of commerce towards Rome,
for their city was already an important industrial and banking
centre.
Discord among the great families broke out again, and the
attempt to put an end to it by a marriage between Buondelmonte
de' Buondelmonti and a daughter of the Amidei, only led to
further strife (1115), although the causes of these broils were
deeper and wider, being derived from the general division between
Guelphs and Ghibellines all over Italy. But the work of crush-
ing the nobles of the contado and of asserting the city's position
among rival communes continued. In 1 as s Florence waged war
successfully on Pisa, Lucca and Pistols, and during the next
few years against the Sienese with varying results; although
the emperor supported the latter as GhibelUnes, on his departure
for Germany in 1135 they were forced to accept peace on onerous
terms. During the Interregnum (1241-1143) following on the
death of Pope Gregory IX. the Ghibellinecause revived in Tuscany
and imperial authority was re-established. The tumults against
the Paterine heretics (1244-1145), among whom were many
Ghibelline nobles favoured by the podtsta Pace di FesamigoJa,
indicate a successful Guelphfc reaction; but Frederick 1L,
having defeated his enemies both in Lombardy and in the Two
Sicilies, appointed his natural son, Frederick of Antioch, imperial
vicar in Tuscany, who, when civil war broke out, entered the
city with x 600 German knights. The GhibelUnes now triumphed
completely, and in 1240 the Guelph leaders were driven into
exile— the first of many instances in Florentine history of exile
en masse of a defeated party. The attempt to seize Montevarchi
and other castles where the Guelph exiles were congregated
failed, and in 1350 the burghers elected thirty-six caporoli di
popolo, who formed the basis of the prima popolo or body of
citizens independent of the nobles, headed by the capitano
del popolo. The Ghibellines being unable to maintain their
supremacy, the dty came to be divided into two ^__
almost autonomous republics, the comune headed by JJJ"
the podesta, and the popolo headed by the capitano and $fte*
militarily organized into twenty companies; the central
power was represented by twelve aneiani or elders. The podesta,
who was always a foreigner, usually commanded the army, repre-
sented the dty before foreign powers, and signed treaties. He
was assisted by the consiglio speciate of 00 and the consiglio
generate e speciale of 300, composed of nobles, while the capitano
del popolo had also two councils composed of burghers, heads of
the gilds, gonfalonieri of the companies, &c. The ansiani had a
council of 36 burghers, and then there was the portamento or
general assembly of the people, which met only on great
occasions. At this time the podestA*s palace (the Bargello) was
built, and the gold florin was first coined and soon came to be
accepted as the standard gold piece throughout Europe. But,
although greatly strengthened, the Guelphs, who now may be
called the democrats as opposed to the Ghibelline aristocrats,
were by no means wholly victorious, and in 1251 they had to
defend themselves against a league of Ghibelline cities (Siena,
Pisa and Pistoia) assisted by Florentine Ghibellines; the
Florentine Uberti, who had been driven into exile after their
plot of 1258, took refuge in Siena and encouraged that city in
its hostility to Florence. Fresh disputes about the possession
of Montepuldano and other places having arisen, the Florentines
declared war once more. A Florentine army assisted by Guelphs
of other towns was cunningly induced to believe that Siena
would surrender at the first summons; but it was met by a
Sienese army reinforced by Florentine exiles, induding Farinata
degli Uberti and other Ghibellines, and by the cavalry of Manfred
(?.«.) of Sicily, led by Count Giordano and the count
of Arras, with the result thst the Florentines were
totally routed at Montaperti on the 4th of September
1260. Count Giordano entered Florence, appointed
Count Guido Novello podtsta, and began a series of persecutions
(tfeev
53*
FLORENCE
Nnrcon-
against the Guelphs. The Ghibellines even proposed to rase the
walb of the city, but FarinaU degli Uberti strongly opposed the
idea, saying that " he had fought to regain and not to ruin his
fatherland."
During this new Ghibelline predominance (1260-1366) the
old liberties were abolished, and the popolo was deprived of all
share in the administration. But when Charles L
(q.v.) of Anjou descended into Italy as champion of
the papacy, and Manfred was defeated and killed
(1 266), the popolo, who had acquired wealth in trade and industry,
was ready to rise. After some disturbances Guido Novello and
the Ghibellines were expelled, but it was not the popolo who
triumphed; the pope and Charles were the real masters of the
situation, and the Florentines found they had exchanged, a
foreign and Ghibelline protector for one who was foreign and
Guelph. Nevertheless much of the old order was restored;
the priest* who represented King Charles was assisted by 12
buoni uomini, and by the council of the xoo buoni uomini dd
popolo, " without the deliberation of whom," says VUlani, " no
great matter nor expenditure could be undertaken." Other
bodies and magistrates were maintained, and the capitano del
Popolo, now called capilano delta massa di parte Cud/a, tended
to become a very important person. The property of the
Ghibellines was confiscated, and a commission of six caption*
di parte Gudfa appointed to administer it and in general to
expend it for the persecution of the Ghibellines. The whole
constitution of the republic, although of very democratic
tendencies, seemed designed to promote civil strife and weaken
the central power.
While the constitution was evolving in a manner which seemed
to argue small political ability and no stability in the Florentines,
the people had built up a wonderful commercial
Ftonotio* organisation. Each of the seven arti maggiori or
riwjflE. greater gilds was organised like a small state with its
councils, statutes, assemblies, magistrates, &c, and
in times of trouble constituted a citizen militia, Florentine
cloth especially was known and sold all over Europe, and the
Florentines were regarded as the first merchants of the age.
If the life of the city went on uninterruptedly even during the
many changes of government and the almost endemic civil war,
it was owing to the solidity of the gilds, who could carry on the
administration without- a government
After Charles's victory over Conradin in 2268 the Florentines
defeated the Sienese (1269) and made frequent raids into Pisan
territory. As Charles perpetually interfered in their
affairs, always favouring the granai or Guelph nobles,
some of the Ghibellines were recalled as a counterpoise,
which, however, only led to further civil strife. Rudolph of
Habsburg, elected king of the Romans in 1273, having come
to terms with Pope Nicholas III., Charles was obliged in 1278
to give up his title of imperial vicar in Tuscany, which be had
held during the interregnum following on the death of Frederick
II. In 1279 Pope Nicholas sent his nephew, the friar preacher
Latino Frangipani Malabranca, whom he had created cardinal
bishop of Ostia the same year, to reconcile the parties in Florence
once more. Cardinal Latino to some extent succeeded, and was
granted a kind of temporary dictatorship. He raised the 12
buoni uomini to 14 (8 Guelphs and 6 Ghibellines), to be changed
every two months; and they were assisted by a council of 100.
A force of 1000 men was placed at the disposal of the podesla
and capitano (now both elected by the people) to keep order and
oblige the grandi to respect the law. The Sicilian Vespers (q.v.)
by weakening Charles strengthened the commune, which aimed
at complete independence of emperors, kings and popes. After
1282 the signoria was composed of the 3 (afterwards 6) priori
of the gilds, who ended by ousting the buoni uomini, while a
defensor arlificum el arlium takes the place of the capitano-,
thus the republic became an essentially trading community,
governed by the popolani grassi or rich merchants.
The republic now turned to the task of breaking the power
of the Ghibelline cities of Pisa and Arezzo. In 1 289 the Aretini
were completely defeated by the Florentines at Catnpaldino, a
LMtlOO.
battle made famous by the fact that Dante took part in Ii~
War against the Pisans, who had been defeated by the Genoese
in the naval battle of La Melons in 1284, was Bmgat w
carried on in a desultory fashion, and in 1 293 peace was rttmjrmt-
made. But the grandi, who had largely contributed **■*
to the victory of Campaldino, especially men like Corso W****
Donati and Vieri de* Cercbi, were becoming more powerful, and
Charles had increased their number by creating a great many
knights; but their attempts to interfere with the administration
of justice were severely repressed, and new laws were passed to
reduce their influence. Among other internal reforms the aboli-
tion of the last traces of servitude in 1289, and the increase it
the number of arti, first to 12 and then to 21 (7 maggiori and 14
minori) must be mentioned. This, however, was not enough for
the Florentine democracy, who viewed with alarm the increasing
power and arrogance of the grandi, who in spite of their exclusion
from many offices were still influential and constituted inde-
pendent dans within the state. The law obliged each member
of the clan (consorteria) to sodare for all the other members, i.e.
to give a pecuniary guarantee to ensure payment of fines for
offences committed by any one of their number, a provision
made necessary by the fact that the whole clan acted collectively.
But as the laws were not always enforced new and severe ones
were enacted. These were the famous Ordinamenti p,^ ^
delta Giustkia of 1293, by which all who were not of mtati tik um
the arti were definitely excluded from the signory. OknOrtm
The priori were to remain in office two months and (IJ **>*
elected the gonfaloniere, also for two months; there were the
capitudini or councils of the gilds, and two savi for each sesfierc,
with i coo soldiers at their disposal; the number of the gromdi
families was fixed at 38 (later 72). Judgment in matters con-
cerning the Ordinamenti was delivered in a summary fashion
without appeal. The leading spirit' of this reform was Giano
della Bella, a noble who by engaging in trade had become a
popdano; the grandi now tried to make him unpopular with the
popolani grassi, hoping that without him the Ordinamenti would
not be executed, and opened negotiations with Pope Boniface
VIII. (elected 1204), who aimed at extending his authority in
Tuscany. A signory adverse to Giano having been elected, he
was driven into exile in z 295. The grandi regained some of their
power by corrupting the podesla and by the favour of- the papmte*
minute or unorganized populace; but their quarrels among
themselves prevented them from completely succeeding, while
the arti were solid.
In 1295 a signory favourable to the grandi enacted a law
attenuating the Ordinamenti, but now the grandi split into two
factions, one headed by the Donati, which hoped to
abolish the Ordinamenti, and the other by the Cerchi,
which had given up all hope of their abolition; after-
wards these parties came to be called Neri (Blacks)
and Bianchi (Whites). A plot of the Donati to establish their
influence over Florence with the help of Boniface VIII.. having
been discovered (May r30o), serious riots broke out between the
Neri and the Bianchi. The pope's attempt to unite the grandi
having failed, he summoned Charles of Valois to come to his
assistance, promising him the imperial crown; in 1301 Charles
entered Italy, and was created by the* pope paciaro or peace-
maker of Tuscany, with instructions to crush the Bianchi and
the popolo and exalt the Neri. On the 1st of November Charles
reached Florence, promising to respect its laws; but he permitted
Corso Donati and his friends to attack the Bianchi, and the new
podesJa,Canlft dei Gabrielll of Gubbio, who had come with Charles,
punished many of that faction; among those whom he exiled
was the poet Dante (1302). Corso Donati, who for some time
was the most powerful man in Florence, made himself many
enemies by his arrogance, and was obliged to rely on the popdo
grasso, the irritation against him resulting in a rising in which
he was killed (1308). In this same year Henry of Luxemburg
was elected king of the Romans and with the pope's favour he
came to Italy in 1310; the Florentine exiles and all the Ghibel-
lines of Italy regarded him as a saviour and regenerator of the
country, while the Guelphs of Florence on the contrary opposed
FLORENCE
533
both him and the pope as dangerous to their «w# liberties and
accepted the protection of King Robert of Naples, disregarding
Henry's summons to submission. In 131a Henry was crowned
emperor as Henry VII. in Rome, but instead of the universal
ruler and pacifier which he tried to be, he was forced by circum-
stances into being merely a German kaiser who tried to subjugate
free Italian communes. He besieged Florence without success,
and died of disease in 1313.
The Pisans, fearing the- vengeance of the Guelphs now that
Henry was dead, had accepted the lordship of Ugucdone della
Fagginola, imperial vicar in Genoa. A brave general
and an ambitious man, he captured Lucca and defeated
the Florentines and their allies from Naples at Monte-
catini in 1315, but the following year he lost both Pisa
and Lucca and had to fly from Tuscany. A new danger
now threatened Florence in the person of Castruccio
Castracani degli Antclminelli (?.«.), who made himself
lord of Lucca and secured help from Matteo Visconti, lord of
Milan, and other Ghf bcllines of northern Italy. Between 1 3 2oand
1323 he harried the Florentines and defeated them several times,
captured Pfstota, devastated their territory up to the walls of
the city in spite of assistance from Naples under Raymundo
de Cardona and the duke of Calabria (King Robert's son)*,
never before had Florence been so humiliated, but while
Castruccio was preparing to attack Florence he died in 1328.
Two months later the duke of Calabria, who had been appointed
protector of the city in 1375, died, and further constitutional
reforms were made. The former councils were replaced by the
eonsiglio del popolo, consisting of 300 popolani and presided over
by the capiiano, and the eonsiglio del eomune of 250 members,
half of them nobles and half popolani, presided over by the
p ode sib. The priori and other officers were drawn by lot from
among the Guelphs over thirty years old who were declared fit
for pubhc office by a special board of 98 citizens (1329). The
system worked well at first, but abuses soon crept in, and many
persons- were unjustly excluded from office; trouble being
expected in 133 s a captain of the guard was created. But the
first one appointed, Jacopo dei Gabriclli of Gubbio, used his
dictatorial powers so ruthlessly that at the end of his year of
office no successor was chosen.
The Florentines now turned their eyes towards Lucca; they
might have acquired the city immediately after Castruccio's
death for 80,000 florins, but failed to do so owing to
** ** ** differences of opinion in the signory; Martino della
227 Scala, lord of Verona, promised it to them in 1335, but
broke his word, and although their finances were not
then very flourishing they allied themselves with Venice to make
war on him. They were successful at first, but Venice made a
truce with the Scala independently of the Florentines, and by
the peace of 1339 they only obtained a part of Lucchese territory.
At the same time they purchased from the Tarlati the protectorate
over Arezzo for ten years. But misfortunes fell on the city:
Edward III. of England repudiated the heavy debts contracted
for his wars in France with the Florentine banking houses of
Bardi and Peruzzi (1339), which eventually led to their failure
and to that of many smaller firms, and shook Florentine credit
all over the world; Philip VI. of France extorted large sums
from the Florentine merchants and bankers in his dominions
by accusing them of usury; in 1340 plague and famine wrought
terrible havoc in Florence, and riots again broke out between the
grandi and the popolo, partly on account of the late unsuccessful
wars and the unsatisfactory state of the finances. To put an
end to these disorders, Walter of Briennc, duke of
•m£m Athens, was elected " conservator " and captain of
(AW-4J). the guard in 1342. An astute, dissolute and ambitious
man, half French and half Levantine, he began his
government by a policy of conciliation and impartial justice
which won him great popularity. But as soon as he thought
the ground was secure he succeeded in getting himself acclaimed
by the populace lord of Florence for life, and on the 8th of
September was carried in triumph to the Palazzo della Signoria.
The podesta and the capiiano assenting to this treachery, he
dismissed the gonfalonier; reduced the priori to a position of
impotence, disarmed the citizens, and soon afterwards accepted
the lordship of Arcaso, Volterra, Colle, San Gimignano and
Pistoia. He increased his bodyguard to 800 men, all Frenchmen,
who behaved wKh the greatest licence and brutality; by his
oppressive taxes, and his ferocious cruelty towards all who
opposed htm, and the unsatisfactory treaties he concluded with
Pisa, he accumulated bitter hatred against his rule. The
grandi were disappointed because he had not crashed the
pppoh, and the latter because he bad destroyed their liberties
and Interfered with the organization of the arti. Many unsuccess-
ful plots against him were hatched, and having discovered one
that was conducted by Antonio degli Adimari, the dukesummoned
the latter to the palace and detained him a prisoner. He also
summoned 300 leading citizens on the pretext ot wishing to
consult them, but fearing treachery they refused to come. On
the 26th of July 1343, the citizens rose in arms, demanded the
duke's abdication, and besieged him in the palace. Help came
to the Florentines from neighbouring cities, the podesta was ex-
pelled, and a boMe or provisional government of 24 was elected:
The duke was forced to set Adimari and his other prisoners free,
and several of his men-at-arms were killed by the populace;
three of his chief henchmen, whom he was obliged to surrender,
were literally torn to pieces, and finally on the xst of August be
had to resign his lordship. He departed from Florence under a
strong guard a few days later, and the Fourteen cancelled all
his enactments.
The expulsion of the duke of Athens was followed by several
measures to humble the grandi still further, while the popolo
minula or artisans began to show signs of discontent _.
at the rule of themerchants, and thepopulacedestroyed ffZ^y
the nouses of many nobles. As soon as order was
restored a baHa was appointed to reform the government, in
which task it was assisted by the Sienese and Perugian
ambassadors and by Simone da Battifolle. The priori were
reduced to 8 (2 popolani grassi; 3 median* and 3 orlifici minuti),
while the gonfaloniere was to be chosen in turn from each of those
classes; the grandi were excluded from the administration, but
they were still admitted to the consigtio del eomune, the cinque
di mercanzia, and other offices pertaining to the commune; the
Ordinamenti were maintained but in a somewhat attenuated
form, and certain grandi as a favour were declared to be of the
popolo. Florence was now a thoroughly democratic and com-
mercial republic, and its whole policy was mainly dominated by
commercial considerations: its rivalry with Pisa was due to an
ambition to gain secure access to the sea; its strong Guelphlsm
was the outcome of its determination to secure the bank-business
of the papacy, and its desire to extend its territory in Tuscany
to the necessity for keeping open the land trade routes.
Florentine democracy, however, was limited to the walls of the
city, for no one of the contado nor any citizen of the subject
towns enjoyed political rights, which were reserved for the in-
habitants of Florence alone and not by any means for all of them.
Florence was in the 14th century a city of about 100,000
inhabitants, of whom 25,000 could bear arms; there were no
churches, 39 religious houses; the shops of the aria ^^^^
della Una numbered over 200, producing cloth worth
1,200,000 florins; Florentine bankers and merchants were found
all over the world, often occupying responsible positions in the
service of foreign governments; the revenues of the republic,
derived chiefly from the city customs, amounted to some 300,000
florins, whereas its ordinary expenses, exclusive of military
matters and public buildings, were barely 40,000. It was already
a centre of art and letters and full of fine buildings, pictures and
libraries. But now that the grandi were suppressed politically,
the lowest classes came into prominence, " adventurers without
sense or virtue and of no authority for the most part, who had
usurped public offices by illicit and dishonest practices " (Matteo
Villani, iv. 69); this paved the way for tyranny.
In 1347 Florence was again stricken with famine, followed
the next year by the most terrible plague it had ever experienced,
which carried off three-fifths of the population (according to
534
FLORENCE
CO«).
T!t»c
Villani). Yet in spite of these disasters the republic was
by no means crushed; it soon regained the suzerainty of
ThBOmmmi nan y c * l * cs which had broken* off all connexion
J^2r "it* 1 il * ftcr tne ex Pulsion of the duke of Athens,
{M48L and purchased the overlordship of Prato from Queen
Joanna of Naples, who had inherited it from the
duke of Calabria. In 13 5 1 GiovannLVisconti, lord and archbishop
of Milan, having purchased Bologna and allied himself with
sundry Ghibclline houses of Tuscany with a view to
2Sr** dominating Florence, the city made war on him, and in
violation of its Guelph traditions placed itself under the
protection of the emperor Charles IV. (1355) for his life-
time. This move, however, was not popular, and it enabled
the grandi y who, although excluded from the chief offices, still
dominated the parte Guelfa, to reassert themselves. They had in
1347 succeeded in enacting a very stringent law against all who
were in any way. tainted with GhibelUnism, which, they themselves
being above suspicion in that connexion, enabled them to drive
from office many members of the popdo minuto. In 1358 the
parte Guelfa made these enactments still more stringent, punish-
ing with death or heavy fines all who being Ghibellines held
office, and provided that if trustworthy witnesses were forth-
coming condemnations might be passed for this offence without
bearing the accused; even a non-proved charge or an ammonizione
(warning not to accept office) might entail disfranchisement.
Thus the parte, represented by its 6 (afterwards 0) captains,
came to exercise a veritable reign of terror, and no one knew
when an accusation might fall on him. The leader of the parte
was Piero degli Albizzi, whose chief rivals were the Ricci family.
Italy at this time began to be overrun by bands of soldiers
of fortune. The first of these bands with whom Florence came
into contact was the Great Company, commanded by
the count of Lando, which twice entered Tuscany
but was expelled both times by the Florentine troops
(iJ58-i3S9).
In 1362 we find Florence at war with Pisa on account of
commercial differences, and because the former had acquired
the lordship of Volterra. The Florentines were successful
until Pisa enlisted Sir John Hawkwood '3 English company;
the latter won several battles, but were at last defeated at
Cascina, and peace was made in 1364, neither side having gained
much advantage. A fresh danger threatened the republic in
1367 when Charles IV., who had allied himself with Pope Urban
V., Queen Joanna of Naples, and various north Italian despots
to humble the Visconti, demanded that the Florentines should
join the league. This they refused to do and armed themselves
for defence, but eventually satisfied the emperor with a money
payment.
The tyranny of the parte Cuelfa still continued unabated,
and the eapitani carried an enactment by which no measure
affecting the parte should be even discussed by the
aZZJ^* signory unless previously approved of by them. This
infamous law, however, aroused so much opposition
that some of the very men who had proposed it assembled in secret
to discuss its abolition, and a quarrel between the Albizzi and
the Ricci having weakened the parte, a balia of 56 was agreed
upon. Several of the Albizzi and the Ricci were excluded from
office for five years, and a council called the Ten of Liberty was
created to defend the laws and protect the weak against the
strong. The parte Guelfa and the Albizai still remained very
influential and the attempts to abolish admonitions failed.
In 1375 Florence became involved in a war which showed
how the old party divisions of Italy had been obliterated. The
papal legate at Bologna, Cardinal Guillaume de Nocllct
JJJCTjjL (d. 1304), although the church was then allied to
UiT$*m. Florence, was meditating the annexation of the city to
the Holy See; he refused a request of the Florentines
for grain from Romagna, and authorized Hawkwood to devastate
their territory. Although a large part of the people disliked
the idea of a conflict with the church, an alliance with Florence's
old enemy Bcrnabd Visconti was made, war declared, and a
balia of 8, the Quo deila guerra (afterwards called the " Eight
Saints " on account of their good management) was created
to carry on the campaign. Treaties with Pisa, Siena, Arezxo
and Cortona were concluded, and soon no less than So towns,
including Bologna, had>thrown off the papal yoke. Pope Gregory
XI. placed Florence under an interdict, ordered the expulsion
of all Florentines from foreign countries, and engaged a ferocious
company of Bretons to invade the republic's territory. The
Eight levied heavy toll on church property and ordered the
priests to disregard the interdict. They turned the tables on
the pope by engaging Hawkwood, and although the Bretons by
order of Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards the anti-pope
Clement VII.) committed frightful atrocities in Romagna,
their captains were bribed by the republic not to molest its
territory. By 1378 peace was made, partly through the media-
tion of St Catherine of Siena, and the interdict was removed
in consideration of the republic's paying a fine of 200,000 florins
to the pope.
During the war the Eight had been practically rulers of the
city, but now the parte Guelfa, led by Lapo da Castiglionchio
and Piero degli Albizai, attempted .to reassert itself
by illicit interference in the elections and by a liberal *■*"
use of " admonitions "(ommonizumi). Salvcstro de' -—
Medici, who had always opposed the parte, having been
elected gonfaloniere in spite of its intrigues, proposed a law for
the abolition of the admonitions, which was eventually passed
(June 18, 1378), but the people had been aroused, and desired
to break the power of the parte for good. Rioting occurred
on the 21st of June, and the houses of the Albizai and other
nobles were burnt. The signory meanwhile created a baUa
of 80 which repealed some of the laws promoted by the parte,
and partly enfranchised the ammoniti. The people were still
unsatisfied, the arli minori demanded further privileges, and
the workmen insisted that their grievances against the arli
maggiori, especially the wool trade by whom they were employed,
be redressed. A large body of ciompi (wool carders)
gathered outside the city and conspired to subvert J */***!
the signory and establish a popular government. it j^^
Although the plot, in which Salvestro does
not seem to have played a part, was revealed, a good
deal of mob violence occurred, and on the 21st of July the
populace seized the podest&'s palace, which they made their
headquarters. They demanded a share in the government for
the popdo minuto, but as soon as this was granted Tommaso
Strozzi, as spokesman of the ciompi, obliged the signory to
resign their powers to the Eight. Once the people were in
possession of the palace, a ciompo named Michele di Lando
took the lead and put a stop to disorder and pillage. He re-
mained master of Florence for one day, during which he reformed
the constitution, probably with the help of Salvestro de' Medici
Three new gilds were created, and nine priors appointed, three
from the arti maggiori, three from the minori, and three from
the new ones, while each of these classes in turn was to choose
the gonfaloniere of justice; the first to hold the office was Michele
di Lando. This did not satisfy the ciompi, and the disorders
provoked by them resulted in a new government which reformed
the two councils so as to exclude the lower orders. B ut to satisfy
the people several of the grandi, including Piero degli Albizxi,
were put to death, on charges of conspiracy, and many others
were exiled. There was perpetual rioting and anarchy, and
interference in the affairs of the government by the working
men, while at the same time poverty and unemployment increased
owing to the timidity of capital and the disorders, until at last
in 1382 a reaction set in, and order was restored by the gOd
companies. Again a new constitution was decreed by which
the gonfaloniere and half the priori were to be chosen from the
arti maggiori and the other half from the minori; on several
other boards the former were to be in the majority, and the
three new gilds were abolished. The demagogues were executed
or forced to fly, and Michele di Lando with great ingratitude
was exiled. Several subsequent risings of the ciompi, largely
of an economic character, were put down, and the Guelph
families gradually regained much of their lost power, of which
FLORENCE
535
they availed themselves to exne their opponents and revive
the odious system of ammonmonu
Meanwhile in foreign affairs the republic maintained iU
position, and in 1383 it regained Arexto by purchase from the
lieutenant of Charles of Duraato. In 1300 Gian Galeazxo
Visconti, having made himself master of a large part of northern
Italy, intrigued to gain possession of Pisa and Siena* Florence,
alone in resisting him, engaged Hawkwood, who with an army
of 7000 men more than held bis own against the powerful lord
of Milan, and in 139a a peace waa concluded which the republic
strengthened by an alliance with Pisa and several north Italian
states. In 1393 Maso degti Albizzi waa made gonfalonier*, and
for many years remained almost master of Florence owing to his
influential position in the Ariedella lana. A severe persecution
was initiated against the Alberti and other families, who were
disfranchised and exiled. Disorders and conspiracies against the
merchant oligarchy continued, and although they were unsuc-
cessful party passion was incredibly bitter, and the exiles caused
the republic much trouble by intriguing against it in foreign
states. In 1397*1308 Florence bad two more ware with Gian
Galeazzo Visconti, who, aspiring to the conquest of Tuscany,
acquired the lordship of Pisa, Siena and Perugia. Hawkwood
being dead, Florence purchased aid from the emperor Rupert.
The Imperialists were beaten; but just as the Milanese were about
to march on Florence, Visconti died. His territories were then
divided between his sons and his cmdoltieri, and Florence,
ever keeping her eye on Pisa, now ruled by Gabriele Maria
Visconti, made an alliance with Pope Boniface DC, who wished
to regain Perugia and Bologna. War broke out once more, and
the allies were successful, but as soon as Boniface had gained his
ends ha made peace, leaving the Florentines unsatisfied. In
1404 their attempt to capture Pisa single-handed
failed, and Gabriele Maria placed himself under the
»« protection of the French king. The Florentines then
(4). made overtures to France, who had supported the
anti-popes all through the great schism, and suggested that they
too would support the then anti-pope, Benedict XIIL, in ex-
change for the sale of Pisa. This was agreed to, and in 1403 the
city was sold to Florence for 200,000 florins; and Gino Capponi, 1
the Florentine commissioner, took possession of the citadel,
but a few days later the citizens arose in arms and recaptured
it from the mercenaries. There waa great consternation in
Florence at the news, and every man in the city " determined
that he would go naked rather than not conquer Pisa " (G.
Capponi}. The next year that city, then ruled by Giovanni
Gambacorti, was besieged by the Florentines, who blockaded the
mouth of the Amo. After a six months' siege Pisa surrendered
on terms (9th October 1406), and, although it was not sacked,
many of the citizens were exiled and others forced to live in
Florence, a depopulation from which it never recovered. Florence
now acquired a great seaport and was at last able to develop a
direct maritime trade.
Except in connexion with the Pisan question the republic
had taken no definite side in the great schism which had divided
n, the church since 1378, but in 1408 she appealed both
cMKfl to Pope Gregory XH, and the anti-pope Benedict
r/JvM? XIU- ** W *U ** to various foreign governments in
(MM). f a vour of a settlement, and suggested a council within
her own territory. Gregory refused, but after consulting a com-
mittee of theologians who declared him to be a heretic, the council
promoted by Cardinal Cossa and other independent prelates
met at Pisa. This nearly led to war with King Ladislas of
Naples, because he had seized Rome, which he could only hold
so long as the church was divided. The council deposed both
popes and elected Pietro Filargi as Alexander V. (26th of June).
But Ladislas still occupied the papal states, and Florence,
alarmed at his growing power and ambition, formed a league with
Siena, Bologna and Louis of Anjou who hud claim to the Nea-
politan throne, to drive Ladislas from Rome. Cortona, Orvteto,
Vitcrbo and either cities were recovered for Alexander, and in
* The historian, not to be confounded with the modern historian
and statesman of the same name <*»«)•
January 1410 Rome Itself was captured by the Florentines under
Malatesta del MalatcstL Alexander having died in May before
entering the Eternal City, Cardinal Cossa was elected as John
XXIII.; Florence without offending him made peace with
Ladislas, who had ceased to be dangerous, and purchased
Cortona of the pope. In 1413 Ladislas attacked the papal
states once more, driving John from Rome, and threatened
Florence; but like Henry VIL, Gian Galeazzo Visconti, and
other enemies of the republic, he too died most opportunely
(6th of August 1414)' John having lost all authority after
leaving Rome, a new council was held at Constance, which put
an end to the schism in 14x7 with the election of Martin V.
The new pope came to Florence in 14x9 as be had not yet re-
gained Rome, which was held by Francesco Sforza for Queen
Joanna IL of Naples, and remained there until the following
year.
No important changes in the constitution took place during
this period except the appointment of two new councils in 1411
to decide on questions of peace and war. The aristocratic faction
headed by Maso degii Albizzi, a wise and popular statesman, had
remained predominant, and at Mase's death in 1417 he was
succeeded in the leadership of the party by Niccold da Uzzano.
In 1431 Giovanni de* Medici was elected gonfaloniere of Justice,
an event which marks the beginning of that wealthy family's
power. The same year the republic purchased Leghorn from
the Genoese for 100,000 florins, and established a body of " Con-
sub of the Sea" to superintend maritime trade. Although
11,000,000 florins had been spent on recent wars Florence con-
tinued prosperous and its trade increased.
In 1431 Filippo Maria Visconti, who bad succeeded in recon-
quering most of Lombardy, seized Fori!; this induced the
Florentines to declare war on him, as they regarded his n*w war
approach as a menace to their territory in spite of the ■** tbo
opposition of the peace party led by Giovanni de* *^5?Stv
Medici. The campaign was anything but successful, v 4tM '*
and the Florentines were defeated several times, with the result
that their credit was shaken and several important firms failed.
The pope too was against them, but when they induced the
Venetians to intervene the tide of fortune changed, and Visconti
waa finally defeated and forced to accept peace on onerous
terms (1427).
The old systems of raising revenue no longer corresponded
to the needs of the republic, and as early as 1336 the various
loans made to the state were consolidated into one
national debt («**&). Subsequently all extraordinary
expenditure was met by forced loans (prcstattu), but the (14/ />.
method of distribution aroused discontent among the
lower classes, and in 1427 a general cotaslo or assessment of all
the wealth of the citizens was formed, and measures were devised
to distribute the obligations according to each man's capacity,
so as to avoid pressing too hardly on the poor. The catasto was
largely the work of Giovanni de* Medici, who greatly increased
his popularity thereby. He died in 1429.
An attempt to capture Lucca led Florence, in alliance with
Venice, into another costly war with Milan (1432-1433). The
mismanagement of the campaign brought about a ^^
quarrel between the aristocratic party, led by Rinaldo ntun «#
degii Albizzi, and the popular party, led by Giovanni CoMimo
de* Medici's son Cosimo (1389-1464), although both JJJ2SJ?
had agreed to the war before it began. Rinaldo was 4n* *
determined to break the Medici party, and succeeded in getting
Cosimo exiled. The Albizzi tried to strengthen their position by
conferring exceptional powers on the eapitano del popolo and
by juggling with the election bags, but the Medici still had a
great hold on the populace. Rinaldo's proposal for a coup tTtiot
met with no response from his own party, and he failed to prevent
the election of a pro-Medici signory in x 434- He and other leaders
of the party were summoned to the palace to answer a charge of
plotting against the state, to which he replied by collecting 800
armed followers. A revolution was only averted through the
intervention of Pope Eugenius IV., who was then in Florence.
A portamento was summoned, and the baiia appointed decreed
536
FLORENCE
die return of Cosimo and the esse of Rintldo degli Albizzi,
Rodolfo Peraza, Niccolo Barbadori, and others, in spite of the
feeble attempt of Eugenius to protect them. On the 6th of
October 1434 Cosimo returned to Florence, and for the next
three centuries the history of the city is identified with that of
the house of Medici. 1
Cosimo succeeded in dominating the republic while remaining
nominally a private citizen. Be exiled those who opposed him,
and governed by means of the bade, which, re-elected
2^°^* every five years, appointed all the magistrates and
acted according to bis orders. In 1437 Florence and
Venice were again at wax with the Viscontt, whose chief captain,
Niccoid Picdnino (9.9.), on entering Tuscany with many Floren-
tine exiles in his train, was signally defeated at Anghiari by the
Florentines under Francesco Sforza (1440); peace was made the
following year. The system of the caiasto, which led to abuses,
was abolished, and a progressive income-tax (decima scalala)
was introduced with the object of lightening the burdens of the
poor, who were as a rule Medicean, at the expense of the rich;
but as it was frequently increased the whole community came
to be oppressed by it in the end. Cosimo increased his own
authority and that of the republic by aiding Francesco Sforza
to become duke of Milan (1450), and he sided with him in the
war against Venice (1452-1454). In 1452- the emperor Frederick
III. passed through Florence on bis way to be crowned in Rome,
and was received as a friend. During the last years of Cosimo's
life, affairs were less under his control, and the gonfaloniere Luca
Pitti, a vain and ambitious man, introduced many changes, such
as the abasement of the authority of the podestd and of the
capUano, which Cosimo desired but was glad to attribute to
others.
In 1464 Cosimo died and was succeeded, not without some
opposition, by his son Piero, who was very infirm and gouty.
p ttn ^ Various plots against him were hatched, the anti-
Midkt Medicean faction being called the Del Poggio party
Cfto because the house of its leader Luca Pitti was on a hill,
° M W > while the Mcdiceans were called the Del Piano party
because Picro's house was in the town below; the other opposi-
tion leaders were Dietisalvi Ncroni and Agnolo AcciaiuolL But
Piero's unexpected energy upset the schemes of his enemies.
The death of Sforza led to a war for the succession of Milan,
and the ^Venetians, instigated by Florentine exiles, invaded
Tuscany. The war ended, after many indecisive engagements,
in 1468, through the intervention of Pope Paul IL Piero died
Lwtoxo m X4 °9' lcavin 8 two *°ns, Lorenzo (1440-1492) and
tht Ciuliano (1453-1478). The former at once assumed
MasafO* the reins of government and became ruler of Florence
Cf * t in a way neither Cosimo nor Piero had ever attempted ;
he established his domination by means of batlt consisting of the
signory, the aucppiatori, and 240 other members, all Mediceans,
to be renewed every five years (147 1). In 1473 a quarrel having
arisen with Volterra on account of a dispute concerning the alum
mines, Lorenzo sent an expedition against the city, which was
sacked and many of the inhabitants massacred. Owing to a
variety of causes an enmity arose between Lorenzo and Pope
Sixtus IV., and the latter, if not an accomplice, at all events
had knowledge of the Pazzi conspiracy against the Medici (147S).
The result of the plot was that, although Ciuliano was murdered,
Lorenzo strengthened his position, and put to death or exiled
numbcr| of his enemies. He was excommunicated by Sixtus,
who, together wit,h King Ferdinand of Naples, waged war against
him; no great successes were registered on either side at first, but
eventually the Florentines were defeated at Poggio Impcriale
(near Poggibonsi) and the city itself was in danger. Lorenzo's
position was critical, but by his boldness in going to Naples he
succeeded in concluding a peace with the king, which led to a
reconciliation with the pope (1470-1480). He was received with
enthusiasm on returning to Florence and became absolute master
1 The history of Florence from 1434 to 1737 will be found in greater
detail in the article Medici, save lor the periods from 1494 to 151 2-
and from 1 527 to 1530, during which the republic was restored. ¥1
the period from 1530 to i860 see also under Tuscamy.
of the situation. In April 1480 a Aafia was formed, and its most
important act was the creation at Lorenzo's instance of the
Council of Seventy; it was constituted for five years, but it be-
came permanent, and all its members were Lorenzo'* friends.
From that time until his death the city was free from party strife
under a dc facto despotism, but after the Rinuctini conspiracy
of that year the Council of Seventy passed a law declaring
attempts on Lorenzo's life to be high treason. Owing to his
political activity Lorenzo had neglected the business interests
of bis firm, and in order to make good certain heavy losses he
seems to have appropriated public funds. His foreign policy,
which was magnificent but expensive, rendered further forced
loans necessary, and he also laid hands on the Monte detle Doti,
an insurance institution to provide dowries for girls.
An attempt by the Venetians to seize Fcrrara led to a general
Italian war, in which Florence also took part on the side hostile
to Venice, and when peace was made in 1484 the republic
gained some advantages. The following year a revolt of the
Neapolitan barons against King Ferdinand broke out, actively
supported by Pope Innocent VIII.; Lorenzo remained neutral at
first, but true to his policy of maintaining the balance of power
and not wishing to see Ferdinand completely crushed, he ended
by giving him assistance in spite of the king's unpopularity in
Florence. Peace was made when the pope agreed to come to terms
in i486, and in 1487 Lorenzo regained Sarzana, which Genoa
had taken from Florence nine years previously. The general dis-
orders and ceaseless intrigues all over Italy required Lorenzo's
constant attention, and he succeeded in making Florence ** the
needle of the balance of power in Italy." At this
time the Dominican Fra Girolamo Savonarola (q.v.)
was in Florence and aroused the whole city by bis
denunciations of ecclesiastical corruption and also of that
of the Florentines. He opposed Lorenzo's government- as the
source of the immorality of the people, and to some extent
influenced public opinion against him. Hi-health now gained on
Lorenzo, and Savonarola, whom he had summoned to his bedside,
refused to give absolution to the destroyer of Florentine liberties.
Lorenzo, during whose rule Florence had become one of the
greatest centres of art and literature in Europe, died in 1492.
He was succeeded by his son Piero, who had none of his father's
capacity and made a number of political blunders. When
Charles VIII. of France came to Italy to conquer Naples ^^
Piero decided to assist the latter kingdom, although the jJJZ*
traditional sympathies of the people were for the French
king, and when Charles entered Florentine territory and captured
Sarzana, Piero went to his camp and asked pardon for oppos-
ing him. The king demanded the cession of Pisa, Leghorn and
other towns, which Piero granted, but on returning to Florence
on the 8th of November 1494 he found the opposition greatly
strengthened and his popularity forfeited, especially when the
news of his disgraceful cessions to Charles became known. He
was refused admittance to the palace, and the people began to
shout " Popolo e tibcrta I" in opposition to the Medicean cry of
"Palle, Pallel" (from the Mcdid arms). With a small escort
he fled from the city, followed soon after by his brother Giovanni.
That same day Pisa rose in revolt against the Floren- p tfmfttam
tines, and was occupied by Charles. The expulsion of otttm
the Medici produced some disorder, but Piero Capponi Medici
(if.v.) and other prominent citizens succeeded in t/< ** 1 *
keeping the peace. Ambassadors, one of whom was Savonarola,
were sent to treat with the French king, but no agreement was
arrived at until Charles entered Florence on the 17th
of November at the head of 12,000 men. In spite of ^JJ^J
their French sympathies the citizens were indignant at rtwrnmrn
the seizure of Sarzana, and while they gave the king
a splendid welcome, they did not like his attitude of conqueror.
Charles was impressed with the wealth and refinement of the
citizens, and above all with the solid fortress-like appearance of
their palaces. The signory appointed Piero Capponi, a man of
great ability and patriotism, and experienced in diplomacy,
the gonfaloniere Francesco Valori, the Dominican Giorgio
Vespucci, and the jurisconsult and diplomatist Domenko Bona,
FLORENGB
537
syndics to conduct tin negotiations with the French kiog.
Chute's demands by no means pleased the citizens, and the
arrogance and violence of his soldiers led to riots in which they
wen assailed with stones in the narrow streets. When the king
began to hint at the recall of Piero de' Medici, whose envoys had
gained his ear, the signory ordered the citizens to be ready to
fly to arms. The proposal was dropped, but Charles demanded
an fwwmi^ sum of money before he would leave the city; long
dHmnakim followed, and when at last he presented an insolent
ultimatum the syndics refused to accept it. The king said in
pj. a threatening tone, " Then we shall sound our
fsf»i«l trumpets/' whereupon Capponi tore up the document
in his -face -and replied, " And we shall ring our bells."
The king, realising what street fighting in Florence would mean,
at once came to terms; he contented himself with 120,000
florins, agreeing to assume the title of " Protector and Restorer
of the liberty of Florence," and to give up the fortresses he had
taken within two years, unless his expedition to Naples should
be concluded sooner; the Medici were to remain banished, but
the price on their heads was withdrawn. But Charles would not
depart, a fact which caused perpetual disturbance in the city,
and it was not until the a8th of November, after an exhortation
by Savonarola whom he greatly respected, that he left Florence.
It was now intended to re-establish the government on the
basis of the old republican institutions, but it was found that
sixty years of Medici rule had reduced them to mere
shadows, and the condition of the government, largely
controlled by a balia of 20 acceppiatori and frequently
disturbed by the summoning of the parlamcnto, was
utterly chaotic. Consequently men talked of nothing save of
i-.R«npng the constitution, but unfortunately there was no longer
an upper class accustomed to public affairs, while the lower class
was thoroughly demoralized. Many proposals were made, none
it„ lu> of them of practical value, until Savonarola, who had
tmm already made a reputation as a moral reformer,. began
his famous series of political sermons. In the prevailing
" *■• confusion the people turned to him as their only hope,
and gradually a new government was evolved, each law being
enacted as the result of his exhortations. A Greater Council
empowered to appoint magistrates and pass laws was formed,
to which all citizens netti di sptcckiQ (who had paid their taxes)
and beneficioli (ix. who had sat in one of the higher magistracies
or whose fathers, grandfathers, or great-grandfathers had done
so) were eligible together with certain others. There were 3200
such citizens, and they sat one-third at a time for six months.
The Greater Council was to elect another council of 80 citizens
over forty years old, also to be changed every six months; this
body, which the signory must consult once a week, together
with the colleges and the signory itself, was to appoint
ambassadors and commissaries of war, and deal with other
confidential matters. The system of forced loans was abolished
and a 10% tax on real property introduced in its stead, and a
law of amnesty for political offenders enacted. Savonarola
also proposed a court of appeal for criminal and political crimes
tried by the Otto di guardia e balia; this too was agreed to, but
the right of appeal was to be, not to a court as Savonarola
suggested, but to the Greater Council, a fact which led to grave
abuses, as judicial appeals became subject to party passions.
The parlamcnH were abolished and a monte di pkti to advance
money at reasonable interest was created. But in spite of
Savonarola's popularity there was a party called the Bigi
(greys) who intrigued secretly in favour of the return of the
Medici, while the men of wealth, called the Arrabbiali, although
they hated the Medici, were even more openly opposed to the
actual regime and desired to set up an aristocratic oligarchy.
The adherents of Savonarola were called the Piagnoni, or
snivellers, while the Neuirali changed sides frequently.
A league between the pope, the emperor, Venice and Spain
having been made against Charles VIII., the latter was forced
to return to France. On his way back he passed through
Florence, and, although the republic had refused to join the
league, it believed itself in danger, as Piero de' Medici was in the
king's train. Savonarola was again sent to the French camp,
and his eloquence turned the king from any idea he may have
had of reinstating the Medici. At the same time immm
Charles violated his promise by giving aid to the Pisans a&tm*
in their revolt against Florence, and did not restore the Gtartta
other fortresses. After the French had abandoned ,m
Italy, Piero de' Medici, encouraged by the league, enlisted a
number of mercenaries and marched on Florence, but the
citizens, fired by Savonarola's enthusiasm, flew to arms and
prepared for an energetic resistance; owing to Piero 's incapacity
and the exhaustion of his funds the expedition came to nothing.
At the same time the conditions of the city were not prosperous;
its resources were strained by the sums paid to Charles and by
the war; its credit was shaken, its trade paralysed, famine and
plague visited the city, and the war to subjugate Pisa was pro-
ceeding unsatisfactorily. Worse still was the death in 1496 of
one of its ablest and most disinterested statesmen, Piero Capponi.
The league now attacked Florence, for Pope Alexander VI.
hated Savonarola and was determined to destroy AhM4
the republic, so as to reinstate the Medici temporarily VL
and prepare the way for his own sons; the Venetians
and Imperialists besieged Leghorn, and there was
great misery in Florence. All this decreased Savonarola's
popularity to some extent, but the enemy having been beaten
at Leghorn and the league being apparently on the point of
breaking up, the Florentines took courage and the friar's party
was once more in the ascendant. Numerous processions were
held, Savonarola's sermons against corruption and vice seemed
to have temporarily transformed the citizens, and the carnival
of 1497 remained famous for the burning of the " vanities " (i.e.
indecent books and pictures and carnival masks and costumes).
The friar's sermons against ecclesiastical corruption, and especi-
ally against the pope, resulted in his excommunication by the
latter, in consequence of which he lost much of his influence
and immorality spread once more. That same year Piero made
another unsuccessful attempt on Florence. New Medid plots
having been discovered, Bernardo del Nero and other prominent
citizens were tried and put to death; but the party hostile
to Savonarola gained ground and had the support of the
Franciscans, who were hostile to the Dominican order. Pulpit
warfare was waged between Savonarola and his opponents, and
the matter ended in his being forbidden to preach and in a pit*
posed ordeal by fire, which, however, never came off. The pope
again and again demanded that the friar be surrendered to him,
but without success, in spite of his threats of an interdict against
the city. The Piagnoni were out of power, and a signory of
Arrabbiati having been elected in 1498, a mob of Savonarola's
opponents attacked the convent of St Mark where he resided,
and he himself was arrested and imprisoned. The commission
appointed to try him on charges of heresy and treason was com-
posed of his enemies, including Doffo Spini, who had M mm g
previously attempted to murder him; many irregu- •*«■**
larities were committed during the three trials, and *Ssr*a»
the prisoner was repeatedly tortured. The outgoing JJJJw.
signory secured the election of another which was of
their way of thinking, and on the 22nd of May 1498 Savonarola
was condemned to death and executed the following day.
The pope having been satisfied, the situation in Florence
was less critical for the moment. The war against Pisa was
renewed, and in 1499 the city might have been taken but for
the dilatory tactics of the Florentine commander Paolo Vitelli,
who was consequently arrested on a charge of treason and put
to death. Louis XIL of France, who now sent an army into
Italy to conquer the Milanese, obtained the support of the
Florentines. Cesare Borgia, who had seized many cities in
Romagna, suddenly demanded the reinstatement of the Medici
in Florence, and the danger was only warded off by appointing
him captain-general of the Florentine forces at a large salary
(1501). The weakness of the government becoming every
day more apparent, several constitutional changes were made,
and many old institutions, such as that of the podesta and
capita/to del popolo, were abolished; finally in 1502, in order
S3»
FLORENCE
wm.
to give more stability to the government, the office of gonfaloniere,
with the right of proposing laws to the signory, was made a life
appointment. The election fell on Piero Soderini (1448-1522),
an honest public-spirited man of no particular party,
s£2L*,l but lacking in strength of character. One useful
measure which he took was the institution of a national
militia at the suggestion of Niccold Machiavelli (1505). In the
meanwhile the Pisan war dragged on without much headway
being made. In 1503 both Piero de' Medici and Alexander VI.
had died, eliminating two dangers to the republic. Spain, who
was at war with France over the partition of Naples, helped the
Pisans as the enemies of Florence, France's ally (1501-1504),
but when the war was over the Florentines were able to lay
siege to Pisa (1507), and in 1509 the city was driven by famine
to surrender and became a dependency of Florence once more.
Pope Julius II., after having formed the league of Cambrai
with France and Spain against Venice, retired from it in 1510,
and raised the cry of " Fuori 1 Barbari " (out with the
barbarians), with a view to expelling the French from
Italy. King Louis thereupon proposed an oecumenical
council so as to create a schism in the Church, and
demanded that it be held in Florentine territory. After
some hesitation the republic agreed to the demand,and the council
was opened at Pisa, whereupon the pope immediately placed
Florence under an interdict. At the request of the Florentines
the council removed to Milan, but this did not save them from
the pope's wrath. A Spanish army under Raymundo dc Cardona
and accompanied by Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici and his brother
Giuliano entered the republic's territory and demanded 100,000
florins, the dismissal of Soderini, and the readmission of the
Medici. Soderini offered to resign, but the Greater Council
supported him and preparations for defence were made. In
August the Spaniards took- Prato by storm and committed
hideous atrocities on the inhabitants; Florence was in a panic,
a group of the Ouimali, or nobles, forced Soderini to resign and
leave the city, and Cardona's new terms were accepted, viz.
the readmission of the Medici, a fine of 150,000 florins,- and an
-^ alliance with Spain. On the 1st of September 151a
u*Mtiici Giuliano and Giovanni de' Medici, and their nephew
(ISO). Lorenzo, entered Florence with the Spanish troops;
a portamento was summoned, and a packed balia
formed which abolished the Greater Council and created a con-
stitution similar to that of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Giuliano
became de facto head of the government, but he did not pursue
the usual vindictive policy of his house, although he resorted
to the Laurentian method of amusing the citizens with splendid
festivities. In 1513, on the death of Julius II., Giovanni de'
Medici was elected pope as Leo X., an event which greatly en-
hanced the importance of the house. In March 1514 Giuliano
died, and was succeeded by Lorenzo, who was also created duke
of Urbino. At his death in 15 19 Cardinal Giulio de' Medici (son
of the Giuliano murdered in the Pazzi conspiracy) took charge
of the government; he met with some opposition and had to
play off the Ottimati against the Piagnoni, but he did not rule
badly and maintained at all events the outward forms of freedom.
In 1 523 he was created pope as Clement VII. and sent his relatives
Ippolito and Alessandro, both minors and bastards, to Florence
under the tutorship of Cardinal Silvio Passerini. Ippolito was
styled the MagnijUo and destined to be ruler of the republic,
but Cardinal Passerini's regency proved most unpopular, and the
city was soon seething with discontent. Revolts broke out and
Passerini showed himself quite unequal to coping with the
situation. The Ottimati were mostly anti-Mcdicean, and by 1527
the position was untenable. When Filippo Strozzi, and above
all his wife, threw their influence in the scales against
the Medici, and the magistrates declared for their ex-
pulsion from power, Passerini, Ippolito and Alessandro
left Florence (17th of May 1527). A Consiglio
degli Scelli was summoned, and a constitution similar
to that of Savonarola's time was established. The Greater
Council was revived and Niccold Capponi created gonfaloniere
for a year. But Florence was torn by factions— the Ottimati
•fUre
c««y>.
who desired an oligarchy, the Fstleschi or Medkeans who gener*
afly supported them, the Adirati who opposed Capponi for his
moderation, the Arrabbiati who were strongly anti-Medicean,
and the Popoiani who opposed the Ottimati. "It is almost
impossible that a state so disorganized and corrupt as Florence
then was should produce men of parts and character, but if by
chance any such should arise they would be hated and perse-
cuted, their dispositions would be soured by indignation, or they
would be hunted from their country or die of grief " (Benedette
Varchi). Capponi did his best to reform the city and save the
situation, and while adopting Savonarola's tone in internal
affairs, he saw the dangers ih the foreign situation, realizing that
a reconciliation between the pope and the emperor Charles V.
would prove disastrous for Florence, for Clement would certainly
seize the opportunity to reinstate his family in power. Having
been re-elected gonfaloniere in spite of much opposition in 1528,
Capponi tried to make peace with the pope, but his correspond-
ence with the Vatican resulted in a quite unjustified charge of high
treason, and although acquitted he had to resign office and leave
the dty for six months. Francesco Carducd was elected gon-
faloniere in his place, and on the 29th of June 1529 the pope and
the emperor concluded a treaty by which the latter agreed to
re-establish the Medici in Florence. Carducd made preparations
for a siege, but a large part of the people were against him,
either from Medicean sympathies or fear, although the Frateschi,
as the believers in Savonarola's views were called, supported
him strongly. A body called the Now ddla Militia, of whom
Michelangelo Buonarroti was a member, was charged with the
defence of the dty, and Michelangelo (q.v.) himself superintended
the strengthening of the fortifications. A most unfortunate
choice for the chief command of the army was the appointment
of Malatesta Baglioni. In August an imperial army under
Philibert , prince of Orange, advanced on the dty. In September
Malatesta surrendered Perugia, and other dties fell before the
Imperialists. All attempts to come to terms with the pope were
unsuccessful, and by October the siege had begun. ^^
Although alone against papacy and empire, the dtizens 2j£ «r
showed the greatest spirit and devotion, and were rawn
successful in many sorties. The finest figure produced
by. these events was that of Francesco ferrucdo (?.?.); by his
defence of Empoli he showed himself a first-class soldier, and
was appointed commissioner-general. He executed many rapid
marches and counter-marches, assaulting isolated bodies of the
enemy unexpectedly, and harassing them continually. But
Malatesta was a traitor at heart and hindered the defence of
the dty in every way. Ferrucdo, who had recaptured Votterra,
marched to Gavinana above Pistoia to attack the Imperialists in
the rear. A battle took place at that spot on the 3rd of August,
but in spite of Ferrucdo's heroism he was defeated and killed;
the prince of Orange also fell in that desperate engagement.
Malatesta contributed to the defeat by preventing a simultaneous
attack by the besieged. The sufferings from famine within the
city were now very great, and an increasingly large part of the
people favoured surrender. The signory, at last realizing that
Malatesta was a traitor, dismissed him; but it was too late,
and he now behaved as though he were governor of Florence;
when the troops attempted to enforce the dismissal he turned
his guns on them. On the 9th of August the signory saw that
all hope was lost and entered into negotiations with Don Smma+t
Ferrante Gonzaga, the new imperial commander. •*
On the iath the capitulation was signed: Florence f*y
was to pay an indemnity of 80,000 florins, the Medid vam ' m
were to be recalled, the emperor was to establish the new govern-
ment, " it being understood that liberty is to be preserved."
Baccio Valori, a Medicean who had been in the imperialist camp,
now took charge, and the dty was occupied by foreign troops.
A portamento was summoned, the usual packed balia created, and
all opposition silenced. The dty was given over to Pope dement,
who, disregarding the terms of the capitulation, had Carducd
and Gifolami (the last gonfaloniere) hanged, and established
Alessandro de' Medici, the natural son of Lorenzo, duke of Urbino,
as head of the republic on the 5th of July 1531. The next year
FLORES- FLORIAN
S39
the signory was abolished, Alessaodro created gonfaUmUre for
life, ami his lordship made hereditary in his family by imperial
patent. Thus Florence lost her liberty, and came to be the capital
of the duchy (afterwards grand-duchy) of Tuscany (see Tuscany).
. The Medici dynasty ruled in Tuscany until the death of Gian
Gastone in 1737, when the grand-duchy was assigned to Francis,
Th* duke of Lorraine. But it was governed by a regency
QrmmS- until 1 753, when it was conferred by the empress
g gfg^f Maria Theresa on his son Peter Leopold. During the
"* c * v " Napoleonic wars the grand-duke Ferdinand IIL of
Habsbnrg-Lorraine was driven from the throne, and Tuscany
was annexed to the French empire in 1808. In 1809 Florence
was made capital of the kingdom of Etruria, but after the fall of
Napoleon in 1814 Ferdinand was reinstated. He died in 1833,
and was succeeded by Leopold II. In 1848 there was a liberal
revolutionary movement in Florence, and Leopold granted a
constitution. But civil disorders followed, and in 1849 the grand-
duke returned under an Austrian escort. In 1859, after the
Franco-Italian victories over the Austrians in Lombardy, by a
bloodless revolution in Florence Leopold was ex p elled and
Tuscany annexed to the Sardinian kingdom.
In 1865 Florence became the capital of the kingdom of Italy,
but after the occupation ql Rome in 1870 during the Franco-
Prussian war, the capital was transferred to the Eternal City
(1871).
Bibliography.— The best complete history of Florence is Gino
Capponi's Storia delta Repubblka d% Firenu (2 vols., Florence, 1875).
which although defective as regards the earliest times is a standard
work based on original authorities; also F. T. Pencils, Histoire de
Florence (n vd« , Parte. t*»77-i*9o\ For ifee early period see
Pasquale VilUri's / Frimi Due Secott delta sLyruj di Firente (Eng. ed.,
London, 1*94). and R, DavUuhiT* GatUdUt der Stadt Florent
(Berlin, Utyfr) ; P. Villari's SmwHitraJa (ErtgH,h ed., London, 1896) is
invaluable for (he peri od dun ng whk hi personality domin-
ated Florence, and lus SfackiwHi (Eogluh oil.. 1 ondon, 1893) must
be also 00 n-.nl tc< I, e^rwcUtly lor ihe development >f political theories.
Among the En^li^h uttortrS el Florence, Napu r'i Florentine History
(6 vols., London, 1846-164? >atul A,TralUipe 1 #//n'»rye//A« Common-
wealth of ftennt* (4 vt I* .♦ London. 18M) an.* not without value
although out of tUti\ Francis Hyctt'a wkwwmSt (London, 1903) is
more recent and compendious; toe author is *■ mewhat Medicean
in his view*, acid frequently inacrarat' 1 ie later history, A.
von Reomonr* Gtrthkht* von Toicana (Got hi t 1876-1877^ is one
of the be^t wnrli . Then Ls a targe number <A tmall treatises and
* He guide- f» jIc description. See
>f ac iiiav iau, Savonarola,
(L. V.*)
FLORES, an island In the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to
Portugal, and forming part of the Azores archipelago. Pop.
(1900) 8137; area, 57 sq. m. Flores and the adjacent island
of Corvo (pop. 806; area, 7 sq. m.) constitute the westernmost
group of the Azores, and seem but imperfectly to belong to the
archipelago, from the rest of which they are widely severed.
They lie also out of the usual track of navigators; but to those
who, missing their course, are led thither, Flores affords good
shelter in its numerous bays. Its poultry Is excellent: and the
cattle are numerous, but small. It derives its name from the
abundance of the flowers that find shelter in its deep ravines. Its
capita] is Santa Cruz das Flores (2247). In 1591 Flores was the
station of the English fleet before the famous sea fight between
Sir R. Grenville's ship " Revenge " and a Spanish fleet of 53
vessels. See Azores.
FLORES, an island of the Dutch East Indies, a member of
the chain extending east of Java. Its length is 2 24 m., its greatest
breadth 37 m., and its area 5850 sq. m. The existence of slate,
chalk, and sandstone, eruptive rock, volcanoes and heights
stretching west and east, indicates a similar structure to that of
the other islands of the chain. Several volcanoes are active.
Among the loftier summits are, on the south coast, Gunong
Rokka (7940 ft.) and Keo (6560 ft.); with the lesser but con-
stantly active Gunong Api, forming a peninsula; and at the
south-east, Lobetobi (7120 ft.). The thickly wooded interior
is little explored. The coasts have deep bays and extensive
rounded gulfs, where are situated the principal villages (kam-
pongs). On the north coast are Ban, Reo, Mauroer and Geliting;
00 the east, Larantuka; and on the south, Sikka and Endeh.
also the biblSographies in Medici.
Tuscan* ,
The rivers, known only at their mouths, seem to be unsavigable.
The mean temperature is 77* to 8o° F., and the yearly rainfall
43 to 47 in. For administrative purposes the island is divided
into West Flores (Mangerai), attached to the government
of Celebes, and Middle and East Flores (Larantuka and depend-
encies), attached to the residency of Timor. The population
is estimated at 250,000. The people live by trade, fishing,
salt-making, shipbuilding, and the cultivation ol rice, maize,
and palms in the plain, but there is little industry or commerce.
Some edible birds' nests, rice, sandalwood and cinnamon are
exported to Celebes and elsewhere. The inhabitants of the
coast-districts are mainly of Malay origin. The aborigines,
who occupy the interior, are of Papuan stock. They are tall
and well-built, with dark or black skins. The hair is frizzly.
They are pure savages; their only religion is a kind of nature-
worship. They consider the earth holy and inviolable; thus
in severe droughts they only dig the river-beds for water as a
last resource. Portugal claimed certain portions of the island
until 1859.
FLOREZ, ENRIQUE (1 701-1 7 73I, .Spanish historian, was
born at Valladolid on the 14th of February 1 701 . In his fifteenth
year he entered the order of St Augustine, was afterwards
professor of theology at the university of Alcala, and published
& Cursus theologiae in five volumes (173 2-1 738). He afterwards
devoted himself to historical studies. Of these the first-fruit
was his Clave Hislorial, a work of the same class as the French
Art de verifier lex dates, and preceding it by several years. It
appeared in 1743, and passed through many editions. In 1747
was published the first volume of EspaAaSaeroda,kotrogeotrafice-
kistorico de la Iglesia de Espana, a vast compilation of Spanish
ecclesiastical history which obtained a European reputation,
and of which twenty-nine volumes appeared in the author's
lifetime. It was continued after his death by Manuel Risco
and others, and further additions have been made at the expense
of the Spanish government. The whole work in fifty-one volumes
was published at Madrid (1747-1886). Its value is considerably
increased by the insertion of ancient chronicles and documents
not easily accessible elsewhere. Florez was a good numismatist,
and published MedaUas de las Cohnias in s vols. (1 757-1 758), of
which a third volume appeared in 1773. His last work was the
Memorial de las reynas Catolicas, a vols. (1770). Florez led a
retired, studious and unambitious life, and died at Madrid
on the 20th of August 1773.
See F. Mendez, Noticia de la vida y escrUos de Henrique Florm
(Madrid, 1780).
FLORIAN, SAINT, a martyr honoured in Upper Austria. In
the 8th century Puoche was mentioned as the place of his tomb,
and on the site was built the celebrated monastery of canons
regular, St Florian, which still exists. His Acta snot consider-
able antiquity, but devoid of historical value. Their substance
is borrowed from the Acta of St Irenaeus of Sirmium. The cult
of St Florian was introduced into Poland, together with the
relics of the saint, which were brought thither in x 183 by Giles,
bishop of Modcna. Casimir, duke of Poland, dedicated a church
at Cracow to him. He is represented in various ways, especially
as a warrior holding in his hand a vessel from which he pours
out flames. His protection is often sought against fire. His
day in the calendar is the 4th of May.
See Ada Sanctorum, May, L 461-467; B. Kmsch, Scriptores rerum
lierooingkantm, iii. 65-68; C. Cahier, Caracteristiques des saints,
p. 490 (Paris, 1867). (H. Db.)
FLORIAN, JEAN PIERRE CLARIS DB (1755-1704), French
poet and romance writer, was born on the 6th of March 1755 at
the chateau of Florian, near Sauve, in the department of Gard.
His mother, a Spanish lady named Gilette de Salgues, died when
he was quite a child. His uncle and guardian, the marquis of
Florian, who had married a niece of Voltaire, introduced him at
Ferney and in 1768 he became page at Anet in the household of
the duke of Penthi£vre, who remained his friend throughout his
life. Having studied for some time at the artillery school at
Bapaume he obtained from his patron a captain's commission
; in a dragoon regiment, and in this capacity it is said he displayed
540
FLORIANOPOLIS— FLORIDA
a boisterous behaviour quite incongruous with the gentle,
meditative character of his works. On the outbreak o! the
French Revolution he retired to Sceaux, but he was soon dis-
covered and imprisoned; and though his imprisonment was short
he survived his release only a few months, dying on the 13th
of September 1794.
Florian's first literary efforts were comedies; his verse epistle
Voltaire el le serfdu Mont Jura and an eclogue Ruth were crowned
by the French Academy in 178s and 1784 respectively. In
178a also he produced a one-act prose comedy, Le Bon Mtnage,
and in the next year Calatie, a romantic tale in imitation of the
Galatea of Cervantes. Other short tales and comedies followed,
and in 1786 appeared Numa Pomfrilius, an undisguised imitation
of Fenelon's Tilimaque. In 1788 he became a member of the
French Academy, and published Estelle, a pastoral of the same
class as Galotte. Another romance, Conzalve de Cordoue, pre-
ceded by an historical notice of the Moors, appeared in 1791,
and his famous collection of Fables in 1 792. Among his posthum-
ous works are La Jeunesse de Florian, ou Mbnoircs d'un jeune
Espagnal (1807), and an abridgment (1799) of Don Quixote,
which, though far from being a correct representation of the
original, had great and merited success.
Florian imitated Salomon Gessner, the Swiss idyllist, and his
style has all the artificial delicacy and sentimentality of the
Gessnerian school Perhaps the nearest example of the class
in English literature is afforded by John Wilson's (Christopher
North's) Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life. Among the best
of his fables are reckoned " The Monkey showing the Magic
Lantern," " The Blind Man and the Paralytic," and " The
Monkeys and the Leopard."
The best edition of Florian's CEuvres comp&tes appeared in Paris
in 16 volumes, 1820; his CEuvres inidites in 4 volumes, 1824.
See " Vic de Florian," by L. F. Jauffret, prefixed to his CEuvres
postkumes (1802); A. J. N. de Rosny, Vie de Florian (Paris, An V.);
Sainte-Beuvc, Causertesdu lundi, t. lu. : A* de Montvafllant, Flotian,
sa vie, ses averts (1879); and Lettres de Florian a Mme de la Bricke,
published, with a notice by the baron de Barante in MUanges
published (1903) by the Soaete des bibliophiles francais.
FLORIANOPOUS (formerly Desterro, Nossa Senhora do
Desterro and Santa Catharina, and still popularly known under
the last designation), a city and port of Brazil and the capital
of the state of Santa Catharina, on the western or inside shore
of alarge island of the same name, 485m. S.S.W. of Rio de Janeiro,
in 27 30' S., 48 30' W. Pop. (1800) 11,400, including many
Germans; (1002, estimate) 16,000; of the municipality, includ-
ing a large rural district and several villages (1890), 30,687.
The harbour is formed by the widening of the strait separating
the island from the mainland, which is nearly 2 m. wide at this
point. It is approached by narrow entrances from the N. and
S., which are defended by small forts. The island is mountainous
and wooded, and completely shelters the harbour from easterly
storms. The surroundings are highly picturesque and tropical
in character, but the town itself is poorly built and unattractive.
Its public buildings include the president's official residence,
arsenal, lyceum, hospital and some old churches. The climate
is warm for the latitude, but the higher elevations of the vicinity
are noted for their mild climate and hcalthfulness. There are
some German colonics farther up the coast whose products find
a market here, and a number of small settlements along the
mainland coast add something to the trade of the town. The
more distant inland towns are partly supplied from this point,
but difficult mountain roads tend to restrict the trade greatly.
There is a considerable trade in market protiuce with Rio de
Janeiro, but the exports are inconsiderable. Santa Catharina
was formerly one of the well-known whaling stations of the
South Atlantic, and is now a secondary military and naval
station.
The island of Santa Catharina was originally settled by the
Spanish; Cabeza de Vaca landed here in 1542 and marched
hence across country to Asuncion, Paraguay. The Spanish
failed to establish a permanent colony, however, and the Portu-
guese took possession. The island was captured by a Spanish
expedition under Viceroy Zeballos in 1777. A boundary treaty
of that same year restored it to Portugal. In 1894 Santa
Catharina fell into the possession of revolutionists against the
government of President Floriano Peixoto. With the follsptr
of the revolution the city was occupied by the government forces,
and its name was then changed to Florianopolis in honour of the
president of the republic.
FLORIDA, the most southern of the United States of America.
situated between 24° 30' and 31 N. lat. and 79° 48' and 87° 38'
W. long. It is bounded N. by Georgia and Alabama, E. by the
Atlantic Ocean, S. by the Strait of Florida, which separates it
from Cuba, and by the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Alabama
and the Gulf. The Florida Keys, a chain of islands extending
in a general south-westerly direction from Biscayne Bay, arc
included in the state boundaries, and the city of Key West, on
an island of the same name, is the seat of justice of Monroe
county. The total area of the state is 58,666 sq. m., of which
3805 sq. m. are water surface. The coast line is greater than that
of any other state, extending 472 m. on the Atlantic and 674 m.
on the Gulf Coast.
The peculiar outline of Florida gives it the name of " Peninsula
State." The average elevation of the surface of the state above
the sea-level is less than that of any other state except Louisiana,
but there is not the monotony of unbroken level which descrip-
tions and maps often suggest. The N.W. portion of the state
is, topographically, similar to south-eastern Alabama, being a
rolling, hilly country; the eastern section is a part of the Atlantic
coastal plain; the western coast line is less regular than the
eastern, being indented by a number of bays and harbours,
the largest of which are Charlotte Harbour, Tampa Bay and
Fensacola Bay. Along much of the western coast and along
nearly the whole of the eastern coast extends a line of sand
reefs and narrow islands, enclosing shallow and narrow bodies
of water, such as Indian river and Lake Worth — called rivers,
lakes, lagoons, bays and harbours. In the central part of the
state there is a ridge, extending N. and S. and forming a divide,
separating the streams of the east coast from those of the west.
Its highest elevation above sea-level is about 300 ft. The central
region is remarkable for its large number of lakes, approximately
30,000 between Gainesville in Alachua county, and Lake Okee-
chobee, They arc due largely to sinkholes or depressions caused
by solution of the limestone of the region. Many of the lakes
are connected by subterranean channels, and a change in the
surface of one lake is often accompanied by a change in the
surface of another. By far the largest of these lakes, nearly
all of them shallow, is Lake Okeechobee, a body of water about
1250 sq. m. in area and almost uniformly shallow, its depth
seldom being greater than 15 ft. Caloosahatchee river, flowing
into the Gulf of Mexico near Charlotte Harbour, is its principal
outlet. Among the other lakes arc Orange, Crescent, George,
Weir, Harris, Eustis, Apopka, Tohopekah'ga, Kissimmee and
Istokpoga. The chief feature of the southern portion of the state
is the Everglades (?.v.), the term "Everglade State" being
popularly applied to Florida. Within the state there are many
swamps, the largest of which are the Big Cypress Swamp in the
S. adjoining the Everglades on the W., and Okefinokee Swamp,
extending from Ccor(:ia inlo iheN.E. part of tlie tt&le*
A pccLiPur fcitun- of the drasnAg* of in* state i* the large number
of subterranean mrr.im* and of ipnng* r alwmy* found to a greater or
lew eftent in limestone regions. Same of ihetn are 0/ great sue.
Silvvt Spring and ttluc Spring In Marion county, Blue 'spring and
Orange City Mineral Spring in Volusia county,, ChipoU Spring near
M mm III Jackson county, Espiritu Santa Spring near Tampa
in Hj|hT*iro county, Magnolia Springs in Clay county, Suwanee
Spring* Vo Suwnne* county, White Sulphur Springs in Hamilton
county, the WVkiva Spring? tn Orange county, and Wakulla Spring,
N< ■■\< -ri Sulphur Spring and Panacea- Mineral Spring in Wakulla
coutiTy art the most note worthy. Many of the springs nave Curative
prnpt'ttk 11 *. one r.»f [ntm, the Green Cove Spring in Clay county,
cUV harming about 3000 gallant of sulphuretted water per minute.
Not far from Si Aujju.it in*' a spring bursa through the sea itself with
such force tlwt the ocean breakers roll Lack from it a* from a sunken
reef. The springs often merge into lakes, and lake systems are
usually the sources of the rivers, Lake George beinjj the principal
source of the St Johns, and Lake Kissimmee of the Kissimmee,
while a number of smaller lakes are the source of the Oklawaha, one
of the most beautiful of the Floridian rivers.
ME X t CO
NORTH-WESTERN
FLORIDA
Same JVllJr J- m.Lin -ii.ip
B Lrnij^l u Ji Wc* I #i ol Qtt*n*
FLORIDA
541
Of the rivets the moat important ere the St Johns, which
flows N. from about the middle of the peninsula, empties into
the Atlantic a short distance below Jacksonville, and is navigable
for about 250 m. from its mouth, the Withlacoochee, flowing
in a general north-westerly direction from its source in the N.E.
part of Polk county, and forming near its entrance into the Gulf
of Mexico the boundary between Levy and Citrus counties, and
four rivers, the £scambia y the Choctawatchee, the ApaAachicola, ,
and the Suwanee, having their sources in other states and
traversing the north-western part of Florida. On account of
its sand reefs, the east coast has not so many harbours as the
west coast. The most important harbours are at Fernandina,
St Augustine, and Miami on the £. coast, and at Tampa, Key
West and Pensacola on the W. coast.
The soils of Florida have aand as a common ingredient.* They
may be divided into three classes: the nine lands, which often have
a surface of dark vegetable mould, under which is a sandy loam
resting on a substratum of clay, marl or limestone — areas of such
soil are found throughout the state; the " hammocks," which have
soil of similar ingredients and are interspersed with the pine lands-
large areas of this soil occur in Levy, Alachua, Citrus, Hernando.
Pasco, Gadsden, Leon, Madison, Jefferson and Jackson counties;
and the atluvial swamp lands, chiefly in E. and S. Florida, the richest
class, which require drainage to fit them for cultivation.
As regards climate Florida may be divided into three more
or less distinct zones. North and west of a line passing through
Cedar Keys and Fernandina the climate is distinctly " southern,"
similar to that of the Gulf states; from this line to another
extending from the mouth of the Caloosahatchee to Indian
river inlet the climate is semi-tropical, and is well suited to the
cultivation of oranges; S. of this the climate is sub-tropical,
well adapted to the cultivation of pineapples. Since the semi-
tropical and sub-tropical zones are nearer the course of the
Gulf Stream, and are swept by the trade winds, their tempera-
tures are more uniform than those of the zones of southern
climate; indeed, the extremes of heat (103 F.) and cold (13 F.)
are felt in the region of southern climate. The mean annual
temperature of the state is 70-8° F., greater in the sub-tropical
than in the other climate zones, and the Atlantic coast is in
general warmer than the tiulf Coast. The rainfall averages
52-09 in. per annum. On account of its warm dimate, Florida
has many resorts for health and pleasure, which are especially
popular in the season from January to April; the more
important are St Augustine, Ormond, Daytona, Palm Beach,
Miami, Tampa, White Springs, Hampton Springs, Worthington
Springs and Orange Springs.
No metals have ever been di s co v er e d in Florida. The principal
minerals are rock phosphate and (recently more important) land and
river pebble phosphate, found in scattered deposits in a belt on the
" west coast about 30 m. wide and extending from Tallahassee to
Lake Okeechobee. The centre of the quarries is Dunnellon in
Marion county, and pebble phosphate is found in Hillsboro, Polk,
De Soto, Osceola, Citrus and Hernando counties. Although the
economic value of the phosphate deposits was first realized about
1889, between 1894 and 1907 Florida produced, each year, more
than half of all the phosphate rock produced in the whole United
States, the yield of Florida (».357.3<>5 l°ng tons) in 1907 being
valued at S6.577.757: that of the whole country at 510,653,558.
Florida is also the principal source in the United States for fuller's
earth, a deposit of which, near Quincy, was first discovered in 1893;
and clay (including kaolin) is also mined to some extent. Other
minerals that have been discovered but have not been industrially
developed are gypsum, lignite and cement rock. The lack of a
thorough geological survey has perhaps prevented the discovery
of other minerals — certainly it is responsible for a late recognition
of the economic value of the known mineral resources.
The flora of N. Florida is similar to that of south-eastern North
America ; that of S. Florida seems to be a link between the vegetation
of North America and that of South America and the West Indies,
for out of 247 species of S. Florida that have been examined, 187
arc common to the West Indies, Mexico and South America. The
forests cover approximately 37,700 sq. m., chiefly in the northern
part of the state, including about half of the peninsula, yellow pine
being predominant, except in the coastal marsh lands, where cypress,
(bund throughout the state, particularly abounds; About half of
the varieties of forest trees in the United States arc found, and
1 Almost everywhere limestone is the underlying rock, but siliceous
sands, brought out by the Atlantic rivers to the N.E., are carried the
whole length of the Florida coast by marine action.
among the peculiar species are the red bay or " Florida Mahogany."
satinwood and cachibou, and the Flonda yew and savin, both
almost extinct. The lumber industry is important: in 1905 the
total factory product of lumber and timber was valued at
$10,901,650, and lumber and planing mill products were valued
at $1, 690455* In 1900 this was the most valuable industry in
the state; in 1905 it was second to the manufacture of tobacco.
The fauna is similar in general to that of the southern United States.
Among the animals are the puma, manatee (sea cow), alligator and
crocodile, but the number of these has been greatly diminished by
hunting. Ducks, wild turkeys, bears and wildcats {lynx) are found,
but in decreasing numbers.
The fisheries are- very valuable; the total number of species of
fish in Florida waters is about 600, and many species found on
one coast are not found on the other. The king fish and tarpon are
hunted for sport, while mullet, shad, redsnappers, pompano. trout,
shecpshead and Spanish mackerel are of great economic value.
The sponge and oyster fisheries arc also important. The total
product of the fisheries in 1902 was valued at about $3 ,000,000.
Industry and Commerce. — The principal occupation is agri-
culture, in which 44% of the labouring population was engaged
in 1900, but only 12 -6% of the total land surface was enclosed
in farms, of which only 34*6% was improved, and the total
agricultural product for 1899 was valued at $18,309,104. As
the number of farms increased faster than the cultivated area
Xcom 1850 to 1900, the average size of farms declined from 444
acres in i860 to 140 in 1880 and to 106-9 in 1900, the largest
class of farms being those with an acreage varying from 20 to
50 acres. Nearly three-fourths of the farms, in 1900, were
cultivated by their owners, but the cash tenantry system snowed
an increase of 100% since 1890, being most extensively used
in the cotton counties. One-third of the farms were operated by
negroes, but one-half of these farms were rented, and the value
of negro farm property was only one-eighth that of the entire
farm property of the state. According to the state census of
1905 only 1,631,362 acres were improved; of 45,984 farm*,
31,233 were worked by whites.
Fruits normally form the principal crop; the total value for
1907-8 of the fruit crops of the state (including oranges, lemons,
limes, grape-fruit, bananas, guavas, pears, peaches, grapes,
figs, pecans, &c.) was $6,160,299, according to the report of
the State Department of Agriculture. The discovery of Florida's
adaptability to the culture of oranges about 1875 may be taken
as the beginning of the state's modern industrial development
But the unusual severity of the winters of 1887, 1894 and 1899
(the report of the Twelfth Census which gives the figures for
this year being therefore misleading) destroyed three-fourths of
the orange trees, and caused an increased attention to stock-
raising, and to various agricultural products. Orange culture
has recovered much of its importance, but it is carried on in
the more southern counties of the state. The cultivation of
pineapples, in sub-tropical Florida, is proving successful, the
product far surpassing that of California, the only other state
in the Union in which pineapples are grown. Grape-fruit , guavas
and lemons are also successfully produced in this part of the
state. The cultivation of strawberries and vegetables (cabbage,
cauliflower, beets, beans, tomatoes, egg-plant, cucumbers,
water-melons, celery, &c.) for northern markets, and of orchard
fruits, especially plums, pears and prunes, has likewise proved
successful. In 1907-8, according to the State Department of
Agriculture, the total value of vegetable and garden products
was $3,928,657. In 1903, according to the statistics of the
United States Department of Agriculture, Indian corn ranked
next to fruits (as given in the state reports), but its product
as compared with that of various other states is unimportant—
in 1907 it amounted to 7,017,000 bushels only; rice is the only
other cereal whose yield in 1899 was greater than that of 1889,
but the Florida product was surpassed (in 1899) by that of the
Carolines, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas; in 1907 the product
of rice in Florida (60,000 bushels) was less than that of Texas,
Louisiana, South Carolina, Arkansas and Georgia severally.
Tobacco culture, which declined after i860 on account of the
competition of Cuba and Sumatra, has revived since 1885
through the introduction of Cuban and Sumatran seed; tie
product of 1907 (6,937,500 lb) was more than six times that o|
5m
FLORIDA
whose waters would restore to old men their youth or at least
had wonderful curative powers. Soon after Easter Day he
came in sight of the coast of Florida, probably near the month
of the St Johns river. From the name of the day in the calendar,
Posctm Florida, or from the fact that many flowers were found
on the coast, the country was named Florida. De Leon seems
to have explored the coast, to some degree, on both sides of the
rjenihsnla, and to have turned homeward fully convinced that
be had discovered an immense island. He returned to Spain
in 1514, and obtained from the king a grant to colonise "the
island of Bimini and the island of Florida," of which he was
appointed adelantado, and in 1521 he made another expedition,
this one for colonization as well as for discovery. He seems
to have touched at the island of Tortugas, so named on account
of the large number of turtles found there,* and to have landed
at several places, but many of his men succumbed to disease
and he himself was wounded in an Indian attack, dying soon
afterward in Cuba. Meanwhile, in 1516, another Spaniard,
Diego Mrruefo, seems to have sailed for some distance along the
west coast of the peninsula. The next important exploration
of Florida was that of Panfilo de Narvaes. In 1527 he sailed
from Cuba with about 600 men (soon reduced to less than 400),
landed (early in 1528) probably at the present site of Pensacola,
and for six months remained in the country, he and his men
suffering terribly from exposure, hunger and fierce Indian
attacks. In September, his ships being lost and his force greatly
reduced in number, he hastily constructed a craay fleet, re-
embaTked probably at Apalachee Bay, and lost his life in a storm
probably near Pensacola Bay. Only four of his men, including
Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, succeeded after eight years of Indian
captivity and of long and weary wanderings, in finding their
way to Spanish settlements in Mexico. Florida was also partially
explored by Ferdirtando dc Soto (q.v.) in 1530-1540. In the
summer of 1550 another attempt at colonization was made by
Tristan de Luna, who sailed from Vera Cruz, landed at Pensacola
Bay, and explored a part of Florida and (possibly) Southern
Alabama. Somewhere in that region he desired to make a
permanent settlement, but he was abandoned by most of his
followers and gave up his attempt in 1561.
In the following year, Jean Ribaut (1520-1565), with a band
of French Huguenots, landed first near St Augustine and then
at the mouth of the St Johns river, which he called the river
of May, and on behalf of France claimed the country, which
he described as " the fairest, fruitfullest and plcasantest of all
the world "; but he made his settlement on an island near what
is now Beaufort, South Carolina. In 1 564 Rent dc Laudonniere
(? -c. 1586), with another party of Huguenots, established
Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St Johns, but the colony did
not prosper, and in 1565 Laudonniere was about to return to
France when (on the 28th of August) he was reinforced by
Ribaut and about 300 men from France. On the same day that
Ribaut landed, a Spanish expedition arrived in the bay of St
Augustine. It was commanded by Pedro Men6ndez de Aviles
(1523-1574), one of whose aims was to destroy the Huguenot
settlement. This he did, putting to death almost the entire
garrison at Fort Caroline " not as Frenchmen, but as Lutherans,"
on the 20th of September 1565. The ships of Ribaut were soon
afterwards wrecked near Malanzas Inlet; he and most of his
followers surrendered to Menlndez and were executed. Menendez
then turned his attention to the founding of a settlement which
he named St Augustine (q.v.); he also explored the Atlantic
coast from Cape Florida to St Helena, and established forts at
San Mateo (Fort Caroline), Avista, Guale and St Helena. In
1567 he returned to Spain in the interest of his colony.
The news of the destruction of Fort Caroline, and the execution
of Ribaut and his followers, was received with indifference at
the French court; but Dominique de Gourgues (c. 1530-1503)1
a friend of Ribaut but probably a Catholic, organized an expedi-
tion of vengeance, not informing his men of his destination
until his three ships were near the Florida coast. With the
co-operation of the Indians under their chief Saturiba he captured
Fort San Mateo in the spring of 1568, and on the spot where
the garrison of Fort Caroline had been e x ec u ted, he hanged
his Spanish prisoners, inscribing on a unlet of pine (he words,
" I do this not a» unto Spaniards but as to traitors, robber*
and murder*!**" Feeing unable to attack St Augustine, de
Gourgues returned to France.
The Spanish acttlements experienced many vicissitudes.
The Indians were hostile and the missionary efforts among them
failed. In 1586 St Augustine was almost destroyed by Sir
Francis Drake and it also suffered severely by an attack of
Captain John Davis in 1665. No until the last decade of the
17 th century did the Spanish authorities attempt to extend the
settlements beyond the east coast; Then, jealous of the French
explorations along the Gulf of Mexico, they turned their atten-
tion to the west coast, and in 1696 founded Pensacola. When
the English colonies of the Carolina* and Georgia were founded,
there was constant friction with Florida. The Spanish were
accused of inciting the Indians to make depredations on the
English settlements and of interfering with English commerce
and the Spanish were in constant fear of the encroachments of
the British. In 170a, when Great Britain and Spain were con*
tending in Europe, on opposite sides, in the war of the Spanish
Succession, a force from South Carolina captured St Augustine
and laid siege to the fort, but being unable to reduce it for lack
of necessary artillery, burned the town and withdrew at the
approach of Spanish reinforcements. In 1706 a Spanish and
French expedition against Charleston, South Carolina, failed,
and the Carolinians retaliated by invading middle Florida in
1708 and again in 1792. In 1740 General James Edward Ogle-
thorpe, governor of Georgia, supported by a naval force, made
an unsuccessful attack upon St Augustine; two years later a
Spanish expedition against Savannah by way of St Simon's
Island failed, and in 1745 Oglethorpe again appeared before
the walls of St Augustine, but the treaty of Aix4a-Chapelle
in 1748 prevented further hostilities. Pensacola, the other
centre of Spanish settlement, though captured and occupied
(17 10-17 23) by the French from Louisiana, had a more peaceful
history.
By the treaty of Paris in 1763 Florida was ceded to England
in return for Havana. The provinces of East Florida and
West Florida were now formed, the boundaries of West Florida
being 31* N. lat. (when civil government was organized in 1767,
the N. line was made 32° 280, the Chattahoochee, and the
Apalachicola rivers, the Gulf of Mexico, Mississippi Sound,
Lakes Borgne, Pontchartrain and Maurepas, and the Mississippi
river. A period of prosperity now set in. Civil in place of
military government was instituted; immigration began;
and Andrew Turnbull, an Englishman, brought over a band of
about 1500 Minorcans (1769), whom he engaged in the cultivation
of indigo at New Smyrna. Roads were laid out, some of which
yet remain; and in the last three years of English occupation
the government spent $580,000 on the two provinces. Conse-
quently, the people of Florida were for the most part loyal to
Great Britain during the War of American Independence. In
1 776, the Minorcans of New Smyrna refused to work longer on the
indigo plantations; and many of them removed to St Augustine,
where they were protected by the authorities. Several plans
were made to invade South Carolina and Georgia, but none
matured until 1778, when an expedition was organized which
co-operated with British forces from New York in the siege
of Savannah, Georgia. In the following year, Spain having
declared war against Great Britain, Don Bernardo de Gal vex
(1756^-1794), the Spanish governor at New Orleans, seized most
of the English forts in West Florida, and in 1781 captured
Pensacola.
By the treaty of Paris (1783) Florida reverted to Spain, and,
no religious liberty being promised, many of the English in-
habitants left East and West Florida. A dispute with the
United States concerning the northern boundary was settled by
the treaty of 1795, the line 31* N. lat. being established.
.The westward expansion of the United States made necessary
American ports on the Gulf of Mexico; consequently the acquisi-
tion of West Florida as well as of New Orleans was one of the
FLORIDA
54-5
•ins of the negotiations which resulted In the Louisiana Purchase
of 1803. Alter the cession of Louisiana to the United States,
the people of West Florida feared that that province would be
seized by Bonaparte. They, therefore, through a convention
at Buhler's Plains (July 17, x8to), formulated plans for a
more effective government. When it way found that the Spanish
governor did not accept these plans in good faith, another con-
vention was held on the 36th of September which declared
West Florida to be an independent state, organized a government
and petitioned for admission to the American Union. On the
27th of October President James Madison, acting on a theory of
Robert R. Livingston that West Florida was ceded by Spain to
France in 1800 along with Louisiana, and was therefore included
by France in the sale of Louisiana to the United Slates in 1803,
declared West Florida to be under the Jurisdiction of the United
States. Two years later the American Congress annexed the
portion of West Florida between the Pearl and the Mississippi
rivers to Louisiana (hence the so-called Florida parishes of
Louisiana), and that between the Pearl and the Perdido to the
Mississippi Territory.
In the meantime war between Great Britain and the United
States was imminent. The American government asked the
Spanish authorities of East Florida to permit an American
occupation of the country in order that it might not be seized
by Great Britain and made a base of military operations. When
the request was refused, American forces seized Fernandina in
the spring of 1812, an action that was repudiated by the American
government after protest from Spain, although it was authorized
in official instructions. About the same time an attempt to
organize a government at St Mary's was made by American
sympathizers, and a petty civil war began between the Americans,
who called themselves " Patriots," and the Indians, who were
encouraged by the Spanish. In 1814 British troops landed
at Pensacola to begin operations against the United States.
In retaliation General Andrew Jackson captured the place, but
in a few days withdrew to New Orleans. The British then
built a fort on the Apalachicola river, and there directed expedi-
tions of Indians and runaway negroes against the American
settlements, which continued long after peace was concluded
in 1814- In 1818 General Jackson, believing that the Spanish
were aiding the Seminole Indians and inciting them to attack
the Americans, again captured Pensacola. By the treaty of
1819 Spain formally ceded East and West Florida to the United
States; the treaty was ratified in 1871, when the United Stales
took formal possession, but civil government was not established
until 1822.
Indian affairs furnished the most serious problems of the
new Territory of Florida. The aborigines, who seemed to have
reached a stage of civilization somewhat similar to that of
the Aztecs, were conquered and exterminated or absorbed by
Creeks about the middle of the 18th century. There was a
strong demand for the removal of these Creek Indians, known
as SemincJes, and by treaties at Payne's Landing in 1832 and
Fort Gibson in 1833 the Indian chiefs agreed to exchange their
Florida lands for equal territory in the western part of the United
States. But a strong sentiment against removal suddenly
developed, and the efforts of the United States to enforce the
treaty brought on the Seminole War (1836-42), which resulted
in the removal of all but a few hundred Seminoles whose
descendants still live in southern Florida,
In 1845 Florida became a state of the American Union. On
the 10th of January 1861 an ordinance of secession, which
declared Florida to be a " sovereign and independent nation/ 1
was adopted by a state convention, and Florida became one of
the Confederate States of America. The important coast towns
were readily captured by Union forces; Fernandina, Pensacola
and St Augustine in 1862, and Jacksonville in 1863; but an
invasion of the interior in 1864 failed, the Union forces being
repulsed in a battle at Olustee (on the 20th of February 1864).
In 1865 a provisional governor was appointed by President
Andrew Johnson, and a new state government was organized.
The legislature of i860 rejected the Fourteenth Amendment
to the Federal Constitution, and soon afterwards Florida was
made a part of the Third Military District, according to the
Reconstruction Act of 1867. Negroes were now registered as
voters by the military authorities, and another Constitutional
Convention met in January and February 1868. A factional
strife in the dominant party, the Republican, now began; fifteen
delegates withdrew from the convention; the others framed a
constitution, and then resolved themselves into a political
convention. The seceding members with nine others then
returned and organized; but the factions were reconciled by
General George M. Meade. A new constitution was framed and
was ratified by the electors, and Florida passed from under a
quasi-military to a full civil government on the 4U1 of July 1868.
The factional strife in the Republican party continued, a
number of efforts being made to impeach Governor Harrison
Reed (1813-1809). The decisive year of the Reconstruction
Period was 1876. The Canvassing Board, which published the
election returns, cast out some votes, did not wait for the returns
from Dade county, and declared the Republican ticket elected.
George F. Drew (1837-1900), the Democratic candidate for
governor, then secured a mandamus from the circuit court
restraining the board from going behind the face of the election
returns; this was not obeyed and a similar mandamus was
therefore obtained from the supreme court of Florida, which
declared that the board had no right to determine the legality
of a particular vote. According to the new count thus ordered,
the Democratic state ticket was elected. By a similar process
the board's decision in favour of the election of Republican
presidential electors was nullified, and the Democratic electors
were declared the successful candidates; but the electoral
commission, appointed by Congress, reversed this decision. (See
Electoral Commission.)
Since 1876 Florida has been uniformly Democratic in politics*
Ambucan Governors op Floriba.
Territorial Governors.
Andrew Jackson . 1821-1822
William P. Duval . 1822-1834
John H. Eaton . . 1834-1835
Richard K. Call . , 1835-1840
Robert R. Reid . 1 840-1 841
Richard K. Call . . . 1841-1844
John Branch 1844-1845
State Governors.
William D. Moaeley
Thomas Brown
lames E. Broome .
Madison S. Perry .
1845-1849 Democrat
1849-1853 Whig
John Milton
William Marvin .
David S. Walker .
Harrison Reed
Osrian B. Hart
Marcellus L. Stearns
George F. Drew
William D. Bloxham
Edward A. Perry
Francis P. Fleming
Henry L. Mitchell
1853-1857 Democrat
1857-1861
1 861-1865
: B£
. 1865
. 1865-1868 Democrat
1 868-1 872 Republican
. 1873-1874
. 1874-1877 M
. 1877-1 881 Democrat
. 1881-1885 „
1885-1889
. 1 889-1 893 „
. 1893-1897
. 1897-1901
. 1901-1905
• ioo5-»909
. 1909-
Hiuleograt i iv.— Physical and econoottc condition* are discuutd
in a pamphlet (yji pp ) pnUktra by the State Department el
Agriculture, Florida, a Pamphlet Destripitve of its Hutory, Topu-
Siphy, Climatr, Soil, &c. (T^lkiiaidct, 1904); in QtWfr. $&it jud
UfWMfi of Florida (United State* Depart mem of Agriculture,
la* hi rig ton, 1882); -4 Preliminary Report on tht Soil* of ttorjda
(United State* Department of Agriculture, Diviiion erf Soiin, Bulk-tin
M, 1898'): C. L. Norton"* Handbook of Florida (»nd edition, New
William D. Bloxham
William S. Jennings
Napoleon B. Broward
Albert W. Gilchrist
State* Hot I goo) which treat of Aj
the Special Rep
Go i! i nit 1 '*
Agriculture and Manufactures* and
rial Report on Mines ana Quatrfe* for 1003, T, N. Mac-
Geography of Florida " (National Geographic: Jtfuf 0319c,
vol, ?} f T. D* A* Cockerel I 's - West Indian Fauna in Florida "
lAa!urt k vol- 46), L, F* PourtaleVi " Flora and Fauna, of the Florid a
Key* " (/Imiru-dn Naturalist, vol. I 0* and C F. Millspaugh 1 * Flwa.
ef the Sand rXfy* vf Florida (Chicago, 1907), a Field Columbian
Mu*ouni ptritfteafiofL, are or" value. To tporumer*, C, B. Cory's
Hunting and fiihi*t i* Florida (Boston, 1696) and A, W. and
5+6
FLORIDABLANCA— FLORIO
. A. Dim«k r i Florida BnrwinimenU (New York, 1908) arc 1 if interest,
/or administration, kc Wilbur F. Yocum'a Coil Government of
Florida (De Land. Florida. 1004k and the Rtviwd Statutes of
Florida (1891). The standard hi*tory i* that by G, R. Fairbanks,
History of Florida <Pbi[adctjihia» i»>0> Thi* should be supple-
mented by P. G. Brinton't AWj p* (At flandian Peninsula, its
Literary lit itory* Indian Tribe: and A ntiattilits (Philadelphia, 1859),
which has an excellent descriptive bibliography of the early ex-
plorations: Woodbury Lowrry, The Spannh StUltnwnU roilhtn the
Pwfrtf Limit* oUki, Unittd Stain (New York, vol, L, loor ; voL tt.,
■ub-thle Florida, 1905); R. L. Campbell's II istorkal Sketches of
Colonial florid* (Cleveland, iBoj), which treat* at length of the
history of Pcnsacola; II. E. Chambenfi West Florid* and its
Rttalion to tke Hhistiral Cartography of the Untied Stoles (Johns
Hopkinf Stodie* in Historical and Political Science, Series 16,
No. *) ; and Herbert D- Fliller"* Fat Putehaieof Ftortda; its History
a nd Diplomacy (Clevela nd » + , 1 906}' The aid y pu hi i>h cd collections
of documents renting to the state are Buckingham Smith's Colleccion
de variof dotumtntos para la hiitoria de la Florida y tirrras adyaeentes
(London, t&37), and Benjamin F, French"* Hittoriuil Collections of
Louisiana (New York 1846^1^75)*
FLORIDABLANCA, DON JOSB MOfilNO T REDONDO*
Count or (1728-1808), Spanish statesman, was born at Murcia
In 1728. He was the son of a retired army officer, and received
a good education, which he completed at the university of
Salamanca, especially applying himself to the study of law.
For a time he followed the profession of an advocate, and acquired
a high reputation. A more public career was opened to him
by the marquis of Esquilache, then chief minister of state, who
tent him ambassador to Pope Clement XIV. Successful in his
mission, he was soon after appointed by Charles 111. successor
to his patron, and bis administration was one of the most brilliant
Spain had ever seen. He regulated the police of Madrid, reformed
many abuses, projected canals, established many societies of
agriculture and economy and many philanthropkal institutions,
and gave encouragement to learning, science and the fine arts.
Commerce flourished anew under his rule, and the long-standing
disputes with Portugal about the South American colonies were
settled He sought to strengthen the alliance of Spain with
Portugal by a double marriage between the members of the
royal houses, designing by this arrangement to place ultimately
a Spanish prince on the throne of Portugal. But in this he failed.
Floridablaoca was the right-hand man of King Charles III. in
his policy of domestic reform, and was much under the influence
of French philosofhes and economic writers. Like other re-
formers of that school he was a strong supporter of the royal
authority and a convinced partisan of benevolent despotism.
The French Revolution frightened him into reaction, and he
advocated the support of the first coalition against France.
He retained his office for three years under Charles IV.; but in
1793, through the influence of the favourite Godoy, he was
dismissed and imprisoned in the castle of Pampeluna. Here
he was saved from starvation only by the intervention of his
brother. He was afterwards allowed to retire to his estates,
and remained in seclusion till the French invasion of 1808. He
was then called by his countrymen to take the presidency of
the central junta. But his strength failed him, and he died at
Seville on the 20th of November of the same year. He left
several short treatises on jurisprudence.
See Obras originates id Conde de Floridablanea, edited, with bio-
graphical introduction, by A. Ferrer del Rio; in the Biolioteca de
Rivadeneyra, vol. lix.
FLORIDOR rjosiAS de Soulas, Sicur de Prinefosse] (cL c.
167 1), French actor, was born in Brie early in the 17 th century,
the son of a gentleman of German family who had moved to
France, married there, and become a Roman Catholic. The son
entered the French army, but after being promoted ensign,
quitted the army for the theatre, where he took the name
of Floridor. His first Paris appearance was in 1640. Three
years later he was called to the company at the H6tel de Bour-
gogne, where he played all the leading parts in tragedy and
comedy and became the head of his profession. He was a man
of superb physique and excellent carriage, with a flexible and
sonorous voice, and manners of rare distinction and elegance,
He was much liked at court, and Louis XIV. held him in particular
He died in 1671 or 1672.
FLORIN, the name applied to several coins of the continent
of Europe and to two coins, struck in England at different times.
The word comes through the Fr. florin from the ItaL fiarino,
flower, La.t.Jos,florem. Fiorino was the Italian name of a gold
coin issued at Florence in 1252, weighing about fifty-four grains.
This coin bore on the obverse a lily, from which it took its name
of " the flower," on the reverse the Latin name of the city
Florentia, from which it was also known as a *' florence."
" Florin " and " florence " seem to have been used in English
indiscriminately as the name of this coin. The Florentine florin
was held in great commercial repute throughout Europe, and
similar coins were struck in Germany, other par.s of Italy,
France, &c. The English gold florin was introduced by E<lward
III. in 1343, half and quarter florins being struck at the same
time. This gold florin weighed 108 grains and was to be current
for six shillings. It was found, however, to be overvalued in
proportion to the silver currency and was demonetized the
following year. The florin did not again appear in the English
coinage until 1849, when silver coins with this name, having
a nominal value of two shillings (one-tenth of a pound), were
struck. When first issued the " Dei gratia " was omitted from
the inscription, and they were frequently referred to as the
" Godless " or " graceless" florins. The D.G. was added in
1852. In 1887 a double florin or four shilling piece was issued,
but its coinage was discontinued in 1800. The total value of
double florins issued during these years amounted to £533,125.
(See also Numismatics.)
FLORIO, GIOVANNI (1553^-1625), English writer, was bora
in London about 1553. He was of Tuscan origin, his parents
being Waldenses who had fled from persecution in the Valtelline
and taken refuge in England. His father, Michael Angela
Florio, was pastor of an Italian Protestant congregation in
London in 1550. He was attached to the household of Sir
William Cecil, but dismissed on a charge of immorality. He
dedicated a book on the Italian language to Henry Herbert,
and may have been a tutor in the family of William Herbert,
earl of Pembroke. Anthony a Wood says that the Florios left
England on the accession of Queen Mary, but returned after her
death. The son resided for a time at Oxford, and was appointed,
about 1576 tutor to the son of Richard Barnes, bishop of Durham,
then studying at Magdalen College. In 1578 Florio published
a work entitled First Fruits, which yield Familiar Spteck\ Merry
Proverbs, Witty Sentences, and Golden Sayings fato). This was
accompanied by A Perfect Induction to tke Italian and English
Tongues. The work was dedicated to the earl of Leicester.
Three years later Florio was admitted a member of Magdalen
College, and became a teacher of French and Italian in the univer-
sity. In 1591 appeared his Second Fruits, to be gathered of
Twelve Trees, of divers but delightsome Tastes to the Tongues of
Italian and English men; to which was annexed the Garden of
Recreation, yielding six thousand Italian Proverbs (410). These
manuals contained an outline of the grammar, a selection of
dialogues in parallel columns of Italian and English, and longer
extracts from classical Italian writers in prose and verse. Florio
had many patrons; he says that he " lived some years " with
the earl of Southampton, and the earl of Pembroke also be-
friended him. His Italian and English dictionary, entitled
A World of Words, was published in folio in 1598. After the
accession of James L, Florio was named French and Italiaa
tutor to Prince Henry, and afterwards became a gentleman of the
privy chamber and clerk of the closet to the queen, whom he
also instructed in languages* His magnum opus is the admirable
translation of the Essayes on M or all, Politike, and MillUarie
Discourses of Lo. Michaell de Montaigne, published in folio in
1603 in three books, each dedicated to two noble ladies. A
second edition in 1613 was dedicated to the queen. Special
interest attaches to the first edition from the circumstance that
of the several copies in the British Museum library one bears
the autograph of Shakespeare — long received as genuine but
now supposed to be by an 18th-century hand — and another that
of Ben Jonson. It was suggested by Warburlon that Florio is
satirised by Shakespeare under the character of Holoferncs, the
FLORIS— FLOTOW
547
pompous pedaftt tlLoie'r Labour's L+sl,\xit ft is much more likely,
especially a* he was one of the earl of Southampton's proteges,
that he was among the personal friends of the dramatist, who
nay well have gained his knowledge of Italian and French Iron
him. He had married the sister of the poet Daniel, and had
friendly relations with many writers of bis day. Ben Jonson
sent him a copy of Votpoue with the inscription, " To his loving
father and worthy friend Master John Florio, Ben Jonson
seals this testimony of his friendship and love" - He is character-
ized by Wood, in Alhenae Oxonienses, as a very useful man in
his profession, aealous for his religion, and deeply attached to
his adopted country. He died at Fulham, London, in the
autumn of 2625.
FLORIS, FRANS, or mora correctly Fkams ok Vbxzndt,
called Flows (1530-1570), Flemish painter, was one of a large
family trained to the study of art in Flanders. Son of a stone-
cutter, Cornells do Vriendt, who died at Antwerp in 1538, he
began life as a student of sculpture, but afterwards gave up
carving for painting. At the age of twenty be went to Liege
and took lessons from Lambert Lombard, a pupil of Mabuse,
whose travels in Italy had transformed a style truly Flemish
into that of a mongrel Leonardesque. Following m the footsteps
of Mabuse, Lambert Lombard had visited Florence, and caught
the manner of Salviati and other pupils of Michelangelo and
Del Sarto. It was about the time when Schoxeel, Coxae and
Heemskerk, after migrating to Rome and imitating the master-
pieces of Raphael and Buonarroti, came home to execute Dutch-
Italian works beneath the level of those produced in the peninsula
itself by Leonardo da Pistoia, Nanaccio and Rinaldo of Mantua.
Fired by these examples, Floris in his turn wandered across
the Alps, and appropriated without assimilation the various
mannerisms of the schools of Lombardy, Florence and Rome.
Bold, quick and resolute, he saw how easy it would be to earn a
livelihood and acquire a name by drawing for engravers and
painting on a large scale after the fashion of VasarL He came
home, joined the gild of Antwerp in 1540, and quickly opened a
school from which x 20 disciples are stated to have issued. Floris
painted strings of large pictures for the country houses of Spanish
nobles and the villas of Antwerp patricians* He is known to
have illustrated the fable of Hercules in ten compositions^ and
the liberal arts in seven, for Claes Jongeling, a merchant of
Antwerp, and adorned the duke of Arschot's palace of Beaumont
with fourteen colossal panels. Comparatively few of his works
have descended to us, partly because they came to be contemned
for their inherent def ecu, and so were suffered to perish, partly
because they were soon judged by a different standard from
that of the Flemings of the x6th century. The earliest extant
canvas by Floris is the " Mars and Venus ensnared by Vulcan " in
the Berlin Museum (1547). the latest a " Last Judgment " (1 566)
in the Brussels gallery. Neither these nor any of the intermediate
works at Alost, Antwerp, Copenhagen, Dresden, Florence,
Lcau, Madrid, St Petersburg and Vienna display any charm
of originality in composition or in form. Whatever boldness
and force they may possess, or whatever principles they may
embody, they are mere appropriations of Italian models spoiled
in translation or adaptation. Their technical execution reveals
a rapid hand, but none of the lustre of bright colouring; and
Floris owed much of his repute to the cleverness with which
his works were transferred to copper by Jerome Cock and
Theodore de Galle. Whilst Floris was engaged on a Crucifixion
of 27 ft., and a Resurrection of equal size, for the grand prior
of Spain, he was seized with illness, and died on the 1st of October
1570 at Antwerp.
FLORUS, Roman historian, flourished in the time of Trajan
and Hadrian. He compiled, chiefly from Livy, a brief sketch
of the history of Rome from the foundation of the city to the
dosing of the temple of Janus by Augustus (25 **.). The work,
which is called Epitome de T. Livio BeUorum omnium annorum
DCC Libri duo, is written in a bombastic and rhetorical style,
and is rather a panegyric of the greatness of Rome, whose life
is divided into the four periods of infancy, youth, manhood
and old age. It is often wrong in geographical and chronological
details; but, in spite of its faults, (he book was much used in the
middle ages. In the MSS. the writer is variously given as Julius
Florus, Lucius Anneus Floras, or simply Annaeus Floras. From
certain similarities of style he has been identified with Publtus
Annhts Florus, poet, rhetorician and friend of Hadrian, author
of a dialogue on the question whether Virgil was an orator or
poet, of which the introduction has been preserved.
The best editions a** by O. Jahn <i8sa), C Halm (1854), which
contain the fragments of the Ylraihaa dialogue. There is an English
translation in Bonn's Classical Library.
FLORUS, JULIUS, poet, orator, and jurist of the Augustan
age. His name has been immortalized by Horace, who dedicated
to him two of his Epistles (L 3; U. a), from which it would
appear that he composed lyrics of a light, agreeable kind. The
statement of Forphyrion, the, old commentator on Horace, that
Florus himself wrote satires, is probably erroneous, but he may
have edited selections from the earlier satirists (Ennius, Ludlius,
Varro). Nothing is definitely known of his personality, except
that he was one of the young men who accompanied Tiberius on
his mission to settle the affairs of Armenia, He has been variously
identified with Julius Floras, a distinguished orator and uncle
of Julius Secundus, an intimate friend of Qulntilian (Instil. 1.
5,13); with the leader of an insurrection of the Treviri (Tacitus,
Ann, iii. 40); with the Postumus of Horace {Odes, if. 14)
and even with the historian Floras.
FLORUS, FUBUU8 ANNIUS, Roman poet and rhetorician,
identified by some authorities with the historian Florus (?.».).
The introduction to a dialogue called VirgiHus orator an poita
is extant, in which the author (whose name is given as PubKus
Annius Floras) states that he was born in Africa, and at an
early age took part in the literary contests on the Capitol insti-
tuted by Domitian. Having been refused a prize owing to the
prejudice against African provincials, he left Rome in disgust,
and after travelling for some time set up at Tarraco as a teacher
of rhetoric Here he was persuaded by an acquaintance to
return to Rome, for it Js generally agreed that he is the Florus
who wrote the well-known lines quoted together with Hadrian's
answer by Aelius Spartianns (Hadrian 16) . Twenty-six trochaic
tetrameters, De qualisate titae, and five graceful hexameters,
De resit, are also attributed to him. Florus is important as
being the first in order of a number of snd^century African
writers who exercised a considerable influence on Latin literature,
and also the first of the poUae neoterici or noveUi (new-fashioned
poets) of Hadrian's reign, whose special characteristic was the
use of lighter and graceful metres (anapaestic and iambic
dimeters), which had hitherto found little favour.
The little poems will be found in E. BahrenSjPolta* Latini mineres
(1879-1883) ; for an unlikely identification of Florus with the author
of the Pervigilium Veneris {a*.) see E. H. O. MUUcr, De P. Annto
Fhro poHa et de Pervieilio Veneris (1855). and. for the poet s re-
lations with Hadrian, F. Eywenhardt, Hadrian und Florus (i88a>;
see also F. Marx in Pauly-Wissowa's Reolencyclopadie, i. pt. a (1894).
FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND ADOLF VON, FaiiKEU
(181 2-1883), German composer, was born on his father's estate
at Teutendorf, in Mecklenburg, on the 27th of April 181 a.
Destined originally for the diplomatic profession, his passion
for music induced his father to send him to Paris to study
under Reicba. But the outbreak of the revolution in 1830
caused his return home, where he busied himself writing champer-
music and operetta until he was able to return to Paris. There
he produced Pierre et Catherine, Rob Roy, La Duchesse de Guise,
but made his first real success with Le Naufra& de la Mtduse
at the Renaissance Theatre in 1838. Greater, however, was the
success which attended Stradella (1844) and Martha (1847)*
which made the tour of the world. In 1848 Flotow was again
driven home by the Revolution, and in the course of a few years
he produced Die Gross/Urstin (1850), Judra (1853), Rubetahl
(1854), Hilda (i8 S s) and Albin (1856). . From 1856 to 1863
he was director (Intendant) of the Schwerin opera, but in the
latter year he returned to Paris, where in 1869 be produced
V Ombre. From that time to the date of his death he lived in
Paris or on his estate near Vienna. He died on the 24th of
548 FLOTSAM— FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE
January 1883. Of his concert-music only the Jubehv*rtUre
is now ever heard. His strength lay in the facility of his
melodies.
FLOTSAM. JETSAM and LIGAN, in English law, goods lost
at sea, as distinguished from goods which come to land, which
are technically designated wreck. Jetsam (the same word as
jettison, from IaI. jaetare, to throw) is when goods are cast into
the sea, and there sink and remain under water; flotsam (Jloatson,
from float, LaL fiottare) is where they continue floating on the
surface of the waves; b'gan (or lagan, from lay or lie) is where
they are sunk in the sea, but tied to a cork or buoy in order to
be found again. Flotsam, jetsam and ligan belong to the
sovereign in the absence only of the true owner. Wreck, on the
other hand (i.c. goods cast on shore), was by the common law
adjudged to the sovereign in any case, because it was said by
the loss of the ship all property was gone out of the original
owner. This singular distinction which treated goods washed
ashore as lost, and goods on and in the sea as not lost, is no doubt
to be explained by the primitive practice of plundering wrecked
ships. (See Wreck.)
FLOUNDER, a common term for flat-fish. The name is also
more specially given to certain varieties, according to local
usage. Thus the Pleuroiuctes flcsus is the common flounder
of English terminology, found along the coasts of northern
Europe from the Bristol Channel to Iceland. It is particularly
partial to fresh water, ascending the Rhine as far as Cologne.
It rarely exceeds a. length of is in. or a weight of i| lb. In
American terminology the principal fish of the name axe the
"summer flounders" or "deep-sea flounders," also known
in America as " plaice " (Paraliekthys dadatus), as long as 3 ft.
and as heavy as 15 lb; the " four-spotted flounders " (Para-
lickthys oblongus); the "common" or "winter" flounder
(PseudopUuronectes americanus); the "diamond flounder"
(Hysopsctt* guUulata) ; and the " pole flounder " {dyptouphalus
cynoghssus).
FLOUR and FLOUR MANUFACTURE. The term " flour "
(Fr. flcur, flower, i.e. the best part) is usually applied to the
triturated farinaceous constituents of the wheat berry (see
Wheat); it is, however, also used of other cereals and even of
leguminoids when ground into a fine powder, and of many other
substances in a pulverulent state, though in these cases it is
usual to speak of rye flour, bean flour, &c The flour obtained
from oats is generally termed oatmeal. In Great Britain wheaten
flour was commonly known in the 16th and 17 th centuries as
meal, and up to the beginning of the 19th century, or perhaps
later, the term mealing trade was not infrequently used of the
milling trade.
The ancestor of the millstone was apparently a rounded stone
about the size of a man's fist, with which grain or nuts were
pounded and crushed into a rude meal. These stones
are generally of hard sandstone and were evidently
used against another stone, which by dint of continual
hammering was broken into hollows. Sometimes the crusher
was used on the surface of rocks. St Bridget's stone, on the
shore of Lough Macnean, is supposed to have been a primitive
Irish mill; there are many depressions in the face of the table-
like rock, and it is probable that round this stone several women
(for in early civilization the preparation of flour was peculiarly
the duty of the women) would stand and grind, or rather pound,
meal. Many such stones, known as Bullan stones, still exist in
Ireland. Similar remains are found in the Orkneys and Shetland*,
and it is on record that some of these stones have been used
for flour-making within historic times. Richard Bennett in his
History of Corn Milling remarks that the Seneca Indians to this
day boil maize and crush it into a paste between loose stones.
In the same way the Omahas pound this cereal in holes in the
rocks, while the Oregon Indians parch and pound the capsules
of the yellow lily, much after the fashion described by Herodotus
in his >account of the ancient Egyptians. In California the
Indian squaws make a sort of paste by crushing acorns between
a round stone or " mullcr," and a cuplike hollow in the surface
of a rock. Crushing stones are of different shapes, ranging
from the primitive ball-like implement to an elongated shape
resembling the pestle of a mortar. Mullers of the latter type
are not infrequent among prehistoric remains in America, whSc
Dr Schliemann discovered several specimens of the globular
form on the reputed site of the city of Troy, and also among the
ruins of Mycenae. As a matter of fact stone mullers survived
in highly civilized countries into modern days, if indeed they are
now altogether extinct.
The saddle-stone is the connecting link between the primitive
pounder, or mutter, and the quern, which was itself the direct
ancestor of the millstones still used to some extent ^
in the manufacture of flour. The saddle-stone, the rtrr .
first true grinding implement, consisted of a stone with
a more or less concave face on which the grain was spread, and
in and along this hollow surface it was rubbed and ground into
coarse meal. Saddle-stones have been discovered in the sand
caves of Italy, among the lake dwellings of Switzerland, in the
dolmens of France, in the pit dwellings of the British Isles, and
among the remains of primitive folk all the world over. The
Romans of the classical period seem to have distinguished the
saddle-stone from the quern. We find allusions to the meia
tnuatilis, which may be translated " the thrusting mill "; this
would fairly describe a backwards and forwards motion. The
mola vcrsatilis evidently referred to the revolving millstone or
quern. In primitive parts of the world the saddle-stone is not
yet extinct, as for instance in Mexico. It is known as the metal a.
and is used both for grinding maize and for making the maize
cakes known as tortillas. The same implement is apparently
still in use in some parts of South America, notably in Chile.
According to Richard Bennett, the quern, the first complete
milling machine, originated in Italy and is in all probability
not older than the and century B.C. This is, however, q mn
a controverted point. Querns are still used in most
primitive countries, nor is it certain that they have altogether
disappeared from remoter districts of Scotland and Ireland.
Whatever was their origin, they revolutionized flour milfing.
The rotary motion of millstones became the essential principle
of the trituration of grain, and exists to-day in the rolls of the
roller mill. The early quern appears to have differed from its
descendants in that it was somewhat globular in shape, the
lower stone being made conical, possibly with the idea that the
ground flour should be provided with a downward flow to enable
it to fall from the stones. This type did not, however, persist.
Gradually the convexity disappeared and the surface of the
two stones became flat or very nearly so. In the upper stone
was a species of funnel, through which the grain passed as through
a hopper, making its way thence, as the stone revolved, into the
space between the running and the bed stone. The ground
meal was discharged at the periphery. The runner, or upper
stone, was provided with a wooden handle by which the stone
was revolved. The typical Roman mill of the Augustan age
may be seen at Pompeii. Here, in what is believed to have
been a public pistrinum or mill, were found four pairs of mill-
stones. The circular base of these mills is 5 ft in diameter and
1 ft. high, and upon it was fastened the mela, a blunt cone about
2 ft. high, on which fitted the upper millstone or caNUtts, also
conical. These mills were evidently rotated by slave labour,
as there was no room for the perambulation of a horse or donkey,
while the side-lugs in which the handle-bars were inserted are
plainly visible. Slave labour was generally used up to the
introduction of Christianity, but was finally abolished by the
emperor Constantine, though even after his edict mills continued
to be driven by criminals.
The Romans are credited by some authorities with having
first applied power to the driving of millstones, which they
connected with water-wheels by a horizontal spindle
through the intervention of bevel gearing. But long ^l^
after millstones had been harnessed to water power
slave labour was largely employed as a motive force. The water-
mill of the Romans was introduced at a relatively early period
into Britain. Domesday Book shows that England was covered
by mills of a kind at the time of the Norman conquest, and
FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE
549
mentions some $00 mifla in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk
alone. No doubt the mda of Domesday Book consisted of one
pair of stones connected by rude gearing with a water-wheel.
Windmills are said to have been introduced by the Crusaders,
who brought them from the East Steam power is believed
to have been first used in a British flour mill towards the dose
of the xSth century, when Boullon & Watt installed a steam
engine in the Albion Flour Mills in London, erected nnder the
care of John Reanie. Another great engineer, Sir William
Fairbairn, in the early days of the 10th century, left the impress
of his genius on the mil] and all its accessories. He was followed
by other clever engineers, and in the days immediately preceding
the roller period many improvements were introduced as regards
the balancing and driving of millstones. The introduction of
the blast and exhaust to keep the stones cool was a great step
in advance, while the substitution of silk gauze for woollen or
linen bolting dotb,.about the middle of the 19th century, marked
another era in British milling. Millstones, as used just before
the introduction of roller milling, were from 4 to *i ft in diameter
by some 1 2 in. in thickness, and were usually made of a siliceous
stone, known as buhr-stone, much of which came from the quarry
of La Fett6-sous-Jouarre, in France.
Nine-tenths, or perhaps ninety-nine hundredths, of all the
flour consumed in Great Britain is made in roller mills, that is,
mills in which the wheat is broken and floured by
SSI* means of rollers, some grooved in varying degrees
of fineness, some smooth, thdr work being preceded
and supplemented by a wide range of other machinery. AH
roller mills worthy of the name are completely automatic, that
is to say, from the time the raw material enters the mill warehouse
till it is sacked, other in the shape of finished flour or of offals,
it is touched by no human hand.
The history of roller milling extends back to the first half
of the 19th century. Roller mills, that is to say, machines
fitted with rolls set either horizontally, or vertically, or obliquely,
for the grinding of com, are said to have been used as far back
as the x 7th century, but if this be so it is certain that they were
only used in a tentative manner. Towards the middle of the
19th century the firm of £. R. & F. Turner, of Ipswich, began to
build roller mills for breaking wheat as a preliminary to the
conversion of the resultant middlings on millstones. The rolls
were made of chilled iron and were provided with serrated edges,
which must have exercised a tearing action on the integuments
of the berry. These mills were built to the design of a German
engineer, of the name of G. A. Buchholz, and were exhibited at
the London exhibition of 2862, but they never came into general
use. It has also been stated that as early as 182$ a French
engineer, named Collier, of Paris, patented a roller mill, while
five years later a certain Malar took out another French patent,
the specification of which speaks of grooves and differential
speeds. JBut the direct ancestors of the roller mills of the present
day were brought out some time in the third decade of the 19th
century by a Swiss engineer named Sulzberger. His apparatus
was rather cumbrous, and the chilled iron roils with which it
was fitted consumed a large amount of power relativdy to the
work effected. But the Pester Wak-MOhle, founded in 1839
by Count Szechenyi, a Hungarian nobleman, which took its
name from the roller mills with which it was equipped by Sulz-
berger, was for many years a great success; some of its roller
mills are said to have been kept at work for upwards of forty
years, and one at least is preserved in the museum at Budapest.
It may be noted that Hungarian wheat is hard and flinty and
wdl adapted for treatment by rolls. Moreover, gradual reduction,
as now understood, was more or less practised in
Hungary, even before the introduction of roller
nulling. Though millstones, and not rolls, were used,
yet the wheat was not floured at one operation, as in typical
low or flat grinding, but was reduced to flour in several successive
operations. In the first break the stones would be placed just
wide enough apart to " end " the wheat, and in each succeeding
operation the stones were brought doser together. But Hun-
garian milling was not then automatic in the sense in which
British millers understand the word. For a long time a great
deal of hand labour was employed in the merchant mills of
Budapest in carrying about products from one machine to
another for further treatment This practice may have been
partly due to the cheap labour available, but it was also the
ddibetate policy of Hungarian millers to handle in this way the
middlings and fine " dunst," because it was maintained thai
only thus could certain products be delivered to the machine
by which they were to be treated in the perfection of condition.
The results were good so far as the finished products were con-
cerned, but in the light of modern automatic milling the system
appears uneconomical. Not only old it postulate an inordinately
large staff, but it further increased the labour bill by the demand
it made on the number of sub-foremen who were occupied in
classifying, largely by touch, the various products, and directing
the .labourers under them. Hungarian milling still differs
widely from milling as practised in Great Britain in being a longer
system. This is due to the more minute subdivision of products,
a necessary consequence of the large number of grades of flour
and offals made in Hungary, where there are many intermediate
varieties of middlings and " dunst " for which no corresponding
terms are available in an English miller's vocabulary.
It will be convenient here to explain the meaning of tlpee
terms constantly used by millers, namely, semolina, middlings
and dunst. These three products of roller mills are
practically identical in composition, but represent JJJ
different stages in the process of redudng the endo- ,
sperm of the wheat to flour. A wheat berry is covered
by several layers of skin, while under these layers is the floury
kernd or endosperm. This the break or grooved rolls tend to
tear and break up. The largest of these more or less cubical
partides are known as semolina, whilst the medium-sized are
called middlings and the smallest sized termed dunst The last
is a German word, with several meanings, but is used in this
particular sense by German and Austrian millers, from whom
it was doubtless borrowed by the pioneers of roller milling in
England. If we were to lay a sample of fairly granular flour
beside a sample of small dunst the two would be easy to dis-
tinguish, but place a magnifying glass over the flour and it
would look very like the dunst If we were to repeat this experi-
ment on dunst and fine middlings, the former would under the
glass present a strong resemblance to the middlings. The same
effect would be produced by the putting side by side of large
middlings and small semolina. This is a broad description of
semolina, middlings and dunst Semolina and middlings are
more apt to vary in appearance than dunst, because the latter
is the product of the later stages of the milling process and
represents small partides of the floury kernel tolerably free
from such impurities as bran or fluff. The flour producing
middlings must not be confounded with the variety of wheat
offal which is also known to many English millers as middlings.
This consists of husk or bran, more or less comminuted, and with
a certain proportion of floury partides adherent It is only
fit for feeding beasts.
The spread of roller milling on the continent of Europe was
undoubtedly accelerated by the invention of porcelain rolls,
by Friedricb Wcgmann, a Swiss miller, which were
brought into general use in the seventh decade of the nffr
1 ot h century, and are still widely employed. They are
admirably fitted for the reduction of semolina, middlings and
dunst into flour; and for redudng pure middlings, that is,
middlings containing no bran or wheat husk, there is perhaps
nothing that quite equals them. They were introduced into
Great Britain in 1877, or thereabouts, and were used for several
years, but ultimately they almost disappeared from British
mills. This was partly due to the fact that as.made at that date
they were rather difficult to work, as it was not easy to keep
the rolls perfectly parallel. Another drawback was their in-
adaptability to over-heavy feeds, to which the British, and
perhaps still more the American, miller is frequently obliged
to resort. However, since the beginning of the 20th century
some of the most advanced flour mills in England have again
550
FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE
taken to using porcelain rofls for some part of their reduction
process.
The birth of roller milling in Great Britain may be said to
date from 1872, when Oscar Oexle, a German milling engineer,
erected a set of roller mills in the Tradeston Mills;
in Glasgow. This was-long before the introduction of
automatic roller mills. But the foundations of the
millstone system were not seriously disturbed till
1877, when a party of leading British and Irish millers visited
Vienna and Budapest with the object of studying roller milling
in its native home. In 1878 J. H. Carter installed in the mill
of J. Boland, of Dublin, what was probably the first complete
automatic roller plant erected in the United Kingdom, and in
1881 a milling exhibition held at the Royal Agricultural Hall,
London, showed the automatic roller system in complete opera-
tion. From that time the roller system made great progress.
By 1885 many of the leading British millers had installed full
roller plants, and in the succeeding ten years small roller plants
were installed in many country nulls. For a time there was a
transition stage in which there was in operation a number of so-
called " combined " plants, that is to say, mills in which the
wheat was broken on millstones or disk mills, while the middlings
were reduced by smooth rolls; but these gradually dropped out
of being.
Well-found British flour mills at the present time axe probably
the best fitted in the world, and as a whole have nothing to fear
from comparison with their American competitors. It is true
that American millers were rather quicker to copy Hungarian
milling methods so far as gradual reduction was concerned.
But from about 1880 the British miller was quite awake to his
position and was straining every nerve to provide himself with
a plant capable of dealing with every kind of wheat. It has
ohen been said that he commands the wheat of the whole world.
This is true in a sense, but it is not true that he can always
command the exact kind of wheat he requires at the price
required to meet foreign competition. Therein he is at a dis-
advantage. But engineers have done their best to meet this
weak point, and by their assistance he is able to compete under
almost all conditions with the millers of the whole world.
Processes of Milling. — Fully to appreciate the various processes
of modern milling, it must be remembered not only that the
wheat as delivered at the mill is dusty and mixed with sand and
even more objectionable refuse, but also that it contains many
light grains and seeds of other plants. It is not therefore sufficient
for the miller to be able to reduce the grain to flour on the most
approved principles; he must also have at command the means
of freeing it from foreign substances, and further of " condition-
ing " it, should it be damp or over dry and harsh. Again, his
operations must be conducted with reference to the structure
of the wheat grain. The wheat berry is a fruit, not a seed, the
actual seed being the germ or embryo, a kidney-shaped body
which is found at the base of the berry and is connected with
the plumule or root. The germ is tough in texture and is in
roller milling easily separated from the rest of the berry, being
flattened instead of crushed by the rolls and thus readily sifted
from the stock. The germ contains a good deal of fatty matter,
which, if allowed to remain, would not increase the keeping
qualities of the flour. Botanists distinguish five skins on the
berry— epidermis, epicarp, endicarp, episperm and embryous
membrane— but for practical purposes the number of integuments
may be taken as three. The inner skin is often as thick as the
outer and second skins together, which are largely composed
of woody fibre; it contains the cerealin or aleurone cells, but
although these are made up of a certain proportion of proteids,
on account of the discolouring and diastasic action of the cerealin
in flour they are best eliminated. The endosperm, or floury
kernel, coming next to the inner skin, consists of starch granules
which are caught as it were in the minute meshes of a net This
network is the gluten, and it may be noted that these meshes
are not of equal consistency throughout the berry, but are
usually finer and more dense near the husk than in the interior
of the kernel. This glutinous portion is of great importance
to the baker because on its quantity and quality depends the
" strength " or rising power of the flour, and the aim of modem
roller milling is to retain it as completely as possible, a matter
of some difficulty owing to its close adherence to the husk,
especially in the richest wheats. Another organ of the wheat
berry which has a most important bearing on the work of the
miller is the placenta, which is in effect a cord connecting the
berry with its stalk or straw. The placenta serves to filter the
food which the plant sucks up from the ground; rt passes op
the crease of the berry, and is enfolded in the middle skin, being
protected on the outer side by the first and having the third
or inner skin on its other side. A good deal of the matters
filtered by the placenta are mineral in their nature, and such
portions as are not digested remain in the crease. This is the
matter which millers call " crease dirt." It is highly discolouring
to flour, and must be carefully eliminated. The fuaay end of the
berry known as the beard also has a distinct function; its hairs
are in reality tubes which serve to carry off superfluous moisture.
They have, in common with the bran, no nutritive value. (See
also Wheat.)
In the old " flat " or " low " milling the object was to grind u
perfectly as possible, at one operation, the central substance of the
grain, constituting the Hour, and to separate it from the embryo and
outer skins constituting the bran. In " high " milling, on the other
hand, the grinding is effected in a aeries of operations, the aim
being to get as much semolina and middlings at possible from the
wheat, and to make as little flour as possible during the earlier or
" breaking " part of the process. It is impossible altogether to
avoid the production of flour at this stage, but properly set and
worked break-rolls will make as little as 15% of •' break-flour, "
which is of less value, being contaminated with crease dirt, and
also because it is weak owing to the absence of the gluten cells wtad
adhere more readily to the middlings. Whole wheaten flour, some-
times called Graham flour, consists of the entire grain ground up
to a uniform mass.
Wheat cleaning has been well called the foundation of all good
milling. In the screen house, as the wheat-cleaning *
of the mill is termed, will be found an array of machinery g ^ w
almost equal in range and variety to that in the mill " _»._
itself. The wheat, drawn by an elevator from the barge, •**■■**
or hoisted in sacks, is first treated by a machine known as a ware-
house separator. This apparatus accomplishes its work by mesas
of flat sieves, some of which will be of much coarser mesh than
others, and 01 air currents, the adjustment of which is a more delicate
task than might appear. The warehouse separator serves to free
dirty wheat of such impurities as lumps of earth, stones, straws and
sand, not to mention small seeds, also some maize, oats and barky.
Great care has to be exercised in all operations of the screen boose
lest wheat should pass away with the screenings. Besides the
warehouse separator, which ts made in different types and sues,
grading and sorting cylinders, and what are known as cockle aad
barley cylinders, are much used in the screen house. These cylinders
are provided with indents so shaped and of such size as to catch
seeds which are smaller than wheat, and reject grains, as of barley or
oats, which are longer than wheat. Sorting cylinders should be
followed by machines known as scourers, the function of which is to
free the wheat from adherent impurities. These machines are of
different types, but all depend on percussive action. A verticil
scourer consists of a number of steel or iron beaters attached to s
vertical spindle which revolves inside a metallic woven or perforated
casing, the whole being fitted with an effectual exhaust. Scourer*
with horizontal spindles are also in great favour. Not every wheat
is suitable for scouring, but some wheats are so mingled with im-
purities that a severe action between the beaters and the perforated
case is absolutely necessary. The most efficient scourer a that which
frees the wheat from the greatest amount of impurity with a mini-
mum of abrasion. The beaters should be adjustable to suit different
kind* of wheat. Scourers are followed by brush machines whkh
are similar to the last and are of three distinct types: solid, divided
and cone brushes. In the solid variety the brush surface is continu-
ous around the circumference of a revolving- cylinder; in divided
brushes there is often a set of beaters or bars covered with brush
but leaving intermediate spaces; while the cone brush consists of
beaters covered with fibre arranged like cones around a vertical
spindle. The object of all these brushes, the cylinder containing
them being fitted with an exhaust fan, is to polish the wheat and
remove adhering impurities which the percussive action of the
scourer may have failed to eliminate, also to remove the beard or
fuzzy end and any loose portions of the outer husk. But the miller
must be careful not to overdo the scouring action and unnecessarily
abrade the berry, else he will have trouble with his flour, the tritu-
rated bran breaking under the rolls and producing powder which
will discolour the break flour. To remove such metallic fragments
as nails, pieces of wire, &c, magnets are used. These may cither
FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE
SSi
be of horseshoe shape, ia which case they are usually tat at the baud
of the wheat spouts, or they may consist of .magnetised plates set
at angles over which the wheat will slide. It is not a bad plan to
place the magnets just before the first set of break-rolls, where they
should ensure the arrest of steel and iron particles, which might
otherwise get between the rolls and spoil the edges of their grooves,
and also do damage to the sifting machines. Mention must aJao
be made of the automatic scales which are used to check the milling
value of the wheat. In principle these machines are all the
poured through a valve into toe recipient or sup, which, is bung at
one end of a beam scale, a load of grain sufficient to overcome the
weight hung at the other end of the beam, the inlet of grain is auto-
matically cut off and the skip is discharged, automatically returning
to take another charge. Each weighing is automatically recorded
on a dial. In this way a record can be kept of the gross weight of
the uncleaned wheat entering the warehouse and of the net weight
of the cleaned wheat. The difference between the two weighings
will, of course, represent the loss by cleaning. The percentage of
flour obtained- from a given wheat can be ascertained in the- mill
itself. In practice the second weigher is placed just before the
first break.
The cleansing of wheat by washing only became a fine art at the
close of the 19th century, though it was practised in the north of
^^ England some twenty years earlier. Briefly it may be said
that certain wheats are washed to free them from extrane-
ous matters such as adherent earth and similar impurities
which could not be removed by dry cleaning without
undue abrasion. Such wheats are Indians, Persians and
hard Russians, and these require not only washing but also condition-
ing, by which is meant mellowing, before going to the rolls. With
another class of wheats, such as the softer Russians and Indians*
spring Americans and Canadians, bard American winters^ CabV
fornians and the harder River Plates, washing and conditioning by
beat is also desirable, though care must be exercised not to let the
moisture penetrate into the endosperm or floury portion of the
kernel. In a third and distinct class fall soft wheats, surJi ny
kinds of Plates, soft Russians and English wheat. U is generally
admitted that while wheat of the first two divisions ml I U-ni-rit f r<m»
the application of both moisture and heat, wheat of the third class
must be washed with great circumspection. The obj^t of *-**hing
machines is to agitate the wheat in water till the adhflKM lunign
matters are washed off and any dirt balls broken up and qniaed off
in the waste water. To this end some washers are fit | ft J u i i h Arc bi-
medean worm conveyors set either at an inclined an a I* or lioriioo-
taily or vertically', or the washer may consist of a Uirrtl revoking
in a tank partly filled with water. Another function ol washing
machines is to separate stones of the same size which «* ivwwu ia
several varieties of wheat. This Separation is effected by utilizing
a current of water as a balance strong enough to carry wheat but not
strong enough to carry stones or bodies of greater specific gravity
than wheat. This current may be led up an inclined worm or may
Sow horizontally over a revolving tray. The washer is followed
by a whizzer, which is an apparatus intended to free the berry by
purely mechanical means from superOuous moisture. The typical
Whizzer b a vertical column fed at the bottom and delivering at the
top. The wet wheat ascends by centrifugal force in a spiral direction
round the column to the top, and by the time it is discharged from
the spout at the top it has thrown off from its outer skin almost
all its moisture, the water escaping through the perforated cover
of the machine. But there still remains a certain amount of water
which has penetrated the integuments more or less deeply, and to
condition the berry it is treated by a combination of hot and cold air.
The wheat is passed between perforated metalpUtes and subjected
to a draught first of hot and then of cold air. The perforated plates
are usually built in the shape of a column, or leg as it is often called,
and this is provided with two air chambers, an upper one serving
as a reservoir for hot, and the lower for cold air. The air from both
chambers is discharged by pressure through the descending layers
of wheat, which should not be more than an inch thick ; the air is
drawn in by a steel-plate fan, which is often provided with a divided
casing, oncxide being used for cold, and the other for hot air. t Coupled
with the hot air side is a heater consisting of a series of circulating
stcam-hcated pipes. The temperature of the heated air can be
regulated by the supply of steam to the heater. This process of
washing and conditioning, one of the most important in a flour
mill, is characteristically. British; millers have to deal with wheats
of the most varied nature, and one object of conditioning is to bring
hard and harsh, soft and weak wheats as nearly as possible to a
common standard of condition before being milled. Wheat is some-
times washed to toughen the bran, an end which can also be attained
by damping it from a spraying pipe as it passes alone an inclined
worm. Another way of toughening bran is to pass wheat through
a heated cylinder, while again another process known as steaming
consists of injecting steam into wheat as it passes through a metal
hopper. Here the object is to cleanse to some extent, and to warm
and soften (by the condensation of moisture on the grain), but these
processes are imperfect substitutes for a full washing and condition-
ing plant. Hard wheats will not be injured bv a fairlv lona im-
aseraoo in water, always provided the subsequent whizzing and dry-
ing are efficiently carried out. The second dass of semi-hard wheats
already mentioned must be run more quickly through the washer
and freed from the water as rapidly as possible. Still more is this
necaatary with really soft wheats, such as soft River Plates and the
softer English varieties. Here an immersion of only a few seconds
is desirable, while the moisture left by the water must be immediately
and energetically thrown off by the whizzer before the grain enters
the drier. Treated thus, soft wheats may be improved by washing.
It is claimed that hard wheats, like some varieties of Indians, are
positively improved In flavour by conditioning, and this is probably
true; certain It is that English country millers, in seasons when
native wheat was scarce and dear, and Indian wheat was abundant
and cheap, have found the latter, mellowed by conditioning, to be
an excellent substitute.
Wheats which have been exposed to the action of water during
harvest do not nec essa rily yield unsound flour; the matter ia a
question of the amount of moisture absorbed. But it __.
must be remembered that it is not so much the water emct •*
itself which degrades the constituents of the wheat
(starch and gli
produces. Hen
damp wheat is __„ . _ ,
kiln or steam drier at a beat not exceeding izo* F., until the moisture
has been reduced to 10% of the whole grain. The flour made from
wheat so treated may be weak, but will not usually be unsound.
The practice of drying damp flour has also good results. Long before
the rotter milling period it was found that-only flour which had been
dried (in a kiln) could safely be taken on long eea voyages, especially
when the vessel had to navigate warm latitudes. It may be noted
that in the days of millstone milling it waa far more difficult to
produce good keeping flour. The wheat berry being broken up
and triturated in one operation, the flour necessarily contained a
large proportion of branny particles in which cerealin, an active
' in very sensible proportions.
fliastatac constituent, waa present in very sensible proportions.
Again, the elimination of the germ by the roller process is favourable
to the production of a sounder flour, because the germ contains a
large amount of oleaginous matter and has a strong diastask action
on imperfec t ly matured starches. The tendency of flours
germ to become rancid is well marked.
„ containing
During the South African
Brtnk-
War of 1899-1909 the British array supply department had
practical proof of the diaataaic action of branny particles in flour.
Soldiers' bread is not usually of white colour, and the military
authorities not unnaturally believed that comparatively low-grade
flour, if sound, waa eminently suitable for use in the field bakeries.
But ia the climate of South Africa flour of thia description soon
developed considerable acidity. Ultimately the supply department
gave up buying any but the driest patent flours, and it is understood
that the most suitable flour proved to be certain patents milled
in Minneapolis, U.S^, from hard spring wheat. Not only did they
contain a minimum of branny and fibrous matters, but they were
also the driest that could be found.
After being cleaned the wheat berry is split and broken up into
increasingly fine pieces by fluted rolls or " breaks." In the earlier
yearn of roUer milling it waa usual to employ more breaks
than is now the case* The first pair of break-rolls used
to be called the splitting rolls, because their function was rom '
supposed to be to split the berry longitudinally down its crease, so as
to give the miller an opportunity ol removing the dirt between the
two lobes of the berry by means of a brush machine. The dirt was
in many cases no more than the placenta already described, which
shrivelling up took, like all vegetable fibre, a dark tint. The neat
split along the crease waa not, however, achieved in more than 10%
of the berries so treated. Where such rolls are still in use they are
really serving as a sort of adjunct to the wheat-cleaning system.
Four or five breaks are now thought sufficient, but three breaks are
not recommended, except in very short systems for small country
mills. Rolls are now used up to 60 in. in length, though in one of
the most approved systems they never exceed 40 in.; they are made
of chilled iron, and for the breaking of wheat are provided with
grooving cut at a slight twist, the spiral averaging \ in. to the foot
length, though for the last set of break-rolls, which clean up the bran,
the spiral is sometimes increased to \ in. per foot. The grooves
should have sharp edges because they do better work than when
blunt, giving larger semolina and middlings, with bran adherent in
big flakes; small middlings, that is, little pieces of the endosperm
torn away by blunt grooves, and comminuted bran, make the pro-
duction of good class flour almost impossible; cut bran, moreover,
brings less money. The break-rolls should never work by pressure,
but nip the material fed between them at a given point; to cut or
shear, not to flatten and crush, is their function. Rolls may be set
either horizontally or vertically; an oblique setting has also come
into favour. The feed is of the utmost importance to the correct
working of a roller mill. The material should be fed in an even
stream, not too thick, and leaving no part of the roll uncovered.
The two rolls of each pair are run at unequal speeds, a J to l being
the usual ratio on the three first breaks, while the last break is often
speeded at \ to 1 or 3J to 1 ; in one of the oblique mills the difference
is obtained by making the diameter of one roll 13 and of the other 10
in. and running them at equal speed. For break-rolls up to 36 ia, in
552
FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE
length 9 in. is the usual diameter; for longer rolls 10 in. is the
standard. To do good work rolls must run m perfect parallelism;
otherwise some parts of the material will pass untouched, while
others will be treated too severely.
The products of the break-rolls are treated by what are known
as scalpers, which are simply machines for sorting out these products
for further treatment. Scalpers may either be revolving
reels or flat sieves. The sieve is the favourite form of
scalper on account of its gentle action. Scalping requires a separat-
ing and sifting, not a scouring action. The break products are
usually separated on a sieve covered with wire or perforated zinc
plates. Generally speaking, two sieves are in one frame and are run
at a slight incline. The throughs of the top sieve fall on the sieve
below, while the rejections or overtails of the first sieve are fed to the
next break. The " throughs," or what has passed this sieve, are
graded by the next sieve, the tailings going to a purifier, while the
throughs may be freed from what flour adheres to them by a centri-
fugal dressing machine and then treated by another purifier. A
form of scalper which has come into general use on the continent
of Europe, and to a lesser extent in Great Britain and America, is
known as the plansifter. This machine, of Hungarian origin, is
simply a collection of superimposed flat sieves in one box, and will
scalp or sort out any land of break stock very efficiently. A system
of grading the tailings, that is, the rejections of the scalpers, intro-
duced by James Harrison Carter (Carter-Zimmer patent), was known
as pneumatic sorting. Its object was to supplement the work of
the scalpers by classifying the tailings by means of air-currents.
To this end each scalper was followed by a machine arranged some-
what like a gravity purifier; that is to say, a current of air drawn
through the casing of the sorter allowed the heaviest and best
material to drop down straight, while the lighter stuff was deposited
in one or other of further compartments formed by obliquely placed
adjustable cant boards. So searching was this grading, that from
the first sorter of a four-break plant four separations would be
obtained, the first going to the second break, the second joining the
first separation from the second sorter and being fed to the third
break, while the third went with the best separation of the third
sorter to the fourth break, and the last separation from all the
sorters went straight into the bran sack. The work of the break-
rolls was greatly simplified and reduced by this sorting process, as
each particle of broken wheat went exactly to that pair of break-
rollers for which it was suitable, instead of all the material being
run indiscriminately through all the break-rollers and thereby being
cut up with the necessary result of increasing the production of
small Wan.
The object of the purifier, a machine on which milling engineers
have lavished much thought and labour, is to get away from the
semolina and middlings as much impure matters* possible,
that those products may be pure, as millers say, for
reduction to flour by the smooth rolls. The purifiers used in British
mills take advantage of the fact that the more valuable portions of
the wheat berry are heavier than the less valuable particles, such as
bran and fibrous bodies, and a current of air is employed to weigh
these fragments of the wheat berry as in a balance and to separate
them while they pass over a silk-covered sieve. To this end the
semolina or middlings are fed on a sieve vibrated by an eccentric
and set at a slight downward angle. This sieve is installed in an
air-tight longitudinal wooden chamber with glass windows on either
side, through which the process of purifying can be watched. Up-
wards through this sieve a fan constantly draws a current of afr,
which, raising the stock upwards, allows the heavier and better
material to remain below while the lighter particles are lifted off
and fall on side platforms or channels, whence they are carried
forward and delivered separately. The good material drops through
the meshes of the silk, and is collected t>y a worm. It ts usual to
clothe the sieve in sections with several different meshes of silk so
that stock of almost identical value, but differing size, may be
treated with uniform accuracy. In good purifiers the strength of
the current can be regulated at will in each section. The tailings of
a purifier do not usually exceed 10 to 15% of the feed. The clothing
of purifier sheets must be nicely graduated to the clothing of the
preceding machines. Repurification and even tertiary purification
may be necessary under certain conditions. In Hungary and other
parts of Europe, gravity purifiers are much in use. Here the material
is guided along an open sieve set at a slight angle, while an air-
current is drawn up at an acute angle. Under the sieve may be ar-
ranged a series of inclined boards, the position of which can be varied
as required. The heaviest and most valuable products resist the
current and drop straight down, while lighter material is carried
off to further divisions.
From the purifier aU the stock except the tailings, which may
require other treatment, should go to the smooth rollers to be made
into flour, but here the rollerman will have to exercise
great care and discretion. Many of the remarks already
made in regard to break-rolls apply to smooth rolls,
notably in respect of parallelism. But instead of a cutting action,
the smooth rolls press the material fed to them into flour. This
pres su re, however, must be applied with great discrimination, large
semolina with impurities attached requiring quite different treat-
ment from that called for by-small pure middlings. The pressure on
the stock must be just sufficient and no more. Reduction ran an
usually run at a differential speed of about 2 to 3. The feed must be
carefully graded, because to pass stock of varying sue through a
pair of smooth rolls would be fatal to good work. Scratch roils very
finery grooved are used for cracking impure semolina or for reducing
the tailings of purifiers. The latter often hold fragments of bran,
which are best detached by rolls grooved about 36 to the inch aid
run at a differential of 3 to l. The reduction requires even tree
roll surface than the break system. To do first-class work a cull
should have at least 35 to 40 in. on the breaks and 50 in. on the
reduction for each sack of 280 lb of flour per hour. Many engineers
consider 100 to 110 in. on the break, scratch and smooth rolls not
too much.
The dressing out of the flour from the stock reduced on smooth
rolls is generally effected by centrifugal machines, which coast
of a slowly revolving cylinder provided with an internal n nu ^ M
shaft on which are keyed a number of iron beaters that vnm ^ f
run at a speed of about 200 revolutions a minute, and fling the feed
against the silk clothing of the cylinder. What goes through the sift
is collected by a worm conveyor at the bottom of the machine.
Most centrifugals have so-called " cut-off " sheets, with intersal
divisions in the tail end; these are intended to separate soot
intermediate products, which, having been freed from floury partides,
are treated on some other machine, such as a pair of roils either
direct or after a purifier. The centrifugal is undoubtedly an effideffl
flour separator, "but the plansiftcrs already mentioned are also rood
flour-dressers, especially in dry climates. A plansifter mill will ba«
no centrifugals, except one or two at the tail end where the material
gets more sticky and requires more severe treatment.
The yield of flour obtained in a British roller mill averages 70 to
73 % of the wheat berry. The residue, with the exception of a very
small proportion of waste, is offal, which is divided into vario©
grades and sold. Profitable markets for British-made bran have
been found in Scandinavia, and especially in Denmark. In miff-
stone milling the yield of flour probably averaged 75 to 80%, bat
a certain proportion of this was little more than offal. The length d
the flour yield taken by British millers varies in different parts d
the kingdom, because demand varies. In one locality high-daa
patents may be at a premium; in another the call is for a straight
grade, «\*. a flour containing as much of the farinaceous substance
as can be won from "the wheat berry. In one district there is a ale
for rich offals, that is, offals with plenty of flour adhering; in another
there may be no demand for such offals. Hence, though the general
principles of roller milling as given above hold good all over the
country, yet in practice the work of each mill is varied more or less
to suit the peculiarities of the local trade.
Early in the 19th century a French chemist, J. J. E. Pootet.
discovered that nitrous acid and oxides of nitrogen act on eoax
fluid and semi-fluid vegetable oils, removing their yellow jy vm tttf
tinge and converting a considerable portion of their sub- ,/**.
stance into a white solid. The importance of this dis-
covery, when the physical constitution of wheat is considered, n
obvious, but it was years before any attempt was made to bjeaca
flour. The first attempts-at bleaching seem to have been made os
the wheat itself rather than on the flour. In 1879 a process «J
patented for bleaching grain by means of chlorine gas, and about
1 891 a suggestion was made for bleaching grain by means of electro-
lysed sea- water. In 1895 a scheme was put forward for treating
grain with sulphurous acid, and about two years later it was pro-
posed to subject both grain and flour to the influence of ^f^inc
cui *-. ?n T*-»- a patent was granted for the purification of sow
by means of faifi w < r oxygen, and three years later another tf-
venicf prfttwcd to employ the Rdntgen rays for the same purpo*-
In 1 ftfjS Penile Frit hot iuok out a patent for using ozone and orom«o
air for flour* Wenching. The patent (No. 1661 of J901) taken out by
J. & S. Ar.drt-*> I L ast recited that flour is known to improve
greitt v if kept for ftome time after grinding, and the purpose of 11*
ini em Son ic covered Wfs to bring about this im prov ement or con-
drut>ninc not only imrediately after grinding, but also to a greater
extent than can be effected by keeping. The process consisted «
subjecting the tlnur to the action of a suitable gaseous oxidifOf
nituiuu, ilit LU.^iturs preferred air carrying a minute Q 03 ^
of nitric acid or peroxide of nitrogen, but they did not confine them-
selves to those compounds, having found that chlorine. Dro f**
and other substances capable of liberating oxygen were also ©ore
or less efficacious. They claimed that while exercising no oeletenosi
action their treatment made the flour whiter, improved its baWJ
qualities, and rendered it less liable to be attacked by mitts or oujr
organisms. Under the patent. No. 14006 of 10m, granted toj- -V
Alsop of Kentucky the flour was treated with atmosphenc >»
which had been subjected to the action of an arc or flaminj \®?
charge of electricity, with the purpose of purifying it and topnj*
ing its nutritious properties. The Andrews and Alsop f* tc ™~
became the objects of extended litigation in the English court*
and it was held that the gaseous medium employed by Alsoo «*»
substantially the same as that employed by Andrews, thouj
produced electrically instead of chemically, and therefore thai.i*
Alsop process was an infringement of the Andrews patent- **"£?
other patents for more or less similar pr o c esse s have also been tan*
out. (CJi-i
FLOURENS— FLOWER
FtOORENS, 6USTAVE (1838-1871), French levotationist
and writer, a son of J. P. Flourens (1 794-1867), the physiologist,
was born at Paris 00 the 4th of August 1838. In 1863 he under*
took for his father a course of lectures at the College de France,
the subject of which was the history of mankind. His theories
as to the manifold origin of the human race, however, gave
offence to the clergy, and he was precluded from delivering a
second course. He then went to Brussels, where he published
his lectures under the title of Histoire de I'komme (1863); he
next visited Constantinople and Athens, took part in the Cretan
insurrection of 1866, spent some time in Italy, where an article
of his in the Popolo d' Italia caused his arrest and imprisonment,
and finally, having returned to France, nearly lost his life in a
duel with Paul de Cassagnac, editor of the Pays. In Paris he
devoted his pen to the cause of republicanism, and at length,
having failed in an attempt to organize a revolution at Belleville
on the 7th of February 2870, found himself compelled to flee
from France. Returning to Paris on the downfall of Napoleon, he
soon placed himself at the head of a body of 500 tirailleurs. On
account of his insurrectionary proceedings he was taken prisoner
at Crlteal, near Vincennes, by the provisional government, and
confined at Mazes on the 7 th of December 1870, but was released
by bis men on the night of January 21-22. On the 18th of
March he joined the Communists. He was elected a member of
the commune by the 20th arrondisseroent, and was named colonel.
He was one of the most active leaders of the insurrection, and in
a sortie against the Versailles troops in the morning of the 3rd
of April was killed in a hand-to-hand conflict at Rucil, near
Malmaison. Besides his Science de Vhomme ( Paris, 1 869) , Gustave
Flourens was the author of numerous fugitive pamphlets.
See C Proles, Les Hommes de la rholution de 1871 (Paris, 1898).
FLOURENS, MARIE JEAN PIERRE (1704-1867). French
physiologist, was born at Maureilhan, near Bezicrs, in the depart*
raent of Herault, on the 1 5th of April 1 794. At the age of fifteen
he began the study of medicine at Montpcllicr, where in 1823
he received the degree of doctor. In the following year he
repaired to Paris, provided with an introduction from A. P. de
Candolle, the botanist, to Baron Cuvicr, who received him
kindly, and interested himself in his welfare. At Paris Flourens
engaged in physiological research, occasionally contributing to
literary publications; and in 182 1, at the Athcnee there, he
gave a course of lectures on the physiological theory of the
sensations, which attracted much attention amongst men of
science. His paper entitled Recherches expMmentales sur les
pro prilUs et Us f auctions du systhme nerveux dans les animanx
vertibriSf in which he, from experimental evidence, sought to
assign their special functions to the cerebrum, corpora quadri-
gemina and cerebellum, was the subject of a highly commendatory
report by Cuvier, adopted by the French Academy of Sciences
in 1822. He was chosen by Cuvier in 1828 to deliver for him a
course of lectures on natural history at the College de France,
and in the same year became, in succession to L. A. G. Bosc, a
member of the Institute, in the division " Economic ruralc."
In 2830 he became Cuvier's substitute as lecturer on human
anatomy at the Jardin du Roi, and in 1832 was elected to the
post of titular professor, which he vacated for the professorship
of comparative anatomy created for him at the museum of the
Jardin the same year. In 1833 Flourens, in accordance with the
dying request of Cuvier, was appointed a perpetual secretary of
the Academy of Sciences; and in 1838 he was returned as a
deputy for the arrondisscment of Beziers. In 1 840 he was elected,
in preference to Victor Hugo, to succeed J. F. Michaud at the
French Academy; and in 1845 he was created a commander of
the legion of honour, and in the next year a peer of France.
In March 1847 Flourens directed the attention of the Academy
of Sciences to the anaesthetic effect of chloroform on animals.
On the revolution of 1848 he withdrew completely from political
life; and in 1855 he accepted the professorship of, natural history
at the College de France. He died at Montgcron, near Paris,
on the 6th of December 1867.
Besides numerous shorter scientific memoirs, Flourens published —
Essai sur antiques points de la doctrine de la revulsion et do la din-
553
._. (Mootpether, 181 j) ; Expitfens** nr k sri&m* ntrmux (Paris,
1825); Cows sur la gitiLruiiwn t /'out^ir, et ranhryota£i<t (1836);
Analyse raisonnie des Acwtus de C. Cxmrr (1*41); Reektrtkes sur le
dhehpptment desosotlL^ dmis (1&4JU ^ natomie rinitait do la peau
ot da membra nes muqw utn (1843;; Bajfon. htsteirt de \<t tramaux
et de SOS id*** (1844); 'fouttjutlf.' an dt t* phitaiophie mcnierne tela-
taement aux sciences Ay^iauti (1647)1} ThiaTit txperimcnlale de la
formation des os (1847) \ Cpknyw tomaba <fr Buff on (1853); De la
longeviti kumaiue etdeh haaniit/ 4f vie twt it efabr (1894)1 numerous
editions; Histoire de la dreamt rtc de la eirctUatwn du m*t* (1854);
Court do Physiciog to campanf {i&ftij): firfucii des Uoms historiques
(18*6); De la vie et de i iuleUigeni* 68&B) ; De to wuai, du genie,
et delafolie (1861); Ontotopje nnturtlk (iflOt? ; Examtn du liore do
M. Darwin sur fOrtgine dti Etptett (ift&4)- tor a iiit or his papers
see the Royal Society 'a Catalogue of Scientific Papers,
FLOWER, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1831-1899), English
biologist, was born at Stratford-on-Avon on the 30th of November
1 83 1. Choosing medicine as |us profession, he began his studies
at University College, London, where he showed special aptitude
for physiology and comparative anatomy and took his M.B.
degree in 1851. He then joined the Army Medical Service, and
went out to the Crimea as assistant-surgeon, receiving the medal
with four clasps. On his return to England he became a member
of the surgical staff of the Middlesex hospital, London, and in
1861 succeeded J. T. Quekett as curator of- the Hunterian
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. In 1870
he also became Hunterian professor, and in 1884, on the death
of Sir Richard Owen, was appointed to the directorship of the
Natural History Museum at South Kensington. He died in
London on the istof July 1809. He made valuable contributions
to structural anthropology, publishing, for example, complete
and accurate measurements of no less than 1300 human skulls,
and as a comparative anatomist he ranked high, devoting
himself especially to the study of the mammalia. He was also
a leading authority on the arrangement of museums. The greater
part of his life was spent in their administration, and in conse-
quence he held very decided views as to the principles upon
which their specimens should be set out. He insisted on the
importance of distinguishing between collections intended for
the use of specialists and those designed for the instruction of the
general public, pointing out that it was as futile to present
to the former a number of merely typical forms as to provide
the latter with a long series of specimens differing only in the
most minute details. His ideas, which were largely and success-
fully applied to the museums of which he had charge, gained wide
approval, and their influence entitles him to be looked upon as a
reformer who did much to improve the methods of museum
arrangement and management. In addition to numerous original
papers, he was the author of An Introduction to the Osteology of the
Mammalia (1870); Fashion in Deformity (1881); The Horse:
a Study in Natural History (1890); Introduction to the Study of
Mammals, Living and Extinct (1891); Essays on Museums and
other Subjects (1898). He also wrote many articles for the ninth
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britanniea,
FLOWER (Lat. flos, Jloris; Fr. JUur), a term popularly used
for the bloom or blossom of a plant, and so by analogy for the
fairest, choicest or finest part or aspect of anything, and in various
technical senses. Here we shall deal only with its botanical
interest. It is impossible to give a rigid botanical definition
of the term " flower/' The flower is a characteristic feature of
the highest group of the plant kingdom— the flowering plants
(Phanerogams) — and is the name given to the association of
organs, more or less leaf -like in form, which are concerned with
the production of the fruit or seed. In modern botanical works
the group is often known as the seed-plants (Spermatophyta).
As the seed develops from the ovule which has been fertilized
by the pollen, the essential structures for seed-production are
two, viz. the pollen-bearer or stamen and the ovule-bearer or
carpd. These are with few exceptions foliar structures, known
in comparative morphology as sporophylls, because they bear
the spores, namely, the microspores or pollen-grains which are
developed in the microsporangia or pollen-sacs, and the mega-
spore, which is contained in the ovule or megasporangium.
In Gymnosperms (?.v.), which represent the more primitive
55+
FLOWER
type of seed-plants, the micro- or macro-sporophylls are generally
associated, often in large numbers, in separate cones, to which
the term " flower " has been applied. But there is considerable
difference of opinion as to the relation between these cones
and the more definite and elaborate structure known as the
flower in the higher group of seed-plants— the Angiosperms (q.v.)
—and it is to this more definite structure that we generally refer
in using the term " flower."
Flowers are produced from flower-buds, just as leaf-shoots
arise from leaf -buds. These two kinds of buds have a resemblance
to each other as regards the arrangement and the development
of their parts; and it sometimes happens, from injury and
other causes, that the part of the axis which, in ordinary cases,
would produce a leaf -bud, gives origin to a flower-bud. A
flower-bud has not in ordinary circumstances any power of
extension by the continuous de-
velopment of its apex. In this
respect it differs from a leaf-bud.
In some cases, however, of mons-
trosity, especially seen in the rose
(fig. i), the central part is pro-
longed, and bears leaves or flowers.
In such cases the flowers, so far as
their functional capabilities are
[fgi j^mI^gT|\ concerned, are usually abortive.
\\ ^fej«2ffc§S^A^ X This phenomenon is known as pro-
' - ) liferation of the floral axis.
Flower-buds, like leaf-buds, are
produced in the axil of leaves,
which are called bracts.
The term brad is properly applied
to the leaf from which the primary
floral axis, whether
simple or branched,
arises, while the leaves which arise
on the axis between the bract and
the outer envelope of the flower
are bracteolts or bradkls. Bracts
sometimes do not differ from
t. — Proliferous Rose, the ordinary leaves, as in Veronica
Sepals transformed into kederifolia, Vinca, Anagallis and
leaves. Ajuga. In general as regards their
Petals multiplied at the f or m and appearance they differ
SB" £ *SJ2ST& '™ T ^v». the difle«»ce
number. being greater m the upper than
Coloured leaves represent- in the lower branches of an inflor-
ing abortive carpel*, escence. They are distinguished
Axis prolonged, beanng an by ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ q{
imperfect
apex.
flower » its -
the flower or flower-stalk. Their
arrangement is similar to that of
the leaves. When the flower is sessile the bracts are often
applied closely to the calyx, and may thus be confounded with
it, as in the order Malvaceae and species of Dianthus and winter
aconite (Erantkis), where they have received the name of epicalyx
or calyculus. In some Rosaceous plants an epicalyx is present,
due to the formation of slipulary structures by the sepals. In
many cases bracts act as protective organs, within or beneath
which the young flowers are concealed in their earliest stage of
growth.
When bracts become coloured, as in Amherstia nobilis,
Euphorbia splendent, Erica degans and Salvia splendens, they
may be mistaken for parts of the corolla. They are sometimes
mere scales or threads, and at other times are undeveloped,
giving rise to the cbraclcatc inflorescence of Cruciferae and some
Boraginaceae. Sometimes they are empty, no flower-buds
being produced in their axil. A series of empty coloured bracts
terminates the inflorescence of Salvia Horminum. The smaller
bracts or bractcoles, which occur among the subdivisions of a
branching inflorescence, often produce no flower-buds, and thus
anomalies occur in the floral arrangements. Bracts are occasion-
ally persistent, remaining long attached to the base of the
peduncles, but more usually they are deciduous, falling off early
by an articulation. In some Instances they form part of the
fruit , becoming incorporated with other organs. Thus, the coos
of firs and the stroboli of the hop are composed of a series of
spirally arranged bracts covering fertile flowers; and the saks
on the fruit of the pine-apple are of the same nature. At the
base of the general umbel in umbelliferous plants a whori of
bracts often exists, called a general involucre, and at the base
of the smaller umbels or umbellules there is a similar leafy whori
called an involved cr partial involucre. In some instances, as is
fool's-parsley, there is no general involucre, but simply as
involucel; while in other cases, as in fennel or dill (fig. 15),
neither involucre nor involucel is developed. In Compositae
the name involucre is applied to the bracts surrounding the bad
FlG. 2.— Head (capittllum)of From StrMbtirger's Ltkrhmtk itr &*■*
Marigold {Calendula), showing by permi»ioo of Gusu» Fi»cte.
a congeries of flowers, enclosed Fig. 3.— Cupule of Quercns Aep
by rowsof bracts,*', at the base, lops. cp t Cupule; gl, fruit. (Afw
which are collectively called an Duchartre.)
involucre.
of flowers (fig. 2, t), as in marigold, dandelion, daisy, artichoke.
This involucre is frequently composed of several rows of leaflets,
which are either of the same or of different forms and lengths,
and often lie over each other in an imbricated manner. The
leaves of the involucre are spiny in thistles and in teazel (A>
sacus), and hooked in burdock. Such whorled or verticillate
bracts generally remain separate (polyphyllous) , but may be
united by cohesion (gamophyllous), as in many species of B»'
pleurum and in Lavalera. In Compositae besides the involucre
there are frequently chaffy and setose bracts at the base of each
flower, and in Dipsacaceae a membranous tube surrounds each
flower. These structures are of the nature of an epicalyx. In
the acorn the cupule or cup (fig. 3) is formed by a graving
upwards of the flower-stalk immediately beneath the flower,
upon which scaly or spiny protuberances appear; it is of tie
nature of bracts. Bracts also compose the husky covering of
the hazel-nut.
When bracts become united, and overlie each other in several
rows, it often happens that the outer ones do not produce flowers,
that is, are empty or sterile. In the artichoke the outer imbri-
cated scales or bracts are in this condition, and it is from the
membranous white scales or bracts (palcac) forming the choke
attached to the edible receptacle that the flowers are produced.
The sterile bracts of the daisy occasionally produce capiiula,
and give rise to the hen-and-chickens daisy. In place of develop-
ing flower-buds, bracts may, in certain circumstances, as in
proliferous or viviparous plants, produce leaf -buds.
A sheathing bract enclosing one or several flowers is called
a spathe. It is common among Monocotyledons, as Narcissi*
(fig. 4), snow-flake. Arum and palms. In some palms it is 20
ft. long, and encloses 200,000 flowers. It is often associated
with that form of inflorescence termed the spadix, and may be
coloured, as in Anthurium, or white, as in arum lUy (Ritkardi*
adhiopica). When the spadix is compound or branching, as in
palms, there are smaller spathes, surrounding separate parts d
the inflorescence. The spathe protects the flowers in their young
state, and often falls off after they are developed, or hangs dowa
FLOWER
555
Fic. 4. — Flower* of Narcissus
{Narcissus Tazetta) bursting from
a sheathing bract 0.
in a withered form, as in some palms, Typka and Pothos. In
grasses the outer scales or glumes of the apikelets are sterile
bracts (fig. s, gi); and in Cyperaceae bracts enclose the organs
of reproduction. Bracts are
frequently changed into com-
plete leaves. This change is
called phyllody of bracts, and
is seen in species of Planlago,
especially in the variety of
Planlago media, called the
rose-plantain in gardens,
where the bracts become leafy
and form a rosette round the
flowering axis. Similar changes
occur in Planlago major, P.
lanceolata, Ajuga re plans,
dandelion, daisy, dahlia and
in umbelliferous plants. The
conversion of bracts into
stamens (staminody of bracts)
has been observed in the case
of Abies excels*. A lengthen-
ing of the axis of the female
strobilus of Coniferae is not
of infrequent occurrence in
Cryplomeria japotnat, larch (Larix europaea), &c, and this is
usually associated with a leaf-like condition of the bracts, and
sometimes even with
the development of
leaf-bearing shoots in
place of the scales.
The arrangement of
the flowers on ihe axis,
or the ramification of
the floral axis, is called
the inflorescence. The
primary axis of the
inflorescence is some-
times called the rackis;
its branches, whether
terminal or lateral,
which form the stalks
supporting flowers or
clusters of flowers, are
«- c ... . ,rx t A .. \ peduncles, and if small
Fio. 5.— Spikelet of Oat (Avena satna) L b a« ,„ „;„*„ „a
laid open\ showing the sterile bracts H. gf, branches are given off
or empty glumes; t, the fertile or floral °y it, they are called
elume, with a dorsal awn a; p, the pale; pedicels. A flower
Js. an abortive flower. having a stalk is called
pedunculate or pedicel
late; one having no stalk is sessile. In describing a branching
inflorescence, it is common to speak of the rachis as the primary
floral axis, its branches as the secondary floral axes, their divi-
sions as the tertiary floral axes,
and so on; thus avoiding any
confusion that might arise from
the use of the terms rfichis, ped-
uncle and pedicel.
The peduncle is simple, bearing
ba single flower, as in primrose;
or branched, as in London-pride.
It is sometimes succulent, as in
the cashew, in which it forms the
large coloured expansion sup-
porting the nut; spiral, as in
Cyclamen and Vallisneria; or
spiny, as in Alyssum spinosum. When the peduncle proceeds
from radical leaves, that is, from an axis which is so shortened
as to bring the leaves close together in the form of a duster, as
in the primrose, auricula or hyacinth, it is termed a scape.
The floral axis may be shortened, assuming a flattened, convex
or concave form, and bearing numerous flowers, as in the arti-
Fig. 6.— Peduncle of
(Ficus Cartas), ending i
hollow receptacle, enclosing
numerous male and female
flowers.
choice, daisy and fig (fig, 6). The floral axis sometimes appears as
if formed by several peduncles
united together, constituting a
fascia ted axis, as in the cocks-
comb, in which the flowers form
a peculiar crest at the apex of
the flattened peduncles. Adhc-
sions occasionally take place *■■
between the peduncle and the
bracts or leaves of the plant, as
in the lime-tree (fig. 7). The
adhesion of the peduncles to the
stem accounts for the extra-
axillary position of flowers, as
in many Solanaceae* When this
union extends for a considerable
length along the stem, several
leaves may be interposed be-
tween the part where the ped-
uncle becomes free and the leaf
whence it originated, and it may
be difficult to trace the con-
nexion. The peduncle occasion-
ally becomes abortive, and in
place of bearing a flower, is trans-
formed into a tendril; at other
times tt is hollowed at the apex,
so as apparently to form the
lower part of the outer whorl of
floral leaves as in E sc hscholtzia .
The termination of the peduncle, . .Fig. 7.-4iifloreseence of **?
or the part on which the whorU £»• <«■• *WM*> <*"•
k [Fra« Vine*
if 0*ia*y. Iit per-
Branch.
Petiole with axillary bud.
Attached to the peduncle
is the bract (*)•
Calyx.
Corolla.
Stamens.
Ovary.
Flower-bud.
of the flower are arranged, is a ,
called the thalamus, torus or re- *»
ceplacle.
There are two distinct types of j
inflorescence— one in which the c \
flowers arise as lateral shoots s,
from a primary axis, which goes /»
on elongating, and the lateral *"'
shoots never exceed in their development the length of the
primary axis beyond their lanofu
point of origin. The flowers »«»««
are thus always axillary.
Exceptions, such as in cruciferous
plants, are due to the non-appear-
ance of the bracts. In the other
type the primary axis terminates
Fic. 0. — Hcad-of flowers(capitulum)
of Scabtosa atroburpurca. The inflor-
escence is simple and indeterminate,
and the expansion of the flowers cen-
tripetal, those at the circumference
opening first.
in a single flower, but lateral axes are
given off from the axils of the bracts,
which again repeat the primary axis;
the development of each lateral axis
is stronger than that of the primary
(From strssbwsw> ifMwtk axj $ beyond its point of origin. The
&£T* by '* ra «- MO0<Cu • u, ' flowersproduced in this inflorescence
Fic. 8— Raceme of Linaria are thus terminal. The first kind
striata, d, bract. of inflorescence is indekrminale,
indefinite or axillary. Here the axis is either elongated,
55*
FLOWER
producing flower-buds as it grows, the lower expanding first
(fig. 8), or it is shortened and depressed, and the outer flowers
expand first (fig. 9). The expansion of the flowers is thus
centripetal, that is, from base to apex, or from circumference
to centre.
The second kind of inflorescence is determinate, definite or
terminal. In this the axis is either elongated and ends in a solitary
flower, which thus terminates the axis, and if other flowers are
produced, they belong to secondary axes farther from the centre,
or the axis is shortened and flat-
tened, producing a number of
separate floral axes, the central
one expanding first, while the
others are developed in succession
farther from the centre. The ex-
pansion of the flowers is in this
case centrifugal, that is, from apex
to base, or from centre Co circum-
ference. It is illustrated In fig. xo,
Ranunculus bulbosus; a' is the
primary axis swollen at the base in
■ A bulb-like manner b, and with
roots proceeding from it. From
the leaves which are radical pro-
ceeds the axis ending in a solitary
terminal flower /. About the
middle of this axis there is a leaf
or bract, from which a secondary
floral axis a' is produced, ending
in a single flower /*, leas advanced
f* C a !£"" k C ° f ^t"? 1 " than the flower/. This secondary
cuius bulbosus, showing deter- . . ,' - „. . m ..f
rainatc inflorescence. »** ■*»» * ,c * f also ' **£* wmch
a tertiary floral axis or is pro-
duced, bearing an. unexpanded solitary flower f" From this
tertiary axis a fourth is in progress of formation. Here / is the
termination of the primary axis, and this flower expands first,
while the other flowers are developed centrifugally on separate
axes.
A third series of inflorescences, termed mixed, may be recog-
nized. In them the primary axis has an arrangement belonging
to the opposite type from that of the branches, or vke versa.
According to the mode and degree of development of the lateral
shoots and also of the bracts, various forms of both inflorescences
result.
Amongst indefinite forms the simplest occurs when a lateral
shoot produced in the axil of a large single foliage leaf of the plant
ends in a single flower, the axis of the plant elongating beyond,
as in Veronica kederifolia t Vinca minor and Lysimachia ncmorum.
The flower in this case is solitary, and the ordinary leaves become
bracts by producing flower-buds in place of leaf-buds; their
number, like that of the leaves of this main axis, is indefinite,
varying with the vigour of the plant. Usually, however, the
floral axis, arising from a more or less altered leaf or bract,
instead of ending in a solitary flower, is prolonged, and bears
numerous bracteolcs, from which smaller peduncles are produced,
and those again in their turn may be branched in a similar way.
Thus the flowers are arranged in groups, and frequently very
complicated forms of inflorescence result. When the primary
pedunde or floral axis, as in fig. 8, is elongated, and gives off
pedicels, ending in single flowers, a raceme Is produced, as in
currant, hyacinth and barberry. If the secondary floral axes
give rise to tertiary ones, the raceme is branching, and forms a
panicle, as in Yucca gforiosa. If in a raceme the lower flower-
stalks are developed more strongly than the upper, and thus all
the flowers are nearly on a level, a corymb is formed, which may be
simple, aa in fig. 1 1, where the primary axis a* gives off secondary
axes a', a', which end in single flowers; or branching, where
the secondary axes again subdivide. If the pedicels are very short
or wanting, so that the flowers are sessile, a spike is produced, as
in Plantago and vervain (Verbena officinalis) (fig. 12). If the
spike bears unisexual flowers, as in willow or hard (fig. 13), it ban
amentum or catkin, hence such trees are called ameutijerous; at
other times it becomes succulent, bearing numerous flowea,
surrounded by.a sheathing bract or spat he, and then it constitutes
a spadix, which may be simple, as in Arum maculatum (fig. 14),
or branching as in palms. A spike bearing female flowers only,
and covered with scales, is a strobilus, as in the hop. In grasses
Fie. 11.
Fie. 12.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 11. — Corymb oi-Cerasus MakaUb, terminating^an abortive
branch, at the base of which are modified leaves in the form of teaks,
e. a', Primary axis; a', secondary axes bearing flowers; b, bract is
the axils of which the secondary axes arise.
Fig. ia. — Spike of Vervain (Verbena officinalis), showing se*&
flowers on a common rachis. The flowers at the lower part of tk
spike have passed into fruit, those towards the middle are in fal
bloom, and those at the top arc only in bud.
Fig. 13.— Amentum or catkin of Hazel (Corylus Avellana),eooasi
irig of an axis or rachis covered with bracts in the form of scales.
each of which covers a male flower, the stamens of which are mxn
firojccting beyond the scale. The catkin falls off in a mass, separating
rom the branch by an articulation:
there are usually numerous sessile flowers arranged in small
spikes, called locustae or spikclcls, which are either set closely
along a central axis, or produced on secondary axes formed by
the branching of the central one; to the latter form the term
panicle is applied.
If the primary axis, in place of being elongated, is contracted,
it gives rise to other forms of indefinite inflorescence. When the
axis is so shortened that the secondary axes arise from a commoo
point, and spread out as radii of nearly equal length, each ending
in a single flower or dividing again in a similar radiating
(From Smsburger's UMmck
itt &(wilb» pcraiMfeQ of
C, F5o Fi, ir— Soadbt of F,G - 15— Compound umbel of Coo-
Arum'matulatuSTiMter ^^SSf^^'hS' t™^}^*
WonaiHIo) a Female a P nmar y umbel a, and secondary
tttSf'fl&iSS', ?"**?• «**«« «"">* taw*— •
c, hairs representing ulvo,uccl '
sterile flowers.
an umbel is produced, as In fig. 15. From the primary flail
axis o the secondary axes come off in a radiating or umbrella-like
manner, and end in small umbels b, which are called partial
umbels or umbeUuleu This inflorescence is seen in hemlock and
other allied plants, which are hence called umbelliferous. H
there are numerous flowers on a flattened, convex or slightly
concave receptacle, having other very short pedicels or nose, «
FLOWER
557
tapUuUm (head) is formed, as in dandelion, daisy and other
composite plants (fig. 2), also in scabious (fig. 9) and teazel
In the American button-bush the heads are globular, in some
species of teasel elliptical, while in scabious and in composite
plants, as sunflower, dandelion, thistle, centaury and marigold,
they are somewhat hemispherical, with a flattened, slightly
hollowed, or convex disk. If the margins of such a receptacle
be developed upwards, the centre not developing, a concave
receptacle is formed, which may partially or completely enclose
a number of flowers that are generally unisexual. This gives rise
to the peculiar inflorescence of Dorstenia, or to that of the fig
(fig. 6), where the flowers are placed on the inner surface of the
bouow receptacle, and are provided with bracteoles. This in-
florescence has been called a hypantkodium.
Lastly, we have what art called compound indefinite inflores-
cences. In these forms the lateral shoots, developed centripetally
upon the primary axis, bear numerous bracteoles, from which
floral shoots arise which may have a centripetal arrangement
similar to that on the mother shoot, or it may be different. Thus
we may have a group of racemes, arranged in a racemose manner
on a common axis, forming a raceme of racemes or compound
raceme, as in Astilbe. In the same way we may have compound
umbels, as in hemlock and most Umbelliferae (fig. is), a com-
pound spike, as in rye-grass, a compound spadix, as in some
palms, and a compound capitulum, as in the hen-and-chickens
daisy. Again, there may be a raceme of capitula, that is, a group
of capitula disposed in a racemose manner, as in Pdasiles, a
raceme of umbels, as in ivy, and so on, all the forms of inflores-
cence being indefinite in disposition. In Eryntium the shortening
of the pedicels changes an umbel into a capitulum.
The simplest form of the definite type of the inflorescence is
seen in Anemone mmorosa and in gentianella (Gentiana acaulis),
where the axis terminates in a single flower, no other flowers
being produced upon the plant. This is a solitary terminal
inflorescence. If other flowers were produced v they would arise
as lateral shoots from the bracts below the first -formed flower.
The general name of cyme is applied to the arrangement of a
group of flowers in a definite inflorescence. A cymosc inflores-
cence is an inflorescence where the primary floral axis before
terminating in a flower gives off one or more lateral unifloral
axes which repeat the process— the development being only
limited by the vigour of the plant. The floral axes are thus
centrifugally developed. The cyme, according to its develop-
ment, has been characterized as bi parous or uni parous. In fig. 1 6
the biparous cyme is represented in the flowering* branch of
Cer ostium. Here the primary axis / ends in a flower, which has
passed into the state of fruit. At its base two leaves are produced,
in each of which arise secondary axes f* t f , ending in single flowers,
and at the base of these axes a pair of opposite leaves is produced,
giving rise to tertiary axes t t* t ending in single flowers, and
so on. The term dickasium has also been applied to this form
of cyme.
In the natural order Carophyllaceae (pink family) the dichasial
form of inflorescence is very general. In some members of the
order, as Dianthus bar bolus, D. car thus ianorum, &c, in which
the peduncles are short, and the flowers closely approximated,
with a centrifugal expansion, the inflorescence has the form of a
contracted dichasium, and receives the name of fascicle. When
the axes become very much shortened, the arrangement is more
complicated in appearance, and the nature of the inflorescence
can only be recognized by the order of opening of the flowers.
In Labiate plants, as the dead -nettle {Lamium), the flowers are
produced in the axil of each of the foliage leaves of the plant,
and they appear as if arranged in a simple whorl of flowers.
But on examination it is found that there is a central flower
expanding first, and from its axis two secondary axes spring
bearing solitary flowers; the expansion is thus centrifugal.
The inflorescence is therefore a contracted dichasium, the flowers
being sessile, or nearly so, and the clusters arc called verticillasters
(fig. 17). Sometimes, especially towards the summit of a di-
chasium, owing to the exhaustion of the growing power of the
plant, only one of the bracts gives origin to a new axis, the other
remaining empty; thus the inflorescence becomes unilateral,
and further development is arrested. In addition to the dichaaiai
form there are others where more than two lateral axes are
produced from the primary floral axis, each of which in turn
(Ftam Stnsbuncr*» Ltkrbmk da Belanik, by penpkdoa of Casta v Fischer.)
FlC. 16.— Cyraotc inflorescence (dkbasiuro) of Cerastium coilinum-
t-t", successive axes. (After Duchartre.)
produces numerous axes. To this form the terms trichasial and
pclycltasial cyme have been applied; but these are now usually
designated cymose umbels. They are well seen in some species
of Euphorbia. Another term, ontkelo, has 'been used to dis-
tinguish such forms as occur in several species of Luzula and
Fig. I7>- Flowering sulk of the White Dead-nettle (Lamium
album). The bracts are like the ordinary leaves of the plant, and
produce clusters of flowers in their axil. The clusters are called
verticillasters, and consist of flowers which are produced in a centri-
fugal manner.
J uncus, where numerous lateral axes arising from the primary
axis grow very strongly and develop in an irregular manner.
In the uniparous cyme a number of floral axes are successively
developed one from the other, but the axis of each successive
generation, instead of producing a pair of bracts, produces only
one. The basal portion of the consecutive axes may become
much thickened and arranged more or less in a straight line,
55»
FLOWER
and thus collectively form an apparent or iake&xisoTsympodium,
and the inflorescence thus simulates a raceme. In the true
raceme, however, we find only a single axis, producing in succes-
sion a series of bracts, from which the floral pedundes arise as
lateral shoots, and thus each flower is on the same side of the
floral axis as the bract in the axil of which it is developed; but
in the uniparous cyme the flower of each of these axes, the basal
portious of which unite to form the false axis, is situated on the
opposite side of the axis to the bract from which it apparently
arises (fig. 18). The bract is not, however, the one from which
the axis terminating in the flower arises, but is a bract produced
upon it, and gives origin in its axil to a new axis, the basal portion
Fig. 20.
Fie. 19.
Fie. 21.
Fig. 1 8.— Hclicoid cyme of a species of Alstroemeria. c u <h, o», a it
ftc, separate axes successively developed in the axils of the corre-
sponding bracts b», b t , b§, &c, and ending in a flower ft,/i,/«, Ac. The
whole appears to form a simple raceme of which the axes form the
internodes.
Fig. 19. — Scorpioidal or cicinal cyme of Forget-me-not (Myosqtis
palustris).
Fig. 20. — Diagram of definite floral axes o, b. c, d, e, &c.
Fig. 21.— Flowering stalk of Ragwort (Senecto). The flowers are
in heads (capitula), and open from the circumference inwards in an
indefinite centripetal manner. The heads of flowers, on the other
hand, taken collectively, expand centrifugally — the central one a
first.
of which, constituting the next part of the false axis, occupies
the angle between this bract and its parent axis — the bract
from which the axis really does arise being situated lower down
upon the same side of the axis with itself. The uniparous cyme
presents two forms, the scorpioii or cicinal and the hclicoid or
bostryckoid.
In the scorpioid cyme the flowers are arranged alternately in a
double row along one side of the false axis (fig. 19), the bracts
when developed forming a second double row on the opposite
side; the whole inflorescence usually curves on itself like a
scorpion's tail, hence its name. In fig. 20 is shown a diagram-
matic sketch of this arrangement. The false axis, a b c d, is
formed by successive generations of unifloral axes, the flowers
being arranged along one side alternately and in a double row;
had the bracts been developed they would have formed a similar
double row on the opposite side of the false axis; the whole
inflorescence is represented as curved on itself. The inflorescence
in the family Boraglnaceae are usually regarded as true scorpioid
cymes.
In the helicoid cyme there is also a false axis formed by the
basal portion of the separate axes, but the flowers an not placed
in a double row, but in a single row, and form a spiral or helix
round the false axis. In Alstroemeria, at represented in fig. 18.
the axis a% ends in a flower (cut off in the figure) and bears a leaf .
From the axil of this leaf, that is, between it and the primary
axis fli arises a secondary axis a h ending in a flower /*, and
producing a leaf about the middle. From the axil of this kaf
a tertiary floral axis a t , ending in a flower />, takes origin.
In this case the axes are not arranged in two rows along one
side of the false axis, but are placed at regular intervals, so as
to form an elongated spiral round H.
Compound definite inflorescences are by no means common,
but in Streptocarpus polyanthus and in several calceolarias
we probably have examples. Here there are scorpioid cymes of
pairs of flowers, each pair consisting of an older and a younger
flower.
Forms of inflorescence occur, in which both the definite
and indefinite types are represented — mixed inflorescence*.
Thus in Composite plants^uch as hawkweeds(£rftrac»a)
and ragworts (Senecto, fig. 21), the heads of flowers, fJJJjL.
taken as a whole, are developed centrifugally, the ^ ^ y ,
terminal head first, while the florets, or small flowers
on the receptacle, open centripetally, those at the drcumference
first. So also in Labiatae, such as dead-nettle (Lamiun), the
different whorls of inflorescence are developed centripetally,
while the florets of the vertidllaster are centrifugal. This mixed
character presents difficulties in such cases as Labiatae, where
the leaves, in place of retaining their ordinary form, become
bracts, and thus might lead to the supposition of the whole
series of flowers being one inflorescence. In such cases the cymes
are described as spiked, racemose, or panided, according to
circumstances. In Saxifraga umbrosa (London-pride) and in
the horse-chestnut we meet with a raceme of scorpioid cymes;
in sea-pink, a capitulum of contracted scorpioid cymes (often
called a glomerulus); in laurustinus, a compound umbel of
dicbasial cymes; a scorpioid cyme of capitula in Vomonio
scorpurides. The so-called catkins of the birch are, in reality,
spikes of contracted dichasial cymes. In the bell-flower (Cam-
panula) there is a racemose uniparous cyme. In the privet
(Ligustrum vulgare) there are numerous racemes of dichasia
arranged in a racemose manner along an axis; the whole inflores-
cence thus has an appearance not unlike a bunch of grapes,
and has been called a thyrsus.
Tabular View op Inflorescences
A. Indefinite Centripetal Inflorescence.
I. Flowers solitary, axillary. Vinca, Veronica kederifoti*.
1 Flowers in groups, pedicellate.
1. Elongated torm(RAceme), Hyacinth, LaburuumhCurramL
(Corymb), Ornitkogalum.
2. Contracted or shortened form (Umbel), Cowslip,
Astranlia.
Flowers in groups, sessile.
1. Elongated form (Spike), Plantago.
(Spikekrt), Grasses.
(Amentum, Catkin), Willow, Haxl.
(Spadix) Arum, some Palms.
(Strobtlus), Hop.
2. Contract ed or shortened form (Capitulum),Zfcmy,Da»k-
lion. Scabious.
Compound Indefinite Inflorescence.
a. Compound Spike. Rye-grass.
b. Compound Spadix, Palms.
c. Compound Raceme, Astilbe.
d. Compound Umbel. Hemlock and 1
«. Raceme of Capitula, Petasites.
t /• Raceme of Umbels, Ivy.
Definite Centrifugal Inflorescence.
I. Flowers solitary, terminal. Gentianetta, Tulip.
II. Flowers in Cymes.
I. Uniparous Cyme.
0. Hclicoid Cyme (axes forming a spiral).
Elongated form, AhUoemeria.
Contracted form, Witsenia corymbose.
II.
III.
IV.
: UmbcUiferac.
FLOWER
559
b, Scofptctd Cyme (axes unilateral, two tows).
Elongated form. Forget-me-not, Symphytum,
Henbane.
Contracted form, Etodium, AlehemSh arvensis.
3* Biparous Cyme (Dichotoinoiuhincluding 3-5-chotomogB
Cymes (Dichasium, Cymose Umbel, Antheta).
a. Elongated form, Cerastium, Stellar ia.
b. Contracted form (Vcrticillaster), Dead-nettle, Pelar-
gonium,
3. Compound Definite inflorescence. Streptooarpus poly*
anihus, many Calceolarias.
C. Mixed Inflorescence.
Raceme of Scorpioid Cymes, Horse-chestnut.
' Scorpioid Cyme of Capitula, Vernoma scorpfoides.
Compound umbel of Dichotomous Cyraa.Laurustiuus.
Capitulum of contracted Scorpioid Cymes (Glomerulus),
Sea-pink.
The flower consists of the floral axis bearing the sporophylb
(stamens and carpels), usually with certain protective envelopes.
The axis is usually very much
contracted, no inter-
Avw; nodes being devel-
oped, and the portion
bearing the floral leaves, termed
the thalamus or torus, frequently
expands into a conical, flattened
or hollowed expansion; at other
times, though rarely, the inter-
nodes are developed and it is
elongated. Upon this torus the
parts of the flower are arranged
in a crowded manner, usually
forming a series of vertkfls, the
parts of which alternate; but
they are sometimes arranged
spirally especially if the floral
axis be elongated. In a typical
flower, as in fig. 2 2, we recognise
four distinct whorls of leaves:
an outer whorl, the calyx of
sepals; within it, another whorl,
the parts alternating with those
of the outer whorl, the corolla of
petals', next a whorl of parts
alternating with the parts of
the corolla, the androecium of
stamens; and in the centre the
gynoecium of carpels. Fig. 23 is
a diagrammatic representation
. of the arrangement of the parts
(2?."? °* such » fl°w«n K » known as
w ^ * a floral diagram. The flower is
Fig. 23.— Diagram of a com- supposed to be cut transversely,
pfeteJy symmetrical flower, con- and the parts of each whorl
2£2L£ Ts^^^Lt are distinguished by a different
JHtESens; cfSZ&J* * *y»bol. Of these whorls the
Fig. 24.— Monochlamydeous two internal, forming the sporo-
<»P^J«»)ft>w of Goose- phylls, constitute the essential
o^«ngtep^n^caly^fiv. organs of reproduction; the two
parts, enclosing five stamens, oul « r wnorl » are thc protective
which are opposite the divisions' coverings or floral envelopes. The
ofthe perianth, owing to the sepals are generally of a greenish
Fig. 24. Fio.
Fro- 22.— Flower
rwbens. s. Sepals; 'p, petals ; *,
; carpels.
colour; their function is mainly
absence of the petals.
anther a, containing the pollen />, delicate internal organs before
which is discharged through slits the flower opens. The petals are
"tijrS^ifeT^ usually showy, and normally
f^S^lSSS^iSSZ alternate with thesepab. Some-
of the ovary o, containing times, as usually in monocoty-
ovules. the style s, and the ledons, the calyx and corolla are
capitate stigma g. The pistil is similar; in such cases the term
placed on the receptacle r, at the *-_,■_-#* „, t% ^i onmM :- .^i.^
extremity of the peduncle. t?.' °f *"*?*** * »PP^« ! -
Thus, in the tulip, crocus, lily,
hyacinth, we speak of the parts of the perianth, in place of
calyx and corolla, although in these plants there is an outer
whorl (calyx), of three parts, and as inner (coroda), of a
similar number, alternating with them. Whan the parts of
the calyx are in appearance like petals they are said to be
petaloid, as in Liliaceae. In some cases the petals have the
appearance of sepals, then they are sepaloid, as injuncaceae.
In plants, as Nymphaea alba, where a spiral arrangement of the
floral leaves occurs, it is not easy to say where the calyx ends
and the corolla begins, as these two whorls pass insensibly into
each other. When both calyx and corolla are present, the plants
are dichlamydeous; when one only is present, the flower is
termed monochlamydeous or apetalous, having no petals (fig. 24).
Sometimes both are absent, when the flower is achlamydeous,
or naked, as in willow. The outermost series of the essential
organs, collectively termed the androecium, is composed of the
microsporophylls known as the staminal leaves or stamens. In
their most differentiated form each consists of a stalk, the
filament (fig. 25, /), supporting at its summit the anther
(a), consisting of the pollen-sacs which contain the powdery
potion (p), the microspores, which is ultimately discharged
therefrom. The gynoocium or pistil is the central portion
of the flower, terminating the floral axis. It consists of one
or more carpels (megasporophylls), either separate (fig. 32, c)
or combined (fig. 24). The parts distinguished in the pistil
are the ovary (fig. 26, o), which is the lower portion enclosing
the ovules destined to become seeds, and the stigma (g), a portion
of loose cellular tissue, the receptive surface on which the pollen
is deposited, which is either sessile on the apex of the ovary,
as in the poppy, or is separated from it by a prolonged portion
called the style (s). The androecium and gynoecium are not
present in all flowers. When both are present the flower is
hermaphrodite; and in descriptive botany such a flower is
indicated by the symbol $ . When only one of those organs
is present the flower is unisexual or diclinous, and is either male
(staminale),^, or female (pistillate), 9. A flower then normally
consists of the four series of leaves — calyx, corolla, androecium
and gynoecium— and when these are all present the flower is
complete. These are usually densely crowded
upon the thalamus, but in some instances,
after apical growth has ceased in the axis,
an elongation of portions of the receptacle
by intercalary growth occurs, by which
changes in the position of the parts may be
brought about. Thus in Lychnis an elonga-
tion of the axis betwixt the calyx and the
corolla takes place, and in this way they are
separated by an interval. Again, in the
passion-flower (Passiftora) the stamens are
separated from the corolla by an elongated
portion of the axis, which has consequently f ic# 27 , Calyx
been termed the androphore t and in Passi- and pistil of Frax-
flora also, fraxinella (fig. 27), Cappari- inclla (gktamnus
daceae, and some other plants, the ovary is rirtu'^coraistt of
raised upon a distinct stalk termed the several carpels,
gynophore; it is thus separated from the which are elevated
stamens, and is said to be sUpitaie. Usually on a stalk or gyno-
the successive whorls of the flower, disposed f k !!L*Z™!!5ru
from below upwards or from without in- ««>m .be receptacle,
wards upon the floral axis, are of the same number of parts, or
are a multiple of the same number of parts, those of one whorl
alternating with those of the whorls next it.
In the more primitive types of flowers- the torus is more or
less convex, and the series of organs follow in regular succession,
culminating in the carpels, in the formation of which the growth
of the &xis is closed (fig. 28). This arrangement is known as
hypogynous, the other series (calyx, corolla and stamens) being
beneath (hypo-) the gynoecium. In other cases, the apex of the
growing point ceases to develop, and the parts below form a cup.
around it, from the rinr of which the outer members of the flower
are developed around (peri-) the carpels, which are formed from
the apex of the growing-point at the bottom of the cup. This
arrangement is known as perigynous (fig. 20). In many cases
this is carried farther and a cavity is formed which is roofed over
560
FLOWER
by the carpels, so that the outer members of the flower spring
from the edge of the receptacle which is immediately above the
ovary (epigynous), hence the ternrepigyny (fig. 30)-
Fig. 28.
Fie. 29.
Fig. 30.
Figs. 28, 29 and 30.— Diagrams illustrating hypogyny, perigyny
and cpigyny of the flower, a, Stamens; c, carpels; p, petals;
s, sepals.
When a flower consists of parts arranged in whorls it is said
to be cyclic, and if all the whorls have an equal number of parts
and arc alternate it is encyclic (figs. 22, 23). In
f/5T* flr c 00 ** 35 * 10 thc cvclic fl ow * re •» those, as in Magnoli-
towtr. aceae, where the parts are in spirals (acyclic). Flowers
which are cyclic at one portion and spiral at another,
as in many Ranunculaceae, are termed hemicyelic. In spiral
flowers the distinction into series is by no means easy, and usually
there is a gradual passage from sepaloid through petaloid to
staminal parts, as in the water-lily family, Nymphaeaceae (figs.
31, 32), although in some plants there is no such distinction, the
Fig. 32 Fig. 31.
From Smsburgcr's Tad Book »/ Bcteny, by pernrisrioo of ManwHhn «c Co., Ltd..
Figs. 31 and 32.— White Water Lily. Fig. 31. flower; fig. 32,
successive stages, a-f, in thc transition from petals to stamens.
(After Wossidfo.)
parts being all petaloid, as in Trollius. Normally, the parts of
successive whorls alternate; but in some cases we find the parts
of one whorl opposite or superposed to those of the next whorl.
In some cases, as in the vine-family Ampelidaceae, this seems
to be the ordinary mode of development, but the superposition
of the stamens on thc sepals in many plants, as in the pink family,
Caryophyllaceae, is due to the suppression or abortion of the
whorl of petals, and this idea is borne out by the development,
in some plants of the order, of the suppressed whorl. As a rule,
whenever we find the parts of one whorl superposed on those of
another we may suspect some abnormality.
A flower is said to be symmetrical when each of its whorls
consists of an equal number of parts, or when the parts of any
one whorl are multiples of that preceding it. Thus, a sym-
metrical flower may have five sepals, five petals, five stamens and
five carpels, or the number of any of these parts may be ten,
twenty or some multiple of five. Fig. 23 is a diagram of a
symmetrical flower, with five parts in each whorl, alternating
with each other. Fig. 33 is a diagram of a symmetrical flower
of stone-crop, with five sepals, five alternating petals, ten
stamens and five carpels. Here the number of parts in the
staminal whorl is double that in the others, and in such a case
the additional five parts form a second row alternating with
the others. In the staminal whorl especially it is common to
find additional rows. Fig. 34 shows a symmetrical flower, with
five parts in the three outer rows, and ten divisions in the inner.
In this case it is the gynoecium which has an additional number
of parts. Fig. 3$ shows a flower of heath, with four divisions
of the calyx and corolla, eight stamens in two rows, and lour
divisions of the pistil. In fig.
36 there are three parts in
each whorl; and in fig. 37
there are three • divisions of
the calyx, corolla and pistil,
and six stamens in two rows.
In all these cases the flower
is symmetrical. In Mono-
cotyledons it is usual for the
staminal whorl to be double,
it rarely having more than
two rows, whilst amongst
dicotyledons there are often
very numerous rows of
stamens. The floral envelopes
are rarely multiplied. Flowers
in which the number of parts
in each whorl is the same, are
isomerous (of equal number);
when the number in some of
the whorls is different, the
flower is anisomerous (of un-
equal number). The pistil-
late whorl Is very liable to
changes. It frequently
Fio. 37-
Fig. 38.
Fig. 33.— Diagrammatic aectioB
of a symmetrical — -'
happen, that when it is fully S?o^ ^SSSSSp <&.«*
formed, the number of its skting of five sepals (*), five petali
parts is not in conformity (/>) alternating with thc sepals, tea
with that of the oth .• whorls. «amens (a) intwo rows, and fivt
In such circumstances, how- f^g^^SSt**
ever, a flower has been called carpels are glands,
symmetrical, provided the Fig. 34.— Diagram of the flower
parts of the other whorls are <* *}** W**^' co««st.ng of £*
normal, T thepermanent state ^ns^^d^car&S
of the pistil not being taken each of which is partially divided
into account in determining into two. The dots represent a
symmetry. Thus fig. 3« shows whorl of stamens which has db-
a pentamerous symmetrical pfe^mn^JrSund^^
flower, with dimerous pistil. Fig. 35— Diagram of the flow
Symmetry, then, in botanical of Heath (Erica), a regular teua-
language, has reference to a mcrous flower,
certain definite numerical J^£^SS3S^^mT^
relation of parts. A flower Fig. 37.— Diagram of the «ym-
in which the parts are mctricaitrimerous flower of Fntfl*
arranged in twos is called kry (FriliUaria).
dimerous; when the parts of jt&g^^&i^
the whorls are three, four or The calyx and corolla consist of
five, the flower is trimerous, five parts, thc stamens are ten ia
letramerous or pentamerous, two rows, while the pistil has only
respectively. Thc symmetry two P^* devc, °P e<L
which is most commonly met with is trimerous and pentamerous
— the former occurring generally among monocotyledons, the
latter among dicotyledons. Dimerous and tetramerous sym-
metry occur also among dicotyledons.
The various parts of the flower have a certain definite relation
to the axis. Thus, in axillary tetramerous flowers (fig. 35), one
sepal is next the axis, and is called superior or posterior; another
is next the bract, and is inferior or anterior, and the other two
are lateral; and certain terms are used to indicate that position.
A plane passing through thc anterior and posterior sepal and
through the floral axis is termed the median plane of thc flowei;
a plane cutting it at right angles, and passing through the lateral
sepals, is the lateral plane; whilst the planes which bisect the
.fXOWJE*
56*
angles formed by the latent and mediad planes are the Magma!
plants, and in these flowers the petals which alternate with the
sepals axe cut by the diagonal planes.
In a pentaraerous flower one sepal may be superior, as in the
calyx of Rosacea* and Labiatae; or it may be inferior, as in
the calyx of Leguminosae (fig. 30)— the reverse, by the law of
alternation, being the case with the petals. Thus, in the blossom
of the pea (figs. 39, 40), tbe odd petal (vexillum) si is superior,
Fie. 29. — Diagram of flower
of Sweet-pea {Jjothyrus), showing
five sepals (s), two superior, one
inferior, and two lateral; five
petals (p), one superior, two in-
ferior, and two lateral; ten
stamens in two rows (a); and
one carpel (c).
FlC. 40.— Flower of Pea
{Visum sativum), showing a papi-
lionaceous corolla, wuh one.
petal superior (*/) called the
standard (vexillum), two inferior
{car) catled the keel (carina),
and two lateral (a) called wings
(alae). The calyx is marked 1.
while the odd sepal is inferior. In the order Scrophulariaceae
one of the two carpels is posterior and the other anterior, whilst
in Convolvulaceae the carpels are arranged laterally. Sometimes
the twisting of a part makes a change in the position of other
parts, as in Orchid*, where the .twisting of the ovary changes.
the position of tbe labellum.
When the different members of each whorl are like in size and
shape, the flower is. said to be tegular; while differences in the
size and shape of the parts of a whorl make the flower irregular,
as in the papilionaceous flower, represented in fig. 39. When a
flower can be divided by a single plane into two exactly similar
parts, then it is said to be zygomorphk. Such flowers as Papilio-
naceae, Labiatae, are examples. In contrast with this are
polysymmetrical or actinomorphic flowers, which have a radial
symmetry and can be divided by several planes into several
exactly similar portions; such are all regular, symmetrical
flowers. When the parts of any whorl are not equal to ox some
multiple of the others, then the flower is asymmetrical. This
want of symmetry may be brought about in various ways.
Alteration in the symmetrical arrangement as well as in the
completeness and regularity of flowers has been traced to sup-
pression or the non-development of parts, degeneration or imperfect
formation, cohesion or union of parts of the same whorl, adhesion
or union of the parts of different whorls, multiplication of parts,
tnddeduplication (sometimes called cAorisw) or split ting of parts.
By suppression or non-appearance of a part at the place where
it ought to appear if the structure was normal, the symmetry
or completeness of the flower is disturbed. This suppression
when confined to the parts of certain verticils makes the flower
asymmetrical. Thus, in many Caryophyllaeeae, as Polycarpon
and Holosteum, while the calyx and corolla are pentamerous,.
there are only three or four stamens and three carpels; in
Jmpaliens Noli-me-langere the calyx is composed of three parts,
while the other verticils have five; in labiate flowers there are
five parts of the calyx and corolla, and only four stamens; and
in Tropaeolum pentaphyllum there are five sepals, two petals,
eight stamens and three carpels. In all these cases the want of
symmetry is traced to the suppression of certain parts. In the
last-mentioned plant the normal number is five, hence it is said
that there are three petals suppressed, as shown by the position
of the two remaining ones; there are two rows of stamens,
in each of which one is wanting; and there are two carpels
suppressed. In many instances the parts which are afterwards
suppressed can be seen in the early stages of growth, and occasion-
ally some vestiges of them remain in the fully developed flower.
By the suppression of the verticil of the stamens, or of the
carpels, flowers become unisexual or diclinous, and by the
suppression of one or both of the floral envelopes, monochlamy-
deous and achlamydeous flowers are produced. The suppression
of parts of the flower may be carried so far that at last a flower
consists of only one part of one whorl. In the Euphorbiaceac we
have an excellent example of tbe gradual suppression of parts,
where from an apetalous, trimcrous, staminal flower we pass to
one where one of the stamens is suppressed, and then to forms
where two of them are wanting. Wc next have flowers in which
the calyx is suppressed, and its place occupied by one, two or
three bracts (so that the flower is, properly speaking, achlamy-
deous), and only one or two stamens are produced. And finally,
we find flowers consisting of a single stamen with a bract There
is thus traced a degradation, as it is called, from a flower with
three stamens and three divisions of the calyx, to one with a
single bract and a single stamen.
Degeneration, or the transformation of parts, often gives rise
either to an apparent want of symmetry or to irregularity in
form. In unisexual flowers it is not uncommon to find vestiges
of the undeveloped stamens in the form of filiform bodies or
scales. In double flowers transformations of the stamens and
pistils take place, so that they appear as petals. In Canna h
what are called petals art in reality metamorphosed stamens.
In the ca pi tula of Compositae we sometimes find the florets
converted into green leaves. The limb of the calyx may appear
as a rim, as in some Umbclli ferae; or as pappus, in Compositae
and Valeriana. In Scrophularia the fifth stamen appears as a
scale-like body; in other Scrophulariaceae, as in Pentstemon,
it assumes the form of a filament, with hairs at its apex in place
of an anther.
Cohesion, or the union of parts of the same whorl, and adhesion,
or the growing together of parts of different whorb, are causes
of change both as regards form and symmetry. Thus in Cucvbita
the stamens are originally five in number, but subsequently
some cohere, so that three stamens only are seen in the mature
flower. Adhesion is well seen in the gynostemium of orchids,
where the stamens and stigmas adhere. In Capparidaccae
the calyx and petals occupy their usual position, but the axis
is prolonged in the form of a gynophoro, to which the stamens
ate united.
Multiplication, or- an increase of the number of parts, gives
rise to changes. We have already alluded to the interposition
of new members in a whorl. This takes place chiefly in the
staminal whorl, but usually the additional parts produced form
a symmetrical whorl with tbe others. In some instances,
however, this is not the case. Thus in the horse-chestnut them
u an interposition of two stamens, and thus seven stamens are
formed in the flower, which is asymmetrical
Farts of the flower are often increased by a process of doduplica-
tion, or okorisis,is. the splitting of a part so that two or more
pacts areiocmed out of what was originally one. Thus in Cruci-
ferous plants the staminal whorl consists of four long stamens
and two short ones (Mradymmotu). The symmetry in the flower
is evidently dimerous, and the abnormality in the androecium,
where the four long stamens are opposite the posterior sepals,
takes-place by a splitting, at a* very early stage of development,
of a single outgrowth' into two. Many cases of what was con-
sidered chorisis are in reality due to tbe development of stipules
from the staminal leaf. Thus in Dkenlra and Corydalis there
are six stamens in two bundles; the central one of each bundle
alone is perfect, the lateral ones have each only half an anther,
and are really stipules formed from the staminal leaf. Branching
of stamens also produces apparent want of symmetry; thus,
in the soicalled polyadelphous stamens of Hypericaceae there
are really only five stamens which give off numerous branches,
but the basal portion remaining short, the branches have the
appearance of separate stamens, and the flower thus seems
asymmetrical.
Cultivation has a great effect in causing changes in the various
parts of plants. Many alterations in form, size, number and
adhesion of parts are due to the art of the horticulturist. The
changes in the colour and forms of flowers thus produced are
endless. In tbe dahlia the florets are rendered quilled, and are
made to assume many glowing colours. In pelargonium the
flowers have been rendered larger- and more showy; and such is
2a
562
FLOWER
also the case with the Ranunculus, the auricula and the carna-
tion. Some flowers, with spurred petals in their usual state,
as columbine, are changed so that the spurs disappear; and
others, as linaria, in which one petal only is usually spurred,
are altered so as to have all the petals spurred, and to present
what are called pdorian varieties.
As a convenient method of expressing the arrangement of the
parts of the flower, fiord formulae have been devised. Several
modes of expression are employed. The following is a very
siniple mode which has been proposed: — The several whorls
are represented by the letters S (sepals), P (petals), St (stamens),
C (carpels), and a figure marked after each indicates the number
of parts in that whorl. Thus the formula SsPjSt jC» means that
Fig. 41. Fig. 42. Fig. 43.
Fig. 41.— Tetramerous monochlamydcous male flower of the
Nettle (Urtka).
Fig. 4a. — Diagram to illustrate valvular or valvate aestivation, in
which the parts are placed in a circle, without overlapping or folding.
Fig. 43. — Diagram to illustrate induplicative or induplicatc
aestivation, in which the parts of the verticil are slightly turned
inwards at the edges.
the flower is perfect, and has pentamerous symmetry, the whorls
being isomerous. Such a flower as that of Sedum (fig. 33) would
be represented by the formula S t PtStft+»Cft, where St»+» indicates
that the stamina! whorl consists of two rows of five parts each.
A flower such as the male flower of the nettle (fig. 41) would be
expressed StPoStiC* When no other mark is appended the
whorls are supposed to be alternate; but if it is desired to mark
the position of the whorls special symbols are employed. Thus,
to express the superposition of one whorl upon another, a line is
drawn between them, e.g. the symbol S*P 6 1 St»C» is the formula
of the flower of Primulaceae.
The manner in which the parts are arranged in the flower-bud
with respect to each other before opening is the aestivation or
praefioration. The latter terms are applied to the flower-bud
in the same way as vernation is to the leaf-bud, and distinctive
names have been given to the different arrangements exhibited,
both by the leaves individually and in their relations to each
other. As regards each leaf of the flower, it is either spread out,
as the sepals in the bud of the lime-tree, or folded upon itself
(conduphcate), as in the petals of some species of Lysimachia,
or slightly folded inwards or outwards at the edges, as in the
Fig. 44* Flo. 45- Fig. 46.
Fig. 44. — Diagram to illustrate reduplicative or reduplicate
aestivation, in which the parts of the whorl are slightly turned out-
wards at the edges.
Fig. 45.— Diagram to illustrate contorted or twisted aestivation, in
which the parts of the whorl are overlapped by each other in turn,
and are twisted on their axis.
Fig. 46. — Diagram to illustrate the quincuncial aestivation, in
which the parts of the flower are arranged in a spiral cycle, so that
X and a are wholly external, a and 5 are internal, and 3 is partly
external and partly overlapped by 1.
calyx of some species of clematis and of some herbaceous plants,
or rolled up at the edges (involute or re volute), or folded trans-
versely, becoming crumpled or corrugated, as in the poppy.
When the parts of a whorl are placed in an exact circle, and are
applied to each other by their edges only, without overlapping
or being folded, thus resembling the valves of a seed-vessel,
the aestivation is valvate (fig. 4a). The edges of each of the parts
may be turned either inwards or outwards; in the former case
the aestivation is induplkata (fig. 43), in the latter case reduplicate
(fig. 44). When the parts of a single whorl are placed in a circle,
each of them exhibiting a torsion of its axis, so that by one of its
sides it overlaps its neighbour, whilst its side is overlapped in like
manner by that standing next to it, the aestivation is hcisied
or contorted (fig. 45). This arrangement is characteristic of the
flower-buds of Malvaceae and Apocynaceae, and it is also stea
in Convolvulaccae and Caryophyllaceae. When the flower
expands, the traces of twisting often disappear, but sometimes,
as in Apocynaceae, they remain. Those forms of aestivatioa
are such as occur in cyclic flowers, and they are included under
circular aestivation. But in spiral flowers we have a different
arrangement; thus the leaves of the calyx of Camellia japonue
cover each other partially like tiles on a house. This aestivation
is imbricate. At other times, as in the petals of Camellia, the
parts envelop each other completely, so as to become convolute.
This is also seen in a transverse section of the calyx of Magudi*
grandiflora, where each of the three leaves embraces that wittua
it. When the parts of a whorl are five, as occurs in many
dicotyledons, and the imbrication is such that there are two
parts external, two internal, and a fifth which partially covers
one of the internal parts by
its margin, and is in its
turn partially covered by
one of the external parts,
the aestivation is quin-
cuncial (bg. 46). Thb quin-
cunx is common in the
corolla of Rosaceae. In
fig. 47 a section is given
of the bud of Antirrhinum
majus, showing the imbri-
cate spiral arrangement.
**
O
Fig. 47*
Fig. 4*.
Fig. 47.— Diagram to illustrate in-
In this case it will be seen fc"^** aestivation, in which the
J? IH J* 1 j 1? P 1 " 4 » re *nanged in a spiral o*k.
that the part marked 5 has, following the order indicated by the
by a slight change in post- figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
tion, become overlapped by FlG - 48-— Diagram of a
1. This variety of imbri- %%£!%&"**' **
cate aestivation has been 1 and 2, The alac or wings,
termed cochlear. In flowers 3, A part of the carina or Iced.
such as those of the pea 4. The vexillum 01 -standard, which,
(fig. 40) one of the parts, ?&£<£&£&!:&
the vexillum, is often large comes external,
and folded over the others, 5, The remaining part of the keel,
giving rise to vexiUary The order of the cycle is indicated
aestivation (fig. 48), or the bv xhe fi 8 ure *
carina may perform a similar office, and then the aestivation is
carinal, as in the Judas-tree {Cercis Siliquastrum). The parts of
the several verticils often differ in their mode of aestivation.
Thus, in Malvaceae the corolla is contorted and the calyx valvate,
or reduplicate; in St John's- wort the calyx is imbricate, and
the corolla contorted. In Convolvulaceae, while the corolla is
twisted, and has its parts arranged in a circle, the calyx is imbri-
cate, and exhibits a spiral arrangement. In Guaxuma the calyx
is valvate, and the corolla induplicate. The circular aestivatioa
is generally associated with a regular calyx and corolla, while the
spiral aestivations are connected with irregular as well as with
regular forms.
The sepals are sometimes jree or separate from each other,
at other times they are united to a greater or less extent; in the
former case, the calyx is polyscpalous f in the latter g ^^
gamosepalous or monoscpalous. The divisions of the ^** >
calyx present usually the characters of leaves, and in some cases
of monstrosity they are converted into leaf-like organs, as not
infrequently happens in primulas. They are usually entire,
but occasionally they are cut in various ways, as in the rose;
they are rarely stalked. Sepals are generally of a more or less
oval, elliptical or oblong form, with their apices either blunt or
FLOWER
5*3
acute. In their direction they are erect or refiexed (with their
apices downwards), spreading outwards {diver gent or patulous),
or arched inwards (connivent). They are usually of a greenish
colour (herbaceous); but sometimes they are coloured or
petahid, as in the fuchsia, tropteolum, globe-flower and
pomegranate. Whatever be its colour, the external envelope
of the flower is considered as the calyx. The vascular bundles
sometimes form a prominent rib, which indicates the middle of
the sepal; at other times they form several ribs. The venation
is useful as pointing out the number of leaves which constitute
a gamosepalous calyx. In a polysepalous calyx the number
of the parts is indicated by Greek numerals prefixed; thus,
a calyx which has three sepals is trisepalaus; one with five sepals
is pentasepahus. The sepals occasionally are of different forms
and sizes. In Aconite one of them k shaped like a helmet
(galeate). In a gamosepalous calyx the sepals are united in
various ways, sometimes very slightly, and their number is
marked by the divisions at the apex. These divisions either
are simple projections in the form of acute or obtuse teeth
<fig. 49); or they extend down the calyx as fissures about halfway,
Fig. 5j.
pio. 5a.
From &fubusH*&*ftecft *r
botamik. by pcrmiaioo of Gmttv
Fischer.
Fie. 53-
Fig. 49. — Gamosepalous five-toothed calyx of Campion (Lychnis).
Fig. 50.— Obsolete calyx (c) of Madder (Rubia) adherent to the
pistil, in the form of a rim.
Fig. 51.— Feathery pappus attached to the fruit of Groundsel
(Senecio vulgaris).
Fig. s?.—Caducous calyx (/) of Poppy. There are two sepals
which fan off before the petals expand.
FIG. 53.— Fruit of Physalis Alkrkengi,
alyx (s), sui J! — '*--*- ' ' v J - '
Duchartre.)
„. . jng of the persistent
calyx (s), surrounding the berry (Jr), derived from the ovary. (After
the calyx being trifid (three-cleft), quinquejul (five-deft), ftc,
according to their number; or they reach to near the base in -the
form of partitions, the calyx being tripartite, quadripartite,
quinque partite, &e. The union of the parts may be complete,
and the calyx may be quite entire or truncate, as in some Comas,
the venation being the chief indication of the different parts.
The cohesion is sometimes irregular, some parts uniting to a
greater extent than others; thus a two-Hoped or labiate calyx
is formed. The upper lip is often composed of three parts,
which are thus posterior or next the axis, while the lower has
two, whkh arc anterior. The part formed by the union of the
sepals is called the tube of the calyx; the portion where the sepals
are free is the limb.
Occasionally, certain parts of the sepals undergo marked
enlargement. In the violet the calycine segments are prolonged
downwards beyond their insertions, and in the Indian cress
(Tropaeotum) this prolongation is in the form of a spur (jcalcar),
formed by three sepals; in Delphinium it is formed by one.
In Pelargonium the spur from one of the sepals is adherent to
the flower-stalk. In PotentUla and allied genera an epicakyx is
formed by the development of stipules from the sepals, which
form an apparent outer calyx, the parts of which alternate with
the true sepals. In Malvaceae an eptcalyx is formed by the
bracteoles. Degenerations take place in the calyx, so that it
becomes dry, scaly and glumaceous (like the glumes of grasses),
as in the rushes (Juncace&c); hairy, as in Compositae; or a
mere rim, as in some Umbcllifcrac and Acanthaceac, and in
Madder (Rubia tinctorum, fig. 50), when it is called obsolete or
marginate. In Compositae, Dipsacaceae and Valerianaceae
the. calyx is attached to the pistil, and Its limb is developed in
the form of hairs called pappus (fig. 51). This pappus is either
simple (pilose) or feathery (plumose). In Valeriana the superior
calyx is at first an obsolete rim, but as the fruit ripens it is shown
to consist of hairs rolled inwards, which expand so as to waft
the fruit. The calyx sometimes falls off before the flower
expands, as in poppies, and is caducous (fig. 52); or along with
the corolla, as in Ranunculus, and is deciduous', or it remains
after flowering (persistent) as in Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae,
and Boraginaceae; or its base only is persistent, as in Datura
Stramonium. In Eschscholtzia and Eucalyptus the sepals remain
united at the upper part, and become disarticulated at the base
or middle, so as to come off in the -form of a lid or funnel. Such
a calyx is opercular or calyptrate. The existence or non-existence
of an articulation determines the deciduous or persistent nature
of the calyx.
The receptacle bearing the calyx is sometimes united to the
pistil, and enlarges so as to form a part of the fruit, as in the
apple, pear, &c In these fruits the withered calyx is seen at
the apex. Sometimes a persistent calyx increases much after
flowering, and encloses the fruit without being incorporated
with it, becoming accrescent, as in various species of Physalis
(fig. 53); at other times it remains in a withered or marcescent
form, as in Erica; sometimes it becomes inflated or vesicular,
as in sea campion (Silene maritima).
The corolla is the more or less coloured attractive inner floral
envelope; generally the most conspicuous whorl. It is present
in the greater number of Dicotyledons. Petals differ r>nrfhh
more from ordinary leaves than sepals do, and are c * fWI *
much more nearly allied to the staminal whorl. In some cases,
however, they are transformed into leaves, like the calyx, and
occasionally leaf-buds are developed in their axil. They are
seldom green, although occasionally that colour Is met with, as
in some species of Cobaea, Hoya viridifiora, Gonolobus viridiflorus
and Pentatropis spiralis. As a rule they are highly coloured,
the colouring matter being contained in the cell-sap, as in blue
or red flowers, or in plastids (chromoplasts) , as generally in yellow
flowers, or in both forms, as in many orange-coloured or reddish
flowers. The attractiveness of the petal is often due wholly or
in part to surface markings; thus the cuticle of the petal of a
pelargonium, when viewed with a \ or J -in. object-glass, shows
beautiful hexagons, the boundaries of which are ornamented with
several inflected loops in the sides of the cells.
Petals are generally glabrous or smooth; but, in some
instances, hairs are produced on their surface. Petaline hairs,
though sparse and scattered, present occasionally the same
arrangement as those which occur on the leaves; thus, in
Bombaccae they are stellate. Coloured hairs are seen on the
petals of Menyanthes, and on the segments of the perianth of
Iris. They serve various purposes in the economy of the flower,
often closing the way to the honey-secreting part of the flower
to small insects, whose visits would be useless for purposes of
pollination. Although petals are usually very thin and delicate
in their texture, they occasionally become thick and fleshy,
as in Stapdia and Rafftesia; or dry, as in heaths; or hard and
stiff, as in Xytopia. A petal often consists of two portions—the
lower narrow, resembling the petiole of a leaf, and called the
unguis or daw, the upper broader, like the blade of a leaf, and
called the lamina or limb. These parts are seen in the petals
of the wallflower (fig. 54). The claw is often wanting, as in the
crowfoot (fig. 55) and the poppy, and the petals are then sessile.
According to the development of veins and the growth of cellular
tissue, petals present varieties similar to those of leaves. Thus
the margin is either entire or divided into lobes or teeth. These
teeth sometimes form a regular fringe round the margin, and the
S*4
FLOWER
petal becomes fimbriated, as in the pink; ot herniated, as in
Lychnis Flos-cuculr, or crested, as in Polygal*. Sometimes the
petal becomes pinnatifid, as in Schizopeiolum. The median vein
is occasionally prolonged beyond the summit of the petals in
the form of a long process, as in Strophanthus hispidus, where
it extends for 7 in. ; or the prolonged extremity is folded down-
wards or inflexed, as in Umbclltferae, so that the apex approaches
the base. The limb of the petal may be flat or concave, ot
hollowed like a boat. In Hellebore the petals become folded
Fio. 56.
Fig. 57.
Fio. 54.— Unguiculate or clawed petal of Wallflower (Cheironthus
Cheiri). c, The daw or unguis ; /, the blade or lamina.
Fie. 55. — Petal of Crowfoot {Ranunculus), without a claw, and
thus resembling a sessile leaf. At the base of the petal a nectariferous
scale is seen.
Fie. 56.— Tubular petal of Hellebore (HelUborus).
Fio. 37. — Pansy (Viola tricolor). Longitudinal section of flower;
?S bractcolc on the peduncle; /, sepals; Is, appendage of sepal; c,
petals; cs, spur of the lower petals; Js, glandular
lower stamens; a, anthers. (After Sachs.)
(From Vino' Slmdtnlf Text Bock of Botany, by permission of Swan Saaarascbtta
It Co.)
FiC. 5$. — Part of the flower of Aconite (Aconitum Napeltus), show-
ing two irregular horn-fikc petals (p) supported on grooved stalks (o).
These serve as nectaries, s, the whorl of stamens inserted on the
thalamus and surrounding the pistil.
in a tubular form, resembling a horn (fig. 56); in aconite (fig. 58)
some of the petals resemble a hollow-curved horn, supported
on a grooved stalk; while in columbine, violet (fig. 57),
snapdragon and Centranlhus, one or all of them axe prolonged
in the form of a spur, and are calcarate. In Valeriana, Antir-
rhinum and Corydalis, the spur is very short, and the corolla
or petal is said to be gibbous, or saccate, at the base. These spurs,
tubes and sacs serve as receptacles for the secretion ot containing
of nectar,
A corolla is dipetalous, tripetalous, ktropetalmts or pcntapetalous
according as it has two, three, four or five separate petals. The
general name of polypetalous is given to corollas having separate
petals, while monopetaious, gamopetalous or sympetalous is applied
to those in which the petals are united. This union generally
takes place at the base, and extends more or less towards the
apex; in Phyteuma the petals are united at their apices also.
In some polypetalous corollas, as that of the vine, the petals are
separate at the base and adhere by the apices. When the petals
are equal as regards their development and size, the corolla is
regular; when unequal, it is irregular. 'When & corolla is gamo-
pctalous it usually happens that the lower portion forms a
tube, while the upper parts are either free or partially united,
so as to form a common limb, the point of union ol the two
portions being the throat, which often exhibits a distinct constric-
tion or dilatation. The number of parts forming such acotoUa
can be determined by the divisions, whether existing as teeth,
crenalions, fissures or partitions, or if, as rarely happens, the
corolla is entire, by the venation. The union may be equal
among the parts, or some may unite more than others,
Amongst regular polypetalous corollas may be noticed the
rosaceous corolla (fig. 59), in whkh there are five spreading
petals, having no claws, and arranged as in the rose, strawberry
and PotentUla-, the caryophylioceous corolla, in which there are
five petals with long, narrow, tapering claws, as in many of the
pink tribe; the cruciform, having four
petals, often unguiculate, pUcedopposite
in the form of a cross, as seen in watt-
flower, and in other plants called cruci-
ferous. Of irregular polypetalous corollas
the most marked is the papilionaceous
(fig. 40), in which there are five petals:
— one superior (posterior), st, placed Fio. 50.— F
next to the axis, usualjy larger than the corolla £) of the Sera w-
rest, called the vexiUum or standard; berry ifnffg* *««),
two lateral, a, the aloe or wings; two Zgjg^** F * U
inferior (anterior), partially or com-
pletely covered by the alae, and often united slightly by their
lower margins, so as to form a single keel-like piece, car % caDed
carina, or keel, which embraces the essential organs. This form
of corolla is characteristic of British leguminous plants.
Regular gamopetalous corollas are sometimes campanula!* or
beU-shaped, as in (Campanula) (fig. 60); infundibulifarm or
funnel-shaped, when the tube is like an inverted cone, and the
limb becomes more expanded at the apex, as in tobacco; kypo-
crateriform or salver-shaped, when there is a straight tube sur-
mounted by a flat spreading limb, as in primula (fig. 61) ; tubular,
having a long cylindrical tube, appearing continuous with the
limb, as in Spigetia and comfrey; rotate or wheel-shaped, when
the tube is very short, and the limb flat and spreading, as to
forget-me-not, Myosotis (when the divisions of the rotate cordis
are very acute, as in Galium, it is sometimes called stellate or
star-like)-, urceolale or urn-shaped, when there is scarcely any
limb, and the tube is narrow at both ends, and expanded in the
■middle, as in bell-heath (Erica cinerea). Some of these forms
may become irregular in consequence of certain parts being more
developed than others. Thus, in Veronica, the rotate corolla
has one division much smaller than the rest, and in foxglove
(Digitalis) there is a
slightly irregular
companulate cor-
olla. Of irregular
gamopetalous cor-
ollas there may be
mentioned the labiate
or lipped (fig. 62),
having two divisions
of the limb in the
form of lips (the
upper one, u, com-
posed usually of two
united petals, and
the lower,/, of three),
separated by a gap.
In such cases the tube varies in length, and the parts in their
union follow the reverse order of what occurs in the calyx, where
two sepals are united in the lower lip and three in the upper.
When the upper lip of a labiate corolla is much arched, and the
lips separated by a distinct gap, it is called ringent (fig. 62). The
labiate corolla characterizes the natural order Labiatae. When
the lower lip is pressed against the upper, so as to leave only a
chink between them, the corolla is said to be personate, as in
snapdragon, and some other Scrophulariaccae. In some corollas
the two lips become hollowed out in a remarkable manner, as in
calceolaria, assuming a slipper-like appearance, similar to what
occurs in the labellum of some orchids, as Cypriptdium. When a
tubular corolla is split in such a way as to form a strap-tike process
on one side with several tooth-like projections at its apex, it
becomes Ugulale or strap-shaped (fig. 63). This corolla occurs
in many composite plants, as in the florets of dandelion, daisy
and chicory. The number of divisions at the apex indicates the
number of united petals, some of which, however, may be
From StraAarce* Lekrtouh to &fa«a. fcy {era*-
kirn of Guauv rather.
Fie. 6o.-r-Flowerof Campanula medium-,
d, bract; r, bracteoles.
flower
S6 S
Fig. 6i. Pio. 6a. Fig. 63.
Abortive. Occasionally some of the petals become more united
than others, and then the corolla assumes a bilabiate or two-lipped
form, as seen Iu the division of Compositae called Labiatiflorae.
Petals are sometimes suppressed, and sometimes the whole
corolla is absent . In A morpka and Aftdia the corolla a reduced to
a single petal, and in some other Leguminous plants it is entirely
•wanting. In the natural order Ranunculaceae, some genera, such
as Ranunculus, globe-flower and paeony, have both calyx and
corolla, while others, such as clematis, anemone and Caltha, have
only a coloured calyx. Flowers become double by the multiplica-
tion of the parts of the corolline whorl; this arises in general
from a metamorphosis of the stamens.
Certain structures occur on the petals of some flowers, which
received in former days the name of nectaries. The term nectary
was very vaguely applied
by Linnaeus to any part
of the flower which pre-
sented an unusual aspect,
as the crown {corona) of
narcissus, the fringes of
the Passion-flower, &c. If
the name is retained it
ought properly to include
only those parts which
secrete a honey-like sub-
stance, as the glandular
depression at the base of
the perianth of the fritil-
- * « * .. ,« . fery, OT on th « P* tal of
mmuTrnMe^ZAS^^L X*"*nculus (fig. ss),or on
jSnMoTa^ the stamen, of Rutaceae.
c, corolla consisting of tube and spread- The honey secreted by
tag limb; a, stamens springing from flowers attracts insects,
the mouth of the tube; ^pisdL which by conveying the
Fig. 6a.— Irregular gamopetalous M „ ' * # . J Zr :m , m
labiate corolla of theHDeVd-nettJe P2 Uen *° "? 8U S m *>
(Latnium album). The upper lip u is effect fertilization. The
composed of two petals united, the horn-like nectaries under
lower lip (0 of three, Between the the ffuleate aenal of
twohpsthereisagap. The throat is ;".*,£ f m f^JLi
the part where the tube and the labiate ^ mte W 5») are modi-
Kmb join. From the arching of the ned petals, so also are the
upper lip this corolla is called ringent. tubular nectaries of hel-
It is a tabular floret, split down on ooe BKxBficeUonS of some part
side, with the united petals forming a of the flower, especially
straplike projection. The lines on the of the corolla and stamens,
flat portion indicate the divisions of the ajg produced either by
five petals. From the tubular portion j.-JI. --#$«- ~- ~„ *
bctowTthe bifid style projects slightly, degeneration or out-
* growth, or by chonsts,
or deduplicaUon. Of this nature are the scales on the petals in
Lychnis, Silene and Cynoglossum, which are formed in the same
way as the ligules of grasses. In other cases, as in Samolus,
the scales are alternate with the petals, and may represent altered
stamens. In Narcissus the appendages are united to form a
crown, consisting of a membrane similar to that which unites
the stamens in Pancratium. It is sometimes difficult to say
whether these structures axe to be referred to the corolline or to
the stamina! row.
Petals are attached to the axis usually by a narrow base.
When this attachment takes place by an articulation, the petals
fall off either immediately after expansion {caducous) or after
fertilisation {deciduous). A corolla which k continuous with the
axis and not articulated to it, as in campanula and heaths,
may be persistent, and remain in a withered or marccscent state
while the fruit is ripening. A gamopetalous corolla falls off in
one piece; but sometimes the base of the corolla remains per-
sistent, as in Rkinanihus and Orobancke.
The stamens and the pistU are sometimes* spoken of as the
essential organs of the flower, as the presence of both is required
in order that perfect seed may be produced. As with few excep-
tions the stamen represents a leaf which has been specially
developed to bear the pollen or microspores, it is spoken of in
comparative morphology as a microsporophyll; similarly the
carpels which make up the pistil are the megasporophylle (see
Angiospesms). Hermaphrodite or bisexual flowers are those
in which both these organs are found; unisexual or diclinous
are those in which only one of these organs appears,-- those
bearing stamens only, being staminiferous or " male "; those
having the pistil only, pisMliferous or " female." But even in
plants with hermaphrodite flowers self-fertilisation is often pro-
vided against by the structure of the parts or by the period of
ripening of the organs. For instance, in Primula and Lmum
some flowers have long stamens and a pistil with a short style;
the others having short stamens and a pistil with a long style.
The former occur in the so-called thrum-eyed primroses (fig. 61),
the latter in the " pin-eyed." Such plants are called dimorphic.
Other plants are Irimerphic, as species of Lythrum, and proper
fertilisation is only effected by combination of parts of equal
length. In some plants the stamens are perfected before the
pistil; these are called proterandrous, as in Ranunculus repots,
Silene maritime, Zea Mays. In other plants, but more rarely,
the pistil is perfected before the stamens, as hi Potontilla argemieo,
Plantago major, Coix Lachryma, and they are termed pro-
terogynous. Plants in which proterandry or proterogyny occurs
are called dichogamous. When in -the same plant there are
unisexual flower*, both male and female, the plant is said to be
monoecious, as in the haxel and castor-oil plant. When the male
and female flowers of a species are found on separate plants,
the term dioecious is appKed, as in Mercurialis and hemp; and
when a species has male, female and hermaphrodite flowers
on the same or different plants, as in Parictaria, it is polygamous.
The stamens arise from the thalamus or torus within the
petals, with which they generally alternate, forming one or more
whorls, which collectively constitute the androecium
Their normal position is below the pistil, and when
tbey are so placed (fig.64, a) upon the thalamus they are hype*
gynous. Sometimes they become adherent to the petals, or are
epipetalous, and the insertion of both is looked upon as similar,
so that they are still hypogynous, provided they are independent'
of the calyx and the pistil. In other cases they are perigynous
or epigynous (fig. 6$). Numerous intermediate forms occur,
especially amongst Saxif ragaceae, where the parts arc half superior
or half inferior. Where the stamens become adherent to the
pistil so as to form a column, the flowers are said to be gynandrous,
as in Aristolochia (fig. d^r**^
66). These arrange- ^^
ments of parts are of (C*
great importance in v ~*\
classification. The£
stamens vary in num- ffi*^
ber from one to many \Jj
hundreds. In acyclic V,
flowers there is often
a gradual transition
from petals to
stamens, as in the
white water-lily (fig.
31). When flowers be-
come double by cul-
tivation, the stamens
are converted into
petals, as in the
paeony, camellia,
rose, &c When there is only one whori the stamens are
usually equal in number to the sepals or petals, and are-
arranged opposite to the former, and alternate with the latter.
The flower is then isostemonous. When the stamens are not
equal in number to the sepals or petals, the flower is anisostc-
monous. When there is more than one whorl of stamens, then the
parts of each successive whorl alternate with those of the whorl
preceding it. The stamina! row is more liable to multiplication
of parts than the outer whorls. A flower with a single row of
stamens is haplostemonous. If the stamens are double the sepals
or petals as regards number, the flower is diplostemonous; if
more than double, polystcmonous. The additional rows of
From Stra»Wrrr*s LtktbwJiitr Botamik, by pet-
■fcakn of Oaata* Pitcher.
Fio. 64.— Flower of Patonia pertgrina,in
longitudinal section, k. Sepal; c, petal; a.
— — '~— ■ g. pistS.
566
FLOWER
stamens may be developed in the usual centripetal (acropetal)
order, as in Rhamnaceae; or they may be Interposed between
the pre-existing ones or be placed outside them, i.e. develop
ccntrifugally (basipetally), as in geranium and oxalis, when the
flower is said to be obdiplostomonous* When the stamens are
fewer than twenty they axe said to be definite; when above
twenty they are indefinite, and are represented by the symbol ».
The number of stamens is indicated by the Greek numerals
prefixed to the term androus; thus a flower with one stamen
is monandrous, with two, three, four, five, six or many stamens,
di-, tri-, tetrw, pent-, hex- or polyandrous, respectively.
The function of the stamen is the development and distribution
of the pollen. The stamen usually consists of two parts, a con-
tracted portion, often thread-like, termed the filament (fig. 25/),
and a broader portion, usually of two lobes, termed the anther (a),
containing the powdery poUen (Ph tad supported upon the end
of the filament. That
portion of the filament
in contact with the
anther-lobes is termed
the connective. If the
fan Slnsbvisrt UMmck 4m B*m*. by ptr-
tmmm of OtauV Ftafav.
Flo. 66.— Flowen of Arittolockia Clem-
Fio. 65.— Flower of
AraUa in vertical sec-
tion, c, Calyx; p, petal;
a, stamen; s, stigmas.
The calyx, petals and
stamens spring from
above the ovary (0) in
which two chambers
arc shown each with a
pendulous ovule; d, due
between the stamens
and stigmas*
anther is absent the «^^ cut through longitudinally. I.Young
stamen is abortive, flower in which the stigma (AQ » receptive
and cannot perform and the stamens (S) have not yet opened ;
its functions. The ll older flower ™ th the stamens (£)
anther U developed ^■££%% n $? na - •"» tbe *—
before the filament,
and when tbe latter is not produced, the anther is sessile, as in
the mistletoe.
The filament is usually, as its name imports, filiform or thread-
like, and cylindrical, or slightly tapering towards its summit.
It is often, however, thickened, compressed and flattened in
various ways, becoming petaloid in Canna, Marania, water-lily
(fig- 33) ; subulate or slightly broadened at the base and drawn
out onto a point like an awl, as in BuUmus umbellatus; or
clavate, that is, narrow below and broad above, as in Thalictrum.
In some instances, as in Tamarix gallica, Peganum Uarmala,
and Campanula, the base of the filament is much dilated, and
ends suddenly in a narrow thread-like portion. In these cases
the base may give off lateral stipulary processes, as in Allium
and Alyssum calycinum. The filament varies much in length
and in firmness. The length sometimes bears a relation to that
of the pistil, and to the position of the flower, whether erect or
drooping. The filament is usually of sufficient solidity to support
the anther in an erect position; but sometimes, as in grasses,
and other wind-pollinated flowers, it is very delicate and hair-like,
so that the anther is pendulous (fig. 105). The filament is
generally continuous from one end to the other, but in some
cases it is bent or jointed, becoming geniculate, at other times,
as in the peUitory, it is spiral It is colourless, or of different
colours. Thus in fuchsia and Poindana, it is red; in Adamia
and Tradescantia virginica, blue, in Oenothera and Ranunculus
acris, yellow.
Hairs, scales, teeth or processes of different kinds arc some-
times developed on the filament, in spiderwort (Tradeuammm
virginica) the hairs are beautifully coloured, moniliform or
necklace-like, and afford good objects for studying rotation
of the protoplasm. Filaments are usually articulated to the
thalamus or torus, and the stamens fall off after fertilization;
but in Campanula and some other plants they are continuous
with the torus, and the stamens remain persistent, although in a
withered state. Changes are produced in the whorl of stamens
by cohesion of tbe filaments to a greater or less extent, whik
the anthers remain free; thus, all the filaments of the androcdum
may unite, forming a tube
round the pistil, or a central
bundle when the pistil is abor-
tive, the stamens becoming
numaddphous, as occurs in
plants of the Mallow tribe; or
they may be arranged in two
bundles, the stamens being
diaddphout, as in Poly gala,
Fumaria and Pea; in this case
the bundles may be equal or
unequal. It frequently happens,
especially in Papilionaceous
flowers, that out of ten stamens
nine are united by their fila-
ments, while one (the posterior
one) is free (fig. 68). When
there are three or more bundles
the stamens are triaddphous, as in Hypericum atgypnmmm, or
polyadelphous, as in Ricmus communis (castor-oil). In some
cases, as in papilionaceous flowers, the stamens cohere, having
been originally separate, but in most cases each bundle is pro-
duced by the branching of a single stamen. When there are
three stamens in a bundle we may conceive the lateral ones
as of a stipulary nature. In Lauraceae there are perfect
stamens, each having at the base of the filament two abortive
stamens or staminodes, which may be analogous to ^r^n
Filaments sometimes are adherent to the pistil, forming a ™>™«»«
(gynostemium), as in Stylidium, Asdepiadaceae, RaJUsia, and
Aristolochiaceae (fig. 66) ; the flowen axe-then termed gynondrout.
Fto. 67.— Spikdet of Reed
(Pkragmttes communis) opened
out. o, ft, Barren glumes; c,
fertile glumes, each enclosing one
flower with its pale, d; the zig-
zag axis (rhacktUa) bears long
Fig. 69.
Fto. 7a
Fia 68.— Stamens and pistil of Sweet Pea (Latkyrma). The
stamens are diadelphous, nine of them being united by their filaments
(/), while one of them (e) is free; st, stigma; c, calyx.
Fig. 69.— Portion of wall of anther of Wallflower (Ckmnmthus}.
cs t £xothecium;ff, endothedum; highly magnified.
Fig. 70.— Quadrilocular or tetrathecal anther of the flowering
Rush (BuUmus umbeUatus). The anther entire (a) with its filament;
section of anther (6) showing the four loculi
The anther consists of lobes containing the minute powdery
pollen grains, which, when mature, are discharged by a fissure
or opening of some sort. There is a double covering
of the anther— the outer, or e x othec ium , resembles the Zmitn
epidermis,andof ten presents stomata and projections of
different kinds (fig. 60) ; the inner, or endothecium, is formed by a
layer or layers of cellular tissue (fig. 69, cf), the cells of wfekh
FLOWER
5&7
have a spiral, annular, or reticulated thickening of the wall.
The endothecium varies in thickness, generally becoming thinner
towards the part where the anther opens, and there disappears
entirely. The walk of the cells are frequently absorbed, so that
when the anther attains maturity the fibres are alone left, and
these by their elasticity assist is discharging the pollen. The
anther is developed before the filament, and is always sessile in.
the first instance, and sometimes continues so. It appears at
first' as a simple cellular papilla of meristem, upon which an
indication of two lobes soon appears. Upon these projections
the rudiments of the pollen-sacs are then seen, usually four
in number, two on each lobe. In each a differentiation takes,
place in the layers beneath the epidermis, by which an outer layer
of small-celled tissue surrounds an inner portion of large cells.
Those central cells are the mother-cells of the polkn, whilst the
small-celled layer of tissue external to them becomes the endo-
thecium, the exotherium being formed from the epidermal layer.
In the young state there are usually four pollen-sacs, two for
each anther-lobe, and when these remain permanently complete
it is a quadrilocular or tetratkocal anther (fig. 70). Sometimes,
however, only two cavities remain in the anther, by union of
the sacs in each lobe, in which case the anther is said to be bilocular
or dithecal. Sometimes the anther has a single cavity, and
becomes unilocular, or monothecal, or dimidiate, either by the
disappearance of the partition between the two lobes, or by the
abortion of one of its lobes, as in Sryphelia laeta and Althaea
officinalis (hollyhock). Occasionally there are numerous cavities
in the anther, as in Viseum and RojjUsia. The form of the
anther-lobes varies. They are generally of a more or less oval
or elliptical form, or they may be globular, as in Mercurialts
annua; at other times linear or clavate ; curved, flexuose, or
sinuose, as in bryony and gourd. According to the amount of
union of the lobes and the unequal development of different
parts of their surface an infinite variety of forms is produced.
"That part of the anther to which the filament is attached is the
back, the opposite being the face. The division between the lobes
b marked on the face of the anther by a groove or furrow, and
there is usually on the face a suture, indicating the line of de-
hiscence. The suture is often towards one side in consequence of
the valves being unequal. The stamens may cohere by their
anthers, and become syngenesious, as in composite flowers, and in
lobelia, jasione, &c
The anther-lobes are united to the connective, which is either
continuous with the filament or articulated with it. When the
filament is continuous with the connective, and is
JJ^jJJJ" prolonged so that the anther-lobes appear to be united
to it throughout their whole length, and lie in apposition
to it and on both sides of it, the anther is said to be adnate- or
adherent; when the filament ends at the base of the anther, then
the latter is innate or erect. In these cases the anther is to a
greater or less degree fixed. When, however, the attachment is
very narrow, and an articulation exists, the anthers are movable
(versatile) and are easily turned by the wind, as in Tritonia,
grasses (fig. 105), &c, where the filament is attached only to the
middle of the connective. The connective may unite the anther-
lobes completely or only partially. It is sometimes very short
and is reduced to a mere point, so that the lobes are separate or
free. At other times it is prolonged upwards beyond the lobes,
assuming various forms, as in Acalypha and oleander; or it is
extended backwards and downwards, as in violet (fig. 71),
forming a nectar-secreting spur. In Sahia officinalis the connec-
tive is attached to the filament in a horizontal manner, so as
to separate the two anther-lobes (fig. 73), one only of which
contains pollen, the other being imperfectly developed and sterile.
The connective is joined to the filament by a movable joint
forming a lever which plays an important part in the pollination-
mechanism. In Stocky* the connective is expanded laterally,
so as to unite the bases of the anther-lobes and bring them into
B horisontal line.
The opening or dehiscence of the anthers to discharge their
contents takes place either by clefts, by valves, or by pores.
When the anther-lobes are erect, the deft is lengthwise along the
line of the suture— longitudinal dehiscence (fig. 35). At other
times the slit is horizontal, from the connective to the
side, as in Alchemitla arvensis (fig. 73) and in Lemna; 4
the dehiscence is then transverse. When the anther-
lobes are rendered horizontal by the enlargement of the connec-
tive, then what is really longitudinal dehiscence may appear
to be transverse. The deft does not always proceed the whole
length of the anther-lobe at once,
but often for a time it extends
only partially. In other in-
stances the opening. is confined
to the base or apex, each locula-
ment opening by a single pore,
as in Pyroto, Tetratheca funcea,
Rhododendron, Vaccinhm and
Sblonum (fig. 74), where there ase
two, and Poranthera t where there
are four; whilst in the mistletoe
the anther has numerous pores
for the discharge of the pollen.
Another mode of dehiscence is
the valvular, as in the barberry
(fig. 75), where each lobe opens
by a valve on the outer side of
the suture, separately rolling up
from base to apex; in some of
the lauTel tribe there are two
such valves for each lobe, or four
in all. In some Guttiferae, as
Hehradendrou catnbogioides (the
Ceylon gamboge plant), the
anther opens by a lid separating
from the apex (circumscissik
dehiscence).
The anthers dehisce at different
periods during the process of
flowering; sometimes In the bud,
but more commonly when the
pistil is fully developed and the
flower is expanded. They other
dehisce simultaneously or in suc-
cession. In the latter case in-
dividual stamens may move in
succession towards the pistil and
discharge their contents, as in
Parnassia palustris, or the outer
or the inner stamens may first
dehisce, following thus a centri- anther-Tobes at tnV baaeV and
petal or centrifugal order. These the dehiscence by pores at the
variations are intimately con** ***?• _.
nected with the arrangements -^ ,75 " T T- I1,ei
for transference of pollen. The
anthers are called introrse when
they dehisce by the surface next
to the centre of the flower; they
are esUrorse when they dehisce by the outer surface; when they
dehisce by the sides, as in Jris and some grasses, they are
laterally dehiscent. Sometimes, from their versatile nature,
anthers originally introrse become extrorse, as in the Passion-
flower and Oralis.
The usual colour of anthers Is yellow, but ihey present a great
variety fn this respect. They are red in the peach, dark purple in
the poppy and tulipf orange in Eschscholtzia, &c. The colour
and appearance of the anthers often change after they have
discharged their functions.
Stamens occasionally become sterile by the degeneration or
non-development of the anthers, when they arc known as
staminodia, or rudimentary stamens. In Scrophularia the fifth
stamen appears in the form of a scale; and in many Pentstemons
it is reduced to a filament with hairs or a shrivelled membrane at
the apex. In other cases, as in double flowers, the stamens are
converted into petals; this is also probably the case with such
Fig. t*. Fio. 75*
Fig. 71 .—Two 6tamens of
Pan$y {Viola tricolor), with
their two anther-lobes and the
connectives (p) extending be-
yond them. One of the stamens
has been deprived of its Bpur,
the other shows its spur c.
Fig. 7a.— Anther of Salvia
officinalis. If. fertile lobe full
of ponen; Is, barren lobe with-
out pollen; e, connective; /,
Fig. 73.— Stamen of Lady's
Mantle (AkhemiOa), with the
anther opening transversely. '
FiG.74.— 5tamenof a specie*
of Nightshade (Solauum^
showing the divergence of the
her-Tol ' '
._ .,^. wmr . _ n oi the
Barberry (Berberis vuU/aris)*
showing one of the valves of
the anther (») curved upwards,
bearing the pollen on iu inner
5*8
FLOWER
plants as Mesembryonthcmum, where there is a multiplication
of petals in several rows. Sometimes, as in Canna, one of the
anther-lobes becomes abortive, and a petaloid appendage is
produced. Stamens vary in length as regards the corolla.
Some are enclosed within the tube of the flower, as in Cinchona
{included); others are exs cried, or extend beyond the flower,
as in LiUorella or Plantago. Sometimes the stamens in the early
state of the flower project beyond the petals, and in the progress
of growth become included, as in Geranium striatum. Stamens
also vary in their relative lengths. When there is more than one
row or whorl in a flower, those on the outside are sometimes
longest, as in many Rosaceae; at other times those in the interior
are longest, as in Luhea. When the stamens are in two rows,
those opposite the petals are usually shorter than those which
alternate with the petals. It sometimes happens that a single
stamen is longer than
all the rest. A definite
relation, as regards
/ number, sometimes
exists between the long
and the short stamens.
Thus, in some flowers
the stamens are didy-
namouSf having only
four out of five stamens
developed, and the
two corresponding to
the upper part of the
flower longer than the
-. * ~ « ^ two lateral ones. This
FIG. 76.— Corolla From Str«sburgcr*t __„,_- ;_ t n K;.»« A «.~A
of foxelove (Diti- L***** *~ BoLnik. occurs in Labiatae and
talis purpurea), cut ^Lcg^ 00 * GuBtov Scrophulariaccae (fig.
in order to show p IC " -Tetra 7 ^ # Asam* in other
the didynamous dyna^ous ' stamens ***** there are six
(lour long and two stamens, whereof four
?fe? **, L wa ! 1 5°^ r I° n 8 on <s are arranged
{ChciranthusLkan). „ pairs opposite to each
other, and alternate
with two isolated short ones (fig. 77), giving rise to tetradynamous
flowers, as in Cruciferae. Stamens, as regards their direction,
may be erect, turned inwards, outwards, or to one side. In the
last-mentioned case they are called declinate, as in amaryllis,
horse-chestnut and fraxinella.
The pollen-grains or microspores contained in the anther con-
sist of small cells, which are developed in the large thick- walled
mother-cells formed in the interior of the pollen-sacs (micro-
sporangia) of the young anther. These mother-cells are either
separated from one another and float in the granular fluid which
fills up the cavity of the pollen-sac, or are not so isolated. A
division takes place, by which, four cells are formed in each, the
exact mode of division differing in dicotyledons and mono-
cotyledons. These cells are the pollen-grains. They increase
in size and acquire a cell-wall, which becomes differentiated into
an outer cuticular layer, or extine, and an inner layer, or inline.
Then the walls of the mother-cells are absorbed, and the pollen-
grains float freely in the fluid of the pollen-sacs, which gradually
disappears, and the mature grains form a powdery mass within
the anther. They then either remain united in fours, or multiples
of four, as in some acacias, Periploca graeca and Inga anomala,
or separate into individual grains, which by degrees become
mature pollen. Occasionally the membrane of the mother-cell is
not completely absorbed, and traces of it are detected in a
viscid matter surrounding the pollen-grains, as in Onagraccae.
In orchidaceous plants the pollen-grains are united into masses,
or pollinia (fig. 78), by means of viscid matter. In orchids each
of the pollen-masses has a prolongation or stalk {caudiclc) which
adheres to a prolongation at the base of the anther (roslcllum)
by means of a viscid gland (retinaculum) which is either naked
or covered. The term dinandrium is sometimes applied to the
part of the column in orchids where the stamens are situated.
In some orchids, as Cypripedium, the pollen has its ordinary
character of separate grains. The number of pollinia varies;
stamens (two loni
and two short)
which are attached
to it.
thus, in Orchis there are usually two, in Caltleya four, and in
Laelia eight. The two pollinia in Orchis Mario contain each
about 200 secondary smaller masses. These small masses, when
bruised, divide into grains which are united in fours. In Asclepia-
daceae the pollinia are usually united in pairs (fig. 79), belonging
to two contiguous anther-lobes— each pollen-mass having a
Fie. 78. Fig. 79. Fia. 80.
Fig. 78. — Pollinia, or pollen-masses, with their retinacuia (g) or
viscid matter attaching them at the base. The pollen masses (P)
are supported on stalks or caudicles (c). These masses are easily
detached by the agency of insects. Much enlarged.
F10. 79. — Pistil of Asdepias (a) with pollen-masses (p) 1
to the stigma («). b, pollen-masses, removed from the stigma,
by a gland-like body. Enlarged.
Fig. 80. — Stamen of Asclepias, showing filament/, anther c, and
appendages p. Enlarged.
caudicular appendage, ending in a common gland, by means of
which they are attached to a process of the stigma. The pollinia
are also provided with an appendicular stamina! covering (fig. 80).
The extine is a firm membrane, which
defines the figure of the pollen-grain, and
gives colour to it. It is either smooth, or
covered with numerous projections (fig. 81),
granules, points or crested reticulations.
The colour is generally yellow, and the sur-
face is often covered with a viscid or oily - J ^ I 1 C ; 8l j~?*J%? '
matter. The inline is uniform in different JS hjhly aiaiS
kinds of pollen, thin and transparent, fed. ' "MS™'
and possesses great power of extension.
In some aquatics, as Zostera, Zannichdlia, Naias, &c, only one
covering exists.
Pollen-grains vary from jhs t0 T$T of an inch or less in diameter.
Their forms are various. The most common form of grain is
ellipsoidal, more or less narrow at the extremities, which are
called its poles, in contradistinction to a line equidistant from
the extremities, which is its equator. Pollen-grains are also
spherical; cylindrical and curved, as in Tradescantia virgin**;
Fig. "83.— Male flower of
Pellitory [Parielaria officinalis),
having four stamens with in-
curved elastic filaments, and
an abortive pistil in the centre.
When the perianth (p) ex-
pands, the filaments are thrown
out with force as at c, so as to
scatter the pollen
From VkMS* Studau* Ttxt-Beek «/
ttany, by permfctkn of Swan Socmen-
*Maa a Co.
Fig. 8a. — Germinating pollen-
grain of Epilobium (highly mag.)
bearing a pollen-tube s ; e, exine ;
t, intine; abc, the three spots
where the exine is thicker in
anticipation of the formation of
the pollen-tube developed in this
case at a.
polyhedral in Dipsacaceae and Compositae; nearly triangular in
section in Proteaceae and Onagraccae (fig. 8a). The surface of the
pollen-grain is either uniform and homogeneous, or it is marked
by folds formed by thinnings of the membrane. There are also
rounded portions of the membrane or pores visible in the pollen-
grain; these vary in number from one to fifty, and through one
FLOWER
5*9
or more of them the pollen-tube is extended in germination of
the spore. In Monocotyledons, as in grasses, there is often only
one, while in Dicotyledons they number from three upwards;
when numerous, the pores are either scattered irregularly, or
in a regular order, frequently forming a circle round the equatorial
surface. Sometimes at the place where they exist, the outer
membrane, in place of being thin and transparent, is separated
in the form of a lid, thus becoming opcrculole f a& in the passion-
flower and gourd. Within the pollen-grain is the granular
protoplasm with some oily particles, and occasionally starch.
Before leaving the pollen-sac a division takes place in the pollen-
grain into a vegetative cell or cells, from which the tube is
developed, and a generative cell, which ultimately divides to
form the male cells (see Angiosperms and Gymnosperms).
When the pollen-grains are ripe, the anther dehisces and the
pollen is shed. In order that fertilization may be effected the
nnJMMMm pollen must be conveyed to the stigma of the pistil.
\l^ mmm This process, termed pollination (sec Pollination),
is promoted in various ways, — the whole form and
structure of the flower having relation to the process. In some
plants, as Kalmia and Pellitory (fig. 83), the mere elasticity
of the filaments is sufficient to effect this; in other plants
pollination is effected by the wind, as in most of our forest trees,
grasses, &c. and in such cases enormous quantities of pollen are
produced. These plants are anemophUous . But the common
agents for pollination are insects. To allure and attract them
to visit the flower the odoriferous secretions and gay colours
are developed, and the position and complicated structure of
the parts of the flower are adapted to the perfect performance
of the process. It is comparatively rare in hermaphrodite flowers
for self-fertilization to occur, and the various forms of dicho-
gamy, dimorphism and trimorphism are fitted to prevent this.
Under the term disk is included every structure intervening
between the stamens and the pistil. It was to such structures
Disk. tnat tne namc °* ** ctar y w *» *Pplicd by, old authors.
It presents great varieties of form, such asa ring, scales,
glands, hairs, pet a lo id appendages, frc, and in the progress of
growth it often contains saccharine matter, thus becoming truly
nectariferous. The disk is frequently foroied by degeneration
or transformation of the staminal row. It may consist of.
processes rising from the torus, alternating with the stamens,
and thus representing an abortive whorl; or Its parts may be
opposite to the stamens. In some
flowers, as Jatropha Cured j, irt which
the stamens are not developed, their
x \ j place is occupied by glandular
^ bodies forming the disk. In Gesttet-
yaceae and Crudferac the disk con*»
, *ju j sists of tooth-like scales at the base
of the stamens. The parts compos-
ing the disk sometimes unite and
form a glandular ring, as in the
orange; or they form a dark-red
lamina covering the pistil* as in
Paeonia Afoulan (fig. 84); or a
Fig 84.— Flower of Tree waxv lmin * of the hoHow receptacle,
Paeony (Paeonia Moutan), « in the rose; or a swelfing at the
deprived of its corolla, and top of the ovary, as in UmbeUiferae,
6howinathedUkintheform in wh kh the disk is said to be
?ov^&££™ OR ^W«y»™' 1* barged torus
covering the ovary in Nymphsea
(Castolio) and Ndumbium may be regarded as a form of disk.
The pistil or gynoecium occupies the centre or apex of the
flower, and is surrounded by the stamens and floral envelopes
The phUL w ^ eQ tnes€ arc present- It constitutes the innermost
whorl, which after flowering is changed into the fruit
and contains the seeds. It consists essentially of two parts, a
basal portion forming a chamber, the ovary, containing the ovules
attached to a part called the plattnla, and an upper receptive
portion, the stigma, which is cither seated on the ovary (sessile),
as in the tulip and poppy, or is elevated on a stalk called the
style, interposed between the ovary and stigma. The pistil
consists of one or more modified leaves, tne carpels (or megosporo*
phylls). When a pistil consists of a single carpel it is simple or
monocarpdlary (fig. 85) . When it is composed of several carpels,
more or less united, it is compound or potycorpellary (fig. 86).
In the first-mentioned case the terms carpel and pistil are
synonymous. Each carpel has its own ovary, style (when
present), and stigma, and may be regarded as formed by a folded
leaf, the upper surface of whkh is turned inwards towards the
axis, and the lower outwards, while from its margins are developed
oneormoreorafcf. This comparison is borne out by an ei a mtn a-
tion of the flower of the double-flowering cherry. In it no fruit
is produced, and the pistil consists merely of sessile leaves,
the limb of each being green and folded, with a narrow prolonga-
tion upwards, as if from the midrib, and ending in a thickened
portion. In Cycas the carpels are ordinary leaves, with ovules
upon their margin.
A pist il is usually formed by more than one carpel. The carpels
may be arranged either at the same or nearly the same height
lSsZu tr
bypcraiaioa of Gusts*
V
86V FlC. 89. Pio. 88. Flo. 90.
Fie. 85.— Pistil of Broom (Cytisus) consisting of ovary * style «.
and stigma I. It is formed by a single carpel.
F10. 86.--Veitical section of thf flower of Black Hellebore (HeBe-
borus ntger). The pit til is apocarpous, consisting of several distinct
carpels, each with ovary, style ami st«„ « «<= ***;
definite, and are Inserted below the pistil (hypogynous)
s tamens are in*
--» — ---* «•«»- ■•««.• ".u uviwb nit fsisiii v"yjf|jynousj.
Fig. 87,—Frurt of the Strawberry (Fragaria vesca), consisting of
an enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its -surface the small
dry seed-like fruits (acnenes). ,
Fig. 88.—Fruit of Rosa alba, consisting of the fleshy hollowed axis
s . the persistent sepals s, and the carpels /r. The stamens (t) have
withered. (After Duchartre.)
Fig. &o.--Pistil of Ranuntulus. r, Receptacle with the points of
insertion of the stamens a, most of which *ave been removed.
Fio. 00.— Syncarpou* Pistil of Flax (Ltntw), consisting of five
carpets, united by their ovaries, whHe their styles and stigmas are
separate. p
in a verticil, or at different heights fn a spiral cycle. When they
remain separate and distinct, thus showing at once the composi-
tion of the pista, as In Caltha, Rariuncuhu, hellebore (fig. 86), and
Spiraea, the term apocarpous is applied. Thus, in Scdum (fig. 2 z)
the pistil consists of five verticillate carpels o, alternating with
the stamens t. In magnolia and Ranunculus (fig. 80) the separate
carpels are numerous and are arranged in a spiral cycle upon an
elongated axis or receptacle. In the Taspberry the carpels are.
on a conical receptacle; in the strawberry, on a swollen succulent
one (fig. 87); and in the rose (fig. 88), on a hollow one. When
the carpels are united, as In the pear, arbutus and chkkweed,
the pistil becomes syncarpous. The number of carpels in a pfstfl
is Indicated by the Greek numeral. A flower with a simple
pistil is monogynous; with two carpels, digynons; with three
carpel* trlgynous, Ac.
The union in a syncarpous pisti! is not always complete;
it may take place by the ovaries alone, while the styles and
stigmas remain free (fig. eo), and in this case, when the ovaries
form apparently a single body, the organ receives the name of
compound ovary; or the union may take place by the ovaries
and styles while the stigma* are disunited; or by the stigmas
57«
FLOWER
and the summit of the style only. Various intermediate 6tates
exist, such as partial union of the ovaries, as in the rue, where
they coalesce at their base; and partial union of the styles, as
in Malvaceae. The union is usually most complete at the base;
but in Labiatae the styles are united throughout their length, and
in Apocynaccae and Asclcpiadaceae the stigmas only. When
the union is incomplete, the number of the parts of a com-
pound pistil may be determined by the number of styles and
stigmas; when complete, the external venation, the grooves
on the surface, and the internal divisions of the ovary indicate
the number.
The ovules are attached to the placenta, which consists of a
mass of cellular tissue, through which the nourishing vessels
Th pass to the ovule. The placenta is usually formed on
ptactau. tne «d*6* °f the carpellary leaf (fig. 91) — marginal.
In many cases, however, the placentas are formations
from the axis (axile), and are not connected with the carpellary
leaves. In marginal placentation the part of the carpel bearing
t the placenta is the inner or ventral
^*| suture, corresponding to the margin
of the folded carpellary leaf, while
the outer or dorsal suture corresponds
to the midrib of the carpellary leaf.
As the placenta is formed on each
margin of the carpel it is essentially
double. This is seen in cases where
the margins of the carpel do not
unite, but remain separate, and con-
sequently two placentas are formed in
place of one. When the pistil is
formed by one carpel the inner margins
unite and form usually a common
marginal placenta, which may extend
aft F er C fe 9 rtin"»tioS 5 ft •*«• **** "f'f * «* ™ry
ovules, developing to form » s far *» the basc of the stv!e ( fi «- 90,
the fruit. /, Funicle or or may be confined to the base or
stalk of ovule (ov) ; pi, pla- a pex only. When the pistil consists
«2%f2g£2£&'* several r" ate aip *- - u
» • • *~ ' apocarpous, there are generally separ-
ate placentas at each of their margins. In a syncarpous pistH,
on the other hand, the carpels are so united that the edges of
each of the contiguous ones, by their union, form a septum or
dissepiment, and the number of these septa consequently indicates
the number ohrarpels in the compound pistil (fig. 92). When the
Fie. 92. Fig. 93. Fig. 94.
Fig. 92. — Trilocular ovary of the Lily (Lilium), cut transversely.
s. Septum; 0, ovules, which form a double row in the inner angle
of each chamber. Enlarged.
Fig. 03. — Diagrammatic section of a quinquelocular ovary, com-
posed of five- carpels, the edges of which are folded inwards, and meet
in the centre forming the septa, s The ovules (0) are attached to a
central placenta, formed by the union of the five ventral sutures.
Dorsal suture, /.
Fig. 04. — Diagrammatic section of a five-carpeWary ovary, in
which the edges of the carpels, bearing the placentas and ovules 0, are
not folded inwards. The placentas are parietal, and the ovules
appear sessile on the walls of the ovary. The ovary is unilocular,
dissepiments extend to the centre or axis, the ovary is divided
into cavities or ceils, and it may be biUctdor, trilocular (fig. 92),
quadrilocular, quinquelocular, or mullilocular, according at it is
formed by two, three, four, five or many carpels, each carpel
corresponding to a single cell. In these cases the marginal
placentas meet in the axis, and unite so, as- to form a single central
one (figs. 02> 93), and the ovules appear in the central angle of
the loculi. When the carpels in a syncarpous pistil do not fold
inwards so that the placentas appear as projections on the walls
of the ovary, then the ovary is unilocular (fig. 95) and the
placentas are parietal, as in Viola (fig. 96). In these instances
the placentas may be formed at the margin of the united con-
tiguous leaves, so as to appear single, or the margins may not be
united, each developing a placenta. Frequently the margins of
the carpels, which fold in to the centre, split there into two
lamellae, each of which is curved outwards and projects into the
Fig. 97. Fte. 98.
Fig. 95.— Diagrammatic section of a five-carpellary ovary, in
which the septa (s) proceed inwards for a certain length, bearing the
placentas and ovules (o). In this case the ovary is unilocular, and the
placentas are parietal. Dorsal suture, I,
Fig. 96.— Pistil of Pansy (Viola tricolor), enlarged. 1, Vertical;
2, horizontal section; c, calyx; d, wall of ovary; o, ovules; p,
placenta ; s, stigma.
Fig. 97.— Transverse section of the fruit of the Melon (Cucwnis
Melo), showing the placentas with the seeds attached to them. The
three carpels forming the pepo are separated by partitions. From
the centre, processes go to circumference, ending in curved placentas
bearing the ovules.
Fig. 98. — Diagrammatic section of a compound unilocular ovary,
in which there are no indications of partitions. The ovules (•) are
attached to a free central placenta, which has no connexion with
the walls of the ovary.
loculament, dilating at the end into a placenta. This is well
seen in Cucurbitaceae (fig. 97) , Pyrola, &c. The carpellary leaves
may fold inwards very slightly, or they may be applied in a
valvate manner, merely touching at their margins, the placentas
then being parietal (fig. 94), and appearing as lines or thickenings
along the walls. Cases occur, however, in which the placentas
are not connected with the
walls of the ovary, and form
what is called a free central
placenta (fig . 98) . This is seen
In many of the Caryophyl-
laccae and Primulaceae (figs.
99,100). In Caryophyliaceae,
however, while the placenta
is. free in the centre, there are
often traces found at the base
of the ovary of the remains of
septa, as if rupture had taken
place, and, in rare instances,
ovules are found on the
margins of the carpels. But
in Primulaceae no vestiges of
septa or marginal ovules can
be perceived at any period of
growth; the placenta is
always free, and rises in the
centre of the ovary,
central placentation, there-
fore, has been accounted for in two ways: either by supposing
that the placentas in the early state were formed on the margins of
Fig. 99. Fig. 100.
Fig. 99.— Pistil of Cerastium
hirsutum cut vertically, o, Ovary ;
p, free central placenta ; g, ovules;
s, styles.
Fio. 100.— The same cut hori-
zontally, and the halves separated
so as to show the interior of the
t es%# cavity of the ovary 0, with the free
i?r— central placenta p, covered with
* ree ovules g.
FLOWER
57i
carpellary leaves, and that in the progress of development these
leaves separated iron them, leaving the placenta* and ovule*.
free in the centre; or by supposing that the placentas are noi
marginal but axik formations, produced by an elongation of the
axis, and the carpels verticillate leaves, united together around
the axis. The first of these views applies to Caryophyllaceae,
the second to Primulaccae.
Occasionally, divisions take place in ovaries which are not
formed by the edges of contiguous carpels. These are called
spurious dissepiments. They are often horizontal, as in Cathar-
tocarpus Fistula, where they consist of transverse cellular pro-
longations from the walls of the ovary, only developed after
fertilization, and therefore more properly noticed under fruit.
At other times they are vertical, as in Datura, where the ovary,
in place of being two-celled, becomes four-celled; in Cruciferae,
where the prolongation of the placentas forms a vertical partition ;
in Astragalus and Tkespesia, where the dorsal suture is folded
inwards; and in Oxytropis, where the ventral suture is folded
inwards.
The ovary is usually of a more or less spherical or curved form,
sometimes smooth and uniform on its surface, at other times
hairy and grooved. The grooves usually indicate the divisions
between the carpels and correspond to the dissepiments. The
dorsal suture may be marked by a slight projection or by a
superficial groove. When the ovary is situated on the centre
of the receptacle, free from the other whorls, so that its base is
above the insertion of the stamens, it is termed superior, as in
Lychnis, Primula (fig. 61) and Peony (fig. 64) (see also fig. 28).
When the margin of the receptacle is prolonged upwards, carrying
with it the floral envelopes and staminal leaves, the basal portion
of the ovary being formed by the receptacle, and the carpellary
leaves alone closing in the apex, the ovary is inferior, as in
pomegranate, aralia (fig. 65), gooseberry and fuchsia (see
fig. 30)* In some plants,
^ f kk A^ Al as many Saxif ragaceae,
/wf J ** rftlBSH Itf tnerc ** e mterme d Jate
J I HI TiKl V^J forms, in which the term
^^e/ I V R 1 Ow^ kalf-inferior is applied to
*' -ill \lMW the ovary, whilst the
floral whorls are half-
superior.
The style proceeds
from the summit of the
carpel (fig.
102), and is
traversed by a narrow
canal, in which there are
some loose projecting
cells, a continuation of
the placenta, constituting
what is called conduct-
ing tissue, which ends in
the stigma. This is par-
ticularly abundant when
the pistil is ready for
fertilization. In some
cases, owing to more
rapid growth of the
dorsal side of the ovary,
the style becomes lateral
(fig. 101); this may so
increase that the style
appears to arise from
near the base, as in the
strawberry, or from the base, as in Chrysobalanus I coco, when
it is called basilar. In all these cases the style still indicates
the organic apex of the ovary, although it may not be the
apparent apex. When in a compound pistil the style of each
carpel is thus displaced, H appears as if the ovary were
depressed in the centre, and the style rising from the depres-
sion in the midst of the carpels seems to come from the torus.
Such a style is gynobasic, and is well seen in Boraginaceae.
Fie. 101. F10. 102.
Tb9 atyh.
Fic. 104. Fig. 103.
Fig. ioi. — Carpel of Lady's-mantle
(AlckemiUa) with lateral style s; o,
ovary, st, stigma. Enlarged.
FiG.102.— PUtilofPrimrose(Prrmido)
composed of five carpels which are com-
pletely united; ♦, ovary; *, style; si,
st « ma. Enlarged.
Fig. 103.— CynocciuraoftheFlower-
de-Luce (iris), consisting of an inferior
ovary (0) and a style which divides into
three petaloid segment* U), each bearing
a stigma (1/).
Fig. ioa.—Capsuleof Poppy.opening
by pores (p), under the radiating peltate
stigma (j).
The form of the style is usually cylindrical, more or less filiform
and simple; sometimes it is grooved on one side, at other limes
it is flat, thick, angular, compressed and even petaloid, a6 in Iris
(fig. 103) and Canna. In Goodeniaceae it ends in a cup-like
expansion, enclosing the stigma. It sometimes bears hairs,
which aid in the application of the pollen to the stigma, and are
called collecting hairs, as in Campanula, and also in Aster and other
Compositae. These hairs, during the upward growth of the
style, come into contact with the already ripened pollen, and
carry it up along with them, ready to be applied by insects to the
mature stigma of other flowers. In Vicia and Lobelia the hairs
frequently form a tuft below the stigma. The styles of a syn-
carpous pistil are either separate or united; when separate, they
alternate with the septa; when united completely, the style is
said to be simple (fig. 102). The style of a single carpel, or of
each carpel of a compound pistil, may also be divided. Each
division of the tricarpellary ovary of Jitropha Curcas has a
bifurcate or forked style, and the ovary of Emblica officinalis has
three styles, -each of which is twice forked. The length of the
style is determined by the relation which should subsist between
the position of the stigma and that 01 the anthers, so as to allow
the proper application of the pollen. The style is deciduous or
persists after fertilization.
The stigma is the termination of the conducting tissue of the
style, and is usually in direct communication with the placenta.
It consists of loose cellular tissue, and secretes a viscid ^
matter which detains the pollen, and causes it to atigme.
germinate. This secreting portion is, strictly speaking,
the Irue stigma, but the name is generally applied to all the
divisions of the style on which the stigma tic apparatus is situated.
The stigma alternates with the dissepiments of a syncarpous
pistil, or, in other words, corresponds with the* back of the
loculamcnts; but in some cases it would appear that half the
stigma of one carpel unites with half that of the contiguous
carpd, and thus the stigma is opposite the dissepiments, that is,
alternates with the loculaments, as in the poppy.
The divisions of the stigma mark the number of carpels which
compose the pistil. Thus in Campanula a five-cleft stigma
indicates five carpels; in Bignoniaceae, Scrophulariaccac and
Acanthaceae, the two-lobcd or bilamelrar stigma indicates a
bilocular ovary. Sometimes, however, as in Gramineae, the
stigma of a single carpel divides. Its position may be terminal
or lateral. In Iris it is situated on a cleft on the back of the
petaloid divisions of the style (fig. 103). Some stigmas, as
those of Mimulus, present sensitive flattened laminae, which
close when touched. The stigma presents various forms. It may
be globular, as in MirabUis Jala pa \ orbicular, as in Arbutuf
Andrachnc; umbrella-like, as in
Sarraccnia, where, however, the
proper stigmatic surface is beneath
the angles of the large expansion
of the apex of the style* ovoid, as
in fuchsia; hemispherical; poly-
hedral; radiating, as in the poppy
(fig. 104), where the true stigmatic
raysare attached to a sort of peltate
or shield-like body, which may
represent depressed or flattened
styles; cucullate, i.e. covered by a
hood, in calabar bean. The lobes
of a stigma are flat and pointed as
in Mimulus and Bignonia, fleshy Fig. los.^-Flowerofacrass
and blunt, smooth or granular, or with glumes removed, sbW
they are feathery, as in many >ng three stamens and two
p^fe , 05 >.nd«h«rwi»d- &&*&,£.'** K
pollinated flowers. InOrchidaceae
the stigma is situated on the anterior surface of the column
beneath the anther. In Asclepiadaceae the stigmas are
united to the face of the anthers, and along with them form
a solid mass.
The ovule is attached to the placenta, and destined to become
the seed. Ovules arc most usually produced on the margins of
572
FLOWER
the carpellary leaves, but are also formed over the whole
surface of the leaf, as in Butomus. In other instances they rise
Tht vufa. * rom tnc ^ 0ra * **** itsc ^» e i tner terminal, as in Poly-
gonaceae and Piperaceae, or lateral, as in Primulaccac
and Compositae. The ovule is usually contained in an ovary,
and all plants in which the ovule is so enclosed are termed
ongiospcrmcus; but in Coniferae and Cycadaceae it has no
proper ovarian covering, and is called naked, these orders being
denominated gymnospermous. In Cycas the altered leaf, upon
the margin of which the ovule is produced, and the peltate scales,
from which they are pendulous in Zamio, are regarded by all
botanists as carpellary leaves. As for the Coniferae great dis-
cussion has arisen regarding the morphology of parts in many
genera. The carpellary leaves are sometimes united in such a
way as to leave an opening at the apex of the pistil, so that the
ovules are exposed, as in mignonette. In Leonlice thalictroides
(Blue Cohosh), species of Ophiopogon, Pdiosanlhes and Stdieria,
the ovary ruptures immediately after flowering, and the ovules
are exposed; and in species of Cuphea the placenta ultimately
bursts through the ovary and corolla, and becomes erect, bearing
the exposed ovules. The ovule is attached to the placenta either
directly, when it is sessile, or by means of a prolongation funiele
(fig. 1 10, /). This cord sometimes becomes much elongated after
fertilization. The part by which the ovule is attached to the
placenta or cord is its base or hilum, the opposite extremity being
its apex. The latter is frequently turned round in such a way
as to approach the base. The ovule is sometimes embedded in
the placenta, as in Hydnora.
Fig. 106.
Fig. 107.
Fig. 108.
Fig. 109.
Figs. 106 and 107.— Successive stages in the development of an
ovule, n, Nuccllus; t, inner; 0, outer integument in section; m,
micropyle.
Fig. 108. — Orthotropous ovule of Polygonum in section, showing
the embryo-sac s, in the nucellus n, the different ovular covering*,
the base of the nuccllus or chalaza ch, and the apex of the ovule with
its micropyle m.
Fig. 109.— Vertical section of the ovule of the Austrian Pine
(Pinter austriaca), showing the nuccllus a, consisting of delicate
cellular tissue containing deep in its substance an embryo-sac b.
The micropyle m is very wide.
■The ovule appears at first as a small cellular projection from
the placenta. The cells multiply until they assume a more or
less enlarged ovate form constituting what has been called the
nucdlus (fig. 106, n), or central cellular mass of the ovule. This
nucellus may remain naked, and alone form the ovule, as in
some orders of parasitic plants such as Balanophoraccae, Santa-
laccae, &c; but in most plants it becomes surrounded by certain
coverings or integuments during its development. These appear
first in the form of cellular rings at the base of the nucellus,
which gradually spread over its surface (figs. ioo f 107). In some
cases only one covering is formed, especially amongst gamo-
petalous dicotyledons, as in Compositae, Campanulaceae, also
in walnut, &c. But usually besides the single covering another
is developed subsequently (fig. 106, 0), which gradually extends
over that first formed, and ultimately covers it completely,
except at the apex. There are thus two integuments to the
nucellus, an outer and an inner. The integuments do not
completely invest the apex of the nucellus, but an opening termed
the micropyle Is left. The micropyle indicates the organic apex
of the ovule. A single cell of the nucellus enlarges greatly to
form the embryo-sac or megaspore (fig. 108, s). This embryo-sac
increases in size, gradually supplanting the cellular tissue of the
nucellus until it is surrounded only by a thin layer of it; or it
may actually extend St the apex beyond it, as in Phasedus
and Alsine medial or it may pass into the micropyle, a* is
Santalum. In Gymnosperms it usually remains deep in the
nucellus and surrounded by a duck mass of cellular tissue (ng.
109). For an account of the further development of the mega-
spore, and the formation of the egg-cell, from which, after fertiliza-
tion is formed the embryo, see Gymnospebms and Axao-
sperms.
The point where the integuments are united to the base of
the nucellus is called the ckalata (figs, m, iia ). This is often
coloured, is of a denser
texture than the sur- yj^^^J* y\ /igriisvW
rounding tissue, and is /(r^ ^-^Js yr Iti^^W*
traversed by fibro-
vascular bundles, which
pass from the placenta
to nourish the ovule.
When the ovule is
so developed that the
chalaza is at the
hilum (next the pla- Fig. 110. Fig. hi.
centa), and the micro- 'frc. iio.-^mpylotropoiis ovuteof
n *A* u .t .k- Ann ^;«. wallflower (Cheiranlkus), showing the
pyie is at the opposite { un i c ] c /, which attaches the ovule to the
extremity, there being placenta; p, the outer, *. the inner coat,
a short (utricle, the n, the nucellus, ch, the chalaza. The
ovule is orthotropous. ovule U curved upon itself, so that the
tk;« fnrm ;. «i,»ii «1« ,*„ micropyle is near the funiele.
This form isweUseen in Fig.iii.— Anatropous ovule of Dande-
Polygonaceae (fig. 112), Hon (Taraxacum), n, nucellus, which is
Cistaccae, and most inverted, so that the chalaza ch, is re-
gymnosperms. In such moved from the base or hilum A, whje
«r. A »,.il«. .t«;«n» i, n . the micropyle / is near the base. The
an ovule a straight line connexion between the base of the ovule
drawn from the hilum an d the base of the nucellus is kept op
to the micropyle passes by means of the raphe r,
along the axis of the
ovule. Where, by more rapid growth on one side than on the
other, the nucellus, together with the integuments, is curved upon
itself, so that the micropyle approaches the hilum, and ultimately
is placed close to it, while the chalaza is at the hilum, the ovule is
campylclropous (fig. 1 10) . Curved ovules are f ou nd in Crudferae,
and Caryophyllaccae. The inverted or anatropous ovule (fig. x x 1 )
is the commonest form amongst angiospcrms. In this ovule the
apex with the micropyle is turned towards the point of attach-
ment of the funiele to the placenta, the chalaza being situated
at the opposite extremity; and the funiele, which runs along the
side usually next the placenta, coalesces with the ovuk and
constitutes the raphe (r), which often forms a ridge. The
anatropous ovule arises from the placenta as a straight or only
slightly curved cellular process, and as it grows, gradually
becomes inverted, curving from the point of origin of the integu-
ments (cf. figs. xo6, X07). As the first integument grows round
it, the amount of inversion increases, and the funiele becomes
adherent to the side of the nuccllus. Then if a second integument
be formed it covers all the free part of the ovule, but does not
form on the side to which the raphe is adherent. These may be
taken as the three types of ovule; but there are various inter-
mediate forms, such as semi^tnatropous and others.
The position of the ovule relative to the ovary varies. When
there is a single ovule, with its axis vertical, it may be attached
to the placenta at the base of the ovary (basal placenta) > and b
then erect, as in Polygonaceae and Compositae; or it may be
inserted a little above the base, on a parietal placenta, with its
apex upwards, and then is ascending, as in Parictaria. It may
hang from an apicilar placenta at the summit of the ovary, its
apex being directed downwards, and is inverted or pendulous,
as in Hippuris vulgaris; or from a parietal placenta near the
summit, and then is suspended, as in Daphne Meferemm, Foly-
galaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Sometimes a long funiele arises
from a basal placenta, reaches the summit of the ovary, and
there bending over suspends the ovule, as in Armeria (sea-pink);
at other times the hilum appears to be in the middle, and the
ovule becomes horizontal. When there are two ovules in the
same cell, they may be either collateral, that is, placed site by
FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL— FLOYD
573
tide (fig. 9*) f or the one may be erect and the other inverted,
as in abme species of Spiraea and Atsculta; or they may he
placed one above another, each directed similarly, a* is the case
in ovariea containing a moderate or definite number of ovules.
Thus, in the ovary of Leguminous plants (fig. or), the ovules, o,
are attached to the extended marginal placenta, one above the
other, forming usually two parallel rows corresponding to each
margin of the carpel. When the ovules are definite (i.e. are
uniform, and can be counted), it is usual to find their attachment
so constant as to afford good characters for classification. When
the ovules axe very numerous (indcjiniU), while at the same time
the placenta is not much developed, their position exhibits great
variation, some being directed upwards, others downwards,
others transversely; and their form is altered by pressure into
various polyhedral shapes. In such cases it frequently happens
that some of the ovules are arrested in their development and
become abortive.
When the pistil has reached a certain stage in growth it becomes
ready for fertilization. Pollination having been effected, and
r k ^ mmmm the pollen-grain having reached the stigma in angio-
SoJr**" sperms, or the summit of the nuceUuain gymnosperms,
it is detained there, and the viadd secretion from the
glands of the stigma in the former case, or from the nucellus in
the. latter, induce the protrusion of the intone as a pollen-tube
through the pores of the grain.
The pollen-tube or tubes pass
down the canal (fig. 112),
through the conducting tissue
of the style when present, and
reach the interior of the ovary
fa angiosperms, and then pass
to the micropyle of the ovule,.
one pollen-tube going to each,
Fig. 1 13.— Vertical section of
the ovule of the Scotch Fir (Pinus
sytvcslriz) in May of the second
year, showing the enlarged em-
bryo-sac 6, full of endosperm
ceils and pollen-tubes c, pene-
trating the summit of the nucellus
wmi ^ mm _ after the pollen has entered the
F«a St r a • bur 1 c r 1 . Uktbtk itt Urge micropyle.
JUMtl, by penauikm of Gtaur Fkcfacr.
Fig. 1 12.— Ovary of Po/y-
gouum Camthulus in longitu-
dinal section during fertilization.
<X4*.)
fs, Stalk-like base of ovary.
/*, Funicle.
cAa,Chalasa.
nu, Nucellus.
mi, Micropyle.
•t, inner, ie, 01
«. Embryo-sac.
Nucleus of embryo-sac.
ovule. Sometimes the micro-
pyle lies close to the base of
1 the style, and then the pollen-
tube enters it at once, but
frequently it has to pass some
distance into the ovary, being
guided in its direction by van-
outer integument, oua contrivances, as hairs,
grooves, &c. In gymnosperms
the pollen-grain resting on the
apex of the nucellus sends out
its pollen-tubes, which at once
penetrate the nucellus (fig. 113),
In angiosperms when the polfen-
tube reaches the micropyle it
passes down into the canal, and this portion of it increases
considerably in size. Ultimately the apex of the tube comes in
contact with the tip of the embryo-sac and perforates it. The
male cells in the end of the pollen-tube are then transmitted to
the embryo-sac and fertilization is effected. Consequent upon
this, after a longer or shorter period, those changes commence
in the embryo-sac which result in the formation of the embryo
Egg-apparatus.
Antipodal cells.
Style.
Stigma.
Pollen-grains.
Pollen-tubes.
plant, the ovule also undergoing changes which convert it into
the seed, and fit it for a protective covering, and a store of
nutriment for the embryo. Nor are the effects of fertilisation
confined to the ovule; they extend to other parts of- the plant.
The ovary enlarges, and, with the seeds enclosed, constitutes
the fruit, frequently incorporated with which are other parts
of the flower, as receptacle, calyx, &c In gymnosperms the
pollen-tubes, having penetrated a certain distance down. the
tissue of the nucellus, are usually arrested in growth for a longer
or shorter period, sometimes nearly a year. Fruit and seed are
discus sed in a separate article— Faun. (A. B. R.)
FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL. Imitations of natural flowers are
sometimes made for scientific purposes (as the collection of glass
flowers, at Harvard University, which illustrates the flora of the
United States); but snore often as articles of decoration and
ornament. A large variety of materials have been used in their
manufacture by different peoples at different times— painted
linen and shavings of Stained horn by the Egyptians, gold and
silver by the Romans, rice-paper by the Chinese, silkworm
cocoons in Italy, the plumage of highly coloured birds in South
America, wax, small tinted shells, &c. At the beginning of the
18th century the French, who originally learnt the art from the
Italians, made great advances in the accuracy of their repro-
ductions, and towards the end of that century the Paris manu-
facturers enjoyed a world-wide reputation. About the same
time the art was introduced into England by French refugees,'
and soon afterwards it spread also to America. The industry
is now a highly specialized one and comprises a large number of
operations performed by separate hands. Four main processes
may be distinguished. The first consists of cutting up the various
fabrics and materials employed into shapes suitable for forming
the leaves, petals, fcc; this may be done by scissors, but more
often stamps are employed which win cut through a dozen or
more thicknesses at one blow. The veins of the leaves are next
impressed by means of a die, and the petals are given their
natural rounded forms by goffering irons of various shapes.
The next step is to assemble the petals and other parts of the
flower, which is built up from the centre outwards; and the
fourth is to mount the flower on a stalk formed of brass or iron
wire wrapped round with suitably coloured material, and to
fasten on the leaves required to complete the spray.
FLOtD, JOHlf (1572-1 649), English Jesuit, was bom in
Cambridgeshire in 157a. He entered the Society of Jesus when
at Rome in 1502 and is also known as Daniel a Jesu, Hermannos
Loemellus, and George White, the names under which he pub-
lished a score of controversial treatises. He had considerable
fame both as a preacher and teacher, and was frequently arrested
In England; His last years were spent at Louvain and he died
at St Omer on the 1 5th of September 1649. His brother Edward
Floyd was impeached and sentenced by the Commons in 162 1 for
speaking disparagingly of the elector palatine.
FLOYD, JOHH BUCHAHAM (1*07-1863), American politician,
was born at Blacksburg, Virginia, on the 1st of June 1807. He
was the son of John Floyd (1770-1837), a representative in
Congress from 1817 to 1829 and governor of Virginia from
1830 to 1834. After graduating at South Carolina College in 1826,
the son practised law in his native state and at Helena, Arkansas,
and in 1839 settled in Washington county, Virginia, which in
1847-1849 and again in 1853 he represented in the state legisla-
ture. Meanwhile, from 1849 to 1852, he was governorof Virginia,
in which position he recommended to the legislature the enact-
ment of a law laying an import tax on the products of such states
as refused to surrender fugitive slaves owned by Virginia masters.
In March 1857 he became secretary of war in President
Buchanan's cabinet, where his lack of administrative ability
was soon apparent. In December x86o, on ascertaining .that
Floyd had honoured heavy drafts made by government con-
tractors in anticipation of their earnings, the president requested
his resignation. Several days later Floyd was indicted for
malversation in office, but the indictment was overruled on
technical grounds. There is no proof that he profited by
these irregular transactions; in fact he went out of the office
S74
financially embarrassed. TTjoogh fie bad openly opposed
son before the election of Lincoln, his conduct after that event,
especially after his breach with Buchanan, fell under suspicion,
and he was accused of having sent large stores of government
arms to Southern arsenals in anticipation of the Civil War. In
the last days of his term be apparently had such an intention,
but during the year i860 the Southern States actually received
less than their full quota of arms. After the secession of Virginia
he was commissioned a brigadier-general in the Confederate
service. He was first employed in some unsuccessful operations
in western Virginia, and in February 1862 became commander
of the Confederate forces at Fort Donelson, from which be fled
with his second in command, General Gideon J. Pillow, on the
night of February 18, leaving General Simon B. Buckner to
surrender to General Grant. A fortnight later President Davis
relieved him of his command. He died at Abingdon, Virginia,
on th e 26th of August 1863.
FLOYER, SIR JOHN (1640-1734), English physician and
author, was born at Hinters in Staffordshire, and was educated
at Oxford. He practised in Lichfield, and it was by his advice
that Dr Johnson, when a child, was taken by his mother to be
touched by Queen Anne for the king's evil on the 30th of March
17x4. He died: on the 1st of February 1734. Floyer was an
advocate of cold bathing, introduced the practice of counting the
rate of the pulse-beats, and gave an early account of the patho-
logical changes in the lungs associated with emphysema.
Hit writings include >-4a/HMMo-lUoarot: or Ike Touchstone of
Uedkinet. disrtt&rixt the rirtues of Vegetable t. Minerals and Animals,
by }lvir Tasks and Smells [2 vols,, 1&J7) : The practer natural Si&te of
animal Humours desiribed 5jp ihrir sensible Qualities (1696); An
Exqitity into the right Use and Abuses of the Sot, &M end temptrole
Btiht in England {t&?})\ A Treatise of the Asthma (trt *d. P tfrfi);
The antitnl <tvx^\f>wsia revived, or on Essay tc prove cold Bathing
boih safe and useful [London, 1702 ; several edition* fivo; abridged.
Manchester, 1844, lamo): The Physician's Fidic-wakh (tjoy-r/io);
The Sibylline Grades, translated from the best Greek copies, and com-
pattd letlk the sacred prophecies {ut cd.* 1713); T'm Essays: the
first Essay concerning the Creation, Aciheriat Sadies, and Qjjuzs of
gaod cud had Angels; the second Essay eanceming the Mosaic System
of the World '(Nottingham, 17 (7>* A n Exposition 0} r the Revelations
11719) ; An Essay to restore the Dipping of infants in their Baptism
(1722J \ Medicina Gerocomiea* or the Galenic A ft of preserving old
lien's Healths Cist ed-, 1724)1 A Comment on forty-tvo Hi stories
4estribed by HippMtttfes {ijJh)*
FLUDD, or Turn, ROBERT {RoasaTUS de Fluctxeos] (1574-
1637). English physician and mystical philosopher, the son of
Sir Thomas Fludd, treasurer of war Lo Queen Elizabeth in France
and the Low Countries, was born at Milgate, Kent. After
studying at St John's College, Oxford, he travelled In Europe
for six years, and become acquainted with the writings of
Paracelsus. He subsequently relumed to Oxford, became a
number of Christ Church, toolc his medical degrees, and ulti-
mately became a fellow of the College of Phy sicians* H e practised
in London with success, though it is said that he combined with
purely medical treatment a good deal of faith-healing. Folio wing
Paracelsus, he endeavoured to form a system of philosophy
founded on the identity of physical ami spiritual truth. The
universe and aH created things proceed fmra God, who is the
beginning, the end and the sum of all things, and to him they
will return. The act of creation is the separation of the active
principle (light) from the passive (darkness) in the bosom of the
divine unity (God). The universe consists of three worlds;
the archetypal (God), the macrocosm (the world), the microcosm
(man). Man is the world in miniature, all the parts of both
sympathetically correspond and act upon each other. It is
possible for man (and even for the mineral and the plant)
to undergo transformation and to win immortality. Fludd's
system may be described as a materialistic pantheism, which,
allegorically interpreted, he put forward as containing the real
meaning of Christianity, revealed to Adam by God himself,
handed down by tradition to Moses and the patriarchs, and re-
vealed a second time by Christ. The opinions of Fludd had the
honour of being refuted by Kepler, Gassendi and Mersenne.
Though rapt in mystical speculation, Fludd was a man of varied
attainment*. He did not disdain scientific experiments, and is
FLOYER— FLUME
thought by some to be the original Inventor of the barometer.
He was an ardent defender of the Rosicrudans, and De Qiriaoey
considers him to have been the immediate, as J. V. Andrei
was the remote, father of freemasonry. Fludd died on the 8c*
of September 1637.
See J. B. Craven. Robert Fludd, the English Rnkrwejan (looslw
where a list of his works is given; A. E. Wake, Tks Real History
of the Rosicrudans (1887); De Quincey, Tht RosicriuuMsaud Free-
masons; J. Hunt, Religious Thought in England (1S70). L aao seq.
His works were published in 6 vols., Oppenheim and Gouda, 1638.
FLttGBL, OUSTAV LEBBRECHT (1802-1870), German
orientalist, was born at Bautzen on the 18th of February 1802.
He. received his early education at the gymnasium of his native
town, and studied theology and philology at Leipzig. Gradually
he devoted his attention chiefly to Oriental languages, which he
studied in Vienna and Paris. In 1832 he became professor at the
FtirslenschuU of St Afra in Meissen, but ill-health compelled him
to resign that office in 1850, and in 1851 he went to Vienna.
where he was employed in cataloguing the Arabic, Turkish and
Persian manuscripts of the court library. He died at Dresden
on the <th of July 187a
Fidget's chief work is an edition of the bibliographical and ency-
clopaedic lexicon of Haji Khalfa, with Latin translation (7 vdi,
London and Leipzig, 183S-1858). He also brought out an edition
of the Koran (Leipzig, 1834 and again 1893); then followed Co*-
cordantiae Corani arabicae (Leipzig, 1842 and again 1898) ; Mevi,
seine Lehren und seine Schrtflen (Leipzig, 1862) : Die grammaJitckn
Sckulen der Araber (Leipzig, 1862) : and lbn KuUubugas Krone der
Lebensbeschreibungen (Leipzig, 1862). An edition of Kddb-al-Fikrist,
prepared by him, was published after his death,
FLUGEl, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1788-1*55), German lexico-
grapher, was bom at B&rby near Magdeburg, on the sand of
November 17SB. He was originally a merchant's clerk, but
emigrating to the United States in is 10, he made a special study
of the English language, and returning to Germany in z8i&
was in 1824 appointed lector of the English language in the uni-
versity of Leipzig. In 1S38 he became American consul, and
subsequently representative and correspondent of the Smith-
sonian Institution at Washington and several other leading
American literary and scientific institutions. He died at Leipzig
on the J4thof June 1S55.
The fame of Fhlg*I rests chief) v on the VoUstdndirt eagfor**
dentuht unj dcutsch-enptische ItVttrfrude, tint published in a vol*.
(U-iptfie) in tfljo, which has liad an extensive a not only
in Germany but in England and America* In this work he was
atsbted by J- SporschiK and a new and enlarged edition, edited by
his mn FeJi* FlUget (1930-1004), vtki published at Brunswick (1890-
J tftoj). Another edition* In two volume*, edited by Prof* Immanud
Schmidt and S. Tan&er appeared (Brunswick* London & New York}
in 1906. Among his other work* are — Vothtondige engl, SPrachlekre
(iS?4'i82t>j; Trjftloite, oder jta*inninni&cke.i WotlttktuM in dm
Sprachen, Brutsch, Enrlisch und rranzosisch {j.8*fr~i|aQ); Kleines
hiufmrinnischet lla-nav-'HrttrbHck Us drei Sprachen {1H40); and
Fraktischcj H&ndhuck der met* ffdndtUtorrespwuienz (t $27, oth ed.
1 B 7 j ) - A tl these have pa,s&ea t hrouth u> vc ral edi ticrna, 1 a adaitioo,
Fldigel aLo puLllshed in the Rngh^h Unjpuagtt; A Merits of Com-
vierzial Letters {Leipzig. l ***)i a 9 tn edition of which appeared in
ill 7 4 under the title Practical Mercantile Cafje-spemfmne* and a
Practical Dictionary of the English and German Languages (2 vols*
Hamburg and Leipzig* 1H47-1853; t£th e*i, Leipcig, 1^91). The
hit mui continued and re-editcd by his uo FcLk.
FLUKB (probably connected with the Gtx.fiack, flat), a name
given to several kinds of fish, flat in shape, especially to the
common flounder; also the name of a trematoid worm, resem-
bling a flounder in shape, which as a parasite infects the liver
and neighbouring organs of certain animals, especially sheep,
and causes liver-rot. The moat common is the Fasciola hepatica
(see Trehatooes). It is also the name of a spedes of kidney
potato. Probably from a resemblance to the shape of the fish,
" fluke " is the name given to the holding-plates, triangular ia
shape, at the end of the arms of an anchor, and to the triangular
extremities of the tail of a whale. The use of the word as a slang
expression for a lucky accident appears to have been first applied
in billiards to an unintentional scoring shot.
FLUME (through an O. Fr. word fium, from the L*L ft vmen,
a river), a word formerly used for a stream, and particularly
for the tail of a mill-race. It is used in America for a very
narrow gorge running between precipitous rocks, with a stream
FLUMINI MAGGIORE— FLUORESCENCE
575
at the bottom, but more frequently is applied to an artificial
channel of wood or other material for the diversion of a stream
of water from a river for purposes of irrigation, for running a saw-
mill, or for various processes in the hydraulic method of gold-
mining (see Aqueduct).
FLUMINI MAGGIORE, a town of the province of Cagliari,
Sardinia, xo m. by road N. of Iglesias, and 5 m. from the W. coast.
Pop. (1001) town 3908; commune 9647. It Is the centre of
a considerable lead and zinc mining district. Three miles to the
S. are the ruins of a temple erected probably in the time of
Commodus (Corpus inscr. Lot. x. t Berlin, !$&$, No. 7539).
They seem to mark the site of Metalla (mines), a station on the
coast road from Sulci to Tharros, and the centre of the mining
district in Roman times. At Fhimini Maggiore itself were found
two ingots of lead, one bearing a stamp with Hadrian's name.
FLUORANTHENB, CuHi* also known as idryl, a hydrocarbon
occurring with phenanthrene, pyrene, diphenyl,. and other
substances in " Stupp " fat (the fat obtained in working up the
mercury ores in Idria), and also in the higher boiling fractions
of the coal tar distillate. .-It was discovered by R. Fit tig in 1878,
who, with Gebhard and ft. Liepmann, elucidated its constitution
(see Ann., 2879, «oo, p. z). The hydrocarbons are separated
from the " Stupp " by means of alcohol, the soluble portion on
distillation giving first phenanthrene and then a mixture of pyrene
and fluoranthene. From the tar distillate, the chrysene can be
fractionally precipitated, and the fluoranthene can be separated
from most of the pyrene by fractional distillation in a partial
vacuum. In either case the two hydrocarbons are finally
separated by fractional crystallisation of their picrates, which
are then decomposed by ammonia. Fluoranthene crystallizes
in large slender needles or monoclinic tables, melting at ioq-i io°
C. and boiling at 250-251° C. (60 mm.). It is easily soluble in hot
alcohol, ether and carbon bisulphide. * On oxidation with chromic
add it forms a quinone, CuHaOk, and an o-diphenylene keto-
carboxylic add £jfl^CQ.rT T^ picrate melts at xSa-xSy C.
FLUORENB (o-diphenylene methane), CuHio or (QHOtCHs,
a hydrocarbon found in coal-tar. It is obtained from the higher
boiling fractions, after separation of naphthalene and anthracene,
by fractional distillation, the portion boiling between 290-340° C.
being taken. The fluorene is separated from this by pladng it in
a freezing mixture, and is then redistilled or crystallized from
glacial acetic add, or purified by means of its picrate. It may
be prepared by distilling diphenylene ketone over zinc dust,
or by heating it with hydriodic add and phosphorus to 1 50-160*
C; and also by passing the vapour of diphenyl methane through
a red hot tube. It crystallises in colourless plates, possessing
a violet fluorescence, melting at 1x2-113° and boiling at 293-295*
C. By oxidation with chromic add in glacial acetic acid solution,
it is converted into diphenylene ketone (QHOrCO; whilst on
heating with hydriodic add and phosphorus to 250-260° C. it
gives a hydro derivative of composition CuHa. '
FLUORESCEIN, or Resokczn'Prxhalein, CmHuOs, in
chemistry, a compound discovered in 1876 by A. V. Baeyer by
the condensation of phthalic anhydride with resordn at 195-200°
C. (Ann., 2876, 183, p. 1). The two reacting substancesrarc either
heated alone or with zinc chloride for some hours, and the melt
obtained is boiled out with water, washed by dilute alcohol,
extracted by means of sodium hydrate, and the solution so
obtained is precipitated by an add. The precipitate is well
washed with water and then dried. By repeating this process
two or three times, the fluorescein may be obtained in a very pure
condition. It forms a yellow amorphous powder, insoluble in
water but soluble in alcohol, and crystallizing from the alcoholic
solution in small dark red nodules. It is readily soluble in solu-
tions of the caustic alkalis, the solution bring of a dark red colour
and showing ^especially when largely diluted with water) a
brilliant green fluorescence. It was so named on account of this
last character. By brominating fluorescein in gladal acetic acid
solution, eosin (tetrabromfluorescein) is obtained, the same
compound being formed by heating 3-s-dibr0m-2-4-dioxy-
benzoylbenzoic add above its melting point .(K. Meyer, Ber.,
1895. 28, p. X576). It crystallizes from alcohol in yellowish red
needles, and dyes silk, wool, and mordanted cotton a fine pink
colour. When heated with caustic alkalis it yields dibrom*
resorcmanddibrommonoresorcin-phthalcin. The corresponding
iodo compound is known as erythrosin. Fluorescein is readily
nitrated, yielding a di- or tetra-nitro compound according to
conditions. The entrance of the negative nitro group into the
molecule weakens the central pyrone ring in the fluorescein
nudeus and the di- and tetra-nitro compounds readily yield
hydrates (see J. T. Hewitt and B. W. Perkins, Jour. Ckenu Soe.,
1900, p. 1326). By the action of ammonia or amines the di-nitro
fluoresceins are converted into yellow dyestuffs (F. Reverdin,
Ber., 1897, 30, p. 333). Other dyestuflsobtaiaed from fluorescein
are saf rosine or eosin scarlet (dibromdinitrofluoresceU) and rose
Bengal (uttaiodotettachloxfluorescein).
On fusion with caustic alkali, fluorescein yields resorda,
CtHiCOHk and monoresorcin phthakin (dioxybenzoylbenzoic
acid), (HO),CiHrCOC HrCOOH. With zinc dust and caustic
soda h yields fluorescin. By warming fluorescein with excess of
phosphorus pentachloride st yields fluorescein chloride, C«HjdO<Cfa
(A. Baeyer), which crystallizes from alcohol in small prisms, meUuag
at 252* C When heated with aniline and aniline hydrochloride,
fluorescein yields a colourless anilide (O. Fischer and E. Hepp, Ber.,'
1893, 26, p. 2236), which is readily methylated by methyl iodide
and potash to a fluorffsreinamltdrdrmetbyl ether, which when healed
for six hours to 150* C. with acetic and hydrochloric adds, is hydro-
Iysed and yields a colourless fluoresceindunethyl ether, which melts
at 198* C. On the other hand, by heating fluorescein with caustic
potash, methyl iodide and methyl alcohol, a coloured (yellow)
dimethyl ether, melting at ao8° C. is obtained (Fischer' and Hepp).
B: - l,„^ nc . th e -In^M r" ■-• rA-T With fV^V '■ ^/tllC.
It is to be noted that the colouric^a mono methyl ether flttorci"*
st v in alkaline ftolutum. the dimethyl ether el nwltjng point
20S* fluoresce* only in neutral *duiitrn (**(.. '** ikttfcpjtl solution).
and the dime thy I ether of melting pctnt ig£ C. finly in concentrated
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid solution (Fischer and Hepp). Con-
siderable discussion has taken place as to the po^itkm held by the
hydroxy 1 groups in the fluoftweia molecule. C, Graebc (Her., 1805,
2I
ca
it
■rtins that thev were in the t/rtho position to the linking
im ol Uie jjhihilic anhydride raaduv* G. Hcltrr \Btr, t
p. $fi), brvwevcr, showed that monorcwrcjri-phthiluiti
when bromLciated In ulacajzil acetic acid fives a dibrom derivative
which, with fuming tulphuric acid, yields dibromxarnhopflrpurin
(l-3-i-j;kny-j-4-cJibroniiin.ihr3_quLnonej, a. . reaction which is Only,
pc--.?ible if 1 he fluorescein (Erom which the monGrcsorcin-phthak'in
is derived; contains free hydroxyl group* in the pars position to the
linking carbon atom of the phthalic anhydride residue*
FLUORESCENCE. In a paper read before the Royal Society
of Edinburgh in 2833, Sir David Brewster described a remarkable
phenomenon he bad discovered to which he gave the name of
41 internal dispersion." On admitting a beam of sunlight, con-
densed by a lens, into a solution of chlorophyll, the green colour-
ing matter of leaves (see fig. x), he was surprised to find that the
path of the rays within the fluid /t
was marked by a bright light of a /}//>'.'.
blood-red colour, strangely contrast- //////?//
ing with the beautiful green of the
fluid when seen in moderate thick-
ness. Brewster afterwards observed
the same phenomenon in various
vegetable solutions and essential
oils, and in some solids, amongst
which was fluor-spar. He believed
this effect to be due to coloured
particles held in suspension* A few
years later, Sir John Hcrschel in-
dependently discovered that if a
solution of quinine sulphate, which, viewed by transmitted
light, appears colourless and transparent like water, were
illuminated by a beam of ordinary daylight, a peculiar blue,
colour was seen in a thin stratum of the fluid adjacent to
the surface by which- the light entered. The blue light was
unpolarized and passed freely through many inches of the
fluid. The incident beam, after having passed through the
stratum from which the blue light came, was not sensibly
enfeebled or coloured, but yet it had lost the power of
Fie. 1.
57*
FLUORESCENCE
producing the characteristic blue colour when admitted into a
second solution of quinine sulphate, A beam of right modified
in this mysterious manner was called by Herschel"epipoKzcd."
Brewster showed that eptpolic was merely a particular case of
internal dispersion, peculiar only in this respect, that the rays
capable of dispersion were dispersed with unusual rapidity.
The investigation of this phenomenon was afterwards taken
up by Sir C. G. Stokes, to whom the greater part of our present
knowledge of the subject is due. Stokes's first paper " On the
Change of the Refrangibility of Light " appeared in 1852. He
repeated the experiments of Brewster and Herschel, and con-
siderably extended them. These experiments soon led him to
the conclusion that the effect could not be due, as Brewster had
imagined, to the scattering of light by suspended particles, but
that the dispersed beam actually differed in refrangibUity from
the light which excited it. He therefore termed it " true internal
dispersion " to distinguish it from the scattering of light, which
he called " false internal dispersion." As this name, however,
is apt to suggest Brewster's view of the phenomenon, he after-
wards abandoned it as unsatisfactory, and substituted the word
*' fluorescence," This term, derived from fluor-spar after the
analogy of opalescence from opal, does pot presuppose any theory.
To examine the nature of the fluorescence produced hy quinine,
Stokes formed a pure spectrum of the sun's rays in the usual
manner. A test-tube, filled with a dilute solution of quinine
sulphate, was placed just outside the rod end of the spectrum
and then gradually moved along the spectrum to the other
extremity. No fluorescence was observed as long as the tube
remained in the more luminous portion, but as soon as the violet
was reached, a ghost-like gleam of blue light shot right across
the tube. On continuing to move the tube, the blue light at
first increased in intensity and afterwards died away, but not
until the tube had been moved a considerable distance into the
ultra-violet part of the spectrum. When the blue gleam first
appeared it extended right across the tube, but just before
disappearing it was confined to a very thin stratum on the side
at which the exciting rays entered. Stokes varied this experi-
ment by placing, a vessel filled with the dilute solution in a
spectrum formed by a train of prisms. The appearance is
illustrated dlagrammsUcally in fig. a. The greater part of the
light passed freely as if through water,
but from about half-way between the
Fraunhof er lines G and H to far beyond
the extreme violet, the incident rays
gave rise to light of a sky-blue colour,
which emanated in all directions from
the portion of the fluid (represented
b= —•*—=*■- white in fig. 2) which was under the
^£zZg influence of the incident rays. The
t '" T anterior surface of the blue space coin-
cided, of course, with the inner surface
of the glass vessel. The posterior sur-
face marked the distance to which the incident rays were able
to penetrate before they were absorbed. This distance Was at
first considerable, greater than the diameter of the vessel, but
decreased with great rapidity as the refrangibflity of the incident
light increased, so that from a little beyond the extreme violet
to the end, the blue space was reduced to an excessively thin
stratum. This shows that the fluid is very opaque to the ultra-
violet rays. The fixed lines in the violet and invisible part of
the solar spectrum were represented by dark lines, or rather
planes, intersecting the blue region, Stokes found that the
fluorescent light is not homogeneous, for on reducing the incident
rays to a narrow band of homogeneous light, and examining the
dispersed beam through a prism, he found that the blue light
consisted of rays extending over a wide range of ref rangtbility.
but not into the ultra-violet.
Another method, which Stokes found especially useful in
examining different substances for fluorescence, was as follows.
Two coloured media were prepared, one of which transmitted
the upper portion of the spectrum and was opaque to the lower
portion, while the second was opaque to the upper and trans-
parent to the lower part of the spectrum. These were caBed by
Stokes " complementary absorbents." No pair could be fcusd
which were exactly complementary, of course, but the condition
was approximately fulfilled by several sets of coloured glasses
or solutions. One such combination consisted of a deep-brae
solution of ammoniacal copper sulphate and a yellow gks
coloured with silver. The two media together were almost
opaque. The light of the sun being admitted through a hole is
the window-shutter, a white porcelain tablet was laid on a shtii
fastened in front of the hole. If the vessel containing the blue
solution was placed so as to cover the hole, and the tablet wsj
viewed through the yellow glass, scarcely any light entered the
eye, but if a paper washed with some fluorescent liquid were laid
on the tablet it appeared brilliantly luminous. Different pain
of complementary absorbents were required according to the
colour of the fluorescent light. This experiment shows dearly
that the. light which passed through the first absorbent and
which would have been stopped by the second gave rise in the
fluorescent substance to rays of a different wave-length which
were transmitted by the second absorbent. Scattered light,
with which the true fluorescent light was often associated, was
eliminated by this method, being stopped by the second
absorbent.
Stokes also used a method, analogous to Newton's method of
crossed prisms, for the purpose of analysing the fluorescent fight
A spectrum was produced by means of a slit and a prism, the slit
being horizontal instead of vertical. The resulting very narrow
spectrum was projected on a white paper moistened with a
fluorescent solution, and viewed through a second prism with its
refracting edge per-
pendicular to that of
the first prism. In
addition to the slop-
ing spectrum seen
under ordinary cir-
cumstances, another
spectrum due to the
fluorescent light
alone, made its
appearance, as seen
in figs. 3 and 4. In
this spectrum the
colours do not run
from left to right,
but in horizontal
lines. Thus the dark
lines of the solar
spectrum lie across
the colours. The
spectra in figs. 3 and
4 Were obtained by
V. Pierre with an
improved arrange-
ment of Stokes's method. It will be seen that, in the tase
of chlorophyll, the whole spectrum, far into the ultra- violet,,
gives rise to a short range of red fluorescent light, while
the effective part of the exciting light in the case of aesculin
(a glucoside occurring in horse-chestnut bark) begins a little
above the fixed line G and the fluorescent light covers a wide
range extending from orange to blue.
Besides the substances already mentioned, a large number
of vegetable extracts and some inorganic bodies are strongly
fluorescent. Stokes found that most organic substances show
signs of fluorescence. Green fluor-spar from Alston Moor
exhibits a violet, uranium glass a yellowish-green fluorescence.
Tincture of turmeric gives rise to a greenish light, and the extract
of seeds of Datura stramonium a pale green light. Ordinary
paraffin oil fluoresces blue. Barium platinocyanide, which is
much used in the fluorescent screens employed in work with the
RSntgcn rays, shows a brilliant green fluorescence with ordinary
light. Crystals of magnesium platinocyanide possess the
remarkable property of emitting a polarized fluorescent light,
Fig. 4.— Spectrum of Aesculin.
FLUORINE
577
the colour and plane of ponarization depending on the portion
of the crystal with respect to the incident beam, and, if polarised
light » used, on the plane of polarisation of the latter.
Stokes's low.— In all the substances examined by Stokes, the
fluorescent light appeared to be of lower refiangibUity than the
light whkh excited it. Stokes considered it probable that this
lowering of the refrangibility of the light was a general law which
held for all substances. This is known as Stokes's law. It has
been shown, however, by E. Loramcl and others, that tins law
does not hold generally. Lommet distinguishes two kinds of
fluorescence. Tlie bodies which exhibit the first kind are those
which possess strong absorption |mnds, of which only one re*
mains appreciable after gnat dilution. These bodies are always
strongly coloured and show anomalous dispersion and (in solids)
surface colour. In such cases, the maximum of intensity in the
fluorescent spectrum corresponds to the marimnrn of absorption.
Stokes's law is not obeyed, for a fluorescent spectrum can be pro*
duced by means of homogeneous- light of lower refrangibility
than a great part of the fluorescent light. The second kind of
fluorescence is the most common, and is exhibited by bodies which
show absorption only in the upper part of the spectrum, i.e.
they are usually yellow or brawn or (if the absorption is in the
ultra-violet) colourless. The absorption bands also are different
from those of substances of the first kind, for they readily dis-
appear on dilution. A third class of bodies is formed by those
substances which exhibit both kinds of fluorescence.
Nature of Ptmorescence. — No complete theory of fluorescence
has yet been given, though various attempts have been made to
explain the phenomenon. Fluorescence is closely allied to
phosphorescence (q.v.), the difference consisting in the duration
of the effect after the exciting cause is removed. liquids which
fluoresce only do so while the exciting light is falling on them,
ceasing immediately the exciting light is cut off. In the case
of solids, on the other hand, such as fluor-spar or uranium glass,
the effect, though very brief, does not die away quite instantane-
ously, so that it is really a very brief phosphorescence. The
property of phosphorescence has been generally attributed to
some molecular change taking place in the bodies possessing it.
That some such change takes place during fluorescence is rendered
probable by the fact that the property depends upon the state
of the sensitive substance; somebodies, such as barium platino-
cyanide, fluorescing in the solid state but not in solution, while
others, such as fluorescein, only fluoresce in solution. Fluores-
cence is always associated with absorption, but many bodies are
absorbent without showing fluorescence. A satisfactory theory
would have to account for these facts as well as for the production
of waves of one period by those of another, and the non-homo-
geneous character of the fluorescent light. Quite recently W.
Voigt has sought to give a theory of fluorescence depending on
the theory of electrons. Briefly, this theory assumes that the
electrons which constitute the molecule of the sensitive body
can exist in two or more different configurations simultaneously,
and that these are in dynamical equilibrium, like the molecule
in a partially dissociated gas. If the electrons have different
periods of vibration in the different configurations, then it would
happen that the electrons whose period nearly corresponded with
that of the incident light would absorb the energy of the latter,
and if they then underwent a transformation into a different,
configuration/ with a different period, this absorbed energy
would be given out in waves of a period corresponding to that of
the new configuration.
A p plications of Fluorescence.— The phenomenon of fluorescence
can be utilized for the purpose of illustrating the laws of re-
flection and refraction in lecture experiments since the path of
a ray of light through a very dilute solution of a sensitive sub-
stance is rendered visible. The existence of the dark lines in the
ultra-violet portion of the solar spectrum can also be demon-
strated in a simple manner. In addition to the foregoing
applications, Stokes made use of this property for studying the
character of the ultra-violet spectrum of different sources of
illumination and flames. He suggested also that the property
would in some cases furnish a simple test for the presence of a
small quantity of a sensitive substance In an organic mixture.
Fluorescent screens are hugely usee) in work with Rontgen rays.
There appears to be some prospect of light being thrown on the
question of molecular structure by experiments on the fluores-
cence of vapours. Some very interesting experiments in this
direction have been ptifocmed by R. W. Wood on thefluorescence
of sodium vapour.
RXFBwmcw.— Sir G. G. Stokes, MaHiematical mi Physical
Papers, vols. hi. and iv. ; MttUer-PouiUet. Lekrbuch der Pkysik, Bd. U.
(IU97); A. WuUoer, Ukrbuck der BxpcrmenUUphysik, Bd. iv.
(1899): A. A. Winketmann, Handbuch fa Pkysik, Bd. vi. (1906);
R. W. Wood, Physical Optics (1905). (J. R. C)
FLUORINE (symbol F, atomic weight 19), a chemical element
of the halogen group. It is never found in the uncombincd
condition, but in combination with calcium as fluor-spar CaF,
it is widely distributed; it is also found in cryolite Na»AlF c ,
in fluor-apatite, CaFr3CaiP|Os, and in minute traces in sea-
water, in some mineral springs, and as a constituent of the enamel
of the teeth. It was first isolated by H. Moissan in 1886 by the
electrolysis of pure anhydrous hydrofluoric add containing
dissolved potassium fluoride. The U-shaped electrolytic vessel
and the electrodes are made of an alloy of platinum-iridium,
the limbs of the tube being closed by stoppers made of fluor-spar,
and fitted with two lateral exit tubes for carrying off the gases
evolved. Whilst the electrolysis is proceeding, the apparatus
is kept at a constant temperature of-* 23° C. by means of liquid
methyl chloride. The fluorine, which 2s liberated as a gas at
the anode, is passed through a well cooled platinum vessel,
in order to free it from any acid fumes that may be carried over,
and finally through two platinum tubes containing sodium
fluoride to remove the last traces of hydrofluoric add; it is
then collected in a platinum tube dosed with fluor-spar plates.
B. Brauner (Jour. Chcm.Soc., 1894, 65, p. 393) obtained fluorine
by heating potassium fluorplumbate 3KFHFPbF 4 . At 200? C,
this salt decomposes, giving off hydrofluoric acid, and between
030-250° C. fluorine is liberated.
Fluorine is a pale grccnish-yeilow gas with a very sharp smell;
its specific gravity is 1-265 (H. Moissan); it has been liquefied,
the liquid also being of a yellow colour and boiling at - 187 C.
It is the most active of all the chemical elements; in contact
with hydrogen combination takes place between the two gases
with explosive violence, even in the dark, and at as low a tempera-
ture as.-2io° C; finely divided carbon burns in the gas,
forming carbon tetrafluoride; water is decomposed even at
ordinary temperatures, with the formation of hydrofluoric add
and " ozonised " oxygen; iodine, sulphur and phosphorus melt
and then inflame in the gas; it liberates chlorine from chlorides,
and combines with most metals instantaneously to form fluorides;
it does not, however, combine with oxygen. Organic compounds
are rapidly attacked by the gas.
Only one compound of hydrogen and fluorine Is known,
namely hydrofluoric acid, HF or H,F,, which was first obtained
by C. Scheelc in 1 77 1 by decomposing fluor-spar with concentrated
sulphuric acid, a method still used for the commercial preparation
of the aqueous solution of the add, the mixture being distilled
from leaden retorts and the add stored in leaden or gutta-percha
bottles. The perfectly anhydrous add is a very volatile colour-
less liquid and is best obtained, according to G. Gore (Phil.
Trans., 1869, p. 173) by decomposing the double fluoride of
hydrogen and potassium, at a red heat in a platinum retort fitted
with a platinum condenser surrounded by a freezing mixture, and
having a platinum receiver luted on. It can also be prepared
in the anhydrous condition by passing a current of hydrogen
over dry silver fluoride. The pure add thus obtained is a moat
dangerous substance to handle, its vapour even when highly
diluted with air having an exceedingly injurious action on the
respiratory organs, whilst inhalation of the pure vapour is
followed by death. The anhydrous add boils at io°*5 C. (H.
Moissan), and on cooling, sets to a solid mass at -ioa°*s C,
which melts at-92°3 C. (K. Olszewski, Mortals. fUr Chcmie,
1886, 7, p. 371). Potassium and sodium readily dissolve in the
anhydrous add with evolution of hydrogen and ioxmatioa of
5?8
FLUOR-SPAR—FLUSHING
fluorides. The aqueous solution is strongly acid to litmus and
dissolves most metals directly. Its most important property is
that it rapidly attacks glass, reacting with the silica of the glass
to form gaseous silicon fluoride, and consequently it is used for
etching. T. E. Thorpe (Jaw. Ckem. Soc, x8So, S5, p. 163)
determined the vapour density of hydrofluoric acid at different
temperatures, and showed that there is no approach to a definite
value below about 8S° C. where it reaches the value 10*39
corresponding to the molecular formula HF; at temperatures
below 88° C. the value increases rapidly, showing that the
molecule is more complex in its structure. (For references see
J. N. Friend, The Theory of Valency (1000), p. m.) The aqueous
solution behaves on concentration similarly to the other halogen
acids; E. Deussen (Zcit. anorg. Chetn., 1905, 44, pp. 300, 408;
1906, 49, P- 297) found the solution of constant boiling point
to contain 43"»% HF and to boil at no° (750 mm.).
The salts of hydrofluoric acid are known as fluorides and are
easily obtained by the action of the acid on metals or their oxides*
hydroxides or carbonates. The fluorides of the alkali metals, of
silver, and of most of the heavy metals are soluble in water; those
of the alkaline earths are insoluble. A characteristic property of
the alkaline fluorides is their power of combining with a molecule of
hydrofluoric acid and with the fluorides of the more electro-negative
elements to form double fluorides, a behaviour not shown by other
metallic halidcs. Fluorides can be readily detected by their power
of etching glass when wanned with sulphuric acid; or by warming
them in a glass tube with concentrated sulphuric add and holding
version of calcium, sodium and ^potassium fluorides into the corres-
ponding sulphates. J. Berzebus, by converting silver fluoride
into silver chloride, obtained the value 19*44* and by analysing
calcium fluoride the value 19*16; the more recent work of H.
Moissan gives the value 19*05.
See H. Moissan, Le Fluor et ses composes (Paris, 1900).
FLUOR-SPAR, native calcium fluoride (CaF«), known also
as Fluomte or simply Fltjo*. In France it is called fluorine,
whilst the term fluor is applied to the element (F). All these
terms, from the L&t. fiuere, " to flow," recall the fact that the spar
is useful as a flux in certain metallurgical operations. (Cf . its
Ger. name Flussspat or Fluss.)
Fluor-spar crystallizes in the cubic system, commonly in
cubes, either alone or combined with the octahedron, rhombic
dodecahedron, four-faced cube, &c. The four-faced cube has
been called the fluoroid. In fig. i,«is the cube (100), d the
t^&z
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
rhombic dodecahedron (no), and / the four-faced cube (310).
Fig. 2 shows a characteristic twin of intetpenetrant cubes.
The crystals are sometimes porysynthetic, a large octahedron,
e.g., being built up of small cubes. The faces are often etched or
corroded. Cleavage is nearly always perfect, parallel to the
octahedron.
Fluor-spar has a hardness of 4, so that it is scratched by a knife,
though not so readily as caldte. Its spedfic gravity is about $• a.
The colour is very variable, and often beautiful, but the mineral
is too soft for personal decoration, though tt forms- a handsome
material for vases, &c. In some fluor-spar the colour is disposed
in bands, regularly following the contour of the crystal. As the
colour is usually expelled, or much altered, by heat, it is believed
to be due to an organic pigment, and the presence of hydrocarbons
has been detected in many specimens' by G. Wyrouboff, and
other observers. H. W. Morse (Proc. Amer. Acad., 1906, p. 587)
obtained carbon monoxide and dioxide, hydrogen and 1
and small quantities of oxygen from Weardale specimens by
heating. He concluded that the gases are due to the decom-
position of an organic colouring matter, which has, however, no
connexion with the fluorescence or thermo-luminesceooe of
the mineral Certain crystals from Cumberland are beautifuBy
fluorescent, appearing purple with a bluish internal harinrw
by reflected light, and greenish by transmitted hghL Fluor-spar,
though cubic, sometimes exhibits weak double refraction,
probably due to internal tension. Many kinds of fluor-spar are
thermo-luminescent, i.e. they glow on exposure to a moderate
heat, and the name of chlorophane has been given to a variety
which exhibits a green glow. The mineral also phosphoresces
under the Rdntgen rays. Cavities containing liquid occasionally
occur in crystals of fluor-spar, notably in the greasy green cubes
of Weardale in Durham. A dark violet fluor-spar from Wfilsea-
dorf in Bavaria, evolves an odour of oxone when struck, and has
been called antosonite. Oxone is also emitted by a violet fluor-
spar from Quincie, dep. Rhone, France. In both cases the spar
evolves free fluorine, which ozonizes the air.
Fluor-spar is largdy employed by the metallurgist, especially
in lead'smdting, and in the production of ferro-silkon and
ferro-manganese. It is also used in iron and brass foundries.
and has been found useful as a flux for certain gold-ores and m
the reduction of aluminium. It is used as a source of h ydrof l u oric
add, which it evolves when heated with sulphuric acid. The
mineral is also used in the production of opal glass and enamel
ware. In consequence of its low refractive and dispersive power,
colourless pellucid fluor-spar is valuable in the construction of
apochromatic lenses, but this variety is rare. The dark violet
fluor-spar of Derbyshire, known locally as "Blue John," is
prised for ornamental purposes. It occurs almost exclusively at
Tray Cliff, near Castleton. The dark purple spar, called by the
workmen "bull beef," may be changed, by heat, to a rick
amethystine tint. Being very brittle, the spar is rather dnncuk
to work on the lathe, and is often toughened by means of resin.
F. Corsi, the eminent Italian antiquary, held that fluor-spar was
the material of the famous murrhine vases.
Fluor-spar is a mineral of very wide distribution. Some of the
finest crystals occur in the lead-veins of the Carboniferous
Limestone series in the north of England, especially at Weardak,
Allendale and Alston Moor. It is also found in the lead and
copper-mines of Cornwall and S. Devon, notably near Liakeard,
where fine crystals have been found, with faces of the six-faced
octahedron repladng the comers of the cube. In Cornwall fluor-
spar is known to the miners as " carm." Fine yellow fluor-spar
occurs in some of the Saxon mines, and beautiful rose-red
octahedra are found in the Alps, near Goachenen. Many
localities in the United States yield fluor-spar, and it is worked
commercially in a few places, notably at Rosickre in southern
Illinois.
FLUSHING, formerly a township and a village of Queens county,
New York, U.S.A., on Long Island, at the head of Flushing
Bay, since the xst of January 1898 a part of the borough of
Queens. New York City. Flushing is served by the Long Island
railroad and by electric lines. It was settled in 1644 by a company
of English non-conformists who had probably been residents of
Flushing in Holland, from which the new place took its name.
Subsequently a large number of Quakers settled here, and in
167s George Fox spent some time in the township. Before the
War of Independence Flushing was the country-seat of many rich
New Yorkers and colonial offidab.
FLUSHING (Dutch Vlistingen), a fortified seaport in the
province of Zedand, Holland, on the south side of the island of
Walcheren, at the mouth of the estuary of the western Scheldt,
4 m. by rail S. by W. of Middelburg, with which it is also con-
nected by steam tramway and by a ship canal. There is a steam
ferry to Breskens and Ter Neuaen on the coast of Zedand-
Flandres. Pup. (1900) 18,893. An important naval station
and fortress up to 1867, Flushing has since aspired, under the
care of the Dutch government, to become a great commercial
port. In 187s the railway was opened which, in conjunction
FLUTE
579
with the regular day and night Service of steamers to Queen-
borough in the County of Kent, forms one of the mam routes
between England and the east of Europe. In 1873 the great
harbour, docks and canal works were completed. Yet the
navigation of the port remains far behind that of Rotterdam or
Antwerp, the tonnage being in 1899 about 7*9% of that of the
kingdom. As a summer resort, however, Flushing has acquired
considerable popularity, sea-baths and a large modern hotel
being situated on the fine beach about three-quarters of a mile
north-west of the town. It possesses a town hall, containing a
collection of local antiquities, a theatre, an exchange, an academy
of sciences and a school of navigation. The Jakobskerk, or
Jacob's church, founded in 1318, contains monuments to Admiral
de Ruyter (1607-1676) and the poet Jacob Bellamy (1 757-1786),
who were natives of Flushing. The chief industries of the town
are connected with the considerable manufacture of machinery,
the state railway-workshops, shipbuilding yards, Krupp iron
and steel works' depot, brewing, and oil and soap manufacture.
The chief imports are colonial produce and wine, wood and coal.
The exports include agricultural produce (wheat and beans),
shrimps and meat.
FLUTE, a word adapted from O. Fr.fteUte, modem fiille; from
O. Fr. have come the Span, ftaula, Ital. flaulo and Ger. Fldte.
The New English Dictionary dismisses the derivations suggested
from Lat. flalmre or flavitare; ultimately the word must be
referred to the root seen in " blow," Lat. flare, Ger blasen, &c.
1. In music " flute " is a general term applied to wood-wind
instruments consisting of a pipe pierced with lateral holes and
blown directly through the mouthpiece without the intervention
of a reed. The flute family is classified according to the mouth-
piece used to set in vibration the column of air within the tube:
i.e. (1) the simple lateral mouth-hole or embouchure which
necessitates holding the instrument in a transverse position;
(2) the whistle or fipple mouthpiece which allows the performer
to hold the instrument vertically in front of him. There is a
third class of pipes included among the flutes, having no mouth-
piece of any sort, in which the column of air is set in vibration by
blowing obliquely across the open end of the pipe, as in the
ancient Egyptian nay, and the pan-pipe or syrinx (q.v.). The
transverse flute has entirely superseded the whistle flute, which
has survived only in the so-called penny whistle, in the " flute*
work " of the organ (?.?.), and in the French flageolet.
The Transfers* Flute or German PhOe (Fr. fltUe trover sUrt,
jltoe alkmande: Ger. Fldte, Quer fldte, Zwerckpfeiff, Sehmeilter-
fifeiff; Ital. flauto traverse) includes the concert flute known both
as flute in C and as flute in D, the piccolo (q.v.) or octave flute,
and the fife (q.v.). The modern flute consists of a tube open at
one end and nominally closed at the other by means of a plug
or cork stopper: virtually, however, the tube is an open one
giving the consecutive harmonic series of the open pipe or of a
stretched string. The primitive flute was made in one piece,
but the modern instrument is composed of three adjustable
joints. (1) The head-joint, plugged at the upper end and contain-
ing at about one-third of the length the mouth-hole or em-
bouchure. This embouchure, always open when the instrument
is being played, converts the closed tube into an* open one, in an
acoustical sense. (2) The body, containing the holes and keys
necessary to produce the scale which gave the flute its original
designation of D flute, the head and body together, when the
boles are closed, giving the fundamental note D. Before the
invention of keys, this fundamental note and the notes obtained
by the successive opening of the six holes produced the diatonic
scale of D major. All other semitones were obtained by what
is known as cross fingering (Fr. doiglt fourchu; Ger. Gabelgrijfe)
It became usual to consider this the typical fingering nomen-
clature, whatever the fundamental note given out by the flute,
and to indicate the tonality by the note given out when the
six lateral holes are covered by the fingers. The result is
that the tonality is always a tone lower than the name of
the instrument indicates. Thus the D flute is really in C,
the F flute is Eb, &c. (3) The foot-joint or tail-joint con-
taining the two additional keys for C# and C which extend the
compass downwards, completing the chromatic scale of C la the
fundamental octave.
The. compass of the modem flute is three octaves with
chromatic semitones from
The sound is pro-
duced by holding the flute transversely with the embouchure
turned slightly outwards, the lower lip resting on the nearer
edge of tine embouchure, and blowing obliquely across, not
into, the orifice. The flat stream of air from the lips, known
as the air-reed, breaks against the sharp outer edge of the
embouchure. The current of air, thus set in a flutter, produces
in the stationary column of air within the tube a series of pulsa-
tions or vibrations caused by the alternate compression and rare-
faction of the air and generating sounds of a pitch proportional
to the length of the stationary column, which is practically
somewhat longer than the length of the tube. 1 The length of this
column is varied by opening the lateral finger-holes. The current
or air-reed thus acts upon the air column within the flute, without
passing through the tube, as a plectrum upon a string, setting it
in vibration. The air column of the flute is the sound-producer,
whereas in instruments with reed mouthpieces the vibrating
reed is more property the sound-producer, while the ah* column,
acting as a resonating medium, reinforces the note of the reed by
vibrating synchronously with it. If the angle* at which the
current of air is directed against the outer edge of the embouchure
be made less acute and the pressure of the breath be at the same
time increased, the frequency of the alternate pulses of com-
pression and rarefaction within the tube will be increased two,
three or fourfold, forming a corresponding number of nodes and
loops which results in harmonics or upper partials, respectively
the octave, the twelfth, the double octave. By this means sounds
of higher pitch axe produced without actually shortening the
length of the column of air by means of lateral holes. The
acoustic theory of sound-production in the flute is one on which
there is great dsVeraUyof opinion. The subject is too vast to be
treated here, but readers who wish to pursue it may consult
the works of Rockstro,* Helmhoks, 4 and others.* The effect of
boring lateral holes in pipes is to shorten the vibrating length of
the air column, which may be regarded as being effective only
between the hole in question and the mouthpiece. In order to
obtain this result the diameter of the hole should be equal to that
of the bore; as long as the holes were covered by the fingers,
this was obviously impossible. The holes, therefore, being smaller
than the laws of acoustics demand, have to be placed proportion-
ally nearer the mouthpiece in order to avoid deepening the pitch
and deadening the tone. This principle was understood by wind-
instrument makers of classic Greece (see Aulos and Clarinet),
and has been explained by CMadni* and Gottfried Weber. 7
The bore of the early flute with six finger-holes was invariably
cylindrical throughout, but towards the end of the 17th century
a modification took place, the head joint alone remaining
cylindrical while the rest of the bore assumed the form of a cone
having its smallest diameter at the open end of the tube. The
* Sec E, F. F, Oihdni. DtrAbnttk (Leipzig, 1 802), p. 87.
*$eo Sonrcclr, M t)t»r die Scfawinuungserregungund die Bcwegung
der LuffMiylc in offem-n und i;ed^ 1 ten ROhrcn, Fogg- Ami., 1876;
vol. !S^
1 The FlnU (London, TSoo), §90-105, pp. 34-40.
* Theatie der Lvfts(kjpi*iHH&*r in fi&hren mil offenen Endcn
(B , 1896). Oswald's KJasiiJier der exacten Wissenschaften,
No. 80.
* V. C. Mahilton, Experimental Studies art (he Resonance of Trunco-
Conical and Cylindrical Air Columns, translated by F.' A. Mahan
(London, 1901); D. J. BLaikley, Acoustics in Relation to Wind
Instruments (London, 1890); Fnedrich Zamminer. Die Musik und
die musikalischen Instruments, cVt. (Giessen, 1855); idem. " Sur le
mouvement vibratoire de Pair dans les tuyanx, Comptes rendu*,
pp. 87-88, note 1.
1 855, vol. 4 1, &c
<Op. til., ft 73, .
1 " Akustik der Rkwiriitnimente,*' Attrem. musikal. Zeit. (Leipzig,
1816), Bd. xviit. No. 5, p. 65 et seq. See also Ernst Euting, Zur
Cesckichte der filasinslrnmenle im 16. und 17. Jahrhundett. Inaugural
Dissertation, FrtedriCh-Wilnctms Univereit&t. (Berlin, 15th of
March 1809), p. 9.
5 8o
FLUTE
conoidal bore greatly improved. the quality of tone and the
production of the higher harmonics of the third octave. Once
the conical bore had been adopted, the term flute was exclu-
sively applied to the new instruments, the smaller flutes, then
cylindrical, used in the amy being designated fife (q.v.). At
Prom Captain Day's Calahgn; d*...bjr pentiisdoQ of Umn. E|» & SOattiswoode.
Fig. i.— Eight-keyed Cone Flute by Richard Potter. 18th century.
Moan. Rtdolt, Carte & Co.
Fig. a.— Boehra Cylinder Flute. Rockstro ModeL
the present day in England, France and America, the favourite
mode of construction is that introduced by Theobald Boehm,
and known as the " cylinder flute with the parabolic bead, 1 '
of which more will be said further on. The successive opening
of the holes and keys on the flute produces the chromatic scale
of the first or fundamental octave. By increasing the pressure
of the breath and slightly altering the position of the lips over
the mouth-hole, the same fingering produces the notes of the
fundamental octave in the next octave higher. The third octave
of the compass is obtained by the production of the higher
harmonics (Fr. sons harmoniques; Ger. Flageoletlfnc), of the
fundamental scale, facilitated by the opening of certain of the
finger-holes as "vent holes." The quality of tone depends
somewhat on the material of which the flute is made; silver and
gold produce a liquid tone of exquisite delicacy suitable for solo
music, cocus-wood and ebonite a rich mellow tone of considerable
power suitable for orchestral music. The tone differs further
in the three registers, the lowest being slightly rough, the medium
sweet and elegiac, and the third bird-like and brilliant. The
proportions, position and form of the stopper and of the air
chamber situated between it and the embouchure are mainly
influential in giving the flute its peculiar slightly hollow timbre,
due to the paucity of the upper partial* of which according to
HelmholU' only the octave and twelfth are heard. Mr Blaikley 1
states, however, that when the fundamental D is played, he can
discern the seventh partial. The technical capabilities of the
flute are practically unlimited to a good player who can obtain
sustained notes diminuendo and crescendo, diatonic and chro-
matic scales and arpeggios both legato and staccato, leaps,
turns, shakes, &c By the articulation with the tongue of the
syllables U~ke ox ii-ke repeated quickly for groups of double notes,
or of to-ke-ti for triplets, an easy effective staccato is produced,
known respectively as double or triple tonguing, a device under-
stood early in the 16th century and mentioned by Martin
Agricola,' who gives the syllables as dc for sustained notes,
di-ri for shorter notes, and Hl-lcl-lcl for staccato passages in
quick tempo. 4
Musical instruments, such as flutes, In which a column of ,i!r is
set in vibration by regular pulsations dt-rived from a current Of air
directed by the lips ol the executant against tht aide of rbc ori&re
serving as embouchure, appear to be of very ancient origin. The
Hindus, Chinese and Japanese claim to have used thtie mod** of
blowing from time immemorial. The ancient Egyptians h#t$ a tang
pipe held obliquely and blown across th< ■ J <>t die pipe itwlf it its
upper extremity; it was known as Stub-ii k and wm frequently
figured on the monuments. The same instrument, called h nay,
is still used in Mahommedan countries. The oblique aulos of the
1 Lekre von der Tonembfindung (Braunschweig, l8 7J)-
* See additions by D. J. B. to article " Flute ' in Grove's Diction-
ary of Music and Musicians (London, 1904).
3 Musica tnstrumcntalis deutsch (Wittenberg. 1528).
4 See also L'Artusi, Detle imterfeUioni della musica modema
(Venice, 1600), p. a; Gottfried Weber in Cd cilia, Bd.'ix. p. 99.
8 See " Les Anciennes Flutes egyptiennes," by 'Victor Loret in
Journal asiatique (Paris, 1889), vol. xiv, p. 133 et seq., two careful
articles based on the ancient Egyptian instruments still extant. Sec
also Lauth, " Cber die agyptiscne Instrumente," Sittungs. der pbilcs.,
philolog. und histor. Klasse. der Kgl. bayer. Abed, tu Munchen (1873).
Greeks, plagiaulos,' was of Egyptian origin and was perhaps at fim
blown from the end as described above,' since we know that tht
Greeks were familiar with that method of blowing in the syrinx
or pan-pipe. The instruments preserved at the British Museon*
having lateral embouchures show, however, that they were sko
acquainted—probably through the Hindus — with the traosvene
flute, although in the case of these specimens a reed tmat
have been inserted into the mouth-hole or no sound wadd
have been obtained.
The high antiquity of a lateral emboocbure in Europe
is generally admitted; the flute evidently penetrated
from the East at some period not yet deternuned. A
transverse flute is seen on Indian
sculptures of the Gandlan
school showing Greek influence,
and dating from the begiaaist
of our era (fig. 3). But although
the transverse flute was evi-
dently known to the Greeks asd
. . Returns, it did not find thesane
favour as the reed instruments known as auloi. We have so
evidence of the survival of the transverse flute after the fall of the
Roman empire until it filtered through from Byzantine sources
'•4f^W^
Fig. 3.— Transverse Flute. 1st or and century A.o. From the
Tope at Amaribati, British Museum.
during the early middle ages. Instances of the flute occur on 1
group of caskets 9 of Italo-Byzantine work of the oth or lothceatary,
while of purely Byzantine origin we find examples of flutes in Greer
• See Albert A. Howard, " The Aulos or Tibia," Harvard Sh#&
iv. (Boston, 1893), pp. 16-17. Im- _
• Representations of flutes blown as here described have 6gJ
found in Europe. See Comptes rendus de la commission implrw
arcMologique (St Petersburg, 1867), p. 45, and atlas for the sane
date, pi. vi. Pompeian painting given by Helbig, Wandgemu^
No. 7607: Zahn, vol. iii. pi. 31 ; Museo Borbonnico, pi. zv. Na Hi
Clarac, pt' 130, 131, 1 39; Heuzcy, Les Figurines, p. 136.
• There are two Antes at the British Museum (Catal. No. sMj
and s and 6), belonging to the Castellani collection, made of weed
encased in bronze in which the mouthpiece, consisting ol the be&
of a maenad, has a lateral hole bored obliquely into the roaui tu*
This hole was probably intended for the reception of a reed^*"*
Sipe is stopped at the end beyond the mouthpiece as In the mcoera
ute. There are six. holes. See also the plagiaulos from *J**2\
nassus in the British Museum described by C, T. Newton in fw
of Discoveries at Halicarnassus (London), vol. h*. p. 339. The v&T*
has two ancient statues (from the villa Borghesc) represenCTUj
satyrs playing upon transverse flutes. Unfortunately these tt*ro&
have been restored, especially in the details affecting ^P"JS
subject, and are therefore examples of no value to us. A**"?
statue representing a flute-player occurs in the British Wuseu*
The instrument has been supposed to be a transverse » ute 'J?3,
erroneously, for the insufflation of the lateral tube against vn*?
the instrumentalist presses his tips, i could not, without the inter-
vention of a reed, excite the vibratory movement of the coUuunw
air. _, —
• Florence, Carrand Collection. See Museo Nazionale Fires*
CbAalogo (1898), p. 305, No. 26 (description only). Illustration «
Gallerte naa&naU Oatuxne, A. Ventun,_ vol. in. (1897)- * **
L'Arte (Rome, 1894), vol. i. p. 34, "
byzantinischer Euer k * s "— , - f "
Sammlungen (Berlin
'eaten, vol. iii. (1897). PvJ2
Hans Graevcn. u Antike VorfsjJJ
byzantinischer E(fenbeinreliefs ; rt in Jahrb. d\K. Preuss. *«**
Sammlungen (Berlin, 18 v **
Reliquicnk&stchen aos Pirano,"
eis, in jaaro. a* a. m*** •■»«■
1897), Bd. xvill p. it; Hans Graeven, "■
i Rrano," id., 1899, Bd. tx. fig. * and pi *
.— H
ELUTB
58i
MSS. 1 preserved in Paris, at the British Museum and elsewhere.
There b moreover in the cathedral of St Sophia at Kiev * an orchestra
depicted on frescoes said to date from the nth century; among
the musicians is a flautist.
• The first essentially western European trace of the transverse
flute occurs in a German MS. of the 12th century, the celebrated
Hortus delicianem of the abbess Herrad von Landsperg. 4 Fol. 221
shows a syren playing upon the transverse flute, which Herrad
explains in a legend as libia: in the vocabulary the latter is trans-
lated swegtl. In the 13th century it occurs among the miniatures of
the fifty-one musicians in the beautiful MS. Las Cautigas de Santa
Maria in the Escorial, Madrid. 4 Eustache Deschampa, a French
poet of the 14th century, in one of his ballads, makes mention of the
r * flute traversaine," and we are justified in supposing that he refers
to the transverse flute, it had certainly acquired some vogue in
the 15th century, being figured in an engraving in Sebastian Vird-
ung's celebrated work \ where it is called " Zwemhpfciff," and, with
the drums, it already constituted the principal element of the
military music Agricola (op. cil.) alludes to it as the '* Querch*
pfeiff or " Schweuterpfeiff, the latter designation dating, it is
■aid. from the battle of Marignan (1515), when the Swiss troops
used it for the first time in war.
From Agricola onwards transverse flutes formed a complete family,
•aid to comprise the discant, the alto and tenor, and the bass—
tiveJy. Praetorius* desig-
: nates the transverse flute as
' Flauta traverse Ouerpfeiff "
and "Querflot," and gives the
pitch of the tenor a and the - p 1 as vane*
the bass g*^P= and alto & 1 — discant ft d ties then
in in V e> ra V in use. A
flute concert at that time included two discerns, four altos 01
tenors, and two basses. The same author distinguishes between the
" Traversa " and the " Schweizerpfeiff " or fife (which he also calls
** Feldpfeiff," i.e. military flute), although the construction was the
same. There were o .» respectively ; they were
two kinds of ft «J—- and jj ft ■ 1 — employed exclusively
•' Feldpfeiff," in *f V — n» with the military drum.
MersenneV account of the transverse flute, then designated " flute
d'Allemagne "or " flute allemande " in France, and an " Air de Cour "
r four flutes in his work lead us to believe that there were then in
and the bass
flute descend-<grr=;
ing to
The museum of the Conservatoire Royal of Brussels possesses
specimens of all these varieties except the last. All of them are
the flute differs but little from those of Hottoterre-le-Roraam* an<
Eisel » far the diatonic scale; he dees not give the chromatic semv
tones and the flute had as yet no keys.
The largest bass flute in the Brussels museum » in (r f -\K u —
at the French normal pitch A 435 double vibrations per — •—
second. It measures 0*95 m. from the centre of the blow orifice to
1 Greek MS. 510, Gregoir de Nazance 10th century. Ei 7 fheque
ationale, Paris; illustration in Gu&i a ve L.Schtu m\ >ergcr. Epopee
cylindrical flute is shown turned to the right* the left band being
uppermost. Smyrna, Library of the Lva^ijclike Scheie B. 18, fol.
72a, a.d. 1100, illustration by SirzygowiVi. " Der BLtdcrksris des
gricchischen Physiologus," in ByinnUnhchet Artkir (Lcipris. 1899),
Heft 2, Tai. xi.; N. P. Kondakofi. Histoid ft* Vart byzanUn (Parts,
1886 and 1891), pi. xii. 5; " KuseJR" Amrtu," Unrei by K, ..had. d.
Wissenschaften (Vienna, 1907), vol i ; . at vx^iv,
*A fine volume containing col ■■■!■.• I Hi n ^s of tb«f irescoes
has been published in St Petersburg (British Museum library cata-
logue, sect, "Academies," St Petersburg tS^SS?, vol. iv. Tab.
1325a).
•This manuscript, written towards the end of the 12th century,
was preserved in the Strassburg library until 1870, when it was burnt
during the bombardment of the cky. See the fine reproduction in
facsimile published by the Soc. pour la conservation des monuments
historiques «T Alsace. Texte explicatif de A. Straub and G. Keller
(Strassburg, 1901), pi. lvii., also C. M. Engelhardt, Herrad von
Landsperg und ikr Werk (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1818), twelve
plates.
• MS. j. b. 2. Illustrated in Critical and Bibliographical Notes
on Early Spanish Music (London, 1887), p. 11Q.
• Musica getutsckt und auszgezogen (Basel, 1511).
• Organographia (Wolfcnbuttet, 1618), pp. 24, 25. 40.
T Harmonie universale (Paris, 1636), Lwre v. p. 241.
• Principts de la fl&ie traversiere ou fi&te d'Allemagne, de la JlUte
abecetdu haulbois (Paris, 1722), p. 38. .
• Musieus ainohibaxTbt oder der sick selbst injormxrende Musxcus
(Erfurt. 1738), p. 85.
the lower extremity of the tube. The disposition of the lateral holes
is such that it is impossible to cover them with the fingers if the
late is held in the ordinary way. The in*
strument must be placed against the mouth
in an almost vertical direction, inclining the
extremity of the tube either to the right or
the left. This inconvenient position makes
it necessary that the instrument should be
divided into two parts, enabling, the player
to turn the head joint that the embouchure
may be most commodiousry approached by
the lips, which is not at all easy. The first
and fourth of the six lateral holes are
double in order to accommodate both right-
and left-handed players, the holes not in
use being stopped up with wax. % The bass
flute shown in fig. a. is the facsimile of an
instrument in the Museo Civico of Verona.
The original, unfortunately no longer fit for .
use, is nevertheless sufficiently well pro-
served to allow of all its proportionate
measurements being given. The lowest
note, EK is obtained with a remarkable
amplitude of sound, thus upsetting a very
prevalent opinion that it is impossible to
produce by lateral insufflation sounds which
go a little lower than the ordinary limit
downwards of the modern orchestral flute. 1 *
The bass flute cited by Mereenne should
not differ much from that of the Museo
Civico at Verona . We suppose it to have
been in fel — m — . and that it was furnished
with an open key like that which was
applied to the recorders (jUttes donees) of
the same epoch,, the function of the key
being to augment by another note the com-
pass of the instrument in the lower part. A
baas flute in G similar to the one in fig. 5
is figured and described in Diderot and „ ._,_
D'Afembert's encyclopaedia « (1751). Ac- _ FlG - 4- ***• A-
cording to Quants," it was in France and ,. tlG - 4-:~ Bass *" ute *
about the middle of the 17th century that f r ro « Museo Civico,
the first modifications were introduced in Verona (tacsimilcj.
the manufacture of the flute. The improve- „ Fig. 5.— -Bass Flute.
ments at this period consisted of the Brussels Museum,
abandonment of the cylindrical bore 1 in
favour of a conical one, with the base of the cone forming the
head of the instrument. At the same time the flute waa
made of three separate pieces called head, body, and tail or foot,
which were ultimately further subdivided. The body or middle
joint was divided into two pieces, so that the instrument could be
tuned to the different pitches then in use- by a replacement with
longer or shorter pieces. It was probably about 1677, when Lully
introduced the German flute into the opera, that recourse was had
for the first time to keys, and that the key of D# was applied to the
lower part of the instrument. 14 The engraving of B. Picart, dated
1707, given in Hotteterre's book; represents the fliite as having
reached the stage of improvement of which we have just spoken. 1 n
1726 Qaantz," finding himself in Paris, had a second key applied to
the flute, placed nearly at the same height as the first, that of the
■s intended to differentiate the D$ and the Eb." This
(ft I . innovation was generally well received in Germany, but
tf—f& does not appear to have met with corresponding success
in other countries. In Prance and England manufacturers adopted
it but rarely; in Italy it was declared useless. 1 * About the same
18 F6tis, Rapport sur la fabrication des instruments de musique a
r Exposition UnwerseHe de Paris, en 1855.
uSee Recueil de planches, vol. iv„ and article " Basse de flute
traversiere," vol. ii. (Paris, 1751). See also The Flute, by R. S.
Rockstro (London, 1890), p. 230, where the wood cut is reproduced
together with a translation 01 the article. The Museum of the
Conservatoire in Paris also possesses a bass flute by the noted French
maker Dekisse.
u Versuch einer Anweisung die FUHe traversiere tu spielen (Berlin,
nless the contrary is stated, we have always in view, in describ-
the successive improvements of the flute, the treble flute in D,
which is considered to be typical of the family.
u ° Herrn Johann Joachim Quantzens-Lebenslauf, von ihm selbst
entworfen," in the Historisch-Kritische BeytrSee tur Aufnakme der
Musik, by Marpurg (Berlin, 175a), p. 239. QuanU was professor
of the -flute to Frederick the Great.
11 See Johann Georg Tromlitz, Ausfxtkrlicher und grandlkhet
Unierricht die Fldte vu spirlen (Leipzig, 1791), 1, § 7, and Uber FlOten
mit mehrem Klappen (Leipzig, 1800), cap. vii. | 21.
u Antonio Lorenzoni, Saggio per ben sonare H fiauto traverso
(Vicenza, 1779).
,7 ^„
ft'
5«*
FLUTE
time flutet were constructed with the lower extremity lengthened
sufficiently to produce the fundamental C, and famished with a
supplementary key to produce the C$. This innovation, spoken of
by Quantz > did not meet with a very favourable reception, and was
shortly afterwards abandoned. Passing mention may be made of
the drawing of a flute with a C key in the Music-Saal of J. F. B.
Maier (Nuremberg, 1740. P- 45*
The tuning of the instrument to different pitches was effected
by changes in Che length, and notably by substituting a longer or
shorter upper piece in the middle joint. So wide were the differences
in the pitches then in use that seven such pieces for the upper portion
of it were deemed necessary. The relative proportions between the
different parts of the instrument being altered by these modifications
in the length, it was conceived that the just relation could be re-
established by dividing the foot into two pieces, below the key.
These two pieces were adjusted by means of a tenon, and it was
asserted that, in this way, the foot could be lengthened propor ti on-
ately to the length of the middle joint. Flutes thus improved took
the name of " flutes a registre." The register system was, about
1752, applied by Quanta to the bead joint* and, the embouchure
section being thus capable of elongation, -it was allowable to the per-
former, according to the opinion of this professor, to lower the pitch
of the flute a semitone, without having recourse to other lengthening
pieces, and without disturbing the accuracy of intonation.
The upper extremity of the flute, beyond the embouchure orifice,
is closed by means of a cork stopper. On the position of this cork
depends, in a great measure, the accurate tuning of the flute. It is
in its right place when the accompanying octaves are £■.
true. Quantz, in speaking of this accessory, mentions jp ■ j^-
the use of a nut-screw to give the required position to fe-Tr^ :
the cork. 1 He does not name the inventor of this ap- V » l
pliancc, but, according to Tromlitz, 4 the improvement was due to
Quantz himself. The invention goes back to 1726.
When the Method of Quantz appeared there were still in use,
besides the orchestral flute in D, the little fourth flute in G, the
low fourth flute in A, and the flute d'amour a note higher; in
France they had, moreover, the little* octave flute in D (octave).
A bass flute in D had also been attempted (see fig. 5). When
Ribock published his Bcmerkungen Hber die Fl6te » the flute
had already the five keys here shown. :
This author states that the inventor of these jra^—
new keys is not known to him, but that «/ & *
either Kusder, a musical instrument-maker in London, or Johann
Georg Tromlitz of Leipzig was the originator, since he has not been
able to trace those keys on the flutes of any other maker. Although
Tromlitz does not claim for himself the invention of the keys for F,
G# and B"», he states that " he had occupied himself for several years
in applying these keys so as Tint to augment the difficulty of playing,
but on the contrary to renrk-c the nandling of them as easy as
possible."* In the later work published in 1800, 7 however, he
seems to attribute the invention of these keys to Richard Potter of
London; he says that he fias never yet been fortunate enough to
come across a good flut>? by diat maker — " the flute has certainly
gained by the addition of trie l- r sys for F, G# and B*. but this is not
everything, for on sudi a rlute much must per f orce be left tin-
attempted. . . .Only n His re nith eight keys according to my in-
vention is capable of evr-r> thing." It would seem, moreover, from
circumstantial evident*' stated clearly and on good authority by
Rockstro* that the key? lor K, G# and Bb must have been used
first in England and nude by Richard Potter before 1774. The
higher key of C adopted i t*,ta 1 786 by Tromlitz, we believe to have
been first recommended by Ribock (1782).* Tromlitz in Vber
FlOten describes -at length what may be termed the first systematic
effort to overcome the difficulties created by the combination of
open holes and closed keys. He attempted to solve the question
by determining the positions of the holes according to the exigencies
of fingering instead of subordinating them to the more arbitrary
theories connected with the musical scale.
In 1785 Richard Potter improved Quantz's slide applied to the
head joint as well as to the register ot the foot by a double system
of tubes forming double sliding air-tight joints. In the document *°
describing this improvement Potter patented the idea of lining the
holes with silver tubes and of adapting metal conical valves to the
keys. Potter's patent conical valves were an adaptation of the
contrivance first invented by J. F. Boie or Boye of Gdttingen,"
(Lei
(Lei
1 See Anweisung, i. | 15.
' Sec Lebenslouj, loc. ctt. p. 248, where Quanta states that he in-
vented the adjustable head for the flute.
* See Anwetsung, i. §fi 10-13 and iv. § 26.
* Ausfuhrlkher and gntndUchet UnUrrickt die Fldte mm spielen
eipzig, 1791)1 i. cap. § 2a Compare Schilling, Unh.-Lexihon
Leipzig, 1835).
'Stendal, 1782 (published undeY his initials only, J. J. H. R,,
e p. 2).
* Kurze Abhandlung von Fldtenspielen (Leipzig, 1786), p. 27.
''Vber Fldten, &c. pp. 133 and 134.
* See The Flute, pp. 242-244 and 561 and 562.
•Sec op. cit. pp. 5» and 62.
10 English patent, No. 1499. "See Rockstro, op. cit. p. 197.
who used pewter for the plugs, and silver for lining the holes. The
keys mentioned in the patent were four^-D*. F, G$, A£. The idea
of extending the compass of the flute downwards was taken up ag iia
about the same time by two players of the flute in London naxaed
Tacet and Florio. They devised a new disposition, of the keys C
and Ctt, and confided the execution of their invention to Potter. la
Dr Arnold's New Instructions for the German Flute occurs a tablature,
the engraving of which goes back to the end of the 18th century. *nd
bears the following title, " A Complete Drawing and Concise Scak
and Description of Tacet and Flono's new invented German Flue,
with all the additional keys explained." It explains the use 01 ax
keys— C. C#, D#. F, Gfc A#— that are not always figured, because
the employment of so many keys was at once admitted. Trom'uu
himself, who, however, made flutes with nine keys — adding £?,
another F, and C«, declared that he was not in favour of so gnat
a complication, and that he preferred the flute with only two key*,
D# and Eb, with a register toot joint and a cork nut-screw at the
head joint. This instrument met all requirements. He was al»a>*
much opposed to the use of the old keys tor Cq and Cfc, because they
altered the recognised quality of tone of the instrument. When
Tromlitz published his method, the family of flutes had become
modified. It comprehended only the typical flute in D. the fttte
d'amour a minor third lower, a third flute a minor third higher,
and, finally, the little octave flute.
While Tromlitz was struggling in Germany with the idea of
augmenting the compass of the flute downwards by employing ©pea
keys for Cq and C#, an Italian, Giovanni Batista Oraxi, B increased
the scale of the instrument downwards by the application of five
new keys, viz. B, B!>, A, At>, and G. At the same time that he
produced this invention u he conceived the plugging of the lateral
holes by the valve keys then recently invented by Potter. Bat
it was hardly possible to obtain a perfect plugging of seven lateral
holes with the aid of as many keys, for the control of which there
were only the two little fingers, and therefore this invention of
Orazi proved a failure.
In 1808 the Rev. Frederick Nolan, 14 of Stratford, near London,
conceived an open key, the lever of which, terminating by a ring,
permitted the closing of a lateral hole at the same time the key **4
being acted upon. The combination in this double action is the
embryo of the mechanism that a little later was to transform the
system of the flute. Two years later Macgregor, 1 * a musical-instru*
ment maker in London, constructed a bass flute an octave lower
than the ordinary flute. The idea was not new. as is proved by the
existence of the bass flute mentioned above. The difference bet wees
the two instruments lies in the mechanism of the keys. That em-
ployed by Macgregor consisted of a double lever, a contrivance
dating from before, the middle of the 18th century, of which the
application is seen in an oboe of large dimensions preserved in the
National Museum at Munich. 14
In 181 1 Johann Ncpomuk Capeller invented the extra DshoU
and key, which is still in constant use on every flute of modcrs
construction."
About 1830 the celebrated French flautist Tulou added two more
keys, those of Fg and C#. and a key. caHed
" de cadence," to facilitate the accompany-
ing shakes.
To increase the number of keys, to improve ]
their system of plugging, and to extend the !
scale of the instrument in the lower region, {
— these had hitherto been the principal problems dealt with in
the improvement of the flute. No maker, no inventor to mhos*
labours we have called attention, had as yet devoted his atten-
tion to the rational division of the column of air by means of the
lateral holes. In 1831 Theobald Boehm. a Bavarian, happening to
be in London, was struck with the power of tone the celebrated
English performer Charles Nicholson drew from his instrument
Boehm learned, and not without astonishment, that his English
colleague obtained this result by giving the lateral holes a much
greater diameter than was then usually admitted. About the
same time Boehm made the acquaintance of an amateur player
named Gordon, who had effected certain improvements: he had
bored the lateral hole for the lower E, and had covered it with a
key, while he had replaced the key for F with a ring. These innova-
tions set Boehm about attempting a complete reform of the
K >^ T^
M Saggio per costrvire e suonare un flauto traverso enarmonieo che
ha i suoni bassi del violino (Rome, 1797).
u The idea of this large flute was taken up again in 1819 by Trexler
of Vienna, who called it the " panaulon."
"Patent, No. 3183. Part of the specification together with a
diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 273-274.
"Patent, No. 3349. Part of the specification together with a
diagram is reproduced by Rockstro, op. cit. pp. 273-274.
"Another specimen, almost the same, constructed about 1775,
and called " Basse de Musette," may be seen in the Museum of the
Paris Conservatoire.
" See account of Capeller's inventions by Carl Maria von Weber
in All gem. musikal. Zeit. (Leipzig, 181 1), pp. 377-379. a translation
of which is given by Rockstro, op. eit. pp. 279 and 260.
FLUX
S»3
neat.* He went resolutely to work, and during the year 183s
he produced the new flute which bears hU name. This instrument
is distinguished by a new mechanism of keys, as well as by larger
boles disposed along the tube in geometrical progression.
Boehm's system had preserved the key of Gl opens Coche.* a
professor in the Paris Conservatoire, assisted by Auguste Buffet
the younger, a musical-instrument maker in that city, modified
Boehm's flute by closing the G# with a key, wishing thus to render
the new fingering more conformable to the old. He thus added a
key, facilitating the shake upon C# with D#, and brought about
some other changes in the instrument of leas- importance.
Boehm had not, however, altered the bore of the flute, which had
been conical from the end of the 17th century. In 1846, however,
be made further experiments, and the results obtained were put in
practice by the construction of a new instrument, of which the body
was given a cylindrical bore, while the diameter of the bead was
modified at the embouchure, the head-joint becoming parabolic
(see fig. 2). The inventor thus obtained a remarkable equality ia
Che tones of the lower octave, a greater sonorousness, and a perfect
accuracy of intonation, by establishing the more exact proportions
which a column of air of cylindrical form permitted.
The priority of Boehm s invention was long contested, his de-
tractors maintaining that the honour of having reconstructed the
flute was due to Gordon. But an impartial investigation vindi-
cates the claim of the former to the invention of the large lateral
holes.* His greatest title to fame is the invention of the mechanism
which allows the production of the eleven chromatic semitones
intermediate between the fundamental note and its first harmonic
by means of eleven holes so disposed that in opening them suc-
cessively they shorten the column of air in exact proportional
quantities. 4 Boehm (Essays, Ac) published a diagram or scheme to
be adopted in determining the position of the note-holes of wind
instruments for every given pitch. This diagram gives the posi-
tion of the intermediate holes which he had been enabled to
establish by a rule of proportion based on the law of the lengths
of strings.
The Boehm flute, notwithstanding the high degree of perfection
it has reached, has not secured unanimous favour; even now there
are players who prefer the ordinary flute. The change of fingering
required for some notes, the great delicacy and liability to derange-
ment of the mechanism, have something to do with this. I n England
especially, the ordinary flute retains many partisans, thanks to
the improvements introduced by a clever player, Abel Siccama, in
1845 (Patent No. 10,553). He bored the lateral holes of E and A
lower, and covered them with open keys. He added some keys, and
made a better disposition of the other lateral holes, of which he
increased the diameter, producing thus a sonorousness almost equal
to that of the Boehm flute, while yet preserving the old fingering
for the notes of the first two octaves. But in spite of these improve-
ments the old flute will not bear an impartial comparison with that
of Boehm.
A flute constructed on a radically new system by Signer Carlo
Tommaso Georgi and introduced in 1896 places the technique of
the instrument on an entirely new and simple basis. The principal
features of this flute consist in an embouchure placed at the upper
extremity of the tube instead of at the side, which allows the instru-
ment to be held in a perpendicular position; no tuning cork is re-
quired. There art eleven holes mathematically placed in the tube
which give the semitones of the scale; there are no keys. The
eleven holes are fingered by the fingers and thumbs, the Cf hole
being closed by the side of the left fore-finger. All t v *— are
obtained by means of simple fingering as far as Ci :i ' 1 h«- rhird
octave, the remaining notes of which are produced by cr< ■■■ w 1 i k '< nng.
For the convenience of players with short fingers keys c^ n I -- lHco,
and the head of the Georgi flute can be used with any c . 'i - '■ ■* fl itc.
The compass of the Georgi flute £ is almost chesam< .1* r^ntof
the concert flute; via. H If the lower C and L ; are
required, extra holes rf p - and keys can U .l Med.
Everything that is ( forrqrtor^: possible on the H- ■ b m il me is
possible on the Georgi «' * and more, owin^ i*, tm sim-
plicity of the fingering; each finger having but one duty to perform,
all trills are equally easy. The cone ia the true flute tone, brilliant
and sympathetic 1
1 See Vber dm Plfitenbau und die neuesten Verbesstrungen desselben
(Mains. 1847); and W. S. Broadwood, An Essay on the Construction
of Flutes ontinaUy written by Theobald Boehm, published with the
addition of Correspondence and other Documents (London. 188?).
' Examen critique de la fl&te ordinaire compart* a la flute Boehm
(Paris. 1838).
1 They existed long before, however, in the Chinese Ty and the
Japanese Fuye.
* The reader may consult with advantage Mr C. Welch's History
of the Boehm Flute (London, 1883), wherein all the documents relat-
ing to this interesting discussion have been collected with great
impartiality.
'For further details see Kathleen Schle&inger, The instruments
of the Orchestra, part i. pp. 192-104, where an illustration is given,
and Paul Wetzger, Die FlOU (Heilbronn. 1906), pp. 23-24, and Tafel
iv. No 20.
The old English Attfcilfttc, or/Mte dbec\i» described under the
headings Rbcorobr and Flageolet. (V. M.; it S.)
2. In architecture the name " flute " is given to the vertical
channels (segmental, semicircular or elliptical in horizontal
section) employed on the shafts of columns in the classic styles.
The flutes are separated one from the other by an " arris " in
the Doric order and by a " fillet " in the Ionic and Corinthian
orders. The earliest fluted columns are those in Egypt, at first
with plain faces without any sinking, subsequently at Karnac
(1400 b.c.) with a segmental sinking equal in depth to about
one-seventh of the width of the flute. The columns flanking one
of the " beehive " tombs at Mycenae have segmental flutes and
are the earliest Greek examples. In two of the earliest Doric
temples at Metapontum and Syracuse (temple of Apollo) the
flutes are also segmental, but in later examples in order to
emphasize the arris they were formed of three arcs and are known
as " false ellipses," and this applies to nearly all the fluting in
Greek examples- whether -belonging- to the Doric, Ionic or
Corinthian orders. The number of flutes varies, there being 52
in the archaic temple of Diana at Ephesus and from 30 to 52
flutes in the Persian columns according to the diameter of the
column. In the Greek Doric column 20 is the usual number, but
there are 16 only in the temples of Sunium, Assos, Segesta and
the temple of Apollo at Syracuse; 18 in one of the temples of
Selinus and the temple of Diana at Syracuse, and 24 in the temple
of>> Neptune at Paestum. The depth of the flute also varies;
in the Propylaea at Athens the radius is equal to the width of
the flute and the flute is segmental. In the Parthenon the radius
of the central part of the flute is greater than the width, but the
smaller arcs on either side accentuate better the arris. A similar
accentuation is found in the Ionic and Corinthian orders, where
the flutes are separated by fillets, and their section is always
elliptical in Greek work, the depth of the flute, however, being
always greater than in the Doric order. Thus, in the temple of
Ilissus and the Ionic column in the cells of the temple at Bassae,
the depth is about one-quarter of the width, in the Propylaea
at Priene It is about one-third, and in the Erechtheum and Other
examples of the Greek Ionic order it is little more than one-half.
The width of the fillet also varies, being as a rule one quarter of
the width of the flute; and the same applies to the Greek
Corinthian order. In the Roman Doric, Ionic and Corinthian
orders, the flute is either segmental or semicircular, its depth
being about one-third of the width in the Doric column, and in all
Ionic, Corinthian and Composite columns half the width of the
flute. The fillet also is much broader in Roman examples, being
about one-third of the width of the flute. In Roman columns
sometimes the flutes of the lower part of the shaft, about one-
third of the height, are partly filled with a convex moulding,
" cabling " being the usual term applied to this treatment.
The French architects of the 16th and 17th centuries carried this
decorative feature much farther, and in the Tufleries and the
Louvre carved a series of leaves in the flutes. In a few Italian
buildings, instead of the fluting of the column being vertical,
it twines round the column and is known as spiral fluting; a fine
example is found in the Bevilacqiia. palace at Verona by San
Michele. Fluting is sometimes introduced into capitals, as in
the tomb of Mylasa, and in friezes, as in the theatre at Cnidos,
the Incantada at Salonica, and a doorway at Patara." In one
of the museums at Rome is a fine sarcophagus, the sides of which
are sculptured with flutes in waved lines. The coronas of many
of the Roman temples were carved with flutes. In medieval
buildings, fluting was occasionally introduced in imitation of
Roman work, as in the churches of central Syria and of Autun and
Langres in France, but in the south of Italy and Sicily it would
seem to have been brought in as a variety of treatment in the
decoration of the shafts carrying the arches of cloisters, as at
Monreale in Sicily and in those of St John Lateran and St Paul-
outside-the- Walls at Rome. (R. P. S.)
FLUX (Lat. fiuxus, a flowing; this Being also the meaning
of the English term in medicine, &c), In metallurgy, a substance
introduced in the smelting of ores to promote fluidity, and to
remove objectionable impurities in the form of a slag. The
sH
FLY— FLYCATCHER
substances in commonest use are:— lime or limestone, to slag
off silica and silicates, fluor-spar for lead, calcium and barium
sulphates and calcium phosphate, and silica for removing basic
substances such as limestone. Other substances are also used,
but more commonly in assaying than in metallurgy. Sodium
and potassium carbonates axe valuable for fluxing off silica;
mixed with potassium nitrate sodium carbonate forms a valuable
oxidizing fusion mixture; " black flux " is a reducing flux
composed of finely divided carbon and potassium carbonate, and
formed by deflagrating a mixture of argol with J to J its weight
of nitre. Borax is very frequently employed; it melts to a clear
liquid and dissolves silica and many metallic oxides. Potassium
bisulphate is useful in the preliminary treatment of refractory
aluminous ores. Litharge and red lead are used in silver and
gold assays, acting as solvents for silica and any metallic oxides
present.
FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Teu LjUugan,
to fly), a designation applied to the winged or perfect state of
many insects belonging to various orders, as in butterfly (see
Lepiooptera), dragon-fly ($.?.), may-Ay (?•*•), caddis-fly (f.v.)>
&c; also specially employed by entomologists to mean any
species of the two-winged flics, or Diptera (q.v.). In ordinary
parlance fty is often used in the sense of the common house-fly
{Musca domestica); and by English colonists and sportsmen
in South Africa in that of a species of tsetse-fly {Glossina), or a
tract of country (" belt ") in which these insects abound (see
Tsetse-Fly).
Apart from the house-fly proper (Musca domestic*) , which in
England is the usual one, several species of flies are commonly
found in houses; e.g. the SUmoxys calcilrans, or stable-fly;
Pollenia rudis, or duster-fly; Muscina stabulans, another stable-
fly; Colli pfwra eryikroccphala, blue-bottle fly, blow-fly or meat-
fly, with smaller sorts of blue-bottle, Pkormia terraenovae and
Lucilia cacsar; Homalomyia canicularis and brevis, the small
house-fly; SceHopinus fenestralis, the black window-fly, &c
But Musca domestica is far the most numerous, and in many
places, especially in hot weather and in hot climates, is a regular
pest. Mr L. O. Howard (Circular 7 1 of the Bureau of Entomology
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, 1906) says that in 1000
he made a collection of the flies in dining-rooms in different parts
of the United States, and out of a total of 23,087 flies, 22,80$
were the common house-fly. Its geographical distribution is
of the widest, and its rapidity of breeding, in manure and door-
yard filth, so great that, as a carrier of germs of disease, especially
cholera and typhoid, the house-fly is now recognized as a potent
source of danger; and various sanitary regulations have been
made, or precautions suggested, for getting rid of it. These are
discussed by Mr Howard in the paper referred to, but in brief
they all amount tomeasurcs of general hygiene, and the isolation,
prompt removal, or proper sterilization of the animal or human
excrement in which these flies breed.
FLYCATCHER, a name introduced in ornithology by Ray,
being a translation of the Muscicapa of older authors, and
applied by Pennant to an extremely common English bird, the
M. grisola of Linnaeus. It has since been used in a general and
very vague way for a great many small birds from all parts of the
world, which have the habit of catching flies on the wing. Orni-
thologists who have trusted too much to this characteristic and
to certain merely superficial correlations of structure, especially
those exhibited by a broad and rather flat bill and a gape beset
by strong hairs or bristles, have associated under the title of
Muscicapidae an exceedingly heterogeneous assemblage of
forms much reduced in number by later systemalists. Great
advance has been made in establishing as independent families
the Todidae and Eurylacmidae, as well as in excluding from it
various members of the Ampclidac, Cotingidae, Tyrannidoe,
Vireonidae, Mniotillidae, and perhaps others, which had been
placed within its limits. These steps have left the Muscicapidae
a purely Old- World family of the order Passer cs, and the chief
difficulty now seems to lie in separating it from the Campephagidae
and the Laniidae. Only a very few of the forms of flycatchers
(which, after all the deductions above mentioned,- may be
reckoned to include some 60 genera or subgenera, and perhaps
250 species) can here be even named. 1
The best-known bird of this family is that which also happens
to be the type of the Linnaean genus Muscicapa — the spotted
or grey flycatcher (M. grisola). It is a common summer visitant
to nearly the whole of Europe, and is found throughout Great
Britain, though less abundant in Scotland than in England, as
well as in many parts of Ireland, where, however, it seems 10 be
but locally and sparingly distributed. It is one of the latest
migrants to arrive, and seldom reaches the British Islands till the
latter part of May, when it may be seen, a small dust-coloured
bird, sitting on the posts or railings of gardens and fields, ever
and anon springing into the air, seizing with an audible snap
of its bill some passing insect as it flies, and returning to the spot
it has quitted, or taking up some similar station to keep watch as
before. It has no song, but merely a plaintive or peevish call-
note, uttered from time to time with a jerking gesture of the
wings and tail. It makes a neat nest, built among the smaQ twigs
which sprout from the bole of a large tree, fixed in the branches
of some plant trained against a wall, or placed in any hole of
the wall itself that may be left by the falling of a brick or stone.
The eggs are from four to six in number, of a pale greenish-blue,
closely blotched or freckled with rust-colour. Silent and incon-
spicuous as is -this bird, its constant pursuit of flies in the closest
vicinity of houses makes it a familiar object to almost everybody.
A second British species is the pied flycatcher (M. atricapilla).
a much rarer bird, and in England not often seen except in the
hilly country extending from the Peak of Derbyshire to Cumber-
land, and more numerous in the Lake District than elsewhere
It 2s not common in Scotland, and has only once been observed
in Ireland. More of a woodland bird than the former, the
brightly-contrasted black and white plumage of the cock,
together with his agreeable song, readily attracts attention
where it occurs. It is a summer visitant to all western Europe,
but farther eastward its place is taken by a nearly allied species
(M. coUaris) in which the white of the throat and breast extends
like a collar round the neck. A fourth European species (Jf.
Parva), distinguished by its very small size and red breast, has
also strayed some three or four times to the extreme south-west
of England. This last belongs to a group of more eastern range,
which has received generic recognition under the name of Eryttsro-
sterna, and it has several relations in Asia and particularly in
India, while the allies of the pied flycatchers (Ficedula of Brisson)
arc chiefly of African origin, and those of the grey or spotted
flycatcher {Muscicapa proper 9 ) are common to the two con-
tinents.
One of the most remarkable groups of Muscicapidae is that
known as the paradise flycatchers, forming the genus Tckilrea of
Lesson. In nearly all the species the males are distinguished by
the growth of exceedingly long feathers in their tail, and by their
putting on, for some part of the year at least, a plumage generally
white, but almost always quite different from that worn by the
females, which is of a more or less deep chestnut or bay colour,
though in both sexes the drown is of a glossy steel-blue. They are
found pretty well throughout Africa and tropical Asia to Japan,
and seem to affect the deep shade of forests rather than the open
country. The best-known species Is perhaps the Indian T.
paradisi; but the Chinese Z\ incii, and the Japanese T. printcps,
from being very commonly represented by the artists of those
nations on screens, fans and the like, are hardly less so; and the
cock of the last named, with his bill of a pale greenish-blue and
1 Of the 30 genera or subgenera which Swainaon included in his
Natural Arrangement and Relations of tie Family of Flycatchers
(published in 1838), at least 19 do not belong to the Muscicapidae at
all. and cue of them, Todus, not even to the order Passeros. It is
perhaps impossible to name any ornithological work whose substance
so fully belies its title as does this treatise. Swainson wrote it filled
with faith in the so-called " Quinary System " — that fanciful theory,
invented by W. S. Maclcay, which misled and kept back so many of
the best English zoologists of his generation from the truth. — and,
unconsciously swayed by hh bias, his judgment was warped to fit
his hypothecs.
7 By some writers this section b distinguished as Butalis of Bote,
but to do so seems contrary to rule.
blygake-camJn— flying-fish
585
eyes surrounded by bore skin of the same colour— though these
are characters possessed in some degree by all. toe species*—
seems to be the most beautiful of the genus T bourbonatnsis,
which is peculiar to the islands of Mauritius and Reunion,
appears to be the only species in which the outward difference of
the sexes is but slight. In T.eorvina of the Seychelles, the adult
male is wholly black, and his middle tail-feathers are not only
very long but very broad In T. tnutata of M tdagascar, some
of the males are found in a blackish plumage, though with the
elongated median rectrices white, while in others white pre-
dominates over. the whole body; but whether this sex is here
actually dimorphic, or whether the one dress is a passing phase
of the other, is at present undetermined Some of the African
species, of which many have been described, seem always to
retain the rufous plumage, but the long tail-feathers serve to
mark the males.
A few other groups are distinguished by the brilliant blue they
exhibit, as Myiagra azurca, and others as Monarcka (or Arses)
ckrysomela by their golden yellow. The Australian formsassigned
to the ifuscicapidae are very varied. Sisura inquicta has some
of the habits of a water-wagtail (MotaciUa), and hence has re-
ceived the name of " dishwasher," bestowed in many parts of
England on its analogue, and the many species of Rhifidum
or fantailed flycatchers, which occur in various parts of the
Australian Region, have manners still more singular — turning
over in the air, it is said, like a tumbler pigeon, as they catch their
prey; but concerning the mode of life of the majority of the
Muscicapidac, and especially of the numerous African forms,
hardly anything is known. (A. N.)
FLYGARE-CARLftl, EHIUB (1807-1892), Swedish novelist,
was born in Stromstad on. the 8th of August 1807. Hec father,
Rutger Smith, was a retired sea-captain who had settled down
as a small merchant, and she often accompanied him on the
voyages he made along the coast. She married in 1817 a doctor
named Axd Flygare, and went with him to live in the province
of Smaland. After his death in x 833 she returned to, her Aid home
and published in 1838 her first novel, Waldcmar Klein. In the
next year she removed to Stockholm, and married, In 1849, the
jurist and poet, Johan Gabriel Carlen (1814-1875). Her house
became a meeting-place for Stockholm men of letters, and for
the next twelve years she produced one or two novels annually.
The premature death of her son Edvard Flygare (18*6-1853)4
who had already published three books, showing great promise,
was followed by six years of silence, after which she resumed her
writing until 1884. The most famous of her tales are Rosen pA
TisUion (184a; Eng. trans. The Rose ef Tisteltn, 1.84a);
Enslingen fA Jokannesshtret (1846; Eng* trans. The Bcrmit,
4 vols., 1853); and EU Kdpemanshus i sktirg&rdtn (1859, The
Merchant's House on the Ciifs). Fru Carlen published in 1878
Jdinnen of stenskt forfaitariif 1840-1860, and in 1887-1888
three volumes of Eftcrthdrd frdn en 8o- firings fdrfaltorban*,
containing her last tales. She died at Stockholm 00 the 5th of
February 180a. Her daughter. Rosa Carlen (1836-1883). was
also a popular novelist.
Emilie Flygsre-CarleVs novels were collected in thirty-one,
volumes (Stockholm, 1869-1875).
FLYING BUTTRESS, in architecture, the term given Co a
structural feature employed to transmit the thrust of a vault
across an intervening space, such as an aisle, chapel. or cloister,
to a buttress built outside the latter. This was done by throwing
a semi-arch across to the vertical buttress. Though employed
by the Romans and in early Romanesque work, it was generally
masked by other constructions or hidden under a roof, but in
the 1 ath century it was recognised as rational construction and
x emphasized by the decorative accentuation of its features, as in
the cathedrals of Chartrea, Le Mans, Paris, Beauvais, • Reims,
&c. Sometimes, owing to the great height of the vaults, two
semi-arches were thrown one above the other, and there are
cases where the thrust was transmitted to two or even three
buttresses across intervening spaces. As a vertical buttress,
placed at a distance, possesses greater power of resistance to
thrust than if attached to the wall carrying the vault, vertical
buttresses as at Lincoln and Westminster Abbey were built
outside the chapterhouse to receive the thrust. All vertical
buttresses are, as a rule, in addition weighted with pinnacles to
give tbem greater power of resistance.
FLYING COLUMN, in military organization, an independent
corps of troops usually composed of all arms, to which a particular
task is assigned. It is almost always composed in the course of
operations, out of the troops immediately available. Mobility
being its raison d'Hre, a flying column is when possible composed
of picked men and horses accompanied with the barest minimum
of baggage. The term is usually, though not necessarily, applied
to forces under the stxengtbof a brigade. The " mobile columns "
employed by the British in the South African War of 1 809-1 902,
were usually of the strength of two battalions of infantry, a
battery of artillery, and a squadron of cavalry — almost exactly
half that of a mixed brigade. Frying columns are mostly used in
savage or guerrilla warfare.
" FLYING DUTCHMAN/' a spectre-ship popularly believed to
haunt the waters around the Cape of Good Hope. The legend
has several variants, but the commonest is that which declares
that the captain of the vessel, Vanderdecken, was condemned for
his blasphemy to sail round the cape for ever, unable to " make "
a port. In the Dutch version the skipper is the ghost of the Dutch
seaman Van Straaten. The appearance of the " Flying Dutch-
man " is considered by sailors as ominous of disaster. The German
legend makes one Herr Von Falkenberg the hero, and alleges that
he is condemned to tail for ever around the North Sea, on a ship
without helm or steersman, playing at dice for his soul with
the devil Sir Walter Scott says the " Flying Dutchman " was
originally a vessel laden with bullion. A murder was committed
on board, and thereafter the plague broke out among the crew,
which closed all ports to the fll-fatod craft. The legend has been
used by Wagner in his opera Der fliegende HoU&ndtr.
FLYING-FISH, the name given to two different kinds of fish.
The one (Dactyhpterus)bc\ongB to the gurnard family ( Triglidac),
and is more properly catted flying gurnard \ the other (Exoeoetus)
has been called flying herring, though more nearly allied to the
gar-pike than to the herring. Some other fishes with long
pectoral fins (Pterois) have been stated to be able to fly, but tins
has been proved to be incorrect.
< The flyir^ gurnard are i»*ieh less numer^
with regard to individuals as well as species, there being only
three or four species known of the former, whilst more than fifty
have been described of the latter, which, besides, are found in
numerous shoals o£ thousands. The Dadyhpteri may be readily
Fio. u—Dnctyloptenu veUtant.
distinguished by a .large bony head armed ^with spines, hard
keeled scales, two dorsal fins, &c. The Exococti have thin,
deciduous scales, only one dorsal fin, and the ventrals placed •
far backwards* below the middle of the body; some have long
barbels at the chin. In both kinds the pectoral fins are greatly
prolonged and enlarged, modified into an organ of flight, and in
many species of jtxeceelus the ventral fins are similarly enlarged,
and evidently assist in the aerial evolutions of these fishes.
Flying-fishes are found in the tropical and subtropical seas only*
and It is a singular fact that the geographical distribution of the
two kinds Is nearly Identical. Flyiiuj^Ssb are more frequently
586
FLYING-FOX— FLYING-SQUIRREL
observed m rough leather uvi in a disturbed sea than during
calms; they dart out of the water when pursued by their
enemies or frightened by an approaching vessel, but frequently
also without any apparent cause, as is also observed in many
other fishes; and they rise without regard to the direction of
the wind or waves. The fins are kept quietly distended, without
any motion, except an occasional vibration caused by the air
whenever the surface of the wing is parallel with the current of
the wind. Their flight is rapid, greatly exceeding that of a ship
going 10 m. an hour, but gradually decreasing in velocity and not
extending beyond a distance of 500 ft. Generally it is longer
when the fishes fly against, than with or at an angle to, the wind.
Any vertical or horizontal deviation from a straight line is not
caused at the will of the fish, but by currents of the air; thus they
Fig. 2.—ExocoetM3 cailopterus.
retain a horizontally straight course when flying with or against
the wind, but are carried towards the right Or left whenever the
direction of the wind is at an angle with that of their flight.
However, it sometimes happens that .the fish during its flight
immerses its caudal fin in the water, and by a stroke of its tail
turns towards the right or left. In a calm the line of their flight is
always also vertically straight or rather parabolic, like the course
of a projectile, but it may become undulated in a rough sea,
when they are flying against the course of the waves; they then
frequently overtop each wave, being carried over it. by the
pressure of the disturbed air. Flying-fish often fall on board of
vessels, but this never happens during a cafan or from the lee side,
but during a breese only and from the weather side. In day time
they avoid a ship, flying away from it, but during the night
when they are unable to see,- they frequently fly against the
weather board, where they are caught by the current of the air,
and carried upwards to a height of aoft. above the surface of the
water, whilst under ordinary circumstances they keep dose to it.
All these observations point clearly to the fact that any deflection
from a straight course is due to external circumstances, and not
to voluntary action on the part of the fish.
A little Malacbpterygian fish about 4 in. long has recently been
discovered in West Airica which has the habits of a fresh-water
flying-fish. It has been named Pantodon bucJikokL It has very
large pectoral fins with a remarkable muscular process attached
to the inner ray. It lives in fresh-water lakes and rivers in the
Congo region, and has been caught in its flight above the water
in a butterfly-net.
FLYING-FOX, or, more correctly, Fox-Bat. The first name
is applied by Europeans in India to the fruit-eating bats of the
genus Pteropus, which contains more than half the family
( Pteropidae). This genus is confined to the tropical regions of* the
Eastern hemisphere and Australia. It comprises numerous
species, a considerable proportion of which occur in the islands
of the Malay Archipelago. The flying-foxes are the largest of
the bats, the kalong of Java {Pteropus edulis) measuring about
a foot in length, and having an expanse of wing-membrane
measuring 5 ft. across. Flying-foxes are gregarious, nocturnal
bats, suspending themselves during the day head-downwards
by thousands from the branches of trees, where with their wings
gathered about them, they bear some resemblance to huge
shrivelled-up leaves or to clusters of some peculiar fruit. In
Batchian, according to Wallace, they suspend themselves chiefly
from the branches of dead trees, where they are easily caught
or knocked down by sticks, the natives tarrying them home in
basketfuls. They are then cooked with abundance of spices,
and " are really very good eating, something like hare." Towards
evening these bats bestir themselves; and fly off in <
to the village plantations, where they feed on all kinds of fast,
and so numerous and voracious are thetfthat no garden crap
has much chance of being gathered which is not specially pro-
tected from their attacks. The flying-fox of India (fkrofn
meiius) is a smaller species, but is .found in great numbca
wherever fruit is to be had in the Indian peninsula,
FLYING-SQUIRREL, property the name of such members of
the squirrel-group of rodent mammals as have a parachute Lie
expansion of the skin of the flanks, with attachments to ix
limbs, by means of whkh they are able to take long flyiag-ieipi
from tree to tree. The parachute is supported by a cartilage
attached to the wrist or carpus; in addition to the lateral
membrane, there is a narrow one from the cheek along the front
of each shoulder to the wrist, and in the larger species a third
(interfemoral) connecting the hind-limbs with the base of the lonf
taiL Of the two widely distributed genera, Pteromys includes
the larger and Sciuro-
ptenu the smaller species.
The two differ in certain
details of dentition, and
in the greater develop-
ment in the former of the
parachute, especially the
interfemoral portion,
which in the latter is
almost absent. In Ptero-
mys the tail is cylindrical
and comparatively thin,
while in Scimopterus it is
broad, flat and laterally
expanded, so as to com*
pensate for the absence
of the interfemoral mem-
brane by acting as a
supplementary para-
chute.
In general appearance
flying-squirrels resemble
ordinary squirrels,
although they are even
more beautifully col-
oured Their habits,
food, ftc, are also very
similar to those of the
true squirrels, except that
they are more nocturnal,
and are therefore less
often seen. The Indian flying-squirrel {P. oral) leaps with its
parachute extended from the higher branches of a tree, and
descends first directly and then more and more obliquely, until
the flight, gradually becoming slower, assumes a horixonul
direction, and finally terminates in an ascent to the branch or
trunk of the tree to which it was directed. The presence of these
rodents at night is made known by their screaming cries. Sctan-
pterus is represented by 5. voluceUo in eastern Europe and
northern Asia, and by a second species in North America, but the
other species of this genus and all those of Pteromys are Indo*
Malayan. A third genus, Eupctaurus, typified by a very Urge,
long-haired, dark-grey species from the mountains to the north-
west of Kashmir (Eh. cinema), differs from all other members of
the squirrel-family by its tall-crowned molar teeth. It his a
total length of 37 in., of which 22 are taken up by the tafl.
In Africa the name of flying-squirrel is applied to the members
of a very different family of rodents, the Anomaluridae, which are
provided with a parachute. Since, however, this parachute i»
absent in some members of the family, the most distinctive
character is the presence of a double row of spiny scales 00 the
under surface of the tail, which apparently aid in climbing.
The flying spedes are also distinguished from ordinary flytof'
squirrels by the circumstance that the additional bone serving
for the support of the fore part of the flying-membrane rfc*
Pigmy African Flying-Squirrel
(Jdiurns sesften).
FLYSCH— FOG
587
from the elbow-joint Instead of from the wrist. The tamDy is
represented by two flying genera, Arumdurus and Jdiurus; the
latter containing only one very minute spedes (shown in the cut)
characterised by its small ears and elongated taiL Most of the
spedes are West African. In habits these rodents appear to be
very similar to the true Jrjrffigjqairreh. The species without a
parachute constitutes the genus ZtnkertBo, and looks very like
an ordinary squirrel (see Rodsotza).
In Australia and Papua the name flying-squirrel is applied
to such marsupials as are provided with parachutes; animals
which naturalists prefer to designate fiying-phalangers (see
MAisvnaua). (RX.*)
FLYSCH, in geology, a remarkable formation, composed
mainly of sandstones, soft marls and sandy shales found extending
from S. W. Switzerland eastward along the northern Alpine zone
to the Vienna basin, whence it may be followed round the
northern flanks of the Carpathians into the Balkan peninsula.
It is represented in the Pyrenees, the Apennines, the Caucasus
and extends into Asia; similar flyseh-Iike deposits are related
to the Himalayas as the European formations are to the Alps.
The Flysch is not of the same age far every place; thus in the
western parts of Switzerland the oldest portions probably belong
to the Eocene period, but the principal development is of
Ohgocene age; as it is traced eastward we find in the east Alps
that it descends into the upper Cretaceous, and in the Vienna
region and the Carpathians it contains intercalations which dearly
indicate a lower Cretaceous horizon for the lower £arts. It
appears indeed that this type of formation was in progress of
deposition at one point or another in the regions enumerated
above from Jurassic to late Tertiary times. The absence of
fossils from enormous thicknesses of Flysch makes the correlation
with other formations difficult; often the only indications
of organisms are the abundant markings supposed to r e pre sen t
Algae (Chondrites, &c.); which have given rise to the term
" Hieroglyphic-sandstone." The most noteworthy exceptions
are perhaps the Oiigocene fish-bed of Glerus, the Eocene nummu-
litic beds In Calabria, and the Aptychns beds of Waidhofen.
Local phases of the Flysch have received spedal names; it is
the " Vienna " or " Carpathian " sandstone of those regions;
the ** madgno " (a soft sandstone with calcareous cement) of
the Maritime Alps afld Apennines; the " scagliose " (scaly clays)
and " alberese " (limestones) of the same places are portions of
this formation. The jru de Mtnton, the fri* fAtm* of the
Basses Alps, and the grU d'Rnbntn of Chafflot appear in Switzer-
land as the gris de Taotyannat, At several places the Upper
layers of the Flysch are iron-stained, as in the region of Leman
and at the foot of the Dent du Midi; it is then styled the " Red-
Flysch." Lenticular intercalations of gabbro, diabase, fcc., occur
in the Flysch in Calabria on the Pyrenees. Large exotic blocks of
granite, gneiss and other crystalline rocks in coarse conglomerates
are found near Vienna, near Sonthofen in Bavaria, near LakeThun
(Wild Flysch) and at other points, which have been variously
regarded as Indications of gladation or of coastal conditions.
FO&A (pronounced Fdwtcka), a town of Bosnia, situated at
the confluence of the Drina and Cehotina rivers, and endrded
by wooded mountains. Pop. (1 895) 4317. The town is the head-
quarters of a thriving industry in silver filigree-work and inlaid
weapons, for which it was famous. With its territories enclosed
by the frontiers of Montenegro and Novi Bazar, Foca, then
known as Ckocha, was the scene of almost incessant border
warfare during the middle ages. No monuments of this period
are left except the Bogomil cemeteries, and the beautiful mosques,
which are the most andent in Bosnia. The three adjoining
towns of Foca, Gorazda and Ustikolina were trading-stations
of the Ragusans in the 14th century, if not earlier. In the i6tb
century, Benedetto Rambertr, ambassador from Venice to the
Porte, described the town, in his Libri Tn dette Cose dei Turchi,
as Cono, " a large settlement, with good houses in Turkish style,
and many shops and merchants. 'Here dwells the governor of
Herzegovina, whose authority extends over the whole of Servia.
Through this place all goods must pass, both going and returning,
between Ragusa and Constantinople."
FOCHABERS, a burgh of barony and village of Elginshire,
Scotland. Pop. (ioox) $8i. It Is delightfully situated on the
Spey, about 9 m. E. by S. of Elgin, the terminus of a branch of
the Highland railway connecting at Orbliston Junction with the
main line from Elgin to Keith. The town was rebuilt in its
present situation at the end of the 18th century, when its earlier
site was required for alterations in the grounds of Gordon Castle,
in which the old town cross still standL The streets all lead at
right angles to the central square, where fair*, and markets are
held. The public buildings indude a library and reading-room,
the court-house and the Milne school, named after Alexander
Milne, who endowed it with a legacy of £ao,ooo. Adjoining the
town, surrounded by a park containing many magnificent old
trees, stands Gordon Castle, the chief seat of the duke of
Richmond and Gordon, erected in the 18th century. The anti
query George Chalmers (174*- 18* 5) and the composer Wilhao
Marshall (1748-1833) were natives of the burgh,
FOGBHAM (Rumanian Pocyani, sometimes incorrectly written
Fokshatd or Fokshcn), the capital of the department of Putna,
Rumania; on the river Milcov, which formed the andent frontiet
of the former prindpalitiea of Moldavia and Walachia. Pop.
(xooo) 93,783; of whom 6oo/> were Jews. The chief- buildings
are the prefecture, schools, synagogues, and many churches,
including those of the Armenians and Protestants. Foesham
is a commercial centre of some importance, the chief industries
being oil and soap manufacture and tannery. A large wine trade
is also carried on, and corn is shipped in lighters to Galatz. The
annual fair is held on the 39th of April, dovernment explora-
tions in the vidnity of this town show it to he rich in minerals,
such as iron, copper, coal and petroleum. The line Focshani-
Galatz ift covered by a very strong line of fortifications, known
as the Sereth Line. A congress between Russian and Turkish
diplomatists was held near the town jn 1772. In the neighbour-
hood the Turks suffered a severe defeat from the Austrians and
Russians in t^8o.
FOCUS (Latin for " hearth " or " fireplace "), a point at which
converging rays meet, toward which they are directed, or from
which diverging rays are directed; in the latter case called
the virtual focus (see Mickoscofe; Telescope; Lens). In
geometry the word is used to denote certain points (see
Geometry; Comic Section^ and Perspective).
FOG, the name given to'any distribution of solid or liquid
partides in the surface layers of the atmosphere which renders
surrounding objects notably indistinct or altogether invisible
according to thdr distance. In its more intense forms it hinders
and delays travellers of all kinds, by sea or land, by railway, road
or river, or by the mountain path. It is sometimes so thick as
to paralyse traffic altogether. According to the New Entfisk
Dictionary the word " appears to be " a back formation from
the adjective " foggy," a derivative of " fog M used with its old
meaning of aftermath or coarse grass, or, in the north of Britain,
of "moss." Such a formation would be reasonable, because
wreaths of fog in the atmospheric sense are specially character-
istic of meadows and marshes where fog, in the more andent
sense, grows.
Two Other words* mfsi and haze, are also in common use with
reference to the deterioration of transparency of the surface
layers of the atmosphere caused by solid or liquid partides, and
in ordinary literature the three words are used almost according
to the fancy of the writer. It seems possible te draw a distinction
between mist and haze that would be fairly well supported by
usage. Mist may be defined as a dbud of water particles at the
surface of land or sea, and would only occur when the air is nearly
or actually saturated, that is, when there is little or no difference
between the readings of the dry and wet bulbs; the word haze,
on the other hand, may be reserved for the obscuration of the
surface layers of the atmosphere when the air is dry.
It would not be difficult to quote instances in, which even this
distinction is disregarded in practice. Indeed, the telegraphic
code of the British Meteorological Office uses the same figure for
mist and haze, and formerly the Beaufort weather notation had
no. separate letter for haze (now indicated by -a), though It
S88
FOG
distinguished between
tfog, and m, mist. It is
possible, however, that
these practices may
arise, not from confu-
sion of idea, but from
economy of symbols,
when the meaning can.
be made out from a
knowledge of the asso-
ciated observations..
As regards the dis-
tinction between mist
and fog, careful con-
sideration of a number
Description of Effects,
Name.
No,
On Land.
On Sea.
On River.
Slight Fog or Mist
Moderate Fog
Thick Fog
i
Objects indistinct, but
traffic by rail or road
unimpeded
Traffic by rail requires
additional caution
Traffic by rail or road
impeded
Traffic by rail .or road
impeded
Traffic by rail or road
totally disorganised
Horizon invisible, but
lights and landmarks
visible at working
distances
Lights, passing vessels
and landmarks gener-
ally indistinct under
a mile. Fog signals
are sounded
Ships* lights add vessels
. invisible at J mile or
less
Objects indistinct, wit
Navigation impeded, ad-
ditional caution re-
quired
Navigation suspended
of examples leads to the conclusion that the word " fog " is
used to indicate not so much the origin or meteorological
nature of the obscurity as its effect upon traffic and travellers
whether on land or sea. It is, generally speaking, " in a
fog" that a traveller loses himself, and indeed the phrase
has become proverbial in that sense. A " fog-bell " or u fog-
horn " is sounded when the atmosphere is so thick that the aid of
sound is required for navigation.* A vessel is " fog-logged "
or " fog-bound " when it is stopped or detained on account of
thick atmosphere. ^ "fog-signal" is employed on railways
when the ordinary signals are obliterated within working
distances. A " fog-bow " is the accompaniment of conditions
when a mountain traveller is apt to lose his way.
These words are used quite. irrespective of the nature of the
cloud which interferes with effective vision and necessitates the
special provision; the word " mist " is seldom used in similar
connexion. We may thus define a fog as a surface cloud suffi-
ciently thick to cause hindrance to traffic It will be a thick mist
if the cloud consists of water particles, a thick hate if it consists
of smoke or dust particles which would be persistent even in a
dry atmosphere.
It is probable that sailors would be inclined to restrict the use
of the word to the surface clouds met with in comparatively calm
weather, and that the obscurity of the atmosphere
when it is blowing hard and perhaps raining hard
as well should be indicated by the terms " thick
weather" or "very thick weather" and not by
" fog " ; but the term " fog " would be quite correctly
used on such occasions from the point of view of
cautious navigation. If cloud, drizzling rain, or
heavy rain cause such obscurity that passing ships
are not visible within working distances the sound-
ing of a fog-horn becomes a duty.
The number of occasions upon which fog and
mist may be noted as occurring with winds of different strengths
may be exemplified by the following results of thirty years for
St Mary's, Stilly Isles, where the observations have always
been made by men of nautical experience.
a cloud of minute water globules, of no great vertical thickness,
which disperses the sunlight by repeated reflection but is fully
translucent. In dust-storms and sand-storms dark or coJocrei
fog clouds are produced such as those which an met with is ifae
Harmattan winds off the west coast of Africa. In large towns
the fog cloud is darkened and intensified by smoke, and is toot
cases may be regarded as due entirely to the smoke.
The physical processes which produce fogs of water particle
are complicated and difficult to unraveL We have to acccoEt
for the formation and maintenance of a cloud at the earth's
surface; and the process of cloud-formation which is probably
most usual in nature, namely, the cooling of air by rarefractiofl
due to the reduction of pressure on ascent, cannot be invoked,
except in the case of the fogs forming the cloud-caps of kHa*
which are perhaps not fairly included. We have to fall back apoo
the only other process hitherto recognized as causing cloudy
condensation in the atmosphere, that is to say, the miring of
masses of mist air of different temperatures. The mixing is
brought about by the slow motion of air masses, and thisskw
motion is probably essential to the phenomenon.
Over the sea fog is most frequently due to the cooling of a
surface layer of warm air by the underlying cold water. The
amount of motion of the air must be sufficient to prevent the
Tabi* 1.— Air travelling from Northern Africa to Northern Russia,
round by the Azores.
Successive Temperatures of sea
„ „ ., air
States of the atmosphere
68*
clear
68°
7°°
clear
clear
shower
mist
Table IL— Air travelling from N.W. Africa to Scotland.
Successive Temperatures of sea
.. air
„ State of atmosphere
fair
6 K
shower
mist with dwgj
Wind Force.
0& I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8-12
All
Winds.
Number of occasions of fog
per icoo observations .
Number of occasions of mist
per loco observations .
8
5
7
6
9
11
22
6
20
3
12
<i
6
2
47
84
The use of the word " fog " in the connexion " high fog,"
to describe the almo. total darkness in the daytime occasionally
noted in London and other large cities due to the persistent
opaque cloud in the upper air without serious obscuration of the
surface layers, is convenient but incorrect.
Regarding " fog " as a word used to indicate the state of the
atmosphere as regards transparency considered with reference to
its effect upon traffic, a scale of fog intensity has been introduced
for use on land or at sea, whereby the intensity of obscurity is
indicated by the numbers x to 5 in the table following. At
sea or in the country a fog, as a rule, is white and consists of
condensation taking place at the sea surface without sho«"'flf
itself as a cloud. In a research on the Life History of Surface Air
Currents the changes incidental to the movement of the air over
the north Atlantic Ocean were traced with great care, and the
above examples (Tables I, II) taken from page N
of the work referred to are typical of the forma-
tion of sea fog by the cooling of a relatively wans
current passing over cold water.
In conformity with this suggestion we find that
fog is most liable to occur over the open ocean
in those regions where, as off the Newfound-
land banks, cold-water currents underlie wans
air, and that it is most frequent at the season of the year when the
air temperature is increasing faster than the water tempera* 1 "*-
But it is difficult to bring this hypothesis always to bear upon,
actual practice, because the fog is representative of a tempera*
ture difference which has ceased to exist. One cannot therefore
observe under ordinary circumstances both the temperature
difference and the fog. Doubtless one requires not only the
initial temperature difference but also the slow drift of aii wMj*
favours cooling of the lower layers without too much mixing and
consequently a layer of fog close to the surface. Such a •»*
the characteristic sea fog, may be called a cold surface fog. * roff
FOG
S89
the conditions of its formation it Is likely to be lees dense at the
axast-head than it is on deck.
One would expect that a cold-air current passing over a warm
sea surface would give rise to an ascending current of warmed air
and hence cause cumulus cloud and possibly thunder showers
rather than surface fog, but one cannot resist the conclusion that
sea fog is sometimes formed by slow transference of cold air over
relatively warm water, giving rise to what may be called a
" steaming-pot " fog. In such a case the actual surface layer in
contact with the warm water would be dear, and the fog would
be thicker aloft where the mixing of cold air and water vapour
is more complete. Such fogs are, however, probably rare in
comparison with the cold-water fogs. If the existence of a cold
current over warm water were a sufficient cause of fog, as a current
of warm air over cold water appears to be, the geographical
distribution of notable fog would be much more widespread than
it actually is, and the seasonal distribution of fog would also be
other than it is.
The formation of fog over land seems to be an even more
complicated process than over the sea. Certainly in some cases
mi^in^a amounting to fog arises from the replacement of cold
surface air which has chilled the earth and the objects thereon
by a warm current. But this process can hardly give rise to
detached masses or banks of fog. The ordinary land or valley
fog of the autumn evening or winter morning is due to the com-
bination of three causes, first the cooling of the surface layer of
air at or after sunset by the radiation of the earth, or more
particularly of blades of grass, secondly the slow downward flow
(in the absence of wind) of the air thus cooled towards lower
levels following roughly the course of the natural water drainage
of the land, and thirdly the supply of moisture by evaporation
from warm moist soil or from the relatively warm water surface
of river or lake. In this way steaming-pot fog gradually forms
and is carried downward by the natural though slow descent of
the cooled air. It thus forms in wreaths and banks in the lowest
parts, until perhaps the whole valley becomes filled with a cloud
of mist or fog. A case of Lhis kind in the Lake District is minutely
described by J. B. Cohen (Q.J. Roy. Met. Sac. vol 30, p. six,
1004).
It will be noticed that upon this hypothesis the circumstances
favourable for fog formation are (i) a site near the bottom level of
the drainage area, (?) cold surface air and no wind, (3) an even-
ing or night of vigorous radiation, (4) warm soil, and (5) abundant
moisture in the surface-soiL These conditions define with
reasonable accuracy the circumstances in which fog is actually
observed.
The persistence of these fog wreaths is always remarkable
when one considers that the particles of a fog cloud, however
small they may be, must be continually sinking through the air
which holds them, and that unless some upward motion of the
air keeps at least a balance against this downward fall, the
particles of the cloud must reach the earth or water and to that
extent the cloud must disappear. In sheltered valleys it is easy
to suppose that the constant downward drainage of fresh and
colder fog-laden material at the surface supplies to the layers dis-
placed from the bottom the necessary upward motion, and the
result of the gradual falling of drops is only that the surface
cloud gets thicker; but there are occasions when the extent and
persistence of land fog seems too great to be accounted for by
persistent radiation cooling. For example, in the week before
Christmas of 1904 the whole of England south of the Humber
was covered with fog for several days. It is of course possible
that so much fog-laden air was poured down from the sides of
mountains and hills that did project above the surface of the fog,
as to keep the lower reaches supplied for the whole time, but
without more particulars such a statement seems almost incred-
ible. Moreover, the drifting of fog banks over the sea seems
capricious and unrelated to any known circumstances of fog-
formation, so that one is tempted to invoke the aid of electrifica-
tion cf the particles or some other abnormal condition to account
for the persistence of fog. The observations at Kew observatory
show that the electrical potential is abnormally high during fog,
but whether that is the cause or the result of the presence of the
water particles, we are not yet in a position to say. It must be
remembered that a fog cloud ought to be regarded as being,
generally speaking, in process cf formation by mixing. Observa-
tions upon clouds formed experimentally in globes tend to show
that if a mass of fog-bearing air could be enclosed and kept still
for only a short while the. fog would settle and leave the air clear.
The apparently capricious behaviour of fog banks may be due
to the fact that mixing is still going on in the persistent ones,
but is completed in the disappearing ones.
One remarkable characteristic of a persistent tog is the coldness
of the foggy air at the surface in spite of the heat of the sun's
rays falling upon the upper surface of the fog. A remarkable
example may be quoted from the case of London, which was under
fog all day on 28th January 1009. The maximum temperature
only reached 3 1° F., whereas at Warrmgham in Surrey from which
the fog lifted it was as high as 46° F.
A priori we might suppose that the formation of fog would
arrest cooling by radiation, and that fog would thus act as a
protection of plants against frost. The condensation of water
evaporated from wet ground, which affords the material for making
fog, does apparently act as a protection, and heavy watering is
sometimes used to protect plants from frost, but the same cannot
be said of fog itseU—cooling appears to goon in spite of the forma-
tion of fog.
A third process of fog-formation, namely, the descent of a
cloud from above in the form of light drizzling rain, hardly calls
for remark. In so far as it is subject to rules, they are the rules
of clouds and rain and are therefore independent of surface
conditions.
These various causes of fog-formation maybe considered with
advantage in relation to the geographical distribution of fog.
Statistics on this subject are not very satisfactory on account of
the uncertainty of the distinction between fog and mist, but a
good deal may be learned from the distribution of fog over the
north Altantic Ocean and its various, coasts as shown in the
Monthly Meteorological Charts of the north Atlantic issued by
the Meteorological Office, and the Pilot charts of the North
Atlantic of .the United States Hydrographic Office. Coast fog,
which is probably of the same nature as land fog, is most frequent
in the winter months, whereas sea fog and ocean fog is most
extensive and frequent in the spring and summer. By June the
fog area has extended from the Great Banks over the ocean to
the British Isles, in July it is most intense, and by August it has
notably diminished, while in November, which is proverbially a
foggy month on land, there is hardly apy fog shown over the
ocean.
The various meteorologica] aspects of fog and its incidence in
London were the subject of reports to the Meteorological Council
by Captain A. Carpenter and Mr R. G. K. Lempfert, based upon
special observations made in the winters of 1901-1902 and 1002-
X903 in order to examine the possibility of more precise forecasts
of fog.
The study of the properties and behaviour of fog is especially
important for large towns in consequence of the economic and
hygienic results which follow the incidence of dense fogs. The
fogs of London in particular have long been a subject of inquiry.
It is difficult to get trustworthy statistics on the subject in con-
sequence of the vagueness of the practice as regards the classifica-
tion of fog. For large towns there is great advantage in using a
fog scale such as that given above, in which one deals only with
the practical range of vision irrespective of the meteorological
cause.
Accepting the classification which distinguishes between fog
and haze or mist, but not between the two latter terms, as
equivalent to specifying fog when the thickness amounts to the
figure 2 or more on the fog scale, we are enabled to compare the
frequency of fog in London by the comparison of the results at
the London observing stations. The comparison was made by
Mr Brodie in a paper read before th&Royal Meteorological Society
(Quarterly Journal, vol. 31, p. 15), and it appears therefrom
that in recent years there has been a notable diminution of fog
59°
FOGAZZARO— FOHR
frequency, as indicated in the following table of the total number
of days of fog in the years from 1871 : —
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
»875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
4*
35
75
53
49
40
46
63
69
74
59
69
61
53
69
86
«3
62
75
1800.
1 89 1.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
«9<>3-
1904.
1005.
1906.
1907.
1908.
65
69
68
3«
5»
4«
43
48
47
56
13
45
42
26
44
19
16
37
*9
But from any statistics of the frequency occurrence of fog
it must not be understood that the atmosphere of London is
approaching that of the surrounding districts as regards trans-
parency. Judged by the autographic records it is still almost
opaque to sunshine strong enough to bum the card of the
recorder during the winter months.
The bibliography of fog is very extensive. The titles referring to
fog, mist and haze in the Bibliography of Meteorology (part ii.)
of the U. S. Signal Office, published in 1889, number 306. Among
more recent authors on the subject, besides those referred Join
the textjjnay be mentioned: — KSppen, " Bodcnnebel," Mei.Zcit.
(1885); Trabert, UeL Zeit. (1901), p. 522; Elias in Ergtbnisu des
" ' M '" '« Berlin, ii, '"' "' *~**~ "
G. McAdie,
« . . , >*). P- 209*. I
Coasts of Scotland," J own. Scot. Met. Soc. xii. p. 3- (W. N. S.)
aeronautischen bbservatoritms bet Jferltn, ii. (Berlin, 1904) ; Scott,
Q.J.R. Met. Soc. xix. p. 229; A. G. McAdie, " Fog Studies," 4 mer.
Jim. ix. (Washington, D.C., 1902), p. 209; Buchan, " Fogs on the
FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO (1842- ), Italian novelist and
poet, was born at Vicenza in 1842. He was a pupil of the Abate
Zanella, one of the best of the modern Italian poets, whose
tender, thoughtful and deeply religious spirit continued to
animate his literary productions. He began his literary career
with Miranda, a poetical romance 0874), followed in 1876
by Valsolda, which, republished in 1886 with considerable addi-
tions, constitutes perhaps his principal claim as a poet, which
is not inconsiderable. To the classic grandeur of Carducd and
D'Annunaio's impetuous torrent of melody Fogaaaaro opposes
a Wordsworthian simplicity and pathos, contributing to modern
Italian literature wholesome elements of which it would other-
wise be nearly destitute. His novels, Mahmbra (1882), Danide
Cortis (1887), Misterio del Pocia (1888), obtained considerable
literary success upon their first publication, but did not gain
universal popularity until they were discovered and taken up by
French critics in 1896. The demand then became prodigious,
and a new work, Piccolo Mondo antico (1896), which critics far
from friendly to Fogazzaro's religious and philosophical ideas
pronounced the best Italian novel since / Promessi Sposi, went
through numerous editions. Even greater sensation was caused
by his novel II Santo (The Saint, 1906), on account of its being
treated as unorthodox by the Vatican; and Fogazzaro's sym-
pathy with the Liberal Catholic movement — his own Catholicism
being well known—made this novel a centre of discussion in the
Roman Catholic world.
See the biography by Molmenti (1900).
* FOGELBERG, BENEDICT (or Benct) ERLANO (1786-1854),
Swedish sculptor, was born at Gothenburg on the 8th of August
1786. His father, a copper-founder, encouraging an early-
exhibited taste for design, sent him in 1801 to Stockholm, where
he studied at the school of art. There he came much under the
infiuence of the sculptor Sergell, wljo communicated to him his
own enthusiasm for antique art and natural grace. FogeJberg
worked hard at Stockholm for many years, although his instinct
for severe beauty rebelled against the somewhat rococo quality
of the art then prevalent in the city. In 18 18 the grant of a
government pension enabled him to travel. He studied from
one to two years in Paris, first under Pierre Guerin, and after-
wards under the sculptor Bosio, for the technical practice of
sculpture. In 1820 Fogelberg realized a dream of his life in
visiting Rome, where the greater part of his remaining years
were spent in the assiduous practice of his art, and the careful
study and analysis of the works of the past. Visiting his native
country by royal command in 1854, he was received with great
enthusiasm, but nothing could compensate him for the absence
of those remains of antiquity and surroundings of free natural
beauty to which he had been so long accustomed. Returning
to Italy, he died suddenly of apoplexy at Trieste on the 22a!
of December 1854. The subjects of. Fogelberg's earlier works
are mostly takes
from classic myth-
ology. Of these.
"Cupid and
Psyche." " Veaas
entering the
B a t h," " A
Bather " (183$),
" Apollo Citharede," " Venus and Cupid " (1839) and " Psyche "
(1854) may be mentioned. In his representations of Scandinavian
mythology Fogelberg showed, perhaps for the first time, thai he
had powers above those of intelligent assimilation and imitattoa.
His"Odin''(i83i),"Thor"(i842),»nd"Balder ,, (ig4»).tlioiigb in-
fluenced by Greek art, display considerable power of independent
imagination. His portraits and historical figures, as those of
GustavusAdoIphus(i849),of Charles XII. ( 185 i),of Charles XIII
(1852), and of Birger Jarl, the founder of Stockholm (1853),
are faithful and dignified works.
See Casimir Leconte, UQ&wre ie Fogelberg (Paris, 1B56).
FOGGIA, a town and episcopal sec (since 1855) of Apulia, Italy,
the capital Of the province of Foggia, situated 243 ft. above sea-
level, in the centre of the great ApuHan plain, 201 m. by rail S.E.
of Ancona and 123 m. N.E. by E. of Naples. Pop. (1001) town,
49,031; commune, 53,134. The name is probably derived from
the pits or cellars (Joveae) in which the inhabitants store their
grain. The town is the medieval successor of the ancient Arpi,
3 m. to the N.; the Normans, after conquering the district from
the Eastern empire, gave it its first importance. The date of the
erection of the cathedral is probably about 11 79; it retains some
traces of Norman architecture, and the facade has a fine figured
cornice by Bartolommeo da Foggia; the crypt has capitals of
the nth (?) century. The whole church was, however, much
altered after the earthquake of 1731. A gateway of the palace
of the emperor Frederick II. (1223, by Bartolommeo da Foggia)
is also preserved. Here died his third wife, Isabella, daughter
of King John of England. Charles of Anjou died here in 1284.
After his son's death, it was a prey to internal dissensions and
finally came under Alphonso I. of Aragon, who converted the
pastures of the ApuHan plain into a royal domain in 144 s, and
made Foggia the place at which the tax on the sheep was to be
paid and the wool to be sold. The other buildings of the town
are modern. Foggia is a commercial centre of some importance
for the produce of the surrounding country, and is also a con-
siderable railway centre, being situated on the main line from
Bologna to Brindisi, at the point where this is joined by the line
from Benevento and Caserta. There are also branches to
Rocchetta S. Antonio- (and thence to either Avellino, Pbtenza,
or Giofa del Colic), to Manfredonia, and to Lucera.
F6HN (Ger., probably derived through Romansch fawnen,
fovoigrt, from Lat. favonius), a warm dry wind blowing down the
valleys of the Alps from high central regions, most frequently
in winter. The Fdhn wind often blows with great violence.
It is caused by the indraft of ah- from the elevated region to
areas of low barometric pressure in the neighbourhood, and the
warmth and dryness are due to dynamical compression of the
air as it descends to lower levels. Similar local winds occur
in many parts of the world, as Greenland, and on the slopes of the
Rocky Mountains. In the southern Alpine valleys the F6ho
wind is often called sirocco, but its nature and cause arc different
from the true sirocco. The belief that the warm dry wind comes
from the Sahara dies hard; and still finds expression in some
textbooks.
For a full account of these winds sec Hann, Lehrbuch ierMeteoro-
frf*. P- 594-
F0HR, . a German island in the North Sea, belonging to
the province of Schleswig-Holstein, and situated off its coast.
Pop. 4500. It comprises an area of $2 sq. m., and is reached by
a regular steamboat service from Husum and DagcbUU on the
mainland to Wyk, the principal bathing resort on the E. coast of
the island. The chief attraction of Wyk is the Sandwall, a
FOIL— BOIL-FENCING
59*
f>«x>«nenade which is shaded by trees and skirts the beach. Ftihr,
t_xx« most fertile of the North Frisian islands, is principally
m .at sshland, and comparatively well wooded. These a*o numerous
g>le^sajntly-situatcd viilafta and hamlets scattered over it, of
which the most frequented are Boldixum, Niehlnm and M-
Icoarsom. The inhabitants are mainly engaged in the fishing
industry, and are known as excellent sailors.
TOIL. x. (Through O. Fr. from LaL folium, a leal,, modem
Fr. feuilU), a leaf, and so used in heraldry and in plant names,
such as the " trefoil " clover; and hence applied to anything re*
scsxanbling a leaf. In architecture, the word appears lor the small
l^af-like spaces formed by the cusps of tracery in windows or
r»« nrls, and known, according to the number of such spaces, as
** quatrefoil," "dnquefoil," &c The. word is also found in
* • counterfoil," a leaf of a receipt or cheque book> containing
memoranda or a duplicate of the receipt or draft, kept by the
receiver or drawer as a " counter " or check. " Foil ** is particu-
larly used of thin plates of metal, resembling a leaf, not in shape
a-s much as in thinnm In thickness foil comes between " leaf "
and " sheet " metal In jewelry, * foil of silvered sheet copper,
sometimes known as Dutch foil, is used as a backing for paste
gems, or stones of inferior lustre or colour. This is coated with
at mixture of isinglass and translucent colour,, varying with the
stones to be backed, or, if only brilliancy is required, left tin-
coloured, but highly polished. From this use of " foil," the
word comes to meant in a figurative sense, something which by
contrast, or by its own brightness, serves to heighten the attrac-
tive qualities of something else placed in juxtaposition. The
commonest " foil " is that generally known as " tinfoiL" The
ordinary commercial " tinfoil " usually consists chiefly of lead,
and is used for the wrapping of chocolate or other sweetmeats,
tobacco or cigarettes. A Japanese variegated foil gives the
effect of " damaskeening/' A large number of thin plates of
various metals, gold, silver, copper, together with alloys of
different metals are soldered together in a particular order*
a pattern is hammered into the soldered edges, and the whole is
hammered or rolled into a. single thin plate, the pattern then
appearing in the order in which the various metals were placed.
2. (From an O. Fr. fukr or foicr, modem ftmUr, to tread or
trample, to " full " cloth, Lat. fullo, a fuller), an old hunting
term, used of the running back of an animal over its own tracks,
to confuse the scent and baffle the hounds. It is also used in
wrestling, of a " throw. 11 Thus comes the common use of the
word, in a figurative sense, with reference to both these meanings,
of baffling or defeating an adversary, or of. parrying an attack.
5. As the name of the weapon used in fencing (see Foil-
Fencing) the word is of doubtful origin. One suggestion, based
on a supposed similar use of Vt-Jkurtl, literally a " little flower/'
for the weapon, is that foil means a leaf, and must be referred
in origin to Lat. folium. A second suggestion is that it means
" blunted," and is the same as (2). A third is that it is an
adaptation of an expression " at foils," i.e. " parrying." Of
these suggestions, according to the New English Dictionary, the
first has nothing to support it, the second is not supported by
any evidence that in sense (a) the word ever meant to blunt.
The third has some support. Finally a suggestion is made that
the word is an alteration of an old word " foin," meaning a
thrust with a pointed weapon. The origin of this word is
probably an 0. Fr./wiw, from the Lzt.juscina, a three-pronged
fork.
FOIL-FENCING, the art of attack and defence with the fencing-
foil. The .word is used in several spellings (foyle, file, &c.) by the
English writers of the last half of the 16th century, but less in
the sense of a weapon of defence than merely as an imitation of
a real weapon. Blunt swords for practice in fencing have been
used in all ages. For the most part these were of wood and flat in
general form, but when, towards the close of the 17th century, all
cutting action with the small-sword was discarded (see Fencing),
foil-blades were usually made of steel, and either* round, three-
cornered or four-cornered in form, with a button covering the
point. The foil is called in French jltuKL, and in Italian
fiorcUo (literally " bud ") from this button. The classic small-
sword play of the 17th and 18th centuries is represented at the
present time by fencing with the tpie de combat (fighting-rapier),
which is merely the modern duelling-sword furnished with a
button (see £p£e-de-Combat), and by foil-fencing. Foil-fencing
is a conventional art, its characteristic limitation lying in the rule
that no hits except those on the body shall be considered good,
and not even those unless they be given in strict accordance with
certain standard precepts. In ep6e-fencing on the contrary,
a touch on any part of the person, however given, is valid.
Foil-fencing is considered the basis, so far as practice is con-
cerned, of all sword-play, whether with foil, epee or sabre.
There are two recognised schools of foil-fencing, the French and
the Italian. The French method, which is now generally adopted
everywhere except in Italy, is described in this article, reference
being made to the important differences between the two schools.
The Foil.'— The foil consists of the " blade " and the " handle."
The blade, which is of steel and has a quadrangular section,
consists of two parts: the blade proper, extending from the guard
to the button, and the "tongue," which runs through the handle
and is joined to the pommel. The blade proper is divided into
the " forte," or thicker half (next the handle), and the " foible "
or thinner half. Some authorities divide the blade proper into
three parts, the " forte," " middle " and " foible." The handle
is comprised of the " guard," the " grip " and the " pommel."
The guard is a light piece of metal shaped like the figure 8*(Fr.
IvntUts, spectacles) and backed with a piece of stiff leather of
the same shape. The grip, which is grasped by the hand, is a
hollow piece of wood, usually wound with twine, through which
the tongue of the blade passes. The pommel is a piece of metal,
usually pear-shaped, to which the end of the tongue is joined and
which forms the extremity of the handle. The blade from guard
to button is about 33 in. long (No. 5), though a somewhat shorter
and lighter blade is generally used by ladies. The handle is
about 8 in. long and slightly curved ddwnwards.
The genuine Italian foil differs from the French in having the
blade a trifle longer and more whippy, and in the form of the
handle, which consists of a thin, solid, bell-shaped guard from
4 to 5 in. in diameter, a straight grip and a light metal bar joining
the grip with the guard, beyond the edge of which it extends
slightly on each side. Of late years many Italian masters use
French blades and even discard the cross-bar, retaining, however,
the bell-guard.
In holding the foil, the thumb is placed on the top or convex
surface of the grip (the sides of which are a trifle narrower than
the top and bottom), while the palm and fingers grasp the other
three sides. This b the position of " supination," or thumb-up.
" Pronation " is the reverse position, with the knuckles up.
The French lay stress upon holding the foil lightly, the necessary
pressure being exerted mostly by the thumb and forefinger, the
other fingers being used more to guide the direction of the exe-
cuted movements. This is in* order to give free scope to the
doigti (fingering), or the faculty of directing the point of the foil
by the action of the fingers alone, and includes the possibility
of changing the position of the hand on the grip. Thus, m parry-
ing, the end of the thumb is placed within half an inch, or even
less, of the guard, while in making a lunge, the foil is held as near
the pommel as possible, in order to gain additional length.
It will be seen that doigti is impossible with the Italian foil,
in holding which the forefinger is firmly interlaced with the cross-
bar, preventing any movement of the hand. The lightness of
grasp inculcated by the French is illustrated by the rule of the
celebrated master Lafaugtrc: " Hold your sword as if you had"
a little bird in your hand, firmly enough to prevent its escape, yet
not so firmly as to crush it." This lightness has for a consequence
that a. disarmament is not considered of any value in the French
school.
To Come on Guard —The position of " oh guard " is that In
which the fencer is best prepared both for attack and defence.
It is taken from the position of " attention "; the feet together
and at right angles with each other, head and body erect, facing
forward in the same direction as the right foot, left arm and hand
hanging in touch with the body, and the right arm and foil
592
FOIL-FENCING
forming a straight line so that the button Is about x yd. in
front of the feet and 4 in. from the floor. From this position the
movements to come " on guard " are seven in number:—
I. Raise the arm and foil and extend them towards the adversary
(or master) in a straight tine, the hand being opposite the eye.
a. Drop the arm and foil again until the point is about 4jn. from
the floor.
3. Swing the button round so that it shall point horizontally
backwards, and hold the hilt against the left thigh, the open Angers
of the left hand being held, knuckle* down, against the guard and
along the blade.
4. Carry the foil, without altering the position of the hands, above
the head until the arms are fully extended, the foil being kept
horizontal and close to the body as it is lifted.
5. Let the left arm fall back behind the head to a curved position,
the hand being opposite the top of the bead ; at the same time bring
the right hand down opposite the right breast and about 8 in. from
it; keeping the elbow well in and the point of the foil directed
towards the opponent's eye.
6. Bend the legs by separating them at the knees but without
moving the feet.
7. Shift the weight of the body on to the left leg and advance the
right foot a short distance (from 14 to 18 in., according to the height
of the fencer).
In the Italian school the fencer stands on guard with the eight
arm fully extended, the body more effaced, i.e. the left shoulder
thrown farther back, and the feet somewhat farther apart. At
the present time, however, many of the best Italian fencers have
adopted the guard with crooked sword-arm, owing to their
abandonment of the old long-foil blade.
The Recover (at the close of the lesson or assault).— To recover
" in advance ": extend the right arm at right angles with the
body, drop the left arm and straighten the legs by drawing the
rear foot up to the one in advance. To recover " to the rear ":
extend the right arm and drop the left as before, and straighten
the legs by drawing the forward foot back to that in the rear.
The Salute always follows the recover, the two really forming
one manoeuvre. Having recovered, carry the right hand to a
position just in front of the throat, knuckles out, foil vertical
with point upwards; then lower and extend the arm with nails
up until the point is 4 in. from the floor and slightly to the right.
To Advance. — Being on guard, take a short step forward with
the right foot and let the left foot follow immediately the same
distance, the position of the body not being changed. However
the step, or series of steps, is made, the right foot should always
move first.
To Retreat.— This is the reverse of the Advance, the left foot
always moving first.
The Calls (deux appels).— Being on guard, tap the floor twice
with the right foot without altering the position of any other
part of the person. The object of the calls is to test the
equilibrium of the body, and they are usually executed as a pre-
liminary to the recover.
The Lunge is the chief means of attack. It u immediately
preceded by the movement of " extension," in fact the two
really form one combined movement. Extension is executed by
quickly extending the right arm, so that point, hand and shoulder
shall have the same elevation; no other part of the person is
moved. The " lunge " is then carried out by straightening the
left leg and throwing fonvard the right foot, so that it shaH
be planted as far forward as possible without losing the equili-
brium or preventing a quick recovery to the position of guard.
The left foot remains firmly in its position, the right shoulder is
advanced, and the left arm is thrown down: and back (with hand
open and thumb up), to balance the body. The recovery to the
position of guard is accomplished by smartly throwing the body
back by the exertion of the right leg, until its weight rests again
on the left leg, the right foot and arms resuming their nn-guurd
positions. The point upon which the French school lays most
stress is, that the movement of extension shall, if only by a
fraction of a second, actually precede the advance of the right
foot. The object of this is to ensure the accuracy of the lunge,
i.e. the direction of the point.
The Gain.— This consists in bringing up the left foot towards
the right (the balance being shifted), keeping the knees bent. In
this manner a step is gained and an exceptionally long lung* cas
be made without the knowledge of the adversary. It is a comraco
stratagem of fencers whose reach is short.
Defence. — For the purpose of nomenclature the space on iht
fencer's jacket within which hits count is divided into quarter
the two upper ones being called the " high lines/* and the tsc
lower ones the " low lines." Thus a thrust directed at the upr*r
part of the breast is called an attack in the high lines. In Lk*
manner the parries are named from the different quarters the;,
are' designed to protect. There are four traditional parr**
executed with the hand in supination, and four others, practkilr.
identical in execution, made with the hand held in pronane?
Thus the parries defending the upper right-band quarter of the
jacket are "sixte" (sixth; with the hand in supination) in:
"tierce" (third; hand in pronation). Those defending the
upper left-hand quarter are " quarte ° (fourth; in supination
and " quinte " (fifth; in pronation). Those defending the lower
right-hand quarter are "octave" (eighth; in supination) asd
" seconde " (second; in pronation). Those defending* the lower
left-hand quarter are "seplime" (seventh; in supination 1 ,
more generally called " demicircle," or "half-circle"; aed
" prime " (first; in pronation).
The Parries. — The tendency of the French school has always
been towards simplicity, especially of defence, and at the preseat
day the parries made with the knuckles up (pronation), although
recognized and taught, are seldom if ever used against a stroct
adversary in foil-fencing, owing principally to the time lost h
turning the hand. The theory of parrying is to turn aside the
opponent's foil with the least possible expenditure of time and
exertion, using the arm as little as possible while letting the hand
and wrist do the work, and opposing the " forte " of the foi
to the " foible " of the adversary's. The foil is kept pointed
as directly as possible towards the adversary, and the parries are
made rather with the corners than the sides of the blade. Tee
slightest movement that will turn aside the opponent's blade is
the most perfect parry. There are two kinds of parries, " simple."
in which the stuck is warded off by s single movement, and
"counter," in which a narrow circle is described by the point of
the foil round that of the opponent, which is thus enveloped and
thrown aside. There are also complex parries, composed of
combinations of two or more parries, which are used to meet
complicated attacks, but they are all resolvable into simple
parries. In parrying, the arm is bent about at right angles.
Simple Parries.— The origin of the numerical nomenclature of
the parries is a matter of dispute, but it is generally believed that
they received their names from the positions assumed in the r*o-
, cess of drawing the sword and falling on guard. Thus the position
of the hand and blade, the moment it is drawn from the scabbard
on the left side, is practically that of the first, or " prune," parry.
To go from " prime " to " seconde " it is only necessary to drop
the hand and carry it across the body to the left side; thence
to ** tierce " is only a mat ter of raising the point of the sword, &c.
Parry of Prime (to ward off attacks on the— usually lower—
left-hand side of the body). Hold the hand, knuckles up, opposite
the left eye and the point directed towards the opponent's knee.
This parry is now regarded more as an elegant evolution than a
sound means of defence, and is little employed.
Parry of Seconde (against thrusts at the lower right-hand side).
This is executed by a quick, not too wide movement of the hand
downwards and slightly to the right, knuckles up.
Parry of Tierce (against thrusts at the upper right-hand side).
A quick, dry beat on the adversary's " foible " is given, forcing
it to the right, the hand, in pronation, being held opposite the
middle of the right breast. This parry has been practically
discarded In favour of " state."
Parry of Quarte (against thrusts at the upper left-hand side).
This parry, perhaps the moat used of all, is executed by forcing
the adversary's blade to the left by a dry best, the hand being in
supination, opposite the left breast.
Parry of Qumte (against thrusts at the left-hand side, like
" quarte "). This » practically s low " quarte," and is tittle
used*
FOIL-FENCING
593
Parry cf Sixte (against thrust* at the upper right-hand side),
rhis parry is, together with " quarte," the most important of all.
it is executed with the hand held in supination opposite the right
Mreast, * quick, narrow movement throwing the adversary's
>lade to the right.
Parry of Septime or Half -Circle (against .thrusts at the lower
left-hand side) is executed by describing with the point of the
foil a small semicircle downward and towards the left, the hand
moving a few inches in the same direction, but kept thumb up.
Parry of Octave (against thrusts at the lower right-hand aide)'
is executed by describing with the point of the foil a small semi-
circle downward and towards the right, the hand moving a lew
inches in the tome direction, but kept thumb up.
Covnler Parries (Fr. centre).— Although the simple parries
are theoretically sufficient for defence, they are so easily deceived ,
by feints that they are supplemented by counter parries, in
which the blade describes narrow circles, following that of the
adversary and meeting and turning it aside; thus the point
describes a complete circle while the hand remains practically
stationary. Each simple parry has its counter, made with the
hand in the same position and on the same side as in the simple
parry. The two most important are the " counter of quarte "
and the u counter of sixte," while the counters of " septime "
and " octave " are less used, and the other four at the present
time practically never.
Counter of Quarte.— Being on guard in quarte (with your
adversary's blade on the left of yours), if he drops his point under
and thrusts in sixte, in other words at your right breast, describe
a narrow circle with your point round his blade, downward to the
right and then up over to the left, bringing hand and foil back to
their previous positions and catching and turning aside his blade
on the way. The " Counter of Sixte "is executed in a similar
manner, but the circle is described in the opposite direction,
throwing off the adverse blade to the right. The " Counters of
Septime and Octave " are similar to the other two but are
executed in the low lines.
Complex or Combined Parries are Such as are composed of two
or more parries executed in immediate succession, and are made
in answer to feint attacks by the adversary (see below); e.g.
being on guard in quarte, should the adversary drop his point
under and feint at the right breast but deflect the point again
and really thrust on the left, it is evident that the simple parry
of sixte- would cover the right breast but would leave the real
point of attack, the left, entirely uncovered. The sixte parry
is therefore followed, as a continuation of the movement, by the
parry of quarte, or a counter parry. The complex parries are
numerous and depend upon the attack to be met.
Engagement is the junction of the blades, the different engage-
ments being named from the parries. Thus, if both fencers are in
the position of quarte, they are said to be engaged in quarte.
To engage in another line (Change of Engagement) e.g. from
quarte to sixte, the point is lowered and passed under the
adversary's blade, which is pressed slightly outward, so as to be
well covered (called " opposition "). u Double Engagement "
Is composed of two engagements executed rapidly in succession
in the high lines, the last with opposition*
AtUick.-^-Th& attack in fencing comprises all movements the
object of which is to place the point of the foil upon the adversary's
breast, body, sides or back, between collar and belt. The space
upon which hits count is called the " target " and differs accord-
ing to the rules prevailing in the several countries, but is usually
as above stated. In Great Britain no hits above the collarbones
count, while in America the target is only the left breast between
the median line and a line running from the armpit to the belt.
The reason for this limitation is to encourage accuracy.
Attacks are either " primary "- or " secondary." Primary
Attacks are those initiated by a fencer before his adversary has
made any offensive movement, and are divided into " Simple,"
" Feint " and " Force " attacks.
Simple Attacks, the characteristic of which is pace, are those
made with one simple movement only and are four in number,
viz. the "Straight Lunge," the "Disengagement," the
X. to*
" Counter-disengagement " and the " Cut-over." The Straight-
Lunge {coup droit), used when the adversary is not properly
covered when on guard, is described above under "Lunge."
The Disengagement is made by dropping the point of the foil
under the opponent's blade and executing a straight lunge on the
other side. It is often used to take an opponent unawares or
when he presses unduly hard on your blade. The Counter-
disengagement is used when the adversary moves his blade, i.e.
changes the line of engagement, upon which you execute a narrow
circle, avoiding his blade, and thrust in your original line. The
Cut-dver {coupi) is a disengagement executed by passing the
point of the foil ottr that of the adversary and hinging in the
opposite line. The preliminary movement of raising the point
is made by the action of the hand only, the arm not being drawn
back.
Feint Attacks, deceptive in character, are those which are pre-
ceded by one or more feints,- or false thrusts made to lure the
adversary into thinking them real ones.. A feint is a simple
extension, often with a slight movement of the body, threatening
the adversary in a certain line, for the purpose of inducing him
to parry on that side and thus leave the other open for the real
thrust. At the same time any movement of the blade or any
part of the body tending to deceive the adversary in regard to the
nature of the attack about to follow, must also be considered a
species of feint. The principal feint attacks are the " One-Two,"
the " One-Two-Three " and the " Double."
The " One-Two " is a feint in one line, followed (as the
adversary parries) by a thrust in the original line of engagement.
Thus, being engaged in quarte, you drop your point under the
adversary's blade and extend your arm as if to thrust, at his left
breast, but instead of doing this, the instant he parries you
move your point back again and lunge in quarte, ix. on the
side on which you were originally engaged. In feinting it is
necessary that the extension of the arm and blade be so.
complete as really to compel the adversary to bcHeve it a
part of a real thrust in that line.
The "One-Two-Three" consists of two feints, one at each
side, followed by a thrust in the line opposite to that of tho
original engagement. Thrusts preceded by three feints are also
sometimes used. It is evident that the above attacks arc useless
if the adversary parries by a counter (circular parry), which must
be met by a " Double/' This is executed by feinting and, upon
perceiving that the adversary opposes with a circular parry, by
following the circle described by his point with a similar circle,
deceiving (U. avoiding contact with) his blade and thrusting
home.
The " Double," which is a favourite manoeuvre in fencing, is
a combination of a disengagement and a counter-disengagement.
Force- Attacks, the object of which is to disconcert the opponent
by assaulting his blade, are various in character, the principal ones
being the " Beat," the " Press," the " Glide " and the " Bind."
The " Beat " is a quick, sharp blow of the forte of the foil upon
the foible of the adversary's, for the purpose of opening a way
for a straight lunge which follows instantly. The blow is made
with the hand only. A " false beat " is a lighter blow made for
the purpose of drawing out or disconcerting the opponent, and is
;oftcn followed by a disengagement. The " Press *' is similar in
character to the beat, but, instead of striking the adverse blade,
a sudden pressure is brought to bear upon it, sufficiently heavy
to force it aside and allow one's own blade to be thrust home. A
/ r falsc press " may be used to entice the adversary into a too
heavy responsive pressure, which may then be taken advantage
of by a disengagement. The "Traverse" (Tt.Jroisst, ItaL
slriscic) is a prolonged press carried sharply down the adverse
blade towards the handle. The " Glide " (" Graze," Fr. coult)
is a stealthy sliding of one's blade down that of the adversary,
without his notice, until a straight thrust can be made inside
his guard. It is also used as a feint before a disengage. The
" Bind " (Jicmcnl) consists in gaining possession of the adver-
sary's foible with one's forte, and pressing it down and across
into the opposite low line, when one's own point is thrust home,
the adversary's blade being still held by one's hilt. It may be
594
FOIL-FENCING
also carried oat from a low line into a high one. The bind is
less used in the French school than in the Italian. The " Flan-J
connade " is a bind made by capturing the adversary's blade
in high quarte t carrying it down and thrusting in the outside
line with strong opposition. Another attack carried out by
means of a twist and thrust is the " Cross " (croisi), which is
executed when the adversary's blade is held low by passing one's
point over his wrist and forcing down both blades into seconde
with a full extension of the arm. The result is to create a sudden
and wide opening, and often disarms the adversary.
Secondary Attacks are those made (i) just as your adversary
himself starts to attack; (2) during his attack; and (5) on the
completion of his attack if it fails.
r. " Attacks on the Preparation " are a matter of judgment
and quickness. They are usually attempted when the adversary
is evidently preparing a complicated attack, such as the " one-
two-three " or some other manoeuvre, involving one or more
preliminary movements. At such a time a quick thrust will
often catch him unawares and score. Opportunities for pre-
paration attacks are often given when the adversary attempts
a beat preliminary to his thrust; the beat is frustrated by an
"absence of the blade," i.e. your blade is made to avoid
contact with his by a narrow movement, and your point
thrust home into the space left unguarded by the force of
his unresisted beat. Or the adversary himself may create an
" absence " by suddenly interrupting the contact of the blades,
in the hope that, by the removal of the pressure, your blade will
fly off to one side, leaving an opening; if, however, you are pre-
pared for his " absence " a straight thrust will score.
s. The chief " Attacks on the Development," or " Counter
Attacks," are the "Stop Thrust" and the "Time Thrust,"
both made while the adversary is carrying out his own attack.
The " Stop Thrust " (coup oVarrU) is one made after the adver-
sary has actually begun an attack involving two or more move-
ments, and is only justified when it can be brought off without
your being hit by the attacking adversary's point on any part of
the person. The reason for this is, that the rules of fencing decree
that the fencer attacked must parry, and that, if he disregards this
and attempts a simultaneous counter attack, he must touch his
opponent while totally avoiding the latter's point. Should he,
however, be touched, even on the foot or mask, by the adversary,
his touch, however good, is invalid. If both touches are good,
that of the original attacker only counts. Stop thrusts are
employed mostly against fencers who attack wildly or without
being properly covered. The " Time Thrust " is delivered with
opposition upon the adversary's composite attack (one involving
several movements), and, if successful, generally parries the
original attack at the same time., It is not valid if the fencer
employing it is touched on any part of the person.
3. "Attacks on the Completion" (*.«. of the adversary's
attack) are " Ripostes," " Counter-ripostes," " Remises " and
" Renewals of Attack."
The Riposte (literally, response) is an attack made, immediately
after parrying successfully, by merely straightening the arm,
the body remaining immovable. The " counter-riposte " is a
riposte made after parrying the adversary's riposte, and gener-
ally from the position of the lunge, or while recovering from it,
since one must have attacked with a full lunge if the adversary
has had an opportunity to deliver a riposte. There are three
kinds of ripostes: direct, with feints and after a pause.
The " direct riposte " may be made instantly after parrying
the adversary's thrust by quitting his blade and straightening
the arm, so that the point will touch his body on the nearest
and most exposed part; or by not quitting his blade but running
yours quickly down his and at the same time keeping a strong
opposition (" riposte d'opposttiofl "). The quickest direct riposte
is that delivered after parrying quarte (for a right-hand fencer),
and is called by the French the riposte of " tac-au-tac" imitative
of the sudden succession of the click of the parry and the tap of
the riposting fencer's point on his adversary's breast. In making
" ripostes with a feint " the point is not jabbed on to the op-
ponent's breast immediately after the parry, but one or more
preliminary movements precede the actual riposte, such as 1
disengagement, a cut-over or a double.
Ripostes with a pause (d temps perdu, with lost time) are Bade
after a second's hesitation, and are resorted to when the feocas
are too near for an accurate direct riposte, or to give tk
adversary time to make a quick parry, which is then deceived.
The remise is a thrust made after one's first thrust has beta
parried and in the same line; it must be made in such a wj
that the adversary's justified riposte is at the same time parried
by opposition or completely avoided. It is really a renewal of
the attack in the original line, while the so-called " renewl d
attack " (" redoublenunt d'aitaqtu ") is a second thrust whidi
ignores the adversary's riposte, bat made in a different list
Both the remise and the renewal are valid only when tk
adversary's riposte does not hit
" False Attacks " are broad movements made for the purpos
of drawing the adversary out or of disconcerting him. Tfey
may consist, of an advance, an extension, a change of engafe-
ment, an intentional uncovering by taking a wide guard (alW
"invitation guard"), or any movement or combination 4
movements tending to make the adversary believe that a red
attack is under way.
" The Assault " is a formal fencing bout or series of bouts is
public, while formal fencing in private is called " loose pity*
or a " friendly bout." Bouts between fencers take place 00 *
platform about 24 ft. long and 6 ft. wide (in the United State*
20 X 3 ft.). Formal bouts are usually for a number of teaches,
or for a' certain number of minutes', the fencer who touche
oftenest winning. The judges (usually three or five) are sooe-
times empowered to score one or more points against a eot>
petitor for breaches of good form, or for overstepping the space
limits. In the United States bouts are for four minutes, vita
a change of places after two minutes, and the competitors are
not interrupted, the winner being; indicated by a vote of tie
judges, who take into account touches and style. In aD countries
contestants are required to wear jackets of a light colour, so
that hits may be easily seen. ' Audible acknowledgment of *U
touches, whether on the target or not, is universally considered
to be a fencer's duty. Fencing competitions are held in Great
Britain under the rules of the Amateur Fencing Association,
and in the United States under those of the Amateur Fencers'
league of America.
Fencing Terms (not mentioned above): " Caoamione" Itat f<*
disengagement. *' Contraction, Parries of,'* those which io not pay
in the simplest manner, but drag; the advene blade Into enotbtf
line, e.g. to parry a thrust in high Mxte by counter of quarte. " &*
Irotempo, Hal. for time-thrust. " Coronation." an attack precede
by a circular movement from high aixte to high quarte (and vice
versa) made famous by Lafaugere. " Corpse-corps * (body to
body)* the position of two fencers who are at such dose quart**
that their persona touch ; when this occurs the fencers must as**
come on guard. " Coule\" Ft. for glide. " Disarm," to knock u*
foil out 01 the adversary's hand ; it is of no value in the Frencb
a/4irm1 " fVvttM* Hi"* " n/tion Knf ti f»ni>«ra' a+f«>-V mw*A hit St UK
school. " Double Hit/' when both fencers' attack and hit at the
same time? neither hit counts. " Pih" Ital. for glide <tf»f '•
" Flying Cut-over," a cut-over executed as a continuation d •
parry, the hand being drawn back towards the body. " Incoetrt,
Ital. for double attack. " Give the blade," to allow the adversary
easy contact with the foil; h is often resorted to in order to temp
the adversary into a beat or bind. u Menace," to threaten the
adversary by an extension and forward movement of the trust
" Mur" see " Salute." " Passage of anna," a aeries of attacks sad
parries, ending in a successful hit. " Phraae of arms," a series a
attacks and parries ending; in a hit or invalidation. " Invalidation,
a hit On some part of the person outside the target.inade by the feacer
whose right it is at that moment to attack or riposte; such a as
invalidates one- made simultaneously or •ubaeqaantlyby hitoppoo&i
however good. ' ' Rebeat, two beats, executed as quickly as P°*»?]J
together, one on each side of the adversary s blade. " frf" 1 ™
d'ettaque," Fr. for renewed attacks. "Salute,- the courteotf
salutation of the public and the adversary before and after a vow-
A mora elaborate salute, called by the French the Mur, coaa'K.h
,* aeries of parries, lunges and other evolutions carried out by b<J»
fencers at the same time. Important exhibition assaults are usual')
preceded by the Mur, which is called in English the Grand Salute
li SeptmenuoeloppSe," a 'riposte by means of a twist and thrsst t\W
a parry in septune. It envelops and masters the adverse bUdfc
'whence the name. " Secret thrusts/ the French " bottes **"*"•
pretended infallible attacks of which the user is supposed ah** t0
FOIK, P. DE-tFOIX
595
the method of execution,; they have no rail existence.
•• Sfona" lul. for disarmament. " ScandagUo." Ital (or examina-
tion, studying the form of an opponent at the beginning of a bout.
•' 7~*<xoU>t" It*!, for "Touched^; Fr. " Touehi."
Bibliography.— The literature of foil-fenda? is pnrtir»lly
identical with that of the art in general (eee Fencino ) . The fulki w-
ingj modern works are among the best. French S dwelt Ftmmg.
In the Badminton library (1897); Fail and Sabre, by U Rondille
< Boston, 1892); " Fencing," by C. Prevost in tru< j^fwfr'/tfrtJfa
?f Sport (1901); Fencing, by Edward Breek (New York, 1906).
taJian school: lUruzione per la sckcrma, cVc, by S, de Frac
(Milan, 1685); I* Schema itaHana di spada a <tt *Htfr>f<i, by F.
AlaeieUo (Florence, 1887). (E, U }
FOIX, PAUL DB (X52&-1584), French prelate and diplomatist.
He studied Greek and Roman literature at Paris, and juris-
prudence at Toulouse, where shortly after finishing his curri-
culum he delivered a course of lectures on civil law, which gained
him great reputation. At the age of nineteen he was named
councillor of the parlemcnt of Paris. Having in this capacity
expressed himself favourable to the adoption of mild measures
in regard to certain persons accused of Lutheranism, be was
arrested, but escaped punishment, and subsequently regained
the favour of the French court. At the end of 1561 he was sent
ambassador to England, where he remained four years. He was
then sent to Venice, and returned a short time afterwards to
England to negotiate a marriage between Queen Elizabeth and
the duke of Anjou. He again fulfilled several important missions
during the reign of Henry III. of France. In 1577 he was made
archbishop of Toulouse, and in 1579 was appointed ambassador
to Rome, where he remained till his death in 1584.
Les LcUrce de Messire de Paul de Foix, orchetesque de ToUne el
ambassadeur pour le roy aupres du pa.pt Crigoire XIII, ou rot
Henry III, were published in 1628, but there are some doubts as to
their authenticity. See Gallia Christiana (1715 seu.) ; M. A. Muret,
Omisonjunebre de Paul de Foix (Paris, 1584) ; ,T Let tree de Catherine
de Medids," edited by Hector de la Ferriere (Pans, 1880 seq.) in
the Collection de documents inidits sur f his tot re de France.
FOIX, a town of south-western France, in the middle ages
capital of the counts of Foix, and now capital of the department
of Ariege, 51 m. S. of Toulouse, on the Southern railway from
that city to Ax. Pop. (1906) town, 4498; commune, 6750. It is
situated between the Ariege and the Arget at their confluence.
The old part of the town, with its ill-paved winding streets and
old houses, is dominated on the west by an isolated rock crowned
by the three towers of the castle (xath, 14th and 15th centuries),
while to the south it is limited by the shady Promenade de
Villotte. The chief church is that of St Volusicn, a Gothic
building of the 14th century. The town is the seat of a prefecture,
a court of assizes and a tribunal of first instance, and has a lycee,
training colleges, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the
Bank of France. Flour-milling and iron-working are carried on.
Foix probably qwes its origin to an oratory founded by Charle-
magne. This afterwards became an abbey, in which were laid
the remains of St Volusien, archbishop of Tours in the 5th
century.
The county of Foix included roughly the eastern part of the
modern department of Ariege, a region watered chiefly by the
Ariege and its affluents. During the later middle ages it consisted
of an agglomeration of small holdings ruled by lords, who, though
subordinate to the counts of Foix, had some voice in the govern-
ment of the district. Protestantism obtained an early entrance
into the county, and the religious struggles of the 16th and 17th
centuries were carried on with much implacability therein. The
estates of the county, which can be traced back to the 14th
century, consisted of three orders and possessed considerable
power and virility. In the 17th and 18th centuries Foix formed
one of the thirty-three governments of France, and in 1790 it was
incorporated in the department of Ariege.
Counts of Foix. — The counts of Foix were an old and dis-
tinguished French family which flourished from the xxth to the
15th century. They were at first feudatories of the counts of
Toulouse, but chafing under this yoke they soon succeeded in
throwing it off, and during the 13th and 14th centuries were
among the most powerful of the French feudal nobles. Livinjg
on the borders of France, having constant intercourse with
Navarre, and in frequent communication with England, they
were in a position peculiarly favourable to an assertion of
independence, and acted rather as the equals than as the
dependents of the kings of France.
The title of count of Foix was first assumed by Roger, son of
Bernard Roger, who was a younger son of Roger I., count of
Carcassonne (d. 1012), when he inherited the town of Foix and
the adjoining lands, which had hitherto formed part of the county
of Carcassonne. Dying about 1064, Roger was succeeded by his
brother Peter, who died six years Jater, and was succeeded in
turn by his son, Roger II. This count took part in- the crusade
of 1005, and was afterwards excommunicated by Pope Paschal II.
for seizing ecclesiastical property; but subsequently he appeased
the anger of the church by rich, donations, and when he died
in na$ he was succeeded by bis son, Roger III. The death of
Roger III. about 1149, and of his son, Roger Bernard I., in rx88,
brought the county to Roger Bernard's only son; Raymond
Roger, who, in 1x90, accompanied the French king, Philip
Augustus, to Palestrae and distinguished himself at the capture
of Acre. He was afterwards engaged in the wars of the Albi-
genses, and on being accused of heresy his lands were given to
Simon IV., count of Montfort. Raymond Roger, who came to
terms with the church and recovered his estates before his death
in 1323, was a patron, of the Provencal- poets, and counted
himself among their number. He was succeeded by his son,
Roger Bernard II., called the Great, who assisted Raymond VII.,
count of Toulouse, and the Albigenses in their resistance to the
French kings, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., was excommunicated
on two occasions and died in 1241. His son, Roger IV., who
followed, died in 126$, and was succeeded by his son, Roger
Bernard III., who, more famous as a poet than as a warrior,
was taken prisoner both by Philip III. of France and by Peter
IIL of Aragon. Tins count married Marguerite, daughter and
heiress of Gaston VIL, viscount of Beam (d. xaoo), and this union
led to. the outbreak of a long feud between the bouses of Foix
and Armagnac; a quarrel which was continued by Roger
Bernard's son and successor, Gaston I., who became count
in 1302, inheriting both Foix and Beam. Becoming embroiled
with' the French king, Philip IV., in consequence of the struggle
with the count of Armagnac, Gaston was imprisoned in Paris;
but quickly regaining his freedom he accompanied King Louis X.
on an expedition into Flanders in 131$, and died on his return
to France in the same year. His eldest son, Gaston II., was
the next count. Having become reconciled with the bouse of
Armagnac, Gaston took part in various wars both in France and
Spain, dying at Seville in 1343, when he was succeeded by his
son, Gaston III, (1331-1391). Gaston IIL, who was surnamed
Phoebus on account of bis beauty, was the most famous member
of the old Foix family. Like his father he assisted France in her
struggle against England, being entrusted with .the defence of
the frontiers of Gascony; but when the French king, John II.,
showed a marked preference for the count of Armagnac, Grfston
left his service and went to fight against the heathen in Prussia.
Returning to France about 1357 he delivered some noble ladies
from the attacks of the adherents of the Jacquerie at Meaux, and
was soon at war with the count of Armagnac. During this struggle
he also attacked the count of Poitiers, the royal representative in
Languedoc, but owing to the intervention of Pope Innocent VI.
he made peace with the count in 1360. Gaston, however, con-
tinued to fight against the count of Armagnac, who, in 1362,
was defeated and compelled to pay a ransom; and this war
lasted until 1377, when peace was made. Early in 1380 the
count was appointed governor of Languedoc, but when Charles
VI. succeeded Charles V. as king later in the same year, this
appointment was cancelled. Refusing, however, to heed the
royal command, and supported by the communes of Languedoc,
Gaston fought for about two years against John, duke of Berry,
who had been chosen as his successor, until, worsted in the
combat, he abandoned the struggle and retired to his estates,
remaining neutral and independent. In 1348 the count had
married Agnes, daughter of Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343).
by bis wife Jeanne II., queen of Navarre. By Agnes, whom he
59 6
FOLARD, J. C.
divorced In 1373, he had an only son, Gaston, who is said to have
been incited by his uncle, Charles II., king of Navarre, to poison
his father, and who met his death in 1381. It is probable, as
Froissart says, that he was killed by his father. Left without
legitimate sons, Gaston was easily persuaded to bequeath his
lands to King Charles VI., who thus obtained Foiz and Beam
when the count died at Orthes in 1391. Gaston was very fond
of hunting, but was not without a taste for art and literature.
Several beautiful manuscripts are in existence which were exe-
cuted by his orders, and he himself wrote DiduUs de la ekasse
des bestes sauvaiges et des oiseaulx de proye. Froissart, who gives
a graphic description of his court and his manner of life, speaks
enthusiastically of Gaston, saying: " I never saw none like him
of personage, nor of so fair form, nor so well made," and again,
" in everything he was so perfect that he cannot be praised too
much."
Almost immediately after Gaston's death King Charles VI.
granted the county of Foix to Matthew, viscount of Castclbon,
a descendant of Count Gaston I. Dying without issue in 1398,
Matthew's lands were seised by Arcbambault, count of Grailly
and captal de Buch, the husband of his sister Isabella (d.1426),
who became count of Foix in 1401. Archambault's eldest son,
John (c. 1382-1436), who succeeded to his father's lands and
titles in 1412, bad married in 1402 Jeanne, daughter of Charles
III., king of Navarre. Having served the king of France in
Guicnne and the king of Aragon in Sardinia, John became the
royal representative in Languedoc, when the old quarrel between
Foix and Armagnac broke out again. During the struggle
between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs, he intrigued
with both parties, and consequently was distrusted by the
dauphin, afterwards King Charles VII. Deserting the cause of
France, he then allied himself with Henry V. of England; but
when Charles VII. became king in 1422, he returned to his former
allegiance and became the king's representative in Languedoc
and Guienne. He then assisted to suppress the marauding
bands which were devastating France; fought for Aragon
against Castile; and aided, his brother, the cardinal of Foix, to
crush some insurgents in Aragon. Peter, cardinal of Foix (1386-
1464), was the fifth son of Archambault of Grailly, and was made
archbishop of Aries in 145a He took a prominent part in the
struggle between the rival popes, and founded and endowed
•the College de Foix at Toulouse. The next count was John's
son, Gaston IV., who married Leonora (d. 1479), a daughter of
John, king of Aragon and Navarre. In 1447 he bought the vis-
county of Narbonne, and having assisted King Charles VII. in
Guienne, he was made a peer of France in 1458. In 1455 his
father-in-law designated him as his successor in Navarre, and
Louis XI. of France gave him the counties of Rousillon and
Cerdagne, and made him his representative in Languedoc and
Guienne; but these marks of favour did not prevent him
from joining a league against Louis in 1471. His eldest son,
Gaston, the husband of Madeleine, a daughter of Charles VII. of
France, died in 1470, and when Gaston IV. died two years later,
his lands descended to his grandson, Francis Phoebus (d. 1483),
who became king of Navarre in 1479, and was succeeded by his
sister Catherine (d. 1517), the wife of Jean d'Albret (d. 1516).
Thus the house of Foix-Graiily was merged in that of Albret
and subsequently in that* of Bourbon; and when Henry of
Navarre became king of France in 1589 the lands of the counts
of Foix-Grailly became part of the French royal domain. A
younger son of Count Gaston IV. was John (d. 1500), who
received the viscounty of Narbonne from his father and married
Marie, a sister of the French king Louis XII. He was on good
terms both with Louis XI. and Louis XII., and on the death
of his nephew Francis Phoebus, in 1483, he claimed the kingdom
of Navarre against Jean d'Albret and his wife, Catherine de
Foix. The ensuing struggle lasted until 1497, when John
renounced his claim. He left a son, Gaston de Foix (1489-1512),
the distinguished French general, and a daughter, Germaine,
who became the second wife of Ferdinand I., king of Spain.
In 1507 Gaston exchanged his viscounty of Narbonne with
King Louis XII. for the duchy of Nemours, and as duke of
Nemours he took command of the French troops in It4y.
Having delivered Bologna and taken Brescia, Gaston encountered
the troops of the Holy League at Ravenna in April 1512, and
after putting the enemy to flight was killed during the pnrsae.
From the younger branch of the house of Foix-GraiBy have also
sprung the viscounts of Lautrec and of MeiUes, the counts ci
Benanges and Candale, and of Gurson and Flenc
See D. J. Vainete, Histoire g&nhvk de Lonrnedoc, tome rr. (Puk
1876); L. Ffaurac, Jean I", comte de Foix, vicomte so euer cU it
Biarn (Paris, 1884); Le Pere Ansehne, Histoire j
iii. (Paris, 1 726-1 733) ; Castillon, Histoire du comte de Foix (
1852); Madaune, Gaston Phabus, comte de Foix e* s o * ~**w -
Biarn (Pau, 1865); and Froissart's Ckroniques, edited by S. Las
and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897).
FOLARD, JEAN CHARLES, Chevaiizx de (1660-1 75 A
French soldier and military author, was born at Avignon on tk
x 3th of February 1669. His military ardour was first awakened
by reading Caesar's Commentaries, and be ran away from ksoe
and joined the army. He soon saw active service, and, yoasf
as he was, wrote a manual on partisan warfare, the manuscript
of which passed with Folard's other papers to Marshal Bclldile
on the author's death. In x 702 he became a captain, and aide-de-
camp to the duke of Vend6me, then in command of the Frtrd
forces in Italy. In 1705, while serving under Vendoxne's broths,
the Grand Prior, Folard won the cross of St Louis for a galhi.:
feat of arms, and in the same year he distinguished y*ir ^<+n n
the battle of Cassano, where he was severely wounded. It was
during his tedious recovery from his wounds that be conceived
the tactical theories to the elucidation of which he devoted mess
of his life. In 1706 he again rendered good service in Italy, aad
in 1708 distinguished himself greatly in the operations attempted
by Venddme and the duke of Burgundy for the relief of L3k,
the failure of which was due In part to the disagreement of the
French commanders; and it is no small testimony to the ab&rj
and tact of Folard that he retained the friendship of both.
Folard was wounded at Malplaquct in 1709, and in 1711 his
services were rewarded with the governorship of Botirbourg.
He saw further active service in 1714 in Malta, under Chirks
XII, of Sweden in the north, and under the duke of Berwick in
the short Spanish War of 1719. Charles XII. he regarded as the
first captain of all time, and it was at Stockholm that Fokrd
began to formulate his tactical ideas in a commentary on Polynias.
On his way back to France he was shipwrecked and lost all hs
papers, but he set to work at once to write his essays afresh,
and in 1724 appeared his Nouvelles Diconverles sur la guerre dens
une dissertation de Polybe, followed (1 727-- 1730) by Histoire de
Polybe traduile par ... de Thuillier avec un commentaire . . .
de M. de Folard, Chevalier de VOrdre de St Louis. Folard speat
the remainder of his life in answering the criticisms provoked
by the novelty of his theories. He died friendless and in obscurity
at Avignon in 1732.
An analysis, of Folard's military writings brings to light not
a connected theory of war as a whole, but a great number of
independent ideas, sometimes valuable and suggestive, but far
more often extravagant. The central point of his tactics was
his proposed column formation for infantry. Struck by the
apparent weakness of the thin line of battle of the time, and
arguing from the t/tfioKov or cuneus of ancient warfare, he desired
to substitute the shock of a deep mass of troops for former
methods of attack, and further considered that in defence a soKd
column gave an unshakable stability to the line of battk.
Controversy at once centred itself upon the column. Whilst
some famous commanders, such as Marshal Saxe and Gmdo
Starhemberg, approved it and put it in practice, the weight of
military opinion throughout Europe was opposed to it, and
eventually history justified this opposition. Amongst the most
discriminating of his critics was Frederick the Great, who is
said to have invited Folard to Berlin. The Prussian king
certainly caused a precis to be made by Colonel von Seers, and
wrote a preface thereto expressing his views. The work (like
others by Frederick) fell into unauthorized hands, and, on its
publication (Paris, 1760) under the title Esprit du Chee. Folard,
created a great impression. " Thus kept within bounds," said
FOLD
597
the prince de Ligne, " Folard was the best author of the time."
Frederick himself said tersely that " Folard had buried diamonds
in a rubbish-heap. M Thus began the controversy between line
and column formations, which long continued and influenced
the development of tactics up to the most modern times. Folard 'b
principal adherents in the iSth century were Joly de Maizeroy
and Menil Durand,
See Mfmoires pour servir d Vhistoire de M. le Chevalier de Folard
(Pari* and Regensburg, 1753), and for a detailed account of Folard's
works and thoae of his critics and supporters. Max Jahns, Ceschichie
de* Kriegsyrissensckaften^ voL iL pp. 1478-1493 (Munich and Leipzig,
1890).
FOLD, a pleat or bend in a flexible material, or a curve in any
surface, whence its particular application in geology with which
this article deals.' The verb " to fold " (0. Eng. fealdan) meant
originally to double back a piece of doth or other material so as
to form a pleat, whence has evolved its various senses of to roll
up, to enclose, enfold or embrace as with the arms, to clasp the
hands or arms together, &c. The word is common to Teutonic
languages, cf. Gtr. fallen, Dutch vouwen (for vouden), &c, and the
ultimate Indo-European root is found in Gr. v\tKtiv, Lat.
plicate, plectere, to plait, pleat, weave, and in the suffixes of such
words as farXawf, duplex, double, simplex, &c. Similarly the
termination " -fold " is added to numbers implying " so many,"
e.g. twofold, hundredfold, cf. " manifold." The similar word
for an enclosure or pen for animals, espedally for sheep, and
hence applied in a spiritual sense to a community of worshippers,
or to. the whole body of Christians regarded as Christ's flock,
must be distinguished. In 0. Eng. it i&falad, and cognate forms
are found in Dutch wall, &c. It apparently meant a planked or
boarded enclosure, cf . Dan. fjoel, Swed. jjol, plank.
In geology, a fold is a bend or curvature in the stratified
rocks of the earth's crust, whereby they have been made
to take up less horizontal space. The French equivalents are
pit, plissemenl, ridemenl; in Germany, Falle, Faltung, Saltelung
are the terms usually employed. It is comparatively rarely that
bedded rocks are observed in the position in which they were
first deposited, a certain amount of buckling up or sagging down
of the crust being continually in progress in one region or another.
In every instance therefore where, in walking over the surface,
we traverse a series of strata which gradually, and without dis-
locations, increase or diminish in inclination, we cross part of a
great curvature in the strata of the earth's crust.
Such foldings, however, can often be distinctly seen, either on
some cliff or coast-line, or in the traverse of a piece of hilly or
mountainous ground. The observer cannot long continue his
researches in the field without discovering that the rocks of the
earth's crust have been almost everywhere thrown into curves,
usually so broad and gentle as to escape observation except
when specially looked for. The outcrop of beds at the surface
is commonly the truncation of these curves. The strata roust
once have risen above the present surface, and in many cases
may be found descending to the surface again with a contrary dip,
the intervening portion of the undulation having been worn away.
The curvature occasionally shows itself among horizontal or
gently inclined strata in the form of an abrupt inclination, and
then an immediate resumption of the previous flat or sloping
character. The strata are thus bent up and continue on the other
side of the tilt at a higher level. Such bends are called mono-
Fic. 1. — Section of the Isle of Wight— a Monoclinal Curve, a,
Chalk; b, Woolwich and Reading beds; c, London clay; d, Bagshot
aeries; e, Headon aeries; /, g, Osborne and Bembridge series.
dines, monoclinal folds or flexures, because they present only one
fold, or one half of a fold, instead of the two which we see in an
arch or trough. The most notable instance of this structure in
Britain is that of the Isle of Wight, of which a section is given in
fig. 1. The Cretaceous rocks on the south side of the island
rapidly rise in inclination, till they become nearly vertical.
The Lower Tertiary strata follow with a similar steep dip, but
rapidly flatten down towards the north coast. Some remarkable
cases of the same structure have been brought to light by J. W.
Powell in his survey of the Colorado region.
It much more frequently happens that the strata have been
bent into arches and troughs, so that they can be seen dipping
under the surface on one side of the axis of a fold, and rising up
again on the other side. Where they dip away from the axis-of
movement the structure is termed an anticline or anticlinal fold;
where they dip towards the axis, it is a syncline or synclinal fold.
The diagram in fig. 2 may be taken to represent a series of strata
Fig. 2.— Plan of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds.
(1-17) thrown into an anticline (AAO and syncline (BB'). A
section drawn across these folds in the line CD would show
the structure given in fig. 3. Here we see that, at the part of the
Section on line C D.
Fig. 3.— Section of Anticlinal and Synclinal Folds on the line CD
(fig. 2).
anticlinal axis (A) where the section crosses, bed No. 4 forms the
crown of the arch, Nos. 1, 2 and 3 being concealed beneath it.
On the east side of the axis the strata follow each other in regular
succession as far as No. 13, which, instead of passing here under
the next in order, turns up with a contrary dip and forms the
centre of a trough or syncline (B). From underneath No. 13 on
the east side the same beds rise to the surface which passed
beneath it on the west side. The particular bed marked EF has
been entirely removed by denudation from the top of the anti-
cline, and is buried deep beneath the centre of the syncline.
Such foldings of strata must always die out unless they are
abruptly terminated by dislocations. In the cases given in fig.
2, both the arch and trough are represented as diminishing, the
former towards the north, the latter towards the south. The
observer in passing northwards along the axis of that anticline
finds himself getting into progressively higher strata as the fold
sinks down. On the other hand, in advancing southwards along
the synclinal axis, he loses stratum after stratum and gets into
lower portions of the series. When a fold diminishes in this way
it is said to " nose out." In fig. 2 there is obviously a general
inclination of the beds towards the north, besides the outward
dip from the anticline and the inward dip from the syncline.
Hence the anticline noses out to the north and the syncline to
the south.
Simple Folds.— In describing rock-folds special terms have
been assigned to certain portions of the fold; thus, the sloping
FOLEY, J. H.-~ FOLIO;
t *. -»bout the year 1 533 writing in rhymed octaves
• ^ . \U Umaniid del Figliudo di Dio; and he is
H, still later, another religious poem upon
-ation of man, besides a few tragedies.
been published. Some of his later
the patronage of Don Fernando
appears lor a short time to
re. In 1543 he retired to
v, and there be died on
>re frequently copied by
)f>us meea romcum are now
. edition of 1530 exhibits the
.«<. had begun to amend ht» life.
> 18- 1874), Irish sculptor, was born
May 18 1 8. At thirteen be began to
filing at the schools of the Royal Dublin
-ok several first-class prises. In 1835 he was
.it in the schools of the Royal Academy, London,
ared as an exhibitor in 1639 with his " Death of
innocence." " Ino and Bacchus," exhibited in 1840,
un immediate reputation, and the work itself was after-
as commissioned to be done in marble for the earl of Eiles-
«oexe. "Lear and Cordelia" and "Death of Lear" were
exhibited in 1841. " Venus rescuing Aeneas " and " The Houseless
Wanderer w in 1843, " Prospero and Miranda M in 1843. In
1844 Foley sent to the exhibition at Westminster Hall his
" Youth at a Stream/ 1 and was, with Calder Marshall and John
Bell, chosen by the commissioners to do work in sculpture for
the decoration of the Houses of Parliament. Statues, of John
Hampden and Selden were executed for this purpose, and received
liberal praise for the -propriety, dignity and proportion of their
treatment. Commissions of all kinds now began to come rapidly.
Fandftil works, busts, bas-reliefs, tablets and monumental
statues were in great numbers undertaken and executed by him
with a steady equality of worthy treatment. In 1849 * e was
made an associate and in 1858 a member of the Royal Academy.
Among his numerous works the following may be noticed,
besides those mentioned above:— " The Mother "; " Egeria,"
for the Mansion House; " The Elder Brother in Comus," bis
diploma work; "The Muse of Painting," the monument of
James Ward, R.A.; " Caractacus," for the Mansion House;
" Heien Fancit"; " Goldsmith " and " Burke," for Trinity
College, Dublin; "Faraday"; "Reynolds"; "Barry," for
Westminster Palace Yard; " John Stuart Mill," for the Thames
embankment; " O'Connell " and « Gough," for Dublin. ;
" Clyde," for Glasgow; " Cbve," for Shrewsbury; " Harding*,"
"Canning" and " Outram,"' for Calcutta; "Hon. James
Stewart," for Oylon; the symbolical group " Asia," as well as
the statue of the prince himself, for the Albert Memorial in'
Hyde Park; and " Stonewall Jackson," in Richmond, Va.
The statue of Sir James Outram is probably his masterpiece.
Foley's early fanciful works have some charming qualities; but
he will probably always be best remembered for the workmanlike
and manly style of his monumental portraits. He died at
Hampstead on the 27th of August 1874, and on the 4th of
September was buried in St Paul's cathedral. He left his models
to the Royal Dublin Society, his early school, and a great part
of his property to the Artists' Benevolent Fund.
See W. Cosmo Monkhouse, The Works of J. H. Foley (187$).
FOLEY, SIR THOMAS (1757-1833), British admiral, entered
the navy fn 1770, and, during his time as midshipman, saw a
good deal of active service in the West Indies against American
privateers. Promoted lieutenant in 1778, be served under
Admiral (afterwards Viscount) Xeppel and Sir Charles Hardy
in the Channel, and with Rodney's squadron Was present at
the defeat of De Langara off Cape St Vincent in 1780*, and at the
relief of Gibraltar. Still under Rodney's command, be went
oat to the West Indies, and took his pan m the operations which
culminated in the. victory of the lath of April J?8a. In the
Revolutionary War he was engaged from the first. As flag-
captain, to Admiral John Cell, and afterwards to Sir Hyde
599
Parker, Foley took part in the siege of Toulon in 1793, the action
of Golfe Jouan in 17941 *nd the two fights off Toulon on the 13th
of April and the 13th of July 179s- At St Vincent he was flag:
captain to the second in command, and in the following year
was sent out in command of the " Goliath " (74), to reinforce
Nelson's fleet in the Mediterranean. The part played by the
" Goliath " in the battle of the Nile was brilliant. She led the
squadron round the French van, and this manoeuvre contributed
not a little to the result of the day. Whether this was done by
Foley's own initiative, or intended by Nelson, has been a matter
of controversy (see Journal of the Royal Untied Service Institution,
1885, P- 9x6). His next important service was with Nelson in
the Baltic. The " Elephant " carried Nelson's flag at the battle
of Copenhagen, and her captain acted as his chiefof-staff. Ill-
health obliged Foley to decline Nelson's offer (made when on the
point of starting for the battle of Trafalgar) of the post of Captain
of the Fleet. From 1808 to 1815 he commanded fn the Downs
and at the peace was made K.C.B. Sir Thomas Foley rose to be
full admiral and G. C. B. He died while commanding in chief at
Portsmouth in 1833.
See J. B. Herbert, Life and Services of Sir Thomas Foley (Cardiff,
1884).
. FOLI (Foley), ALLAN JAMBS (1837-1899), Irish bass singer,
was born at Cahir, Tipperary, on the 7 th of August 1837 ;
originally a carpenter, he studied under Bisaccfa at Naples, and
made his first appearance at Catania in 1862. From the opera
in Paris he was engaged by Mapleson for the season of 1865, and
appeared with much success in various parts. He sang in the
first performance of The Flying Dutchman (Daland) in England
in 1870, and in the first performance of Gounod's Redemption in
1882. He was distinguished in opera and oratorio alike for his
vigorous, straightforward way of singing, and was in great request
at ballad concerts. He died on the aoth of October 1890.
IDLIQNO (ana Fvlginiae, q.ru), a town and episcopal see of
Umbria, Italy, 771 ft: above sea-level, in the province of Perugia,
from which it is 25* m. S.E. by ralL Pop. (1001) 953* (town),
26,278 (commune). It lies in a fertile plain, on the Topino, a
tributary of the Tiber; it is almost square in shape and is sur-
rounded by walls. It is a picturesque and interesting town;
several of its churches contain paintings by Umbrian masters,
notably works by Niccold di Liberatore (or Niccold Ahinno,
1430-1503), and among them his chief work, a large altar-piece
' (the predella of which is in the Louvre) in S; Nkcold. The
cathedral has a romanesque S. facade of 1133, restored in 1003;
the interior was modernized in the 18th century. To the left
of the choir is an octagonal chapel by Antonio da Saagallo the
younger (1537). In the same piazza as the S» facade b the Falatao
del Governo, erected in 1350, which has a chapel with frescoes
by Ottaviano NelB of Gubbio (Un). S- Maria infra Porta* is
said to date from the 7th century, but from this period only
the columns of the portico remain. Raphael's " Madonna
di Foligno," now in the Vatican, was originally painted for the
church of S. Anna. The Palazzo Orfini and the Palazzo DeH are 4
two good Renaissance buildings.
Foligno seems to have been founded about the middle of the
8th century a.d. It changed hands often during the wars of the
13th century, and was destroyed by Perugia in 1281, From
1305 to 1439 H was governed by the family of the Trind as
deputies of the Holy See, until in the latter year one of its members
went against the church. Pope Eugene IV. sent a force against
Fobgno, to which the inhabitants opened their gates, and the
last of the Triad, Corrado II., was beheaded. Henceforth
Fotigfto belonged to the states of the church until i860. It
suffered from a severe earthquake in 183a. Foligno is a station-
on the main line from Rome (via Orte) to Ancona, and is the
junction for Perugia. Three miles to the E. is the abbey of
SassovSvo with cknsters of 1229, very like those of S. Paolo
foori le Mnra at Rome, with pahs of small columns supporting
arches, and decorations in coloured mosaic (" Cosmat esque "
work). The church has been modernized.
POLIO (properly the ablative case of the Lat. folium^ leaf, but
also frequently an adaptation of the ItaL fo%Uo),n term in
6oo
FOLIUM— FOLKLAND
bibliography and printing, with reference either to the size of
paper employed, or of the book, or to the pagination. In the
phrase " in folio " it means a sheet of paper folded once, and
thus a book bound up in sheets thus folded is a book of the largest
size and is known as a " folio " (see Bibliography). Similarly,
" folio " is one of the sizes of paper adapted to be thus folded
(see Paper). In book-keeping the word is used for a page in a
ledger on which the credit and debtor account is written; in
law-writing, for a fixed number of words in a legal document,
used for measurement ofche length and for the addition of costs.
In Great Britain, a " folio " is taken to contain 72 words, except
in parliamentary and chancery documents, when the number
is 00. In the U.S.A. too words form a " folio."
FOLIUM, in mathematics, a curve invented and discussed by
Rene Descartes. Its cartesian equation is &+-p*3axy. The
curve is symmetrical about the line x—y,
and consists of two infinite brancfies
^ asymptotic to the line x+y+a**o and
^^ S~\ a loop in the first quadrant. It may be
^^. ' J traced by giving m various values in the
1 h^h * r equations x=$amf (i+ib 3 ), y-3«m s
(i+m 1 ), since by eliminating m between
these relations the equation to the curve
is obtained. Hence it is unicursal (see
Curve). The area of the loop, which
equals the area between the curve
and its asymptote, is 30/2.
FOLKBS, MARTIN (1000-1754), English antiquary, was born
in London on the 29th of October 1690. He was educated at
Saumur University and Clare College, Cambridge, where he so
distinguished himself in mathematics that when only twenty-
three years of age he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society.
He was elected one of the council in 17x6, and in 1723 Sir Isaac
Newton, president of the society, appointed him one of the vice-
presidents. On the death of Newton be became a candidate
for the presidency, but was defeated by Sir Hans Sloane, whom,
however, he succeeded in 1741; in 1742 he was made a member
of the Erench Academy; in 1746 he received honorary degrees
from Oxford and Cambridge. In 1733 he set out on a tour
through Italy, in the course of which he composed his 'Disserta-
tions on the Weights and Values of Ancient Coins. Before the
Society of Antiquaries, of which he was president from 1749 to
1754, he read m 1736 his Observations on the Trajan and Antonine
Pillars at Rome and his Tabic of English Cold Coins from the i8lh
Year of King Edward HI. In 1745 he printed the latter with
another on the history of silver coinage. He also contributed
both to the Society of Antiquaries and to the Royal Society
other papers, chiefly on Roman antiquities, He married in
1714 Lucretia firadshaw, an actress who had appeared at the
Haymarket and Drury Lane (see Nichols's Lit. Aneedat. ii.
578-508).
-For Sir John Hill's attack on Folkes (Rarieut of the Works of the
Royal Soc., 1751), see D'leraeli, Calamities and Quarrels of Authors
(i860), pp. 364-366.
FOLKESTONE, a municipal borough, seaport and watering-
place of Kent, England, within the parliamentary borough of
Hythe, 71 m. S.E. by E. of London by the Soutn-Eaatern &
Chatham railway. Pop. (1891) 23,005; (1901) 30,650. This is
one of the principal ports in cross-Channel communications, the
steamers serving Boulogne, 30 m. distant. The older part of
Folkestone Iks in a small valley which here opens upon the shore
between steep bills. The more modern portions extend up the
hills on either hand.* To the north the town is sheltered
by hills rising sharply to heights of 400 to 500 ftj, on several of
which, such as Sugarloaf and Castk Hills, are ancient earth-
works. Above the cliff west of the old town is a broad promenade
called the Lees, commanding a notable >*iew of .the channel
and connected by lifts with the shore below. On this cliff also
stands the parish church of St Mary and St Eanswith, a cruciform
building of much interest, with central tower. It is mainly Early
English, hut the original church, attached to a fietttdictme
priory,, was founded in 1095 00 the site of a convent established
by Eanswith, daughter of Eadbald, king of Kent in 630. The
site of this foundation, however, became endangered by en-
croachments of the sea. The monastery was destroyed at the
dissolution of religious houses by Henry VIII. Folkestone macr
harbour is dry at low water, but there is a deep water pier for
use at low tide by the Channel steamers, by which not ooiy
the passenger traffic, but also a large general trade are carried
on. The fisheries are important. Among institutions may be
mentioned the grammar school, founded in 1674, the public
library and museum, and a number of hospitals and sanatoria.
The discontinued Harveian Institution for young men was
named after William Harvey, discoverer of the circulation of the
blood, a native of Folkestone (1578), who is also commemorated
by a tercentenary memorial on the Lees. Folkestone is a member
of the Cinque fort of Dover. It is governed by a mayor, 7
aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 2522 acres. To the west of
Folkestone, close to Shorncliffe camp, is the populous suburb
of Cheriton (an urban district, pop. 7091).
Folkestone (Folcestan) was among the possessions of Earl
Godwin* and was called upon to supply him with ships when he
was exiled from England; at the time of the Domesday Survey
it belonged to Odo, bishop of Bayeux. From early times it was
a member of the Cinque Port of Dover, and had to find one out
of the twenty-one ships furnished by that port for the royal
service. It shared the privilege* of the Cinque Ports, whose
liberties were exemplified at the request of the barons of Folke-
stone by Edward III. in 1330. The corporation, which was
prescriptive, was entitled the mayor, jurats and commonalty
of Folkestone. The history of Folkestone is a record of its
struggle against the sea, which was constantly encroaching
upon the town. In 1629 the inhabitants, impoverished by their
losses, obtained licence to erect a port. By the ead of the iSth
century the town had become prosperous by the increase -of its
fishing and shipping trades, and by the middle of the xoth century
one of the chief health and pleasure resorts of the south coast.
FOLKLAND {fokland). This term occurs three times in Anglo-
Saxon documents. In a law of Edward the Elder (c L a) it is
contrasted with bookland in a way which shows that these two
kinds of tenure formed the two main subdivisions of landowner-
ship: no one is to deny right to another in respect of folkland or
bookland. By a charter of 863 (Cod. Dipl. 281) , King jEthelberht
exchanges five hides of folkland for five hides of bookland which
had formerly belonged to a thane, granting the latter for the
newly-acquired estates exemption from all fiscal exactions except
the threefold public obligation of attending the fyrd and joining
in the repair of fortresses and bridges. Evidently folkland was
not free from the payment of gaf&l (land tax) and providing
quarters for the king's men. In ealdorman Alfred's will the
testator disposes freely of his bookland estates tn favour of his
sons and his daughter, but to a son who is not considered as
rightful offspring five hides of folkland are left, provided the
king consents. It is probable that folkland is* meant in two or
three cases when Latin documents speak of terra rei pnbjicae
jure possessa.
Two principal explanations have been given to this term.
Alien thought that folkland was similar to the Roman ager
publicusi it was the common property of the nation (JoU),
and the king had to dispose of it by carving out dependent
tenures for his followers more or less after the fashion of conti-
nental bentjicia. These estates remained subject to the superior
ownership of the folk and of the king: they could eventually
be taken back by the latter and, in any case, the heir of a holder
of folkland had to be confirmed in possession by the king. A
letter of Bede to the archbishop Ecgbert of York may be inter-
preted to apply to this kind of tenure. Kemble, K. Maurer,
H. C. Lodge, Slufabs and others followed Allen's lead.
Another theory was started by Professor Vinogradoff in an
article on folkland in the English Hist. Renew for 1893. It
considers folkland as landownership by folkright— at common
law, as might be said in modern legal speech. In opposition to it
bookland appears as landownership derived from royal privilege.
The incidents recorded in the charters characterize folkland as
FOLKLORE
60 1
subject to ordinary fiscal burdens slid to limitations in respect of
testamentary succession. Thane Wallaf has to be relieved from
fiscal exactions when his estate is converted from ibikJand into
bookiand (en. s8x). Ealdorman Alfred's son, not being recog-
nized as legitimate, has to claim folkland not by direct succession
or devise, bat by the consent of the lung. These incidents and
limitations are thrown into relief by copious illustrations as to
the fundamental features of bookiand contained in the number-
less "books." These are exemptions from fiscal dues and
freedom of disposition of the owner. This view of the matter has
been accepted by the chief modern authorities.
Bibliography.— J. Allen, Inquiry into fat Rise and Growth of
Royal Prerogative in Exrhnd (London, 1849) J K. Maurcr, KriUsche
Uberschau (1853). Band i. 102 ft*.; F. W. Maitland, Domesday fiooh
and Beyond, 244 If. (Cambridge, 1897) ; P. Vinogradoff. " Folcland,"
in the Eng. Hist. Rev (1893), p. 1 ff.; Sir F. Pollock, Land Laws
(London, 1896); H. Brunncr, Deutsche Reehtsgesdnchte, Band i.
(and ed, J93. Leipzig. i88t-i«9»). <P- Vi.)
FOLKLORE, a term invented in 1846 by Mr W. J. Thorns as a
designation for the traditional learning of the uncultured classes
of civilised nations. The word has been adopted in this sense
into many foreign languages; it is sometimes regarded as the
equivalent of the Ger. Volkskunde. But folklore is, properly
speaking, the "lore of the folk/' while Volkskund* is lore or
learning about the folk, and includes not only the mental life
of a people, but also their arts and crafts. The term folklore is
also used to designate the science which deals with folklore;
the study of survivals involves the investigation of the similar
customs, beliefs, &c, of races on lower planes of culture; conse-
quently folklore, as interpreted by the English and American
societies, concerns itself as much or more with savage races as
with the popular superstitions of the white races.
History.— The scientific study of folklore dates back to the
first quarter of the 19th century, but folklore was collected long
before that date. The organized study of folklore is a thing of
recent growth. The first Folklore Society was founded in London
in 1878; similar bodies now exist in the United States, France,
Italy, Switzerland and especially in Germany and Austria.
The folk-tale makes its appearance in literature at a very early
period; Egyptian examples have come down to us from the
28th century B.C. In Greece the Homeric poems contain many
folk-tale incidents; for India we have the Jatahas and Pancha-
tantra t and for the Arabs the great collection of the Thousand
and One Nights. Another type of folk-narrative is represented
by Aesop's Fables, Not unnaturally beliefs and customs received
less attention; our knowledge of them among the ancients is as
a rule pieced together. Among the oldest professed collections
are J. B. Thiers (1606-1703), TreiU des superstitions (1679),
Aubrey's Miscellanies (16S6) and H. Bourne's (1696-1733)
Anliquitates vulgares (1725); but they belong to the antiquarian,
non-scientific period.
The pioneers of the modern scientific treatment of folklore
were the brothers Grimm, by the publication of their Kinder*****
Hausmdrchen (18x2-18x5; and Deutsche Mythologie (1835)
They were the first to present the folk-tale in its genuine un-
adulterated form. They differed from their predecessors in
regarding the myth, not as the result of conscious speculation,
but of a mythopoeic impulse. They were, however, disposed to
press modern linguistic evidence too far and make the figures
of the folk-tale the lineal representatives of ancient gods, as the
folk-tales themselves were of the myths. This tendency was
exaggerated by their successors, J. W. Wolf, W. Rochholz and
others. At the outset of his career, W. Mannhardt (1831-1880),
the forerunner of the anthropological school of folklore, shared
in this mistake. B reaking away eventually from the philological
schools, which interpreted myths and their supposed descendants,
the folk-talcs, as relating to the storm, the sun, the dawn, &c
(see Mythology), Mannhardt made folk-custom and belief bis
basis. To this end he set himself to collect and compare the
superstitions 'of the peasantry; but his health was always
feeble and he never completed his scheme. For a time Mann-
hardt's researches bore fruit neither in his own country nor
abroad. In 1878 I he foundation of the Folklore Society parked
a new era in England, where the philological school had had
few adherents; and the anthropological school soon produced
evidence of its vitality in the works of Mr Andrew Lang, Dr J. G.
Fraccr and Professor Robertson Smith.
With the growth of our knowledge of European folk-custom
and belief on the one hand, and of rites and religions of people
in tbe lower stages of culture on the other hand, it has become
abundantly clear that 'there is no line of demarcation between
the two. Each throws light upon the other, and the super-
stitions of Europe are the lineal descendants of savage creeds
which have their parallels all over the world in the culture of
primitive peoples.
Subdivisions.— The folklore of civilized peoples may be
conveniently classified under three main heads: (z) belief and
custom; (2) narratives and sayings; (3) art. These again may
be subdivided. The first division, Belief and Custom, includes
(A) Superstitious beliefs and practices, including (a) those
connected with natural phenomena or inanimate nature, (o)
tree and plant superstitions, (c) animal superstitions, (d) ghosts
and goblins, («) witchcraft, (/) leechcraft, (g) magic in general
and divination, (h) eschatology, and (0 miscellaneous super-
stitions and practices; and (B) Traditional customs, including
(a) festival customs for which are set aside certain days and
seasons,, (b) ceremonial customs on the occasion of events such as
birth, death or marriage, (c) games, (rf) miscellaneous local
customs, such as agricultural rites connected with the corn-spirit
(see Dehonolocy), and (e) dances. The second head of Narra-
tives and Sayings may be subdivided (A) into (a) sagas or tales
told as true, (b) M&rchen or nursery tales, (c) fables, (d) drolls,
apologues, cumulative tales, &c, (e) myths (see Mythology),
and (/) place legends; (B) into ballads and songs (in so far as
they do not come under art); and (C) into nursery rhymes,
riddles, jingles, proverbs, nicknames, place rhymes, Ac. The
third head, Art, subdivides into (a) folk music whh ballads and
songs, (M folk drama. Any classification, however, labours
under the disadvantage of separating items which properly
belong together. Thus, myths are obviously the form in
which some superstitions »re expressed. They may also be
actiological in their nature and form an elaborate record of a
custom. Eschatological beliefs naturally take the form of myths.
Traditional narratives can also be classified under art, and so on.
Literature.^ The literature of the subject fall* into two sbarpjy
defined classes— synthetic works and collections of folklore— of
which the latter are immensely more numerous. Of the former
class the most important is Dr J. G. Frazer's Golden Bough,
which sets out from the study of a survival in Roman religion
and covers a wide field of savage and civilized beliefs and customs.
Especially important are the chapters on agricultural rites, in
which are set forth the results of Mannbardt's researches. Other
important lines of folklore research in the Golden Bough are
those dealing with spring ceremonies, with the primitive view
of the soul, with animal cults, and with sun and ram charms.
Mr E. S. Hartland's Legend of Perseus a primarily concerned
with the origin of a folk-tale, and this problem in the end Is
dismissed as insoluble. A large part of the book Is taken up
with a discussion of sympathetic magic, and especially with the
** life index," an object so bound up with the life of a human
being that it acts as an indication of his well-being or otherwise.
The importance of children's games in the study of folklore has
been recognised of recent years. An admirable collection of the
games of England has been published by Mrs G. L. Gomme.
With the more minute study of uncivilised peoples the problem
of the diffusion of games has also come to the fore. In particular
it is found that the string-game called " cat's cradle " in various
forms is of very wide diffusion, being found even in Australia.
The question of folk-music has recently received much attention
(see Sono).
BiBLiOGEAraT.— Introductory works: M. R. Cox, Introduction
to Folklore ; Kaindl, Die Volkskunde ; Marillier in Revue de I'histosre
des religions, xliii. 166, and other works mentioned by Kaindl.
General works: J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough; E. S. Hart land,
The Legend of Perseus; A. Lang. Custom and Myth, Myth, Ritual
and Religion; Tyler, Primitive Culture; Liebrecbt, Zwr Vothshundt,
602
FOLLEN, A.— FONBLANQUE
British blM England: Burne, Shropshire Folklore; Denham
Tracts (F. U S.'i; Hartand and Wilkinson, Lancashire Folklore;
Henderson, Folklore of Northern Counties; County Folklore Series
(Printed Extract!} of the F.L.5. Wales: Elias Owen, Welsh
Folklore - t Rhys, Celtic Fotklorr. Scotland: Dalyrll, Darker
Superstitions ; Grvgor, Folklaw of N.E, of Scotland; the works of
J.C.Campbell, &c,
Germany: Grimm, Deutuhe Mythologie, English translation by
9tair>liR)9s; Wuttke, Drr deviivke Volksabergjaubei Meyer, Deutsche
Vtlksknndei Tctxner, Die Steven in Dtutschland; Mogk in Paul's
Grund'iss drr ztrmoaischen FhtUAogie t and the works cited by
Kaindl {«* above). ■•
France: Stbill-ji's works; RoHand, Fount poputaire; Laisnel
de Li Salic, Croyantcs ei tiimdes.
On the Slav* see the works of Krauss and v. WKslochi; for
Bi>hi.-mia, Grohnuinn, Aber glauf-e : for Greece, Abbott, Macedonian
Folklore, and RennelJ Rodd ore of Greece; for Italy, Pitre's
bibliography; for India, Croolte's, i/orks, and the Indian Anliauary.
For r^i 11-31 ionnairti see Handbook cf Folklore (Folklore Soc) ; Sebillot,
Esmt de oueiUonmiira ■ Journal of American Folklore (1890, Ac);
und K.iindl'-s Velkikund*. l-.>r ft bibliography of folk-tales see
HartUnrf, Mythology ami ts% to his list may be added
I'tutuis Ugcndcj. uuiuuMi; i,_ind. Legends of the Micmacs;
Lummls, The Man who Married the Moon; and the publications
of the American Folklore Society. For other works see biblio-
graphies in Folklore and other periodicals. On special points may
be mentioned Miss Cox's Cinderella (Folklore Society) : Kohlers
works, &c. (see also bibliography to the article TalS). For games
tee Gomme, English Games; Odin, Korean Games; Rochholz,
Alemannisches Ktnderlied; Bohme, Deutsches Kinder lied; Handel-
maan, Volks- und Kinderspiete; Jayne, String Figures, &c; and
the bibliography to Doll. See also Sonnenschein's Best Books.
The following is a list of the more important Societies and publi-
cations: —
England: Folklore Society; Folksong Society; Gipsy-tore Society.
U.S.A.: American Folklore Society.
France: Sociiti des traditions fopulaires.
Germany: Verein fur Volkskunde; Hessische Vereinigung fur
Volkskunde; and minor societies in Saxony, Silesia and other
provinces.
Austria: VereinfUr dslerreickdsche Volkskunde.
Switzerland: Schweixerische Gesellschaf't fur Volkskunde,
Italy : Societd per lo studio deUe tradistoni popolari.
In addition to these, the anthropological societies devote more or
less attention to folklore. Besides the publications of the societies
mentioned above, minor societies or individuals are responsible for
the following among others: Belgium, Wallonia; Poland, Wisla-
France, Metusine (1878, 1 883-1 901); Bohemia, Cesky Lid; Den
mark, Dania, ^Aa; Germany, Zeitschrift JOr Vdlker psychologic
(1859^-1890); 'Am Urouett (1890^-1898).
FOLLEN, AUGUST (or, as he afterwards called himself,
Adolf) LUDWIG (1794-1855), German poet, was born at Giessen
on the 21st of January 1794, the son of a district judge. He
studied theology at Giessen and law at Heidelberg, and after
leaving the university edited the Elberfeld AUgemeine Zctlung.
Suspected of being connected with some radical plots, he was
imprisoned for two years in Berlin. When released in 182 1 be,
went to Switze r lan d, where he taught in the canton school at
Aarau, fanned from 1847-1854 the estate of Liebenfels in
Thurgau, and then retired to Bern, where he lived till his death
on the 26th of December 1855. Besides a number of minor
poems he wrote Horfengrilsse aus Deutsddand and der Schweiz
(1833) and Molegys und Vivian (1829), a knightly romance after
the fashion of the romantic school Of his many translations,
mention may be made of the Homeric Hymns in collaboration
with R. Schwenck (18x4), Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered (1818)
and Siegfrieds Tod from the Nibdungenlied (1842); he also
collected and translated Latin hymns and sacred poetry (1819).
In 1846 he published a brief collection of sonnets entitled Ah
die gotfiosen NichtswiUeriche. This was aimed at the liberal
philosopher Arnold Ruge, and was the occasion of a literary duel
between the two authors. Follen's posthumous poem Tristans
EUern (1857) may also be mentioned, but his best-known work
is a collection of German poetry entitled Bildersoal dentscner
Dichtung (1827).
POLLEN, KARL (1795-1840), German poet and patriot, brother
of A. L. Follen, was born at Romrod in Hesse-Darmstadt, on the
5th of September 1795. He first studied theology at Giessen,
but after the campaign of 1814, in which, like his brother
August, he took part as a Hessian volunteer, began the study of
jurisprudence, and in 1818 established himself as Privatdocent
of civil law at Giessen. Owing to being suspected of political
intrigues, he removed to Jena, and thence, after the assasnnaticn
of Kotsebue, fled to France. Here again the political murder
of the due de Berry, on the 14th of January 1820, led to FoBen
being regarded as a suspect, and he accordingly took refuge is
Switzerland, where he taught for a while at the cantonal scnai
at Coire and at the university of Basel; but the Prussia
authorities imperatively demanding his surrender, he sought n
1824 the hospitality of the United States of America. Here be
became an instructor in German at Harvard in 1825, and in 185c
obtained an appointment as professor of German languajf
and literature there; but his anti-slavery agitation havn;
given umbrage to the authorities, he forfeited his post in 1835.
and was ordained Unitarian minister of a chapel at Lexington is
Massachusetts in 1 836. He perished at sea on board a steamboat
which was totally consumed by fire while on a voyage fraa
New York to Boston, on the night of the 13 th-! 4th* of January
1840. Follen was the author of several celebrated patriotic
songs written in the interests of liberty. The best is perhap
Horch auf % ihr Fur stent Du Voik, horch ouft of which Johannes
Wit, called von Ddrring (1 800-1863), was long, though emu*
ously, considered the author. It was published in A. L. Follen's
collection of patriotic songs, Freie Stimmen friscker Jugcnd.
His wife Efisa Lee (1787-1860), an American authoress of sem
reputation, published after his death his lectures and sermons, viA
a biography written by herself (5 vols., Boston, 1846).
FOLLBTT, SIR WILLIAM WEBB (1708-1845), English lawyer,
was bom at Topsham in Devonshire on the 2nd of Decant*:
1708. He was the son of Captain Benjamin Follett, who had
retired from the army in 1700, and engaged in business at
Topsham. He received his education at Exeter grammar school
and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 1818. He had
entered the Inner Temple in 1816 and began to practise as a
pleader below the bar in 1821, but was called to the bar in i$»4.
and joined the western circuit in 1825. At the very outset
his great qualifications were universally recognized. He was
thoroughly master of his profession, and his rapid rise in it wa
due not only to his quick perception and sound judgment,- but
to his singular courtesy, kindness and sweetness of temper-
In 1830 he married the eldest daughter of Sir Ambrose Hardin*
Gifford, chief justice of Ceylon. In 1835 he was returned to
parliament for Exeter. In parliament he early distinguished
himself, and under the first administration of Sir Robert Ped
was appointed solicitor-general (November 1834); but resigned
with the ministry in April 1835. In the course of this year he was
knighted. On the return of Peel to power in 1841 Sir WiHum
was again appointed solicitor-general, and in April 1844 be suc-
ceeded Sir Frederick Pollock as attorney-general. But his
health, which had begun to fail him in 1838, and bad been
permanently injured by a severe illness in 1841, now broke down,
and he was compelled to relinquish practice and to visit the
south of Europe. He returned to England in March 1845; b* 1
the disease, consumption, reasserted itself, and he died in
London on the 28th of June following. A statue of Follett,
executed by Behnes, was erected by subscription in West-
minster Abbey;
FONBLANQUE ALBANY WILLIAM (1793-1872). En ^
journalist, descended from a noble French Huguenot family.
the Greniers of Languedoc, was born in London in 1793- J oh "
Grenier, a banker, became naturalised in England under lh«
name of Fonblanque; and his son John Samuel Martin Fon-
blanque (1760-1838), a distinguished equity lawyer, and tb*
author of a standard legal work, a Treatise on Equity, was the
father of Albany Fonblanque; he represented the borough of
Caroetford in parliament; and was one of the Whig friends of
George IV. when prince of Wales. At fourteen young FonbUnqw
was sent to Woorwich to prepare for the Royal Engineers, H&
health, however, failed, and for two years his studies had to be
suspended. Upon his recovery he studied for some time with a
view to being called to the bar. At the age of nineteen (i8iJ)
he commenced writing forthe newspapers, and very soonattracted
notice both by the boldness and liberality of his opinions, and ty
POND DU LAC—FONDI
603
eke superiority of his style to what Macaulay, when speaking of
turn, justly called the " rant and twaddle of the dally and weekly
press " of the time. While he was eagerly taking his share in all
the political struggles of this eventful period, he was also con-
tinuing his studies, devoting no less than six hours a day to the
sttudy of classics and political philosophy. Under this severe
mental training his health once more broke down. His energy,
however, was not impaired He became a regular contributor to
the newspapers and reviews, realising a fair income which, as his
habits were simple and temperate, secured him against pecuniary
From 1830 to 1830 Albany Fonblanque was successively
employed upon the staff of The Times and the Morning Chronicle,
whilst he contributed to the Examiner, to the London Magazine
and to XbtWestMinster Review. In 182S ihtExaminer newspaper,
which had been purchased by the Rev. Dr FeUowes, author of the
Religion of the Universe, &c, was given over to Fonblanque's
complete control; and for a period of seventeen years (1830 to
1847) he not only sustained the high character for political in-
dependence and literary ability which the Examiner had gained
under the direction of Leigh Hunt and his brother, John Hunt,
but even compelled his political opponents to acknowledge a
certain dehght in the boldness and brightness of the wit directed
against themselves. When it was proposed that the admirers
and supporters of the paper should facilitate a reduction in its
price by the payment of their subscription ten years in advance,
not only did Mr Edward Bulwer (Lord Lytton) volunteer his
aid, but also Mr Disraeli, who was then coquetting with radical-
ism. During his connexion with the Examiner, Fonblanque had
many advantageous offers of further literary employment;
but he devoted his energies and talents almost exclusively to
the service of the paper he had resolved to make a standard of
literary excellence in the world of journalism. Fonblanque was
offered the governorship of Nova Scotia; but although he took
great interest in colonial matters, and had used every effort to
advocate the more generous political system which had colonial
self-government for its goal, he decided not to abandon his
beloved Examiner even for so sympathetic an employment. In
1847, however, domestic reasons induced him to accept the post
of statistical secretary of the Board of Trade. This of course
compelled him to resign, the editorship of the Examiner, but he
still continued to contribute largely to the paper, which, under the
control of John Foxster, continued to sustain its influential
position. During the later years of his life Fonblanque took no
prominent part in public affairs; and when he died at the age of
seventy-nine(i87s)heseemed,as his nephew, EdwardFonblanque,
rightly observes, " a man who had lived and toiled in an age gone
by and in a cause long since established."
The character of Albany Fonblanque's political activity may
be judged of by a study of his England under Seven Administra-
tions (1837), in comparison with the course of social and political
events in England from 1826 to 1837. As a journalist, he must
be regarded in the light of a reformer. Journalism before his
day was regarded as a somewhat discreditable profession; men
of true culture were shy of entering the hot and dusty arena lest
they should be confounded with the ruder combatants who fought
there before the public for hire. But the fact that Fonblanque,
a man not only of strong and earnest political convictions but
also of exceptional literary ability, did not hesitate to choose this
field as a worthy one in which both a politician and a man of
letters might usefully as well as honourably put forth his best
gifts, must have helped, in no small degree, to correct the old
prejudice.
See the life and Labours of Albany Fontlanqm, edited by bis
nephew, Edward Barrington de Fonblanque (London. 1874); a
collection of his articles with a brief biographical notice.
FOND DU LAC, a city and the county-seat of Fond du Lac
county, Wisconsin, U.S. A., about 60 m. N of Milwaukee, at the
S. end of Lake Winnebago, and at the mouth of the Fond du
Lac river, which is navigable for only a short distance, Pop.
(1800) 14,024; (1900) 15,110, of whom 1952 were foreign-born;
(tore) 18,797. The dty is a railway centre of some importance,
and is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the
Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault St Marie, and the Chicago & North-
western railways, by interurban electric lines, and by steamboat
lines connecting through the Fox river with vessels on the Great
Lakes. At North Fond du Lac, just beyond the city limits,
arc car-shops of the two last-mentioned railways, and in the
city are manufactories of machinery, automobiles, wagons
and carriages, awnings, leather, beer, flour, refrigerators, agri-
cultural implements) toys and furniture. The total value of the
city's factory products in 1905 was $5,599,606, an increase of
95*7% since xooo. The city has a Protestant Episcopal
cathedral, the Grafton Hall school for girls, and St Agnes hospital
and convent, arid a public library with about 35,000 volumes in
1908. The first settlers on the site of Fond du Lac arrived about
183 5. 1 Subsequently a village was laid out which was incorpor-
ated in 1847; a city charter was secured in 1852.
FONDI (anc Fundi), a town of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Caserta, is m. N.W. of Fonnia, and xx m. E.N.E.
of Terracina by road. Pop. (1901) 9930. It lies 25 ft. above
sea-levci, at the N. end of a plain surrounded by mountains,
which extend to the sea. It occupies the site of the ancient
Fundi, a Volscian town, belonging later to Latium adjeditm, on
the Via Appia, still represented by the modern high-road which
passes through the centre of the town. It is rectangular in plan,
and portions of its walls, partly in fine polygonal work and partly
in opus incertum, are preserved. Both plan and walls date, no
doubt, from the Roman period. The gate on the north-east still
exists, and bears the inscription of three aediles who erected the
gate, the towers and the walL A similar inscription of three
different aediles from the N.W. gate still exists, but not in situ.
In the neighbourhood are the remains of several ancient villas,
and along the Via Appia still stands an ancient wall of ofns
retienlatnm, with an inscription, in large letters, of one Varroni-
anus, the letters being at intervals of 25 ft. The engineering of
the ancient Via Appia between Fondi and Fonnia, where it
passes through the mountains near Itri, is remarkable.
The .modern town is still enclosed by the ancient walls. The
castle on the S.E. side has some 15th-century windows with
beautiful tracery. Close by is the Gothic church of S. Pietro
(formerly S. Maria), which was the cathedral until the see was
suppressed in 18x8 and united with that of Gaeta; it contains
a fine pulpit with " cosmatesque " work and the fine tomb of
Cristoforo Caetani (1439)1 two interesting x 5th-century triptychs
and an episcopal throne, which served for the coronation of the
antipope Clement VTL in 1378. In the Dominican monastery
the cell which St Thomas Aquinas sometimes occupied is shown.'
The ancient city of Fundi in 338 B.C. (or 332) received (with
Formiae) the civilas sine suffragio, because it had always secured
the Romans safe passage through its territory; the people
as a whole did not join Privernum in its war against Rome three
years later, though Vitruvius Vacca, the leader, was a native of
Fundi. It acquired the full citizenship in 188 B.C., and was
partly under the control of a praefectus. The inscription upon
some waterpipes which have been discovered shows that later it
became a mvnicipium. It was governed by three aediles:
Horace's jest against the officious praetor (sic) is due to the
exigencies of metre (Th. Mommsen in Hermes, xiii. p. x 13). The
family of Livia, the consort of Augustus, belonged to Fundi.
During the Lombard invasions in 592 Fundi was temporarily
abandoned, but it seems to have come under the rule of the
papacy by a.d. 754 at any rate. Pope John VIII. ceded it with
its territory to Docibile, duke of Gaeta, but its history is some-
what intricate after this period. Sometimes it appears as an
independent countship, though held by members of the Caetani
family, who about 1297 returned to it. In 1504 it was given to
Prospero Colonna. In 1534 Khair-ed-Din Bafbarossa tried to
carry off Giulia Gonzaga, countess of Fondi, and sacked the city.
After this Fondi was much neglected; in 1 721 it was sold to the
Di Sangro family, in which it still remains. Its position as a
frontier town between the papal states and the kingdom of
Naples, just in the territory of the latter— the Via Appia can
easily be blocked either N.W. at the actual frontier called
6o4-
FONNI—FONSECA, BAY OF
Poftclla 1 or S.E. of it— affected it a good deal during the French
Revolution and the events which led up to the unification of
Italy.
The Lago di Fondi, which lies in the middle of the plain, and
the partially drained marshes surrounding it, compelled the
ancient Via Appia, followed by the modern road, to make a
considerable dltour. The lake was also known in classical times
as locus Amyclanus, from the town of Amyclae or Amundae,
which was founded, according to legend, by Spartan colonists,
and probably destroyed by the Oscans in the 5th century B.C.
(E. Pais in Rcndkonli dei Lined, 1906, 611 seq.); the bay was
also known as mare Amundanum,
The ancient Speluncae (mod. Sperlonga) on the coast also
belonged to the territory of Fundi. Here was the imperial villa
in which Sejanus saved the life of Tiberius, who was almost
crushed by a fall of rock. Considerable remains of it, and of the
caves from which it took its name, still exist x m. S.E. of the
modern village. For modern discoveries see P. di Tucci in
Nothu degli scan (1880), 480; G. Patroni, ibid. (1808), 493>
The wine of Fundi is spoken of by ancient writers, though the
ager Caecubus, the coast plain round the Lago di Fundi, was even
more renowned, and Horace frequently praises its wine; and
though Pliny the Elder speaks as if its production had almost
entirely ceased in his day (attributing this to neglect, but even
more to the excavation works of Nero's projected canal from the
lacus Avernus to Ostia), Martial mentions it often, and it is
spoken of in the inscription of a wine-dealer of the time of
Hadrian, together with Falernian and Setian wines {Corpus
inscript. Lai. vi. Berlin, 1882, 9797). The plain of Fondi is the
northernmost point in Italy where the cultivation of oranges and
lemons is regularly carried on in modern times.
See G. Conte Colino. Storia di Fondi (Naples, 1902); B. Amante
and R. Biancbi, Memorit storiche e statutarie di Fondi in Campania
(Rome, 1903) ; T. Ashby, in English Historical Review, xix. (1904)
557 seq. . (T. As.)
FONKI, a town of Sardinia, in the province of Sassari, 3280 ft.
above sea-level, to theN.W. of Monte Gennargentu, sx m. S.
of Nuoro by road. Pop. (1901) 4323. It is the highest village
in Sardinia, and situated among fine scenery with some chestnut
woods. The church of the Franciscans, built in 1708, contains
some curious paintings by local artists. The costumes are ex-
tremely picturesque, and are well seen on the day of St John the
Baptist, the patron saint. The men's costume is similar to that
worn in the district generally; the linen trousers are long and
black gaiters are worn. The women wear a white chemise;
over that a very small corselet, and over that a red jacket with
blue and black velvet facings. The skirt is brown above and
red below, with a blue band between the two colours; it is
accordion-pleated. Two identical skirts are often worn, one
above the other. The unmarried girls wear white kerchiefs,
the married women black. A little to the N. of Fonni, by the
high-road, stood the Roman station of Sorabile, mentioned in
the Antoninc Itinerary as situated 87 m. from Caraleson the
road to Olbia. Excavations made in 1879 and 1880 led to the
discovery of the remains of this station, arranged round three
sides of a courtyard some 100 ft. square, including traces of
baths and other buildings, and a massive embanking wall above
them, some 150 ft. in length, to protect them from landslips
(F. Vivanet, in Notizie degli scavi, 1879, 350; 1881, 31), while
a discharge certificate (tabula honeslae missionis) of sailors
who had served in the classis Ravennas was found in some
ruins here or hereabouts (id. ib., 1882, 440; T. Mommsen,
Corp. inscr. Lot. x. 8325). Near Fonni, too, are several
" menhirs " (called pietre cdliche in the district) and other
prehistoric remains. (T. As.)
FONSAGRADA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province
of Lugo; 25 m. E.N.E. of Lugo by road. Pop. (1900) 17,302.
Fonsagrada is situated 3x66 fL above the sea, on the watershed
between the rivers Rodil and Suarna. It is an important market
for all kinds of agricultural produce, and manufactures linen and
frieze; but its trade is mainly local, owing to the mountainous
1 For the pass of Ad Lautulas see Tbxraciwa.
character of the neighbourhood, and the lack of a iaihny or
navigable waterway, which prevent the development of any
considerable export trade.
FONSECA, XANOEL DBQDORO DA (1827-1892), fast
president of the united states of Brazil, was bora at Alagws
on the 5th of August 1837, being the third 10a of IiesL-Cokad
Manoel Mendes da Fonseca (d. 1859). He was educated at
the military school of Rio de Janeiro, and had attained the rank
of captain in the Brazilian army when war broke cot in 1864
against Montevideo, and afterwards against Solano Lopex,
dictator of Paraguay. His courage gained him distinction, and
before the close of the war in 1870 he reached the rank of colonel,
and some years later that of general of division. After holding
several military commands, he was appointed in x886 governor
of the province of Rio Grande do SuL In this position he tare*
himself heartily into politics, espoused the republican opiauei
then becoming prevalent, and sheltered their exponents with
his authority. After a fruitiest remonstrance, the government
at the close of the year removed him from his post, and recalled
him to the capital as director of the service of army material
Finding that even in that post he still continued to encourage
insubordination, the minister of war, Alfredo Chaves, dismissed
him from office. On 14th of May 1887, in conjunction with the
viscount de Pelotas, Fonseca issued a manifesto in defence of
the military officers' political rights. From that time his influence
was supreme in the army. In December 1888, when the Con-
servative Correa d'Otiveira became prime minister, Fonseca «u
appointed to command an army corps on the frontier of Matto
Grosso. In June 1889 the ministry was overthrown, and on a
dissolution an overwhelming Liberal majority was returned to
the chamber of deputies. Fonseca returned to the capital in
September. Divisions of opinion soon arose within the Liberal
party on the question of provincial autonomy. The more
extreme desired the inauguration of a complete federal system.
Amongst the most vehement was Ruy Barbosa, the journalist
and orator, and after some difficulty he persuaded Fonseca to
head an armed movement against the government. The insur-
rection broke out on the 15th of November 1889. The govern-
ment commander, Almeida Barreto, hastened to place himseH
under Fonseca's orders, and the soldiers and sailors made
common cause with the insurgents. The affair was almost
bloodless, the minister of marine, baron de Ladario, being the
only person wounded. Fonseca had only intended to overturn
the ministry, but he yielded to the insistency of the rcpubfacxB
leaders and proclaimed a republic A provisional government
was constituted by the army and navy in the name of the nation.
with Fonseca at its head. The council was abolished, and both
the senate and the chamber of deputies were dissolved. Tbe
emperor was requested to leave the territory of Brazil within
twenty-four hours, and on the 17th of November was embarked
on a cruiser for Lisbon. On the aoth of December a decree of
banishment was pronounced against the imperial family. So
universal was the republican sentiment that there was no attempt
at armed resistance. The provisional government exercised
dictatorial powers for a year, and on the 25th of February s8o<
Fonseca was elected president of the republic. He was, however,
no politician, and possessed indeed little ability beyond the art
of acquiring popularity. His tenure of office was short. 1°
May be became involved in an altercation with congress, and in
November pronounced its dissolution, a measure beyond hi*
constitutional power. After a few days of arbitrary rule insur-
rection broke out in Rio Grande, do Sul, and before the dose of
November Fonseca, finding himself forsaken, resigned his office.
From- that time he lived in retirement. He died at Rio de
Janeiro on the 23rd of August 1892.
FONSECA, Awapala or Conchagtja, BAY OF, an inlet of tbe
Pacific Ocean in the volcanic region between the Central American
republics of Honduras, Salvador and Nicaragua. The bay «
unsurpassed in extent and security by any other harbour on
the Pacific It is upwards trf 50 m. in greatest length, by aw
30 m. in average width, with an entrance from the sea about
18 m. wide, between the great volcanoes of Concnagua (3800 ft.)
FONT
605
and Co&*goina (3000 ft.). The lofty islands of Conchaguittf
and Mianguiri, with a collection of rocks called " Los Farellones,"
divide the entrance into four distinct channels, each of sufficient
depth for the largest vessels. A channel called " £1 Estero
Real " extends from the extreme southern point of the bay into
Nicaragua for about 50 m., reaching within 90 or 25 m. of Lake
Managua. The principal islands in the bay are Sacate Grande,
Tigre, Gueguensj and Esposescion belonging to Honduras,
and Martin Perez, Punta Sacate, Conchaguita and Mianguiri
betonging to Salvador. Of these Sacate Grande is the largest,
being about 7 m. long by 4 broad. The island of Tigre from its
position is the most important in the bay, being about ao m.
in circumference, and rising in a cone to the height of 2500 ft.
On the southern and eastern shores of the island the lava forms
black rocky barriers to the waves* varying in height from 10
to 80 it.; but on the northward and eastward are a number
of playas or smooth, sandy beaches. Facing one of the most
considerable of these is the port of Amapala (7.9.). Fonseca
Bay was discovered in 1522 by Gil Goasales de Avila, and named
by him after his patron, Archbishop Juan Fonseca, the implacable
enemy of Columbus.
FOOT (Lat. fans, "fountain" or "spring," ItaL Jonlc, Fr.
Us fonts), the vessel used in churches to hold the water for
Christian baptism. In the apostolic period baptism was ad-
ministered at rivers or natural springs (cf. Acts viii.36), and no
doubt the primitive form of the rite was by immersion in the
water. Infusion— pouring water on the head of the neophyte—
was early introduced into the west and north of Europe on
account o£ the inconvenience of immersion, as well as its occasional
danger; this form has never been countenanced in the Oriental
churches. Aspersion, or sprinkling, was also admitted as valid,
but recorded early examples of its use are rare (see Baptism).
These different modes of administering baptism have caused
corresponding changes in the receptacles for the water. After
the cessation of persecution, when ritual and ornament began
to develop openly, special buildings were erected for administering
the rite of baptism. This was obviously necessary, for a large
piscina (basin or tank) in which candidates could be immeoed
would occupy too much space of the church floor itself. These
baptisteries consisted of Unas entered by steps (an ascent of
three, and descent of four, to the water was the normal but not
the invariable number) and covered with a domed chamber
(see Baptistery).
By the oth century, however, the use of separate baptisteries
bad generally given place to that of fonts. The material of
which these were made was stone, often decorative marble;
as early as 524, however, the council of Lerida enacted that if a
atone font were not procurable the presbyter was to provide
a suitable vessel, to be used for the sacrament exclusively, which
might be of any material. In the Eastern Church the font
never became an important decorative article of church furniture :
" The font, mXvii&fflpa (says Neale, Eastern Church, I 214), in
the Eastern Church is a far less conspicuous object than it is in
the West. Baptism by immersion has been retained; but the
font seldom or never possesses any beauty. The material is
usually either metal or wood. In Russia the coiumbelkra is
movable and only brought out when wanted."
One of the most elaborate of early fonts is that described by
Anastasius in the Lateran church at Rome, and said to have been
presented thereto by Constantine the Great. It was of porphyry,
overlaid with silver inside and out In the middle were two
porphyry pillars carrying a golden dish, on which burnt the
Paschal lamp (having an asbestos wick, and fed with balsam) 4
On. the rim of the bowl was a golden lamb, with silver statues
of Christ and St. John the Baptist. Seven silver stags poured
out water. This elaborate vessel was of course exceptional;
the majority of early fonts were certainly much simpler. A fine
early Byzantine stone example exists, or till recently existed,
at Beer-Sheba.
Few if any fonts survive older, than the nth century. These
are all of stone, except a few of lead; much less common are
fonts of cast bronze (a fine example, dated 1112, exists ,at the
Church of St Barthelemy, Liege). The most ancient are plain,
cylindrical bowls, with a circular — sometimes cruciform or
quatrefoil— outline to the basin, either without support or with
a single central pillar; occasionally there is more than one pillar.
The basins are usually lined with lead to prevent absorption
by the stone. The church of Efenechtyd, Denbigh, possesses
an ancient font made of a single block of oak. Though- the
circular form is the commonest, early Romanesque fonts arc not
infrequently square; and sometimes an inverted truncated cone
is found. Octagonal fonts are also known, though uncommon;
hexagons are even less common, and pentagons very rare.
There is a pentagonal font of this period at Cabpurg, dept,
Calvados, N. France.
Fonts early began to be decorated with sculpture and relief.
Arcading and Interlacing work are common; so are symbol and
pictorial representation. A very remarkable kaden font is
preserved at Strassburg, bearing reliefs representing scenes in
the life of Christ. At Pont-s-Mousson on the Moselle are bas-
reliefs of St John the Baptist preaching, and baptizing Christ.
Caryatides sometimes take the place of the pillars, and sculp*
tured animals and grotesques of strange design not infrequently
form the base. More remarkable is the occasional persistence
of pagan symbolism; an interesting example is the very ancient
font from Ottrava, Sweden, which, among a scries of Christian
symbols and figures on its panels, bears a representation of Thor
(see G. Stephens' brochure, Thunor the Thunderer).
In the 13th century octagonal fonts became .commoner. A
very remarkable example exists at the cathedral of Hildesheim
in Hanover, resting on four kneeling figures, each bearing a vase
from which water is running (typical of the rivers of Paradise),
Above is an inscription explaining the connexion of these rivers
with the virtues of temperance, courage, justice and prudence.
On the sides of the cup are representations of the passage of the
Jordan, of the Red Sea, the Baptism of Christ, and the Virgin
and Child. The font has a conical lid, also ornamented with
bas-reliefs. A cast of this font is to be seen in the Victoria and
Albert Museum at South Kensington. A leaden font, with figures
of Our Lord, the Virgin Mary, St Martin, and the twelve Apostles,
exists at Mainz; it is dated 1328 by a set pf four leonine hexa-
meters inscribed upon it. In the 14th and succeeding centuries
octagonal fonts became the rule. They are delicately ornamented
with mouldings and similar decorations, in the contemporary
style of Gothic architectural art. Though the basin is usually
circular in 15th-century fonts, examples are not infrequently
found in which the outline of the basin follows the octagonal
shape of the outer surface of the vcsseL Examples of this type
are to be found at Strassburg, Freiburg and Basel
In England no fonts can certainly be said to date before the
Norman conquest, although it is possible that a few very rude
examples, such as those of Washaway, Cornwall, and Denton,
Sussex, are actually of Saxon times; of course we cannot count,
as " Saxon fonts" those adapted from pre-Norman sculptured?
stones originally designed for other purposes, such as that at
Dolton, Devonshire. . On the other hand, Norman fonts a*re very
common, and are often the sole surviving relics of the Norman
parish church. They are circular or square, sometimes plain,
but generally covered with carving of arcades, figures, foliage,
&c. Among good examples that might be instanced of this
period are Alphington, Devon (inverted cone, without foot);
Stoke Cannon, Devon (supported on caryatides); Ham, Staffs
(cup-shaped); Fincham, Burnham Deepdale, Sculthorpe,
Toftrees, and Shernborne in Norfolk (all, especially the last,
remarkable for elaborate carving); Youlgrave, Derby (with a
projecting stoup in the side for the chrism — a unique detail);
besides others in Lincoln cathedral; Iffiey, Oxon; Ncwcndcn,
Kent; Coleshill, Warwick; East Meon, Hants; Castle Frome.
Herefordshire. Some of the best examples of " Norman *
fonts in England (such as the notable specimen in Winchester
cathedral) were probably imported from Belgium. In the
Transitional period we may mention a remarkable octagonal font
at Belton, Lincolnshire; in this period fall most of the leaden
fonts that remain in England, of which thirty are known (7 in
6o6
FONTAINE, P. F. L.— FONTAINEBLEAU
Gloucestershire, 4 in Berkshire and Kent, 3 in Norfolk, Oxford
and Sussex, r in Derby, Dorset, Lincoln, Somerset, Surrey and
Wiltshire); perhaps the finest examples are at Asbovcr, Derby-
shire, and Walton, Surrey. Early English fonts are com-
paratively rare. They bear the moulding, foliage and tooth
ornament in the usual style of the period. A good example of
an Early English font b at AH Saints, Leicester; others may be
seen at St Giles', Oxford, and at Lackford, Suffolk. Fonts of the
Decorated period are commoner, but not so frequent as those of
the preceding Norman or subsequent Perpendicular periods.
Fonts of the Perpendicular period are very common, and are
generally raised upon steps and a lofty stem, which, together with
the body of the font, are frequently richly ornamented with
panelling. It was also the custom during this period to ornament
the font with shields and coats of arms and other heraldic
insignia, as at Heme, Kent. The fonts of this period, however,
are as a rule devoid of interest, and, like most Perpendicular
work, are stiff and monotonous. There is, however, a remarkable
font, with sculptured figures, belonging to the late 14th century,
at West Drayton in Middlesex.
In Holyrood chapel there was a brazen font in which the royal
children of Scotland were baptized. It was carried off in 1544
by Sir R. Lea, and given by him to the church at St Albans,
but was afterwards destroyed by the Puritans. A tuVer font
existed at Canterbury, which was sometimes brought to West-
minster on the occasion of a royal baptism. At Chobham,
Surrey, there is a leaden font covered with oaken panels of the
1 6th century. The only existing structure at all recalling the
ancient baptisteries in English churches is found at Luton in
Bedfordshire. The font at Luton belongs to the Decorated
style, and is' enclosed in an octagonal structure of freestone,
consisting of eight pillars about 25 ft. in height, supporting a
canopy. The space around the font is large enough to hold
twelve adults comfortably. At the top of the canopy is a vessel
for containing the consecrated water, which when required was
let down into the font by meansof a pipe.
In 1 236 it was ordered by Edmund, archbishop of Canterbury,
that baptismal fonts should be kept under lock and key r as a
precaution against sorcery J— " Fontes baptismales sub sera
dausi teneantur propter sortilegia." The lids appear a't first to
have been quite, simple and flat They gradually, however,
partook of the ornamentation of the -font itself, and are often
of pyramidal and conical forms, highly decorated with finials,
crockets, mouldings and grotesques. Sometimes these covers are
very heavy and are suspended by chains to enable them-to be
raised at will. Very rich font covers may be seen at Ewelme,
Oxon; St Gregory, Sudbury; North Walsingham, Norfolk;
Worlingworth, Suffolk. The ordinary position of the font in
the church wall and is near the entrance, usually to the left of
the south door.
See Arcisse de Caumont, Court d'antiquites monumentahs (Paris,
1830-1843); Francis Simpson, A Series of Anlient Baptismal Fonts
(London, 1826)1 Paley, Ancient Fonts; E. E. Viollet-le-Dttc, Did.
ramnni de FarcMteeUtre (1858-1868), voL v. ; J. H. Parker's Glossary
of Architecture; Francis Bond, Fonts and Font-Covers (London. 1908).
A large number of fine illustrations of fonts, principally or the earlier
periods, will be found in the volumes of the Reliquary and Tllustrated
Archaeologist. (R.A.S.M.)
FONTAINE; PIERRE FRANCOIS lAONARD (1763*1853),
French architect, was born at Pontoise on the 20th of September
1762. He came of a family several of whose members had dis-
tinguished themselves as architects. Leaving the college of
Pontoise at the age of sixteen he was sent to Lisle-Adam to
assist fn hydraulic works undertaken by the architect Andre.
To facilitate his improvement Andri allowed him to have access
to his plans and to copy his designs. In October 1770 he was
sent to Paris to study in the school of Peyre the younger, and
there began his acquaintance with Pettier, which ripened into
a life-long friendship. After six years of study he competed
for a prize at the Academy, and, winning the second for the plan
Of an underground chapel, he received a pension and was sent
to Rome (1785). Perder accompanied him. The Revolution
breaking out soon after his return to France, be took refuge in
England; but after the establishment of the consulate mssj
employed by Bonaparte, to whom he had been introduced by
the painter, David, to restore the palace of Malmaison. Hcxt»
forth he was fully engaged in the principal architectural works
executed in Paris as architect successively to Napoleon L,
Louis XVIII. and Louis Philippe. In conjunction with Fader
(till his death) he was employed on the arch of the Canoad,
the restoration of the Palais-Royal, the grand staircase of the
Louvre, and the works projected for the union of the Louvre id
theTuileries. In 181 2 he was admitted a member of the Acadcey
of Fine Arts, and in 1813 was named first architect to ibe
emperor. With Percicr he published the following vorb-
Palais, maisoHs, et autres Miices de Roma modem* (ifa»;
Descriptions de ctrSntonies et de jttes (1807 and 18 to); fe«£
de decorations inttrieurts (t8n); Choix des plus c&bres maims
de plaisanu de Rime et des environs (1809-1813); Eistdeva
des souoetains, ParalUle (1833). L'histoirt du Palais-Royd vu
published by Fontaine alone, who lost Percicr, his friend tad
associate, in 1838, and himself died in Paris on the loth d
October 18S3.
FONTAINEBLEAU, a town of northern France, capital of ea
arrondissement in the department of Seine-et-Marne, 37 m. S£
of Paris on the railway to Lyons. Pop. (1006) 11,108. Fontaine-
bleau, a town of clean, wide and well-built streets, stands in tfee
midst of the forest of Fontainebleau, nearly a m. from the kit
bank of the Seine. Of its old houses, the Tambour mansko, aad
a portion of that which belonged to the cardinal of Femn,
both of the x6th century, are still preserved; apart from the
palace, the public buildings are without interest. A statue d
General Damesme (d. 1848) stands in the principal square, audi
monument to President Carnot was erected in 1805. Fontaine-
bleau is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of fint
instance and a communal college. The school of practical
artillery and engineering was transferred to Fontainebleau from
Meu by a decree of 1871, and now occupies the part of the palace
surrounding the* cour des offices.
Fontainebleau has quarries of sand and sandstone, saw-mills,
and manufactories of porcelain and gloves. Fine grapes lit
grown in (he vicinity. The town is a fashionable summer resort,
and during the season the president of the Republic freqneotl;
resides in the palace. This famous building, one of the largest,
and in the interior one of the most sumptuous, of the royal
residences of France, lies immediately to the south-east of the
town. It consists of a series of courts surrounded by buildings,
extending from W. to E.N.E.; they comprise the Cour da
Cheval Blanc or des Adieux (thus named in memory of theparting
scene between Napoleon and the Old Guard in 18x4), the Cour
de la Fontaine, the Cour Ovale, built on the site of a mo*
ancient chateau, and the Cour d' Henri IV.: the smaller Cotf
des Princes adjoins the northern wing of the Cour Ovale. T*
exact origin of the palace and of its name (Lat. Fans BUum
are equally unknown, but the older chateau was used in the
latter pert of the rath century by Louis .VII., who caused Tbooai
Becket to consecrate the Chapelle St Saturnin, and it continued
a favourite residence of Philip Augustus and Louis DC. Tbe
creator of the present edifice was Francis I., under whom tte
architect Gilles le Breton erected most of the buildings of the
Cour Ovale, including the Porte Doree, its southern entrance,
and the Salle des F&es, which, in the reign of Henry II, ***
decorated by the Italians, Francesco Primaticdo and Nicojo
dell' Abbate, and is perhaps the finest Renaissance chamber in
France. The Galerie de Francois I. and the lower storey of toe
left wing of the Cour de la Fontaine are the work of the same
architect, who also rebuilt the two-storeyed Chapelle StSaturnm
In the same reign the Cour du Cheval Banc, Induding thj
Chapelle de la Ste Trinity and the Galerie d'Clyese, destroyed
and rebuilt under Louis XV.; was constructed by Ken*
Chambiges. After Francis L,Fontalnebleaupwes most to Hear;
IV., to whom are due the Cour d' Henri IV., the Cour des FrinoA
with the adjoining Galerie de Diane, and Galerie des Cen% used
as a library. Louis XIII. buik the graceful horseshoe staircase
In the Cour du Cheval Blanc; Napoleon I. spent ia,ooo^oo/rw^
EQNTAN, L/M.— TONTANA, P.
607
on work* of restoration, and lows XVm„ Loots Phffippeand
Napoleon IIL devoted considerable sums to the same end. The
palate is surrounded by gardens and ornamental waters— to the
north the Jardia de rOrangerie, to the south the Jardin Anglais
and the Parterre, between which extends the lake, known as the
Bassia des Carpet, containing carp in large numbers. A space
of over aoo acres to the east of the palace is covered by the park, '
which is traversed by a canal dating from the reign of Henry IV.
On the north the park i* bordered by a vinery producing fine
white grapes.
Forest of Fontainebleau.— The forest of Fontainebleau is one
of the most beautiful wooded tracts in France, and for generations
it has been the chosen haunt of French landscape painters.
Among the most celebrated spots are the- Vallee de la Solle,
the Gorge aux Loup*, the Gorges de Franchard and d'Apremont,
and the Fort l'Empereur. The whole area extends to 42,200
acres, with a circumference of 56 m. Nearly a quarter of this
area is of a rocky nature, and the quarries of sandstone supplied
a large part of the paving of Paris. The oak, pine, beech, bom-
beam and birch are the chief varieties of trees.
It is impossible to do more than mention a lew of the historical
events which have taken place at Fontainebleau. Philip the
Fair, Henry III. and Louis XIII. wete all born in the. palace,
and the first of these kings died there. James V. of Scotland
was there received by his intended bride; and Charles V. of
Germany was entertained there in 1530. Christina of Sweden
lived there for years, and the gallery is still to be seen where in
1657 she caused her secretary Monaldeschi to be put to death.
In 1685 Fontainebleau saw the, signing of the revocation of
the edict of Nantes, and in the following year the death of the
great Conde. In the 18th century it had two illustrious guests
in Peter the Great of Russia and Christian VII. of Denmark;
* nd in the early part of the 19th century it was twice the residence
of Pius VII.,— in 1804 when be came to consecrate the emperor
Napoleon, and in x8 1 2-1814, when he was his prisoner.
See Pfnor, Monographie de Fontainebleau, with text by Cham-
pollion Figcac (Pans, 1866); Guide artistiqueet historique au patois
de Fontainebleau (Paris, 1880); E. Bourges, Recherche* sur Fontaine-
««»« (Fontainebleau, 1896).
FONTAN, LOUIS MARIE (180X-1839), French man of letters,
was born at Lorient on the 4th of November 1801. He began
his career as a derk in a government office, but was dismissed
for taking part in a political banquet. At the age of nineteen
he went to Paris and began to contribute to the ToMeUes and
the Album. He was brought to trial for political articles written
for the latter paper, but defended himself so energetically that
he secured the indefinite postponement of his case. The offending
paper was suppressed for a time, and Fontan produced a collection
of political poems, Odes et IpUrts, and a number of plays, of
which Perkins Warbee (1818), written In collaboration with
MM. Halev? and Drouineau,.was the most successful In 1828
the Album was revived, and in it Fontan published a virulent
but witty attack on Charles X., entitled Le Moulon enrag*
<7oth June 18*0). To escape the inevitable prosecution Fontan
fled over the frontier, but, finding no safe asylum, he returned
to Paris to give himself up to the authorities, and was sentenced
to five years' imprisonment and a heavy fine. He was liberated
by the revolution of 1830, and his Jeanne la folic, performed in
the same year, gained a success due perhaps more to sympathy
with the author's political principles than to the merits of the
piece itself, a somewhat crude and violent picture of Breton
history. A drama representing the trial of Marshal Ncy, which
he wrote in collaboration with Charles Dupcnty, Le Procte d'un
marichat de France (printed 1831), was suppressed on the
night of its production. Fontan died in Paris on the 10th of
October 1830.
A sympathetic portrait of Fontan as a prisoner, and an analysis
of his principal works, are to be found in Jules Janin's Histoire de la
literature dramatique, voL L
FONTANA, DOMENICO (1543-1607), Italian architect and
mechanician, was born at Mili, a village on the Lake of Como, in
1543. After a good training in mathematics, he went in 1563
to join his elder brother, then studying architecture at Rome.
He made rapid progress, and wis taken Into the service of
Cardinal Montalto, for whom he erected a chapel in the church of
Santa Maria Maggiore and the villa Negroni. When the cardinal's
pension was stopped by the pope, Gregory XIII., Fontana
volunteered to complete the works in hand at hit own expense.
The cardinal being soon after elected pope, under the name of
Sixtus V., he inuaediately appointed Fontana his chief architect.
Amongst the works executed by him were the Lateran palace,
the palace of Monte Cavallo (the Quirinal), the Vatican library,
&c. But the undertaking which brought Fontana the highest
repute was the removal of the great Egyptian obelisk, which
had been brought to Rome in the-reign of Caligula, from the place
where it lay in the circus of the Vatican. Its erection in front
of St Peter's he accomplished in 1 586. After the death of Sixtus
V., charges were brought against Fontana of misappropriation
of public moneys, and Clement VIII. dismissed him from his
post (1502). This appears to have been Just in time to save
the Colosseum from being converted by Fontana into, a hugs
cloth factory, according to a projectof Sixtus V. Fontana was
then called to Naples, and accepted the appointment of architect
to the viceroy, the count of Miranda. At Naples he built the
royal palace, constructed several canals and projected a new
harbour and bridge, which he did not live to execute. The only
literary work left by him is his account of the removal of the
obelisk (Rome, 1590). He died at Naples in 1607, and. was
honoured with a public funeral in the church of Santa Anna.
Hisjplan for a new harbour at Naples was carried out only after
his death. His son Giulio Cesare succeeded him as-royal architect
in Naples, the .university of that town being his besHtnown
building.
FONTANA, LAVINIA (1553-1614), Italian portrait-painter,
was the daughter of Prosper© Fontana (g.v). She was greatly
employed by the ladies of Bologna, and, going thence to Rome,
painted the likenesses of many illustrious personages, being under
the particular patronage of the family (Buoncampagni) of Pope
Gregory XIII., who died in x 585. The Roman ladies, from the
days of this pontiff to those of Paul V., elected in 1605, showed
no less favour to Lavinia than their Bolognese sisters had done;
and Paul V, was himself among her sitters. Some of her portraits,
often lavishly paid for, have been attributed to Guide In works
of a different kind also she united care and delicacy with boldness.
Among the chief of these are a Venus in the Berlin museum;
the " Virgin lifting a veil from the sleeping infant Christ," in the
Escorial; and the " Queen of Sheba visiting Solomon." Her
own portrait in youth — she was accounted very beautiful— was
perhaps her masterpiece; it belongs to the counts Zappi of
Imola, the famity into which Lavinia married. Her husband,
whose name is given as Paolo Zappi or Paolo Foppa, painted the
draperies in many of Lavinia's pictures. She is deemed on the
whole a better painter than her father; from him naturally
came her first instruction, but she gradually adopted the Carac-
cesque style, with strong quasi- Venetian colouring. She was
elected into the Academy of Rome, and died in that city in 1614.
FONTANA, PROSPERO (1512-1507)1 Italian painter, was
born in Bologna, and became a pupil of Innocenzo da Imola.
He afterwards worked for Vasari and Perino del Vaga. It was
probably from Vasari that Fontana acquired a practice of off-
hand, self-displaying work. . He undertook a multitude of com-
missions, and was so rapid, that he painted, it is said, in a few
weeks an entire hall in the Vitclli palacQ at Citta di Castcllo.
Along with daring, he had fertility of combination, and in works
of parade he attained a certain measure of success, although bis
drawing was incorrect and his mannerism palpable. He belongs
to the degenerate period of the Bolognese school, under the
influence chiefly of the imitators of Raphael— Sabbatini, Sam-
mac hi ni and Passerotti being three of his principal colleagues.
His soundest successes were in portraiture, in which branch of
art he stood so high that towards 1550 Michelangelo introduced
him to Pope Julius III. as a portrait-painter; and he was
pensioned by this pope, and remained at the pontifical court
with the three successors of Julius. Here he lived on a grand
scale, and figured as a sort of arbiter and oracle among his
6o8
FONTANE, T.— FONTENELLE, B. DE
professional brethren. Returning to Bologna, after doing some
work in Fontainebleau and in Genoa, he opened a school of art,
In which he became the preceptor of Lodovico and Agostino
Caracci; but these pupils, standing forth as reformers and
innovators, finally extinguished the academy and the vogue of
Fontana. His subjects were in the way of sacred and profane
history and of fable. He has left a large quantity of work in
Bologna,— the picture of the " Adoration of the Magi," in the
church of S. Maria delle Grarie, being considered his masterpiece
--not unlike the style of Paul Veronese. He died in Rome in
1597-
FONTANE, THEODOR (18x0*1808), German poet and novelist,
was born at Neu-Ruppin on the 30th of December 1819. At
the age of sixteen he was apprenticed to a chemist, and after
qualifying as an apothecary, he found employment in Leipzig
and Dresden. In 1844 he travelled in England, and settling
in Berlin devoted himself from 1849 to literature. He made
repeated journeys to England, interesting himself in old English
ballads, and as the firstfruits of his tours published Ein Sommer
in London (1854); Aus England^tudien und Brief* (i860) and
Jcnseit det Tweed, Bilder und Brief e aus SckoUland (i860).
Fontane was particularly attached to the Mark of Brandenburg,
in which his home lay; he was proud of its past achievements,
and delighted in the growth of the capital city, Berlin. The
fascination which the country of his birth had for him may be
seen in his delightfully picturesque Wanderungen dutch die Mark
Brandenburg (1862-1882, 4 vols.). He also described the wars of
Prussia in Der schUswg-holsleinischc Krieg im Jahrt 1864 (1866)
and Der deulsche Krieg von 1866 (1869). He proceeded to the
theatre of war in 1870, and, being taken prisoner at Yaucouleurs,
remained three months in captivity. His experiences he narrates
in Kfiegsgefangen. Erlebtes 1870 (1871), and he published the
result of his observations of the campaign in Der Krieg gegen
Frankrekh 1870-71 (1874-1876). Like most of his contempo-
raries he at first sought inspiration for his poetry in the heroes
of other countries. His Gedickle (1851) and ballads Winner und
Helden (i860) tell of England's glories in bygone days. Then the
achievements of his own countrymen entered into rivalry, and
these, as an ardent patriot, he immortalized in poem and narra-
tive. Jt is, however, as a novelist that Fontane is best known.
His fine historical romance Vor dem Sturm (1878) was followed
by a series of novels of modern life: L'Adullera (1882); Schach
von Wuthenow (1883) ; Trrungen, Wirrungen (1888); SHne (1890);
Unwicderbringlick (1891); Effi Briest (1895); DerStecklin (1899),
in which with fine literary tact Fontane adapted the realistic
methods and social criticism of contemporary French fiction to
the condi tions of Prussian life. He died on the 20th of September
1808 at Berlin.
Fontanel Gtiammetic Romane und En&hlungen were published in
12 vols. (1890-1891; 2nd ed., 1005). For his life see the auto-
biographical work* Meine Kinderjahre (1894) and Von zwanzig bis
dretssig (1898). also Brief e an seine Famitie (1905) ; also F. Servaes,
Tkeodor Fontane (1900).
FONTANES, LOUIS, Marquis de (1757-1811), French poet and
politician, was born at Niort (Deux Sdvres) on the 6th of March
1757. He belonged to a noble Protestant family of Languedoc
which had been reduced to poverty by the revocation of the edict
of Nantes. His father and grandfather remained Protestant,
but he was himself brought up as a Catholic. His parents died
in I774~i775> and in 1777 Fontanes went to Paris, where be
found a friend in the dramatist J. F. Ducis. His first published
poems, some of which were inspired by English models, appeared
in the Almanack des If uses; " Le Cri de mon cceur," describing
his own sad childhood, in 1778; and *' La Fortt de Navarre"
in 1780. His translation from Alexander Pope, UEssoi sur
Vkomme, was published with an elaborate preface in 1783, and
La Chartreuse and Le Jour des marts in the same year,
Le Verger in 1788 and his tpUre sur Vidit en faveur des
non-calhdujues, and the Essai sur Pastronomie in 1789.
Fontanes was a moderate reformer, and in 1790 he became
joint-editor of the Modfralcur. He married at Lyons in 1792,
and his wife's first child was born during their flight from the
siege of that town. Fontanes was ia hiding in Paris when lb«fw |
citizens of Lyons were sent to the Convention to protest agakst
the cruelties of Collot d'Herbois. The petition was drawn «p I
by Fontanes, and the authorship being discovered, he fled froa
Paris and found shelter at Sevran, near Livry, and af terwari 1
at Andelys. On the fall of Robespierre he was made profew
of literature in the £cc4e Centrale des Quatre-Nations, and k
was one of the original members of the Institute. In tk
Mtrkorial, a journal edited by La Harpe, he discreetly advocated
reaction to the monarchical principle. He was exiled by tit
Directory and made his way to London, where he was dose/
associated with Chateaubriand. He soon returned to Franc?,
and his admiration for Napoleon, who commissioned him 10
write an iloge on Washington, secured his return to the Institutt
and his political promotion. In 1802 he was elected to the kg*
lative chamber, of which he was president from 1804 to iSia
Other honours and titles followed. He has been accused d
servility to Napoleon, but he had the courage to remonstrate
with him on the judicial murder of the due d'Enghien, and as
grand master of the university of Paris (1808-18x5) he con-
sistently supported religious and monarchical principles. He
acquiesced in the Bourbon restoration, and was made a marqeis
in 1817. He died on the 17th of March 2821 in Paris, leaving
eight cantos of an unfinished epic poem entitled La Greceseait
The verse of Fontanes is polished and musical in the style d
the 1 8th century. It was not collected until 1839, when Sable-
Beuve edited the (Euvres (2 vols.) of Fontanes, with a sya-
pathetic critical study of the author and his career. But by
that time the Romantic movement was in the ascendant and
Font anes m et with small appreciation.
FONTENAY-LE-COMTB, a town of western France, capita!
of an arrondisscment in the department of Vendee 30 m. N E-
of La Rochelle on the State railway between that town and
Saumur. Pop. (190$) town, 7639; commune, 10,326. Fontewy,
an ancient and straggling town, is situated a few miles south of
the forest of Vouvant and on both banks of the Vendee, at tke
point where it becomes navigable. The church of Notre-Dan*
(15th to 1 8th centuries), which has a fine spire and a richly
sculptured western entrance, and the church of St Jean (ioih
and 17th centuries) are the chief religious buildings. The tovs
has several houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. The cart
remarkable of these is the H6tcl de Terre Neuye (i$9S' 1 ^
which contains much rich decoration together with collection*
of furniture and tapestry. Fontenay was the birthplace of many
prominent men during the 15th and 16th centuries, and d*
Fontaine des Quatre-Tias, a fountain in the Renaissance style.
given to the town by King Francis I., commemorates the fact
The chief square is named after Francois Viete, the grot
mathematician, who was born at Fontenay in 1 540. The pub&
institutions of the town include a tribunal of first instance &d
a communal college. Among its industries are the manufacture
of felt hats, oil and soap and timber-sawing, flour-milling aad
tanning. There is trade in horses, mules, timber, grain, fruit, Ac.
Fontenay was in existence as early as the time of the Gauls.
The affix of " comte " is said to have been applied to it when »J
was taken by King Louis IX. from the family of Lusignan aad
given to his brother Alphonse, count of Poitou, under wboa
it became capital of Bas-Poitou. Ceded to the English by l*
treaty of Britignyin 1360 it was retaken in 1372 by Duguedjn.
It suffered repeated capture during the Religious Wars of i»
16th century, was dismantled in 1621 and was occupied botf
by the republicans and the Vendeans in the war of 1793* ^ rod
1700 to 1806 it was capital of the department of Vendee.
FONTENELLE, BERNARD LE BOVIER DE (x65r*757).
French author, was born at Rouen, on the nth of February
1657. He died in Paris, on the 9th of January i757> ****"*
thus very nearly attained the age of 100 years. His father r*
an advocate settled in Rouen, his mother a sister of the two
Corncille. He was educated at the college of the Jesuits in b*
native dty, and distinguished himself by the extraordinary
precocity and versatility of his talents. His teachers, ™?
readily appreciated these, were anxious for him to join tnca
FONTENOY
609
Ofdet, but Ms fatter fed deafened him for this bar, end est
advocate accordingly he became; but, having lost the first
cause which was entrusted to him, he soon abandoned law and
gave himself wholly to literary pursuits. Hb attention was
first directed to poetry; and more than once* he competed for
prizes of the French Academy, but never with success. He
visited Paris from time to time and established intimate relations
with the abb* de Saint Pierre, the abb* Vertot and the mathe-
matician Pierre Varignon. He witnessed, in 1680, the total
failure of his tragedy Aspar. Fontenelle afterwardsacknowledged
the justice of the public verdict by burning his unfortunate
drama. His opera of TkHis et PUS*, 1680, though highly praised
by Voltaire, cannot be said to rise much above the others; and
it may be regarded as significant that of all bis dramatic
works not one has kept the stage. His Poesies pastorales
(16S8) have no greater claim to permanent repute, being char*
acterized by stiffness and affectation; and the utmost that can
be said for his poetry in general is that it displays much of the
lima* labor, great purity of diction and occasional felicity of
expression.
His Lctircs galanles du chesaKer flier . . ., published
anonymously in 1685, was an amusing collection of stories that
immediately made its mark. In 1686 bis famous allegory of
Rome and Geneva, slightly disguised as the rival princesses
Mreo and Eenegu, in the Relation de VUe de Bornio, gave proof
of his daring in religious matters. . Eat it was by his Nowfeaux
Dialogues des marls (1683) that Fontenelle established a genuine
claim to high literary rank; and that -claim was enhanced three
years later by the appearance of the Entntieus s*r to pturoUM
des mondes (1686), a work which was among the very first
to illustrate the possibility of being scientific without being
either uninteresting or unintelligible to the ordinary reader.
His object was to popularise among his countrymen the astro-
nomical theories of Descartes; and it may well be doubled if
that philosopher ever ranked a more ingenious or successful
expositor among his disciples;
Hitherto Fontenelle had made his home to Rouefa,but m 1*87
he removed to Paris; and in the same year be published his
Histoire des trades, a book which made a considerable stir in
theological and philosophical circles. It consisted of two essays,
the first of which was designed to prove that oracles were not
given by the supernatural agency of demons, and the second
that they did not cease with the birth of Christ. It excited the
suspicion of the Church, and a Jesuit, by nameBalrus, published
a ponderous refutation o* it; but the peace-loving disposition •
of its author impelled him to leave his opponent unanswered.
To the following year (1688) belongs his Digression sur let
anckns el les ntodenus, in which he took the modern side in
the controversy then raging; his Doutes sur le systems physique
des causes ouasionneUes (against Malebranche) appeared shortly
afterwards.
In 1 601 he was received into the French Academy in spite of
the determined efforts of the partisans of the ancients in this
quarrel, especially of Racine and Boiteau, who on four previous
occasions had secured his rejection. He consequently was
admitted* member both of the Academy of Inscriptions and of
the Academy of Sciences; and in 1697 he became perpetual
secretary to the latter body. This office he actually held for
the long period of forty-two years; and it was in this official
capacity that he wrote the Histoire du rcnouveHement de P Academe
da Sciences (Paris, 3 vols., 1708, 1717, 1723) containing extracts
and analyses of the proceedings, and also the tiegts of the members,
written with great simplicity and delicacy. Perhaps the best
known of his Uoges, of which there are sixty-nine in all, is that
of his uncle Pierre Coraeihe. Tnis was first printed in the
NouocHes de la ttpublique des- leUres (January 1685) and,' as
Vie de Corneille, was included in all the editions of Fontenelle'B
(Euvres. The other important works of Fontenelle are his
illmenis de la giometrie de V in fin* (1797) and bis Apoiogie des
tourbillons (1752). Fontenelle forms a link between two very
widely different periods of French literature, that of Corneille,
Racine and Boileau on the one hand, and that of Voltaire,*
D^Afcrnbert' and Diderot on the other. It Is not in virtue of his
great age alone that this can bo said of him; he actually had
much in common with the beaux tsfrUs of the 17th century, as
well as with the pkUosopkos of the rSth. But it is to the latter
rather than to the former period that he properly belongs.
He has no claim to be regarded as a genius; but, as Sainte-
Beuve has said, he well deserves a place " dans la dasse des
osprits infinment disHnguis " — distinguished, however, it ought
to be added by intelligence rather than by intellect, and less
by the power of saying much than by the power of saying a little
well. In personal character he has sometimes been described
as having been revoltingly heartless; and it is abundantly
plate that he was singularly Incapable of feeling strongly the
more generous emotions— a misfortune, or a fault, which revealed
itself in many ways. " Ilfaut avoir de fame pour avoir du goto.'*
But the cynical expressions of such a man are not to be taken
too literally; and the mere fact that he lived and died in the'
esteem of many friends suffices -to show that the theoretical
selfishness - which he*~soinelfnies professed cannot' have bees;
consistently and at all times carried into practice.
There have been several collective editions of Foatendle's work*,
the first befog printed in 3 vols, at the Hague id 1728-1729. The
bast ia-that of Haris, in 8 vols. 8yo* 1700. Some of his separate
Works have been very frequently reprinted and also, translated,
The PluruliU des mondes was translated into modern Greek in P794,
SaurterBeuve baa an interesting essay on Fontenelle, with several
useful references, in the Causettes du lundi, vol. iii. See also Ville*
main, TaUeau de la literature francaUe au X VIII* Steele; the abb*
Trublet, Uemoires pour servtr- a I histoire de la vie, el des outrages
de U.de Fontenelle (1759); A. Labordc-Milaa, Fontenelle (1905),
in the "Grands ecrivama francajs" scries; and-L. Maigron,
FoHieneOe, t'homme, Paws, rinfiuente (Pan*, 7906)*
FONTENOY, a village of Belgium, in the province of Hennegau,
about 4 m SJS. of Tournai, famous as the scene of the battle of
Fontenoy, in which on the nth of May 1745 the French army
under Marshal Saxe defeated the Anglo-Allied army under the)
duke of Cumberland; The object of the French (see also
Austrian Succession, tyx*. or ran) was to cover the siege
of the then important- fortress of Tournai, that of the Allies,
who slowly advanced from the east, to relieve it. Informed
of the impending attack, Lotus XV., with the dauphin, came
with all speed to witness the operations, .And by his presence to
give Saxe, who was* in bad health and beset with private enemies,
the support necessary to enable him to command effectively;
Under Cumberland served the Austrian field-marshal KSnigsegg,
and, at the head of the Dutch contingent, the prince of Waldeck.
, The right of the French position (see map) rested on the tvttt
at Antoing, which village was fortified and garrisoned* between
Antorng and Fontenoy three square redoubts were constructed]
aadTonton oy it se lf wasput id a-oompkte state otdefence. Ob
the left rear of this line, and separated from Fontenoy by some
furlongs of open ground, another redoubt wasmade at the corner
of the wood of Barry and a fifth towards Gavrain. Hie infantry
was arrayed in deployed lines behind- the Autoing-Fobtenoy
redoubts and the low ridge between Fontenoy and the wood;
behind them was the cavalry. The approaches to Gavrain were
guarded by a mounted volunteer corps called Otassins. At
Calonne the marshal had constructed three military bridges
against the contingency of a forced retreat. The force of the
French was about 60,000 of aB arms, not including 23,000 left
invthe fines before Tournai. Marshal Saxe himself, who was
suffering from dropsy to such an extent that he was unabfe to'
mount his horse, slept in a wicker chariot in the midst of the
troops. At early dawn of the nth of May, the Anglo-Hanoverian
army with the Austrian contingent formed up in front of Vezon,
facing towards Fontenoy and the wood, while the Dutch on their
left extended the general line to Ferbane. The total force was
46,000, against about 52,000 whom Saxe could actually put into
the line of battle.
The plan of attack arranged by Cumberland, Kftriigsegg and
Waldeck on the 10th grew out of circumstances. -A preliminary '
skirmish had cleared the broken ground immediately about
Vezon and revealed a part of the defenders dispositions. It was
resolved Chat the Dutch should attack the front Antoing-'
6io
FONTENOY
Fontenoy, while Cumberland should deliver a flank attack
agiinst Fontenoy and all in rear of it, by way of the open ground
between Fontenoy and the wood. A great cavalry attack round
i tie wood *.is projected but had to be given up, as in the late
evening of the roth the Allies' fight cavalry drew fire from its
sou t hem edge. Cumberland then ordered his cavalry co m minder
to form a screen facing Fontenoy, so as to cover the tor ma lion of
lite infantry. On the morning of the itth another and most
important modification bad to be made. The advance was
beginning when the redoubt at the corner of the wood became
visible. Cumberland hastily told off Brigadier James Ingoldsby
(major and brevet -colonel u\ Guards), with four regiments and
an Artillery detachment, to storm this redoubt which, crossing
its fire with that of Fontenoy* seemed absolutely to inhibit the
development of the flank attack. At G A.iL the brigade moved
o:T, but it was irresolutely handled and halted time after time;
and after waiting as long as possible, the British and Hanoverian
cavalry under Sir James Camp bill rode forward and extended
FONTENOY
in the plain, becoming at once the target for a furious cannonade
which killed their leader and drove them back. Thereupon Sir
John (Lord) Ligonier, whose deployment the squadrons were
to have covered, let them pass to the rear, and, hearing the guns
of the Dutch towards Antoing, pushed the British infantry for*
ward through the lanes, each unit on reaching open ground
covering the exit and deployment of the one in rear, all under the
French cannonade. This went on for two hours, and save that
it showed the magnificent discipline of the British and Hano-
verian regiments; was a bad prelude to the real attack. Cumber-
land's own exertions brought a few small guns to ibe front of t he
Guards' Brigade, and one of the first shots from these killed
Antoine Louis, due oV Gramont, colonel of the Gardes Franchises,
and another Henri du Baraillon du Brocard, Sine's artillery
commander.
It was now o a.it., and while the guns from the wood redoubt
battered the upright ranks of the Allies, Ingoldsby 1 * brigade wad
huddled together, motionless, on the right* Cumberland himself
galloped thither, and under hi* reproaches Ingoldsby lost the
last remnants of self -possession. To Sir John ligonier's aide-
de-camp, who delivered soon afterwards a bitterly formal order
to advance, Ingoldsby sullenly replied ihnl the duke's orders
were for him to advance in line with Ligonier's main: body.
By now, too, the Dutch advance against Aatoing-Fboteooy W
collapsed.
But on the right the cannonade and the blunders togeUw
had roused a stern and almost blind anger in the leaders and ite
men they led. Ingoldsby was wounded, and his successor, tk
Hanoverian general Zastrow, gave up the right attack ud
brought bis battalions into the main body. A second half-
hearted attack on Fontenoy itself, delivered by some Datdt
troops, was almost made successful by the valour of two of ibex
battalions (one of them being the then newly raised Highlud
regiment, the Black Watch) which came thither of their on
accord. Meantime the young duke and the old Austrian fidd-
marshal had agreed to take all risks and to storm throufl
between Fontenoy and the wood redoubt, and had launched the
great attack* one of the most celebrated in the history of war
The English infantry was in two lines. The Hanoverians os
their left, owing to want of space, were compelled to hie into third
line behind the redcoats, and on their outer flanks were the
battalions that had been with Ingoldsby. A few guns, mas-
drawn, accompanied the assaulting mass, and the cavaJrr
followed. The column may have numbered MiOco infantry
All the infantry battalions closed on their centre, the nornul
three ranks becoming six. If the proper distances between lias
were preserved, the mass must have formed an oblong about
500 yds X 600 yds (excluding the cavalry).
The duke of Cumberland placed himself at the bead of the
front line and gave the signal to advance. Slowly and in pande
order, drums beating and colours flying, the mass advsnctd,
straight up the gentle slope, which was swept everywhere by
the flanking artillery of the defence. Then, when the first Kk
reached the low crest on the ends of which stood the Fiend)
artillery, the fire, hitherto convergent, became a full ennade
from both sides, and at the same moment the enemy's horse and
foot became visible beyond. A brief pause ensued, and the
front gradually contracted as regiments shouldered inwards to
avoid the fire. Then the French advanced, and the Guards
Brigade and the Gardes Francaises met face to face. Capurn
Lord Charles Hay (d. 1760), lieutenant of the First (Grenadier)
Guards, suddenly ran in front of the line, took off his hat to the
enemy and drank to them from a pocket flask, shouting & taunt.
" We hope you will stand till we come up to you, and not swim
the river as you did at Dettingen," then, turning to his own ©en,
he called for three cheers. The astonished French officers
returned the salute and gave a ragged counter-cheer. Whether
or not the French, as legend states, were asked and refused to
fire first, the whole British line fired one tremendous series of
volleys by companies. 50 officers and 760 men of the three
foremost French regiments fell at once, and at so appalliafj
loss the remnant broke and fled. Three hundred paces farther
on stood the second line of the French, and slowly the on*
advanced, firing regular volleys. It was now well iande u*
French position, and no longer felt the enfilade fire that svept
the crest it bad passed over. By now, as the rear lines closed up.
the assailants were practically in square and repelled vinous
partial attacks coming from all sides. The Regiment du KJ»
lost 33 officers and 345 men at the hands of the Second (Cow*
stream) Guards. But these counter-attacks gained a > c *
precious minutes for the French. It was the crisis of the batue.
The king, though the court meditated flight, stood steady ww
the dauphin at his side, — Fontenoy was the one great day *
Louis XV.'s Hfe,-and Saxe, ill as he was, mounted his horse w
collect his cavalry for a charge. The British and Bsnotwjjj
were now at a standstill. More and heavier counter-strota
were repulsed, but no progress was made; their cavalry was "*
able to get to the front, and Saxe was by now thinking of victory-
Captain Isnard of the Touraine regiment suggested Rrt ^^ J.
batter the face of the square, preparatory to a final charge
General Ldwendahl galloped up to Saxe, crying, " This is s great
day for the king; they will never escape! " The nearest gtt»
were planted in front of the assailants, and used with w**
The infantry, led by Lowendahl, fastened itself on the sides «
the square, the regiments of Normandy and Vaisseaui and u»
FONTEVRAULT— FOOD
611
Irish Brigade coospfcuous above the rest. On the front, waiting
for the cannon to do its wort, were the Msisondu Roi, the Gendar-
merie and ail the light cavalry, under Saze himself, the duke of
Richelieu and count dTstrees. The left wing of the Allies was
still inactive, and troops were brought up from Antoing and
Fontenoy to support the final blow. About s p.m. it was de-
livered, and in eight minutes the square was broken. As the '
infantry retired across the plain in small stubborn groups the
French fire still made havoc in their ranks, but all attempts
to close with them were repulsed by the terrible volleys, and
they regained the broken ground about Vezon, whence they had
come. Cumberland himself and all the senior generals remained
with the rearguard.
The losses at Fontenoy were, as might be expected, somewhat
less lhan normally heavy when distributed over the whole of
both armies, but exceedingly severe in the units really engaged.
Eight out of nineteen regiments of British infantry lost over
soo men, two of these mora than 300. A tribute to the loyalty
and discipline of the British, as compared with the generality
of armies in those days, may be found in the fact that the three
Guards' regiments had no " missing " men whatever. The 13rd
(Royal Welsh Fusiliers) had 32s casualties. Boschlanger's
Hanoverian regiment suffered even more heavily, and four
others of that nation had soo or more c asualties. The total
loss was about 7500, that of the French 7900. The French
" Royal " regiment lost 30 officers and 645 men; some other
regimental casualties have been mentioned above. The Dutch
lost a bare 7% of their strength.
Fontenoy was in the 18th century what the attack of the
Prussian Guards at St Privat Is to-day, a foots dtatcfaformilitary
theorists. But the technical features of the battle are completely
overshadowed by its epic interest, and above aQ it illustrates
the permanent and unrhangrahle military characteristics of the
Britis h and French nations.
FONTEVRAULT, or Fomtxvxaud (Lat. Pom Ebratdi), a
town of western France, in the department of Malne-et-Loire,
10 m. S.E. of Saumur by-road and 3} m. from the confluence of
the Loire and Vlenne. Pop. (xoo6) 1 279. It Is situated in the
midst of the forest of Fontevrault. The Interest of the place
centres in its abbey, which since 1804 has been utilised and abused
as a central house of detention for convicts. The church (nth
century), of whkh only the choir and apse are appropriated to
divine service, has a beautiful nave formerly covered by four
cupolas destroyed in 18 16. There Is a fifth cupola above the
crossing. In a'chapel in the south transept are the effigies of
Henry II. of England, of bis wife Eleanor of Gmenne, of Richard
I. of England and of Isabella of Angouleme, wife of John of
England— Eleanor's being of oak and the rest of stone. The
cloister, refectory and chapter-house date from the 16th century.
The second court of the abbey contains a remarkable building,
the Tour d'fivrauh (12th century), whkh long went under the
misnomer of ehapeUe JtuUraire, but was in reality the old kitchen.
Details and diagrams will be found in VfoUet-le-Duc's Dictimmt
de r architecture. There are three stories, the whole being
surmounted by a pyramidal structure.
The Order of Fonteeroutt was founded about noo by Robert
of Arbrissel, who was born in the village of Arbrissel or Arbresec,
in the diocese of Rennes, and attained great fame as a preacher
and ascetic. The establishment was a double monastery,
containing a nunnery of 300 nuns and a monastery of soo monks,
separated completely so that no communication was allowed
except in the church, where the services were carried on in
common; there were, moreover, a hospital for x so lepers and
other sick, and a penitentiary for fallen women, both worked by
the nuns. The basis of the life waa the Benedictine rule, but the
observance of abstinence and silence went beyond H in stringency.
The special feature of the institute was that the abbess ruled
the monks as well as the nuns. At the beginning the order had
a great vogue, and at the time of Robert's death, n 17, there
were several monasteries and 3000 nans; afterwards the number
of monasteries reached 57, all organized on the same plan. The
institute never throve out of Fiance; there were attempts to
introduce it into Spain and England: in England there were
three houses— at Ambresbury (Amesbury in W&tshire),Nuneaton,
and Westwood in Worcestershire, The nuns in England as in
France were recruited from the highest families, and the abbess
of Fontevrault, who was the superior-general of the whole order,
waa usually of the royal family of France.
See P. Helyoc, Hist. dee ordres rttigieuses (1718), vL ec ia, 13;
Max Heuabucher, Otic* und KomgregaHouen (1907), i. 46; the arts.
** Eontevnuild " m Wetxer and Welte, Kirchenkxicon fed. a), and
in Hersog-Hauck, RecUucyhhpddU (ed. 3), supply full references
to the l it era t ure. The most recent monograph is Edouard, Font-
evrault M see monuments (1875) ; for the niter history see art. by
Edmund.Bishop in Downside Review (1886). (E. C B.)
POOD (like the verb M to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence
O. Eng. Joda; d. "fodder"; conne ct ed with Or. wa-modat,
to feed), the general term for what is eaten by man and other
creatures for the sustenance of fife. The scientific aspect of
human food is dealt with under NunmoH and Dznvnca.
/»/o#cy.— The influence of a normal diet upon the health of
man (we exclude here the question of diet in illness, which must
depend on the abnormal conditions existing) begins at the
earliest stage of his life. No food has as yet been found so suitable
for the young ol aU animals as their mother's milk. This, however,
has not been from want of seeking. Dr Brouset (Sur V Mutation
mSdicinale des enfantt, i. p. 165) had such a bad opinion of human
mothers, that he expressed a wish for the state to interfere and
prevent them from suckling their children, lest they should
communicate immorality and disease! A still more determined
pessimist was the famous chemist Van Helmont, who thought
life bad been reduced to. its present shortness by our inborn
propensities, and proposed to substitute bread boiled in beer
and honey tor mflk, whkh latter he caQs " brute's food." Baron
Justus von Liebig, as the result of bis chemical researches,
Introduced a " food for infants," which in more modem days
has been followed by a multiplication of patent foods. A close
imitation of human milk may also be made by the addition to
fresh cow's mOk of half its bulk of soft water, in each pint of
which has been mixed a heaped-up teaspoonful of powdered
" sugar of milk " and a pinch of phosphate of lime. These
artificial substitutes for the natural nutriment have their value
where for any reason it is not available. The wholesomest food,
however, for the first six months is certainly mother's milk alone.
A vigorous baby can Indeed bear with impunity much rough
usage, and often appears none the worse for a certain quantity
of farinaceous food; but the majority do not get habituated to
ft without an exhibition of dislike whkh indicates rebellion of
the bowels. It is only when the teeth are on their way to the
front, as shown by dribbling, that the parotid glands secrete
an active saliva capable of digesting bread stuffs. Till then
anything but mOk must be given tentatively, and considered
in the ujht of a means of education for its future mode of nutrition.
The time for weaning should be fixed partly by the child's
age, partly by the growth of the teeth. The first group of teeth
nine times out of ten consists of the lower central front teeth,
which may appear any time during the sixth and seventh month.
The mother may then begin to diminish the number of suckling
times; and by a month she can have reduced them to' twice
a day, so as to be ready when the second group makes its way
through the upper front gums to cut off the supply altogether.
The third group, the lateral incisors and first grinders, usually
after the first anniversary of birth, give notice that solid food
can be chewed. But it is prudent to let dairy milk form a con-
siderable portion of the fare till the eye-teeth are cut, which
seldom happens till the eighteenth or twentieth month.
Childhood and Youth.— At this stage of life the diet must
obviously be the best which is a transition from that of infancy
to that of adult age. Growth is not completed, but yet entire
surrender of every consideration to the claim of growth is not
possible, nor indeed desirable. Moreover, that abundance of
adipose tissue, or reserve new growth, whkh a baby can bear
is an impediment to the due education of the muscles of the boy
or girl. The supply of nutriment need not be so continuous as
before, but at the same time should be more frequent than for*
6l2
FOOD PRESERVATION
the adult. . Up to at least fourteen or fifteen years of age the rule
should be four meals a day, varied indeed, but nearly equal in
nutritive power and in quantity, that is to say, all moderate,
all sufficient. The maturity the body then reaches involves a
hardening and enlargement of the bones and cartilages, and a
strengthening of the digestive organs, which in healthy young
persons enables us to dispense with some of the watchful care
bestowed upon their diet. Three full meals a day are generally
sufficient, and the requirements of mental training may be
allowed to a certain extent to modify the attention to nutrition
which has hitherto been paramount.
Adults.— It is only necessary here to refer to the article on
Dietetics (see also Vegetarianism) for a discussion of the food
of normal adults; and to such headings as Dietary (for fixed
allowances) or Cookeey. Different staple articles of food are
dealt with under their own headings. For animals other than
man see the respective articles on them.
Among numerous boohs on the subject, In addition to those
enumerated under Dietetics, see Sir Henry Thompson's Foods and
Feeding (1894); Hart's Diet in Sickness and Health (1896); Knight,
Food and Us Functions (1895).
FOOD PRESERVATION* The preservation of food material
beyond the short term during which it naturally keeps sound and
eatable has engaged human thought from the earliest dawn of
civilisation. Necessity compelled man to store the plenitude
of one season or place against the need of another. The hunter
dried, smoked and salted meat and fish, pastoral man preserved
milk in the form of cheese and butter, or fermented grape-juice
into wine. With the separation of country from town, the
development of manufacturing nation as distinct from agricul-
tural and food-producing people, the spreading of civilised man
from torrid to arctic zones, the needs of travellers on land and
sea and of armies on the march, the problem of the prevention
of the natural decomposition to which nearly all food substances
are liable became increasingly urgent, and forma to-day, next
to the production of food, the most important problem in con-
nexion with the feeding and the trade of nations. As long as the
reasons of decomposition were unknown, all attempts at preser-
vation were necessarily empirical, and of the numberless
processes which have during modern times been proposed and
attempted comparatively few have stood the test of experience.
In the light of modern knowledge, however, the guiding principles
appear to be very simple.
Very few organic materials undergo decomposition, as it
were, of their own accord. They may lose water by evaporation,
and fatly substances may alter by the absorption of oxygen
from the air. They arc otherwise quite stable and unchangeable
while not attacked and eaten up by living organisms, or while
the life with which they may be endowed is in a state of suspense.
An apple is alive and in breathing undergoes its ripening change;
a grain of wheat is dormant and does not alien A substance,
in order to be a food material, must be decomposable tinder the
attack of a living organism; the energy stored in it must be
available to that stream of energy which we call life, whether the
life be in the form of the human consumer or of any lower
organism. All decomposition of food is due to the development
within the food of living organisms. Under conditions under
which living organisms cannot enter or cannot develop food
keeps undecomposed for an indefinite length of time. The
problem of food preservation resolves itself, therefore, into that
of keeping out or killing off all living things that might feed
upon and thus alter the food, and as these organisms mainly
belong to the family of moulds, yeasts and bacteria, modern food
preservation is strictly a subject for the bacteriologist.
. The changes which food undergoes on keeping are easily
intelligible when once their biological origin is recognized.
Yeasts cause the decomposition of saccharine substances into
alcohol and carbon dioxide, acetic and lactic ferments produce
from sugar or from alcohol the organic adds causing the souring
&f food, moulds as a rule cause oxidation and complete destruc-
tion of organic metier, nitrogenous or saccharine, while most
bacteria act mainly upon the nitrogenous constituents, producing
albumosea and peptones and breaking up the complex aJboxe*
molecule into numerous smaller molecules often allied to alka-
loids, generally with the production of evU-smelhng psa.
These processes may go on simultaneously, but more frequently
take place successively in the decomposition of food, one set d
organisms taking up the work of destruction aa the coaditiatt
become favourable to its development and unfavourable to its
predecessor. The organisms may come from the air, the soil
or from animal sources. The air teems with organisms wtek
settle and may develop when brought upon a favourable mdo;
the organic matter of the soil largely consists of fungoid fife;
while the intestinal canal and other mucous membranes of tH
animals harbour bacteria, sarcinae and other organisms a
countless millions. Whenever, therefore, food material is a-
posed to the air, or touched by the soil or by animals or'nua,
it becomes infected with living cells, which by their devekpmea
lead to its decomposition and destruction.
Fungoid organisms may be killed by heat or by chamois,
or their development may be arrested by cold, removal of wjta,
or by the presence of agents inhibiting their growth though sot
destroying their life* All successful processes of food rjrescnrstxa
depend upon one or other of these circumstances.
Preservation by Heat. — At the boiling-point of water all kviag
cells perish, but some spores of bacteria may survive for abosr
three hours. Few adult bacteria can live beyond 75° C. (167' F J
in the presence of water, though dry heat only kills with certainty
at 140 C (284 F.). Destruction of life takes place more npnfy
in solutions snowing an acid than a feebly alkaline reactkn;
hence acid fruit is more easily preserved than milk, which.
when quite fresh, is alkaline. By cooking, therefore, food
becomes temporarily sterile, until a fresh crop of organisms fab
access from the air. By repeated cooking all food can be ia-
definitely preserved. One of the most important functions of
cookery is sterilization. Civilized man unwittingly revolts
against the consumption of non-sterile food, and the use oi
certain fungus-infected material is an inheritance from barbaws
ages; few materials of animal origin are eaten raw, and ■
vegetables some sort of sterilizing process is attempted by
washing (of salads) or removal of the outer skin (of fruits).
All preparation of food for the table, cooking being the mo*
important, tends towards preservation, but is effectual only fa
a few hours or days at most, unless special means are adopted
to prevent reinfection. The housewife covering the jam wfc*
a thin paper soaked in brandy, or the potted meat with * this
layer of lard, attempts unconsciously to bar therroad to bacteca
and other minute organisms. To preserve food in a pensaseat
manner and on a commercial scale it has to be cooked in •
receptacle which must be sufficiently strong for transport,
cheap, light and unattacked by the material in contact withU-
None of the receptacles at present in use quite fulfils the »J**
of these conditions: glass and china are heavy and fragile, aw
their carriage is expensive; tinned iron, so-called tin-pbtt,
is rarely quite unaffected by food materials, but owing » *
strength, tenacity and cheapness, it is used on an ever-incre^
scale. The sheet iron, which formerly was made of soft wrongw
iron, now generally consists of steel containing but very liul*
carbon; it is cleaned by immersion in add and covered wu i»
very thin layer of pure tin, all excess of tin being removed by
hot rollers and brushes. The layer of tin, which formerly con-
stituted from 3 to 5% of the total weight of the piste, bn
owing to the increased price of tin and the improvement in
machinery, gradually become so thin that its weight b ov ^j^
1 to 3%. Not rarely, therefore, the tin-surface is toP^Vj
perforated or pin-holed. Tin itself is slightly attacked by all a«
juices of vegetable or animal substances. With the exception
of milk, all human food is slightly acid, and consequently *»
food that has been preserved in tin canisters contains
variable
traces of dissolved tin. Happily, salts of tin have but ht*
physiological action. Nevertheless,- the employment «J fj\
plate for very acid materials, like tomatoes, peaches, &c, » ^
objectionable.
The process of preservation in canisters is carried out
FOOD PRESERVATION
613
follows: — The canister, which has been made either by the use
of solder or by folding machinery only, is packed with the material
Xo be preserved, and a little water having been added to fill the
interstices the lid is secured by soldering or folding, generally
the former. Sterilization is effected by placing the tins in
pressure chambers-, which are heated by steam to 1 ao° C. or more,
The tins are exposed to that temperature for such time as
experience has shown to be necessary to heat the contents
throughout to at least xoo° C. The temperature is then allowed
to fall slowly to below the boiling-point of water, when the
tins can be taken, out of the pressure chamber, or they are placed
in pans filled with water or a solution of calcium chloride and
are therein heated till thoroughly cooked. Sometimes a- small
aperture is pierced through the lid, to allow of the escape of the
expanding air, such holes before cooling closed by means
of a drop of solder. This process, which was originally intro-
duced by Francois Appert early in the 19th century, is employed
on an enormous scale, especially in America. The use of
lacquered tins, having the inner surface of the tin covered with
a heat-resisting varnish, is gradually extending. Imperfect
sterilization shows itself in many cases by gas development
within the tin, which causes the ends to become convex and
drummy. More frequently than not the contents of the larger
tins, containing meat or other animal products, are not absolutely
sterile, but the conditions are mostly such that the organisms
which have survived the cooking process cannot develop. When
they can develop without formation of gas dangerous products
of decomposition may be produced without showing themselves
to taste or smell. Numerous cases of so-called ptomaine poison-
ing have thus occurred; these are more frequently associated
with preserved fish and lobster than with meats, although, no
class of preserved animal food is free from liability of ptomaine
formation. The formation of poisonous substances has never
been traced to preserved f rait or other material poor in nitrogen.
The mode of preserving food in china or glass is quite similar,
but the losses by breakage are not inconsiderable. Food which
has been preserved in tins is sometimes transferred to glass and
re-sterilized, the feeling against " tinned " food caused by the
" Chicago scandals " not having entirely subsided. Were it not
for the facts that sterilisation is rarely quite perfect, and that the
food attacks the tin, the contents of tin canisters ought to keep
for an indefinite length of time. Under existing circumstances,
however, there is a distinct Emit to the age of soundness of
canned food.
Preservation by CAesitofo.— Salt is the oldest chemical pre-
servative and, either alone or in conjunction with saltpetre and
with wood-smoke, has been used for many centuries, mainly as
a meat preservative. It is used either dry in layers strewn on
the surface of the meat or fish to be preserved, or in the form of
brine in which the meat is submerged or which is injected into
the carcasses. The preserving power of salt is but moderate.
It has the great advantage that in ordinary doses it is non-
injurious, that an excess at one* betrays itself in the taste, and
that it can be readily removed by soaking in water. When
aided by wood-smoke, which depends for its preservative power
upon traces of creosote and formaldehyde, it is, however, quite
efficient. The addition of saltpetre is principally for the purpose
of giving to the meat a bright pink tint. The strongly saline
taste of pickled meat or salted butter appears gradually to have
become repugnant to a large part of mankind, and other pre-
servatives have come into use, possessing greater bactericidal
power and less taste. The serious objection attaching to them
is discussed in -the article AooxTUtAnoif. At the present time
the use of borax or boracic add is almost universal in England.
Meat which has been exposed to the vapours of formaldehyde,
and has thus been superficially sterilized, is also coming into
commerce in increasing quantities. Formaldehyde in itself is
distinctly poisonous, and has the property of combining with
albuminoids and rendering them completely insoluble in the
digestive secretions. Salicylic and benzoic acids are not in-
frequently used to stop fermentation of saccharine beverages
or deterioration of so-called " potted meats," which are supposed
to last fresh and sweet on the consumer's table for a considerable
length of time. Sulphurous acid and sulphites axe chiefly used
ia the preservation of thin ales, wine and fruit, and sodium
fluoride has been found in butter. The whole of these substances
possess decided and injurious physiological properties. Alcohol
now rarely forms a preservative of food material, its employment
being confined to small fruit. The use of sugar as a* preservative
depends upon the fact that, although in a dilute solution it
is highly prone to fermentation and other decomposition, it
possesses bactericidal properties when in the form of a concen-
trated syrup. A sugar solution containing 30% of water or less
does not undergo any biological change; in the presence of
organic acids, like those contained in fruit, growth of organisms
is inhibited when the percentage of water is somewhat greater.
Upon this fact depends the use of sugar in the manufacture of
jams, marmalades and jellies. Moulds may grow on the surface
of such saccharine preparations, but the interior remains un-
affected and unaltered.
Preservation by Drying, — Food materials in which the percent-
age of moisture is small (not exceeding about 8%) are but little
liable to bacterial growths, at most to the attacks of innocent
Pmiciliium. Nature preserves the germs in seeds and nuts,
which are laden with otherwise decomposable food material,
by the simple expedient of water removal The life of cereal
grains and many seeds appears to be unlimited By the removal
of water the most perishable materials, like meat or eggs, can be
rendered unchangeable, except so far as the inevitable oxidation
of the fatty substances contained in them is concerned and
which is independent of life-action. The drying of meat, upon
which a generation ago inventors bestowed a great deal of
attention, has become almost obsolete, excepting fox compara-
tively small articles or animals, like ox tongues or tails and fish.
It has been superseded even among less civilized communities
by the spread of canned food. Fruit, however, is very largely
preserved in the dried state. Grapes are sun-dried and thus form
currants, raisins and sultanas, the last variety being often
bleached by the addition of sulphites. Plums, apples and pears
ace artificially dried in ovens on wooden battens or on wire
sieves; from the latter they are apt to become contaminated
with notable quantities of zinc. Excellent preparations of dried
vegetables, including potatoes, carrots, onions, French beans
and cabbages, axe also manufactured.
The utilization of meat in the form of meat extract belongs to
some extent to this class of preserved foods. Its origin is due
to J. von Liebig and*Max von Pettenkofcr, and dates from the
middle of the 19th century. The soluble material is extracted
mainly from beef, in Australia to some extent from mutton,
by means of warm water; the albumen is coagulated by heat
and removed, and the broths thus obtained are evaporated in
vacuo until the extract contains no more than about 20% el
water. One pound of extract is obtained from about 35 lb 0/ lean
beef.
Preservation by Refrigtration\r~At or below the freesing-point
of water fungoid organisms are incapable of growth and multipli-
cation. Although it has been asserted that many of them perish
when kept for some time in the frozen condition, it is certain that
the vast majority of bacteria and their germs remain merely
dormant. Even so highly organised structures as cereal seeds
do not suffer in vitality on being kept for a considerable length
of time at the far lower temperature of liquid air. Biological
change is, therefore, arrested at freezing-point, and as long as
that temperature is maintained food material remains unaltered,
except for physical changes depending upon the evaporation
of water and of volatile flavouring matters, or chemical altera-
tions due to oxidation.
Refrigeration, therefore, affords the means of keeping for a
reasonably long time, and without the addition of any pre-
servative substance, food in a raw condition. It is the only
process of preservation which from a sanitary point of view is
entirely unobjectionable as ordinarily and properly employed.
Its introduction on a commercial scale has more powerfully
affected the economic conditions of England and, to a less degree,
6i4
FOOL
of the United States than any other Scientific advance since the
establishment of railways and steamboats. Enormous quantities
of frozen carcasses, butter, fruit, vegetables and fish are intro-
duced in the fresh condition into Great Britain and stored until
required. Extreme fluctuations of supply or of price have
become almost impossible, and the abundance of Australian and
New Zealand ranches, and of West Indian orchards, has been
made readily accessible to the British consumer. For household
purposes cooling in ice-chests or ice-chambers suffices to pre-
serve food on a comparatively small scale. The ice used for the
purpose comes, to a small extent, from natural sources, stored
from the winter or imported from northern countries; a far
larger quantity is artificially produced by the methods described
in the article on Refrigerating, which also contains an account
of the means by which low temperatures are produced for
industrial purposes of importation and storage. Fleets of
steamships fitted with refrigerating machinery and insulated
cold-rooms are employed in carrying the food materials, which
are deposited in cold-stores at docks, warehouses, markets and
hotels. The first cargo of frozen meat was shipped in July 1873
from Melbourne, but arrived in October in an unsatisfactory
state. In 1875-1876 sound frozen meat came from America.
The first cargo of frozen meat was successfully brought to the
United Kingdom in 1880 from Australia in the " Strathleven,"
fitted with a Bell-Coleman air machine. The temperature in the
cold-storage rooms is generally kept near 34° F., whilst in the
chilling chambers a somewhat lower, and in the freezing room or
chambers a much lower temperature (between o° and io° F.)
b maintained. The carcasses to be frozen should be cooled
slowly at first to ensure even freezing throughout and to prevent
damage by the unequal expansion of the outer layer of ice.
The carcasses when freezing must be hung separated from each
other, but for storage or transportation they are packed tightly
together. Fish such as salmon is washed, thoroughly cleansed,
and frozen on trays. Butter should be cooled as rapidly as
possible to about xo° F.; its composition as regards proportion
of volatile fatty-adds, &c, remains absolutely unaltered for
years. Cheese should only be cold-*tored when nearly ripe and
should not be frozeik Eggs must be carefully selected, each
one being inspected by candle-light. They are placed in cases
holding about three hundred, which are taken first to a room
in which they are slowly cooled to about 33 F., and are then kerJt
in store just below freezing-point. Particular attention must be
paid to the relative humidity of the air in egg stores. Fruit
should be quite fresh; grapes may be chilled to 26° F., while
lemons cannot safely be kept at a lower temperature than 36°.
The time during which soft fruit can be kept even in cold-store
is limited, and does not exceed about six weeks.
In the early days of the chilled-meat trade considerable
prejudice existed against stored meat. While in many cases the
flavour of fresh meat is rather superior, the food value is in no
way altered by cold-storage. 1
Preservation by Pickling other Hum Salt. — For the preservation
of vegetables, vinegar or other solution of acetic acid is used to
a limited extent. Eggs are submerged in lime-water or a dilute
solution of sodium silicate (soluble glass). During the storage
of eggs the more aqueous white of egg yields by endosmosis a
portion of its water to the more concentrated yolk, which thereby
expands and renders its thin containing-membrane liable to
rupture. Fish, such as sardines, sprats and salmon, is preserved
by packing in olive or other oiL
The preservation of the most important dairy product, namely,
milk , deserves a separate notice. It has already been stated that
alkaline liquids, like milk, are more difficult to sterilize by heat
than acid materials. In consequence of the alteration in flavour
which milk undergoes by long continued boiling, and of the fact
1 Per contra, see the article by Mary E. Pennington in the Year-
book for lporf (1908) of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 197-206,
with illustrations of chickens kept in cold storage for two and three
years. The results there shown cast considerable doubt on the
efficiency of even refrigeration so far as an " indefinite " period is
concerned ; and it is suggested that the consumption of frozen meat ,
may really account for various modern diseases.
that milk forms perhaps the best medium for the growth ud
propagation of bacterial organisms, Lhere is exceptional diflkdrj
in its sterilization. As secreted by a healthy cow it is a perfectly
sterile fluid, and, as shown by Sir J. Uster, when drawn uafa
aseptic conditions and kept under such, it remains dcfiniieV
fresh and sweet.' Bacterial and other pollution at the timed
milking arises from the animal, the stable, the milker and the
vessels* In animals suffering from tuberculosis and o&
bacterial affections the milk may be infected within the adder
Milk as it reaches the consumer rarely contains less than 50,00
bacteria and often many millions per cubic centimetre. IofnsJ
country cream zoo millions per cubic centimetre are not unssi
These bacteria are of many kinds, some of them spcre-bcariz$
The spores are more difficult to kill than the adult organise
The first step towards preservation is the removal of the dst
unavoidably present, to the particles of which a cofisdenfck
proportion of the bacteria adhere. Filtration through cloths cr,
better, the passing of the milk through centrifugals effect* thaf
removal Subsequent treatment is preferably preceded by 1
breaking-up of the larger fat-globules by the projection of a ja
of the milk under high pressures against a steel or agate plait,
a process known as homogenizing. From homogenized milk the
cream separates slowly, and does not form the coherent layer
thrown up byordinary milk. Heating is then effected either after
bottling or by passing the milk continuously through pipes is
which it is heated to from 160 to 170° F. By a repetition d
the heating process on two or more succeeding days, coopJetf
sterilization may be effected, although a single treatment a
sufficient to render the milk stable for a few days. Many forms
of pasteurizing apparatus for milk are in use. Since the pxsd
introduction of pasteurization of the skim-milk used in DeooiA
for the feeding of calves and pigs, tuberculosis in these anitt^
has practically disappeared. On the continent of Europe the 0*
of sterilized milk is now very general In England it has f«sd
little favour in households, but is making rapid progress 00 botri
ship.
Milk which has been condensed has for many yean found »
most extensive sate. The first efforts to condense and the
preserve milk date from 1835, when an English patent *u
granted to Newton. In 1849 C. N. Horsf ord prepared condcexd
milk with the addition of lactose. Commercially successful mft
condensation began in 1856. The milk is heated to abort
180 F. and filled into large copper vacuum pans, after havicf
been mixed with from xo to xa parts of sugar per 100 parts «<
milk. Evaporation takes place in the pans at about 122* F,
and is carried on till the milk is boiled down to such conornuaiw
that 100 parts of the condensed milk, including the supr.
contain the solids of 300 parts of milk. Sweetened coadea**
milk, although rarely quite sterile, keeps indefinitely, aad *
invariably brought Into commerce in tin canisters. The prepara-
tion of sweetened condensed milk forms one of the most important
branches of manufacture in Switzerland and is steadily increaa0|
in England. Although milk can quite well be preserved in &
form of condensed unsweetened milk, which dietetically possess
immense advantages over the sweetened milk in which u»
balance between carbohydrates and albuminoids is very un-
favourable, such unsweetened milk has found little or no favour-
Milk powder is manufactured under various patents, the mrt
successful of which depends upon the addition of sodium bi-
carbonate and the subsequent rapid evaporation of the milk ©»
steam-heated revolving iron cylinders. Milk powder made froo
skim-milk keeps well for considerable periods, but full-crea*
milk develops rancid or tallowy flavours by the oxidation of tat
finely divided butter-fat It is largely employed in the prepara-
tion of so-called milk chocolates. (0. H.*)
FOOL (O. Fr./tf, modern fou, foolish, from a Late Latin used
foUis, bellows, a ball filled with air, for a stupid person, a jester,
a wind-bag), a buffoon or jester. .
The class of professional fools or jesters, which reached »
culminating point of influence and recognized place and funcott
in the social organism during the middle ages, appears to ba*
existed in all times and countries. Not only have there alway*
FOOLS, FEAST OF
615
been individuals naturally inclined and endowed to amuse others;
there has been besides in most communities a definite class, the
members of which have used their powers or weaknesses in this
direction as a regular means of getting a livelihood. Savage
jugglers, medicine-men, and even priests, have certainly much in
common with the jester by profession. There existed in ancient
Greece a distinct class of professed fools whose habits were not
essentially different from those of the jesters of the middle ages.
Of the behaviour of one of these, named Philip, Xenophon hat
given a picturesque account in the Banquet. Philip of Macedon
is said to have possessed a court fool, and certainly these (as
well as court poets and court philosophers, with whom they have
sometimes been not unreasonably confounded) were common
in a number of the petty courts at that era of civilization. Scurrae
md moriones were the Roman parallels of the medieval witty
fool; and during the empire the manufacture of human mon*
strosities was a regular practice, slaves of this kind being much
in request to relieve the languid hours. The jester again has
from time immemorial existed at eastern courts. Witty stories
ire told of Bahalul (see D'Herbelot, s.v.) the jester of Harun al-
Reshid, which have long had a place in Western fiction. On the
ronquest of Mexico court fools and deformed human creatures
)f all kinds were found at the court of Montezuma. But that
monarch no doubt hit upon one great cause of the favour of
nonarchs for this class when he said that " mora instruction
was to be gathered from them than from wiser men, for they
iared to tell the truth." Donee, in his essay On ikf Omens and
Fools of Shakespeare, has made a ninefold division of English
ools, according to quality and place of employment, as the
domestic fool, the city or corporation fool, the tavern fool, the fool
>f the mysteries and moralities. The last is generally called the
' vice/' and is the original of the stage clowns so common among
:he dramatists of the time of Elisabeth, and who embody so
much of the wit of Shakespeare. A very palpable classification
s that which distinguishes between such creatures as were chosen
to excite to laughter from some deformity of mind or body, and
such as were so chosen for a certain (to all appearance generally
very shallow) alertness of mind and power of repartee, — or briefly,
bu t ts and wits. The dress of the regular court fool of the middle
» ges was not altogether a rigid uniform. To judge from the prints
mJ illuminations which are the sources of our knowledge on this
matter, it seems to have changed considerably from time to time.
The head was shaved, the coat was motley, and the breeches tight,
Kith generally one leg different in colour from the other. The
bead was covered with a garment resembling a monk's cowl,
which fell over the breast and shoulders, and often bore
i5scs* ears, and was crested with a cockscomb, while bells
iung from various parts of the attire. The fool's bauble was
1 short staff bearing a ridiculous head, to which was some-
imes attached an inflated bladder, by means of which sham
asiigations were effected. A long petticoat was also occa-
ionally worn, but seems to have belonged rather to the idiots
nan to the wits.
The fool's business was to amuse his master, to excite him
laughter by sharp contrast, to prevent the over-oppression
>f state affairs, and, in harmony with a well-known physiological
precept, by his liveliness at meals to assist his lord's digestion.
1 he names and the witticisms of many of the official jesters at
he courts of Europe have been preserved by popular or state
1 cords. In England the list is long between Hitard, the fool of
I'lmund Ironside, and Muckle John, the fool of Charles I.,
md probably the last official royal fool of England. Many are
v membcred from some connexion with general or literary history.
?cogan was attached to Edward IV., and later was published
1 collection of poor jests ascribed to him, to which Andrew
3oordc's name was attached, but without authority.
Will Sommers, of the time of Henry VIII., seems to have
>cen a kind-hearted as well as a witty man, and occasionally
jsed his influence with the lung for good and charitable
purposes. Armin, who, in his Nest of Ninnies t gives a full
iescription of Sommers, and introduces many popular fools,
tays of him —
" Only this much, he was a poor man's friend.
Add helpt the widow often in her end.
The king would ever grant what he would crave,
For well he knew Will no exacting knave.*'
The literature of the period immediately succeeding his death is
full of allusions to Will Sommers.
Richard Tarlcton, famous as a comic actor, cannot be omitted
from any list of jesters. A book of Tarleton's Jests was published
in 161 1, and, together with his News out of Purgatory, was re-
printed by Haiti well Phillips for the Shakespeare Society in 1844.
Archie Armstrong, for a too free use of wit and tongue against
Laud, lost his office and was banished the court. The conduct
of the archbishop against the poor fool is not the least item of the
evidence which convicts him of a certain narrow-mindedness
and pettiness. In French history, too, the figure of the court-
jester flits across the gay or sombre scene at times with fantastic
effect. Cafllette and Triboulet are well-known characters of the
times of Francis I. Triboulet appears in Rabclais's romance,
and is the hero of Victor Hugo's Le Roi s' amuse, and, with some
changes, of Veres's opera Rigolelto; while Chicot, the lithe and
acute Gascon, who was so close a friend of Henry III., is por-
trayed with considerable justness by Dumas in his Dome de
Monsorzau. In Germany Rudolph of Habsburg had his Pfaff
Cappadox, Maximilian I. his Kunz von der Rosen (whose features,
as well as those of Will Sommers, have been preserved by the
pencil of Holbein), and many a petty court its jester after jester.
Late in the 16th century appeared Le SoUilissime Astusie di
Bertoldo, which is one of the most remarkable books ever written
about a jester. It is by Giulio Cesare Croce, a street musician of
Bologna, and is a comic romance giving an account of the
appearance at the court of Alboin king of the Lombards of a
peasant wonderful in ugliness, good sense and wit. The book
was for a time the most popular in Italy. A great number of
editions and translations appeared, and it was even versified.
Though fiction, both the character and the career of Bertoldo
are typical of the jester. That the private fool existed as late
as the 1 8th century is proved by Swift's epitaph on Dicky Pearce,
the earl of Suffolk's jester.
See Floecl, Ceschichte der Hofnarrtn (Leipzig, 1789); Dorao, The
History of Court Pools (1858). (W. H«.)
FOOLS, FEAST OF (Lat. festum stuUorum, fatuorum, foliorum,
Fr. fUedu foux\, the name for certain burlesque quasi-religious
festival* which, during the middle ages, were the ecclesiastical
counterpart of the secular revelries of the Lord of Misrule. The
celebrations are directly traceable to the fagan Saturnalia of
ancient Rome, which in spite of the conversion of the Empire
to Christianity, and of the denunciation of bishops and etokai-
astical councils, continued to be celebrated by the people on the
Kalends of January with all their old .licence. The custom,
indeed, so far from dying out, was adopted by the barbarian
conquerors and spread among the Christian Goths in Spain,
Franks in Gaul, Alemanni in Germany, and Anglo-Saxons in
Britain. So late as the nth century Bishop Burchard of Worms
thought it necessary to fulminate against the excesses connected
with it (Dtcnlum, xix. c. 5, Migne, Potroiogio /«/. 140, p. 965).
Then, just as it appears to have been sinking into oblivion among
the people, the clergy themselves gave it the character of a
specific religious festival. Certain days seem early to have been
set apart as special festivals for different orders of the clergy:.
the feast of St Stephen (December 26) for the deacons, St John's
day (December 37) for the priests, Holy Innocents' Day for the
boys, and for the sub-deacons Cicauacision, the Epiphany,
or the nth of January. The Feast of Holy Innocents became
a regular festival of children, in which a boy, elected fay his
fellows of the choir school, functioned solemnly as bishop or
archbishop, surrounded by the elder choir-boys as bis clergy,
while the canons and other clergy took the humbler seats. At
first there is no evidence to prove that these celebrations were
characterized by any specially indecorous behaviour; but in the
12th century such behaviour had become the rule. In 1180
Jean Beleth, of the diocese of Amiens, calls the festival of the
sub-deacons festum sluUorum (Migne, Patrol. loX 202, p. 70).
6i6
POOLSCA?— FOOT
The burlesque ritual which characterized the Feast of Fools
throughout the middle ages was now at its height. A young
sub-deacon was elected bishop, vested in the episcopal insignia
(except the mitre) and conducted by his fellows to the sanctuary.
A mock mass was begun, during which the lections were read
cum farsia, obscene songs were sung and dances performed,
cakes and sausages eaten at the altar, and cards and dice played
upon it.
This burlesquing of things universally held sacred, though
condemned by serious-minded theologians, conveyed to the
child-like popular mind of the middle ages no suggestion of
contempt, though when belief in the doctrines and rites of
the medieval Church was shaken it became a ready instrument
in the hands of those who sought to destroy them. Of this kind
of retribution Scott in The Abbot gives a vivid picture, the
Protestants interrupting the mass celebrated by the trembling
remnant of the monks in the ruined abbey church, and insisting
on substituting the traditional Feast of Fools.
This naive temper of the middle ages is nowhere more con-
spicuously displayed than in the Feast of the Ass, which under
various forms was celebrated in a large number of churches
throughout the West. The ass had been introduced into the
ritual of the church in the oth century, representing cither
Balaam's ass, that which stood with the ox beside the manger
at Bethlehem, that which carried the Holy Family into Egypt,
or that on which Christ rode in triumph into Jerusalem. Often
the ass was a mere incident in the Feast of Fools; but sometimes
he was the occasion of a special festival, ridiculous enough to
modern notions, but by no means intended in an irreverent
spirit. The three most notable celebrations of the Feast of the
Ass were at Rouen, Beauvais and Sens. At Rouen the feast
was celebrated on Christmas Day, and was intended to represent
the times before the coming of Christ. The service opened with
a procession of Old Testament characters, prophets, patriarchs
and kings, together with heathen prophets, including Virgil,
the chief figure being Balaam on his ass. The ass was a hollow
wooden effigy, within which a priest capered and uttered pro-
phecies. The procession was followed, inside the church, by
a curious combination of ritual office and mystery play, the text
of which, according to the Ordo process ionis asinorum secundum
Retkomagcnsem usum, is given in Du Cangc.
Far more singular was the celebration at Beauvais, which was
held on the 14th of January, and represented the flight into
Egypt. A richly caparisoned ass, on which was seated the
prettiest girl in the town holding in her arms a baby or a large
doll, was escorted with much pomp from the cathedral to the
church of St JUienne. There the procession was received by
the priests, who led the ass and its burden to the sanctuary.
Mass was then sung; but instead of the ordinary responses to
the Introil, Kyrie, Cldria, &c, tho congregation chanted " Hfn-
ham " (Hee-haw) three times. The rubric of the mass for this
feast actually runs: In fine Missae Sacerdos tersus ad popttlum
vice, lie missa est, Hinhann&bil: pofntlus vero vice, Deo Gratias,
ter respondebU Hinkam, Hinham, H in ft am (At the dose of the
mass the priest turning to the people instead of saying, lie tnisso
est, shall bray thrice: the people, instead of Deo gratias, shall
thrice respond Hee-haw, Heehaw, Hee-haw).
At Sens' the Feast of the Ass was associated with the Feast
of Fools, celebrated at Vespers on the Feast of Circumcision.
The clergy went in procession to the west door of the church,
where two canons received the ass, amid joyous chants, and led
it to the precentor's table. Bizarre vespers followed, sung
falsetto and consisting of a medley of extracts from all the
vespers of the year; Between the lessons the ass was solemnly
fed, and at the conclusion of the service was led by the precentor
out into the square before the church (condudus ad ludos)*,
water was poured on the precentor's head, and the ass became
the centre of burlesque ceremonies, dancing and buffoonery
being carried on far into the night, while the clergy and the
serious minded retired to matins and bed.
Various efforts were made during the middle ages to abolish
the Feast of Fools. Thus in x 198 the chapter of Paris suppressed
its more obvious indecencies; in mo Pope Innrv.» lH
forbade the feasts of priests, deacons and sub-deacons ah< ;c~r
and in 1246 Innocent IV. threatened those who disobcyce 'l«
prohibition with excommunication. How little effect tiu Li,
however, is shown by the fact that in 1265 Odo, archbbi. ~ \
Sens, could do no more than prohibit the obscene exce* *
the feast, without abolishing the feast itself; that in uu -*•
university of Paris, at the request of certain bishops, add*si
a letter condemning it to all cathedral chapters; and lb: ii.
Charles VII. found it necessary to order all masters in tbd?
to forbid it in collegiate churches. The festival was. is fc=.
too popular to succumb to these efforts, and it survived ihrc^r
out Europe till the Reformation, and even later in Fm.
for in 1645 Mathurin de Neure" complains in a letter 10 I. ~
Gassendi of the monstrous fooleries which yearly on Iltxt.
Day took place in the monastery of the Cordeliers at Ar *
" Never did pagans," he writes, " solemnize with such a::t
gance their superstitious festivals as do they . . . . Tbe L •
brothers, the cabbage-cutters, those who work in the kitchen .
occupy the places of the clergy in the church. They doa v
sacerdotal garments, reverse side out. They hold in their hi
books turned upside down, and pretend to read through spav-
in which for glass have been substituted bits of orange-peel"
Sec B. Picart, Chbnonies el coulumes rdigUuses de tous kt pcJ
(1723); du Tittiot, Mbnoirts pour servir a I'kistoirc de te.fo
$&r deutsche KuUurgesckichte{i&s*)i H. Sdhmer, art. "Narrate
in Herzoc-Hauck, Reolencyklop. (ed. 1903) ; Du Cangc, Gos&*'
(ed. 1684), s.v. " Featum Asinorum."
FOOIACAP, the cap, usually of conical shape, with a coctaco^
running up the centre of the back, and with bells attached, w "
by jesters and. fools (see Fool); also a conical cap *«= l
dunces. The name is given to a size of writing or printing pa J
varying in size from 12X15 in. to 17 X 13 J in. (sec Papir). -
name is derived from the use of a " fool's cap " as a waienn^
A German example of the watermark dating from u'4 ;
exhibited \n the Caxton Exhibition (1877). The Nev £*?•
Dictionary finds no trustworthy evidence for the introduce
the watermark by a German, Sir John Spielmann, at bis pf <r
mill at Dartford in 1580, and states that there is no truth h *•
familiar story that the Rump Parliament substituted a fool'* :?
for the royal arms as a watermark on the paper used let &
journals of parliament.
FOOL'S PARSLEY, in botany, the popular name for A***
Cynapium, a member of the family Umbelliferae, and a cmr*
weed in cultivated ground. It is an annual herb, with a Jus.^ *~
root and a smooth hollow branched stem r to 2 ft. high. * "
much divided (ternately pinnate) smooth leaves and small fa-
pound umbels of small irregular white flowers. The plant to*
nauseous smell, and,like other members of the order (rj. heel**
watcr-dropwort), is poisonous.
FOOT, the lower part of the leg, in vertebrate animals cops ! -^
of tarsus, metatarsus 'and phalanges, on which the body r*>
when in an upright position, standing or moving (see An^ ;
Superficial and Artistic; and Skeleton: Appendictdar). w
word is also applied to such parts of invertebrate animals as ^'- '
as a foot, either for movement or attachment to a ^•'- ,
" Foot " is a word common in various forms to Indo-Eunj
languages, Dutch , wet, Ger. Fuss, Dan. fod , &c. The Aryan j. x
is pod-, which appears in Sans, pud, Gr. tods, xoMfi, and L :.
pes, pedis. From the resemblance to the foot, in regard to v
position, as the base of anything, or as the lowest member ol ' •
body, or in regard to its function of movement, the *ory
applied to the lowest part of a hill or mountain, the pla le u ;'
sewing-machine which holds the material in position, to ine P£
of an organ pipe below the mouth, and the like. In printing t-*
bottom of a type is divided by a groove into two portions kno*^
as "feet." Probably referring to the beating of the rn) 1 --
with the foot in dancing, the Gr. rovs and Lat. pes were app» w ° .
prosody to a grouping of syllables, one of which is ^"^J
forming the division of a verse. " Foot," i.e. foot-sold/cr, **■'
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE— FOOTBALL
617
irmerly, with an ordinal number prefixed, the name of the
if a.n try regiments of the British army. It is now superseded by
rrritorial designations, but it still is used in the four regiments of
le infantry of the Household, the Foot Guards. As a lineal
leasure of length the- " foot " is of great antiquity, estimated
riginaily by the length of a man's foot (see Weights and
Ieasurxs). For the ceremonial washing of feet, see Maundy
THURSDAY.
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE (Aphthous Fever, Epizootic
Lph tha, Eczema Epizootic*) , a virulent contagious andinoculable
aalady of animals, characterized by initial fever, followed by the
orxnation of vesicle* or blisters on the tongue, palate and lips,
ometimes in the nostrils, fourth stomach and intestine of
at tie, and on parts of the body where the skin is thin, as on the
tdder and teats, between the claws, on the heels, coronet and
last ern. The disease begins suddenly and spreads very xapidly.
I rise of temperature precedes the vesicular eruption, which is
Lccompanied by salivation and a peculiar " smacking " of the
ips- The vesicles gradually enlarge and . eventually break,
exposing a red raw patch, which is very sensitive. The animal
:anxiot feed so well as usual, suffers much pain and inconvenience,
oses condition, and, if a milk-yielding creature, gives less milk, or,
i pregnant, may abort* More or less lameness is a constant
lymptom, and sometimes the feet become very much diseased and
the animal is so crippled that it has to be destroyed. It is often
fatal to young animals. It is transmitted by the saliva and. the
discharges from the vesicles, though all the secretions and
excretions are doubtless infective, as well as all articles and
places soiled by them. This disease can be produced by injecting
the saliva, or the lymph of the vesicles, into the blood or the
peritoneal cavity.
If we were to judge by the somewhat vague descriptions of
different disorders by Greek and Roman writers, this disease has
been a European malady for more than 2000 years. But no
reliance can be placed on this evidence, and it is not until we
reach the A 7th and 18th centuries that we find trustworthy proof
of its presence, when it was reported as frequently prevailing
extensively in Germany, Italy and France. During the 19th
century, owing to the vastly extended commercial relations
between civilized countries, it has, like the lung-plague, become
widely diffused. In the Old World its effects are now experienced
from the Caspian Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Hungary, Lower
Austria, Bohemia, Saxony and .Prussia were invaded in 1834.
Cattle in the Vosges and in Switzerland were attacked in 1 837, and
the disease extending to France, Belgium and Holland, reached
England in 1839, and quickly spread over the three kingdoms (see
also under Agriculture). At this time the importation of
foreign animals into England was prohibited, and it was supposed
that the infection must have been introduced by surplus ships'
stores, probably sheep, which had not been consumed during the
voyage. This invasion was followed at intervals by eleven distinct
outbreaks, and since 1902 Great Britain has been free of foot-and-
mouth disease. From the observations of the best authorities it
would appear to be an altogether exotiq malady in the west of
Europe, always invading it from the east ; at least, this has been
the course noted in all the principal invasions. It was introduced
into Denmark in 1841; and into the United States of America iu
1870, from Canada, where it had been carried by diseased cattle
from England. It rapidly extended through cattle traffic from
the state first invaded to adjoining states, but was eventually
extinguished, and does not now appear to be known in North
America. It was twice introduced into Australia in 187a, but was
stamped out on each occasion. It appears to be well known in
India, Ceylon, Burma and the Straits Settlements. In 1870 it
was introduced into the Andaman Isjands by cattle imported
from Calcutta, where it was then prevailing, and in the same year
it appeared in South America. In South Africa it is frequently
epizootic, causing great inconvenience, owing to the bullocks
used for draught purposes becoming unfit for work. These cattle
also spread the contagion. It is not improbable that it also
prevails in central Africa, as Schweinfurth alludes to the cattle
of the Dinkas suffering from a disease of the kind.
Though not usually a fatal malady, except in very young
animals, or when malignant, yet it is a most serious scourge.
In one year (1892) in Germany, it attacked 150,929 farms, with
an estimated loss to the owners of £7,500,000 sterling. It is
transmissible to nearly all the domestic animals, but its ravages
are most severe among cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Human
beings are also liable to infection.
, The treatment of affected animals comprises a laxative <lief,
with salines, and the application of antiseptics and astringents to
the sores. The preventive measures recommended are, isolation
of the diseased animals, boiling the milk before use, and thorough
disinfection of all places and substances, which are capable of
conveying the infection.
FOOTBALL, a game between two opposing sides played with
a large inflated ball, which is propelled either by the feet alone or
by both feet and hands.
Pastimes of the kind were known to many nations of antiquity,
and their existence among savage tribes, such as the Maoris,
Faroe Islanders, Philippine Islanders, Polynesians and Eskimos,
points to their primitive nature. In Greece the kxionvpos
seems to have borne a resemblance to the modern game. Of this
we read in Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities*-" It was the game
at football, played in much the same way as with us, by a great
number of persons divided into two parties opposed to oner
another/' Amongst the Romans the harpastum, derived from
the Greek verb dpardfu, I seize, thus showing that carrying the
ball was permissible, bore a certain resemblance. Basil Kennett,
in his Romat antiqmc notitia, terms this missile a " larger kind
of ball, which they played with, dividing into two companies and
striving to throw it into one another's goals, which was the
conquering cast" The harpastum was a gymnastic game and
probably played for the most part indoors. The real Roman
football was played with the inflated /0/K5, which was kicked from
side to side over boundaries, and thus must have closely resembled
the modern Association game. Tradition ascribes its introduction
in northern Europe to the Roman legions. It has been played in
'Tuscany under the name of Calcic from the middle ages down to
modern times:
Regarding the origin of the game in Great Britain the Roman
tradition has been generally accepted, although Irish antiquarians
assert that a variety of football has been played in Ireland for
over 2000 years. In early times the great football festival of the
year was Shrove Tuesday, though the connexion of the game
with this particular date is lost in obscurity. William Fitfl-
Stephen, in his History of London (about 1x75), speaks of the
young men of the city annually going into the fields after dinner
to play at the well-known game of ball on the day quae qHcilut
CarniUvaria. As far as is known this is the first distinct mention
of football in England. It was forbidden by Edward II. (1314)
in consequence of " the great noise in the city caused by 'hustling
oyer large balls (rageries de grosses pelotes) " A dear reference h
made " ad pilam . . . pedinam " in the Rotuli Clausarura, 39
Edward III. (1365), memb. 23, as one of the pastimes to be
prohibited on account of the decadence of archery, and the same
thing occurs in 1 2 Richard tl. c. 6 (1388). Both Henry Villi and
Elizabeth enacted laws against football, which, both then and
under the Stuarts and the Georges/seems to have been violent to
the point of brutality, a fact often referred to by prominent
writers. Thus Sir Thomas Elyot,inhis Soke named the Govemour
(*S3*), speaks of football as being " notTiyng but beastely fury
and extreme violence, whereof procecdeth hurte and conse-
quently rancour and malice to remayne with thyra that be
wounded, wherefore it is to be put in perpetual silence." In
Stubbes' Anatomic of Abuses (1583) it is referred to as "a
develishe pastime . . , and hereof groweth envy, rancour and
malice,, and sometimes brawling, murther, homicide, and great
effusion of blood, as experience daily teacheth." Fifty years
later (1634) Davenant is quoted (in Hone's Table-Book) as
remarking, " I would now make a safe retreat, but methlnks I am
stopped by one of your heroic games called football; which I
conceive (under your favour) not very conveniently civil in the
streets, especially in such irregular and narrow roads as Crooked
6i8
FOOTBALL
Eray
Lane. Yet it argues your courage, much like your military
pastime of throwing at cocks, since you have long allowed these
two valiant exercises in the streets."
An evidence of its old popularity in Ireland is that the statutes
of Galway in 1537 forbade every other sport save archery,
excepting " onely the great foot balle." In the time of Charles
II. football was popular at Cambridge, particularly at Magdalene
College, as is evidenced by the following extract from the register
book of that institution under the date 1679: —
" That no schollera give or receive at any time any treat or collation
upon account of ye Football play, on or about Michaelmas Day,
further than Colledge beere or ale in ye open halle to quench their
thirsts. And particularly that that most vile custom of drinking
and spending money— Sophister»and Freshmen together— upon ye
account of making or not making a speech at that football tune Be
Utterly left off and extinguished/'
It nevertheless remained for the most part a game for the
masses, and never took root, except in educational institutions,
among the upper classes until the 19th century. No clubs or
code of rules had been formed, and the sole aim seems to have
been to drive the ball through the opposing side's goal by fair
means or fbuL So rough did the game become that James I.
forbade the heir apparent to play it, and describes the exercise in
his Basilikon Doron as " meeter for laming than making able the
users thereof." Both sexes and all ages seem to have taken part
in it on Shrove Tuesday; shutters had to be put up and houses
closed in order to prevent damage; and it is not to be wondered
that the game fell into bad repute. Accidents, sometimes fatal,
occurred; and Shrove Tuesday " football-day " gradually died
out about 1830, though a relic of the custom still remained in a
few places. For some thirty years football was only practised at
the great English public schools, many of which possessed special
games, which in practically all- cases arose from the nature of the
individual ground. Thus the rough, open game, with its charging,
tackling and throwing, which were features of football when it
was taken up by the great public schools, would have been
extremely dangerous if played in the flagged and walled courts
of some schools, as, for example, the old Charterhouse. Hence
at such institutions the dribbling style of play, in which Mr
Montague Shearman (Football, in the " Badminton Library ") sees
the origin of the Association game, came into existence. Only at
Rugby (later at some other schools), which from the firstpossessed
an extensive grass field, was the old game preserved and de-
veloped, including even its roughness, for actual " hacking "
(i.e. intentional kicking of an opponent's legs) was not expressly
abolished at Rugby until 1877. Hie description of the old school
game at Rugby contained. in Tom Brown* s School Days has
become classic
z. Rugby Union.— We have seen that from early times a
rudimentary game of football had been a popular form of sport in
many parts of Great Britain, and that in the old-established
schools football had been a regular game among the boys. In
different schools there arose various developments of the original
game; or rather, what, at first, must have been a somewhat
rough form of horse-play with a ball began to take shape as a
definite game, with a definite object and definite rules. Rugby
school had developed such a game, and from football played
according to Rugby rules has arisen Rugby football. It was about
the middle of the 19th century that football— up till that time a
regular game only among schoolboys — took its place as a regular
sport among men, To begin with, men who had played the game
as schoolboys formed clubs to enable them to continue playing
their favourite school game, and others were induced to join
them; while in other cases', clubs were formed by men who bad
not had the experience of playing the game at school, but who
had the energy and the will to follow the example of those who
had had this experience. In this way football was established as a
regular game, no longer confined to schoolboys. When football'
was thus first started, the game was little developed or organized.
Rules were very few, and often there was great doubt as to what
the rules were. But, almost from the first, clubs were formed to
play football according to Rugby rules — that is, according to the
rules of the game as played at .Rugby school But even the
Rugby rules of that date were few and vague, and faded itaeet
unintelligible to those who had not been at Rugby school SdH,
the fact that play was according to Rugby rules proonod 1
certain uniformity; but it was not till the esublishment c; ike
English Union, and the commencement of international nal&s,
that a really definite code of rules was drawn up.
It is an interesting question to ask why it was that the gmecf
Rugby school became so popular in preference to the gusset
other schools, such as Eton, Winchester or Harrow. litis
probably very largely due to the reputation and success of xcr>
school under Dr Arnold, and this also led most probably te a
adoption by other schools; for in i860 many schools bocs
Rugby played football according to Rugby rules. The apt;,
with which the game spread after the middle of the 19th cefcr;
was remarkable. The Blackheath club, the senior dub ol a
London district, was established in i860, and Richmond, its pc
rival, shortly afterwards. Before 1870, football dubs bad bea
started in Lancashire and Yorkshire; indeed the Sheffield tor-
ball club dates back to 1855, Likewise, in the universities
Oxford and Cambridge, Rugby football clubs had been ferae
before 1870, and by that date the game had been implanted bc4
in Ireland and South Wales; while in Scotland, before 180,
football had taken a hold. Thus by 1870 the game had bets
established throughout the United Kingdom, and in ibiet
districts had been regularly played for a number of years. Ripi
as, in some ways, had been the spread of the game between tfe
years 1850 and 1870, it was as nothing to what happened is tk
following twenty years; for by 1800 Rugby football, togetfcr
with Association football, had become the great winter an*
ment of the people, and roused universal interest; while twlir
on any fine Saturday afternoon in winter there are tens of thoa-
sands of people playing football, while those who watch tbe ps*
can be counted by the hundred thousand. The causes that W m
this great increase in the game and interest taken in it ret,
undoubtedly, the establishment of the various national Vtam
and the international matches; and, of course, the local rivjft
of various clubs, together with cup or other competitions pre*
lent in certain districts, was. a leading factor. The esub!&
ment of the English Union led to a codification of the nia
without which development was impossible.
In the year 1871 the English Rugby Union was founded a
London. This Union was an association of some clubs and scboA
which joined together and appointed a committee and oftta&
to draw up a code of rules of the game. From this beginning tbe
English Rugby Union has become the governing body of Rur^
football in England, and has been joined by practically aO &
Rugby clubs in England, and deals with all matters connects!
with Rugby football, notably the choosing of the inte^»ti*' a,
teams. In 1873 the Scottish Football Union was founded n
Edinburgh on the same lines, and with the same objects, wk»
in 1880 the Welsh Football Union, and in 1881 the Irish Wf
Football Union, were established as the national Unions of W^
and Ireland, though in both countries there had been previod]|
Unions not thoroughly representative of the country. **
these Unions became the chief governing body within theirowB
country, and one of their functions was to make the rute a»
laws of the game; but as this had been done to start witb by
the English Union, the others .adopted the English rules, mf*
amendments to them from time to time. This state of afcj
had one element of weakness— vis. that since all the Unions n»«
their own rules, if ever a dispute should arise between any ■
them, a dead-lock was almost certain to ensue: Such a dispute
did occur in 1884 between the English and Scottish Unfe*
This dispute eventually turned on the question of the right «
the English Union to make and interpret the rules of the gtfft
and to be the paramount authority in the game, and super**
to the other Unions. Scotland, Ireland and Wales resisted tto
claim, and finally, in 1880, Lord Kingsburgh and Major Manw>
were appointed as a commission to settle the dispute. T«*
result was the establishment of the International Board, vbicb
consists of representatives from each Union— six from England.
two from each of the others— whose duties were to settle any
ircBvj FOOTBALL
iestion that might arise between the different Unions, end to
ttle the rules under which international matches were to be
ayed, these rules being invariably adopted by the various
niona as the rules of the game.
With the establishment of the International Board the organ-
ition of the game was complete. Still harmony did not prevail,
id in 1895 occurred a definite disruption. A number of leading
libs in Yorkshire and Lancashire broke off from the English
nion and 1 formed the Northern Union, which since that date
is had many accessions, and has become the leading body in
te north of England. The question in dispute was the payment
players. Football was originally played by men for the sheer
ve of the game, and by men who were comparatively well-to-do,
id who could give the time to play it; but with the increasing
»pularity of the game it became the pastime of all classes of the
;ople, and clubs began to grow rich by " drawing big gates,"—-
tat is, large numbers of spectators, frequently many thousands
l number, paid for the privilege of witnessing the match. In
icse circumstances the temptation arose to reimburse the player
>r any out-of-pocket expenses he might be put to for playing
ie game, and thus it became universally recognised as legitimate
> pay a player's expenses to and from a match. But in the
ise of working men it often meant that they lost part of their
eekly wage when they had to go a distance to play a match,
r to go on tour with their club — that is, go off for a few days and
Lay one or two matches in different parts of the country— and
ooscquently the claim was made on their behalf to recoup them
>r their loss of wage; while at the same time rich clubs began
9 be willing to offer inducements to good players to join their
lub, and these inducements were generally most acceptable
a the form of money. In Association football (see below)
•rofessionalism— i*. the hiring and paying of a player for his
ervices— had been openly recognized. A large section of the
English Union — the amateur party— would not tolerate anything
hat savoured of professionalism, and regarded payments made
o a player for broken time as illegitimate. The result was the
ormation of the Northern Union, which allowed such payments,
md has practically recognized professionalism. This body has
dso somewhat altered- the laws of the game, and reduced the
lumber of players constituting a team from fifteen to thirteen,
[n Scotland and Ireland Rugby footballers are strongly amateur;
:>ut wherever Rugby football is the popular game of the artisan
.he professional element is strong.
Besides legislation, one of the functions of the Unions is to
select International teams. On the 27th of March 1871 the first
international match was played between England and Scotland
in Edinburgh. This was a match between teams picked from
English and Scottish players. These matches from the first
roused widespread interest, and were a great stimulus to the
development of the game. With the exception of a few years,
when there were disputes between their respective Unions, all
the countries of the United Kingdom have annually played one
another— England having played Scotland since 1871, Ireland
?iacc 1S75 ftn d Wales since 1880. Scotland commenced playing
Ireland in 1877 and Wales in 1883, while Ireland and Wales
met first in 188a and then in 1884, and since 1887 have played
annually. The qualifications of a player for any country were
at first vaguely considered to be birth; but they were never
definitely settled, and there has been a case of a player playing
for two countries. In x8$4, however, the International Board
decided that no player was to play for more than one country,
and this has been the only pronouncement on the question; and
though birth is still looked upon as the main qualification, it is
not essential. Though international matches excite interest
throughout the United Kingdom, the matches between two rival
clubs arouse just as much excitement in their district, particu-
larly when the clubs may be taken as representatives of two
neighbouring rival towns. But when to this rivalry there is
added the inducement to play for a cup, or prize, the excitement
is much more intense. Among Rugby players cup competitions
have never been so popular as among Association, but the com-
petition for the Yorkshire Cup was very keen in the days before
6l9
the establishment of the Northern Union, and this undoubtedly
was the main cause of the popularity of the game in that county.
Similarly the competition for the South Wales Cup from 1878
to i88r did a great deal to establish the game in that country.
The method of carrying- on these competitions is, that all the
clubs entered are drawn by lot, in pairs, to play together in the
first round; the winners of these ties are then similarly drawn
in pairs for the next round, until for the final round there is
only one pair left, the winner of which takes the cup. An elabora-
tion of this competition is the " League system " of the Association
game. This, likewise, has not been popular with Rugby players.
Still it exists in some districts, especially where clubs are anxious
to draw big gates. In the League system a certain number -of
clubs form a league to play one another twice each season; two
points are counted for a win and one for a draw. The club
which at the end of the season comes out with most points wins
the competition. The advantage of this system over a cup
competition is, that interest is kept up during the whole season,
and one defeat does not debar, ft club from eventually coming
out first.
It is said that wherever Britons* go they take their games with
them, and this has certainly been the case with Rugby football,
especially in New Zealand, South Africa and Australia. An
interchange of football visits between .these colonies and the
motherland is now an important feature in the game. These
tours date from iZ&& t when an English team visited Australia
and New Zealand, In the following season, 1889, a team of
New Zealanders, some of whom were native Maories, came over
to England, and by their play even then indicated how well the
grammar of the game had been studied in that colony. Sub*
sequently several British teams visited at intervals New Zealand
and Australia, and in 190$ New Zealand sent home a team
which eclipsed anything previously accomplished. They played
altogether thirty-three matches, including fixtures with England,
Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and only sustained one defeat, viz.
by a try in their match with Wales, a record which speaks for
itseH. In 1008 a combined team of English and Welsh players
toured in New Zealand and Australia, and also visited Canada
on their way home. The team was not so strong as could have
been wished, and though they did fairly well in Australia, they
lost all three " test matches " against New Zealand. In South
Africa the game is followed with equal enthusiasm, and the play
is hardly inferior, if at all, to that of the New Zealanders. The
first British team to visit the Cape went in 1891 through the
generosity of Cecil Rhodes, who guaranteed the undertaking
against loss. Teams were also sent out in 1896 and 1003; the
result of matches played in each visit showing the steady improve-
ment of the colonists. In 1906 the South Africans paid their first
visit to England, and the result of their tour proved them to
be equally formidable with the New Zealanders. England
managed to draw with them, but Scotland was the only one
of the home, Unions to gain a victory. The success of these
colonial visits, more especially financially, created a development
very foreign to the intentions of their organizers. The Northern
Union as a professional body had drifted into a somewhat parlous
state, through suffering on the one hand from a lack of inter-
national matches, and on the other from the competition of
Association professional teams. The great financial success
resulting from the New Zealand tour of 190$ roused the attention
of the Northern Union authorities, and they quickly entered
into negotiations with New Zealand players to collect a team
who would come over and play the Northern Union clubs, the
visiting players themselves taking a share of the gate-money.
For this purpose a team of New Zealanders toured the north of
England in 1907, and their action caused the introduction of
professional or Northern Union football in both New Zealand
and Australia.
The spread of the game has not, however, been confined to
English-speaking races. In France it has found fruitful sou.
and numerous dubs exist in that country. Since 1906 inter-
national matches have been played between France and England,
and the energy of French players, coupled with their national
620
FOOTBALL
(R0OV
Han, makes them formidable opponents. The Rugby code has
also obtained a firm footing in Canada, India, Ceylon and the
Argentine.
The game itself is essentially a winter pastime, as two requisite
conditions for its enjoyment are a cool atmosphere and a soft
though firm turf. The field of play is an oblong, not more than
i to yds. long nor more than 75 yds. broad, and it usually approxi-
mates to these dimensions. The boundaries are marked by lines,
called touch-lines, down the sides, and goal-lines along the ends.
The touch-lines arc continued beyond the goal-lines for a distance
of not more than 25 yds.; and parallel to the goal-line and
behind it, at a distance of not more than 25 yds., is drawn a line
called the dead-ball line, joining the ends of the touch-lines
produced. On each goal-line, at an equal distance from the touch-
lines, are erected two posts, termed goal-posts, exceeding ix ft.
in height, and generally much more — averaging perhaps from
so to 30 ft. from the ground, and placed iS ft. 6 in. apart. At a
height of xo ft. from the ground they are joined by a cross-bar;
and the object of the game is to kick the ball over the cross-bar
between the upright posts, and so obtain a goal. The ball
h egg-shaped (strictly an oblate spheroid), and the official
dimensions are — length, xx to 11 J in.; length circumference,
30 to 31 in,; width circumference, 25$ to 26 in.; weight, 13
to 14! oz. It is made of indiarubber inflated, and covered with
a leather case. Halfway between the two goal-lines there is
generally drawn the half-way line, but sometimes it is marked
by flags on the touch-line; and 35 yds. from each goal-line there
is similarly marked the 25-yds. line. In the original game the
side that had gained the majority of goals won the match, and
if no goal had been scored, or an equal number, the game was
said to be left drawn; but a modification was adopted before
long. A goal can be kicked from the field in the ordinary course
of play; but from the very first a try goal could be obtained by
that side one of whose players either carried the ball across his
opponents' goal-line and then touched it down (i.e. on the
ground), or touched it down after it had been kicked across the
goal-line, before any of his opponents. The " try " is then
proceeded with as follows: the ball is taken out by a member
of the side obtaining the try in a straight line from the spot where
it was " touched down," and is deposited in a selected position
on the' ground in the field of play, the defending side being all
confined behind their own goal-line until the moment the ball
is so placed on the ground, when another member of the attacking
side endeavours to kick it from the ground (a " place kick ")
over the bar and between the goal-posts. Frequently a goal
is kicked; very often not. The modification first allowed was
to count that side the winner which had gained the majority
of tries, provided no goal or an equal number of goals had been
scored; but a majority of one goal took precedence of any
number of tries. But this, too, was afterwards abolished, and
a system of points instituted by which the side with the majority
of points wins. The numerical value, however, of goals and
tries has undergone several changes, the system in 100S being
as follows: — A try counts 3 points. A goal from a try (in which
case the try shall not count) 5 points. A dropped goal (except
from a mark or a penalty kick) 4 points; a dropped goal being a
goal obtained by a player who drops the ball from his hands and
kicks it the moment it rises off the ground, as in the " half-volley "
at cricket or tennis. A goal from a mark or penalty kick 3 points.
Under the Northern Union code any sort of goal counts 2 points,
a try 3 points; but if a try be converted into a goal, both try
and goal count, i.e. 5 points are scored.
In the game itself not only may the ball be kicked In the
direction of the opponents' goal, but it may also be carried; but
it must not be thrown forward or knocked on — that is, in the
direction of the opponents' goal— though it may be thrown back.
Thus the game is really a combination of football and handball.
The main principle is that any one who is not *' offside " is
in play. A player is offside if he gets in front of the ball — that
is, on the opponents' side of the ball, nearer than a colleague in
possession of the ball to the opponents' goal-line; when in this
position he must not interfere with an opponent or touch the
ball under penalty. The leading feature of the game a the
" scrummage." In old days at Rugby school there waspractkiily
no limit to the numbers of players on each side, and net iaar>
quently there would be a hundred or more players on aae afe
This was never prevalent in club football; twenty a-skk tu
the usual number to start with, reduced in 1877 to fifteen i-s&.
the number still maintained. In the old Rugby big sides the b&!
got settled amidst a mass of players, and each side attempted
to drive it through this mass by shoving; kicking, and other**
forcing their way through with the ball, in front of them. Tn
was the origin of the scrummage.
The game is played usually for one hour, or one hour and to
minutes, sometimes for one hour and a half. Each side defei
each goal in turn for half the time of play. 'Of the fifteen pbyn
who compose a side, the usual arrangement is that eight ate cud
" forwards," and form the scrummage; two " half-backs "a
posted outside the scrummage; and four " three-quarter-bads,
a little behind the halves, stretch in a line across the field, tit*
duties being mainly to run and kkk and pass the ball to ©the
members of their own side, and to prevent their opponent! frsa
doing the same. In recent years, owing to the developcK£t d
" passing," the field position of the half-backs has undercut
a change. . One stands fairly close to the scrummage ted s
known as the " scrum-half," the other takes a position M«o
the latter and the three-quarters, and is termed the "sund-oS-
half." Behind the three-quarters comes the "full-back" or
" back," a single individual to maintain the last line of defeat;
his duties are entirely defensive, either to " tackle " an oppooeet
who has managed to get through, or, more usually, to citi
and return long kicks. Play is started by one side kicking tb«
ball off from the centre of the field in the direction of tie
opponents' goal. The ball is then caught by one of the otfer
side, who either kicks it or runs with it. In running he gro cs
until he is " tackled," or caught, by one of his opponents, uste
he should choose to " pass " or throw it to another of his o»*.
side, who, provided he be not offside, may either kick, or r~"
or pass as he chooses. The ball in this way is kept morjn
until it crosses the touch-line, or goal-line, or is tackled. If *»
ball crosses the touch-line both sides line up at right uvdfl
to the point where it crossed the line, and the ball is throm rf
straight either by one of the same side whose player carnri
the ball across the touch-line, or, if the ball was kicked or throw
out, by one of the opposite side. If the ball crosses the gwJ-
line either a try is gained, as explained above, or if the defeat?
side touch it down first, the other side retire to the line 15 )"--
from the goal-line, and the defending side kick it up the Ui
If the ball is tackled the player carrying the ball gets up fw=
the ground as soon as possible, and the forwards at once lora
the scrummage by putting down their heads and getting mi*
to shove against one another. They shove as soon as the ta3
is put down between the two front rows. In the scraaim^
the object, is, by shoving the opponents back or othrr**
breaking away with the ball in front, to carry the ball in tit
direction of the opponents' goal-line by a series of short k'.b
in which the players, run after the ball as fast as possible, whJ«
their opponents lie in wait to get the ball, and either by a k&
or other device stop the rush. Instead, however, of the forw:^
breaking away with the ball, sometimes they let the bail cor*
out of the scrummage to their half-backs, who cither kick or rfl
with it, or pass it to the three-quarter-backs, and so the r-"'
proceeds until the ball is once more " dead " — that is, brocfli
to a standstill. The scrummage appears to be an unintejeJ-tf
manoeuvre, and a strange relic of bygone times; but it is &"
merely a manoeuvre m which weight and strength alone teD—
it also needs a lot of dexterity in moving the ball with the Ir*
applying the weight to best advantage, and also in outflankfe
the opposing side, as it were — usually termed wheeling
directing all the force to one side of the scrummage and tto
breaking away. As a rule the game is a lively one, for the pb >«»
are rarely at rest; if there is much scrummaging it is cal>J
a slow game, but, if much running and passing, a fast or an opfl
game. The spectator, unless he be an expert, prefers the opc&
ASSOCIATION)
FOOTBALL
621
5ain«; but in any case the game Is always a hard and exciting
struggle, frequently with the balance of fortune swaying very
rapidly from one side to the other, so that it is a matter of
no surprise to find the British public so ardently attached
to it. (C.J.N.F.; C J.B.M.)
2. Association. — It is generally supposed that the English
game of Association football is the outcome of the game of foot-
ball as played at Cambridge University about the middle of
the 19th century. In October 1863 a committee, consisting of
representatives of the schools of Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Mary-
borough, Shrewsbury and Westminster, drew up a code of laws
whi-h settled the fundamental principle of the u Association '*
game, as distinguished from other forms of the game which
permitted of handling and carrying the ball In Association
football the use of the hands or arms, either for the purpose of
playing the ball or impeding or holding an opponent, is absolutely
prohibited, " dribbling " or kicking the ball with the feet, and
propelling it by the head or body, are the methods to be adopted.
The Cambridge laws specially provided for " kicking •* the ball.
Laws 13 and 14 provided that " the ball, when in play, may be
stopped by any part of the body, but may not be held or hit by
the hands, arms or shoulders. All charging is fair, but holding,
pushing with the hands, tripping up and shinning are forbidden.**
The laws of Association football first took practical shape
as the outcome of a meeting held on the 26th of October 1863
at the Freemasons' Tavern, London. The clubs which sent
delegates were representative of all classes of football then
played. The meeting was a momentous one, for not only was
the foundation laid of the Football Association, the national
association which has since then controlled the game in England,
but as the outcome of the differences of opinion whkh existed
as to " hacking " being permissible under the laws, the repre-
sentatives who favoured the inclusion of the practice, which is
now so roundly condemned in both the Association and Rugby
games, withdrew and formed the Rugby Union.
The Cambridge laws were considered by the committee of the'
Football Association at their meeting on the 24th of November
1S63. They took the view that those laws u embraced the true
principles of the game with the greatest simplicity "; the laws
were " officially " passed on the xst of December 1863, and the
first publication was made in Bell's Life four days later. These
laws have from time to time been modified, but the principles
as laid down in 1863 have been adhered to; and the Association
game itself has altered very little since 1880. The usual dimen-
sions for a ground are 120 yds. long by 80 yds. wide, and
the goals are 8 yds. in width with a cross-bar from post to post
8 ft*, from the ground. The ball is about 14 ox. in weight, and
must be a perfect sphere from 27 to 98 m. in circumference, as
distinguished from the elliptical or egg-shaped Rugby ball. A
rectangular space extending to 18 yds. in front of the goals,
and marked with lines on the ground, constitutes the " penalty
area "; within which, at a distance of is yds. opposite the centre
of the goal, is the " penalty kick mark.'* The boundary lines
at the sides of the field arc called the " touch-Jinca "; those at
the ends (in the centre of which are the goals) being toe " goal-
lines." The game is started by a place kick from the centre of
the field of play, and none of the opposite side is allowed to
approach within xo yds. of the ball when it ia kicked off. When
the ball passes -over the touch line it has to be thrown in by one
of the opposite aide, and can be returned into the field of play
in any direction. If it passes over the goal-line at any thne
without touching one of the defending side, it has to be kicked
out by the goalkeeper or one of the backs from a line marked m
front of goal, the spot selected being in front of the post nearest
the point where the ball left the field of play: But should H
touch one of the defending side in its transit over the goal-line
the attacking side has the privilege of a free kick from the corner
nag (a " corner kick "). This is often a great advantage, but such
free kick does not produce a goal unless the ball touches one of
the other players on its way to the post. Ordinarily a goal is
scored when the ball goes between the goal-posts and under the
cross-bar, not being thrown, knocked on or carried. The regula-
tion duration' of a game is an 'hour and a half, and ends are
changed at forty-five minutes. The side winning the toss has
the choice of ends or kick-off, and the ons obtaining the majority
of goals wins. A goal cannot be scored from a free! kick except
•when the free kick has been allowed by the referee as a penalty
for certain infringements of the rates by the opposite side; and
if such- infringement take place within the penalty area on the
part oka player on the side. then defending the goal, and in
the judgment of the referee be intentional, a " penalty kick*'
is awarded to the stacking side. The penalty kick is a free
kick from the penalty kick mark, all the players of the defending
side being excluded from the penalty area, except the goal-
keeper, who is confined to the goal-line; the result, therefore,
being an almost certain goal.
A player is always in play as long as there are three of the
opposite side between him and the opposite goal at the time ike
bait is kicked. This " offside " rule gives much trouble to the
young player, though why it should do So it is not easy to say.
The rule is simple if the words in italics arc remembered. The
ball most not be carried, knocked or wilfoHy handled under any
pretence whatever,, save by the goalkeeper, who is allowed to
use his hands in. defence of his goal, either by knocking on or
throwing, within his own half of the field of play. Thus far he
is entitled to go in maintaining his goal, but if be carry the ball <
the penalty is a free kick. There axe other Infringements of the
rules which also involve the penalty of a free kick, among them
the serious offences of tripping, hacking and jumping at a player.
Players are not allowed to wear nails in their boots (except such
as have their heads driven in flush with the leather), or metal
plates or gutta-percha, and any player discovered infringing this
rule is liable to be prohibited from taking further part in a
match.
In the early 'sixties of the xoth century there were probably
not more than twenty-five organized dubs playing Association
football in the United Kingdom, and these were chiefly confined
in the south of England to the universities and public schools.
But whilst the game was being established in the south it was
making steady progress in the north, particularly in Yorkshire,
where the Sheffield Club had been formed as early as £854. In
1867 the game had become so well established that H was decided
to play an inter-county match. The match, which was played
" in the wilds of Batttxsea Park," terminated in a draw, neither
side having obtained a goal; and it did much to stimulate the
growing popularity of the game. During tho season 1870-1871,
only three years later, two matches of an international character
were played between Englishmen and Scotsmen in membership
with the Football Association; they were not, however, recognised
as " international " matches. The first real international match,
England *. Scotland, -was played on the 30th of November 1872
at Partick, Glasgow; the first international match between
England and Wales; was played at Konninglon Oval in 1870;
•and that between England and Ireland at' Belfast in- 1883. In
x8o6 amateur international matches were inaugurated with
Germany, Austria and Bohemia; and games arc now annually
played with Scotland, Wales, Ireland, France, Belgium, Germany,
Holland* Austria and other 'continental countries. As the out-
come of the international relations with Scotland, Wales and
Ireland, an International Football Association Board was formed
in 1S&2, when a universal code of laws was agreed upon. Two
representatives from each of the four national associations con*
stitute the board, whose laws are accepted and observed not:
only by the dubs and players of the United Kingdom but in
all countries where the Association game & played. At a meeting
held at Paris on. the scat of May 1004 the " International Federa-
tion of Association Football " was instituted. It consfets of the'
recognized national associations in the respective countries;
and its objects are to develop .and control Assodationr inter*
national football. The countries in federation are; Austria,
Belgium, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Germany,
Hungary, Itary^Netherlaads, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland.
The small number of dubs taking part in the game in the early
days b e c ome s of interest when compared with the magnitudk of
tit
FOOTBALL
{AS60C1ATOM
the same in the loth century. Association football has become
one of the most popular of all national sports in the United
Kingdom. It is slowly but surely takings similar position on the
continent of Europe and is making progress even in the Far East,
Japan being one of its latest adherents. In the season of 1871-
187s the Football Association inaugurated its popular challenge
cup competition which is now competed for by both amateur and
professional clubs. In the first year fifteen dubs entered, all of
which were from the south of England. The first winners of the
cup were the Wanderers, who defeated the Royal Engineers in the
final tie by one goal to nothing. For the first ten years the
competition was mostly limited to the southern dubs, but in the
season of 1881-1882 the Blackburn Rovers were only defeated in
the final tie by the Old Etonians by one goal to nothing. Pro-
fessionalism was then unknown in the game, and comparatxvdy
little interest was taken in it except by the players themselves.
In the following season of 1882-1883 the cup was for the first time
taken north by the Blackburn Olympic Club, and it remained in
the north for the next ninrtnen years, until in the season of 1900-
190 1 it was again brought south by the Tottenham Hotspur
Club, who defeated the Sheffidd United Club at Bolton by three
goals to one. In the following season the cup was again taken
north by the Bury Club. In the early days of the competition a
few hundred people only attended the final tie, which for many
years was played at Kennington Oval in London. In the course
of time, however, the interest of the public so largdy increased
that it became necessary to seek a ground of greater capadty;
accordingly in 1893 the final was played at Fallowfield, Man-
cheater, where it was watched by forty thousand people; in 1804
it was played at Everton and in 1895 at the Crystal Palace.
The attendance during the following ten years averaged 80,000
people. The record attendance was in the season of 1000-tooi,
when the south were contesting with the north, the spectators
then bang upwards of 113,000. In the season of 1008-1909
356 dubs entered the competition; in 1010-11 the number had
increased to 404.
The great development of the game necessitated many changes
in the system of control About the year 1880 (although contrary
to the rules) a practice of making payment to players crept into
the game in the north of England and slowly developed. After
some years of debate as to the best method of dealing with this
development the Football Association dedded in 1885 to legalise
and control the payment of players. The rales define a pro*
fessional player as one who receives remuneration of any sort
above his necessary hotel and travelling expenses actually paid, or
is registered as a professional. They further provide that training
e ipen s es not paid by the players themselves will be considered as
remuneration beyond necessary travelling and hotd expenses.
Players competing for any money prizes in football contests are
also considered professionals.
In 1888 the Football League, a combination of professional
dubs of the north and midlands of England, was formed; and a
new scheme was inaugurated for the playing of matches on what
is known as the " League " principle, the essential advantage of
which is that the dubs in membership of a league agree to play
with each other " home and home " matches each season, and
also bind themselves under certain penalties to play their best
team in all league matches. Six years later the Southern League
came into existence, primarily with the object of increasing the*
interest in the game in the south and west of England. The
Football League and the Southern League very soon had their
imitators, and in 1000 there were upwards of six hundred league
competitions playing under the sanction and control of the. Foot-
ball Association. The league system also found favour in Scotland,
Wales and Ireland, and has extended to most of the colonies
where Association football is played. In the season of 1893-1804
the Amateur Cup Competition, restricted to amateur dubs in
membership with the Football Association, was inaugurated.
In the first season 32 dubs entered, and the growing popularity
of the competition is shown by the fact that in the season of 1008-
1009 there were 229 entries.
Thar Football Association, founded in 1863 with its eleven dubs,
had in 1909 under its jurisdiction upwards of 10,000 anauv.
dubs and a quarter of a million of amateur players, aid 400
professional dubs with 7000 professional players. It has i'*>
directly affiliated 52 county, district and colonial assooau^
and indirectly in membership a large number of minor associa-
tions which are affiliated through the county and district
associations. The Army Association indudes 316 army ebb*
in Great Britain and Ireland, together with dubs formed by ii£
various battalions in India, South Africa, Gibraltar and otka
army stations; and the Royal Navy Football Assoosiaa
comprises all ships afloat having Association football dubs.
The regulations of the Football Association, which b the
recognized administrative and legislative body for the game a
England, make provision for the sanction and control of kagaa
and competitions; and its rules, regulations, principles oi
practices very largely prevail in all national associations. 1st
king is the patron, and the council consists of 56 member* 1
president, 6 vice-presidents, a treasurer, 10 represent! ti.e.
elected by the dubs in the ten divisions into which the country a
subdivided, together with representatives of the army, the oh?
and of county assodations in England which have upwards d
50 dubs in membership,* each representative being direr.!?
appointed by his association. In 1005 the Football Assoctiua
became incorporated under the Joint Stock Companies Acts, i=J
as a consequence the word " Limited " appears in its title. It a
not, however, a trading body; the shareholders axe not entitled
to any dividend, bonus or profit, nor may the members of the
council, who are the directors, receive any payment for their
services. The Scottish Football Association is also an incorpor-
ated body with similar powers. Many of Ufe leading dubs of the
United Kingdom have also become incorporated, but under &
regulations of the Football Association they may not pay a larger
dividend to their' shareholders than 5%, nor may any of the
directors receive payment for their services.
The whole policy of legislation in Association football of late
years has been naturally to make the game faster by brings*
every one into full play. The great aim accordingly has beta
to encourage combination and to discourage purdy individual
efforts. In the early days, though there was a certain amount d
cohesion, a player had to rely mainly on himself. Even up to the
middle of the 'seventies dribbling was looked upon as the grot
desideratum; it was the essential for a forward, just as long kicks
were the main object of a back, The devdopment of the gas*
was of course bound to change all that The introduction <*
passing, long or short, but long in particular, placed the dribbler
pure and simple at a discount, and necessitated methods wits
which he was mostly unacquainted. Combined play gradu^y
came to be regarded as the keynote to success. Instead of one tufl
back, as was originally the case, and one half-back, the defence
gradually developed by the addition first of a second half, then of
a second full back, and still later of a third half-back, until it cant
to show, in addition to the goalkeeper of course, two full backs
and three half-backs. The eight forwards who used to constitute
the attack in the earliest days of the Association have bees
reduced by degrees, as the sdenceof the game became understood,
until they now number only five. The effect of the transition his
been to put the attack and defence on a more equal footing. and
as a natural consequence to make the game more open aad
thereby generally more interesting and attractive. Association
football is indeed, from the standpoint of the spectator, a much
brighter game than it was in its infancy, the result of the new
methods bringing every one of the eleven players into full rdief
throughtout the game. The players who, as a rule, make or mar
the success of a side in modern football are the centre forward
and the centre half-back. They are the pivot on which the
attack and the defence respectively turn. Instead of close
dribbling and following up, the new formation makes for accuracy
of passing among the forwards, with intelligent support from the
half-backs. The net result is practically the effective combina-
tion of the whole side. To do his part as it ought to be done
every member of an eleven must work in harmony with the rest,
and on a definite system, in all casts subordinating his ovs
FOOTBALL
6*3
latitudinal tines only and Wat therefore popularly called tba
• gridiron"; subsequently it was called the «• checkerboard."
The end lines are called "goal-lines," the side " touch-lines/*
The two lines 25 yds. from each goal-line, and the middle line, or
55 yard-line, are made broader than the rest. In the middle of
each goal-line is a goal, consisting of two uprights exceeding so ft.
in length, set 18 ft 6 in. apart with a crossbar 10 ft. from the
ground. Tnebafl it to shape and material of the English Rugby
type,
A match game consists of two periods (kahes) of thirty-five
minutes with an interval of fifteen minutes. Practice games
usually have shorter halves. There are four officials: the umpire,
whose duty it is to watch the conduct of the players and decide
regarding fouls; the Hfme, who decides questions regarding the
progress of the ball and of play; the field judge who assists
the* referee and keeps the time; and the Hnesman, who (with two
AMERICAN)
methods and personal interests to promote the general well-being
of the side. (C. W. A.; F. I. W.)
The literature of British football is very extensive, but the foOowmg
worite are among the beat: football in the " Badminton Library ^
(London, i«u) f where the different games played at Eton, Harrow,
Rugby. Winchester and other public schools are thoroughly de-
scribed; Rev. F. Marshall, Football; the Rugby Came (London,
Casaelte); I. E. Vincent, Asfftatf; Us History**, As, teuturtes
(London. 1685): C J. B. Marriott and C W. Akock, Football
('• Oval Scnes ") : " Football " in the Encyclopaedia of Sport: The
Rugby Football Umon Handbook, Richardaon, Greenwich, Official
Annual ; and The Football Annual, Merritt and Hatcher (Association
Came), London.
United States.— In America the game of football hat been
elaborated far more than elsewhere, and involves more complica-
tions than in England. From colonial times until 1871 a kind of
football generally resembling the Enghsh Association game was
played on the village greens and by the students of colleges and
academies. There was no running with the
ball, but dribbling, called «• babying/' was
common. In 1871 a code of rules was drawn
up, but they were unsatisfactory and not in-
variably observed. u Batting the balL" s .*.
striking the ball forward with the fists, was
allowed. There were two backs, sixteen
rushers or forwards, and two rovers or " pea-
nutters," who lurked near the opponents' goal
During this period the first interostionai foot*
ban game was played at Yale between the
college team and one made up of old Etonians,
the rules being a compromise between the
American and the Enghsh.
English Rugby, introduced from Canada,
was first played at Harvard University, and
in 1875 a match under a compromise set of
rules, taken partly from the Rugby Union and ^
partly from the existing American game, was ^ , LM , .. J**™** ?* *™ L ? . . ,
played with Yale. The following year Yale * Th ^ MbaP rules provide that when the ball is put in play in a scrimmage, the
Ltant«rl tti* mmlti. &.«•»» iiJZl i.u. -*>A * n £ m3in who receives the ball, commonly known as the quarter-back, may carry it
adopted ^the regular Rugby Ufikm rules, and fo^rd beyond the line of scrimmage, provided In so doing he crosses such line at least
pbyed Harvard under these. Later, several 5 yds. from the. point where the snspper^back pat the ball an play, and furthermore,
other colleges adopted these English rules, that a forward pass may be made provided the ball passes over the line of ecrimmagc
Absence of tradition T ** ftH exoansioA ** lea *5 5 yds. from the point at which the ball is put in play. The field is marked
*rf rh*.* h™T \twrf 1 . ^™Tt^r J^^Z- off at intervals of 5 yds. with, white lines parallel to the goal line, for convenience in
ot tnese Jaws, and a convention of colleges penaliring fouls and for measuring the 10 yds. to be gained In three downs, and also
was asse m bl ed . Thenceforward annual con* *t interval, of 5 yds. with whim lines parallel to the side lines, in order to assist the
ffifei
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ventions were held, which from time to time reteree an deternuning whether the Quarter-back runs according to rule, or whether,
altered and amplified the rules. A coUeae m caae °* a forward pass, such pass is legally made. Thus the football field is changed
•«c4v-{ a tmti w /hmLi mnA «k» -...- ~~_ TI ' rom the gridiron as in 1902, to what now resembles a checkerboard, and the above
association was formed, and the game grew in diagram JU™ ^^ly how ttte ^w ^h ^ „„&& As the width of the field
popularity. Public criticism of the roughness does not divide evenly into 5 yd. spaces, it U wise to run the first fane through the
shown in the play early threatened its exist- middle point of the field and then to mark off the 5 yds. on each aide from that middle
ence: indeed at one time the uiuveratty iinc - In order to Mvc labour, it may be sufficient to omit the full completion of the
...ikmtiu ~««.i*ii~i u~_.i *~ »u_«.:_ longitudinal lines, as the object of these lines is accomplished if their points of inter-
authorities conmelled Jiarvani to abstain *; onw i t h the tmnsverrelwes are dfatinctly narked, for iiistonce.byaW
from the annual game with- Yale.— Changes *
in the rules were introduced, and the game has been characterized
by less roughness and by increased alriU. It has become the
most popular autumn game in the United States, the principal
university matches often attracting crowds of 35,000 and even
40,000 spectators. The association subsequently disbanded, but
a Rules Committee, invited by the University Athletic Gub of
New York, made the necessary changes in the rules from time
to time, and these have been accepted by the country at large.
In the West associations were formed; but the game in the East
is played principally, under separate agreements between the
contesting universities, all using, however, one code of rules.
Later this Rules Committee amalgamated with a new com-
mittee of wider representation. Amateur athletic clubs as
well as public and private schools have also taken up the
game. The American football season lasts from the middle
of September to the first of December only, owing to the
severity of the American winter. Professional football is not
played in America.
The American Rugby game is played by teams of eleven men
on a field of 330 ft. long and 160 ft. wide, divided by chalk lines
into squares with sides 5 yds. long, leaving 4 strip 5 ft. wide on
each side of the field. Until 1003 the &eld was divided by
assistants; one representing each eleven) marks the distance
gained or lost in each play.
In scoring, a " touchdown " (the English Rugby " try ") counts
S points, a goal from a touchdown 6 (or one added to the 5 for the
touchdown), a " goal from the field," whether from placement or
drop-kick, 4, and a" safety " (the EnghshRugby " touchdown ">
s. Mutatis mutandis, these are made as in English Rugby.
American Rugby differs from the English game, because in the
scrimmage the men are lined up opposite each other, and, although
separated by the length of the ball, are engaged in a constant
man-to-man contest, and also in that a system of " interference "
is allowed. .Furthermore, a player in the American game is put
" on side " when a kicked ball strikes the ground; and forward
passing, «*.«. throwing the ball toward the opponents* goal, is
permissible under certain restrictions. The costume usually
consists of a close-fitting jersey with shoulders and elbows padded
and reinforced with leather; short trousers with padded thighs
and knees, heavy stockings and shoes with leather cleats. In the
early period of the game caps were worn, but, as they were
impossible to keep on, they were discarded in favour of the
wearing of long hair, and the " chrysanthemum head " became
the distinguishing mark of the football player. This, however.
6*4
FOOTBALL
(AMERICAS
proved an inadequate protection, and some player* 119 w wear a
«* head harness " of soft padded leather. Substitutes are allowed
in the places of injured players.
The object of the game is identical with that of English Rugby,
and the rules in regard to fair catches, punting, drop-kicking,
place-kicking, goal-kicking, passing and gentlemanly conduct are
practically the same, except that; on a free kick after a fair
catch, the opposing players in the American game may not come
up to the mark but must keep 10 yds. in front of it. In the
American game there is no scrummage in the English sense, nor
is the ball thrown in at right angles after going into touch. The
element of chance in both these methods of play was done away
with by the enunciation of the principle of the " possession of the
ball." In America, when the ball has gone out of bounds or a
runner has been tackled and held and the ball downed, the ball is
also put into play by an evolution called a scrimmage, usually
called " line-up," which beyond the name bears no resemblance
to the English scrummage. The ball, at every moment of the
game, belongs theoretically either to one side or to the other.
It may be lost by a fumble, or by the side in possession not being
able to make the required distance of xo yds. in three successive
attempts or by a voluntary kick. In the line-up the seven line-
men {i.e. forwards) face each other on a line parallel to the goal-
lines on the spot where it was ordered down by the referee. The
ball is placed on the ground by the centre-rush, also called the
snapper-back, who, upon the signal being given by his quarter-
back, " snaps back " the ball to this player, or to the full-back,
by a quick movement of the hand or foot. The moment the ball is
snapped-back it is in play. In every scrimmage it is a foul for the
side having the ball (attacking side) to obstruct an opponent
except with the body (no use may be made of hands or arms);
or for the defending side to interfere with the snap-back. The
defenders may use their hands and arms only to get their
opponents out of the way in order to get at the man with the ball.
Each member of the attacking side endeavours, of course, to
prevent his opponents from breaking through and interfering
with the quarter-back, who requires this protection from his line
in order to have time to pass the ball to one of the backs, whom he
has notified by a signal to be ready. In the United States a
player may be obstructed by an oS-side opponent so long as hands
and arms are not used. In the line-up this is called " blocking-off "
and " interference " when done to protect a friend running with
the ball. Interference is one of the most important features of
American football. Asfsoon as the ball is passed to one of the
half-backs for a run, for example, round one end of the line, his
interference must form immediately. This means that one or
more of his fellows must accompany and shield him as he runs,
blocking oil any opponent who trys to tackle him. The first
duty of the defence against a hostile run is therefore to break up
the interference, i.e. put these defenders out of the play, so that
(the runner may be reached and tackled.
The game begins by the captains tossing for choice of kick-off
or goal. If the winner of the toss chooses the goal, on account
of the direction of wind, the loser must kick off and send the
ball at least 10 yds. into the opponents' territory from a place-
kick from the 5$ yds. line. The two ends of the kicking side,
who are usually fast runners, get down the field after the ball
as quickly as possible, in order to prevent the man who catches
the kick-off from running back with the ball. When the kick-off
is caught, the catcher with the aid of interference runs it back
as far as possible, and as soon as he is tackled and held by his
opponents the ball is down and a line-up takes place, the ball
being in the possession of the catcher's side, which now attacks.
In order to prevent the so-called " block game," once prevalent,
in which neither side made any appreciable progres?, the rules
provide that the side in possession of the ball must make at
least xo yds. in three successive attempts, or, failing to do so,
must surrender the ball to the enemy, or, as it is called, " lose
the ball on downs." This is infrequent in actual play, because
if, after two unsuccessful attempts, or partly successful, it becomes
evident that the chances of completing the obligatory 10-yd.
gain on the remaining attempt are unfavourable, a forward
i pass or a kick is resorted to, rather than risk losing the bill 00
the spot. The kick, although resulting in the loss of the hsfl,
nevertheless gives it to the enemy much nearer his goal. Wka
the wind is strong the side favoured by it usually kicks eftes,
as the other side, not being able to kick back on equal teres,
is forced to play a rushing game, which is always exhau&ii&g.
Again, the kicking game is often resorted to by the side that fas
the lead in the score, in order to save its men and yet retain us
advantage. The only remaining way to advance the ball is <a
a free-kick after a fair catch, as in the English game. The izst
kick may be either a punt, a drop-kick or a kick from plactrntsL
Whenever the ball goes over the side line into touch it in hrougfe
back to the point where it crossed the line by the man «ba
carried it over, or, if kicked or knocked over, by a man of &
side which did not kick it out, and there put in play in one u
two ways. Either it may be touched to the ground and tfea
kicked at least xo yds. towards the opponents' goal, or it may Ik
taken into the field at right angles to the line a distance not
less than 5 yds. nor more than 15, and there put down for 1
line-up, the player who takes it in first declaring how far be * d
go, so that the opposing team may not be caught napping.
Of the seven men in the line, the centre is chosen for Lis
Weight and ability to handle the hall cleanly in snapping back
He must also, in case the full-back is to make the next pUy,
be able to throw the ball from between his legs accurately icu>
the full-back's hands, thus saving the time that would be watted
if the quarter-back were used as an intermediary. The uo
" guards," who must also be heavy men, form with the centre
the bulk of the line, protecting the backs in offence, and in de-
fence blocking the enemy. The two " tackles " must be heavy
yet active and aggressive men, as they must not only bdp the
centre and guards in repelling assaults on the middle of the lice
but also assist the ends in stopping runs round the line as **el
as those between tackle and end, a favourite point of acuta
The " ends " are chosen for their activity, sure tackling, fast
running and ability to follow up the ball after a kick. Of \ht
four players behind the line, the full-back must be a suit
catcher and tackier and a fast runner. The two haif-batb
must also be fast runners and good dodgers. One of them a
Often chosen for his ability to gain ground by " bucking the line,"
i.e. plunging through the opposing team's line. He must there-
fore be over the average weight, while the other half-back is calkd
upon to gain by running round the opposing ends. The quarter-
back is the commanding general and therefore the most important
member of his side, as with him lies the choice of plays to be
made when on the attack: Courage, coolness, promptness 10
decision and discrimination in the choice of plays are the qualities
absolutely required for this position. As soon as his side obiaia*
the ball, the quarter-back shouts out a signal, consisting of 1
scries of numbers or letters, or both, which denotes a certain
play that is to be carried through the moment the ball is snapped
back. A good quarter-back thinks rapidly and shouts his signal
for the next play as soon as a down has been called and «hik
the scrimmage is forming, so that the plays are run oil rapidly
and the enemy is given as little time as possible to concent rile
The signals, which are secret and often* changed to guard them
from being solved by the enemy, arc formed by designating
every position and every space in the line, as well as kicks and
other open plays, by a number or letter. Some signals are called
sequence-signals, and indicate a prearranged series of plays far
use in certain emergencies. Every manoeuvre of the attacking
side is carried out by every member of the team, the ideal being
" every man in every play every time." As soon as a signal is
given each man should know whal part of the ensuing move will
fall to him, in carrying the ball, interfering for the runner, or get-
ting down the field under a punt. Every team has its own code.
About 1890 the system of interference led to momentum and
mass plays (wedge-formations, tandems, &c), i.e. to the grouping
of bodies of men behind the line, and starting them before the
ball was snapped back, so that they struck the line with an
acquired momentum that was extremely severe, particularly
when met by men equally determined. These plays caused
FOOTE, A. H.— FOQTE, SAMUEL
62$
frequent injuries tad led to legislation against them, the most
important law providing for a limitation tQ the number of men
who could be dropped back of the line, and practically keeping
seven men drawn up in the line.
Penalties arc of three kinds: (1) forfeiture of the game, for
refusing to play when directed to do so by the referee, and for
repeated fouls made with the intention of delaying the game;
(a) disqualification of players for unnecessary roughness or
un gentlemanly conduct; and (3) for infringement of rules, for
which certain distances are taken away from the previous
gains of the side making the fouls.
The game resolves itself into a series of scrimmages inter-
spersed with runs and kicks. . The systematized development
of plays places at the disposal of the quarter an infinite variety
of attack, which ho seeks to direct at the opposing line with
bewildering rapidity and dash. • During the preliminary games
of the season " straight football" is generally played; that is,
intricate attacks are avoided and kicks and simple plunges
into the line axe mainly relied upon. "Trick plays," which
comprise all manoeuvres of an intricate nature, are reserved
for later and more important matches. Among these is the
44 fake (false) kick," in which the full-back takes position as if
to receive the ball for a kick, but the ball is passed to a different
player for a run. Another play of this kind is the " wing-shift,"
in which some or all of the players on one side of centre suddenly
change to the other side, thus forming a mass and throwing the
opponents' line out of balance. • To this category belong also
41 double passes," " false passes," " delayed passes," " delayed
runs " and M criss-crosses."
Training for football in America resembles that for other
sports in regard to food and hygiene. • The coaching systems
at the universities differ, but there is generally a head coach,
who is assisted by graduates, each of whom pays especial
attention to one set of men, one to the men in the centre of the
line, one to the backs, another to the ends, &c Candidates for
the teams are put through a severe course of practice in catching
punts and hard-thrown passes, in quick starts, falling on the
ball. >«Htiin g a mechanical dummy, in blocking, breaking through
the line, and all kinds of kicking, although in matches the kicking
is generally left to one or two men who have shown themselves
particularly expert. Every player is taught to dive for the
ball whenever he sees it on the ground, as possession is of
cardinal importance in American football, and dribbling for this
reason is unknown. When running with the ball the player is
taught to take short steps, to follow his interference, that is, not
isolate himself from his defenders, and neither to slow up nor
shut his eyes when striking the opposing line. Tackling well
below the waist is taught, but it is a foul to tackle below the knee.
The general rule for defensive work of all kinds is " play low."
See Walter Camp, Sow to
Guide (annual), both in "
Football, and the Official Footfall
V>W* IMMIllMUSt uvui ill «7)J»ujijik a nmiciH. wuiot; , Ki9 urvvm vj
College Sports (New York, 1893), his American Football (New York,
1894), and his Football (Boston, 1896) — the last in co-operation with
L F- Deland; R. H. Barbour, The Book of School and College Sports
(New York, 1904); W. H. Lewis, Primer of College Football {Boston,
1896). (E. B.; W. Ox.)
FOOTE, ANDREW HULL (1806-1863), American admiral, was
born at New Haven, Connecticut, on the 12th of September 1806,
his father, Samuel Augustus Foote (1 780-1 846) .being a prominent
lawyer and Whig politician, who as U.S. senator moved in 1829
" Foote'* resolutions " on public lands, in the discussion of which
Daniel Webster made his " reply to Hayne." . He entered the
U.S. navy in 1822, and was commissioned lieutenant in 283a
After cruising round the world (1837-1840) in the " John Adams,"
he was assigned to the Philadelphia Naval Asylum, and later
(x 846-1848) to the Boston Navy Yard. In 1849 he was made
commander of the " Perry/' and engaged for two years in sup*
pressing the slave trade on the African coast. In 1856, as
commander of the " Portsmouth," be served on the East India
station, under Com. James Armstrong, and he captured the
Barrier Forts near Canton. From October 1858 to the outbreak
of the Civil War, be was in charge of the Brooklyn Navy Yard,
becoming a fall captain m c*6x. In August 1861 he was assigned
to the command " of the naval operations upon the Western
waters." His exploit in capturing Fort Henry (on the right
bank of the Tennessee river) from the Confederates, on the 6th
of February 1862, without the co-operation of General Grant's
land forces, who had not arrived in time, was a brilliant success;
but their combined attack on Fort Donelson (ism. off, on the left
bank of the Cumberland river), whither most of the Fort Henry
garrison had escaped, resulted, before its surrender (Feb. 16),
in heavy losses to Footed gunboats, Foote himself being severely
wounded. - In March-April he co-operated in the capture of
New Madrid (q.v.) and Island No. xo. Id Jane he retired from
bis command and in July was promoted rear-admiral, and
became chief of the Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting. On
the 26th of June 1863 he died at New York.
See the life (1874) by Professor James Mason Hoppin (1820-1900).
FOOTE, MARY HILLOCK (1847- )> American author and
illustrator, was born in Milton, New York, -On the 19th of
November 1847, of English Quaker ancestry. . She was educated
at the Poughkeepsie (N.Y.) Female Collegiate Seminary and at
the Cooper Institute School of Design for women, in New York.
In 1876 she married Arthur De Wint Foote, a mining engineer,
and subsequently lived in the mining regions of California,
Idaho, Colorado and Mexico. - She is best known for her stories,
in which, as in her drawings, she portrays vividly the rough
picturesque life, especially the mining life, of the West. Some
of her best drawings appear in her own books. Among her
publications are The Lcd-Hors* Claim (1885), John Bodevin**
Testimony (x886), The Chosen Valley (1892), Coast d'Alem
(1804); The Prodigal (1900), a novelette; The Desert and the
Sown (1902); and several collections of short stories, including
A Touch of Sun and other Storm (1903).
FOOTS, SAMUEL (1720-1777)* English dramatist and actor*
was baptised at Truro on the 27th of January x>2a Of his
attachment to his native Cornwall he gives no better proofs
as an author than by making the country booby Timothy (in
The Knights) sound the praises of that county and of its manly
pastimes; but towards bis family he showed a loyal and enduring
affection. His father was a man of good family and position.
His mother, Eleanor Goodera, whom he is said in person as
well as in disposition to have strongly resembled, he tiberalry
supported in the days of his prosperity, and after her death
indignantly vindicated her character from the imputations)
recklessly cast upon it by the revengeful spite of the duchess
of Kingston. • About the time when Foote came of ago, he
inherited his first fortune through the murder of his uncle, Sir
John Dinely Coodere, BarL, by his brother, Captain Samuel
Goodere. Foote was educated at the collegiate school at
Worcester, and at Worcester College, Oxford, distinguishing
himself in both places by mimicry and audacious pleasantries
of all kinds, and, although he left Oxford without taking his
degree, acquiring a cla ssica l training which afterwards enabled
him neatly to turn a classical quotation or allusion, and helped
to give to his prose style a certain fluency and elegance.
Foote was " designed " for the law, but certainly not by
nature. In his chambers at the Temple, and in the Grecian
Coffee-house hard by, he learned to know something of lawyers
if not of law, and was afterwards able to jest at the jargon and
to mimic the mannerisms of the bar, and to satirise the Latitats
of the other branch of the profession with particular success.
The famous argument in Hobson v. Nohson, in The Lame Lowers,
is almost as good of its kind as that in BardeU v. Pickwick.
But a stronger attraction drew him to the Bedford Coffee-house
in Covent Garden, and to the theatrical world of which it was
the social centre. After be had ran through two fortunes (the
second of which he appears to have inherited at his father's
death), and bad then passed through severe straits, he made
his first appearance on the actual stage in 1744. It is said that
he had married a young lady in Worcestershire; but the traces
of his wife (he affirmed himself that he was married to his washer-
woman) are mysterious, and probably apocryphal
Foote's first appearance as an actor was made little more than
2a
£26
FOOTE, SAMUEL .
!
two years after that of Gaftridc, as Co whose merits the critics,
including Foote himself, were now fiercely at war. ' His own
first venture, as Othello, was a failure; and though he was
fairly successful in genteel comedy parts, and was, after & favour-
able reception at Dublin, enrolled as one of the regular company
at Drury Lane in the winter of 1745-1746, be had not as yet
made any palpable hit. Finding that his talent lay neither in
tragedy nor in genteel comedy, he had begun to wonder " where
the devil it did lie/' when his successful performance of the part
of Bayes in The Rehearsal at last suggested to him the true
outlet for his. extraordinary gift of mimicry. ' Following the
example of Garrick, he had introduced into this famous pari
imitations of actors, and had added a variety of other satirical
comment in .the way of " gag."- Engaging a small company
of actors, he now boldly announced for the aand of April 1747,
at the theatre in the Haymarket " furfur/* " a new entertainment
called the Diversions of the Morning?* to which were to be added
a farce adapted from Congreve, and an epilogue " spoken by
the B-d-d Coffee-house." - Foote's success in these Diversions
obtained for him the name of "the English Aristophanes/'
an absurd compliment, declined by Foote himself (see his letter
in The Miner). • The Diversions consisted of a series of imitations
of actors and other well-known persons, whose various' peculi-
arities of voice, gesture, manner or dress were brought (directly
before the spectator, while the epilogue introduced the wits
of the Bedford engaged in ludicrous disputation, and specially
" took off " an eminent physician (probably the munificent
Sir William Browne, whom he afterwaids caricatured in The
Dertl en Two Sticks), and a notorious quack oculist of tbe day.
Hie actors ridiculed in this entertainment having at once procured
the aid of the constables for preventing its repetition, Foote
immediately advertised an invitation to his friends to drink
a dish of tea with htm at the Haymarket on tbe following day at
noon—" and 'tis hoped there will be a great deal of comedy
and some joyous spirits; he will endeavour to make the morning
as diverting as possible. Tickets for this entertainment to be
bad at St George's coffee-house, Temple-Bar, without which no
person will be admitted. N.B,— Sir Dilbury Diddle wilt be there,
and Lady Betty Frisk has absolutely promised." The device
succeeded to perfection; further resistance was abandoned
as* futile by the actors, whom Foote mercilessly ridiculed in the
" instructions to his pupils " which the entertainer pretended
to impart (typifying them under characters embodying their
several chief peculiarities or defects— the massive and sonorous
James Quin as a watchman, the shrill-voiced Lacy Ryan as a
raxor-grinder, the charming Peg Wofiington, whose tones had
an occasi o nal squeak in them, as an orange-woman crying her
wares and the bill of the play); and Mr Foote 's Chocolate,
which was afterwards converted into an evening Tec, became
an established favourite 1 with the town.
In spite of this success, he seems to have contrived to spend
a third fortune, and to have found it necessary to eke out his
means by a speculation in email-beer, as is recorded in an amusing
anecdote told of him by Johnson. But be could now command
a considerable income; and when money came he seems to have
freely expended it in both hospitality and charity. During
Ms engagements at Covent Garden and at Drury Lane, of which
he was joint-manager, and in professional trips to Scotland, and
more especially to Ireland, he appeared both in comedies of
other authorsand more especially in hfs own. He played Hartop
in his Knights (1 740, printed 1754). Taste ( 1 752) , in which parts
of the Diversions were, incorporated, was followed by some
eighteen pieces, the majority of which were produced at the
Haymarket, the favourite home Of Foote's entertainments.
In x 760 he succeeded in obtaining for this theatre a hcence from
the lord chamberlain, afterwards (in 1766) converted into a
licence for summer performances for life. The entertainments
were a succession of variations on the original idea of the
Diversions and the Tea. Now, it was an Anction of Pictures
(1748), of part of which an idea may be formed from the second
act of the comedy Taste; now, a lecture on Orators (1754),
suggested by some bombastic discourses given by Mackhn in
his old age at the Piattt* coffee-house is Covert Garden, warn
Foote had amused- the audience and confounded the speaker
by interposing his humorous comments. - The foolers a pre-
served in the shape of a hybrid piece, which begins with a tsocx
lecture .on the art of oratory and its representatives in Esgbsd,
and ends with a diverting scene of a pot-house forum debate,
to which Holberg's Politician-Tinman can hardly have bees 1
stranger. ' At a later date (1773) a new device was introduced
in a Puppet-show. • The piece (imprinted) played in this bribe
puppets was called Piety in Pattens, and professed to show "by
the moral how maidens of low degree might become rich free
the mere effects of morality and virtue, and by the uteratr?
how thoughts of the most commonplace might be conocsH
under cover of words the most high flown." In other to*
it was an attack upon sentimental comedy, which was stffl w
altogether extinguished. • An attack upon Garrick in conmika
with the notorious Shakespeare jubilee was finally* left out free
the Puppet-show, and thus was avoided a recurrence of tie
quarrel which many years before had led to an interchip
of epistolary thrusts, and an imitation by Woodward of tk
imitative Foote.
On the whole, the relations between the two public favoerita
became very friendly, and on Foote's part tumristakzhly
affectionate, and they have not been always generously rep*
seated by Garricfc's biographers. - A comparison between ih
two as actors is of course out of the question; but, thoetfe
Foote was a buffoon, and his tongue a scurrilous tongue, tfaeit
is no authentic ground for the suggestion that his chancer
was one of malicious heartlessness. * Of Samuel Joanne's
opinions of him many records remain in Bos well* when Jotaso
had at last found his way into Foote's company (he aftemr*
found it to Foote's own table) he was unable to " resist " fcia,
and, on heating of Foote's death, he thought the career jest
closed worthy of a lasting biographical record.
Meanwhile most of poor Foote's friendships in Ugh life vm
probably those that are sworn across the table, and reqaa*
44 t'other bottle " to keep them up. * It is not a pleasant picttn
*-*of Lord Mexborough and his royal guest the duke of Vert,
and their companions, bantering Foote on his ignorance of horse-
manship, and after he had weakly protested his skill, taking feis
out to hounds on a dangerous animal. * He was thrown uA
broke his leg, Which had to be amputated, the ••pntien:« B
(in which character he said he was now making his first appeal"
ance) consoling himself with the reflection that he would so*
be able to take off " old Faulkner " (a pompous Dubfin aldermaa
with a wooden leg, whom he bad brought on the stage as Peter
Paragraph in The Orators) ■* to the life." The duke of Y«t
made him the best reparation in his power by promising sis
a life-patent for the theatre in the Haymarket (1766): acd
Foote not only resumed his profession, as if, like Sir Luke Lin»P-
he considered the leg he had lost " a redundancy, a mere notaiag
at all," but ingeniously turned his misfortune to account is t«o
of his later pieces, The Lame Lover and The Detil en Tvo Stkb,
while, with the true instinct of a public favourite, making constat
reference, to it in plays and prologues. Though the characters
played by him in several of his later plays are comparatively
short and light, he continued to retain his hold over the pub&«
and about the year 1774 was beginning to think of withdrawn*.
at least for a time, to the continent, when be became involved
in what proved a fatal personal quarrel. Neither in his entertain-
ments nor in his comedies had he hitherto (except in Garrick's
case, and it is said in Johnson's) put any visible restraint cpoa
personal satire. The Author, in which, under the infinitely
humorous character of Cadwallader, he had brought a Wclsb
gentleman of the name of Ap-Rice on the stage, had, indeed.
been ultimately suppressed. • But in general he had pursued
his hazardous course, mercilessly exposing to public ridicule ac<l
contempt not only fribbles and pedants, quacks or supposed
quacks m medicine (as in The Devil on Ttoo Sticks), enthusiasts
in religion, such as Dr Dodd (in The Cozeners) and George
Whitefield and his connexion (in The Minor). He had not only
dared the wrath of the whole Society of Antiquaries (in !*•
FOOTE, SAMUEL
62?
Nabob), and bee* rewarded by the withdrawal, from among
the pundits who rationalized away Whitlington's Cat, of Horace
W al pole and other eminent members of the body, but had in
the same play attacked a well-known representative of a very
influential though detested element in English society,— the
" Nabobs " themselves. But there was one species of cracked,
porcelain which he was not to try to hold up to contempt with
impunity. The rumour of his intention to bring upon the stage,
in the character of Lady Kitty Crocodile in The Trip to Calais*
the notorious duchess of Kingston, whose trial for bigamy was
then (1775) impending, roused his intended victim to the utmost
fury; and the means and influence she had at her disposal
enabled her, not only to prevail upon the lord chamberlain to
prohibit the performance of the piece (in which there is no hint
as to the charge of bigamy itself), but to hire agents to vilify
Foote's character in every way that hatred and malice could
suggest. After he had withdrawn the piece, and letters had been
exchanged between the duchess and him equally characteristic
of their respective writers, Foote took his revenge upon the
chief of the duchess's instruments, a " Reverend Doctor "
Jackson, who belonged to the " reptile " society of the journalists
of the day, so admirably satirized by Foote in his comedy of
The Bankrupt. This man he gibbeted in the character of Viper
in The Captuhin, under which name the altered Trip to Calais
was performecLin 1776.. But the resources of his enemies wens
not yet at an end; and a discharged servant of Foote's was
suborned by Jackson to bring a charge of assault and apply
for a warrant against him. Though the attempt utterly broke
down, and Foote's character was thus completely cleared, his
health and spirits had given way in the struggle— as to which,
though he seems to have bad the firm support of the better part
of the public, including such men as Burke and Reynolds, the
very audiences of his own theatre had been, or had seemed to
be, divided in opinion. Ue thus resolved to withdraw,. at least
for a time, from the effects of the storm, let his theatre to Colman,
and after making his last appearance there hi May 1777, set
forth in October on a journey to France, But at Dover he fell
sick on the day after his arrival there, and after a few hours
died (October 21st). His epitaph in St Mary's church at Dover
(written by his faithful treasurer William Jewell) records that
he had a hand " open as day for melting charity." His resting-
place in Westminster Abbey is without any memorial.
Foote's chief power as an actor lay to his extraordinary gift of
mimicry, which extended to the mental and moral, as well as the
mere outward and physical peculiarities of the personages whose
likeness he assumed. He must have possessed a wondcrfufnexibility
of voice, though his tones are said to nave been harsh when his voice
was not disguised, and an incomparable readiness for rapidly assum-
ing characters, both in his entertainments and in his comedies,
where he occasionally " doubled " parts. The excellent " patter "
of some of his plays, such as The Ltar and The Coneuers, must have
greatly depended Tor Us effect upon rapidity of delivery. In person
he was rather shorthand stout, and coarse-featured ; but his over-
flowing humour is said to have found full expression in the irresistible ,
sparldc of his eyes.
As a dramatic author he can only be assigned a subordinate rank.
He regarded comedy as *' an exact representation of the peculiar
manners of that people among whom it happens to be performed ;
a faithful imitation of singular absurdities, particular follies, which
are openly produced, as criminals are publicly punished, for the
correction of individuals and as an example to the whole community."
This he regarded as the utile, or useful purpose, of comedy; the
duke he conceived to be " the fable, the construction, machinery,
conduct, plot, and incidents of the piece." For part at least of this
view (advanced by him in the spirited and scholarly " Letter " an
which he replied, " to the Reverend Author of the ' Remarks,
Critical and Christian,' on The Minor "), he rather loftily appealed
to classical authority. But he overlooked the indtspensableness of
the duke to the comic drama under its primary aspect as a species
irly happy ii *"
(where children mav maiee actual nrajiCL* tttai may nonai
useful to I hem; ffrr Between yvm und (, a* to what they learn
doc* not signify twopemce ,r >: Ms jar Starrroo sad jerry J
Sir ThomaiXoftVi Sir Lukr Limp, Mm Mechlin, and a* score.
the French fajoe*, or the baseless being* of the poet's brain/* But
thi rv.il excellence of many of Fool*'* comic characters ties in the
fact that. bv>ldc* being incomparably ludicrous types of manners,
they remain admirable comic types of general human nature. Sir
Gregory Caret te. and hi* Imbecile appetite for news; Lady Pent-
wtazet,' :l'"I her prvposierou* vanity 111 her superannuated charms;
Mr Oidwaitadcr , ftnd hit view of the advantages of public schools
(where child run mav " make acquaintanci. , s that may hereafter be
learn there,
?rry Sneak;
Sir Thomas Lofty 4 Sir' Luke Limp, Mm Mechlin, and a score Or two
of other characters , are i_v,.i_tk-nt comic figures in themselves.
wrui U\ it their origin; and many of the vice* and weaknesses exposed
by Foote V virorwj* satire will remain the perennial subject of comic
treatment wlong as a stage ejrists. The real defect of his plays lie*
in tan abnormal weakness oi their construction, in the absolute
contempt which the great majority of them show for the invention
or tWrfuct of a plot, and in the unwarrantable subordination of the
interest of the action To the exhibition of particular charge ten. His
characters are rendy~m*ide, and the action b only incidental to them.
Wt'h the exception of Tit* iJaw twhich Foote pre (ended to have
taV- ■ from Lope dc Vega, but which wan really founded ou Steele's;
adaptation of Cornell le^ L$ AfenJettr), a iwl perhaps of The Bankrupt,
there is hardly one of Foote's '* complies * in which the conception
nWt of the action n .-.. . < the exigencies of the merest
farce. Not that sentimental scenes and even sentimental characters
are wanting, but these familiar ingredients, are t aa incapable of
exciting real interest as an ordinary farcical action is In itself unable
to produce more than transitory amusement. In his earlier plays
FooterconstanrJy resorts to the most hackneyed device of farce— a
disguise. Of course Foote must have been well aware of the short-
comings of his rapidly manufactured productions; he knew that if
he might sneer at " genteel comedy " as suited to the dramatist*
of the servants' hall, and pronounce the arts of the drama at the great
houses to be " directed by the genius of insipidity/' he, like the little
theatre where he held sway, was looked upon as " an eccentric^ a,
mere summer fly."
At the same time, he was inexhaustible in the devising of comic
scenes of genuine farce* An oration of " old masters," an election
of a suburban mayor, an examination at the College of Physicians,
a newspaper conclave where paragraphs are concocted and reputa-
tions massacred— all these and other equally happy situations art
brought before the mere reader with unfailing vividness. And
everywhere the comic dialogue is instinct with spirit and vigour,
and the comic characters are true to themselves with a buoyancy
which at once raises them above the level of mere theatrical con-
ventionalism. Foote prof cased to despise the mere caricaturing of
national peculiarities as such, and generally used dialect as a mere
additional colouring; he was, however, too wide awake to the
demands of his public not to Heat France and Frenchmen aa fair
well-known living men and women, was not in himself an artistic
game, and coarsely to appeal to national prejudice. His
against those everlasting victims of English comedy and farce, the
Englishman in Paris and the Englishman returned from Paris, was
doubtless well warranted; while at the same time he made fun of
the fact that Englishmen are nowhere more addicted to the society
of their countrymen than abroad. In general, the purposes of
Foote's social satire are excellent and the abuses against which it
is directed are those which it required courage to attack. The tone
of his morality is healthy, and his language, though not aiming at'
refinement, is remarkably free from intentional grossness. He made
occasional mistakes; but be was on the tight aide- in the warfare
against the pretentiousness of Cant and the effrontery of Vice* the
two master evils of the age and the society in which he lived.
The following is a list of Foote's farces or " comedies " as he calls
them, mostly in three, some in two acts, which remain in print.
The date of pcodaction, and the character originally performed by
Foote. are added to the title of each:
the Knirhls (1748: Hartop. who assumes the character of Sir
Trifle) ; Taste (1752), in which part of the Diversions is
, ed; The Englishman in Pari* (1753? Young Buck);
The Englishman returned from Paris (1756: Sir Charles Buck); The
be was himself proud that he had taken them from real persons,
instead of their being * vamped from antiquated plays, pilfstwd from
AtdkitT (1757 : CadwaUadcr); The Minor (1760: Smirk and Mrs
Cote); The Liar (1762); The Orators (176a: Lecturer); The Mayor
ofGarratt (1763: Major Sturgeon and Matthew Mug); The Patron
6764: Sir Thomas Lofty and Sir Peter Peppercorn); The Com-
missary (1765: Mr Zac. Fungus); The Demi stpdu Twe* Sticks
(1768: Devil/— alias Dr Hercules Hellebore); The Lame Lover
(1770: Sir Luke Limp); The Maid Jf Bath (177*: Mr Flint); The
Nabob (1772: Sir Matthew Mite); The Bankrupt (1773: Sir Robert
discounter); The Coteners (1774: Mr Aircastle); The Capuchin, a
second version of The Trip to
Calais,
forbidden by the censor (1776:
Donovan). . His dramatic works were collected in 1763-1768-
Bibliocraph v.— Foote's biography may be read in W. (" Con-
versation ") Cooke's Memoirs of Samuel Poole (3 vols., 1805), which
contain, amidst other matter, a targe collection of hts food things
and of anecdotes concerning him. besides two of his previously
unpublished occasional nieces (with the Tragedy d la mode, part of
the Diversions, in which Foote appeared as Fustian). From Una
soyrce seems to have been mainly taken the biographical information
in the rather gmndikxjoent essay 00 Foot* prefixed try "Jon Bee"
628
FOOTMAN—FORAMINIFERA
(John Badpock. fl. 1816-1840, also known as " John Hands ") to his
useful edition of Footc's Works (3 vols., 1830). Various particulars
wSl be found in Tate **«'«-•—'- ur«j^. i>-,~.,~ /v£7t. .,«..\
and in other sources.
wSl be found in Tate Wilkinson'T Wandering Patentee (York, 1795)
There is an admirable essay on Foote, re-
Srinted with additions, from the Quarterly Review, in John Forster's
iographical Essays (1858). A recent life of Foote is by Percy
Fitzgerald (19x0). (A. W. W.)
FOOTMAN, ft name given among articles of furniture to a
metal stand, usually of polished steel or brass, and either oblong
or oval in shape, for keeping plates and dishes hot before a dining-
room fire. In the days before the general use of hot-water dishes
the footman possessed definite utility, but although it is still
in occasional use, it is now chiefly regarded as an ornament.
It was especially common in the hardware counties of England,
where it is still frequently seen; the simple conventionality
of its form is not inelegant.
FOOTSCRAY, a dty of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia,
on the Saltwater river, 4 m. W. of and suburban to Melbourne.
Pop. (ioox) 18,301. The dty has large bluestone quarries from
which most of the building stones in Melbourne and the neighbour-
hood is obtained; it is also an important manufacturing centre,
with numerous sugar-mills, jute factories, soap works, woollen-
mills, foundries, chemical works and many other minor industries.
FOOT-STAU* ft word supposed to be ft literal translation of
piidestal, or pedestal, the lower part of a pier in architecture
(see Bass).
FOPPA, VTNCENZO, Italian painter, was born near Bresria.
The dates of his birth and death used to be given as 1400 and
149s; but there is now good reason for substituting 1427 and
15x5. He settled in Pavia towards 1456, and was the head of a
Lombard school of painting which subsisted up to the advent
of Leonardo da Vinci. In 1489 he returned to Brescia. His
contemporary reputation was very considerable, his merit in
perspective and foreshortening being recognized espedally.
Among his noted works are a fresco in the Brera Gallery, Milan,
the " Martyrdom of St Sebastian w ; and a " Crucifixion " in
the Carrara gallery, Bergamo, executed in 1455. - He worked
much in Milan and in Genoa, but many of his paintings are
now lost
See C J. Ffoulkes and R. Makxchi, Vincemo Foppa (19x0).
FORAGE, food for cattle or horses, chiefly the provender
collected for the food of the horses of an army. In early usage
the word was confined to the dried forage as opposed to grass.
From this word comes "foray," an expedition in search of
" forage," and hence a pillaging expedition, a raid. - The word
" forage," directly derived from the Fr. fourrage, comes from a
common Teutonic origin, and appears in "fodder," food for
cattle. The ultimate Indo-European root, pat, cf. Gr. vastioQai,
LaL pascere, to feed, gives "food,". "feed," "foster"; and
appears also in such Latin derivatives as " pastor," " pasture."
FORAIN, J. L. (1852- ), French painter and illustrator,
Was born in 1852. He became one of the leading modern
Parisian caricaturists, who in his merciless exposure of the
weaknesses of the bourgeoisie continued the work which was
begun by Daumier under the second Empire. The scathing
bitterness of his satire is as clearly derived from Daumier as his
pictorial style can be traced to Manet and Degas; but even in
his painting he never suppresses the caustic spirit that drives
him to caricature. ' He has, indeed, been rightly called " a Degas
pushed on to caricature." In his pen-and-ink work he combines
extraordinary economy of means with the utmost power of
expression and suggestion. Fonun's popularity dates from the
publication of his Comtdie parisienne, a series of two hundred
and fifty sketches republished in book form. He has contributed
many admirable, if sometimes over-daring, pages to the Figaro,
Le Rire, VAssiette au bourn, Le Counter franfais, and L'ln-
discret. His political drawings for the Figaro were republished
in book form under the title of Doux Fays.
FORAKBR, JOSEPH BENSON (1846- ), American
political leader, was born near Rainsboro, Highland county,
Ohio, on the 5th of July 1846. He passed his early life on a
farm, enlisted as a private In the 89th Ohio Volunteer Infantry
in July 1862, served throughout the Civil War, for part of the
time as an aide on the staff of General H. W. Slocum, and fas
1865 received a captain's brevet for " effident services during
the campaigns in North Carolina and Georgia." After the war
he spent two years at the Ohio Wesleyan University nod two
years at Cornell. In 1869 he was admitted to the Ohio bar and
began practice in Cincinnati. He was a judge of the Cincinnati
Superior Court from 1879 to 1882. In 1883 he was the Repubtican
candidate for governor of Ohio, but was defeated; in 1885
and 1887, however, he was elected, but was again defeated in
1889. ' He then for eight years practised law with great success
in Cindnnati. In 1806 he was elected United States senator
to succeed Calvin S. Brice (1845-1898); in 1902 was re-elected
and served until 1909. In the Senate he was one of the ag gie sai re
Republican leaders, strongly supporting the administration of
President M'Kinley (whose name he presented to the Republics*
National Conventions of 1896 and 1000) in the debates preceding,
during, and immediately following the Spanish-American War.
and later, during the administration of President Roosevelt,
was conspicuous among Republican leaders for his independence.
He vigorously opposed various measures advocated by the
president, and led the opposition to the president's summary
discharge of certain negro troops after the Brownsville .raid of
the 13th of Augus t zoo6 (see Brownsville, Texas).
FORAMINIFERA, in zoology, a subdivision of Protcoo*,
the name selected for this enormous dass being that given by
A. D'Orbigny in 1826 to the shells characteristic of the majority
of the spedes. • He regarded them as minute Cephalopoda,
whose chambers communicated by pores (foramina). - Later
on their true nature was discovered by F. Dujardin, working
on living forms, and he referred them to his Rhixopoda, char-
acterized by pseudopodia given off from the sarcode (proto-
plasm) as organs of prehension and locomotion. W. B. Carpenter
in 1862 differentiated the group nearly in its present limits as
" Reticularis "; and since then it has been rendered more natural
by the removal of a number of simple forms (mostly freshwater)
with branching but not reticulate pseudopods, to FOosa, a
distinct subdass, now united with Lobosa into the restricted
class of Rhizopoda.
Fio. \A.—Luberkaknia, with reticulate p s wi dofo d ia.
Anatomy. — Protista Sarcodina, with simple protoplasmic
bodies of granular surface, emitting processes which branch
and anastomose freely, either from the whole surface or f rota
one or more dongated processes (" stylopods "); nudeus one
or more (not yet demonstrated in some little known simple
forms), usually in genetic rdation to granules or strands of
matter of similar composition, the "chromidia" scattered through
the protoplasm; body naked, or provided with a permanent
investment (shell or test), membranous, gelatinous, arenaceous
(of compacted or cemented granules), calcareous, or vtry rarely
(in deep sea forms) siliceous, sometimes fredy perforated, but
never latticed; opening by one or more permanent apertures
("pylomes") or crevices between compacted sand-granules,
often very complex; reproduction by fission only in simplest
naked forms), or by brood formation; in the latter case one
mode of brood formation (A) eventuates in amoebiform embryos
the other (B) in flagellate s oo sp oce s which are
FORAMINIFERA
gametes, pairing but not with those of their own brood; the
coupled cell ( M zygote ") when mature is the shelled species gives
rise tot very small primitive test-chamber or" microsphere." The
adult mkrosphcric animal gives rise to the amoebiform brood
which have a larger primitive test (" megabsphere ") ; and raegalo-
spheric forms appear to reproduce by the A type a series of
similar forms before a B brood of gametes is finally borne, to
pair and reproduce the microspberic type, which is consequently
rare.
The shells require special study. In the lowest forms they
are membranous, sometimes encrusted witji sand-grains, always
very simple, the only complication being the doubling of the
pylome in Diphpkrys (fig. 3, /), ShefdUardtUa (fig. a, ^-5),
Ampkitrema (fig. 3, //), Diaplmopkodon (fig. a, 12). The marine
shells are, as we have seen, of cemented particles, or calcareous,
glassy, and regularly perforated, or again calcareous, but porcel-
lanous and rarely perforate. These characters have been used
Fig. iB.~Protomyxa aurantiaca, Haeck, (After Haeckel.)
, Adult, containing two diatom a, Adult encysted and segmented.
frustules,and three Tint inmd j. Flagellate toospore jitst freed
c3iates, with a large Dino- from cyst,
flagellate just caught by the 4,. Zoospore which has pasted
expanded reticulate pseudo- into the amoeboid state.
as a guide to classification; but some sandy forms have so large
a proportion of calcareous cement that they might well be
called encrusted calcareous genera, and are also not very constant
in respect of the character of perforation. The porcellanous
genera, however, form a compact group, the replacement of the
shell by silica in forms dwelling in the red clay of the ocean
abysses, where calcium carbonate is soluble, not really making
any difficulty. Moreover, the shells of this group show a deflected
process or neck of the embryonic chamber (" camptopyle ") at
least in the megalospheric forms, whereas when such a neck
exists in other groups it is straight. The opening of the shell '
is called the pylome. This may be a mere hole where the lateral
walls of the body end, or there may be a diaphragmatic ingrowth
so as to narrow the entrance. It may be a simple rounded
opening, oblong or tri-mulri-radiate, or branching (fig. 4, /);
or replaced by a number of coarse pores (" ethmopyle ") (fig.
3, 50). Again, it may lie at the end of a narrowed tube
(" stylopyle "), which in Lagena (fig. 3, 0) may project outwards
(" ectosdenial "), or inwards ( u entoselenial "). In most groups
the stylopyle is straight; but in the majority of the porcellanous
shells it is bent down on the side of the shell, and constitutes
the " flexopyle " of A. Kemna, which being a hybrid term
should be replaced by " camptopyle." The animal usually forms
a simple shell only after it has attained a certain size, and this
*' embryonic chamber " cannot grow further. In SpUUlina
and Ammodiscus there is no pylomic end- wall, and the shell
continues to grow as a spiral tube; in Comuspira (fig. 3, /)
there is a slight constriction indicating the junction of a small
embryonic chamber with a camptopyle, but the rest of the shell
is a simple flat spiral of several turns. In the majority at least
one chamber follows the first, with its own pylome at the distal
end. This second chamber may rest on the first, so that the part
on which it rests serves as a rjarty-waU bounding *he front of
07*
FlG. l.—AUogromiide*.
/, Diphpkrys
a. Nucleus.
arcfuri, Barker.
b. Contractile vacuoles.
c. The yellow oil-like body.
Moor pools, Ireland.
2, AUoeromia oviformis, Duj.
C The numerous nudei ; near
these the elongated bodies
represent ingested diatoms.
Freshwater. Figs. 3,3.11,
13 belong to Rhbopoda
Filoaa, and are induced
here to show the character-
istic filose pseudopodia in
contrast with the reticulate
spread of the others.
j, Sk*pt**rdeUa lomXformis,
Siddall (Quart Jottr. Uicr.
Sci., 1880).
Marine. The protoplasm is
retracted at both ends into
the tubular case.
a. Nucleus.
5, She p k ia rdtlla laeniiformis;
with pseudopodia
f uBy expanded.
6-io, Varying appearance of the
nucleus as it is carried along
in the streaming protoplasm
within the tube.
11, AmPhittam # wrigktiamum,
Archer.showing membranous
shell encrusted with foreign
Eirttdc*. Moor pools, I re-
nd.
Diaphtrtphodi* mtbiU,
ifcher.
r*t
Arcl
a, Nucleus.
(land.
Moor pools, lre-
the newer chamber as well as the back of the older; and this
state prevails for all added chambers in such cases. In the
6$o
FORAMINIFBRA
highest vitreous shells, however, etch chamber has its complete
"proper wall"; while a "supplementary skeleton," a deposit
of shelly matter, binds the chambers together into a compact
whole; In all cases the protoplasm from the pylome may
deposit additional matter on the outside of the shell, so as to
produce very characteristic sculpturing of the surface.
Compound or " polythalamtc " shells derive their general
form largely from the relations of successive chambers in size,
shape and direction. This is well shown in the porcellanous
Milwlidat. If we call the straight line uniting the two ends of a
chamber the "polar axis," we find that successive chambers
rf&*&
Fig. 3.— Various forms of Calcareous Foraminifera.
1, Cornuspira.
§ , Spiroloculino,
3, Triiocmlima,
8, Orbiculina (spiral). 14, Textularid,
9, Lagena. 15, Dtscorbina.
4, BtUcultna.
6, Penerottis.
6, Orbiculina (cyclical).
10, Nodosaria.
U, CrisUUaria.
13, Globigerina.
13, Polymorph™*.
16, PolysUmull*.
17, Planorbulina.
18,Rotalia,
19, Nonumiwa.
Penerottis,
iauin
7, OrbkuUm (young).'
have their pytomes at alternate poles; but they lie on different
meridians. In Sptroloaditta (fig. 3, S) the divergence between
the meridians is x8o*, and the chambers are strongly incurved,
so that the whole shell forms a flat spiral, of nearly circular
outline. In the majority, however, the chambers axe crescentic
in section, their transverse prolongations being termed " alary "
outgrowths, so that successive chambers overlap; when under
this condition the angle of successive meridians is still 180*
we have the form Bttoadim (fig. 3, 4), or with the alary extensions
completely enveloping, UniUculinai when the angle is iao°
we have TrUocmlinc, or 144*, QuinqueUculina. Again in Pmero-
plis (figs. 3, 6, and 4) the shell begins as a flattened shell which
tends to straighten out with further growth and additional
chambers. In some forms (SpiroliHa, fig. as, S) the chambers
have a nearly circular transverse section, and the adult shell is
thus crazier-shaped. In others (which may have the same sculp-
ture, and are scarcely distinguishable as species) the chambers
are short and wide,
drawn out at right
angles to the axis, but
in the plane of the
spiral, and the growing
shell becomes fan-
shaped or "flabclli-
form" (figs. $,6 t 4,*).
This widening may go
on till the outer cham-
bers form the greater
part of a circle, as in
Orbiculina (fig. 3, M)
where, moreover, each
large chamber is sub-
divided by incomplete
vertical bulkheads Into
a tier of chamberlcts;
each chamberlet has a
distinct pylomic pore
opening to the outside
or to those of the next
outer zone. In OrbUdiks (figs. 5, 6) we have a centre 00 a
somewhat Milioline type; and after, a few chambers in spiral
Fio. 4. — Modifications of Peruroplis.
. 1, Dendriiinai t, Ev-Peneroplu.
Fio. 5.— Shell of simple type of Orbitoliles, showing primordial
chamber a, and circumambient chamber b, surrounded by successive
rings of chamberlcts connected by circular galleries which open *i
the margin by pores.
succession, complete circles of chambers are formed. In the
larger forms the new zones are of greater height, and horizontal
bulkheads divide
the chamberlcts
into vertical tiers*
each with its own
pylomic pore.
The Ckeitostomd- ,
/«oe(fig. 3,i5)re- ,\*
produce among ,
perforate vitreous 1
genera what we i
have already seen <
ih the MM0M0:
Orbfandes(6g. 10, #)
and Cydodypeus,
among the Num-
muh'te group, with
a very finely per-
forate wall, recall
the porcellanous
Orbiculina and
OrbiloUUt..
In flat spiral
forms (figs, a a, 1. 7;
3, *, 16, 19, &c) all the chambers may be freely exposed; or the
successive chambers be wider transversely than their predecessors
Fio. 6.— Animal of simple type of Orbit*'
tUes, showing primordial segment a, and
circumambient segment b, surrounded by
annuli of sub-segments connected by cadis!
and circular stolon-processes.
FORAMflWFERAI
tit
and overlap by ''alary «xten«!6t»% w T)ecomfat w nautflofd *; in
extreme cases only the
last turn or whorl is
seen (fig. sx). When
the spiral axis is conical
the shell may be " rota*
loid," the larger lower
chambers partially con-
cealing the upper
smaller ones (fig. 3, If,
IS, 17, IS); or they
may leave, as in Patd-
tina, a wide central
conical cavity— which,
in this genus, la finally
occupied by later
formed " supplement-
ary "chambers. When
FIG. 7-Section of Rotate btcaxrii, thesuccessivechambers
showing the canal system, o, ft, r, in the are disposed around a
substance of the intermediate skeleton; longitudinal central
n\ tubulated chamber-watt. ^ y,^ ^y j^ iaid
to " alternate " like the leaves of a plant. If the arrangement
Tic. 8.— Internal cast of Potystomttta cratictdala,
Retral processes, proceeding verging branches of the
from the posterior margin meridional canals,
of one of the segments. •*»#» o*» Three turns of one of
Smooth anterior margin of the spiral canals.
the same segment. «. #*, #», Three of the meridional
Stolons connecting succes- canals*
sive segments and uniting /, /», /», Their diverging
themselves with the di- branches, •
is distichous we get such forms as Potymerphina, Textularia
and Frondicularia (fig. 3, IS, 14), if tristichous, Tritoxfa. Such
Fie. 9. — Optrculina laid open, to show its internal structure.
4, Marginal cord seen in cross intereeptal canals, the
section at a*, (chambers. general distribution of
ft, ft. External walls of the which la seen irt the septa
c.c. Cavities of the chambers. a, a; the lines radiating
f/, c* t Their alar prolongation*. from a, a point to the
d, d, Septa divided at if, a", and secondary pores.
at d' % so as to lay open the f , g, Non-tubular columns,
an arrangement may coexist with a spiral twist of the axis for
at least part of its course, as in the crozier-shaped Spiroplccta.
Two phenomena interfere with the ready availability of the
characters of form for classificatory ends— dimorphism and
multiformity.
Dimorphism.— The majority of foraauniferal sheila show two
types, the rarer with a much smaller central chamber than that
ol the more frequent. The chambers are called microsphere
Fig. iov~f , Piece of Nummulitic Limestone from the Pyrenees,
showing Niimmolites laid open by fracture through the median
f, vertical section of r/ummuKU; S, Orbikndts,
and megalosphere, the forms in which they occur microsphaeric
and megalosphaeric forms, respectively. We shall study below
their relation to the reproductive cycle.
Multiformity.— Many of the Polythalamia show different
types of chamber-succession at different ages. We have noted
Fig. rt. — Vertical section of portion of Nummulites, showing the
investment of the earlier whorls by the alar prolongations of the'
later.
/, Investing portion of the'
outer whorl.
g, t» Spaces left between the in-
vesting portions of succes-
sive whorls.
ft, ft. Sections of the partitions
dividing these.
a. Marginal cord.
ft, Chamber of outer whorl.
c. c, Whorl invested by a.
a. One of the chambers of the
fourth whorl from the
margin. [closed whorls.
*,**, Marginal portions of the en-
this phenomenon in such crozier forms as Penewoplis, as well as
in discoid forms; it is very frequent. Thus the microsphestc
Bihctdma form the first few chambers in quinquelocuhne
succession. The microspheric forms attain to a greater size
when adult than the megalospheric; * and in OrbiicliUs the
microsphere has a straight | « „ l y u a t — 1
outlet, orthostyle, instead
of the deflected carnpto-
style one, so general in
porcellanous types; and 1
the spiral succession is con-
tinued for more turns before
reaching the fan-shaped gj
and finally cyclic stage.
GUbigcrina, whose cham-
bers are nearly spheric^ Fio I2 _ fnterna| 9urface 4 wa „
is sometimes seen to be ^ tW o chambers, a, a, of Nummuliits.
enclosed in a spherical test, showing the orifices of its minute
perforate, but without a tubuli.
Dvlomc. and known as *•*• The septa containing canals.
pywww, wu wivwu « .Extensions of these canals In the
Orbnl$mr f the chambered intermediate skeleton.
Globigerina-shell is o\ 4, Larger pores.
attached at first inside the
wall of the Orbulina, but ultimately disappears. The ultimate
fate of the Orbtdina shell is unknown; but it obviously marks
a turning-point in the life-cycle.
Protoplasmic Body and Reproduction.— The protoplasm is not
differentiated into ecto- and endosarc, although it is often denser
6j2
EORAMENIFERA;
in tbt central part within the shell, and dearer in the pseudopodial
ramifications and the layer (or stalk in the monothalamic forms)
from which it is given off. In pelagic forms like Clobigerina the
external layer is almost if not quite identical in structure with the
extracapsular protoplasm of Radiolaria (£*.), being differentiated
into granular strands traversing a dear jelly, rich in large vacuoles
(alveoli), and uniting outside the jelly to form the basal layer of the
pseudopods; these again are radiolarian in character. Hence £. R.
Lankcster justly enough compares the shell here to the central
capsule of the Radiolarian, though the comparison must not be
pushed too far. The cyto-
! plasm contains granules of
** I various kinds, and the in*
ternal protoplasm is some-
times pigmented. The Chry-
somonad Flagellate, Zooxan-
tkeUa, so abundant in its
resting state — the so-called
" yellow cells " — in the ex-
tracapsular protoplasm of
Radiolaria (q.v,) also occurs
in the outer protoplasm of
many Foramimfera, not only
pelagic but also bottom-
dwellers, such as Orbitoliits.
The nucleus is single in the
Nuda and Allogromidia and
in the megalospheric forms
Fie. 13.— Internal cast of two of higher Foranunifera; but
chambers, a, o, of Nummulites, the microspheric forms when
radial canals between them passing adult contain many simple
into b t marginal plexus. similar nuclei. The nudeus
in every case gjves off
granules and irregular masses (" cbromidia ") of similar reac-
tions, which play an important part in reproduction. During
the maturation of the microsphere the nuclei disappear; and the
cytoplasm breaks up into a large number of zoospores, each
of which is soon provided with a single nucleus, whether entirely
derived from the parent-nucleus or from the coalescence of chromidia,
or from both these sources is still uncertain. These zoospores are
amoeboid; they soon secrete a shell and reveal themselves as
megalospheres, the original state of the megalospheric forms. In
the adult megalosphere the solitary nucleus disappears and is re-
placed by hosts of minute vesicular nuclei, formed by the concen-
tration of chromidia. Each nucleus aggregates around it a proper
zone of dense protoplasm ; by two successive mitotic divisions each
mass becomes quaari-nucleate, and splits up into four biBagellatc,
uninucleate zoospores. These are pairing-cells or gametes, though
they will not pair with members of the same brood. In the zygote
resulting from pairing two nuclei soon fuse into one; but this again
divides into two; an embryonic shell is secreted, and this is the
microspheric type, which is multinuclear from the first. F.
Schaudinn compares the nuclei of the adult Foraminifcra with the
(vegetative) meganucleus of Infusora (q.v.) and the chromidia! mass
with the micronuclcus, whose chief function is reproductive.
Since megalospheric forms are by far the most abundant, it seems
pntbable that under most conditions they also give rise to megalo-
spheric young like themadves; and that the production of zoospores.
Fio. la. — Vertical section of tubulated chamber-walls, a, a, of
ummulttes. b, b. Marginal cord; c, cavity of chamber; d, d, non-
Nummulites. „, „, ,
tubulated columns.
pairing to pass into the microspheric form, is only occasional, and
possibly seasonal. This life-history we owe to the researches of
Schaudinn and J. }. Lister.
In several species (notably PatcUina) plastogamy, the union of
the cytoplasmic bodies without nuclear fusion, has been noted, as
a prelude to the resolution of the conjoined protoplasm. into uni-
nucleate amoebulae.
Cakiiuba, a porcellanous type, which after forming the embryonic
chamber with its deflected pylome grows into branching stems,
may fall apart into: sections, or the protoplasm may escape and
break up into small amoebulae. Of the reproduction of the simplest
forms we know little. In Mikrogromia the cell undergoes fission
within the test, and on its completion the daughter-cells may
emerge as binagcllate zoospores.
. The sandy shells are a very interesting series. la Asbmkm the
theyi
arc no L _. , r „
calcareous or ferruginous cement necessitates the existence 4
distinct pylomes. Many of the species reproduce the variety d
form found in calcareous tests: some are finely perforated, otlwj
not. Many of the larger ones have their walls thickened interrJ-
and traversed by complex passages; this structure is called &>
Fio. 15.— Cychdypeus.
rintkk(6g. 19, g. K). The shell of Endoikyra, a form only know a
us by its abundance in Carboniferous and Triassic strata, is krgtfy
composed of caicite and is sometimes perforated.
It is noteworthy that though of similar habitat each species seferti
its own size or sort of sand, some utilizing the siliceous spicule* *
sponges. Despite the roughness of the materials, they are tfta
so laid as to yield a perfectly smooth inner wall; and sometinw
the outer wall may be as simple. As we can find no record of a
deflected stylopyle to the primitive chamber of the polythalacc cj
Arenacea, it is safe to conclude that they have no close alliance »ci
the Porcellanea.
Classification.
I. Ntro a.-— Protoplasmic body without any pedicle or shell m*
• in the- resting encysted condition, sometimes iornu^
colonial aggregates by coalescence of pseudopods (J/>«-
dictyum), or even Plasmodia (Protomyxa). Brood cefb 1:
v first uniflagellate or amoeboid from birth. Fresh-*2'er
and marine genera Protogems (Haeckel). Butmyxa, (Lodv.
, Myxodiciyum (Haeckel), Protomyxa (Haeckel) (fig. is).
This group of very simple forms includes many d
Haeckd s Monera, denned as " cytodea," masses of pn*>
Elasm without a nucleus. A nucleus (or nuclei) hz*
owever, been demonstrated by improved methods of
staining in so many that it is probable that this distiaaieo
will fall to the ground.
II. ALLOGKOMiDiACEAE(figs.iA > 3). — Protoplasmic body protected
in adult state by an imperforate test with one or t«o
openings (pylomes) for the exit of the styiopod; test
simple, gelatinous, membranous, sometimes incrusted miih
foreign bodies,
never calcareous
nor arenaceous ;
reproduction by
fission alone
known. Fresh-
water or marine
?cnera AUatromia
(thumb!,). Mvxv-
• thtca (Schaiid.).
Liebrrkjikn* (CI.
ft L,J (%■ 1*K
Sktfikeardilla
<5fdd*Jl) (fig. 3.
?-io), Diylophryt
Barker), Amphi*
twmti (Arch.) ihg.
pkodtm. (Arch*) (fig.
fc f A are ™My Fio. I^—Htterosugina.
I' I I M !r .L I ri E S
group uinnairom the preceding in its simple test, but,
like it, includes many fresh- water species, which posset*
contractile vacuoles.
Ast ROAHiziDJACEAB.— Simple forms, rarely polythalamoos
(some Rkabdammiuidae), but often branching or radiate;
test arenaceous* loosely compacted and traversed by chinb
for pseudopodia (Aslrorkizddae), or dense, and opening by
one or more terminal pylomes at ends of branches. Mariiw.
4 Fam. The test of some Astrorkixidae is so loose that it
falls to pieces when taken out of water. HaKpkytema '»
remarkable for its history in relation to the "gastrara
theory." Piluhna has a neat globular shell of sponft-
spicuks and fine sand Genera. Astrorkita (SandahlJ
III.
FORAMINIFERA
633
IV.
'fig. tat), Pthlina (Carptr.) (fig. I0)t Soaw»mHi4 (Sara)
gg. 19), XaaoatasuM. (San), BoUUina (Carptr.), Holt-
usually
,„,„ (Bowerbank) (fig. 22).
UTOOUOACBAB.— Shell arenace
definite and oftt
calcareous form*.
definite and often polythalanuc. .«.-«*«» M •.
calcareous forma Jufusfo (Lank.) (fig. 19), £1
(Phil.), iiflNSMaVjeiu (RaussY, Lofhuta (Brady), Hapfo-
fine-grained,
fat structure
Eudtkyra
•ikn gmimm
MlUOLIDACBAB.'
;•«>•
(fig. 2a), fWaawifiw (Brady) (fig.
ells porcenanous imperforate, almost
invariably with a camptostyle leading from the embryonic
VIII. LAcaNiOACKAE.— Shent vitreous, often sculptured. _-
or polythalamic, finely perforate; chambers naskrshaped,
with a protruding or an Inturned stylopyle; Laiena
(Walker ft Boys) (fig. 4, 9): Nodosaria 0-amk.) (figs.
23, 4; 4, 10); Pfymorpiin* (d'Orb.) (fig. 4/ j|),
g*«^S(Liunk.) (STii); /rssJfcs^^(D2!)
IX. Globigbrinidacbab.— Shells vitreous, coarsely perforated;
chambers few spheroidal rapidly increasing in rise;
arranged in a trochoid or nautuoid spiral. Ghbigenna
X. Rotalidacbab.— Shells vitreous, finely
perforate; walls thick, often double,
but without an intermediate party-
layer traversed by canals; form usually
spiral or trochoid. DUccrHna (Parker
ft lones) (fig. a, 16); Planortmlina
"Orb.) (fig. 4, 17); kotalia (Lamk.)
(d'Orb.)
(figs. 23,
(fig. 23,
«3>*).
23. *t t; 7. «); Caktxrina (d'Orb.)
"" POytrma (Risso) (fig.
10);
^^ = ^
-4
3.
h Lug's &•(«*«.
Fig. 17.— Life Cycle of PolysUmsQa crisp*.
,Young megsJospheric individual. podfaspores which are trowing Into
Adult decalcified. new megalospheric individuals.
C, Later stage, resolving itself into two I, PrindpaT nucleus, and 9. subsidiary
flagellate gametes. '" . nuclei of megalospheric form.
Pig. iB.—BaocnUna dtprtssa d'Orb., transverse,
sections showing dimorphism. (From Lister*.)
a, Megalospheric shell showing uniform
growth, bOoculine throughout.
b, Microspberic shell ' showing multiform
growth, quinquetecuUne at first, and then
multiform.
XI. NomfULfNtOACBAB.— Aa in Rotalidaeeac,
but with a thicker finely perforated
shell, often well developed, and a supple-
mentary skeleton traversed by branch-
ing canals aa an additional party-wall
between the proper chamber-walls.
Nonhnina (d'Orb.) (fig. 4, Iff); /?er*>
Una (Fischer) (fig. ao): PdystowuU*
(Umk.) (figs. 4. 16; 8)5 Operadina
b.) (fig. 9); BeUrvtUrina (d'Orb.)
,. „ . : «Wr,) (fi g#
D, Conjugation. (zygote* •*•
S. Mkrospheric individual produced Irom 4,
F t The same resolved itsell into pseudo- 6,
Nuclei,
Nuclei in multiple division.
Chromidia derived from 4.
chamber; Conuapint (Sehultie) {fifr j): Mitieta (Lamk.)
(fit. rts ■
Oj-^FiuiPtJ (Lamk.) (hg +
including as subgenera Spirtd*
**); M«*Ji*ia {d'Grb.} (fi
(fit- 3) J U*U«*tirw idQtb. ) " $»l* ,_ ._ , .
Ftnettpht (Mom fort) (.fijta. 3J« J; j). wit It I r rn Dendrilino
— , -C.;.
d'Orb.} (figs, s and
F H^.«/iai (d'Orb.)
14 1 nqut /« Wi *o (d'Orb.) ;
(% f J):
fLimk) {figi.
Sfnanu/iJia (>ch.
. 3, Wlj
_j,tt|M; CoArifkta <S
VI. TbxtulaB4A&*ceas-— Shell* perforate, vitreous or (in the
5* *>
4 tf*
Orbilolilet
Verkhralin* (d'Oz < (fie. 22) J
22); (Talririifa {Sehau inn).
_ _ieU* perforate, vitreous or (
Ln« farmi) arenaceous, in two or three alternating ranks
(dtftichouf or tri»tkhou>). Tejiatifi* [Uvlrance) (fig*
VII. CBJOx6«TOMBLLACBAB>-Shefls vitreous, thin, the chambers
douWir^ forwards and backwards as4n if i/»W«<a«. Chgih-
ffassrtfa (Reuss).
15); Nummulitts tpim\L) (figs. 10,11,
t2, S3, 14).
"Bofowi canadmrs," described as a species of this
order by J. W. Dawson and Carpenter, has been
pronounced by a series of enquirers, most of whom
started with a belief in its organic structure, to be merely a com*
ptex mineral concretion in ophicalcite, a rock composed of aa
admixture of silicates (mostly serpentine and pyroxene) and
ralcit e .
bislribuiion in Vertied Space.— Owing to their lack of
organs for active locomotion the Foraminifera are all crawling or
attached, with the exception of a few genera (very rich in species,
however) which float near the surface of the ocean, constituting
part of the pelagic plankton (q.v.). Thus the majority are
littoral or deep-sea, sometimes attached to other bodies or even
burrowing in the tests of other Foraminifera; most of the
fresh-water forms axe sapropelic, inhabiting the layer of organic*
$34
FORAMINIFERA
debris at the surface of the bottom mud ditches Of pools, ponds
and lakes. The deep-sea species below a certain depth cannot
possess a calcareous shell, for this would be dissolved; and it
is in these that we find Umesalts sometimes replaced by silica,
. The pelagic floating genera are also specially modified. Their
shell is cither thin or extended many times by long slender
tapering spines, and the protoplasm outside has the same
character as that of the Radiolaria (g.v.) f being differentiated
into jelly containing enormous vacuoles and traversed by
reticulate strands of granular protoplasm. These coalesce
into a peripheral cone from which protrude the pseudo-
in gUuconlte (a green ferrous tfikate, whose oompesitka an
hot yet been accurately determined) are, however, frequently kft.
Glauconitic casts of perforate .shells, notably GUingai*4, tat
been found in Lower Cambrian (e,g . Hollybush Sandstone),
and the shells themselves in Siberian li mesto nes of that ip.
It is only When we pass into the Silurian Wenlock Bmeus*
that sandy shells make their appearance. 'Above this hoocs
Foraminifera are more abundant as constituents, ptxtiil a
principal of calcareous rocks, the genus Endoihyra being indeed
almost confined to Carboniferous beds. The genus Fustdiu
(fig. so) and Saccatumina (fig. 29) give their names (from tas
Fio. 19.— Arenaceous Foraminifera.
a, Exterior of Saaammim, /, Nautiloid Ltiuoia, exterior.
b, The same laid open. .1, Chambered interior.
c, Portion of test more highly A, Portion of labyrinthic cham-
magnified. ber wall, showing component
4, PiluTina. (magnified. sand-grains.
t, Portion of test more highly
pods, here rather radiate than reticulate. Most genera and
most species are cosmopolitan; but local differences are often
marked. Foraminifera abound in the shore sands and the
crevices of coral reefs. ' The membranous shelled forms decay
without leaving traces. The sandy or calcareous shells of dead
Foraminifera constitute a large proportion of littoral sand,
both below -and above tide marks; and, as shown in the boring
on Funafuti, enter largely into the constituents of coral rock.
They may accumulate in the mud of the bottom to constitute
Foraminiferal ooze. The source of these shells in the latter
case is double: (1) shells of bottom-dwellers accumulate on the
spot; (2) shells of dead plankton forms sink down in a continuous
shower, to form, a layer at the bottom of the ocean, during which
process the spines are dissolved by the sea-water. Thus is
formed an ooze known as " Globigerina-oozc," being formed
largely of that genus and its ally Hastigcrina; below 3000 fathoms
even the tests themselves arc dissolved. Casts of their bodies
JFig. 20.— Section of Fusulina Limestone.
respective abundance) to two limestones of the Ca rb ontf a wi
series. PorceUanous shells become abundant only from tk
Lias upwards. Tbe glauconitic grains of the Greensand form-
tions are chiefly foraminiferal casts. Chalk is well known to
consist largely of foraminiferal shells, mostly vitreous, Eke
the north Atlantic globigerina ooze. In the Maestricht chik
more littoral conditions prevailed, and we find such large-cad
Fig. si.*— Microscopic Organisms in Chalk from Graveieai
a, b, c, d, Texttdaria globulosa; e, e, e, e. Rotalia aspera; /, Ttxtukrit
acuUatai g, Planularia hexas; A, Nancula.
species as OrUtoides (vitreous) and OrbiUUUs (porceUanous;
figs. 5, 6), &c In the Eocene Tertiaries the Calcaire Grosser of
the Paris basin is mainly composed of Miliolid forms. Num-
mulites occur in English beds and in the Paris basin; but the
great beds of these, forming reef -like masses of limestone, occur
farther south, extending from the Pyrenees through the southern
and eastern Alps to Egypt, Sinai, and on to north India. Tbe
peculiar structure occurring in the Lower Laurentian limestone,
as well as other limestones of Archean age described as a Nun>
mulitaceous genus, •" Emoon" by Carpenter and Dawson, tod
abundantly illustrated in the oth edition of his encyclopaedia,
is now universally regarded as of inorganic origin. " Looking
FORAMINfFEkA
Fie ia.~ Imperfofau. v
/, $p4Ht#*db* pluudM, lawk, Atmiif Art -coaVt pmnfanrm
n. Yeaf* dkto, via dtadl dhntfcad sad aaatojlsam elated w as to abew A* anmj
j, 5#Mjm (/MaM/Hr); a acalptwcd teptrtectly coOed ahrll; pofceflaaeua.
4 ftrfaVaJiat, • afmens thall caaaistiaf of caambos aacceadlag one another ia a
Straight Udt, pofodlaaoua.
id, TbarsmirfM paptitito, Brady, a sandy font S fa brokaa opca so as to tbow
tr chamber; recent,
y, MtH^ hrum t t m tm u Hn sk, a sandy torn; want.
d, Wwd<«t^ttpfoJMtiTtbod^( bwU po m >WH4tfMy**M:
p, 5f«**«tt** JeMi, M. Schultas; a afcnpt* porcdtaaeoa MBofidt.
10, Protofilatnik cere removed after tmonrnl vltb weak chromic add from At ahcO
•I HtHfkrtrms taMimSkn, Bow. », Vaafcuktf nudet, atalaed with tmmataayla.
n , BiHfknem* i w am w a to tf; fwfaf speebnsa, shew** the
haped abcjl built op of sand-fraias and ipoBfe-apirulce, and lb* abundant
f, taming from lha mouth al (ha ahall and Spmadiaf pertly owe ba pcoj
»*> Shall «i daMrftfat limk*. land.* ahowtaa: «W branch** of »bt (a* on
■one of aba raya usually broken away ia preserved apedncaa (orifUMl).
fjt Section ofiha shell el Jfori*«Jb,showlas lakh walla bo* d aaad^reins,
PlC. »$.— Perforata.
ofata^rmcbambertofaKatkuUtfaaaben.aaio
. , . --- - U-anaafaitaaaaaaaa I
t , Spfrd afre&attntnt of staph? cbai
*, Ditto, with doubW acptal walla, i
jl Diamm to show fba mode ti which i
plctely embrace ibdr predeceaaora, a* ia FnndicuUri;
4. Majpa of a simple draJJbt series of
(shaded), a* Is
Boaamhaidag eassabsfs, a« la ATaV
FwVck, dra*e in tJu Ji»lai Rlite,
^ fl, CWnfi-J Wi*J(i t l'Orb, abowfef ffcc $*matfw=i ptrfcraii«4 of uV f hd| tad
Sat triiin a pt*iutE-
7, Ft*«TMtn «f Hk sbdl of CWrf/mw, atea from fciihi'o, and hiaMjf B
- - 1aij) p*»-
""To co4twt pcrloTiqoq u# mm "
8, Ort*li** iWwrf, d'Dra,
\ ■
1 f«
> ■Mti
Tm nrr pcrloTHKru u* tm in fcrciioe, Uhl <n* ]>*n| j/non* lie wwlkt.
* £Jf**Ji*a HJwri, d"OrlL JVlaric rtftffi^^
Ihdk?*?, ind inrrfiullj a jut»u d«*V*<
1 iTi
aaaaut j*u« <rf Gi^itni**. *, Oa fJoa ibdl^ i, Cj:h*^#*W4 i
• p, r«Jrfrnw Bin»,-irK> t Lia
albrrrtil qkftnEOUA pfTT(T»»f ncCUtulfthta,
#0, r«4qnUfl J^nlCilffi, Cmd
: Ji«ic rtftrtyir, VTLlh ndhmDl THlifttJtKI (llciwfflrt
iQ Ct^«r*M aI^J. I i la nbaUr idt'MtoP-
Ttri'uTTi Si< i!/ f NU dan>rtH an h *b
anew iiw ipru inupHif «i tb« caamwrt, and i%s ciq^HH iHO*)darT ihril ■flUlt»f r
&»» L »* Ckufibcn, d lluo= mni*i Cwlt in wction, »hi«ift| iht thin pumarr w*H
rlr rat-ulaie] c^ «th: fr H I, a. ^, prrtc**ir tuitjt-n ^f ifar ftvntj *»" o* ''- l *u '^^
Of <knbev Ip4ipi »hKt the KCDid»rt lhrLI ntnunt>: bit Cm*4 dtatrd «*it; **, **.
lecandai? m ■aitmmfiftM iWll iuhuncv In vdiui k i^iainc iwm wfcjH; 4. vcrvs
of aaaanary iWl wk**jv-» m a t bt *i*if^ a* e*j *, luhtil^ ot mxmAwr tbeil tu>
alattc « tfao Aubfif ; ;, |, ttatriiac pnawam ad **v4*iitj fkcii mbtiaBnc
636
FORBACH^-FOfcBBS, ARCHIBALD
at the almost universal diffusion of existing Focaminifera and
the continuous accumulation £>l their shells over vast areas of
the ocean-bottom, they are certainly doing more than any other
group of organisms to separate carbonate of lime from its solution
in sea-water, so as to restore to the solid crust of the earth what
is being continuously withdrawn from It by solution of the
calcareous materials of the land above sea-leveL" (£. R. Lan-
kcster, " Protozoa," Ency. Brit. 9th ed.)
Historical.— -The Foraminifera were discovered as we have
seen by A. d'Orbigny. C. £. Ehrenbcrg, added a large number
of species', but it was to F. Dujardin in 1835 that we owe the
recognition oi their true zoological position and the characters,
of the living animal. W. B. Carpenter and W. C. Williamson
in England contributed largely to the study of the shell, the
latter being the first to call attention to its multiform character
in the development of a single species, and to utilize the method
of thin sections, which has proved so fertile in results. W. K.
Parker and H. B. Brady, separately, and in collaboration,
described an enormous number of forms in a series of papers,
as well as in the monograph by the latter of the Foraminifera
of the " Challenger " expedition. Munier-Chalmas and Schlum-
berger brought out the fact of dimorphism in the group, which
was later elucidated and incorporated in the full cytotogical
study of the life-cycle of Foraminifera by J. J. Lister and F.
Schaudinn, independently, but with concurrent results.
Literature.— The chief recent books are: F. Chapr
Foraminifera (1903), and J. T. List
•-•-■—-• , Zoology (l<
recent books are: F. Chapman, The
,_._ ,_„__„„ .Lister, "The Foraminifera," in E. R.
Lankester's Treatise on Zoology (
will be found. For a final resume
see George P. Merrill in Report bf<
£635. Other classifications of the Foraminifera will be found by
. H. Tbeodor Eimer and C. Fickert in Zeitsch r,farwiiseitteh£ he
Zoolop4,\xv. (1809), p. 599. and L. Rhumbler in Arckivfur Frotiiten-
kunde, hi. (1903-1 ooi): the account of the reproduction Lai baccd on
the researches of J. J. Lister, summarized in the above-cited work,
and of F. Schaudinn, in Arbeiten des haiserluhen Cemndhahafnts.
3«x. O903). We must also cite W. B. Carperucr, W. K Pirktr and
T. Rymer Jones, Introduction 10 Ike Study of tU Foramimifer* (Ray
Society) <i86a); W. B. Carpenter, " Foraminifera," in Ency. Brit.,
9th ed.; W. C. Williamson. On the Recent Foraminifera of Great
Britain (Ray Society), {1858): H. B. Brady, " The Foraminifera,"
in Challenger Reports, vl (1884); A. Kemha, In Ann. de la soc.
royale toologique et malacologigue de Belgique, xxxvii. (1902), p. 60;
wax. (1904). P- 7.
Appendix.— The Xrnoph yophorioAB are a smallgroupof bottom-
dwelling Sarcodina which show a certain resemblance to arenaceous
Foraminifera, though observations in the living state show that the
character of the pseudopodia is lacking. The multinucleate proto-
plasm is contained in branching tubes, aggregated into masses of
definite form, bounded by a common wall of foreign bodies (sponge
spicules, Ac) cemented into a membrane. The cytoplasm contains
granules of BaSO« and pellets of faecal matter. All that is known
of reproduction is the resolution of the pellets into uninucleate cells.
(F. E. Schultze. Wissenschaftliche Efgebuisse der deutschen Tiefsee-
Expedition, vol. ad., 1905, pt. 1.) (M. Ha.)
FORBACH, a town of Germany in the imperial province of
Alsace-Lorraine, on an affluent of the Rossel, and on the railway
from Met* to SaarbrUcken, 5} m. S.W. of the latter. Pop.
(1005) 8193* It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic (Gothic)
church, a synagogue and a Progymnasium. Its industries
include the manufacture of tiles, pasteboard wares and gardening
implements, while there are coal mines in the vicinity. After
the battle on the neighbouring heights of Spicheren (6th of August
1870), in which the French under General Frossard were defeated
by the Germans under General von Glilmer, the town was occupied
by the German troops, and at the conclusion of the war annexed
to Germany. On the Schlossberg near the town are the ruins
of the castle of the counts of Forbach, a branch of the counts of
Saarbrucken.
»il* Bester, C«cAfcAl« des Schlosses, der Bemchafl und der Stadt
Forbach (1895).
FORBES. ALEXANDER PENROSE (1817-1875), Scottish
divine, -was born at Edinburgh on the 6th of June 1817. He
was the second son of John Henry Forbes, Lord Medwyn, a
judge of the court of session, and grandson of Sir William
Forbes of Pitsligo. He studied first at the Edinburgh Academy,
then for two years under the Rev. Thomas Dale, the poet, in
Kent, passed one session at Glasgow University in 1833, and,
having chosen the career of the Indian civil service, completed
his studies with distinction at Haifeybury College. Is u;i
he went to Madras and secured early promotion, but m conse-
quence of ill-health he was obliged to return to England He
then entered Brasenose College, Oxford, where in 1841 he obtafeed
the Boden Sanskrit scholarship, and graduated in 1844- He
was at Oxford during the early years of the movement know
as Puseyism, and was powerfully influenced by association vstfc
Newman, Pusey and Kcble. This led him to resign his IcdLia
appointment. In 1844 he was ordained deacon and priest a
the English Church, and held curacies at Aston, Rowant as4
St Thomas's, Oxford; but being naturally attracted to tfce
Episcopal Church of his native land, then recovering from bsg
depression, he removed in 1846 to Stonehaven, the chief ton
of Kincardineshire. The same year, however, be was appointed
to the vicarage of St Saviour's! Leeds, a church founded to prod
and illustrate TractaHan principles. In 1848 Forbes was caBri
to succeed Bishop Moir in the see of Brechin. He reswved
the episcopal residence to Dundee, where he resided till his deata,
combining the pastoral charge of the congregation with the duuo
of the see. When be came to Dundee the churchmen wr
accustomed owing to their small numbers to worship in a rose
over a bank. Through his energy several churches were bmlt,
and among them the pro-cathedral of St Paul's. He was prose-
cuted in the church courts for heresy, the accusation being founded
on his primary charge, delivered and published in 1857, in vox*
he set forth bis views on the Eucharist. He made a powerful
defence of the charge, and was acquitted with " a censure serf
an admonition." Keble wrote in his defence, and was present
at his trial at Edinburgh. Forbes was a good scholar, a scientific
theologian and a devoted worker, and was much beloved. Be
died at Dundee on the 8th of October 1875.
Principal works: A Short Explanation of the Nice** Creed (1853):
An Explanation of the Thirtv-utnt Articles (2 vols., 1867 and xeUV,
Commentary on the Seven Penitential Psalms (1847); Cemmeotsry
on the Canttcles (1853). See Mackey'a Bishop Forbes, a Memoir.
• FORBES, ARCHIBALD (1838-1000), British war correspondent,
the son of a Presbyterian minister in Morayshire, was bora os
the 17th of April 1838, and was educated at Aberdeen University.
Entering the Royal Dragoons as a private, he gained, while is
the service, considerable practical experience of military life
and affairs: Being invalided from his regiment, he settled is
London, and became a journalist. When the Franco-German
War broke out in 1870, Forbes was sent to the front as war
correspondent to the Morning Advertiser, and in this capacity
he gained valuable information as to the plans of the Parisians
for withstanding a siege. Transferring his services to the Defy
News, his brilliant feats in the transmission of intelligence dre*
world-wide attention to his despatches. He was with the
German army from the beginning of the campaign, and he after*
wards witnessed the rise and fall of the Commune. Forbes
afterwards proceeded to Spain, where he chronicled the outbreak
of the second Carlist War; but his work here was interrupted
by a visit to India, where he spent eight months upon a nussioa
of investigation into the Bengal famine of 2874. Then be returned
to Spain, and followed at various times the Carlist, the Rcpubhcaa
and the Alfonsist forces. As representative of the Daily News,
he accompanied the prince of Wales in his tour through India
In 1875-1876. Forbes went through the Servian campaign of
1876, and was present at all the important engagements. Is
the Russo-Turkish campaign of 1877 he achieved striking josr*
nalistic successes at great personal risk. Attached to the Russian
army, he witnessed most of the principal operations, and re-
mained continuously in the held until attacked by fever. Bis
letters, together with those of his colleagues, MacGahan and
Millet, were republished by the Daily News. On recoverisg
from his fever, Forbes proceeded to Cyprus, in order to witness
the British occupation. The same year (1878) he went to India,
and in the winter accompanied the Khyber Pass force to Jalalabad
He was present at the taking of All Musjid, and marched with
several expeditions against the hill tribes. Burma was Forbes '1
next field of adventure, and at Mandalay; the capital, he bad
several interesting Interviews with King Thibaw. He left Burma
FORBES, DAVID— FORBES, DUNCAN
•s*
ataxriedly for South. Africa, where, in consequence of the disaster
of Isandtwana, a British force was collecting for the invasion
off Zulnland- He was present at the victory of UtancH, and
his ianic^is ride of i aom. in fifteen boiin^by which he was enabled
to convey the first news of the battle to England, remains one
otT the finest achievements in journalistic enterprise. Forbes
subsequently delivered many lectures on his war experiences
to large audiences. Bis dosing, years were spent in literary
work. He had *ome years before published a military novel
entitled Drawn from Life, and a volume on his- experiences of
the war between France land Germany. These were now followed.
by numerous publications, including Glimpses through the
Cannon Smoke (1880);. Souvenirs of seme Continents (1865);
William I. of Germany: a Biography (1888); Havdoch, in the
" English Men of Action" Series (z8oo); Barracks, Bivouacs,
and Bottles (1801); 'The Afghan Wars, 1839-80 (1899); Caar
and Sultan (1895); Memories and Studies of War and Peace
(1895), in many respects autobiographic; and Colin Campbell,
Lord Clyde (1806). He died on the 30th of March 1000.
FORBES, DAVID (1828*1876), British mineralogist, metal-
lurgist and chemist, brother of Edward Forbes (qs.), was bom
Oq the 6th of September 1828, at Douglas, Isle of Man, and
received his early education there and at Brentwood in Essex.
When a. boy of fourteen he had already acquired a remarkable
knowledge of chemistry. Thjs subject he studied at the university
of Edinburgh, and he was still young when he was appointed
superintendent of the mining and metallurgical works at Especial
in Norway. Subsequently he became a partner in the firm of
Evans & Askin, nickel-smelters, of Birmingham, and in that
capacity during the years 1857-1860 he visited Chile,. Bolivia
and Peru. Besides reports for the Iron and Steel Institute, of
which, during the last yean of ms life, he was foreign secretary,
he wrote upwards of 50 papers on scientific subjects, among
which are the following: "The Action of Sulphurets on
Metallic Silicates at High Temperatures," Rep. Brit. Assoc.,
tSss, pt ii. p. 62; " The Relations of the Silurian and Mcta-
tnorphtc Rocks of the south of Norway," ib. p. 82; " The Causes
producing Foliation in Rocks," J own. Geol. Soc. xi., 1855;
" The Chemical Composition of the Silurian and Cambrian
Limestones," Phil. Mag. riii. pp. 3*5-373. 1857; " The Geology
of Bolivia and Southern Peru," J own. Geei. Soc. xvii. pp.
7-6 J, 1861 j "The Mineralogy of Chfle," PhU, Mag., 1865;
" Researches in British Mineralogy," PhU. Mat, 1867-1863.
His observations on the geology of South. America were given
In a masterly essay, and these and subsequent researches threw
much light on igneous and metamorphic phenomena and on
the resulting changes In rock-formations. He also contributed
Important articles on chemical geology to the Chemical News
and Geological Magasina (1867 and 2868). In England he was
a pioneer in microscopic petrology. He was elected F JLS. in
t8c8. He died in London on the 5th of December 1876.
See Obituary by P. M. Duncan in Quart. J own. Cud. Soc., voL
JOcriii., i877i p. 4« ; and by J. .Morris in Ceol. Mag., 1877, p. 45.
FORBES, DUNCAN, or Culloozm (1685-1747), Scottish
itstftTf", was born at Bunchrew or at Culloden near Inverness
on the 10th of November 1685. After he had completed his
studies at the universities of Edinburgh and Leiden, he was
t\ctaitted adVocate at the Scettlsh bar in 2700. His own talents
and the influence of the Argyll family secured his rapid advance-
ment, which was still further helped by his loyalty to the
Hanoverian cans©- at the period of the rebellion in 171s* In
172a Forbes was returned member for Inverness, and In 1725
he succeeded Dundasof Arniston as lord advocate. He inherited
the patrimonial estates on the death of his brother in 1734, and
in 1737 he attained to the highest legal honours in Scotland,
being made lord president of the court of session. As lord
advocate, he had laboured to improve the legislation and revenue
of the country, to extend trade and encourage manufactures,
and no less to render the government popular and respected in
Scotland* In the proceedings which followed the memorable
PorteouS mob, for example, when the government brought
in a bill for disgracing the lord provost of Edinburgh, for fining
the corporation, and for abofisfalag the townguatdmnAeJCpftate,
Forbes both spoke and voted against the measure a* an un*
warranted outrage on the national feettng. As lord president
also he carried out some useful legal reforms; and his term of
office was- characterised by quick and impartial administration
of the law.
The rebellion of 1745 found Urn at his post, and it tried all
his patriotism. Some years before (1738) he bad repeatedly
and earnestly urged upon the government the expediency of
embodying Highland regiments, putting them under the command
of colonels whose loyalty could be relied upon, but officering
them with the narive chieftains and cadets of old famines in the
north. ." If government," said he, " pre-engages the Highlanders
in the manner I propose, they will not only serve well against
the enemy abroad, but will be hostages for the good behaviour
of their relations at home; and I am persuaded that it will be
absolutely impossible to raise a rebellion in the Highlands/' In
1739. with Sir Robert Walpole's approval, the original (1730)
six companies (locally enlisted) of the Black Watch were formed
into the famous " Forty-second " regiment of the lice. The
credit given to the earl of Chatham in some histories' for this)
movement is an error; it rests really with Forbes and bis friend
Lord Islay, afterwards 3rd duke of Argyll (see the Autobio*
trophy of the 8th duke of Argyll, yoL i. p. 8 scj., 1906).
On the first rumour of the Jacobite rising Forbes hastened
to Inverness, and through his personal influence with the chiefs
of Macdonald and Macleod, those two powerful western clans
were prevented from taking the field for Charles Edward; the
town itself also be kept loyal and well protected tt the commence*
meat of the struggle, and many of the neighbouring proprietors
were won over by his persuasions. His correspondence with
Lord Lovat, published in the Culloden papers, affords a fine
illustration of his character, in which the firmness of loyal
principle and duty is found blended with neighbourly kindness
and consideration. But at this critical juncture of affairs, the
apathy of the government interfered considerably with the
success of his negotiations. Advances of arms and money arrived
too late, and though Forbes employed all his own means and
what money he could borrow on his personal security, his re*
sources were quite inadequate to the emergency. It is doubtful
whether these advances were ever fully repaid* Part was doled
out to him, .after repeated solicitations that his credit might bo
maintained in the country; but it is evident he had fallen into
disgrace in consequence of his humane exertions to mitigate
the impolitic severities inflicted upon his countrymen after
their disastrous defeat at Culloden. The ingratitude of the
government, and the many distressing circumstances connected
with the insurrection, sunk deep into the mind of Forbes. Hs
never fairly rallied from the depression thus caused, and after a,
period of declining health he died on the 10th of December 2747.
Forbes was a patriot without ostentation or pretence, a true
Scotsman with no narrow prejudice, an accomplished and even
erudite scholar without pedantry, a man of genuine piety without
asceticism or intolerance. His country long felt his influence
through her reviving arts and institutions; and the example
of such a character in that coarse and venal age, and among a
people distracted by faction, political strife, and national anti-
pathies, while it was invaluable to his contemporaries In a man
of high position, is entitled to the lasting gratitude and veneration
of bis countrymen. In his intervals of leisure he cultivated with
some success the study of philosophy, theology and biblical
criticism. He is said to have been a diligent reader of the
Hebrew Bible. His published writings, some of them of im-
portance, include— if Letter to a Bishop, concerning some Important
Discoveries in Philosophy and Theology (173s); Some Thought*
concerning Religion, natural and revealed, and the Manner of
Understanding Revelation (1745); and Refactions on Incredulity
(and ed., 1750).
His correspondence was eouetted and published in 1815, and a
memoir of htm (from the family papers} was written by Mr Hill
Burton, and published along with a Lite of Lord Lovat, in 1847*
His statue by RoufaiUac stands in the Parliament House. EdinburgL
6$8
FORBES, B.— FORBES, J. D.
fORMt SWARD (1815-1854), British naturafist, was
born at Douglas, in the Isle of Man, on the t*th of February
1815. While still a child, when not engaged in reading, or in
the writing of verses and drawing of caricature*, he occupied
himself with the collecting of insects, shells, minerals, fossils,
plants and other natural history objects. From his fifth to his
eleventh year, delicacy of health precluded his attendance at
any school, but in 1828 he became a day scholar at Athole
House Academy in Douglas. In June 1831 he left the Isle of
Man for London, where he studied drawing. In October, how-
ever, having given up all idea of making painting his profession,
he returned home; and in the following month he matriculated
as a student of medicine in the university of Edinburgh. His
vacation in 183 a he spent in diligent work on the natural history
of the Isle of Man. In 1833 he made a tour In Norway, the
botanical results of which were published in Loudon's Magosine
of Natural History for 1835*1836. In the summer of 1834 he
devoted much time to dredging in the Irish Sea; and in the
snccaednig year he travelled in France, Switzerland and Germany.
Born a naturalist, and having no relish for the practical
duties of a surgeon! Forbes in the spring of 1836 abandoned the
idea of taking a medical degree, resolving to devote himself
to science and literature. The winter of 1836*1837 found him
at Partsrwhere he attended the lectures at the Jardin des Plantes
on natural history,comparativeanatomy,geology and mineralogy.
Leaving Paris in April 1837, he went to Algiers, and there
obtained materials for a paper on land and freshwater MoUusca,
published in the Annals of Natural History, vol iL p. 350. In
the autumn of the same year he registered at Edinburgh as a
student of literature; and in 1838 appeared his first volume,
Malacologio Moncnsis, a synopsis of the species of Manx MoUusca.
During the summer of 1838 he visited atyria and Carniola, and
made extensive botanical collections. In the following autumn
be read before the British Association at Newcastle a paper on
the distribution of terrestrial Pulmonifera in Europe, and was
commissioned to prepare a similar report with reference to the
British Isles. In 1841 was published his History of British
Star-fishes, embodying extensive observations and containing
iso illustrations, inclusive of humorous tail-pieces, all designed
by the author. On the 17th of April of the same year Forbes,
accompanied by his friend William Thompson, joined at Malta
H.M. surveying ship " Beacon," to which he had been appointed
naturalist by her commander Captain Graves. From that date
until October 1 841- he was employed in investigating the botany,
•oology and geology of the Mediterranean region. The results
of these researches were made known in his " Report on the
MoUusca and Radiata of the Aegean Sea, presented to the
British Association in 1843," and in Travels to Lycia, published
in conjunction with Lieut, (afterwards Admiral) T. A. B« Spratt
in 1847. In the former treatise he discussed the influence of
dimate and of the nature and depth of the sea bottom upon
marine life, and divided the Aegean into eight biological sones;
his conclusions with respect to bathymetrical distribution,
however, have naturally been modified to a considerable extent
by the more recent explorations of the deep seas.
Towards the end of the year 1849 Forbes, whom family
misfortunes had now thrown upon his own resources, sought
and obtained the curatorship of the museum of the Geological
Society of London* To the duties of that post he added in 1843
those of the professorship of botany at King's College. In
November 1844 he resigned the curatorship of the Geological
Society, and became palaeontologist to the Geological Survey
of Great Britain. Two years later he published in the Memoirs
of the Geological Survey, L 336, his important essay " On the
Connexion between the distribution of the existing Fauna and
Flora of the British Isles, and the Geological Changes which
have affected their Area, especially during the epoch of the
Northern Drift." It is therein pointed out that, in accordance
with the theory of their origin from various specific centres, the
plants of Great Britain may be divided into five well-marked
groups: the W. and S.W. Irish, represented in the N. of Spain,
the 8JE. Irish and S»W. English, related to the flora of the Channel
Isles and the neighbouring part of France; the* SX. Eaglet,
characterized by species occurring on the opposite Preach coot;
a group peculiar to mountain summits, Scandinavian in type;
and, lastly, a general or Germanic flora. From a variety of arc*
menu the conclusion is drawn that the greater past of tk
terrestrial animals and flowering plants of the British. Isliadi
migrated thitherward, over continuous land, at three dtstna
periods, before, during and after the glacial' epoch. On lis
subject Forbes's brilliant generalisations are now regarded si
only partially true (see C~ Raid's Origin of the British Flora, 1809I
In the autumn of 1848 Forbes married the daughter of Gesenel
Sir C Ashworth; and in the same year was published b
Monograph of the British Naked-eyed Medusae (Ray Society .
The year 1851 witnessed the removal of the collections of tie
Geological Survey from Craig's Court to the museum in Jercn
Street, and the appointment of Forbes as professor of natsa,
history to the Royal School of Mines just established in coo-
junction therewith. In 1852 was published the fourth ssd
concluding volume of Forbes and S. Henley's History of Br&ia
MoUusca; also his Monograph of the JBchinodertmaSa of tk
British Tertiaries (Palaeontographical Soc).
In 1853 Forbes held the presidency of the Geological Society
of London, and in the following year he obtained the fulfihaesi
of a long-cherished wish in his appointment to the professorship
of natural history in the university of Edinburgh, vacant br
the death of R. Jameson, his former teacher, Since his return
from the East in 1842, the determination and arrangement of
fossils, frequent lectures, and incessant literary work, indodisr.
the preparation of his palaeontologies! memoirs, had predndai
Forbes from giving that attention to the natural history parsons
of his earlier life which he had earnestly desired. It seemed test
at length be was to find leisure to reduce to order his stores d
biological information. He lectured at Edinburgh, in tfe
summer session of 1 854, and in September of that year he occupied
the post of president of the geological section at the Liverpool
meeting of the British Association. But he was taken ill jest
after he had commenced his winter's course of lectures a
Edinburgh, and after not many days' illness he died at Warax,
near Edinburgh, on the 18th of November 1854.
See Liter* ry Gauttr (ISToYemfcer 25, 1*54^ | Edinburgh Jfe»^U#»
sophical Journal (Ktr# Scr.), (1^55): Qmirt. Jfasjfw. GeoL Soc (Wit
1853); G. WiNon and A. Geikk, Ifcmeir af Edward Forbes (iS6j).
in which, pp. 5; trifi3t i* pvca a Hit of Forbes V writings. Sot ak>
Literary Pap<r*, edited by Love] I Rtcve (1855}. The foOovijg
works were ^ibutnoujlv; " On the TfrLKify Fluvioourifte
Formation of t he Isle of Wight *' (Gesl. Smmjfc edited by R. A C
Godwin-Austen (1856) i "The Natural History of the Europe**
Seas," edited And continued by R, A, C Godwin- Austen (1859).
JttRBES, JAMES DAVID (i8oo-*868>, Scottish physios,
was the fourth son of Sir William Forbes, 7th baronet of PftsEgo,
and was born at Edinburgh on the 20th of April 1800. Heenterad
the university of Edinburgh in. 1825, and soon afterwards began
to contribute papers to the Edinburgh Philosophical JountJ
anonymously under the signature " A." At the age of nineteen
he became a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in
1832 he was elected to the Royal Society of London. A year later
he was appointed professor of natural philosophy in Edinbni^k
University, in succession to Sir John Leslie and in competition
with Sir David Brewster, and daring his tenure of that office.
which he did not give up till i860, he not only proved fc«w— *i
an active and efficient teacher, but also did much to imp rove
the internal conditions of the university. In 1859 he was ap-
pointed successor to Brewster in the printipalship of the United
College of St Andrews, a position which he held until his death
at Clifton on the 31st of December x868«
As a scientific investigator he is best known, for his researches
on heat and on giaders. • Between 1836 and 1844 he published
in the Trans. Roy. Soc Ed. four series of M Researches on Heat,'*
in the course of which he described the polarization of heat by
tourmaline, by transmission through a bundle of thin mica
ptates Inclined to the transmitted ray, and by reflection from the
multiplied surfaces of a pile of mica plates placed at the pobuis*
ing angle, and 'also its circular polarization by two internal
PQRBJEBi SIR Ji^FORCELUDHI
*Jv
■eflectioMiB rhemhioftoCbiait Hb work won him thoRusafcrd
taedal of the Royal Society In 1838, and in 1843 2m received its
lUyalmedelfor apaperoathe" Transparency of the Atmosphere
nad die Law* of Extinction oi the Sun's Rays passing through it."
£a 1846 he began experiment* on the temperature of the earth
at diflereat depth* and in different soils near Edinburgh, which)
yielded determinations of the thermal conductivity of trap-tufa,
sandstone and pure loose sand* Toward* the end of his life
he wai occupied with experimental inquiries into the law* of
the conduction of Kent in bar*, and hie last piece of work was
to show that the thermal conductivity of iron diminiahea with
tnctease of temperature. Hi* attention was directed to the
question of the flow of gliders in 1840 when her met Louis
Agassis at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association, and
iik subsequent years he made several visits to Switzerland and
also to Norway for the purpose of obtaining! accurate data. His
observations led him to the view that a glacier is an imperfect
fluid or a viscous body which is urged down slopes of a certain
inclination by the mutual pressure of its parts, and involved
him in some controversy with Tyndall and others both as to
priority and to scientific principle. Forbes was also interested
in geology, and published memoirs on .the thermal springs of
the Pyrenees, on the extinct volcanoes of the Vivarais (Ardeche),
on the geology of the Cuchullin and Eildon hills, &c. In addition
to about 150 scientific papers,, he wrote Travels through the Alps
of Savoy end Other Parts of the Pennine Chain, with Observations
on the Phenomena of Glaciers (1843); Norway and its Glaciers
(t 85a) ; Occasional Papers on the Theory, oj Glaciers (1859); A Tout
0/ Mont Blanc and Uonte Rosa (1855). He was also the author
(185a) of the "Dissertation on the Progress of Mathematical
and Physical Science," published in the 8th edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica\ •
^ Set F&roes's Life end Letters, by Principal Shah* Professor P.O.
Tait and A, Adaaa-Reilly (1873)$ Professor fetoes and Us Bio*
grapkers, by J % Tyndall (1873).
FORBES* Stft JOHN (1787-1861), British physician, was bom
st Cuttkbrae, Banffshire, in 1787* He attended the grammar
School at Aberdeen, and afterwards entered Marischal College.
After serving for nine years asa surgeon in the navy, he graduated
M.D. at Edinburgh in 1817, and then began to practise in
Penzance, whence he removed to Chichester in 183?. He took
up his residence in Londdn in 1840, and in the following year
was appointed physician to the royal household. He was
knighted m 1853, and died on the 13th of November x86x at
Whitchurch in Berkshire. Sir John Forbes was better known
as an author and editor than as a practical physician. His
works include the following;~6r»ft»ai Casts . . illustrating
ike Use of the Stethoscope and Percussion in the Diagnosis of
Diseases of the Chest (1824); Illustrations of Modern Mesmerism
(2845); A Physician's Boliday (zst ed., 1849); Memorandums
made in Ireland in the Autumn if 18 $2 (a vols.* 1853); Sight-
seeing m Germany and the Tyrol in the Autumn of s8ss (1856).
He was joint editor with A. Tweedie and J. Conolly of The
Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine (4 vols., 1833*1835); and in
1836 he founded the British and Foreign Medical Review, which,
after a period oi prosperity, involved Us editor m pecuniary
loss, and was discontinued in 1847, partly in consequence of
the advocacy in its later numbers of doctrines obnoxious to
the profession.
FORBES, a municipal town of Ashbujrnham county, New
South Wales, Australia, a8o m. W. by N. from Sydney, on the
Lachlan river, and with a station on the Great Western railway.
Pop. (1001) 4313. Its importance as a commercial centre is due
to its advantageous position between the northern and southern
markets. It has steam-sawing and flour-mills, breweries and
wool-scouring establishments; while the surrounding country
produces good quantities of cereals, lucerne, wine and fruit.
FORBES-ROBERTSON, JOHNSTON (1853- ), English
actor, was the son of John Forbes-Robertson of Aberdeen, an
art critic He was educated at Charterhouse, and studied at
the Royal Academy schools with a view to becoming a painter.
But though be kept up his interest in that art, in 1874 he turned
to the tfriflitit tT ^ fl hfig hff ftpt anpouenct Id London** ChasttlardL
in Mary, Queen of Scots. He studied under Samuel Phelps, from
whom ho learnt the traditions of the tragic stage. He played
with the Bancrofts end with John Hare, supported Mist Mary
Anderson in both England and America, and also acted at
different times with Sir Henry Irving. His refined end artistic,
style, and beautiful voice and elocution made him 4 marked
man on the English stag*, -and in Flnerou The Profligate at the
Garrick theatre (1880), under Hare's management, he established
his position as one of the most individual of London acton.
In 1605 he started nnder his own inanagement at the Lyceum
withMrsPaUick.Csir4>beu\ptCKhcingJetfs»^o^ /s^ Hamlet*
Macbeth and also some modem plays; hie impersopation as
Hamlet was especially fine, and hii capacity as a semantic
actor was shewn to great advantage also in. John Davidson's
For the Crown and in M«*t*ilinck's P*^ **f A* 4rfjo*oV. In
1000 he married the actress Gertrude Elliot t, with whom, as his
leading lady, he appealed at various theatres, producing in
subsequent years. The Light that Paikd, Madeleine Lucettc
Riley's Mice and Men, end G. Bernard Shaw's Caesar and
Cleopatra, Jerome K. Jerome's Passing of the Third PUor.Bech,
ate His brothes* Ian Robertson (b. 183$ and Nomen Forbes
(b. 1850), had also bean well-known acton from about 1878
onwards*
FORBOt, CLAUDE ftfi (1656-1733). French naval cornmander,
was born in Provence, of a family of high standing, in 1656,
High-spirited and ungovernable in his boyhood, he tan away
from his home, and through the influence of an uncle entered
the navy, serving his first campaign in 1075. For a short time
he quitted the navy and entered the army, bat soon returned to
his nrst choke. He made under D'Eetree* the AmeticsAcampaign,
and under Duquesne that of Algiers in 1683, on all occasions
distinguishing himself by his impetuous courage. The most
remarkable episode of Ms life was Ms mission to Sfam. During
the administration of the Greek adventurer Phaulcon in that
country, the project was formed of introducing the Christian
religion and European civilisation, and the king sent an embassy
to Louis XIV. In response a French embassy was sent out,
Forbin accompanying the chevalier de ChaumoM with the
rank of major. When Chaumont returned to France, Forbin
was induced to remain in the. service of the Siamese king, and
accepted, though with much reluctance, the posts of grand
admiral, generalof all the king's armies and governor of Bangkok.
His position, however, was soon made untenable by the jealousy
and intrigues of the minister Phaulcon; and at the end el two
years he kit Siam, reaching France in x68& He was afterwards
fully engaged in active service, first with Jean Bart in the war
with England, when they were both captured and taken to
Plymouth. They succeeded in making their escape and were
soon serving their country again. Forbin was wounded at the
battle of La Hogue, and greatly distinguished himself at the
battle of Lagos. He served under D'Estrece at the taking of
Barcelona, was sent ambassador to Algiers, and in 170s took a
brilliant part in the Mediterranean in the War of the Spanish
Succession. In 1 706 he took command of a squadron at Dunkirk,
and captured many valuable prises from the Dutch and the
English. In 2708 he was entrusted with the command elthe
squadron which was to convey the Pretender to Scotland; but
so effectually were the coasts guarded by pyng that the expedi-
tion failed, and returned to Dunkirk. Forbin was now beginning
to be weighed down with the infirmities of age and the toils of
service, and in 17x0 be retired to a country bouse near Marseilles.
There be spent part of his time, in writing his memoirs, published
in 1730* which are full of interest and are written in a graphic
and attractive style. Forbin died on the 4th of March 1733-
FORCSLUNL BGIDIO (1688-1708), Italian philologist, was
born at Fenefr in the district of Treviso and belonged to a very
poor family. He went to the seminary at Padua in 1704, studied
under Facciolati, and in due course attained to the priesthood
From 2724 to 1731 he held the office of rector of the seminary
at Ceneda, and from 1731 to 1765 that of father confessor in
the seminary of Padua. The remaining years of his life wen
646
FORCHHAMMER— FORD, E. O.
mainly spent to his native village. He died at Padua in 1768
before the completion of the great work on which he had long
co-operated with Facciolati. This was the vast Latin Lexicon
(see Facciolati), which has formed the basis of all similar
works that have since been published. He was engaged with his
Herculean task for nearly 35 years, and the transcription of the
manuscript by Luigi Violato occupied eight years more.
FORCHHAMMBR, JOHANN GEORQ (1704-1865), Danish
mineralogist and geologist, was* born at Husum, Schleswig, on
the 34th of July 1704, and died at Copenhagen on the 14th of
December 1865. After studying at Kiel and Copenhagen from
181 5 to 1818, he Joined Oersted and Laurits Esmarch in their
mineralogical exploration of Bornholm, and took a considerable
share in the labours of the expedition. In 1820 he obtained
his doctor's degree by a chemical treatise De mangano, and
immediately after set out on a journey through England, Scotland
and the Faeroe Islands. In 2823 he was appointed lecturer
at Copenhagen University on chemistry and mineralogy; in
1829 he obtained a similar post in the newly established poly-
technic school; and In 1831 he was appointed professor of
mineralogy in the university, and in 1848 became curator of the
geological museum. From 1835 to 1837 he made many contribu-
tions to the geological survey of Denmark. On the death of
H. C. Oersted in 185 1, he succeeded him as director of the
polytechnic school and secretary of the Academy of Sciences.
In 1850 he began with J. Steenstrup and Worsaae various
anthropological publications which gained a high reputation.
As a public instructor Forchhammer held a high place and con-
tributed potently to the progress of his favourite studies in his
native country. He interested himself in such practical questions
as the introduction of gas into Copenhagen, the establishment
of the firr "brigade it Rosenberg and the boring of artesian wells.
Among hi* more important works arc — Loertfog 1 de enkelte
RadiiCtkrs Cftemi (1B41); Datimarki feogn&itiskt Fwkold (1835);
Om de Barnholmske Kuljarmatumtr (1836); Dii myere Kridt i Dan-
mark (1847); Bidrag, iti Skitdrinten af Danmarki geograpkiske
Fvrhotd (tS5S)p A list of hU con tribut ions to sdenti fir periodicals,
Daniih, English end German, will be found in the Catalogue of
Scientific Papers published by the Royal Society of L don. a One
of the must interesting and most recent is M On th^ Constitution of
Sea Water at Different Depths and in Ditlercnt Latitudes," in the
Proceedings of the Roy. Soc. xu. (1863-1863).
FORCHHAMMER, PETER WIUHELM (iSoi-iB^h German
Classical archaeologist, was born at Husum in Schleswig on the
93rd of October 1801. He was educated at the Labeck gymnasium
and the university of Kiel, with which he was connected for
nearly 65 years. In 1830-1834 and 1838-1840 he travelled in
Italy, Greece, Asia Minor and Egypt. In 1843 he was appointed
professor of philology at Kiel and director of the archaeological
museum founded by himself in co-operation with Otto Jahn.
He died On the 8th of January 1804. Forchhammer was a
democrat in the best sense of the word, and from 1871 to 1873
represented the progressive party of Schleswig-Holstein in the
German Reichstag. His published works deal chiefly with
topography and ancient mythology. His travels had convinced
him that a full and comprehensive knowledge of classical
antiquity could only be acquired by a thorough acquaintance
with Greek and Roman monuments and works of art, and a
detailed examination of the topographical and climatic condi-
tions of the chief localities of the ancient world. These principles
are illustrated in his HtUenika. Griechenland. 1m Neuen das
Alte (1837), which contains his theory of the origin and explana-
tion of the Greek myths, which he never abandoned, in spite of
the attacks to which it was subjected. According to him, the
myths arose from definite local (especially atmospheric and
aquatic) phenomena, and represented the annually recurring
processes of nature as the acts of gods and heroes; thus, in
Ac hill (1853), the Trojan War is the winter conflict of the elements
in that district. Other similar short treatises are: DieGrUndung
Rons (1868); Daduckos (1875), on the language of the myths
and mythical buildings; , Die Wanderungen dcr Inackostockler
lo (1880); Prolegomena tur Mylhalogie als Wissenschaft und
Lesikon dor Mytkensproche (1891). Amongst his topographical
works mention may be made of: TofograpkU von Aiken (1841),
Besckrtibung der Bbent von Troja (1850), a commentary e* s
map of the locality executed by T. A. Spratt (see Jewnd 4
the Royal Geographical Society, xii., 1842); Tofogwafkt* 71*
barum Hepiapylarum (1854); Erklartmg der Ilias (1&&4I ca
the basis of the topographical and physical peculia riti es of :k
plain of Troy. His DemokratcnbUchUin (1849), in the main a
discussion of the Aristotelian theory of the state, and Du
Athener und SokraUs (1837), in which, contrary to the abacs
universal opinion, he upheld the procedure of the Athesaxa
as perfectly legal and their verdict as a perfectly jus* one, ass
deserve notice.
For a full list of his I works see the obituary notice by E.AIberti*
C. Bursian's Biograpkisches JahrbuchfUr Altertnmskumda, xx. (1897).
also J. Sass in AUgemeine deutsche Biographic, and A- Hocck *sd
L. C. P ertach.P . W. Forchhammer (1898).
FORCHHUM. a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavxra.
near the confluence of the Wiesent and the Regnitx, 16 m, S5X
of Bamberg. Pop. (1005) 84x7. It has four Roman Catholic
churches, including the Gothic Collegiate church and a Pro-
testant church. Among the other public buildings are the
progymnasium and .an orphanage. The industries of the ton
include spinning and weaving, bleaching and dyeing, bone tod
glue works, brewing and paper-making. The spacious chateta
occupies the site of the Carolingian palace which wee destroyed
in 1246.
Forchhdm is of very early origin, having been the residence
of the Carolingian sovereigns, including Charlemagne, in tie
9th century. Consequently many diets were held here, sad
here also Conrad I. and Louis the Child were chosen Gersna
kings. The town was given by the emperor Henry II. in too?
to the bishopric of Bamberg, and, except for a short period
during the nth century, it remained in the possession of the
bishops until 1802, when it was ceded to Bavaria. In August
1706 a battle took place near Forchhetnl between the Freaca
and the Austrians. The fortifications of the town were <£**
mantled in 1838.
See Hubsch, Chronik der Stadt Forekhetm (Nuremberg. 1867).
FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW (1852-1001), English sculptor,
was born in London. He received some education as a palate?
in Antwerp and as a sculptor in Munich under Professor Wig*
milller, but was mainly self-taught. His first contribution to
the Royal Academy, in 1875, was a bust of his wife, and is
portraiture he may be said to nave achieved his greatest suae*
His busts are always extremely refined and show his sitters st
their best. Those (in bronze) of his fellow-artists Arthur Bicker
(1894), Briton Riviere and Sir W. Q. Orchardson (1895), Sir
L. Alma Tadema (1896), Sir Hubert von Herkomer and Sir
John Millais (1897), and of A. J. Balfour are all striking likenesses,
and are equalled by that in marble of Sir Frederick Bram*el
(for the Royal Institution) and by many more. He gained
the open competition for the statue of Sir Rowland HOI, erected
in x88a outside the Royal Exchange, and followed it in 1SJ3
with " Henry Irving as Hamlet," now in the Guildhall tft
gallery. This seated statue, good as it is, was soon surpassed
by those of Dr Dale (1898, in the city museum, Birxningfcan)
and Professor Huxley (1900), but the colossal memorial ststoe
of Queen Victoria (1901), for Manchester, was less successfd
The standing statue of W. E. Gladstone (1804, forthe City Libenl
Club, London) is to be regarded as one of Ford's better portrait
works. The colossal " General Charles Gordon," camel-mounted,
for Chatham, " Lord Strathnairn," an equestrian group ice
Knightsbridge, and the " Maharajah of Mysore " (xooo) compnst
his larger works of the kind. A beautiful nude recuxnbezl
statue of Shelley (189s) upon a cleverly-designed base, which is
not quite impeccable from the point of view of artistic taste,
is at University College, Oxford, and a simplified version w»
presented by him to be set up on the shore of Viareggio, where
the poet's body was washed up. Ford's ideal work has great
charm and daintiness; his statue u Folly " (1886) was bough!
by the trustees of the Chantrey Fund, and was followed by otha
statues or statuettes of a similar order: " Peace " (1890), whkk
secured his election as an associate of the Royal Academy,
1 " Echo" (1895), on which he was elected fun* member, w Ita
FORD, J.
641
Egyptian Singer w (2«o), M Applause" (1893K " Glory to the
IDead " (1901) and lf Snowdrift " (1902). Ford's influence on
the younger generation of sculptors was considerable and of
good effect. -His charming disposition rendered him extremely
popular, and when he died a monument was erected to his
memory (C. Lucchesi, sculptor, J. W. Simpson, architect) in
St John's Wood, near to where he dwelt.
See Scolptueb; also M. H. Spielmann, British Sculpture and
Sculptors of To-day (London, 1901).
FORD, JOHH (1586-^.1640), English dramatist, was baptised
on the 1 7th of April x 586 at IUington in north Devon. He came
of a good family) his father was in the commission of the peace
and his mother was a sister of Sir John Popham, successively
attorney-general and lord chief justice. The name of John
Ford appears in the university register of Oxford as matriculating
ml Exeter College in 2602. Like a cousin and namesake (to whom,
with other members of the society of Gray's Inn, he dedicated
his play of The Lever's Melancholy), the future dramatist entered
the profession of the law, being admitted of the Middle Temple
in 1602; but he seems never to have been called to the bar.
Four years afterwards he made his first appearance as an author
with an elegy called Fume's Memorial, or the Earl of Devonshire
deceased, and dedicated to the widow of the earl (Charles Blount,
Lord Mountjoy, " colonized," to use Ford's expression, by King
James in 1603 for his services in Ireland) — a lady who would
have been no unfitting heroine for one of his own tragedies of
lawless passion, the famous Penelope, formerly Lady Rich.
This panegyric, which is accompanied by a series of epitaphs
and is composed in a strain of fearless extravagance, was, as
the author declares, written " unfee'd "; it shows that Ford
sympathized, as Shakespeare himself is supposed to have done,
with the " awkward fate " of the countess's brother, the earl of
Essex. Who the " flint-hearted Lycia " may be, to whom the
poet seems to allude as his own disdainful mistress, is unknown;
indeed, the record of Ford's private life is little better than a
blank. To judge, however, from the dedications, prologues and
epilogues of his various plays, heseemstohaveenjoyed the patron*
age of the earl, afterwards duke, of Newcastle, " himself a muse "
after a fashion, and Lord Craven, the supposed husband of the
ex-queen of Bohemia. Ford's tract of Honor Triumphant, or the
Peeres Challenge (printed 1606 and reprinted by the Shakespeare
Society with the Line of Life, in 1843), and the simultaneouslypub-
lished verses The Monarches Meeting, or the King of Denmarkes
Welcome into England, exhibit him as occasionally meeting the
festive demands of court and nobility; and a kind of moral
essay by him, entitled A Line of Life (printed 1620), which
contains references to Raleigh, ends with a climax of fulsome
praise to the address of King James I. Yet at least one of Ford's
plays (The Broken Heart, ill. 4) contains an implied protest
against the absolute system of government generally accepted
by the dramatists of the early Stuart reigns. Of his relations
with his brother-authors little is known; ft was natural that he
should exchange complimentary verses with James Shirley,
and that he should join in the chorus of laments over the death
of Ben Jonson. It is more interesting to notice an epigram in
honour of Ford by Richard Crashaw, morbidly passionate in
one direction as Ford was in another. The lines run:
" Thou cheat'st us, Ford : maVst one seem two by art :
What is Love's Sacrifice but the Broken Heart r "
It has been concluded that in the latter part of his life he
gratified the tendency to seclusion for which he was ridiculed
in The Time Poets (Choice Drollery, 1656) by withdrawing from
business an<J from literary life in London, to his native place;
but nothing is known as to the date of his death. His career
as a dramatist very probably began by collaboration with other
authors. With Thomas Dekker he wrote The Fairy Knight
and The Bristowe Merchant (licensed in 1624, but both unpub-
lished), with John Webster A late Murther of the Sonne upon
the Mother (licensed in 1624). A play entitled An ill Beginning
has a good End, brought on the Stage* as early as 1623 rod attri-
buted to Ford, was (if his) his earliest acted play; whether
Sir Thomas Overbury's Ufa and untimely Death (26x5) was a
play is extremely doubtful; some lines of indignant regret by
Ford on the same subject are still' preserved. He is also said
to have written, at dates unknown, The London Merchant
(which, however, was an earlier name for Beaumont and Fletcher's
Knight of the Burning Pestle} and The Royal Combat; a tragedy
by him, Beauty in o Trance, -was entered in the Stationers*
Register in 2653, but never printed. These three (or fpur)
plays were among those destroyed by Warburton's cook. The
Queen, or the Excellency of the Sea, a play of inverted passion,
containing some fine sensuous lines, printed in 2653 by Alexander
Singhe for private performance, has been recently edited by W.
StuDg(Materiatien*ur Kunded.tttterem engl. Dramas, 23, Louvain,
1006), and is by him on internal evidence confidently claimed
as Ford's. Of the plays by Ford preserved to us the dates spari
little more than a decade— the earliest, The Lover's Melancholy,
having been acted in 2628 and printed in 2629, the latest, The
Lady's Trial, acted in 2638 and printed in 2630.
When writing The haver's Melancholy, it would seem that
Ford had not yet become fully aware of the bent of his own
dramatic genius, although he was already master of his powers
of poetic expression. He was attracted towards domestic tragedy
by an irresistible desire to sound the depths of abnormal conflicts
between passion and circumstances, to romantic comedy by a
strong though not widely varied imaginative faculty, and by
a delusion that he was possessed of abundant comic humour.
In his next two works, undoubtedly those most characteristic*
ally expressive of his peculiar strength, 'tis Pity she's a Whore
(acted c. 2626) and The Broken Heart (acted c. 2629), both
printed in 2633 with the anagram of his name Fide Honor, he
had found horrible situations which required dramatic explana-
tion by intensely powerful motives. Ford by no means stood
alone among English dramatists in his love of abnormal subjects;
but few were so capable of treating them sympathetically, and
yet without that reckless grossness or extravagance of expression
which renders the morally repulsive aesthetically intolerable,
or converts the horrible into the grotesque. For In Ford's
genius there was real refinement, except when the " supra-
sensually sensual " impulse or the humbler self-delusion referred
to came into play. In a third tragedy, Love's Sacrifice (acted
c. 1630; printed in 2633), he again worked on similar materials;
but this time he unfortunately essayed to base the interest of
his plot upon an unendurably unnatural possibility— doing
homage to virtue after a fashion which is in itself an insult.
In Perhin Warbech (printed 2634; probably acted a year later)
he chose an historical subject of great dramatic promise sod
psychological Interest, and sought to emulate the glory of the
great scries of Shakespeare's national histories. The effort is
one of the most laudable, as it was by no means one of the least
successful, in the dramatic literature of this period. The Fancies
Chaste and Noble (acted before 2636, printed 2638), though it
includes scenes of real force and feeling, is dramatically a failure,
of which the main idea is almost provokingly slight and feebfe;
and The Lady's Trial (acted 2638, printed 2639) is only redeemed
from utter wearisomeness by an unusually even pleasingness
of form. There remain two other dramatic works, of very
different kinds, in which Ford co-operated with other writers,
the mask of The Sun's Darling (acted 2624, printed 2657),
hardly to be placed in the first rank of early compositions, and
The Witch of Edmonton (printed 2658, but probably acted about
2622), in which we.see Ford as a joint writer with Dekker and
Rowley of one of the most powerful domestic dramas of the
English or any other stage.
A few notes may be added on some of the more remarkable of the
plays enumerated. A wholly baseless anecdote, condensed into a
stinging epigram by Endymion Porter, asserted that The Lover's
Melancholy was stolen by Ford from Shakespeare s papers. Un-
doubtedly, the madness of the hero of this play of Ford's occasionally
recalls Hamlet, while the heroine is one of the many, and at the same
time one of the most pleasing, parallels to Viola. But neither of
them is a copy, as Friar Bonaventura in Ford's second play may be
said to be a copy of Friar Lawrence, whose kindly pliability he
disagreeably exaggerates, or as D'Avoloa in Love's Sacrifice is dearly
modelled on Iago. The plot of The Lover's Melancholy, which is
ineffective because it leaves no room for suspense in the mind of
64*
FORD, J.
the reader, seems original; in the dialogue, on the other hand, a
justly famous passage in Act i. (the beautiful version of the story
of the nightingale's death) is translated from Strada; while the
scheme 01 the tedious interlude exhibiting the various forms of
madness b avowedly taken, together with sundry comments, from
Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy. Already in this play Ford
exhibits the singular force of bis pathos; the despondent misery
of the aged Meleander.and the sweetness of the last scene, in which
his daughter comes back to him, alike go to the heart. A situation
—hazardous in spite of its comic substratum— between Thaumasta
and the pretended Parthenophil is conducted, as Gifford points out,
with real delicacy; bet the comic scenes are merely stagy, not-
withstanding, or by reason of, the effort expended on them by the
author.
'Tis Pity she's a Whore has been justly recognised aa a tragedy
of extraordinary power. Mr Swinburne, in his eloquent essay on
Ford, has rightly shown what is the meaning of this tragedy, and
has at the same time indicated wherein consists its poison. Ho
dwells with great force upon the different treatment applied by Ford
to the characters of the two miserable lovers— brother and sister.
" The sin once committed, there b no more wavering or flinching,
possible to bhn, who has fought so hard against the demoniac posses-
sion; while she who resigned body and soul to the tempter, almost
at a word, remains liable to the influences of religion and remorse."
This different treatment shows the feeling of the poet — the feeling
for which he seeks to evoke our inmost sympathy— *o oscillate
between the belief that an awful crime brings with it its awful
punishment (and it is sickening to observe how the argument by
which the Friar persuades Annabella to forsake her evil courses
mainly appeals to the physical terrors of retribution), and the
notion that there is something fatal, something irresistible, and
therefore in a sense setf-justified, in so dominant a passion. The
key-note to the conduct of Giovanni lies in bis words at the close of
the first
" All this IH do, to free me from the rod
Of vengeance; else M swear my fate's my god."
Thus there is no solution of the conflict between passion on the one
side, and law, duty and religion on the other; and passion triumphs,
in the dying words of "the student struck blind and mad by
passion "—
" O, I bleed fast!
Death, thou'rt a guest long look'd for; I embrace
Thee and thy wounds: O, my last minute comes!
Where'er I go, let me enjoy this grace
Freely to view my Annabella *s face."
It has been observed by J. A. Symonds that " English poets have
given us the right key to the Italian temperament. . . . The love
of Giovanni and Annabella is rightly depicted as more imaginative
than sensual." It b difficult to allow the appositeness of thb
special illustration: on the other band, Ford has even in thb case
shown bis art of depicting sensual passion without grossness of
expression; for the exception in Annabella's language to Soranao
seems to have a special intention, and b true to the pressure of
the situation and the revulsion produced by it in a naturally weak
.*<i Elding mind. The entire atmosphere, so to speak, of the play
g, and b not rendered less so by the underplot with Hippolita.
'Tis Pity she's a Whore war translated into French by Maurice
Maeterlinck under the title of Annobetta, and represented at the
Theatre de l'CEuvre in 1804. The translator prefixes to the version
an eloquent appreciation of Ford's genius, especially in hb portraits
of women, whose fate it b to live "dans les tenebres, lescrainteset
leslarmes."
Like thb tragedy, The Broken Heart was probably founded upon
tome Italian or other novel of the day; but since in the latter
instance there b nothing revolting in the main idea of the subject,
the play commends itself as the most enjoyable, while, in respect of
many excellences, an unsurpassed specimen of Ford's dramatic
genius. The complicated plot b constructed with greater skill
than b usual with thb dramatist, and the pathos of particular
situations, and of the entire character of Penthsa — a woman doomed
to hopeless misery, but capable of seeking to obtain for her brother
a happiness which his cruelty has condemned her to forego — has an
intensity and a depth which are 1 all Ford's own. Even the lesser
characters are more pleasing than usual, and some beautiful lyrics
are interspersed in the play.
Of the other plays written by Ford alone, onty The Chronicle His-
tone of Perkin Warbeck. A Strange Truth, appears to call for special
attention. A repeated perusal of this drama suggests the judgment
that it b overpraised when ranked at no great distance from Shake-
speare's national dramas. Historical truth need not be taken
into consideration in the matter; and if, notwithstanding Tames
Gairdncr's essay appended to his Life and Reitn of Richard III.,
there are still credulous persons left to think and assert that Perkin
was not an impostor, they will derive little satisfaction from Ford's
play, which with really surprising skill avoids the slightest indication
as to the poet's own belief on the subject. That this tragedy should
have been reprinted in 1714 and acud in 1745 only *how* that the
public, as b often the case, had an eye to the catastrophe rather'
than to the development of the action. • The dramatic rapahflirifi
of the subject are, however, great, and it afterwards attracted
Schiller, who. however, seems to have abandoned it in favour of
the similar theme of the Russian Demetrius. Had Slsakespeatc
treated it, he would hardly have contented himself with investiaj
the hero with the nobility given by Ford to thb persoaage of lus
play,— for it b hardly possible to speak of a personage aa a ckaracia
when the due to hb conduct b intentionally withheld. Nor could
Shakespeare have failed to bring out with greater
distinctness the dramatic features in Henry VII., whom Ford
and
, . ... igint
Tudor age. The play b, however, founded on Bacon's Life, of
which the text b used by' Ford with admirable discretion, and oa
Thomas Gainsford's True and Wonderful History of Perkin Warbeck
(1616). The minor characters of the honest old Huntley, whom the
Scottish king obliges to bestow his daughter's hand upon Warbeck.
and of her lover the faithful " Dalyell, are moat effectively drawn;
even " the men of Judgment,'' the adventurers who surround the
chief adventurer, are spirited sketches, and the Irishnsaai .
them has actually some humour; while the style of the play is, as
befits a " Chronicle History," so clear and straightforward as to
make it easy as well as interesting to read.
The Witch of Edmonton was attributed by Its publisher to WaTbm
Rowley, Dekker, Ford, " Ac," but the body of the play ha* bees
generally held to be ascribable to Ford and Dekker only. The
subject of the play was no doubt suggested by the case of the reported
witch, Elisabeth Sawyer, who was executed in 1621. Swinburne
agrees with Gifford in thinking Ford the author of the whole oi the
first act; and he b most assuredly right in considering that " then?
is no more admirable exposition of a pUy on the English stage-*'
Supposing Dekker to be chiefly responsible for the scenes dealing
with the unfortunate old woman whom persecution as a witch
actually drives to become one, and Ford for the dome stic tragedy
of the bigamist murderer, It cannot be denied that both divisions
of the subject are effectively treated, while the more important part
of the task fell to the share of Ford. Yet it may be doubted whether
any such division can be safely assumed; and it may suffice to
repeat that no domestic tragedy has ever taught with snore effective
simplicity and thrilling truthfulness aha homely double lesson of the
folly of selfishness and the mad rashness of crime.
With Dekker Ford also wrote the mask of The Sun's Darting',
or, as seems most probable, they founded thb production upon
Phaeton, an earlier mask, of which Dekker had been sole author.
Gi Ids that Dekker'e hand is perpetually traceable in the
fir l ihuv tcts of The Sun's Darting, and through the whole of its
comic p j 1 1 , but that the last two acts are mainly Ford's. If so, he
is tV tui nor of the rather forced occasional tribute on the accession
of King Charles I., oi which the last act largely consbta. This
m*<k, which furnished abundant opportunities for the decora to rs.
muvk -ians and dancers, in showing forth bow the seasons aad their
delights 3 re successively exhausted by a " wanton darling,'* Ray*
bri >. ' the grandchild of the Sun, is said to have been very popular.
It c> it the same time commonplace enough in conception; but
thtr< it much that b charming in the descriptions, /onaoa and
JLy 1 < ing respectively laid under contribution in the course of the
du> 1 i£ue, and in one of the incidental lyrics.
Ford owes hb position among English dramatists to the
intensity of his passion, in particular scenes and passages where
the character, the author and the reader are alike lost in the
situation and in the sentiment evoked by it; and this gift is
a supreme dramatic gift. But hb plays— with the exception of
The Witch of Edmonton, in which he doubtless had a prominent
share— too often disturb the mind like a bad dream which ends
as an unsolved dissonance; and thb defect b a supreme dramatic
defect. It b not the rigid or the stolid who have the most reason
to complain at the insufficiency of tragic poetry such os Ford's;
nor b it that morality only which, as Ithodes says in The Broken
Heart, " b formed of books and school -traditions," which has
a right to protest against the final effect of the moat powerful
creations of hb genius. There b a molality which both
" Keeps the soul In tune.
At whose sweet music all our actions dance,"
and b able to physic
" The skkness of a mind
Broken with griefs."
Of that morality— er of that deference to the binding power
within man aad the ruling power above him— t r ag edy b the
truest expounder, even when it illustrates by contrasts; bat
the tragic poet who merely places the problem before us, and
bids as stand aghast with him at hs cruelty, b not to be l e ck oned
among the great masters of a divine art.
FORD, R.— FORDUN, JOHN OF
643
BxStUOGRAFHY.~-Tlie best edition of Fnrd ij that by Gifford, with
notes and introduction, revised with addition* to both text and
notes by Alexander Dyce (1869). An edition of the Pranttic Wvtkt
of Massinter and Ford appeared in it \-\ wUh an Fntr...du. 1 : ;■ 1 l by
Hartley Coleridge. The Best Plays vj Fotd were edited for ihe
" Mermaid Series " in 1888, with an introduction by W. H. l\a vchick
Ellis, and reissued in 1903. A. C. Swinburne's Essay on Ford"
is reprinted among his assays and Studies (187 51. Firkin Wat hick
and Tis Pity were translated into G ^y F. Bodentte'dt in
i860; and the latter again by F. Bki in 1 904. The prob abk sources
of the various plays are discussed in Emil Kwppcl 9 Qtutttntfvdien
s» den Dramen George Chapman's, Philip Matrinttr'i vn<f J<*n
Ford's {1897). [A. W, W.)
FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858), English author of one of the
earliest and best of travellers' Handbooks, was the eldest son of
Sir Richard Ford, who in 1789 was member of parliament for
East Grtnstead, and for many years afterwards chief police
magistrate of London. His mother was the daughter and
heiress of Benjamin Booth, a distinguished connoisseur in art.
He was called to the bar, but never practised, and in 1 830-1 833
he travelled in Spain, spending much of his time in the Alhambra
and at Seville. His first literary work (other than contributions
to the Quarterly Review) was a pamphlet, An Historical Inquiry
into the Unchangeable Character of a War in Spain (Murray,
1837), In re Ply to one called the Policy of England towards Spain,
issued under the patronage of Lord Palmerston. He spent the
winter of 1839-1840 in Italy, where he added largely to his
collection of majolica; and soon after his return he began, at
John Murray's invitation, to write his Handbook for Travellers
in Spain, with which his name is chiefly associated. He died on
the 1st of September 1858, leaving a fine private collection of
pictures to his widow (d. 1910), his.third wife, a daughter of Sir
A. Molesworth.
FORD, THOMAS (b. c. 1580), English musician, of whose
life little more is known than that he was attached to the court
of Prince Henry, son of James 1 His works also are few, but
they are sufficient to show the high stage of efficiency and musical
knowledge which the English school had attained at the beginning
of the x 7th century. They consist of canons and other concerted
pieces of vocal music, mostly with lute accompaniment. The
chief collection of his works is entitled Musike of Sundrie Kinds
set forth in Two Books, &c (1607), and the histories of music by
Burney and Hawkins give specimens of his art. Together with
Dowland, Immortalized in one of Shakespeare's sonnets, Ford
is the chief representative of the school which preceded Henry
Lawes.
FORDS, FRANCIS (d. 2770), British soldier, first appears in
the army list as a captain in the 39th Foot in 1 746. This regiment
was the first of the king's service to serve in India (hence its
motto Primus inlndis), and Forde was on duty there when in
1755 he became major, at the same time as Eyre Coote, soon to
become his rival, was promoted captain. At the express invita-
tion of Clive, Forde resigned his king's commission to take the
post of second in command of the EL Company's troops in
Bengal. Soon after Plassey, Forde was sent against the French
of Masulipatam. Though feebly supported by the motley,
rabble of an army which Anandraz, the local ally, brought into
the field, Forde pushed ahead through difficult country and
came upon the enemy entrenched at Condore. For four days
the two armies faced one another; on the fifth both commanders
resolved on the offensive and an encounter ensued. In spite
of the want of spirit shown by Anandras and his men, Forde In
the end succeeded in winning the battle, which was from first
to last a brilliant piece of work. Nor did he content himself
with this; on the same evening he stormed the French camp,
and Us pursuit was checked only by the guns of Masulipatam
Itself. The place was quickly invested on the land side, but
difficulties crowded upon Forde and his handful of men. For
fifty days little advance was made; then Forde, seeing the last
avenues of escape closing behind him, ordered an assault at
midnight on the 35th of January 1759. The Company's troops
lost one-third of their number, but the storm was a brilliant
and astounding success. Forde received less* than no reward.
The Company refused to confirm his lieat.-coloael's commission,
and he found himself junior to Eyre Coote, his old subaltern
in the 39th Foot. Nevertheless he continued to assist Clive,
and on the 35th of November 1759 won a success comparable
to Condore at Chinsurah (or Biderra) against the Dutch. A
year later he at last received bis commission, but was still
opposed by a faction of the directors which supported Coote.
Clive himself warmly supported Forde in these quarrels. In
1769, with Vansittart and Scrafton, Colonel Forde was sent out
with full powers to investigate every detail of Indian administra-
tion. Their ship was never heard of after leaving the Cape of
Good Hope on the 37th of December.
Monographs on Condore, Masulipatam and Chinsurah will be
found in Malleson's Decisive Battles of India.
FORDHAM , formerly a village of Westchester county, New
York, U.S.A., and now a part of New York Cky. It lies on the
mainland, along the eastern bank of the Harlem river, E. of the
northern end of Manhattan Island. It is the seat of Fordham
University (Roman Catholic), founded in 1841 as St John's
College, and since 1846 conducted by the Society of Jesus.
In 1907 the institution was rechartered as Fordham University,
and now includes St John's College high school and grammar
school, St John's College, the Fordham University medical school
(all in Fordham), and the Fordham University law school (4s
Broadway, New York City). In 1907-1008 the university had
96 instructors and (exclusive of 364 students in the high school)
336 students, of whom 105 were in St John's College, 31 in the
medical school, and xoo in the law school. In Fordham still
stands the house in which Edgar Allan Poe lived from 1844 to
1849 and in which he wrote M Annabel Lee," " Ulalume," Ac.
The hamlet of Fordham was established in 1669 by Jan Arcer
(a Dutchman, who called himself " John Archer " after coming
to America), who in that year received permission from Francis
Lovelace, colonial governor of New York, to settle sixteen
families on the mainland close by a fording-place of the Spuyten
Duyvil Creek, near where that stream enters the Harlem river.
Between 1655 and 1671 Archer bought from the Indians the
tract of land lying between Spuyten Duyvil Creek and the
Harlem river on the east and the Bronx river on the west, and
extending from the hamlet of Fordham to what is now High
Bridge. In 1671 Governor Lovelace erected this tract into the
manor of Fordham. In 1846 it was included with Morrisania
in the township of West Farms; and In 1873 with part of the
township of Yonkers was erected into the township of Kings-
bridge, which in 1874 was annexed to the city of New York, and
in 1898 became a part of the borough of the Bronx, New York
City.
CORDON, JOHN OF (d.c 1384), Scottish chronicler. The
statement generally made that the chronicler was bom at
Fordoun (Kincardineshire) has not been supported by any
direct evidence. It is certain that be was a secular priest, and
that be composed bis history in the latter part of the 14th
century; and it is probable that he was a chaplain in the
cathedral of Aberdeen. The work of Fordun is the earliest
attempt to write a continuous history of Scotland. We are
informed that Fordun's patriotic zeal was roused by the removal
or destruction of many national records by Edward III. and that
he travelled in England and Ireland, collecting material for his
history; This work Is divided into five books. The first three
are almost entirely fabulous, and form the groundwork on which
Boccc and Buchanan afterwards based their historical fictions,
which were exposed by Thomas Innes in his Critical Essay
(i. pp. 201-214). The 4th and 5th books, though still mixed
with fable, contain much valuable information, and become
more authentic the more nearly they approach the author's own
time. The 5th book concludes with the death of King David I.
in x x 53. Besides these five books, Fordun wrote part of another
book, and collected materials for bringing down the history to
a later period. These materials were used by 9 continnator who
wrote in the middle of the 15th century, and who b identified
with Walter Bower (9*.), abbot of the monastery of Inchcolm.
The additions of Bower form eleven books, and bring down
thejarrative to the death of King James I. in 1437. According
$44-
FORECLOSURE— FOREST LAWS
lo the custom of the time, the continuator did not hesitate to
interpolate Fordun's portion of the work with additioas of his
own, and the whole history thus compiled is known as the
ScotUkronicon.
The first printed edition of Fordun's work was that of Thomas
Gale in his Scriptores quindecim (vol. UL), which was published in
1691. This was followed by Thomas Hearne'a (5 vols.) edition in
1723. The whole work, including Bower's continuation, was pub-
lished by Walter Goodall at Edinburgh in 1759. In 1871 and 1873
Fordun's chronicle, in the original Latin and in an English transla-
tion, was edited by William F. Skene in The Historians of Scotland.
The preface to this edition collects all the biographical details and
gives full bibliographical references to MSS. and editions.
FORECLOSURE, in the law of mortgage, the extinguishment
by order of the court of a mortgagor's equity of redemption.
In the law of equity the object of every mortgage transaction
is eventually the repayment of a debt* the mortgaged property
being incidental by way of security. Therefore, although the
day named for repayment of the loan has passed and the mort-
gagor's estate is consequently forfeited, equity steps in to
mitigate the harshness of the common law, and will decree a
reconveyance of the mortgaged property on payment of the
principal, interest and costs. This right of the mortgagor to
relief is termed his " equity of redemption." But the right
must be exercised within a reaso n a b le time, otherwise he will
be foreclosed his equity of redemption and the mortgagee's
possession converted into an absolute ownership. Such fare-
closure is enforced in equity by a foreclosure action. An action
is brought by the mortgagee against the mortgagor in the
chancery division of the High Court in England, claiming that
an account may be taken of the principal and interest due to
the mortgagee, and that the mortgagor may be directed to pay
the same, with costs, by a day to be appointed by the court
and that in default thereof he may be foreclosed his equity of
redemption. English county courts have jurisdiction in fore-
closure actions where the mortgage or charge does not exceed
£500, or where the mortgage is for more than £500, but less than
that sum has been actually advanced. In a Welsh mortgage
there is no right to foreclosure. (See also Mostoaob.)
FOREIGN OFFICE, that department of the executive of the
United Kingdom which is concerned with foreign affairs. The
bead of the Foreign Office is termed principal secretary of state
for foreign affairs and his office dates from 1789. Between
that date and the Revolution there had been only two secretaries
of state, whose duties were divided by a geographical division
of the globe into northern add southern departments. The
duties of the secretary of the northern department of Europe
comprised dealings with the northern powers of Europe, while
the secretary of the southern department of Europe communi-
cated with France, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Italy, Turkey,
and also looked after Irish and colonial business, and carried
out the work of the Home Office. In 1782 the duties of these
two secretaries were revised, the northern department becoming
the Foreign Office. The secretary for foreign affairs is the official
agent of the crown in all communications between Great Britain
and foreign powers; his intercourse is carried .on either through
the representatives of foreign states in Great Britain or through
representatives of Great Britain abroad. He negotiates all
treaties or alliances with foreign states, protect* British subjects
residing abroad, and demands satisfaction for any injuries they
may sustain at the hands of foreigners. He. is assisted by two
under-secretarics of state (one of them a politician, the other
a permanent; civil servant), three assistant under-secretarics
(civil servants), a librarian, a head of the treaty department
and a staff of clerks. The departments of the Foreign Office
ate the African, American, commercial and sanitary, consular,
eastern (Europe), far eastern, western (Europe), parliamentary,
financial, librarian and keeper of the papers, treaties and registry.
In the case of important despatches and correspondence, these,
With the draft* of answers, are sent first to the permanent
under -secreUry, then to the prime minister, then to the sovereign
and, lastly, are circulated among the members of the cabinet.
The salary of the secretary for foreign affairs is £5000 per
that of the permanent under-secretary £seoo, the 1
under-secretary and the first assistant under-secretary, £1500,
and the other assistant under-secretaries £1200.
See Anson, Lam and Custom aj lh§ Constitution, part n.
FORELAND, NORTH and SOUTH, two chalk headlands ob
the Kent coast of England, overlooking the Strait of Dover,
the North Foreland forming the eastern projection of the Isle
of Thanet, and the South standing 3 m. N.E. of Dover. Both
present bold cliffs to the sea, and command beautiful views over
the strait. On the North Foreland (51* «i' N., i° rf E.) there
is a lighthouse, and on the South Foreland (51* 8}' N., x* 23' Ej
there are two. There is also a Foreland on the north coast of
Devonshire, 2} m. N.E. of Lynmouth, a fine projection of the
highlands of Exmoor Forest, overlooking the Bristol rhmnn^
and forming the most northerly point of the county.
FORESHORE, that part of the seashore which lies between
high- and low- water mark at ordinary tides. In the United
Kingdom it is ordinarily and prima facie vested in the crown,
except where it may be vested in a subject by ancient grant or
charter from the crown, or by prescription. Although numerous
decisions, dating from X795, have confirmed the prima fade
title of the crown, S. A. Moore in his History of Ike Fortshort
contends that the presumption is in favour of the subject rather
than of the crown. But a subject can establish a title by proving
an express grant from the crown or giving sufficient evidence
of user from which a grant may be presumed. ' The chief acts
showing title to foreshore are, taking wreck or royal fish, right
of fishing, ruining, digging and taking sand, seaweed, &c., em-
banking and enclosing. There is a public right of user in that
part of the foreshore which belongs to the crown, for the purpose
of navigation or fishery, but there is no right of passage over lands
adjacent to the shore, except by a particular custom. So thai,
in order to make the right available, there must be s highway
or other public land giving access to the foreshore. Thus it
has been held that the public have no legal right to trespass on
land above high-water mark for the purpose of bathing in the
sea, though if they can get to it they may bathe there (BlutUA
v. CaUtral, 1821, 5 B. & Ad. a68). There is no right in the public
to take sand, shells or seaweed from the shore, nor, except in
certain places by local custom, have fishermen the right to use
the foreshore or the soil above it for drawing up their boats, or
for drying their nets or similar purposes.
See S. A. Moore, History of the Fortshort and Iht lam raatial
thereto (1888) ; Coulson and Forbes, Law of Waters (loos).
FORESTALLING, in English criminal law, the offence of buying
merchandise, victual, 6tc., coming to market, or snaking any
bargain for buying the same, before they shall be in the market
ready to be sold, or roakLig any motion for *»k»"ffai the price,
or dissuading any person from coming to market or forbearing
to bring any of the things to market, Ice See Eno*06sikc.
FOREST LAWS, the general term for the old English restric-
tion laws, dealing with forests. One of the most cherished
prerogatives of the king of England, at the time when, ms
power was at the highest, was that of converting any portion
of the country into a forest in which he might enjoy the
pleasures of the chase. The earliest struggles between the
king and the people testify to the extent to which this pre*
rogative became a public grievance, and the charter by which
its exercise was bounded (Carta de Forests) was in substance
part of the greatest constitutional code imposed by his barons
upon King John. At common law it appears to have been the
right of the king to make a forest where he pleased, provided
that certain legal formalities were observed. The king having a
continual care for the preservation of the realm, and for the peace
and quiet of his subjects, he had therefore amongst many privi-
leges this prerogative, vis. to have hit place of recreation
wheresoever he would appoint. 1 Land once afforested became
subject to a peculiar system of laws, which, as well as the for-
malities required to constitute a valid afforestmeat, have been
carefully ascertained by the Anglo-Norman lawyers, ° A forest,"
1 Cokt i 4f«s^Joaw
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
•♦s
says Manwood, " b a certain territory of woody grounds and
fruitful pastures, privileged for .wild beasts and fowls- of forest,
chase, and warren to rest, and abide there in the safe protection
of the king, for his <delight and pleasure; which territory of
ground so privileged is mered and bounded with unremovable
marks, meres and boundaries, either known by matter of record
or by prescription; and also, replenished with wild beasts of
venery or chase,, and with great coverts of vert, for the succour
of the said beasts there to abide: for the preservation and
continuance of which said place, together with the vert and
venison there are particular officers, laws, and privileges belong-
ing to the same, requisite for that purpose, and proper only to a
forest and to no other place/' l And the same author distin-
guishes a forest, as " the highest franchise of princely pleasure,"
from the inferior franchises of chase, park and warren—named
in the order of their importance. The forest embraces all these,
and it is distinguished by having laws and courts of its own,
according to which offenders are justiceable. An offender in
a chase is to be punished by the common law; an offender in a
forest by the forest law. A chase is much the same as a pork,
only the latter is enclosed, and all of' them are distinguished
according to the class of wild beasts to which the privilege
extended. Thus beasts of forest (the " five wild beasts of
venery ") were the hart, the hind, the hare, the boar and the
wolf. The beasts of chase were also five, viz. the buck, the doe,
the fox, the marten and the roe. The beasts and fowls of warren
were the hare, the coney, the pheasant and the partridge.
The courts of the forest were three in number, viz. the court
of attachments, swainmote and justice-seat. The court of
attachments (called also the wood-mote) is held every forty
days for the foresters to bring in their attachments concerning
any hurt done to vert or venison («* viridi H venatione) in the
forest, and for the verderers to receive and mark the same, but
no conviction takes place. The swainmote, held three times in
the year, is the court to which all the freeholders within the forest
owe suit and service, and of which the verderers are the judges.
In this court all offences against the forest laws may be tried,
but no judgment or punishment follows. This is reserved for
the justice-seat, held every third year, to which the rolls .of
offences presented at the court of attachment, and tried at the
swainmote, are presented by verderers. The justice-seat is the
court of the chief justice in eyre, who, says Coke, " is commonly
a man of greater dignity than knowledge of the lawsof the forests;
and therefore where justice-seats are to be held some other
persons whom the king shall appoint are associated with him,
who together are to determine omnia ptacita forestae" There
were two chief justices for the forests intra and ultra Trentam
respectively. The necessary officers of a forest are a steward,
verderers, foresters, regarders, agisters and woodwards. The
verderer was a judicial officer chosen in full county by the free-
holders in the same manner as the coroner. His office was to
view and receive the attachments of the foresters, and to mark
them on his- rolls. A forester was " an officer sworn to preserve
the vert and venison in the forest, and to attend upon the wild
beasts within his bailiwick.'' The regarders were of the nature
of visitors: their duty was to make a regard (visitalio ntmorum)
every third year, to inquire of all offences, and of the concealment
of such offences by any officer of the forest. The business of the
agister was to look after the pasturage of the forest, and to receive
the payments for the same by persons entitled to pasture their
cattle in the forests. Both the pasturage and the payment were
called " agistment." The woodward was the officer who had
the care of the woods and vert and presented offences at the
court of attachment.
The legal conception of a forest was thus that of a definite
territory within which the code of the forest law prevailed to
the exclusion of the common law. The ownership of the soil
might be in any one, but the rights of the proprietor were limited
by the law* made for the protection of the king's wild beasts.
TTiese laws, enforced by fines often arbitrary and excessive, were
a great grievance to the unfortunate owners of land within or
k Manwood's Treatise of the Forest Laws (4th edition, 1717).
in the neighbourhood of the forest. The offence of " purpresture **
may be citeel as an example. This was an encroachment on the
forest rights, by building a house within the forest, and it made
no difference whether the land belonged to the builder or not.
Jn either case it was aa offence punishable by fines at discretion.
And if a man converted woodlands within the forest into arable
land, he was guilty of the offence known as " assarting," whether
the covert belonged to himself or not.
The hardships of the forest laws under the Norman kings,
and their extension to private estates by the process of afforest*
ment, were among the grievances which united the barons and
people against the king in the reign of John. The Great Charter
of King John contains clauses relating to the forest laws, but
no separate charter of the forest. The first charter of the forest
is that of Henry III., issued in 1217. " As an important piece
of legislation,' 1 said Stubbs,* " it must be compared with the forest
assize of 1 184, and with 44th, 47th and 48th clauses of the charter
of John. It is observable that most of the abuses which are
remedied by it are regarded as having sprung up since the
accession of Henry II.; but the most offensive afforestations
have been made under Richard and John. These latter are at
once disafforested; but those of Henry Il.'only so far as they
had been earned out to the injury of the landowners and outside
of the royal demesne." Land which had thus been once forest
land and was afterwards disafforested was known as purlieu-'
derived by Maawood from the French pur and /ten, i.e. M a place
exempt from the forest." The forest laws still applied in a
modified manner to the purlieu. The benefit of the disafforest-
ment existed only for the owner of the lands-, as to all other
persons the land was forest still, and the king's wild beasts were
to " have free recourse therein and safe return to the forest,
without any hurt or destruction other than by the owners of
the lands in the purlieu where they shall be found, and that only
to hunt and chase them back again towards the forest without
any forestalling" (Manwood, On the Fortst £<xw— article
" Purlieu ").
The revival of the forest laws was one of the means resorted
to by Charles I. for raising a revenue independently of parliament,
and the royal forests in Essex were so enlarged that they were
hyperbolicany said to include the whole county. The 4th earl
of Southampton was nearly ruined by a decision that stripped
him of bis estate near the New Forest. The boundaries of
Rockingham Forest were increased from 6 m. to 60, and
enormous fines imposed on the trespassers, — Lord Salisbury
being assessed in £20,000, Lord Westmoreland in £10,000, Sir
Christopher Hatton in £12,000 (Hallam's Constitutional History
•f England, c. viii.). By the statute 16 Charles I. c. 16 (1640)
the royal forests were determined for ever according to their
boundaries In the twentieth year of James, all subsequent
enlargements being annulled.
The forest laws, since the Revolution, have faDen into complete
disuse.
FORSSTS AMD FORESTRY. Although most people know
what a forest (Lat. forts, K out of doors ") is, a definition of it
which suits all cases is by no means easy to give. Manwood, in
his treatise of the Lowes of the Forest (1508), defines a forest as
H a certain territory of woody grounds, fruitful pastures, privi-
leged for wild beasts and fowls of forest, chase and warren, to
rest and abide in, in the safe protection of the king, for his princely
jtfelight and pleasure." This primitive definition has, in modern
times, when the economic aspect of forests came more into the
foreground, given place to others, so that forest may, in a general
way, now be described as " an area which is for the most part set
aside for the production of timber and other forest produce,
or which is expected to exercise certain climatic effects, or to
protect the locality against injurious influences."
As far as conclusions can now be drawn, it is probable that
the greater part of the dry land of the earth was, at some time,
covered with forest, which consisted of a variety of trees and
shrubs grouped according to climate, soil and configuration of
the several localities. When the old trees reached their limit
* Documents Mnstrotim of English History, p. 338*
M
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
of life, they disappeared, and younger trees look their place.
The conditions for an uninterrupted regeneration of the forest
were favourable, and the result was vigorous production by the
creative powers of soil and climate. Then came man, and by
degrees interfered, until in most countries of the earth the area
under forest has been considerably reduced. The first decided
interference was probably due to the establishment of domestic
animals; men burnt the forest to obtain pasture for their flocks.
Subsequently similar measures on an ever-increasing scale were
employed to prepare the land for agricultural purposes. More
recently enormous areas of forests were destroyed by reckless
cutting and subsequent firing in the extraction of timber (or
economic purposes.
It will readily be understood that the distribution and character
af the now remaining forests must differ enormously (see Plants:
Distribution). Large portions of the earth are still covered with
dense masses of tall trees, while others contain low scrub or grass
land, or are desert. As a general rule, natural forests consist of
a number of different species intermixed; but in some cases
certain species, called gregarious, have succeeded in obtaining
the upper hand, thus forming more or less pure forests of one
species only. The number of species differs very much. In
many tropical forests hundreds of species may be found on a
comparatively small area, in other cases the number is limited.
Burma has several thousand- species of trees and shrubs, Sind
has only ten species of trees. Central Europe has about forty
species, and the greater part of northern Russia, Sweden and
Norway contains forests consisting of about half a dozen species.
Elevation above the sea acts similarly to rising latitude, but the
effect is much more rapidly produced. Generally speaking, it
may be said that the Tropics and adjoining parts of the earth,
wherever the climate is not modified by considerable elevation,
contain broad-leaved species, palms, bamboos, &c. Here most
of the best and hardest timbers are found, such as teak, mahogany
and ebony. The northern countries are rich in conifers. Taking
a section from Central Africa to North Europe, it will be found
that south and north of the equator there is a large belt of dense
hardwood forest; then comes the Sahara, then the coast of the
Mediterranean with forests of cork oak; then Italy with oak,
olive, chestnut, gradually giving place to ash, sycamore, beech,
birch and certain species of pine; in Switzerland and Germany
silver fir and spruce gain ground. Silver fir disappears in cent ral
Germany, and the countries around the Baltic contain forests
consisting chiefly of Scotch pine, spruce and birch, to which,
in Siberia, larch must be added, while the lower parts of the
ground are stocked with hornbeam, willow, alder and poplar.
In North America the distribution is as follows: Tropical
vegetation is found in south Florida, while in north Florida it
changes into a subtropical vegetation consisting of evergreen
broad-leaved species with pines on sandy soils. On going north
in the Atlantic region, the forest becomes temperate, containing
deciduous broad-leaved trees and pines, until Canada is reached,
where larches, spruces and firs occupy the ground. Around
the great lakes on sandy soils the broad-leaved forest gives
way to pines. On proceeding west from the Atlantic region
the forest changes into a shrubby vegetation, and this into the
prairies. Farther west, towards the Pacific coast, extensive
forests are found consisting, according to latitude and elevation
above the sea, of pines, larches, fir, Thujas and Tsugas. In
Japan a tropical vegetation is found in the south, comprising^
palms, figs, ebony, mangrove and others. This is followed on"
proceeding north by subtropical forests containing evergreen
oaks, Podocarpus, tree-ferns, and, at higher elevations, Crypto-
tntria and Chamatcyparis. Then follow deciduous broad-leaved
forests, and finally firs, spruces and larches. In India the char-
acter o( the forests is governed chiefly by rainfall and elevation.
Where the former la heavy evergreen forests of Guttiferae,
Dipterocarpeae, Leguminosse, Euphorbias, figs, palms, ferns,
bamboos and india-rubber trees are found. Under a less copious
rainfall deciduous forests appear, containing teak and sal
(Skcrea robmstc) and a great variety of other valuable trees.
Under a still smaller, rainfall the vegetation becomes sparse,
containing acacias, Dalbcrgia sissoo and Tamari*. Where u*
rainfall is very light or nil, desert appears. In the Him&oyu,
subtropical to arctic conditions are found, the forests conuifiisg,
according to elevation, pines, firs, deodars, oaks, cbesuura,
magnolias, laurels, rhododendrons and bamboos. Ausuala,
again, has its own particular flora of eucalypts, of "whkh soot
two hundred species have .been distinguished, as well as waiua.
Some of the eucalypts' attain an enormous height.
Utility of Forcsls.—Ia the economy of man and of natct
forests are of direct and indirect value, the former chiefly thr&agi
the produce which they yield, and the latter through the in-
fluence whkh they exercise upon climate, the regulattoo e»
moisture, the' stability of the soil, the healthiness and bcaui?
of a country and allied subjects. The indirect utility vui U
dealt with first. A piece of land bare of vegetation is, through
the year, exposed to the full effect of sun and air current*. m
the climatic conditions which are produced by these agenocv
If, on the other hand, a piece of land is covered with a grc«i
of plants, and especially with a dense crop of forest vegetation,
it enjoys the benefit of certain agencies which modify tie
effect of sun and wind on the soil and the adjoining layers d
air. These modifying agencies are as follows: (i) The crova
of the trees intercept the rays of the sun and the falling r^a,
they obstruct the movement of air currents, and reduce radium
at night. (2) The leaves, flowers and fruits, augmented t?
certain plants which grow in the shade of the trees, form a li)s
of mould, or humus, which protects the soil against rapid chases
of temperature, and greatly influences the movement .of water
"* it. (j) The roots of the trees penetrate into the soil is il
directions, and bind it together. The effects of these ageaos
have been observed from ancient times, and widely dinenaf
views have been taken of ibem. Of late years, however, men
careful observations have been made at so-called parallel sutksss
that is to say, one station in the middle of a forest, and anothe
outside at some distance from its edge, but otherwise exposed
to the same general conditions. In this way, the foUovi.^
results have been obtained: (1) Forests reduce the tempenuK
of the air and soil to a moderate extent, and render the disutt
more equable. (2) They increase the relative humidity of :k
air, and reduce evaporation. (3) They tend to increase tie
precipitation of moisture. As regards the .actual rainfall, tbdr
effect in low lands is nil or very small; in hilly countries it is
probably greater, but definite results have not yet been obui&d
owing to the difficulty of separating the effect of forests hxa
that of other factors. (4) They help to regulate the water supply,
produce a more sustained feeding of springs, tend to reda*
violent floods, and render the flow of water in rivers bc?
continuous. (5) They assist in preventing denudation, eroska,
landslips, avalanches, the silting up of rivers and low hodf
and the formation of sand dunes. (6) They reduce the vtkxx>
of air-currents, protect adjoining fields against cold or dry win*
and afford shelter to cattle, game and useful birds. (7) Tbr>
may, under certain conditions, improve the healthiness d 1
country, and help in its defence. (8) They increase the beau?
of a country, and produce a healthy aesthetic influence apa
the people.
The direct utility of forests is chiefly due to their prodio,
the capital which they represent, and the work which they pro-
vide. The principal produce of forests consists of timber af-J
firewood. Both are necessaries for the daily life of the peopk
Apart from a limited number of broad-leaved species, the conifers
have become the most important timber trees in the economy
of man. They are found in greatest quantities in the countries
around the Baltic and in North America. In modern tirao
iron and other materials have, to a considerable extent, replica!
timber, while coal, lignite, and peat compete with firewood,
nevertheless wood is still indispensable, and likely to remxc
so. This is borne out by the statistics of the most civiliiei
nations. Whereas, the population of Great Britain and Ireland
during the period 1880-1900, increased by about ao%, the import*
of timber, during the same period, increased by 45%; in other
words, every head of population in 1900 used more timber tbas
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
647.
twemyytm earlier. Germany jwodoewf in 1880 about as much
timber a* she required; in ifteo she imported 4,6oesooo ton*,
valued at £1 4,000^000, and her imports an rapidly increasing,
although the yield capacity of bar own forests is much higher
now than it was formerly. Wood 1* now nsed for many purposes
which formerly were not thought of. The manufacture of the
wood pulp, annually imparted into Britain consumes at least
2,000,000 tons of Umber. A fabric closely resembling silk
is no» made of spruce wood. The variety of other, or -minor,
produce yielded by forests is very great, and much of it is
essential for the well-being of the people and for various industries.
The yield of fodder av of the utmost importance in countries
subject to periodic droughts; in many places field crops could
not be grown successfully without the leaf-mould and brushwood
taken, from th« forests. As regards industries, attention need
only be drawn t» such articles as . conuoerdal fibre; tanning
materials, dye-stuffs, lac, turpentine, resin, rubber, gutta-
percha, &c Great Britain and Ireland alone import every year
such materials to the value of £12,000,000, half of this being
represented by rubber.
The capital employed in forests consists chiefly of the value
of the soil and growing stock of timber. The latter is, ordinarily,
of much greater value than the former wherever a sustained
annual yield of timber is expected from a forest. In the case of
a Scotch pine forest, for instance, the value of the growing' stock
is, under the above-mentioned condition, from three to five times
that of the soil. The rate of interest yielded by capital invested
in forests differs, of Course, considerably according to circum-
stances, bat on the Whole it may, under proper management,
be placed equal to that yielded by agricultural land; it is lower
than the agricultural rate on the. belter classes of land, but
higher on the .inferior classes. Hence the latter are specially
indicated for (he forest industry, and the former for the pro-
duction of agricultural crops. Forests require labour in a great
variety of ways, such as (1) general administration, formation,
tending and harvesting; (2) transport of produce; and (3)
industries which depend on forests for their prime material.
The labour indicated under the first head differs considerably
according to circumstances, but its amount is smaller than that
required if the land is used for agriculture. Hence forests provide
additional labour only if they are established on surplus lands.
Owing to the bulky nature of forest produce Its transport forms
a business of considerable magnitude, the amount of labour
being perhaps equal to half that employed under the first head.
The greatest amount of labour is, however, required in the
working up of the raw material yielded by forests. In this
respect attention may be drawn to the chair industry in and
around High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire, where more than
20,000 workmen are employed in converting the beech, grown
on the adjoining chalk hills, into chairs and tools of many
patterns. Complete statistics for Great Britain are not available
under this head, but it may be mentioned that in Germany the
people employed in the forests amount to 2*3 % of the total
population; those employed on transport of forest produce
11 %; labourers employed on the various wood industries,
8-6 %; or a total of 12 %. An important feature of the work
connected with forests and their produce is that a great part of
it can be made to fit in with the requirements of agriculture;
that is to say, it can be done at seasons when field crops do not
require attention. Thus the ruial labourers or small fanners
can earn some money at times when they have nothing else to
do, and when they would probably sit idle if no forest work were
obtainable.
Whether, or how far, the utility of forests is brought out in a
particular country depends on its special conditions, such as
(x) the position of a country, its communications, and the control
which it exercises over other countries, such as colonies; (2)
the quantity and quality of substitutes for forest produce
available in the country; (3) the value of land and labour, and
the returns which land yields if used for other purposes; (4)
the density of population; (5) the amount of capital available
for investment; (6) the climate and configuration, especially
the geographical position, whether inland or on the border of
the tea, &c No general rule can be laid down, showing whether
forests are required in a country, or, if so, to what extent; that
question most be ans wered according to the special circumstances
of each case. .
The subjoined table shows the forests of various European
•tntes2"~
'
Per.
Per-
Countries.
Area of
Forests, in
centage
of Total
Area of
centage Forest
of Forest A^J^f
Area be-1 Header
Acres.
Country
longing
reputa-
under
to the
tion, in
Forest.
State.
Acres.
Sweden ....
49,000,000
4«
12
n
Norway ....
17,000,000
21
Russia, including Fin-
land
518,000/100
40
61
5*9
Bosnia and Herze-
govina .....
Bulgaria . . .
6400,000
7,600,000
50
30
7«
30
40
2-3
Turkey
11,200,000'
20
' t>7
Servia . , . . .
3,000,000
6400,000
32
37
1-5
Rumania . . . .
18
«
13
Hungary ....
21,200,000
11
1-2
22,500,000
»5
1-2
Austria. . , . .
24,000,000
3»
7
V
Greece . . . ...
2.000,000
>3
80
Luxemburg . . .
Switzerland . . .
200,000
30
•82
2.100,000
20
5
•7
Germany . . .
35,000,000
26
34
•6
France. . . .
24,000,000
18
12
•6
Italy
Denmark . . .
10400,000
600,000
'1
4
*4
•3
Belgium ....
1.300,000
18
I
•2
Portugal .
770,000
35
IS
Holland . . .
560,000
7
?
•I
Great Britain .
3,000,000
4
3
.07
These data exhibit considerable differences, since the per-
centage of the forest area varies from 3-5 to 50, and the area
per head of population from -07 to 9*3 acres; Russia, Sweden'
and Norway may as yet have more forest than they require
for their own population. On the other hand, Great Britain
and Ireland, Germany, Denmark, Portugal, Holland, and even
Belgium, France and Italy have not a sufficient forest area
to meet their own rwjuiretrients; at the same time, they are
all sea-bound countries, and importation is easy, while most
of them are under the influence of moist sea winds, which reduces
to a subordinate position the importance of forests for cMmatk
reasons.
Intimately connected with the area of forests in a country
fa the state of ownership—whether they belong to the state,
corporations or to private persons. Where, apart from the
financial aspect and the supply of work, forests are not required
for the sake of their indirect effects, and where importation
from other countries is easy and assured, the government' of
the country need not, as a rule, trouble itself to maintain or
acquire forests. Where the revtise conditions exist, and especi-
ally where the cost of transport over long distances becomes
prohibitive, a wise administration will take measures to assure
the maintenance of a suitable proportion of the country under
forest. This can be done either by maintaining or constitut-
ing a suitable area of state forests, or by exercising a certain'
Amount of control over corporation and even private forests.
Such measures are more called for in continental countries
than in those which are sea-bound, as is proved by the above
statistics*
Supply of Timber — Imports and Exports.~>Tht following
table shows the net imports and exports of European countries
(average data, calculated from the returns of recent years).
The only timber-exporting countries of Europe are Russia,
Sweden, Norway, Austria-Hungary and Rumania; all the others
either have only enough for their own consumption, or import
timber. Great Britain and Ireland import now upwasds of
10,000,000 tons a year, Germany about 4.000.000 ions, and
6 4 »
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
Belgium about 1,300,000 tons. Holland, France, Portugal,
Spain and Italy are all Importing countries, as also are Asia
Minor, Egypt and Algeria. The west coast of Africa exports
hardwoods, and imports coniferous timber. The Cape and Natal
import considerable quantities of pine and fir wood. Australasia
Net Imports and Exports of European Countries.
Countries.
United Kingdom .
Germany
Belgium
Fiance - . .
Italy . . . .
Spain ....
Denmark . . .
Switzerland
Holland
Servia . .
Portugal
Greece •
Rumania
Norway
Austria - Hungary
with Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Sweden . .
Russia with Fin-
land
Total . .
Net Imports
Quantities in Tons.
Imports. Exports.
10,004,000
4,600,000
1,300,000
1,230,000
620,000
470,000
470,000
204,000
180,000
110,000
60,000
35.000
19,283,000
2,237,000
400,000
1,300,000
3.996.000
4,460,000
6.800,000
17.046,000
Value in £ Sterling.
Imports. Exports.
26,540,000
14,820,000
5,040,000
3,950,000
2,100,000
1,500,000
1,250,000
480,000
720,000
160,000
200,000
130,000
56,890,000
24.080,000
840,000
2,200,000
11,400,000
7A30.000
10440,000
32,810,000
These net Imports are received from non-European countries.
They consist chiefly of valuable hardwoods, like teak, mahogany,
eucalypts and others.
exports hardwoods and some Kauri pine from New Zealand,
but imports larger quantities of light pine and fir timber. British
India and Siam export teak and small quantities of fancy woods.
The West Indies and South America export hardwoods, and
import pine and fir wood. The United States of America will
not much longer be a genuine exporting country, since they
import already almost as much timber from Canada as they
export. Canada exports considerable quantities of timber.
The Dominion has still a forest area of 1,250,000 sq. m., equal
to 38 % of the total area, and giving 165 acres of forest for every
inhabitant. Although only about one-third of the forest area
can be called regular timber land, Canada possesses an enormous
forest wealth, with which she might supply permanently nearly
all other countries deficient in material, if the governing bodies
in the several provinces would only determine to stop the present
fearful waste caused by axe and fire, and to introduce a regular
system of management. As matters stand, the supplies of the
most valuable timber of Canada, the white or Weymouth pine
(Pinus strobus), are nearly exhausted, the great stores of spruce
in the eastern provinces are being rapidly destroyed, and the
forests of Douglas fir in the western provinces have been attacked
for export to the United States and to other countries.
Taking the remaining stocks -of the whole earth together, it
may be said that a sufficient quantity of hardwoods is available,
but the only countries which are able to supply coniferous timber
for export on a considerable scale arc Russia, Sweden, Norway,
Austria and Canada. As these countries have practically to
supply the rest of the world, and as the management of their
forests is far from satisfactory, the question of supplying light
pine and fir timber, which forms the very staff of life of the wood
industries, must become a very serious matter before many years
have passed. Unmistakable signs of the coming crisis are every-
where visible to all who wish to see, and it is difficult to over-state
the gravity of the problem, when it is remembered, for instance,
that 87 % of all the timber imported into Great Britain consists
of light pine and fir, and that most of the other importing
countries are similarly situated. In some of these countries
little or no room exists for the extension of woodland, but this
statement does not apply to Great Britain and Ireland, which
contain upwards of 12 ,000,000 acres of waste land, and is,soeyn
acres of mountain and heath land used for light flraaag. On-
fourth of that area, if put under forest, would produce sfi tk
timber now imported which can be grown in Britain, thai an
say, about 95 % of the total
The subjoined table shows the movements of timber witba
the greater part of the British empire.'—
Net Imports and
Exports into and from
tike British Exfirv
Countries.
Annual Average
during the Years
1884-1888.
Annual Avenge '
during the Yean |
1900-1903.
Net
Imports.
Net
Exports.
Net
Imports.
Net '
Exports. 1
United Kingdom .
Australasia . .
Africa ....
West Indies.
Honduras and
Guiana .
India, Ceylon and
Mauritius . .
Dominion of
Canada . . .
Total
L
15,000,000
1,284,000
7a,ooo
i
207,000
528,000
4,025,000
36,340,000
737.O0O
t
\
71."
580,00*
4,7*fcM'
16,356,000
4,760,000
27.&45»ooo
544MM
Net Imports . ( .
Total increase in
16 years
Average annual
increase of net
imports
1 1. 596,000
22,405,000
10,809,000
675.56a
Forest Manatcment. — In early times there was pnctkalr
no forest management. As long as the forests occupied con-
siderable areas, their produce was looked upon as the free pfc
of nature, like air and water; men took it, used it, and em
destroyed it without let or hindrance. With the gradual indent
of population and the consequent reduction of the forest no,
proprietary ideas developed; people claimed the ownenbipof
certain forests, and proceeded to protect them against outsidea
Subsequently the law of the country was called in to help ia
protection, leading to the promulgation of special forest lin
By degrees it was found (hat mere protection was not suffioaa,
and that steps must be taken to enforce a more judicious irai-
ment, as well as to limit the removal of timber to what the forets
were capable of producing permanently. The teaching of natuai
science and of political economy was brought to bear upon lis
subject, so that now forestry has become a special science. Tb
is recognized in many countries, amongst which Germany suti
first, closely followed by France, Austria, Denmark and Bdgias.
Of non-European countries the palm belongs to British Ind*
and then follow Ceylon, the Malay States, the Cape of Good
Hope and Japan. The United States of America have aha
turned their attention to the subject. Most of the Brr.tsi
colonics are, in this respect, as yet in a backward state, and the
matter has still to be fought out in Great Britain and IieU&i
though many writers have urged the importance of the questioa
upon the public and the government. There can be no dout:
that all civilized countries must, sooner or later, adopt a ratiooai
and systematic treatment of their forests.
For details as to the separate countries, see the articles under
the country headings; in this article only some of the wan
important countries are dealt with, in so far as the history cf
their forestry is important. A few notes on Germany and Frssct
will be given, because in these countries forest managescs!
has been brought to highest perfection; Italy is mentioned
because she has allowed her forests to be destroyed; and 1
short description of forestry in the United Kingdom and in IoA*
follows. A separate section is devoted to the United States.
Germany is in general well-wooded. The winters being k*$
and severe, an abundant supply of fuel is almost as essenual
as a sufficient supply of food. This necessity has led, sJosj
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
6+9
with apsssion for the chase, to the preservation of forests, and
to the establishment ol an admirable system of forest cultivation,
sUmost as carefully conducted as field tillage. The Black. Forest
stretches the whole length of the grand-duchy of Baden and part
of the kingdom of WOrttemberg, from the Neckar to Basel and
the Lake of Constance. The vegetation resembles that of the
Vosges; forests of spruce, silver fir, Scotch pine, and, mingled
with birches, beech and oak, are the chief woods met with.
Until comparatively recent times large quantities of timber
derived from these forests were floated down the Rhine to Holland
suid abo shipped to England. Now the greater part of it is used
locally for construction, or it is converted into paper pulp. In
the grand-duchy of Hesse the Odenwahr range of mountains,
stretching between the Main and the Neckar, contains the chief
supply of timber. In the province of Nassau there are the large
wooded tracts of the Taunus mountain range and the Wcsterwald.
In Rhenish Prussia valuable forests He partly in the Eifel,
on the borders of Belgium, and on the mountains overhanging
the Upper Moselle, but they do not furnish such stately trees
as the Black Forest and the Odenwald. The Spessart, near
Aschaffenburg in Bavaria, is one of the most eitensive forests
of middle Germany, containing large masses of fine oak and beech,
with plantations of coniferous trees, such as spruce, Scotch pine
and silver fir. Bavaria possesses other fine forest tracts, such
ss the Baierischewald on the Bohemian frontier, the Kransberg
near Munich, and the Frankenwald in the north of the kingdom.
North Germany has eitensive forests on the Han and ThOrlngian
Mountains, while in East Prussia large tracts of fiat ground are
covered with Scotch pine, spruce, oak and beech.
Every German state has its forest organisation. In Prussia
the department Is presided over by the Oberland Forstmeister
st Berlin, while each province, or part of a province, has an
Oberforstmeister, under whom a number of Oberffirsters admini-
strate the state and communal forests. These, again, are assisted
by a lower class of officials called Forsters. The Oberfdrsters
throughout Germany are educated at special schools of forestry,
of which in iooo the following nine existed:
In Prussia: at Eberswalde and MOnden.
In Bavaria: at Munich and Aschaffenburg.
In Saxony: at Tharand.
In Wurttemberg: at Tubingen.
In Baden: at Carlsrube.
In Hesse: at Giessen.
In the grand-duchy of Saxony: at Eisenach.
The schools at Munich, Tubingen and Giessen form part of
the universities at these places; that at Carlsrube is attached
to the technical high school; the others are academies for the
study of forestry only, but there is a tendency to transfer them
all to the universities. The subordinate staff are trained for
their work in so-called silvicultural schools, of which a large
number exist. In this way the German forests have been brought
to a high degree of productiveness, but the material derived from
them falls far short of the requirements, although the forests
occupy 16 % of the total area of the country; hence the net
imports of timber amount already to 4,600,000 tons a year, and
they are steadily rising.
Franc*.— The principal timber tree of France is the oak. The
cork oak is grown extensively in the south and in Corsica. The
beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, walnut, chestnut and poplar are all
important trees, while the silver fir and spruce form magnificent
forests in the Vosges and Jura Mountains, and the Aleppo and
maritime pines are cultivated in the south and south-west. About
one-seventh of the entire territory is still covered with wood.
Forest legislation took its rise in France about the middle of
the 16th century, and the great minister Sully urged the enforce-
ment of restrictive forest laws. In 1669 a fixed treatment of
state forests was enacted. Duhamel in x 7 5 5 published his famous
work on forest trees. Reckless destruction of the forests, however,
was in progress, and the Revolution of 1 780 gave a fresh stimulus
to the work of devastation. The usual results have followed in
the frequency and destructiveness of floods, which have washed
sway the soil from the hiuside* and valleys of many districts,
especially in the south,' and the frequent inundations of the last
fifty years are no doubt caused by the deforesting of the sources
of the Rhone and Saone. Laws were passed in i860 and- 1864,
providing for the reforesting, " rebaisement," of the slopes of
mountains, and these laws take effect on private as well as
state property. Thousands of acres are annually planted in the
departments of Hautes and Basses Alpes; and during the summer
of 1875, when much injury was done by floods in the south of
France, the Durance, formerly the most dangerous in this respect
of French rivers, gave little cause for anxiety, as it is round the
head waters of this, river that the chief plantations have been
formed. While tracts formerly covered with wood have been
replanted, plantations have been formed on the shifting sands
or dunes along the coast of Gsscony. A forest of Ptnm pinotier,
150 m. in length, now stretches from Bayoane to the month of
the Gironde, raised by means of sowing steadily continued sues
1789; the cultivation of the pine, along with draining, has
transformed low marshy grounds into productive soil extending
over an area of about two million acres. The forests thus created
provide annually some 000,000 tons of pit timber for the Welsh
coalmines.
The state forest department Is administered by the director*
general, who has his headquarters at Paris, assisted by a board
of administration, charged with the working of the forests,
questions of rights and law, finance and plantation works.
The department is supplied with officers from the forest
school at Nancy. This institution was founded in 1824, when
M. Lorentx, who had studied forestry in Germany, was appointed
its first director.
July. —The kingdom of Italy comprises such different climates
that within its limits we find the birch and pines of northern
Europe, and the olive, fig, manna-ash, and palm of more southern
latitudes. By the republic of Venice and the duchy of Genoa
f orestal legislation was attempted at various periods from the
15th century downwards. These efforts were not successful,
as the governments were lax in enforcing the laws. In 1780
Pius VI. issued regulations prohibiting felling without licence,
and later orders were published by his successors in the pontifical
states. In Lombardy the woods, which in 1830 reached nearly
down to Milan, have almost disappeared. The province of Como
contains only a remnant of the primitive forests, and the same
may also be said of the southern slopes of Tirol. At Ravenna
there is still a large forest of stone pine, Pinus pinea, though it
has been much reduced. The plains of Tuscany are adorned?
with planted trees, the olive, mulberry, fig and almond. Sardinia
is rich in woods, which cover one-fifth of the ares, and contain
a large amount of oak, Quercns suber, robur and unit. In Sicily
the forests have long been felled, save the sone at the base of
Mount Etna.
The destruction of woods has been gradual but persistent;
at the end of the 17th century the effects of denudation were
first feh in the destructive force given to mountain torrents
by the deforesting of the Apennines. The work of devastation
continued until a comparatively recent time.
In 1*67 the monastic property of- VaUombross, Tuscany,
50 m. from Florence, was purchased by government for the
purposes of a forest academy, which was opened in i860. As
only 4 % of the total forest area belongs to the state, it is doubtful
whether much good can now be done.
Great Britain and Ireland.— The British Isles were formerly
much more extensively wooded than at present. The rapid
increase of population led fo the disforesting of woodland; the
climate required the maintenance of household fires during a
great part of the year, and the increasing demand for arable
land and the extension 'of manufacturing industries combined
to cause the diminution of woodland. The proportion of forest
is now very small, and yields but a fraction of the required annual
supply of timber which is imported with facility from America,
northern Europe and the numerous British colonies.
Owing to the nature of the climate of the British Islands,
with its abundance of atmospheric moisture and freedom from
such extremes of heat and cold ss are prevalent In continental
650
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
Europe, a great variety of trees are successfully cultivated.
In England and Ireland oak and beech are on the whole the moat
plentiful trees in the low and fertile parts; in the south of
Scotland the beech and ash are perhaps most common, while
the Scotch fir and birch are characteristic of the arboreous
vegetation in the Highlands. Although few extensive forests
now exist, woods of small area, belts of planting, clumps of trees,
coppice and hedgerows, are generally distributed over the country,
constituting a mass of wood of considerable importance, giving
a clothed appearance in many parts, and affording illustrations
of skilled arboriculture not to be found in any other country.
The principal state forests in England are Windsor Park,
14,000 acres; the New Forest, &c, in Hampshire, 76,000 acres;
and the Dean Forest in Gloucestershire, 32,500 acres. The total
extent of crown forests is about 125,000 acres. A large pro-
portion of the crown forests, having been formed with the
object of supplying timber for the navy, consists of oak. The
largest forests in Scotland are in Perthshire, Inverness-shire
and Aberdeenshire. Of these the most notable are the earl of
Mansfield's near Scone (8000 acres), the duke of Atholl's larch
plantations near Dunkeld (10,000 acres), and in Strathspey a
large extent of Scotch pine, partly native, partly planted, be-
longing to the earl of Seafield. In the forests of Mar and Inver-
cauki, the native pine attains a great sixe, and there are also
large tracts of indigenous birch in various districts. Ireland
was at one time richly clothed with wood; this is proved by
the abundant remains t>f fallen trees in the bogs which occupy
a large surface of the island. In addition to the causes above
alluded to as tending to disforest England, the long unsettled state
of the country also conduced to the diminishing of the woodlands.
The forests of Great Britain and Ireland, in spite of the- large
imports of timber, have not been appreciably extended up to
the present time because (x) the rate at which foreign timber
has been laid down in Britain is very low, thus keeping down the
price of home-grown timber; (a) foreign timber is preferred
to home-grown material, because it is in many cases of superior
quality, while the latter comes into the market in an irregular
and intermittent manner; (3) nearly the whole of the waste
lands is private property. As regards prices, it can be shown
that the lowest point was reached about the year x888, in con-
sequence of the remarkable development of means of communica-
tion, that prices then remained fairly stationary for some years,
and that about 1604 a slow but steady rise set in, showing during
the years 1 894-1004 an increase of about ao % all round. This
was due to the gradual approach of the coming crisis in the
supply of coniferous timber to the world.. It can be shown
that even with present prices the growing of timber can be
made to pay, provided it is carried on in a rational and economic
manner. Improved silvicultural methods must be applied, so
as to produce a better class of timber, and the forests must be
managed according to well-arranged working plans, which provide
for a regular and sustained out-turn of timber year by year,
so as to develop a healthy and steady market for locally-grown
material. Unfortunately the private proprietors of the waste
lands a*re in many cases not in a financial position to plant.
Starting forests demands a certain outlay in cash, and the pro-
prietor must forgo the income, however small, hitherto derived
from the land until the plantations begin to yield a return. In
these circumstances the state may well be expected to help in
one or all of the following ways: (x) The equipment of forest
schools, *where economic forestry, as elaborated by research,
is taught; (s) the management of the crown forests on economic
principles, to as to serve as patterns to private proprietors;
(3) advances should be made to landed proprietors who desire
to plant land, but are short of funds, just as is done in the case
of improvements of agricultural holdings; and (4) the state
might acquire surplus lands in certain parts of the country,
such as congested districts, and convert them into forests.
Action in these directions would soon lead to substantial benefits.
The income of landed proprietors would rise, a considerable
sum of money now sent abroad would remain m the country,
and forest industries would spring up, thus helping to counteract
the ever-increasing flow of people from the country into the bap
towns, where only too many must join the aamy of the uaca»
ployed. Even within a radius of 50 m. of London 700,000 ton
of land are unaccounted for in the official agricultural reura
In Ireland more than 3,000,000 acres are waiting to be ntfiiei,
and it is well worth the consideration of the Irish Land Coa-
missfoners whether the lands remaining on their hands, vta
buying and breaking up large- estates, should not be converted
into state forests. Such a measure might become a asefa
auxiliary in the peaceful settlement of the Irish hand qoestisa.
No doubt success depends upon the probable financial rs&jU
There are at present no British statistics to prove such soccesi,
hence, by way of illustration, it may be stated what the res~*j
have been in the kingdom of Saxony, which, from an industry
point of view, is comparable with England, That coumn
has 4J2i08s acres of state forests, of which about one-etghts
are stocked with broad-leaved species, and seven-efchths w^ti
conifers. Some of the forests are situated on low lands, but 1st
bulk of the area is found in the hilly parts of the country up to
an elevation of 3000 ft. above the sea. The average price reaii^i
of late years per cubic foot of wood amounts to sd., artd yet to suds.
perfection has the management been brought by a weU-tratcd
staff, that the mean annual net revenue, after meeting aB
expenses, comes to ais. an acre all round. There can be no doubt
that, under the more favourable climate of Great Britain, ewes
better results can be obtained, especially if it is remembered
that foreign supplies of coniferous timber must tall off, or, st
any rate, the price per cubic foot rise considerably.
These things have been recognised to some extent, and 1
movement has been set on foot to improve matters. The
Commissioners of Woods and a number of private proprietors
had rational working plans prepared for their forests, aa4
instruction in forestry has been developed. There is now a »eJ-
equipped school of forestry connected with the university oi
Oxford, while Cambridge is following on similar lines; instructs*
in forestry is given at the university of Edinburgh, the Durham
College of Science, at Bangor, Cirencester and other places.
The Commissioners of Woods have purchased an estate otf
12,500 acres in Scotland, which will be converted Into a cro»a
forest, so as to serve as an example. The experience thus gaistJ
will prove valuable should action ever be taken on the Una
suggested by a Royal Commission on Coast Erosion, Redamaoca
of Tidal Lands and Afforestation, which reported on the last
subject in 1909.
Indie.— The history of forest administration in India is exceed-
ingly instructive to all who take an interest in the welfare of
the British Empire, because it places before the reader an aocoj£i
of the gradual destruction of the greater part of the natural
forests, a process through which most other British cohxLcs
are now passing, and then it shows how India emerged triua-
phantly from the self-inflicted calamity. As far as informatics
goes, India was, in the early times, for the most part cored
with forest. Subsequently 6ct tiers opened out the country
along fertile valleys and streams, while nomadic tribes, moving
from pasture to pasture, fired alike hills and plains. This process
went on for centuries. With the advent of British rule forest
destruction became more rapid than ever, owing to the increase
of population, extension of cultivation, the multiplication of
herds of cattle, and the universal firing of the forests to produce
fresh crops of grass. Then railways came, and with their ex-
tension the forests suffered anew, partly on account of the
increased demand for timber and firewood, and partly oa
account of the fresh impetus given to cultivation along their
routes. Ultimately, when failure to meet the requirements of
public works was brought to notice, it was recognized that a
grievous mistake had been made in allowing the forests to be
recklessly destroyed. Already fn the early part of the 19th
century sporadic efforts were made to protect the forests is
various parts gf the country, and these continued intermittently;
but the first organized steps were taken about the year 1855,
when Lord Dalhousie was governor-generaL At that time
conservators of forests existed in Bombay, Madras and Burma.
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
65 r
Soon afterwards other appointments followed, and in 1864 an
organized state department, presided over by the inspector-
general of forests, was established. Since then the Indian Forest
Department has steadily grown, so that it has now become of
considerable importance for the welfare of the people, as well
as for the Indian exchequer.
The first duty of the department was to ascertain the position
and extent of the remaining forests, and more particularly
of that portion which still belonged to the state* Then a special
forest law was passed, which was superseded in 1878 by an im-
proved act, providing for the legal formation of permanent state
forests; the determination, regulation, and, if necessary, com-
mutation of forest rights; the protection of the forests against
unlawful acts and the punishment of forest offences; the protec-
tion of forest produce in transit; the constitution of a staff of
forest officers, provision to invest them with suitable legal powers,
and the determination of their duties and liabilities. The officers
who administered the department in its infancy were mostly
botanists and military officers. Some ol, these became excellent
foresters. In order to provide a technically trained staff arrange-
ments were made in 1866 by Sir Dietrich Brandis, the first
inspector-general of forests, for the training of young Englishmen
at the French Forest School at Nancy and at similar institutions
in Germany. In 1876 the students were concentrated at Nancy,
and in 1885 an English forest school for India was organised
in connexion with the Royal Indian Engineering College at
Cooper's Hill. In 1905 the school was transferred totbe university
of Oxford. The imperial forest staff of India consisted in 1009
of —officers not specially trained before entering the department,
17; officers trained in France and Germany, 23; officers trained
at Cooper's Hill, 143— total 184.
In 1878 a forest school was started at Dehra Dun, United
Provinces, for the training of natives of India as executive
officers on the provincial staff. Since then a similar school,
though on a smaller scale, has been established at Tharrawaddy
in Burma. About 500 officers of this class have been appointed.
In addition, there are about 11,000 subordinates, foresters and
forest guards, who form .the protective staff. The school at
Dehra Dun has lately been converted into the Imperial Forest
College.
The progress made since 1 864 is really astonishing. According
to the latest available returns, the areas taken under the manage-
ment of the department are— reserved state forests, or permanent
forest estates, 91,272 sq. m.; other state forests, 141,669 sq. m.;
or a total of 232,941 sq. m., equal to 24 % of the area over which
they are scattered. At present, therefore, the average charge
of each member, of the controlling staff comprises 1266 sq. m.;
that of each executive officer, 446 sq. m.; and that of each
protective official, 21 sq. m. It is the intention to increase the
executive and protective staff considerably, in the same degree
as the management of the. forests becomes more detailed. Of
the above-mentioned area the Forest Survey Branch, established
In 1872, has up to date surveyed and mapped about 65,000 sq. m.
From 1864 onwards efforts were made to introduce systematic
management into the forests, based upon working plans, but,
as the management bad been provincialised, there was no central
pr continuous control. This was remedied in 1884, when a
central Working Plans Office, under the inspector-general of
forests, was established. This officer has since then controlled
the preparation and execution of the plans, a procedure which
has led to most beneficial results. Plans referring to about
38,000 sq. m. are now (1909) in operation, and after treasonable
lapse of time there should not be a single forest of importance
which is not worked on a well-regulated pUn, and on the principle
of a sustained yield. While the danger of overworking the forests
b thus being gradually eliminated, their yield capacity is in-
creased by suitable silvicultural treatment and by fire protection,
formerly most of the important forests were annually or period-
ically devastated by jungle fires, sometimes lighted accidentally,
in other cases purposely. Now 38,000 sq. m. of forest are actually
protected against fire by the efforts of the department, and it is
the intention gradually to extend protection to all permanent
state forests. Grasingof cattto te rf great issportartce ta India;
at the same time it ia liable to interfere seriously with the repro-
duction of the forests. To meet both requirements careful and
minute arrangements have been made, according to which at
present 38,000 sq. m. are closed to grating; 19,000 so. m. are
closed only against the grating of goats, sheep and camels; while
176,000 sq. m, are open to the grating of all kinds of cattle.'
The areas closed in ordinary years form a reserve of fodder in
years of drought and scarcity. During famine yean they are
either opened to grating, or grata is cut in them and transported
to districts where the- cattle are in danger of starvation. The
service rendered in this way by a wise forest administration
should not be underrated, since one of the most serious calamities
of a famine — the want of cattle to cultivate the land—is thus,
if not avoided, at any rate considerably reduced. During 1007
the government of India established a Research Institute, with
six members engaged in collecting data regarding silviculture,
forest botany, forest zoology, forest economics, working plans*
and chemistry in connexion with forest produce and production.
The institute is likely to lead to further substantial progress in
the management of the forests.
The financial results of forest administration in India for the
years 1865 to 1905 show the progress made:
Period
Mean Annual
Net Revenue.
Percentage of
Annual Increase
during Period.
1865-1870 . . .
1875-1880 . . .
1880-1885. .
1885-1890 .
1890-1895 . .
1895-1900 . . .
1900-1905 . .
Rupees.
1,372.733
1,783,348
2^24,687
3.3*5.745
5*o66b67t
7.370>57*
7,923,484
9,004,367
30
»5
5»
SO
44
7
12
The highest percentage of increase occurred in the period
1880-1885. The revenue since 1886 has been considerably
increased by the annexation of Upper Burma.
Apart from the net revenue, large quantities of produce are
given free of charge, or at reduced rates, to the people of the
country. Thus, in 1004-1905, the net revenue amounted to
Rs. 1 1,062,094, while the produce given free or at reduced rates
was valued at Rs. 3,500,661, making a total net benefit derived]
from the state forests during that year of Rs. 14.563,755, or in,
round figures one million pounds sterling. The out-turn during;
the same year amounted to 252 million cub. ft, of timber and
fuel and 215 million bamboos. The receipts from the sale 06
other forest produce came to 9 million rupees, out of a total'
gross revenue of 24 million rupees.
These results are highly creditable to the government of India,
which has led the way towards the introduction of rational forest,
management into the British empire, thus setting an example'
which has been followed more or less by various colonies. Even
the movement in the United Kingdom during late years Is due
to it. Apart from India, substantial progress has been made in]
Cape Colony, Ceylon, the Straits Settlements and the Federated
Malay States. Other British colonies are more backward in this
respect. Energetic action is urgently wanted, especially in:
Canada and Australasia, where an enormous state property is
threatened by destruction.
Lira rati- re,— The following work* of special interest may be"
mentioned: W Srhlich> A Manual oj Fortitft (Loni.l > <i) (vols, i.,,
ii. and ill. bv W, Schliclt; vols, iv. and v. by W. R Fisher; 3rd ed. '
of vol. i. r 1906. of vol. Ii.. 1904, of vol ui < 1905; 2nd id. of vol iv.,
1007; 2nd ed. of vol. v., 1906); fladen Powdi H Fort it Lavt (London,'
loVtV); Drown, The Fortslf [ed. by Niiibet h Edinburgh aod London,
19051$ Qroilhard, L* Traiitmcnl dii hois (Pant. 1*94); Huffel,
&<momie Jfirettirrc (Pari*. 1904-1907); Lorry. Handbuch der
FeritieiiStmrhaft find ed. by StoctJtr." Tubingta, 1903); Ross-
massler, Per Wold. . W. Sch.)
United States
Tke Forest Regims.—Tht great treeless region east of the
Rocky Mountains separates the wooded area of the United
652
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
States into two grand divisions', which may be called the Eastern
and the Western forests. The Eastern forest is- characterized
by the predominance, on the whole, of broad-leafed trees, the
comparative uniformity of its general types over wide areas,
and its naturally unbroken distribution. In the Western forest
conifers are conspicuously predominant; the individual species
often reaches enormous and even unequalled dimensions, the
forest is frequently interrupted by treeless areas, and the. tran-
sitions from one type to another are often exceedingly abrupt.
Both divisions are botanically and commercially rich in species.
The Eastern forest may conveniently be subdivided into three
members:
i. The Northern forest, marked by great density and large
volume of standing timber, and a comparative immunity* in its
virgin condition, from fire. The characteristic trees are maples,
birches and beech (Fagus atropunicca), among the hardwoods
and white pine (Pinus strobus), spruce (Picea rubens and Picta
Mariana) and hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) among conifers.
a. The Southern forest is on the whole less dense than the
Northern, and more frequently burned over. Among its char-
acteristic trees are the longleaf (Pinus palustris) and other pines,
oaks, gums, bald cypress (Taxodntm disiickum) and white cedar
(Chamaecyparis thyoides).
3. The Central Hardwood forest, which differs comparatively
little from adjacent portions of the Northern and Southern
forests except in the absence of conifers. Among its trees are
the chestnut (Castanea dentate) t hickories, ashes and other
hardwoods already mentioned.
The Western division has two members:
1. The Pacific Coast forest, marked by the great size of its
trees and the vast accumulations of merchantable timber.
Among its characteristic species are the redwood {Sequoia semper-
tinns) and the big tree (S. Washingtoniana), the Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga taxi/olio), sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), western
hemlock (Tsuga heteropkyUa), giant arborvitae {Thuja plicate)
and Sitka spruce (Picea sUckensis).
a. The Rocky Mountain forest, whose characteristic species
are the western yellow pine (Pinus ponder osa), Engelmann spruce
(Picea engdmanni) and lodgepole pine (Pimms ma w aysss) . Tk
forest is frequently broken by treeless areas of greater or ks
extent, especially towards the south, and it suffers greatly fan
fire. Subarid in character, except to the north and at k$
elevations, the vast mining interests of the region and its tiwka
surroundings give this forest an economic value out of propoua
to the quantities of timber it contains.
This distribution of the various forests is indicated on tk fa
of the two accompanying maps. The second map stents:
situation of the national forests hereafter mentioned.
The forests of Alaska fall into two main divisions: the a»
mercial though undeveloped forests of the south-east cm*.
which occur along the streams and on the lower slopes of t!*
mountains and consist chiefly of western hemlock (Tttn
heterophylla), Sitka spruce (Picea sikkensis), yellow odir
(Chamaecyparis noatkatensis) and giant arborvitae (Thqt
plicata), usually of large sire and uninjured by fire; and the n*
interior forests, swept by severe fires, and consisting chiefly el
white and black spruces (Picea canadensis and nigra), paper birtk
{Betula papyri/era) and aspen (Popults tremuloides), all of soil
size but of great importance in connexion with mining. Nortsen
Alaska and the extreme western coast regions are entirely bana.
The National Forest Policy.— Tbt forest policy of the United
States may be said to have had its origin in 1709 in the euctmttf
of a law which authorized the purchase of timber suitable far
the use of the navy, or of land upon which such timber wa
growing. It is true that laws were in force under the esxty
governments of Massachusetts, New Jersey and other ookoiQ,
providing for the care and protection of forest interests fa
various ways, but these laws were distinctly survivals of teed-
encies acquired in Europe, and for the most part of little nst
It was not until the apparent approach of a dangerous shortage
in certain timber supplies that the first real step in forest policy
was taken by the United States. Successive laws passed froa
1817 to 1 831 strove to give larger effect to the original enactment,
but without permanent influence towards the preservation oHS*
live oak (Quercus nrginiana Mill.), which was the object in vie*
A long period of inaction followed these early measures, h
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
653
1831 th« solicitor of the treasury assumed a partial responsibility
for the care 'and protection of the public timber lands, and in
1855 this duty was transferred to the commissioner of the general
land office in the Department of the Interior. The effect of
these changes upon forest protection was unimportant. When,
however, at the close of the Civil War railway building in the
United States took on an unparalleled activity, the destruction
of forests by fire and the axe increased in a corresponding ratio,
and public sentiment began to take alarm. Action by several
of the states slightly preceded that of the Federal government,
but in 1876 Congress, acting under the inspiration of a memorial
from the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
authorized the appointment of an officer (Dr Franklin B. Hough)
under the commissioner of agriculture, to collect and distribute
information upon forest matters. His office became in 1880 the
division of forestry in what is now the United States Department
of Agriculture
As the railways advanced into the treeless interior, public
interest in tree-planting became keen. In 1873 Congress passed
and later amended and repealed the timber culture acts, which
granted homesteads on the treeless public lands to settlers who
planted one-fourth of their entries with trees. Though these
measures were not successful in themselves they directed atten-
tion towards forestry. The act which repealed them in 180 1
contained a clause which Iks at the foundation of the present
forest policy of the United States. By it the president was
authorised to set aside" u any part of the public lands wholly or
in part covered with timber or undergrowth, whether of com-
merrial^vatue or not, as public reservations, and the President
shall, by public proclamation, declare the establishment of such
reservations and the limits thereof." Some eighteen million
acres had been proclaimed as reservations at the time when, in
1896, the National Academy of Sciences was asked by the
secretary of the interior to make an investigation and report
upon " the inauguration of a rational forest policy for the forest
lands of the United States." Upon the recommendation of a
commission named by the Academy, President Cleveland estab-
lished more than twenty-one million acres of new reserves on
the 22nd of February 2897. His action was widely misunder-
stood and attacked, but it awakened a public interest in forest
educations without which the rapid progress of forestry in the
TJnited States since that time could never have been made.
Within slew months after the proclamation of the Cleveland
reserves the present national forest policy took definite shape.
Under this policy the national government holds and manages,
In the common interest of all users of the forests or its products,
such portions of the public lands as have been set aside by
presidential proclamation in accordance with the act of 1891.
These lands are held against private acquisition under the Home-
Stead Act (except as to agricultural lands as hereafter mentioned) ,
the Timber and Stone Act, and other laws under which the
United States disposes of its unappropriated public domain,
but not against private acquisition under the Mineral Land Laws.
They are selected from lands believed to be more valuable for
forest purposes than for agriculture, and are managed with the
purpose of securing from them the best and largest possible
returns, present and future, whether in the form of water for
irrigation or power, of timber, of forage for stock, or of any other
beneficial product. The aggregate area of the reserves, or
national forests, has Keen steadily increased until they now
include nearly all the timber lands left of the public domain.
The general lines of this policy were in part laid down by
the commission already mentioned, in its report submitted to
the secretary of the interior, May 1, 1897, and by the act of
June 4, 1897, which was largely shaped by the work of the
commission. Until this set wss passed the national forests had
been in theory closed against any form of use; nor had the
possibility of securing forest preservation by wise use received
much thought from those who had favoured their creation. Such
a state of affairs could not continue. Before long public opinion
would have forced the opening to use of the resources thus
arbitrarily locked up, and in the absence of any administrative
system providing for conservative use, the national forests would
inevitably have been abolished, and the whole policy of govern-
ment forest holdings would have ceased. The act of June 4,
1897 was therefore of the first importance. This act con-
ferred upon the secretary of the interior general powers for the
proper management of the national forests through the general
land office of his department. It provided for the designation
and sale of dead, mature and large timber; authorized the
secretary to permit free use of timber in small quantities by
settlers, miners and residents; empowered him to " make such
rules and regulations and establish such service as will insure the
objects of such reservations, namely, to regulate their occupancy
and use and to preserve the forests thereon from destruction "5
and made violation of the act or of such rules and regulations a
misdemeanour. The statute limited the power to establish forest
reservations to the purpose of improving and protecting the forest,
securing favourable conditions of water flows, and furnishing a
continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of citizens
of the United States. Lands found, upon due examination,
to be more valuable for other purposes than for forest uses
might be eliminated from any reservation, and all mineral lands
within the reservations were left open to private appropriation
under the mineral Jaws. The rights of settlers and claimants
were safeguarded, and civil and criminal jurisdiction, except so
far as the punishment of offences against the United States in
the reservations was concerned, was reserved to the States.
While the administration of the national forests was entrusted
to the general land office, the same act assigned the surveying
and mapping of them to the United States Geological Survey j
which has published descriptions and maps of some of the more
important.
No attempt was made in the general land office to develop
a technical forest service. There were, indeed, at the time o(
passage of the act, less than ten trained foresters in the United
States, no means of training more, and very little conception
of what forestry actually meant. The purpose of the administra-i
tton was therefore mainly protection against trespass and fire*
particularly the latter. Regulations were made giving effect)
to the provisions of the act of June 4, set forth above, but;
in the absence of technical knowledge as to what might safely 5
be done, the tendency was rather to restrict than to extend thq
use of the forest. Meanwhile, however, there was rapidly develop-
ing in another branch of the government service a^oxganisationi
qualified for actual forest management.
One year after the passage of the act of June 4, 1897, the
division of forestry in the Department of Agriculture ceased
to be merely a bureau of information, and became an active}
agency for introducing the actual practice of forestry among
private owners and for conducting the investigations upon)
which a sound American forest practice could be based. 'The
work awakened great interest among forest owners, and exerted
a powerful educational influence upon the country at large.
The division extended its work and became (July 1, 1901) the
Bureau of Forestry. It drew into its employment for a time
nearly all the men who were preparing themselves in increasing
numbers (at first abroad, then in the newly-founded schools fn
the United States) for the profession of forestry, and was soon
recognized as qualified to- speak authoritatively on technical
questions connected with the administration of the national
forests. This led to a request from the secretary of the interior
for the advice of the bureau on such questions. Working plans
were accordingly undertaken for a number of the forests. The
general land office, however, was not ready to attempt active
forest management. Though some timber was sold and the*
grazing of stock regulated to some extent, the main object of
the land office administration continued to be protection against'
fire. Many of the regulations which it m ad e co n M not beenforceci:
The disadvantages of dispersal of the Federal government'
forest work among three separate agencies grew more and more
apparent, until, on the 1st of February 1905, control of the
63,000,000 acres of forest reserves which up to that time bad
been set aside was transferred from the general tend office to
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
the Bureau of Forestry. In recognition of its new duties the
designation of the bureau became the Forest Service.
Other provisions of the act which affected the transfer were
that forest supervisors and rangers should be selected, so far
as possible, from quafified citizens of the state or territory in
which each forest was situated, and that all money received
from the sale of any products or the use of any land or resources
of the national forests should be covered into the. treasury and
constitute a' special fund for their protection, administration,
improvement and extension. Five days later a statute gave
forest officers the power to arrest trespassers; and on the 3rd
of March the lieu land selection law was repealed. This law had
opened the way for grave abuses through the exchange of worth-
less land by private owners within the forests for an equal area
of valuable timber lands outside.
The law baa been modified since by the change of the old
name " Forest Reserves " to " National Forests." The act
t< June xx, 1006, opened to homestead entry lands within
cetional forests found by examination to be chiefly valuable foe
agriculture. The administrat ion and improvement of thcnatK*»l
forests are now provided for directly by congressional app»
priation. The power to create national forests conferred 00 the
president by the act of March 1891 has been repealed for tfae
states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming ad
Colorado, but for no others.
The Forest Service began in earnest the development of tl
the resources of the national forests. Mature timber was soM
wherever there was a demand for it and the permanent wetfs*
of the forests and protection of the streams permitted, bet
always so as to prevent waste, guard against fire, protect yewf
growth and ensure reproduction. Regulations were adoptd
which allowed small sales to be made without formality or delay,
secured for the government the full value of timber sold, aaj
eliminated unnecessary routine. Care was taken to safes™"
the interests of the government and provide for the maiateoJ**
of good technical standards. The conduct of fecal basinc*
was entrusted to local officers. Large transactions with gen**
policies were controlled from Washington, but with caffM
F0RI8TS AND F0RE8TRY
6SS
provision for fiat-hand knowledge and close touch with the work
in ihe field. Business efficiency and the convenience of the public
were carefully studied. In short, an organization was created
capable of handling safely, speedily And satisfactorily the com-
plex business of making useful a forest property of vast extent,
scattered through sixteen different states of an aggregate ana
of over 1,500,000 sq, m. and with a population of 0^000*000.
The growth since the 1st of July 1897 .of the are* of the
rational forests, of the expenditures of the government for
forestry, and of the receipts from the national forests, is shown
by the statement which follows* Though the act of June 4,
1897, became effective immediately upon its passage, the fiscal
year 1899 was the first of actual administration, because the
first for which Congress made the appropriation necessary to
carry out the law.
forest n ripe f « ihe axe, the demand is strong, and control by
trained men makes it safe to cut more freely. The increase is
marked both in small and in large sales, out a score of sales for
less than $5000 are made against one fox more. The total cut
is still far below the annual increment of the forests. As the
demand grows restrictions must increase in order to husband
the present supply until the next crop matures.
3. The stumpage price would seem an the face of the figures
to have risen from about one dollar to more than three dollars
per thousand board-feet*. The receipts, however, for any one
year are not exclusively for the timber cut in that year, since
payments are made in advance. In the year 1907 the average
price obtained was something less than $2*50 per thousand.
It is therefore true that stumpage prices have risen greatly,
although conditions new U) the American lumbermen are im-
Anaof National Fortsts, Amwmol Exptnditont <tf the Federal Goocnment for Fortsiry and National Forest Administration,
and Rtceiptsfram Notional Forests, 1898-1900.
Area of
Fiscal
National Forests
Division of Forestry
Genera!
Receipts from
National Forests.
Receipts from
Expenditures upon
Year.*
at Close of Year
(Boreao of Forestry,
Land Office.
National Forests,
National Forests,
(June 30).
Forest Service).
per Acre.
per Acre.
Acres.
$
$
$
$
*
1898
40.866.184
20,000-00
.
1899
46.168,439
zS&o-oo
1 75^00*00
7.S34-83
36.754 02
0-00016
0*0038
1900
46.5»5.039
418,52000 •
88,52000
210,00000
•00078
0045
1901
46.324479
51,896.357
62,211,240
325,000-00
29,25088
•00063
•0070
1903
185.44000
291,860-00
300,000-00
2 5.43i-87
45,83808
58,43619
% »ooo49
•0060
1903
304.135-00
•00074
0054
1904
62,611449
350^00*00
632,232 36*
1,191400-21
375,00000
00093
0072
1905
1906
85.69342a
106.994.018
150.832.665
317.907-64*
73.J76-I5.
767.219.96
•00085
•00717
•0059
•0089
1907
t. 800,595-20'
.
:»&
•oi 041
•0097
1909
167.67774ft
*.94*. I53 08
•00931
•0151
Until 1906, the sole source of receipts was the sale of timber
In the fiscal year 1907, however, timber sales furnished less
than half the receipts. The following statement concerning
the timber sales of the fiscal years 1004- 1907 will serve to bring
out the change that followed the transfer of control to the forest
service in the midst of the fiscal year igo$: —
Fiscal
Year.
Amount of
Timber Sold.
Amount of
Timber Cut. •
Receipts from
Timber Sales.
1904
1905
1906"
1007
Bd.-ft.
112,773.710
113,661.508
328,230,326
I.O44.85&O0O
B<L-ft.
58.435.000
68,475,000
138.665.000
194,872.000
58.436«9
73.27015
These figure* show (1) a large excess each year in the amount
of timber sold over that cut and paid for; (2) nine times as much
timber sold at the end of the four-year period as at the beginning
and three times as much cut; and (3) a much higher price
obtained per thousand board-feet at the end of the period than
at the beginning. Each of these matters calls for comment.
The sales are of stumpage only; the govemment does no logging
on its own account.
1. More timber is sold each year than is cut and paid for,
because many of the sales extend over several years. With
increasing sales the amount sold each year for future removal
has exceeded the amount to be removed during that year under
sales of earlier years. Large sales covering a term of years are
made because the national forests contain much overmature
timber, which needs removal, but which is frequently too in-
accessible to be saleable in small amounts. To prevent specula-
tion the time allowed for cutting is never more than five years,
and cutting must begin at once and be continued steadily.
2. The volume of sales has increased rapidly because much
• The United States fiscal year ends June 30, and receives Its
designation from the calendar year In which it terminates. Thus,
the fiscal year 1898 is the year July 1. 1897-June 30, 1898.
* Administration transferred to Bureau of Forestry, February 1,
1905.
posed. Full utilization of all merchantable material, care of
young growth in felling and logging, and the piling of brush,
to be subsequently burned by the forest officers if burning is
necessary, are among these conditions, Timber to be cut must
first be marked by the forest officers. Sales of more than $100
in value are made only after public advertisement.
Only the simplest forms of silviculture have as yet been
introduced. The vast area of the national forests, the com-
paratively, sparse population of the West, the rough and broken
character of the forests themselves, and the newness of the
problems which their management presents, make the general
application of intensive methods for the present impracticable.
Natural reproduction is secured. The selection system is most
used, often under the rough and ready method of an approximate
diameter limit, with the reservation of seed trees where needed.
The tendency, however, is strongly towards a more flexible and
effective application of the selection principle, as a better trained
field force is developed and as market conditions improve.
One conspicuous achievement was the reduction of loss by
fires on the national forests. During the unusually dry season
of 1905 there were only eight fires of any importance, and the
area burned over, amounted only to about • 16 of x % of the
total area. In 1906 about -u of 1% was burned. This was
accomplished by efficient patrol, co-operation of the public, and
by preventive measures, such as piling and burning the brush
on cut-over areas.
Since the beginning of 1006 the largest source of income from
the national forests was their use for grazing. Stock-raising is
one of the roost important industries of the West. Formerly
cattle and sheep grazed freely on all parts of the public domain.
In the early days of the national forests the wisdom of permitting
any grazing at all upon them was sharply questioned. Un-
restricted grazing had led' to friction between individuals, the
deterioration of much of the range through overstocking, and
serious injury to the forests and stream flow. The forests of
the West, however, are largely of open growth and contain
many grassy parks, the results of old fires, and many high
mountain meadows. Under proper regulations the grass and
6s6
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
other forage plants which they produce in great quantity can
be used without detriment to the forests themselves, and with
great benefit to the stock industry, which often can find summer
pasturage nowhere else. Except in southern California grazing
is now permitted on all national forests unless the watersheds
furnish water for domestic use; but the time of entering and
leaving, the number of head to be grazed by each applicant, and
the part of the range to be occupied arc carefully prescribed.
Planted areas and cut-over areas are closed to stock until the
young growth is safe from harm, and goats are allowed only in
the brushland of the foothills.
The results of regulation, in addition to the protection of
forest growth and streams, are the prevention of disputes,
improved range, better stock, stable conditions in the stock
industry, and the best use of the range in the interest of progress
and development. The first right to graze stock on the forests
is given to residents, small owners and those who have used the
range before. Thus the crowding out of the weaker by the
stronger and of the settler by the roving outsider has been
stopped. In 1906 the forest service began to impose a moderate
charge for the use of the national forest range. The following
statement shows the amount of stock grazed on the national
forests 1904-09, and the receipts for the grazing charge:—
Year Number of Number of
Cattle and Horses. Sheep and Goats. Receipts.
1904
1905
1906
1907.
1909
610,091
692,124
1,015,148
1,200,158
1. 53 «.404
1,806,722
1.709.987
S.763.100
6.657.083
7.819.594
514.69287
863,920-32
1,032,185*70
A work of enormous magnitude which has now begun is planting
on the national forests. At present, with low stumpagc prices
and incomplete utilization of forest products, clear cutting
with subsequent planting is not practicable. There are, however,
many million acres of denuded land within the national forests
which require planting. Such planting is still confined chiefly
to watersheds which supply cities and towns with water. The
first planting was done in 189a, in California. Since then
similar work has been done on city watersheds in Colorado,
Utah, Idaho and New Mexico. Other plantations are in the
Black Hills national forest, where large areas of cut-over and
burned-over land are entirely without seed trees, and in the
sandhill region of Nebraska. Up to 1908 about 2,000,000 seedlings
had been planted, on over 2000 acres — a small beginning, but
the work was entirely new and presented many hard problems.
The nursery operations of the forest service are concentrated
at seven stations, located in southern California, Nebraska,
Colorado, New Mexico (2), Utah and Idaho, where stock is
raised for local planting and for shipment elsewhere. These
nurseries are small. Their annual productive capacity is between
8,000,000 and 10,000,000 seedlings. Each nursery is practically
an experimental forest-planting station, at which a large variety
of species are grown and various methods are tried.
The organization of the administrative work of the national
forests is by single forests. On the 1st of January 1908 the total
number of forests was 165 with a total area of 162,023,190 acres
(on April 7, 1909, the numbers were 146 national forests in the
U.S. with 167,672,467 acres, besides two in Alaska with 26,761,626
and one in Porto Rico with 65,950 acres). In charge of each
forest is a forest supervisor. Under the supervisors are forest
rangers and forest guards, whose duties include patrol, marking
timber and scaling logs, enforcing the regulations and conducting
some of the minor business arising from the use of the forests.
Guards are temporary employes; rangers are employed by the
year. The supervisors report directly to and receive instructions
from the central office at Washington. In this office there are
four branches — operation, grazing, silviculture and products-
each of which directs that part of the work which belongs to it,
dealing directly with the supervisor. For inspection purposes,
however, the forests are separated into six districts, in each of
which is located a chief inspector with a corps of 1
The inspectors are without administrative authority, but asa
by their counsel the supervisors, and through inspeeUon reports
keep the Washington office informed of the condition of all fee
of administrative work in progress. Administrative often
alternate frequently between field and office duties.
The number of forest officers in the several grades on the is
of January 1008 were: 6 chief inspectors, 26 inspectors, tot
forest supervisors, 41 deputy forest supervisors, 820 teat
rangers and 283 forest guards. The total number of enrptoa
of the forest service on the same date, including the dend
force, was 2034.
Besides the administration of the national forests, the fcrca
service conducts general investigations, carries on an externa
educational work, and co-operates with private owners ite
contemplate forest management upon their own tracts. 7b
last work is undertaken because of the need of bringing forest?
into practice, the lack of trained foresters outside of the empfej
of the government, and the lack of information as to bo* t*
apply forestry and what returns may be obtained. Co-openuia
takes the form of advice upon the ground and, on occasion, d
the making of working plans. The educational work of tbeserna
is performed chiefly through publications, the purpose of vbd
is to spread very widely a knowledge of the importance of forestrr
to the nation and of the principles upon which its practice rati
The investigations which the service conducts extend from stadia
of the natural distribution and classification of American forao
and of their varied silviculture] problems to statistics of locbff
production and laboratory researches which bear upon tk
economical utilization of forest products. As examples of the*
researches may be mentioned tests of the strength of timber,
studies of the preservative treatment of wood for various uses,
wood-pulp investigations and studies in wood chemistry.
Forest Instruction. — Most of the men now in the forest saw
received their training in the United States. There are seven!
professional schools of forestry. The Yale Forest School, vb&
was opened as a department of Yale University in Septecta
1900, offers a two-years' graduate course with abundant fit^
work, and also conducts a summer school of forestry, espedaS?
adapted to the training of forest rangers and special stude&s,
at Milford, Pennsylvania. The university of Michigan and
Harvard University also offer a two-years' graduate course a
forestry. The Pennsylvania State College has recently establisbed
a four-years' undergraduate course in forestry. The Bfluooe
Forest School in North Carolina, the oldest of all these schools.
offers a one-year course in technical forestry. A large mmbtf
of the agricultural colleges give instruction in forestry. Amcaj
these are Nebraska, Minnesota, Maine, Michigan, Washingtoa
and Mississippi agricultural colleges, the university of Georgian^
Iowa State College. Berea College, Kentucky, deserves specal
mention as a college which has done valuable work in leaching
forestry without attempting to turn out professional foresten.
Forestry among the States,— Among the states forestry las
hardly reached the stage of practical application on the grw&i.
New York holds 1 ,500,000 acres of forest land. It has a cona*
sion to care for its forest preserve, and to protect the forest hed
throughout the state from fire. The constitution of the state,
however, prohibits the cutting of timber on state land, and l»»
confines the work entirely to protection of the forest and to tbe
planting of waste areas. Pennsylvania is at present sboviaf
the most efficient activity in working out a forest policy. It &&
state forests of 820,000 acres, a good fire law more and owe
satisfactorily enforced, and eigty. nurseries for growing pkaiisg
material. In 1905, 160,000 white pine seedlings were set o&t
It has also a school for forest rangers, to be employed oa d*
state forests, and it has just established * state pfofesoooal
school of forestry.
Twenty-six of the states have regularly appointed forest offices,
six have carried on studies of forest conditions in co-operat**
with the forest service, and there is scarcely one which is «*
actively interested in forestry. Laws, generally good, to prevent
damage from forest fires, have been tfhacted by practical]/ *D
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
652
the states, bet their eitiorcement Ins unfortunately been lax.
Public sentiment, however, is making rapid progress. Among
the best laws are those of Maine, New Hampshire, Minnesota,
New York, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. The New York law,
for example, provides for the appointment of one or more fire*
wardens in each town of the counties in winch damage by fire
is especially to be stared. In other counties supervisors of towns
are ex-oficio fire-wardens. A chief fire-warden has general
supervision of their work. The wardens, half of the cost of whose
services is paid by the state, receive compensation only for the
time actually employed in fighting fires. They may command
the service of any citizen to assist them. Setting fire to woods
or waste lands belonging to the stale or to another, if such fire
results in loss, is punishable by a fine not exceeding $250 or
imprisonment not exceeding one year, or both, and damages
are provided for the person injured. Since fire is beyond question
the most dangerous enemy of forests in the United States, the
measures taken against it are of vital importance.
The following table shows the amount of forest land held by
the different states, and by the territory of Hawaii:-—
Area of Stale Forest Reservations, 1907*
Connecticut .... 1,360 acres
Hawaii
Indiana .
Maryland
Michigan.
Minnesota
New Jersey
New York
Pennsylvania
Wisconsin
«7.53a
2,000
3.540
39.000
42,800
*»474
> 439.99*
820,000
254.072
" Forestry on Private Lands.— The practice of forestry among
private owners is of old date. One of the earliest instances
* was that of Jared Eliot, who, in 1730, began the systematic
cutting of timber land to supply charcoal for an iron furnace
at Old Salisbury, Connecticut. The successful planting of waste
- lands with timber trees in Massachusetts dates from about ten
years later. But such examples were comparatively rare until
- recent times. At present the intelligent harvesting of timber
e with a view to successive crops, which is forestry, is much more
1 common than is usually supposed. Among farmers it is especially
: frequent. It was begun among lumbermen by the late E. S.
: Coe, of Bangor, Maine, who made a practice of restricting the
cut of spruce from bis forests to trees 10, 12 or sometimes even
t 14 in. in diameter, with the result that much of his land yielded,
f during his life, a second crop as plentiful as the first. Many
' owners of spruce lands have followed his example, but until
1 very recently without improving upon it. Systematic forestry
I oa a large scale among lumbermen was begun in the Adirondack*
' during the summer of 1808 on the lands of Dr W. S. Webb and
Hon. W. C. Whitney, of a combined area of over 100,000 acres,
1 under the superintendence of the then Division of Forestry.
[ In these forests spruce, maple, beech and birch predominate,
but the spruce alone is at present of the first commercial import-
1 ance. The treatment is a form of the selection system. Under
it a second crop of equal yield would be ripe for the axe in thirty-
five years. Spruce and pine are the only trees cut. The work
had been executed, at least up to the year 1002, with great
satisfaction to the owners and the lumbering contractors, as
well as to the decided benefit of the forest. The lumbering is
regulated by the following rules, and competent inspectors are
employed to see that they are rightly carried out: (1) No
trees shall be cut which are not marked. (2) All trees marked
shall be cut. (3) No trees shall be left lodged in the woods, and
none shall be overlooked by the skidders or haulers. (4) All
merchantable logs which are as large as 6 in. in diameter at the
small end must be utilized. (5) No stumps shall be cut more
than 6 in. higher than the stump is wide. (6) No spruce shall
be used for bridges, corduroy, skids, slides, or for any purpose
except building camps, dams or booms, unless it is absolutely
necessary on account of tack of other timber. (7) All merchant-
able spruce used for skidways must be cut into logs and hauled
out. (8) Contractors must not do any unnecessary damage
to young growth in lumbering; and if any is done, they must
discharge the men who did it.
These two instances of forestry have been most useful and
effective among lumbermen and other owners of forest land in
the north-east. Among those which have followed their example
are the Berlin Mills Paper Company in northern New Hampshire,
the Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company in northern Michigan, and
the Delaware and Hudson Railroad Company in New York, ail
of which have employed professional foresters.
The most notable instance of forestry in the south is on the
estate of George W. VanderhUt at Biltmore, N.C This was the
first case of systematic forestry under regular working* plans in
the United States. It was begun in 1*01 on about 4000 acres,
and has since been extended until it now oovers about 100,000
acres. A professional forester with a corps of trained rangers
under him is in charge of the work. The Pennsylvania Railroad
has recently employed a trained forester and several assistants
and has undertaken systematic forestry on a large scale.
The effect of the work of the forest service in assisting private
owners is evidenced by the fact that down to the year 190ft
670 wood lots and timber tracts had been examined by agents
of the forest service, of which 250 wece tracts over 400 acres in.
extent, and planting plans had been made for 436 owners
covering a total area of 80,000 acres. Expert advice is also,
given to wood lot owners upon application by many of the state
foresters.
American Practice. — The conditions under which forestry
is practised in Europe and in America differ so widely that,
rules which are received as axiomatic in the one must often
be rejected in the other. Among these conditions in America
are the highly developed and specialized methods and machinery
of lumbering, the greater facilities for transportation and conse-
quent greater mobility of the lumber trade, the vast number
of small holdings of forest land, and the enormous supply of
low-grade wood in the timbered regions. High taxes on forest
properties, cut-over as well as virgin, notably in the north-western
pineries, and the firmly established habits £f lumbermen, are
factors of great importance. From these and other considera-
tions it follows that such generally accepted essentials of European,
methods of -forestry as a sustained annual yield, a permanent
force of forest labourers, a permanent road system and the like,
are in most cases utterly inapplicable in the United States at
the present day in private forestry. Methods of forest manage-
ment, to find acceptance, must there conform as closely as possible
to existing methods of lumbering. Rules of marked simplicity,
the observance of which will yet secure the safety of the forest,
must open the way for more refined methods in the future. For
the present a periodic or irregular yield, temporary means of
transport, constantly changing crews, and an almost total
ignorance of the silvics of all but a few of the most important
trees— all combine to enforce the simplest silvicultural treatment
and the utmost concentration of purpose on the two main objects
of forestry, which are the production of a net revenue and the
perpetuation of the forest. Such concentration has been followed
in practice by complete success.
The forests with which the American forester deals are rich
in species,usually endowed with abundant powers of reproduction,
and, over a large part of their range, greatly dependent for their
composition and general character upon the action of forest
fires. Of the commercially valuable trees there may be said to be,
in round numbers, a hundred out of a total forest flora of about
500 species, but many trees not yet of importance in the lumber
trade will become so hereafter, as has already happened In many
cases. The attention of the forester must usually be concen-
trated upon the growth and reproduction of a single species, and
never of more than a very few. Thus the silvicultural problems
which must be solved in the practice of forestry in America are
fortunately less complicated than the presence of so many kinds
of trees in forests of such diverse types would naturally seem
to indicate.
The forest fire problem is one of the most difficult with which
the American forester has to deal. It is probable that forest
66o
FOREY— FORFARSHIRE
United States where the population has always been the densest,
and as a consequence of this, a large proportion of the original
hardwood land has been cleared up and put under cultivation.
The hardwood supply of the future must be obtained chiefly
from the Appalachian region, where the conditions are less
favourable to agriculture.
In addition to the lumber cut, enormous quantities of hard-
woods are used each year for railroad ties, telephone and other
poles, piles, fence posts and fuel, and there is a great amount
of waste in the course of lumbering and manufacture.
Authoutibs.— Sargent. SUva of North America (Boston, 1891-
1897), Manual ej Trees of North America (Boston, 1903) ; Letnmon,
Handbook of West American Cone-Bearers (San Franasoo, 1895);
Bruncken, North American Forests and Forestry (New York, 1000);
Fernow, Economics of Forestry (New York, 190a): Pinchot, The
Adirondack Spruce (New York, 1898): Pinchot and Graves, The
White Pine (New York, 1896). See also the various publications
of the U.S. forest service, including especially the following general
works: Forest Influences; Primer of Forestry', the Timber Supply
of the United States; the Waning Hardwood Supply; Forest Products
of the United Slates in 1906; Exports and Imports of Forest Products
m 1906 ; Federal and Slat* Forest Laws ; Regulations and Instructions
for the Use of the National Forests; The Use of the National Forests;
also part v. of the Nineteenth and of the Twenty-first Annual Reports
of the United Stales Geological Survey, and vol. ix. of the 10th Census
Report on the Forests of North America; and Reports of the State
Forestry Commissions of New York, New Hampshire, Maine,
Pennsylvania, Michigan, Ohio, Ac. and of the State Geological
Surveys of New Jersey, Maryland and North Carolina. (G. P.)
FOREY, RUB FR&DERIC (1804-187*), marshal of France,
was born at Paris on the 5th of January 1804, and entered the
army from St Cyr in 1824, He took part in the earlier Algerian
campaigns, and became captain in 1835. Four years later he
was given command of a battalion of chasseurs & pied and in
1844 he became colonel. At the Revolution of 1848 Cavaignac
made him a general of brigade. He took an active part in the
coup d'Stol of the and of December 1851, and Napoleon III.
made him a general of division shortly afterwards. He held a
superior command in the Crimean Way, and in the Italian
campaign of 1859 distinguished himself very greatly in the action
eiMontebeuo(*othMay). In 1862 Forey was placed in command
of the French expeditionary corps in Mexico, with the fullest
civil and military powers, and he crowned a successful campaign
by the capture of Mexico city in May 1863, receiving as his
reward the marshal's baton. From December 1863 to 1867 he
held high commands in France, but in the latter year he was
Struck with paralysis and had to retire. Marshal Forey died
at Paris on the soth of June 1872.
FORFAR, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and capital
of the county of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop. (1001) 12,1x7.
It lies at the east end of the Loch of Forfar in the valley of
Strathmorc, and is 13 m. N. by E. of Dundee by road and 21 1 m.
by the Caledonian railway. It is also situated on the same
company's main line to Aberdeen and sends off a branch to
Brechin. The principal buildings comprise the court house,
the county hall (with portraits by Raeburn, Romney, Opie and
others), the town hall, the Meffan Institute (including the free
library), the infirmary, poorhouse and the Rcid hall, founded
by Peter Reid, a merchant in the burgh who also gave the public
park. The burgh unites with Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin -and
Inverbervie (the Montrose group of burghs) in returning one
member to parliament. The Loch of Forfar, ij m. long by \ m.
wide, is drained by Dean Burn, and contains pike and perch.
On a gravel bank or spit in the north-west of the lake stood
a castle which was sometimes used as a residence by Margaret,
queen of Malcolm Canmore. The staple industries are linen
and jute manufactures, but brewing, tanning, bleaching, rope-
making and iron-founding are also carried on.
Forfar is at least as old as the time of Malcolm Canmore, for
the Grst parliament after the defeat of Macbeth met in the old
castle, which stood on a mound on the northern side of the
town. The parliaments of William the Lion, Alexander II.
and Robert II. also assembled within its walls. The town,
which was created a royal burgh by David I., was burnt down
about the middle of the 13th century. Edward L captured the
castle on one of his incursions, but in 1307 Robert Bruce seined
it, put its defenders to the sword and then destroyed ft, its site
being now marked by the town cross. Previous to the reign of
James VL the weekly market was held on Sunday, but after
the union of the crowns parliament enacted that it should be
held on Friday. The town sided with Charles L during the
Civil War, and Charles IL presented the Cross to it out of regard
for the loyalty shown to his father. Forfar seems to have played
a less reputable part in the persecution of witches. In x66i a
crown commission was issued for the trial of certain miserable
creatures, some of whom were condemned to be burnt. In the
same year one John Ford for his services as a witch-finder was
admitted a burgess along with Lord Kinghorne. The witches'
bridle„ a gag to prevent them from speaking whilst being led to
execution, is still preserved in the county haB. One mile to the
E. lie the ruins of Restennet Priory, where a son of Robert
Bruce was buried. For twenty five years after the Reformation
it was used as the parish church and afterwards by the Episco-
palians, until they obtained a chapel of their own in 1822.
FORFARSHIRE, or Angus, an eastern county of Scotland,
bounded N. by the shires of Kincardine and Aberdeen, W. by
Perthshire, S. by the Firth of Tay and El by the North Sea.
It has an area of 559,171 acres, or 873*7 «!• »* The island of
Rossie and the Bell Rock belong to the shire.
Forfarshire is characterized by great variety of surface and
may be divided physically into four well-marked sections. In
the most northerly of these many of the rugged masses of the
Grampians are found; this belt is succeeded by Strathmore,
or the Howe of Angus, a fertile valley, from 6 to 8 m. broad,
which is a continuation of the Howe of the Mearns, and runs
south-westwards till it enters Strathearn, to the south-west of
Perth; then come the Sidlaw Hills and a number of isolated
heights, which in tum give way to the plain of the coast and the
Firth. The mountains are aH in the northern division and belong
to the Binchinnin group (sometimes rather inexactly called the
Braes of Angus) of the Grampian ranges. Among the highest
masses, most of which lie on or near the confines of the bordering
counties, are Glas Maol (3502 ft.) on the summit of which the
shires of Aberdeen, Forfar and Perth meet, Cairn-na-Glasha
(3484), Fafcrnie (3274)* Broad Cairn (3268), Creag Leacaca
(3238), Tolmount (3143)1 Tom Buidhe (3140), Driesh (3105),
Mount Keen (3077) and Mayar (3043), while peaks of upwards of
2000 ft. are numerous. The Sidlaw Hills — the greater part of
which, however, belongs to Perthshire — are much less lofty
and of less striking appearance. They have a breadth of from
3 to 6 re., the highest points within the county being Craigowl
Hill (1493 ft), Auchterhouse Hill (1399) and GaUow Hill (1242).
None of the rivers is navigable, and only three are of any im-
portance. The Isla, rising in Cairn-na-Glasha, flows southwards,
then turns S.E. and finally S.W. till it enters the Tay after s
course of 45 m. Its chief tributaries on the right are the Alyth,
Ericht and Lunan, and on the left the Newton, Melgam and
Dean. Near Bridge of Craig is the fall of Reekie Linn (70 ft.),
so named from the fact that when the stream is in flood the spray
rises in a dense cloud like smoke (reek). Near old Airhe Castle
are the cascades called the Slugs of Auchrannie. The North Esk,
formed by the confluence of the Lee and Mark at Invermark
after a south-easterly course of 28 m. enters the North Sea
3 m. N. of Montrose. On the right bank it receives the West
Water and Cruick and on the left the Tarf and Luther. It gives
the title of earl of Northesk to a branch of the Carnegie family.
The South Esk rises in the Grampians near Mount Fafenrie and
not far from its source forms the Falls of Bachnagalrn; after
flowing towards the south-east, it bends eastwards near Tannadice
and reaches the North Sea at Montrose, the length of its course
being 48 m. Its principal affluents are the Prosen on the right
and the Noran on the left. It supplies the title of earl of Southesk
to another branch of the Carnegies. The lakes are small, the
two largest being the Loch of Forfar and the lnountaiavght
Loch Lee (1 m. long by J m. wide). Lintrathen (circular in shape
and about f m. across), to the north of Airlie Castle, snpplw
Dundee with drinking water. The glens of the Forfarshirr
FORESTS AND FORESTRY
659
States (root 1*7* to xoo& Ic is certain that the remarkable
decline in the out of white pine which these figures show will
continue still father.
1B73.
1874.
!$:
&:
SB:
t8Af .
1882 .
1883 .
1884.
1885 .
1886.
1887 .
1888 .
1889.
3*93.780,000
3.751.306,000
3.968,551,000
3.879,046,000
3.595.333496
3^29,473.759
4,806,943,000
3.65 1,295.000
. 6,768,856,749
7.624 jg^JW
7.935.033.054
7.053.094.555
7,425.368.443
7.757.9*6,784
8.388,716460
8,183,050,755
1890.
1891 .
1892 .
1893 .
r8*4 .
1895.
1896 .
!Sg:
1899 .
1900 .
1901 .
1902 .
1903
1904 .
1905 .
1906 .
8.S97.659.332
7479.948.349
8,594,222,862
7,326,263,782
6,821,516,412
7^>S0.669^35
5.725.763.035
6,233.454.ooo
6,155.300,000
6,056,508,000
5.485.261,000
5,336,000,000
5,294,000,000
4,792,000,000
4,220,000,000
3,777,000,000
3,032,000,000
Second to the white pine among the coniferous lumber trees
of the Northern forest is the hemlock (Tsnga canadensis). It is
used chiefly for construction purposes and furnishes a com-
paratively low grade of lumber.
The spruce (Pkea rubens) is used chiefly for lumber, but it
is in large and increasing demand in the manaCacture of* paper
pulp. For the latter purpose hemlock, poplar (PopnJus tremu*
laides and P. grandideniata) and several other woods are also
employed, but on a smaller scale. The total consumption of
wood for paper in the United States for 1906 was 3,660,000
-cords, of which 3,500^00 was spruce. Of this, however, 720,000
cords were imported from Canada.
2. The chief product of the Southern forest is the yellow
pine. This is the collective term for the longleaf, shortleaf,
loblolly and Cuban pines. Of these the longleaf pine (Pinus
palustris Mill.), called pitch-pine in Europe, is the most important.
Its timber is probably superior in strength and durability to
that of any other member of the genus Pinus, and in addition
to its value as a timber tree it is the source of naval stores in the
United States. The average size of the mature longleaf pine is
90 ft. in height and 20 in. in diameter. Shortleaf (Pinus ukinata)
and loblolly {P. taeda) are other important members of this
group. Their wood very closely resembles that of the longleaf
pine and is often difficult to distinguish from it. The trees are
also of about the same size and height. Loblolly is, however,
of more rapid growth. The total cut of yellow pine in 1906 was
z 1,661,000,000 board ft.; it has perhaps not yet reached its
maximum, but is certainly near it.
Another important coniferous tree of the Southern forest
is the bald cypress (Taxodium distickum), which grows in the
swamps. The cut in 1006 was $39,000,000 board ft., a gain of
69% over 1809.
3. But the great supply of coniferous timber is now on the
Pacific Coast. The Douglas fir (PscudtUuza taxi folic), also
known as Douglas spruce, red fir and Oregon pine, is the foremost
tree in Oregon and Washington, and the redwood in California.
"When mature the Douglas fir averages 200 ft. in height and 4 ft.
in diameter, and the redwood 225 ft. in height and 8 ft in
diameter. Other important trees of the Pacific Coast are sugar
pine (Pinus lambtrtiana), western red cedar (Thuja piicaJa),
western larch (Larix occidentalis), Sitka spruce (Picea sitckensis),
western hemlock (Tsuga keterophylta) and western yellow
pine (Pinus ponder osa). These trees wil all be of increasing
importance.
Logging on the Pacific Coast is characterized by the use of
powerful machinery and by extreme skill in handling enormous
weights. This is especially true in California, where the logs
of redwood and of the big tree (Sequoia Washingtoniano) are
often more than 10 ft. in diameter. Logging is usually done by
wire cables operated by donkey-engines. The journey to the
mill is usually by rail. The mills are often of great size, built on
piles over tide water and so arranged that their product is
delivered directly from the saws and dry kilns to vessels moored
alongside. The products of the Pacific Coast forest make their
way over land to the markets of the central and eastern stales
and mto foreign markets. Among the lumber-producing states,
Washington has in seven years jumped from fifth place to first,
and its output has increased from 1,428,000,000 board ft. in
1809 to 4,305.000,000 ft. in 1006. Oregon and California have
increased their output from 734,000,000 each in 1899 to
1,605,000,000 and 1,349,000000 ft. r espec ti vely in 1006. Of
the total output of these three states (7,259.000,000 ft.)
4,880,000,000 ft. is Douglas fir and 660,000,000 redwood.
4. The important lumber trees of the Rocky Mountain forest
are the western yellow pine, the lodgepole pine, the Douglas
fir and the Engelmann spruce. The Douglas fir, here extremely
variable in size and value, reaches in this region average dimen-
sions of perhaps 80 ft. in height by a It. in diameter, the western
yellow pine 00 ft. by 3 ft. and the Engelmann spruce 60 ft by
2 ft. Mining, railroad and domestic uses chiefly absorb the
annual timber product, which is considerable in quantity, and
of vast importance to the local population. The lumber output
of the Rocky Mountain region is, however, increasing very
rapidly both in the north and in the south-west. One of the
largest mills in the United States is in Idaho.
The following table summarises the cut of the Important coniferous
species during the years 1899-1906;
Per Cent Increase
Kind.
1809.
1904.
1006. '
(+) or Decrease
(-) since 1899.
Million
Million
•Million
ft.
ft-
ft.
Yellow Pint: . .
9.659
2,920
11,661
+ 20-7
Douglas Fir . .
",737
£3°.
+ 1862
White Pine . .
7.742
5.333
- 40-S
Hemlock . . .
3.421
3.269
3.537
t 4*
Spruce ....
Western Pine . .
Cypress . . .
1,448
W4
1.279
750
1.643
1,3*7
Redwood . . .
360
519
+ *3*
Cedar ....
233
*23
+ 53'7
2*6,040
27.138
29.664
+ 14
Hardwoods.— Ihn hardwood supply of the country is derived
almost entirely from the eastern half of the continent, and
comes from each of the three great Eastern forest regions.
The following table shows the cut of the important species of
hardwoods for 1899 and 1906:
Per Cent
Kind.
1809.
1906.
Increase (+)
or Decrease (-).
Thousand
Thousand
Feet.
Feet.
Oak
4,438,027
••saji
- 36-5
Maple ....
633.466
+ 394
Poplar ....
1,113,242
693.076
7 37-9
Red gum . . .
Chestnut . . .
%m
453.678
376,838
+ 590
+ 97-1
Dasswood . . .
308,069
+ 22.3
+ I79-4
Birch ....
132,601
370,432
Cottonwood . .
Beech ....
415.U4
w
263.996
275.661
- 36-4
Elm . . . .
456.731
224,795
- 508
Ash ....
269,120
211,460
148,212
- 20*8
Hickory . . .
96.636
+ 534
Tupelo. . . .
(a)
47.882
48.174
Walnut. . . ,
38,681
+ *f$
Sycamore . . .
All other . . .
Total .
20,713
208,504
87.637
- 58*0
8,634.021
7.3»5.49i
- >5-3
a Not separately reported.
Oak, which in 1899 furnished over half the entire output,
has fallen off 36*5 %. Yellow poplar, which in 1899 was second
among the hardwoods, has fallen off 38 % and now occupies
third place; and elm, the great stand-by in slack cooperage,
has fallen 508 %. On the other hand less valuable species
like maple and red gum have advanced 39 and 59 % respectively.
The decrease is largely due to the fact that the hardwoods
grow naturally on the better classes of soil, and in the eastern
66a
FORFEITURE— FORGERY
Zifdwts (London. 1815); Sir W» Fiaser. History of the Cornms
(Bd^oSri aTr! Millar. ^«ArnW^2«W J/aSSw
(Paisley. 1 890J: G. Hay, History of Arbroath (Arbroath, 1876);
D. D. Black, History of Brechin (Edinburgh, 1807).
FORFEITURE (from " forfeit," originally an offence, and
hence a fine exacted as a penalty for such; derived through the
Q. Fr, forfeit, from the late Lat. forts factum, a trespass, thai
which is done /oris, outside), in English law, the term applied
(x) to lose or liability to the loss of property in consequence of
an offence or breach of contract; (2) to the property of which
the party is deprived.
Under the common law, conviction and attainder on indict-
ment for treason or felony was followed not only by forfeiture
of the life of the offender, hut also by forfeiture of his lands and
goods. In the case of treason all the traitor's lands of whomso-
ever holden were forfeited to the king; in the case of felony
(including felo-de-se, or suicide), the felon's lands escheated
(txctdderunt) to his immediate lord, subject to the king's right
to waste them for a year and a day. This rule did not apply
to lands held in gavelkind in the county of Kent. The goods
of traitors and felons were forfeited to the king. The desire of
the king and his officers to realize the profits of these forfeitures
was one of the chief motives for instituting the circuits of the
king's justices throughout England; and from time to time
conflicts arose from attempts by these justices to extend the
law of treason— under which the king levied all the forfeitures—
at the expense of felony, in which the lord of the felon benefited
by the escheats. As regards theft, the king's rights overrode
those of the owner of the stolen property, until, in the reign of
Henry VIII., provision was made for restitution of the goods
to the owner if he prosecuted the thief to conviction. In Pepys's
Diary, 21st of January 1667-1668, will be found an illustration
of the working of the old law. We find that on the suicide
of bis brother-in-law, Fepys at once applied to the king personally
and obtained a grant of the brother-in-Jaw's estate in favour
of his widow'and children should the inquest find a verdict of
felo-de-se. It was common practice for persons anticipating
conviction for treason or felony to assign all their property to
others to avoid the forfeiture; and in some instances the accused
refused to plead to the indictment and endured the print forU
et dure, until death supervened, to avoid these consequences
of conviction. The royal rights to forfeitures arising within
particular areas were frequently granted by charter to corpora-
tions or individuals. In 1897 the courts had to interpret such
charters granted to the town of Nottingham in 1309 and 1448.
All forfeitures and escheats with respect to conviction and
attainder for treason and felony were abolished as from the
ith of July 1870, except forfeitures consequent upon the now
disused process of outlawry, and the forfeitures included in the
penalties of praemunire.
The term " -forfeit " is also applied to penalties imposed by
statute for acts or omissions which are neither treasonable nor
felonious. In such statutes the forfeiture enures m favour of
the crown unless the statute indicates another destination;
and unless a particular method of enforcing the forfeiture is
indicated it is enforceable as a debt to the crown and has priority
as such. The words " forfeit and pay " are often used in imposing
a pecuniary penalty for a petty misdemeanour, and where they
are used the court dealing with the case must not only convict
the offender but adjudicate as to the forfeiture.
Statutory forfeitures in some cases extend to specific chattels,
•4. of a British merchant-ship when her character as such
is fraudulently dissimulated (Merch. Shipp. Act 1894, as. 70, 76),
or of goods smuggled in contravention of the customs acts or
books introduced in violation of the copyright acts. Recognis-
ances are said to be forfeited when the conditions are broken
and an order of court is made for their enforcement as a crown
debt against the persons bound by them.
The term " forfeiture " is now most commonly used with
reference to real property, i.e. with reference to the rights of
lords of the manor or lessors to determine the estate or interest
of a copyholder or lessee for breach of the customary or con-
tractual terms of tenuis. It is also applied U> express &
deprivation of a limited owner of settled property, real or peraosil
for breach of the conditions by which his right* awe linutci
e.g. by becoming bankrupt or attempting to charge or ahecre
his interest. As a general role, the courts " lean against k*
feJtures " of this kind; and are astute to defeat the claim oi iar
superior landlord or other person seeking to enforce lata.
By legislation of 1881 and 1892 there is jurisdiction to gas
relief upon terms against the forfeiture of a lease for bread i
certain classes of covenant, e.g. to pay rent or to insure.
FORGERY (derived through the French from Latin fahrian
to construct), in English law, " the fraudulent making or aha-
tion of a writing to the prejudice of another man's right," e
"the false making, or making nude ammo, of any writes
instrument for the purpose of fraud or deceit." Tins dennmeo.
it will be seen, comprehends all fraudulent tampering iritl
documents. " Not only the fabrication and false making of iht
whole of a written instrument, but a fraudulent insertion, alicza-
tion or erasure, even of a letter, in any material part of a trw
instrument whereby a new operation is given to it, will amowB
to forgery,— and this though it be afterwards executed fcj
another person ignorant of the deceit " (Russell on Crimes ert
Misdemeanours, vol. ii). Changing the word Dale -into Sale
in a lease, so that it appears to be a lease of the manor of Sak
instead of the manor of Dale, is a forgery. And when a cocstry
banker's note was made payable at the house of a banker a
London who failed, it was held to be forgery to alter the nas*.
of such London banker to that of another London banker whs
whom the country banker Had subsequently made his notei
payable. As to the fraud, " an intent to defraud is presumed
to exist if it appears that at the time when the false doenBMat
was made there was in existence a specific person, ascertained
or unascertained, capable of being defrauded thereby; and tia
presumption is not rebutted by proof that the offender took or
intended to take measures to prevent such person from beiag
defrauded in fact, nor by the fact that he had or thought be sad
a right to the thing to be obtained by the false document*
(Stephen's Digest ef the Criminal Law). Thus when a mas
makes a false acceptance to a bill of exchange, and circulates it,
intending to take it up and actually taking it up before it a
presented for payment, he is guilty of forgery. Even if it be
proved as a matter of fact that no person could be defrauded
(as when A forges a cheque in B's name on a bank from wfcice
B had withdrawn his account), the intent to defraud will fee
presumed. But it would appear that if A knew that B bac
withdrawn his account, the absence of fraudulent intern^:
would be inferred. A general intention to cheat the publk a
not the kind of fraud necessary to constitute forgery. Thus U
a quack forges a diploma of the college of surgeons, in order
to make people believe that he is a member of that body, he *
not guilty of forgery.
The crime of forgery in English law has been from time to
time dealt with in an enormous number of statutes. It was
first made a statutory offence in 1562, and was punishable by
fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears, cut off, the
nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land and perpetual
imprisonment. It was made capital, without benefit of clergy
in 1634. The most notable cases of those who have suffered
the extreme penalty of the law are those of the Rev. Dr W.
Dodd in z 7 77, for forging Lord Chesterfield's name on a bond,
and Henry Fauntleroy,. a partner in the banking-house of
Marsh, Sibbald & Co., for the appropriation by means of
forged instruments of money entrusted to the bank, in 1S34.
" Anthony Hammond, in the title Forgery of has Criminal Cede,
has enumerated more than 400 statutes which contain provisions
against the offence " (Sir J. T. Coleridge's notes to Blackstone).
Blackstone notices the increasing severity of the legislature
against forgery, and says that " through the number of these
general and special provisions there is now hardly a case potaluc
to be conceived wherein forgery that tends to defraud, whether
in the name of a real or fictitious person, is not made a capital
crime." These acts were consolidated in 1830. The later
FORGET-Mfc-NOTVfFORGING
663
statutes, fixing penalties from penarservituds for life downwards,
were consolidated by the Forgery Act 1861. R wouM take too
nrecb space to enumerate all the varieties of the offence with
their appropriate punishments. The following condensed
summary » based upon chapter adv. of Sir J. Stephen's Digest
of the Criminal Law:
1. ForgefU»puAi»hablewitn penal Bcmtu<kfol life as a maximum
are— ' 5
la) Forgeries of the great seal, privy seal, &c.
(6) Fprgeries of transfers of stock, India bonds, exchequer bills,
bank-notes, deeds, wills, bills of exchange, &c.
(c) (ftUterattona or alterations of crossing on a cheque.
(d) Forgeries of register* of birth, 6k., or of copies thereof and
others.
a. Forgeries punishable wkh fourteen years' penal servitude are-
fa) Forgeries of debentures,
(ft) Forgeries ojFdocuments relating to the registering of deeds, &c
(c) Forgeriesonnstrumenu purporting to btmade by the account-
ant general and other officers pf the Court of Chancery, &c. ■
(d) Drawing Bill of exchange, &c, on actount of another, per
procuration or otherwise, without authority. m
(0) Obtaining property by means of a forged instrument, knowing
it to be forged* or by probate obtained on a forged will, false oath, &c
3. Forgeries punishable with seven years' penal servitude:—
Forgeries of seals of courts, of the process of courts, of certificates,
and of documents to be used In evidence. &c*
By the Merchandise Marks Acts 18S7 and 1801, forgery of
trade marks is an offence punishable on conviction by indictment
with imprisonment not exceeding two years or to fine, or both,
and on conviction by summary proceedings with imprisonment
toot exceeding tour months or with a fine.
The Forged Transfers Act 1891, made retrospective by the
Forged Transfers Act 1893,, enables companies and local
authorities to make compensation by a cash payment out of
their funds for any loss arising from a transfer of their stocks,
shares or securities through a forged transfer.
United Stokr.— Forgery h made a crime by statute in most
if not ail the states, in addition to being a common law cheat.
These statutes have much enlarged the common definition of
ft»if crime. It is also made a crime by a Federal statute (VS.
Rev. Stat., ch, 5), which includes forgery of national banknotes,
letters patent, public bid, record, signature of a judge, land
warrants, powers of attorney, ships' papers, or custom-house
documents, certificates of naturalisation, &c; the punishment
Is by fine or by imprisonment from one to fifteen years with or
without hard labour.
In Illinois, fraudulently connecting together different parts
of several banknotes or other genuine instruments so as to pro-
duce one additional note ox instrument with intent to pas* all
as genuine, is a forgery of each of them (Rev. Stats. 1901, ch.
38, f xo8). The alleged instrument must be apparently capable
of defrauding {Goodman y. People [1007], 228, JO. 1 54).
In Massachusetts, forgery of any note, certificate or bill of
credit issued by the state treasurer and receiver general, or by
any other officer, for a debt of that commonwealth, or a bank'
bill of any bank, is punishable by imprisonment for life or any
term of years (Rev. Laws 1902, ch. 200, {§ 4 and 5).
In New York, forgery includes the false making, connterfeitrng,
alteration, erasure or obliteration of a genuine instrument
(Penal Code, § 520). An officer or agent of a corporation who
with intent to defraud sells, pledges or issues a fraudulent scrip,
share certificate, is guilty of forgery in third degree. Falsely
making any instrument which purports to be issued by a corpora-
tion bearing a pretended signature of a person falsely indicated
as an officer of the company, is forgery just as if such person
were in truth such officer (id. § 519). Counterfeiting railroad
tickets is forgery in the third degree. Falsely certifying that
the execution of a deed has been acknowledged is forgery (id.
f 51 x). So also is the forging a fictitious name (People v. Browne
[1907], 103 N.Y. suppL 003). Punishment for forgery to the
first degree may be twenty years, in the second degree ten years,
in the third degree five years.
In Pennsylvania, fraudulently making, signing, altering, utter-
ing or publishing any written instrument other than bank bills,
cheques or drafts, was punishable by tine and imprisonment
"4>y separate or actuary confinement at labour for a term not
exceeding ten yean " (L. i860, March $1); forging bank bills,
&c*« for a term not exceeding five years. Defacing, removing,
or counterfeiting brands from lumber floating in any river k
punishable by imprisonment fpr a term not exceeding two years
or a fine (L. 1887, May aj). Fraudulently using the registered
mark of another on lumber is punishable by fine or imprisonment
by solitary confinement for a term not exceeding three years (*d<U
In Tennessee, forgery may be committed by typewriting the
body of and signature to an instrument which may be the subject
of forgery (xoo6; State v. Bradley, 116 Tenn, 711),
In Vermont, the act of 19041 P- *35i no. 1x5, { 24, authorize*
licensees to sell intoxicating liquors only on the written pre-
scription of a legally qualified physician stating that it " is given
and necessary for medicinal use." It was held that a prescription
containing no such statement was invalid and the alteration
thereof was not forgery (1906; State v. UcUanus, 78 St. 433).
AumOMTiBS.— Pollock and Maitland, History of Entiitk lowf
Stephen. Digest of Criminal Law; History of Cnmtnal Law, L. O.
Pike. History of Crime in England, 18/3-187*; Russell, On Crimes;
Archbotd, CHminat Pleading.
F0RGET~MB-NOT, or Scojukon-GiasS (Ger. Vergissmein-
ntekt, Pr. gremillot, scorpienne), the name popularly applied to
the small annual or perennial herbs forming the genus Ifyosotis
of the natural order BorqgtnoAtao+ja called from the Greek
afe, a mouse, and efit, an ear, on account of the shape of the
leaves. The genus is represented in Europe, north* Asia, North
America and Australia, and is characterised by oblong or linear
stem-leaves, flowers in terminal acorptoid cymes, small blue,
pink or white flowers, a five-deft persistent calyx, a salver-
or funnel-shaped corolla, having its mouth dosed by five short
scales and hard, smooth, shining nutlets. The common or true
forget-me-not, M. pdustris, is a perennial plant growing to a
height of 6 to 18 in., with rootstock creeping, stem dothed
with lax spreading hairs, leaves light green, and somewhat
shi"i"g, buds pink, becoming blue as they expand, and corolla
rotate, broad, with retuse lobes and bright blue with a yellow
centre. The divisions of the calyx extend only about one-third
the length of the corolla, whereas in the other British species
of Myositis it is deeply deft. The forget-me-not, a favourite
with poets, and the symbol of constancy. Is a frequent ornament
of brooks, rivers and ditches, and, according to an old German
tradition, received its name from the last words of a knight who
was drowned in the attempt to procure the flower for his lady.
It attains its greatest perfection under cultivation, and, as it
flowers throughout the summer, is used with good effect for
garden borders; a variety, M. strigulasa, is more hairy and erect,
and its flowers are smaller. In M. versicolor the flower* are
yellow when first open and change generally to a dull blue;
sometimes they are permanently yellowish-white. Of the species
in cultivation, M. dissitiftora, 6 to 8 in* with large handsome
abundant sky-blue flowers, is the best and earliest, flowering
from February onwards; it does well in light cool soils, prefer-
ring peaty ones, and should be renewed annually from seeds or
cuttings. Jf . rupicola, or M. olfestris, 2 to 3 in,, intense blue,
is a fine rock plant, preferring shady situations and gritty
soil; if. azorica (a native of the Azores) with purple, ultimatdy
blue flowers about half an inch across, has a similar habit but
larger flowers; M. sylvatica, 1 ft., blue, pink or white, used for
spring bedding, should be sown annually in August.
FORGING, the craft of the smith, or " blacksmith," exercised
on malleable iron and sted, in the production of works of con-
structive utility and of ornament. It differs from founding
(q.v.) in the fact that the metal is never mdted. It is essentially
a moulding process, the iron or steel being worked at a full red,
or white, heat when it is in a plastic and more or less pasty
condition. Consequently the tools used are in the main counter-
parts of the shapes desired, and they mould by impact. All the
operations of forging may be reduced to a few very simple ones:
(x) Reducing or drawing down from a larger to a smaller section
("fullering" and "swaging"); (*) enlargement of a smaller
to a larger portion (" upsetting ") ; (3) bending, or turning round
664.
FORGING
to any angle or curvature; (4) uniting one piece of metal to
another (" welding "); (s) the formation of holes by punching;
and (6) severance, or cutting off. These include all the operations
that are done at the anvil. In none of these processes, the last
excepted, is the use of a sharp cutting tool involved, and therefore
there is no violence done to the fibre of the malleable metal. Nor
have the tools of the smith any sharp edges, except the cutting-
off tools or " setts." the essential fact of the flow of the metal,
which is viscous when at a full red heat, must never be lost sight
of; and in forging wrought iron the judgment of the smith must
be exercised in arranging the direction of the fibre in a way best
calculated to secure maximum strength.
Fullering denotes the preliminary roughing-down of the material
between tools having convex edges; swaging, the completion or
finishing process between swages, or dies of definite shape,
nearly hemispherical in form. When a bar has, to be re-
duced from larger to smaller dimensions, it is laid upon a
****** fuller or round-faced stake, set in the anvil, or, in some
cases, on a flat face (fig. 1), and blows are dealt upon that portion
of the face which lies exactly
opposite with a fullering
tool A, grasped by a rather
loosely-fitting handle and
struck on its head by a
sledge. The position of the
piece of work is quickly
changed at brief intervals
in order to bring successive
portions under the action
of the swages until the re-
duction is completed; the
upper face, and if a bottom
fuller is used the under face also, is thus left corrugated slightly.
These corrugations are then removed either by a flatter, if the sur-
faces are plane (fig. 2), or by hollow swages, if the cross section is
circular (fig. 3). Spring swages (fig. 4) are frequently used instead
of separate " top and bottom tools," Frequently swaging is prac-
Fig. a.
Fig. 3.
tiscd at once, without the preliminary detail of fullering. It is
adopted when the amount 01 reduction is slight, and also when a
steam hammer or other type of power hammer is available. This
process of drawing down or fullering is, when practicable, adopted in
preference to either upsetting or welding, because it is open to no
objection* and involves no risk of damage to the material, while it
improves the metal
by consolidating its
fibres. But its
limitations in anvil
Fio. a. work he in the
** tediousness of the
operation, when the part to be reduced IS very much less in
diameter, and very much longer, than the original piece of bar.
Then there are other alternatives.
If a long bar is required to have an enlargement at any portion of
Its length, not very much larger in diameter than the bar, nor of
great length, upsetting is the method adopted. The part
^* to be enlarged is heated, the parts adjacent remaining
cold, and an end is hammered, or else lilted and dropped heavily
on the anvil or 00 an iron plate, with the result that the heated por-
tion becomes both shortened and enlarged (figs. 5 and 6). This
process is only suitable for relatively short lengths, and has the dis-
advantage that the fibres of wrought iron are liable to open, and so
cause weakening of the upset portion. But steel, which has no
direction of fibre, can be upset without injury; this method is
therefore commonly adopted in steel work, in power presses to an
equal extent with drawing down. The alternative to upsetting is
generally to weld a larger to a smaller bar or section, or to encircle
the bar with a ring and weld the two (fig. 7), and then to impart
any shape desired to the ring in swages.
Bending is effected cither by the hammer or by the simple exercise
of leverage, the heated bar being pulled round a fulcrum. It is
always, when practicable, preferable to cutting oat a curved or
angular shape with a hot sett or to welding. T
the fibre in iron is preserved by bending;, and the risk of as i»
perfect weld is avoided. Hence it is a simple and safe -^.
process which is constantly being performed at the anvil ^^
An objection to sharp bends, or those having a small radns, boat
the fibres become extended on the outer radius, the cross seetkateiaj
Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fro. 7.
at the same time reduced below that of the bar itself. TabfcsatbT
imparting a preliminary amount of upsetting to the part to be be*
sufficient to counteract the amount of redaction due to exteoscn
of the fibres. A familiar example ia seen in the coram of £p
cranks.
The property possessed by pieces of iron or steel of unitinc an>
geneously while in a condition of se mi-fusion is very vakabk
When portions which differ greatly tn dimensions have to mu§a
be united, welding is the only method practicable at the ^^
anviL It is also generally the best to adopt when union ass » »
made be t we en pieces at right angles, or when a piece on «kk
much work has to be done is required at the end of a long phis bu.
as in the tension rods of cranes and ether structures wits eyei
The art of welding depends chiefly on having perfectly dean join
Fig.8. Fig. 9.
faces, free from scale, so that metal can unite to metal; ssist
would be prevented by the presence of oxide or of dirt- Abo a s
essential to have a temperature sufficiently high, yet not sock ai»
overheat the metal. A dazzling white, at which small partkto a
metal begin to drop off, is suitable for iron, but steel must s ot be
made so not. A very few hammer blows suffice to effect the send
union; if the joint be faulty, no amount of subsequent bsauncnat
will weld it. The forms of weld-joints include the scarf (figs. «*sj
9), the butt (fig. 10), the V (fig. 1 1) and the glut, one form of wad
Fig. to*
Fig. 11.
is shown in fig. ia ; the illustrations are of bars p repa i e d for wehSaj
These forms give the smith a suitable choice for different cooditwa
A convexity is imparted to the joint faces in order to favour tat
expulsion of slag and dirt during the closing of the joint; tk*
undesirable matters become entangled between concave bctt
The ends are up
dressed down a
lengths of the i
practice. The fluxes used for welding are 1
is generally dusted on wrought iron, but ~
steel requires borax applied on the joint /\
while in the fire, and also dusted on the ^-^Xyg— ^
joint at the anvil and on the face of the B >Z I
latter itself. Electric welding is largely * -N^y^i^
taking the place of the hand process, <T y
but machines are required to maintain ^-^
the parte in contact during the passage Fio. 12.
of the current. Butt joints are employed. . .
and a large quantity of power is absorbed, but the output is im-
mensely greater than that of hand-made welds.
When holes are not very large they are formed by puiJCM*
but large holes are preferably produced by bending a rod roan
and welding it, so forming an eye (fig. 13). Ssnall boles r^trr
are often punched simply as a preliminary stage in the
formation of a larger hole by a process of drifting. A piece of work
to be punched is supported either on the anvil or on a ring of n«et*j
termed a bolster, laid On the anvil, through which the burr, «oei
severed, falls. But in making ssnall holes through a thick nssv
no burr is produced, the metal yielding sideways aad fonnieg si
enlargement or boss. Ex a mples occur in the wrought iron s t a nr h iost
FORGING
665
Fig- 13.
that cany Qght head railing. In such cum the hole hM to be
punched irom each face, meeting in the centre. Punching under
power hammer* is done similarly, but occupies less time.
The cutting-off or severance of material is done either on hot or
cold metal, in the first case the chisels used, " hot setts," have
keener cutting angles than those employed for the second,
2f°^ termed " cola setts." One sett is held in a hole in the
•* anvil face, the " anvil chisel," the other is handled and
struck with a sledge.
The difference between iron and itee) at the forge Is that iron
possesses a very marked fibre whereas steel does not. Many
forcings therefore must be made differently according as they are
in iron or in steeL In the first the fibre must never be allowed
to run transversely to the axis of greatest tensile or bending
•tress, but must be in line therewith. For this reason many
forgings, of which a common eye or loop (fig. 13)
is a typical example, that would be stamped
from a solid piece if made in steel, must be
bent round from bar and welded if in wrought
Iron. Further, welding which is practically
uniformly trustworthy in wrought iron, is dis-
trusted in steeL The difference is due to the
very fibrous character of iron, the welding of
which gives much less anxiety to the 'smith
than that of steeL Welds in iron Are frequently
made without any flux, those in steel never.
Though mention has only been made of iron and
■teel, other alloys are forged, as those of
aluminium, delta metal, && But the essential operations are
alike, the differences being in temperature at which the forging
Is done and nature of the fluxes, used for welding. For
hardening and tempering, an important section of smith's work,
aee Aknealino.
Die Forging.— The smith operating by hand uses the above
methods only. There is, however, a large and increasing volume
of forgings produced in other ways, and comprehended under
the general terms, " die forging ° or " drop forging."
Little proof is needed to show that the various operations
done at the anvil might be performed in a more expeditious
way by the aid of power-operated appliances; for the elementary
processes of reducing, and enlarging, bending, punching, &c, are
extremely simple, and the most elaborate forged work involves
only a repetition of these. The fact that the material used is
entirely plastic when raised to a white heat is most favourable
to the method of forging in matrices or dies. A white hot mass
of metal can be placed in a matrix, and stamped into shape in a
few blows under a hammer with as much ease as a medal can be
■tamped in steel dies under a coining press. But much detail
is involved In the translation of the principle into practice. The
parallel between coining dies and forging dies does not go far.
The blank for the coin is prepared to such exact dimensions that
no surplus material is left over by the striking of the coin, which
b struck while cold. But the blank used in die forging is generally
a shapeless piece, taken without any preliminary preparation,
a mere lump, a piece of bar or rod, which may be square or round
irrespective of whether the ultimate forging b to be square, or
round, or flat or a combination of forms. At the verge of the
welding neat to which it is raised, and under the intensity of
the impact of hammer blows rained rapidly on the upper die,
the metal yields like lead, and flows and fills the dies. '
Herein lies a difference between striking a coin and moulding
a forging. A large amount of metal is squeezed out beyond the
concavity of the forging dies, and this would, if allowed to flow
over between the joints, prevent the dies from being closed on
the forging. There are two methods adopted for removing this
M fin/' or ' flash " as It is termed, one being that of suppression,
applicable to circular work, the other that of stripping, applied
to almost all other cases.
The suppression of fin means that the circular bar Is rotated in the
dies (fig. 14) through a small arc, alternating between every few
blows, with the result that the fin is obliterated immediately when
formed, this being done at the same time that reduction of section
is being effected over a portion or the whole of the bar.
Stripping means that when a considerable amount of fin has
been formed, it is removed by laying the forging on a die pierced
right through with an opening of the same shape and area as the
forging, and then dealing the forging a blow with the hammer.
~~ * knocked (* ...-••■
through the die, leaving the severed
I — 1
The forging
or stripped fin behind. The
forging is then returned to
the dies and again treated,
and the stripping may be
repeated twice, or even
oftener, before the forging
can be completed.
Figs, is and 16 illustrate
the bottom dies of a set for
forging in a particular form
of eye, the top dies being of
exactly the same shape. The
first operation takes place in
fig. 15, in which a bar of
metal is reduced to a globular
and cylindrical form, being
constantly rotated mean*
while. The shank portion is
then drawn down in the
parallel recess to the left.
The shape of the eye is com- f"
pleted in fig. 16, and the cs- ..
shank in the recees to the left • **
of that. Fig. 17 shows how a lever, is etamped between top and
bottom diet. The hole in the larger bote is formed by punching,
the punchee nearly meeting in the centre, and the centre for the hole
to be drilled subsequently in the smaller boss is located by a conical
projection in the top die.
•rar
F10. 15.
Ftc. 16.
It is evident that the methods of die forging, though only explained
here in barest outline, constitute a principle of extensive application.
An intricate or ornamental forging, which might occupy a smith;*
quarter of a day in making at the anvil, can often be produced in
dies within five'minutes (ng. 18).
cost of the preparation of the dies, wmen is often neavy, so tnax tne
question of method is resolved into the relative one of the cost of
. On the other hand, there is the
dies, which is often heavy, so that the
Flo. 17. Flo- *&•
dies, distributed over the number of identical forgings required;
From this point of view it is clear that given say a thousand forgings,
ordered all alike, the cost of even expensive dies distributed over
the whole becomes only an infinitesimal amount per forging.
There is, further, the very important fact that forgings which
are produced in dies are uniform and generally of more exact dimen-
sions than anvil-made articles. This is seen to be an advantage
when forgings have to be turned or otherwise tooled in the engineer s
machine shop, since it lessens the amount of work required there.
666
FORK-tfORXXJUN HOPE
Beside*, for many purpose* such forcings do not require tooting at
all, or only superficial grinding, while anvil-made ones would, in
consequence of their slight inaccuracies.
Yet again, die forging is a very elastic system, and herein lies
much of its value. Though it reaches its highest development when
thousands of similar pieces are wanted, it is also adaptable to a
_^-t — i hundred, or even to a dozen-, simitar forgings.
^J^^X *—T7i In such cases economy is secured by using dies
r *-"^ ; -*— — f\ of a very cheap character; or, by employing
I J such dies as supplementary to anvil work for
j 1/ effecting neat nnish to more precise dimen-
1 * — v sions than can be ensured at the anvil. In
the first case use is made of dies of cast iron
moulded from patterns (fig. 19) instead of
having their matrices laboriously cut in steel
with drills, chisels and milling toots.- Irt the
second, preliminary drawing down is done
under the steam hammer, and bending and
welding at the anvil, or under the steam
Fie. 19. hammer.until the forgings are brought approxi-
mately to their final shape and dimensions.
Then they are reheated and inserted in the dies, when a few blows
under the steam or drop hammer suffice to Impart a neat and accurate
finish. ,
. The limitations of die forging are chiefly those due to large dimen-
sions. The system is most successful for the smallest forgings and
dies which can be handled by one man without the assistance of
cranes; and massive forgings lire not required in such large numbers
as are those of small dimensions. But there are many large articles
manufactured which do not strictly come under the term forgings,
in which- the aid of dies actuated by powerful hydraulic presses is
utilized.. These include work that is bent, drawn and shaped
from steel plate, of which the fittings of railway wagons constitute
by far the largest proportion. The dies used for some of these are
massive, and a single squeeze from the ram of the hydraulic press
employed bends the steel plate between the dies to shape at once.
Fairly massive forgings are also produced in these presses.
Die forging in its highest developments invades the craft of the
skilled; smith. In shops where it is adopted entirely, the only
craftsmen required are the few who have general charge of the
shops. The men who attend to. the machines are- not smiths,
but unskilled helpers. ' (J- G. H.)
FO$K {Lai. furca), an implement formed of two or more
prongs at the end of a shaft or handle, the most familiar type
of which is the table-fork for use in eating, . Id agriculture and*
horticulture the fork is used for pitching hay, and other green
crops, manure, &c; commonly this has two prongs, " tines ";
for digging, breaking up surface soil, preparing for hand weeding
and for planting the three-pronged fork is used.. The word is
also applied to many objects. which are characterizedby branching
ends, as the tuning-fork) with two branching metal prongs,
which on being struck vibrates and gives a musical note, used to
give a standard of pitch? to, the branching into two streams
of a river, or the junction where a tributary runs into the main
river; and in the. human body* .to that part where the legs
branch off from the trunk*
• 'The furca, two pieces of wood fastened' together in the form
of the tetter A, was used by the Romans as an instrument of
punishment. It was placed over the shoulders of the criminal,
and bis hands ^re fastened to it, condemned slaves were com-
pelled to carry it about with them, and those sentenced to be
flogged would 'be tied to it J crucifixions were sometimes carried
out on a similar shaped instrument, From the great defeat of
the Romans V the Samnites at the battle of the Caudine Forks
(Furatlae Caudinae), a narrow gorge, .where the vanquished
were compelled to pass under the yoke (jugum), as a sign of
submission, the expression " to pass through or under the forks "
has been loosely used of >uch a disgraceful* -surrender. The
" forks "in any allusion, to this defeat should refer to the topo-
graphical name -and not to the jugum, which consisted of two
upright spears with a third placed transversely as a. cross-bar.
FORKBL. JOHANN NIKOLAUS (174C-H18),/ -German
musician, was born on the 22nd of February 1749 at Meeder
in Coburg. He was the son of a cobbler, and as a practical
musician, especially as a pianoforte player, achieved some
eminence; but his claims to a more abiding name rest chiefly
upon his literary skill and deep research as an historian of musical
science and literature. He was an enthusiastic admirer of J. S.
Bach, whose music he did much to popularize. His library,
which was accumulated with care and discrimination at a time
when rare books were cheap, forms a valuable pordn of fe
royal library in Berlin and also of the library of the Koni^rhr
Institut fur Kjrchenmusik. He was organist to the univewj
church of Gttttingen, obtained the degree o£ doctor of pluk«p)sj
and in 1778 became musical director of the university. He id
at Gflttingen on the 20th of March 18x8. The following is a k
of his principal works: Vber die Theorie der tlusik (Gdttkpi
iTtf)\Musikalisch kritische Bibliolkck (Gotha, 1778); 4%ve
CeichichU der Musik (Leipzig, 17*8). The last is his most 2
portant work. He also wrote a Dictionary of Musical ZifcrSs.
which is full of valuable material. To his musical cornpositka
which are numerous, little interest is to-day to be stticfei
But it is worth noting that he wrote variations on the Earji
national anthem " God save the kirig " for the clavichord, is!
that Abt Voglcr wrote a sharp criticism on them, which appeas
at Frankfort in 1793 together with a set of variations is fc
conceived they ought to be written.
FORLl (anc. Forum Lwift, a town and episcopal see of EmS*
Italy, the capital of the province of ForB, 40 m. S.E. of Bolcpi
by rail, 108 ft. above sea-levcL Pop. (ioox) 15,461 (to** 1 -
43.3^1 (commune). ForB is situated on the railway betweo
Bologna and Rimini. It is connected by steam tramways *&
Ravenna and Meldoli, and by a road through the ApenciDes
with Pontassieve. The church of S. Mercuriale stands is tk
principal square, and contains, besides paintings, sot&t pod
carved and inlaid choir stalls by Alessandro dei Bignl The
facade has been considerably altered, but the campanile, erected
in 1178-1180, still exists; it is 252 ft. fn height, square andbs£
of brickwork, and is one of the finest of Lombard campuS
The pictures in this church are the work of Marco Palroezxis
(1456-1537) and others; S. Biagio and the municipal plena
gallery also contain works by him. The latter has other interest-
ing pictures, including a fresco representing an apprentice with
pestle and mortar (Pestapepe), the only authentic work in Fori
of Melozzo da ForB (1438-1494), an eminent master whose s^k
was formed undef the influence of Piero della Franceses, asd
who was the master of Palmezzano; the frescoes inthe'Sfora
chapel in SS. Biagio e Girolamo are from the former's desip,
though executed by the latter. The church also contains the
fine tomb (1466) of Barbara Manfredi. The cathedral (Suts
Croce) has been almost entirely rebuilt since 1844. The Pa!a3»
del Podesti, now a private house, Is a brick building of the 15^
century. The citadel (Rocca Ravaldina), constructed abost
1360-1370, and later rebuilt, is now used as a prison. Fli**
Biondo, the first Renaissance writer on the topography of andeS
Rome (1388-1463), was a native of ForB.
Of the ancient Forum Livii, which lay on the Via Aemua.
hardly anything is known. In the 12th century we find FmI
in league with Ravenna, and in the 13th the imperial count of
the province of Romagna resided there. In 1275 Forfi defeated
Bologna with great toss. Martin IV. sent ah army to besiege
it in x 282, which was driven out after severe fighting in the streeti.
but the town soon afterwards surrendered. In the 14th ^
15th centuries it was under the government of the Ordelifi;
and in 1500 was taken by Caesar Borgia, despite a detennised
resistance by Caterina Sforza, widow of GiroJaxno Riario. Fori
finally became a part of the papal state in 1504. (T. As.)
FORUMPOPOU (anc. Forum Popiltii), a village of Eff&
Italy, in the province of ForB, from which it is 5 m. S.E. by wL
105 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1001) 2299 (town); 579S (^
mune). The ancient Forum Popillii, a station On the Via AemHk,
was destroyed by Grimuald in 67 2. Whether ti* site is occupied
by the present town is not certain; the former should pexhap
be sought a mile or so farther to the S.E., where were found most
of the inscriptions of which the place of discovery is certain
Forlimpopoli was again destroyed by Cardinal Albornox ifi 1360,
and rebuilt by Sinibaldo Ordelaffi, who constructed the well-
preserved medieval castle (1386), rectangular with four circular
lowers at the corners. (T. As.)
FORLORN HOPE (through Dutch verlortn hoop, froxo Get
verlorcne Houfem" lost troop w ; Heufe, " heap,'* being eqnrv>
lent fn the 17th century to " body of troops '•; the Frew*
■ : • ■ FORMr-FORM AN, A:
667
equivalent is*n/a«fc£^iw),a military t^
to " forlorn "), used in the 1.6th and 17th centuries for a. body
of troops thrown out in front of the line of battle to engage the
hostile line, somewhat after the fashion of skirmishes;, though
they were always solid closed bodies. These troops ran great
risks, because they were often trapped between the two lines of
battle as the latter closed upon one another, and fired upon or
ridden down by their friends; further, their mission was to
facilitate the attacks of their own main body by striking the
first blow against or meeting the first shock of the fresh and
unshaken enemy. In the following century (x&th), when lines
of masses were no longer employed, a thin line of skirmishers
alone preceded the three-deep line of battle, but. the term
" forlorn hope " continued to be used for picked bodies of men
entrusted with dangerous tasks, and in particular for the storming
party at the assault of a fortress. In this last sense " forlorn .
hope " is often used at the present time. The misunderstanding
of the word " hope" basled to various applications of "forlorn
hope," such as to an enterprise offering little chance of success,
or, further still from the original meaning, tojhc faint or desperate
hope of such success.
FORM (Lat. forma), in general, the external shape, appearance/
configuratson-of an object, in contradistinction to the matter of
which it is composed; thus, a speech may contain excellent
arguments,— the matter may be good, while the style, grammar,
arrangement,— the form—i* bad. The term, with its adjective
" formal " and the derived nouns " formality " and " formalism,"
is hence contemptuously used for that which is superficial,
unessential, hypocritical; chap, xxiii. of Matthew's gospel is
a classical instance of the distinction between the formalism
of the Pharisaic code and genuine religion. , With this may be
compared the popular phrases " good form " and " bad form "
applied to behaviour in society: so " format " (from the French)
is technically used of the shape and size, e.g. of a book (octavo,
quarto, &c.) or of a cigarette. The word " form " is also applied
to certain definite objects: in printing a body of type secured
in a chase for printing at one impression (" form " or ." forme ");
a bench without a back, such as is used in schools (perhaps to
be compared with 0. Fr. s'asseoir en forme* to sit in a row); a
mould or shape on or in which an object is manufactured; the
lair or nest of a bare. From its use in the sense of regulated order
comes the application of the term to a class in a school (" sixth
form," " fifth form/' &c); this sense has been explained without
sufficient ground as due to the idea of all children in the same
class sitting on a single form (bench).
The word has been used technically in philosophy with various
shades of meaning. Thus it is used to translate the Platonic
t&ia, Mas, the permanent - reality which makes a thing what
it is, in contrast with the particulars' which are finite and subject
to change. Whether Plato understood these forms as actually
existent apart from all the particular examples, or as being of the
nature of immutable physical laws, is matter of discussion. For
practical purposes Aristotle was the first to distinguish between
matter (0A») and form (eZoos). To Aristotle matter is the
undifferentiated primal clement: it is rather that from which
things develop (broKtliuvov, 6Va/Mf) than a thing in itseU
(kvtpyda). The development of particular things from, this
germinal natter consists in differentiation, the acquiring of
particular firms of which the knowable universe consists (cf.
Causation for the Aristotelian" formal cause '*) . The perfection
of the form of a thing is its entelechy (4mXlx«*«5 in virtue of
which it attains its fullest realisation of function (Dc anima,
ii. 2, 4 fib fiM tfrafus rb 84 tttot iircXix«a)- Thus the
entelechy of the body is the soul. The origin of the differentia*
tion process is to be sought in a " prime mover " (vp&rov nvow),
i.e. pure form entirely separate (xwp«rr6v) from all matter,
eternal, unchangeable, operating not by its own activity but by
the impulse which its own absolute existence excites in matter
(As ifii/fUPWt 06 wahp&w). The Aristotelian conception of
form was nominally, though perhaps in most cases utrintelhgently,
adopted^ by the Scholastics, to whom, however, its origin in the
observation of the physical universe was an .entirely foreign
idea. The most remarkable adaptation is probably that of
Aquinas, who distinguished the spiritual world with its " sub-
sistent forms " {forma* separatee) from the material with its
"inherent forms "which exist only in combination with mattery
Bacon, returning to the physical standpoint, maintained that all
true research must be devoted to the discovery of the real nature
or essence of things. . His induction searches for the true " form "
of light, heat and so forth, analysing the external " form " given
in perception into simpler " forms " and their " differences."
Thus he would collect all possible instances of hot things, and
discover that which is present, in all, excluding all those qualities
which belong accidentally to one or more of the examples
investigated; the "form " of heat is the residuum common to
all. Kant transferred the term from the- objective to the sub-
jective sphere. All perception is necessarily conditioned by
pure "forms of sensibility," *.«. space and time: whatever is
""perceived Is perceived as having special and temporal relations
(see Spacs and Time; KaWt). These forms are not obtained
by abstraction from sensible data, nor are they strictly speaking
innate: they are obtained " by the very action of the mind from
the co-ordination of its sensation."
FORMALIN, or Formaldehyde, CH2O or H-CHO, the first
member of the series of saturated aliphatic aldehydes. It is
most readily prepared by passing the vapour of methyl alcohol,
mixed with air, over heated copper or platinum. In order td
collect the formaldehyde, the vapour is condensed and absorbed,
either in water or alcohol. It may also be obtained, although
only in small quantities, by the distillation of caldum formate.
At ordinary temperatures formaldehyde is a gas possessing
a pungent smell; it is a strong antiseptic and disinfectant,
a 40% solution of the aldehyde in water or methyl alcohol,
sold as (formalin, being employed as a deodorant, fungicide
and preservative. .It is not possible to obtain the aide-
hyde in a pure condition, since it readily polymerizes. It i%
a strong reducing agent; it combines with ammonia to form
hexamethyUne ietramine, (CHs)cN«, and easily " condenses "
in- the presence of many bases to produce compounds which
apparently belong to the sugars (?.«.). It renders glue or gelatin
insoluble in water, and is used in the coal-tar colour industry
in the manufacture of para-rosantline, pyronines and rosamines.
Several polymers have been described. Paraformaldehyde, or
trioxymethylene, obtained by concentrating solutions of form*
aldehyde in vacuo, is a white crystalline solid, which sublimes at
about zoo C. and melts at a somewhat higher temperature,
changing back into the original form. It is insoluble in cold
water, alcohol and ether. A diformaldehyde is supposed to
separate as white flakes when the vapour is passed into chloro-
form (Korber, Pkam. Zeii., 1004, xhx. p. 609); F. Auerbach
and Hi Barschall (Ckem. Zentr., 1007, ii. p. 1734) obtained three
polymers by acting with concentrated sulphuric add on solutions
of formaldehyde, and a fourth by heating one of the forms so
obtained. The strength of solutions of formaldehyde may be
ascertained by the addition of excess of standard ammonia to the
aldehyde solution (hexamethylene tetracaine being formed),
the excess of ammonia being then estimated by titration with
standard acid. On the formation of formaldehyde by the
oxidation of methane at high temperatures, see W. A. Bone
{J own, Ckem. Soe., iooa, 81, p. 535; 2903, 8j, p. 1074). Form*
aldehyde also appears to be a reduction product of carbon
dioxide (see Annual Reports of ike Chemical Society).
FORMAK, ANDREW (c. 1465-2531), Scottish ecclesiastic, was
educated at the university of St Andrews and entered the service
of King James IV. about 1480. . He soon earned the favour of
this king, who treated him with great generosity and who on
several occasions sent him on important embassies to the English,
the French and the papal courts. In 1 901 he became bishop of
Moray and in July 1 5x3 Louis XII. of France secured his appoint*
ment as archbishop of Bourges, while pope Julius 1L promised
to make him a cardinal. In x s 14 during a long absence from fail
own land Forman was nominated by Pope Leo X. to the vacant
archbishopric of St Andrews and was made papal legate in
Scotland, but it was some time before he secured possession of
668
FORMAN, S.— FORMIC ACID
the see owing to the attempts of Henry VIII. u> subject Scotland
to England and to the efforts of his rivals, Gavin Douglas, the
poet, and John Hepburn, prior of St Andrews, and their sup-
porters. Eventually, however, he resigned some of his many
benefice*, the holding of which bad made him unpopular, and
through the good offices of the regent, John Stewart, duke of
Albany, obtained the coveted archbishopric and the primacy
of Scotland. Afterwards he was one of the vice-regents of the
kingdom and he died on the nth of March 1521. As archbishop
he issued a series of constitutions which are printed in J. Robert-
son's Concilia Scotiae (1866). Mr Andrew Lang (History of
Scotland, vol. i.) describes Forman as " the Wolsey of Scotland,
and a fomenter of the war which ended at Floddeo." >
See the biography of the archbishop which forms voL ii. of The
Archbishops of St Andrews, by J. Hcrklessand R. K. Hannay (1909).
FORMAN, SIMON (1552-1611), English physician and astro-
loger, was born in 1552 at Quidham, a small village near Wilton,
Wiltshire. At the age of fourteen he became apprentice to a
druggist at Salisbury, but at the end oifour years he exchanged
this profession for that of a schoolmaster. . Shortly afterwards
he entered Magdalen College, Oxford, where he studied chiefly
medicine and astrology. After continuing the same studies in
Holland he commenced practice as a physician in Philpot Lane,
London, but as he possessed no diploma, he on this account
underwent more than one term of imprisonment. Ultimately,
however, he obtained a diploma from Cambridge university,
and established himself as a physician and astrologer at Lambeth,
where he was consulted, especially as a physician, by many
persons of rank, among others by the notorious countess of
Essex. He expired suddenly while crossing the Thames in a
boat on the iath of September 161 x.
A list of Forman's works on astrology is given in Bliss's edition
of the Aikenae Oxonienses\ many of his MS. works are contained
in the Bodleian Library, the British Museum and the Plymouth
Library. A Brief Description of the Forman MSS. in the Public
Library, Plymouth, was published in 1853.
FORMERET, a French architectural term for the watt-rib
carrying the web or filung-in of a vault (?.*.).
PORMEY, JOHANN HQNRICH SAMUEL (1711-1797),
Franco-German author, Was born of French parentage at Berlin
on the 3 1 st of May 17x1. He was educated for the ministry, and
at the age of twenty became pastor of the French church at
Brandenburg. Having in 1736 accepted the invitation of *
congregation in Berlin, he was in the following year chosen pro-
fessor of rhetoric in the French college of that city and in 1739
professor of philosophy. On the organization of the academy
of Berlin in 1744 he was named a member, and in 1748 became
its perpetual secretary. He died at Berlin on the 7th of March
1797. His principal works are La Belle Wotfienne (1741-1750,
6 vols.), a kind of novel written with the view of enforcing the
precepts of the Woman philosophy; Bibliotkhque critique, oh
mimoires pour servir a I'histoire liUtrairc ancienne et -moderne
(1746); Le Philosopke chrUicn (1750); L'/ZmiU chriiien (1764),
intended as an answer to tjie £neiU of Rousseau; and Souvenirs
fun citoyen (Berlin, 1789). He also published an immense
number of contemporary memoirs in the transactions of the
Berlin Academy.
t FORMIA (anc. Format, called Mala di Carta until recent
times), a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Castrta,
from which it is 48 m. W.N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 5514 '
(town) ; 8453 (commune). It is situated at the N.W. extremity
of the Bay of Gaeta, and commands beautiful views. It lay on
the ancient Via Appia, and was much frequented as a resort by
wealthy Romans. There was considerable imperial property
here and along the coast as far as Sperlonga, and there are
numerous remains of ancient villas along the coast and on the
slopes above it. The so-called villa of Cicero contains two well-
preserved nymphaea with Doric architecture. lis site is now
occupied by the villa Caposele, once a summer residence of the
kings of Naples. There are many other modern villas, and the
sheltered hillsides (for the mountains rise abruptly behind the
town) are covered with lemon, orange and pomegranate gardens.
The now deserted promontory of the Monte Scauri to the E. is
also covered with remains of ancient villas; the hill is <
by a large tomb, known as Torre Giano. To the E. at-Scssri a
a large villa with substructions in " Cyclopean ** work. Tk
ancient Formiae was, according to the legend, die borne of tke
Laestrygones, and later a Spartan colony COpfdax ati, re e&aar,
Strabo v. 3. 6, p. 233). It was a Voiscian town, and, Eke Fad,
received the civitas sine snffragio from Rome in 538 (or $32 &£.'
because the passage through its territory had always been seas.
This was strategically important for the Romans, as the mffitrr
road definitely constructed by Appius Claudius In 31 a B.C, r£
easily traceable by its remains, and in part followed by tie
high-road, traversed a narrow pass, which could easily be Meckel
between Fundi and Formiae. In x 88 ex., with Fundi, it recenei
the full citizenship, and, like it, was to a certain extent uss
the control of a praefectus sent from Rome, though it retsised
its three aedilea. Mamurra was a native of Forxnia. Gee*
possessed a favourite villa here, and was murdered in its virin^T
in 43 d.c, but neither the villa nor the tomb can be ident&et
with any certainty. It was devastated by Seztus Foinpeisfi,
and became a colony, with duoviri as chief magistrates, under
Hadrian* Portus Caietae (the. modem Gaeta) was depenaVa
upon it.
See T. Ashby. * Dessins in&its de Carlo LabntttV* in MSsxga
de Vicele francatse de- Rome (1903), 410 eeq, (T. AsO
FORMIC ACID, HsCOt or HCOOH, the first member of tie
series of aliphatic monobasic adds of the general farmsSs
CftHtnOs. It is distinguished from the other members of the
series by certain characteristic properties; for »r»»-pK k
shows an aldehydjc character in reducing silver salts to meU&k
silver, and it does not form an add chloride or ah acid anhydride.
Its nitrile (prussic add) has an add character, a property not
possessed by the nitriles of the other members of the series;
and, by the abstraction of the elements of water from the arid.
carbon monoxide is produced, a reaction which finds no paralkJ
in the higher members of the series. Finally, formic acid is, ss
shown by the determination of its affinity constant, a mock
stronger add than the other adds- of the series. It ocean
naturally in red ants (Lat. formica), in stinging nettles, in some
mineral waters, in animal secretions and in musde. It may be
prepared artificially by the oxidation of methyl alcohol and 4
formaldehyde; by the rapid heating of oxalic add (J. Gay-
Lussac, Ann. chim. phys., 1831 [2] 46, p. 2x8), but best by beating
oxalic add with glycerin, at a temperature of xoo-no* C (M.
Berthdot, Ann., 1856, 98, p. 139). In this reaction a glycerol
ester is formed as an intermediate product, and undergoes
decomposition by the water which is also produced at the sas*
time.
C,H.(0H),+H l C^4-C,H,(0H),0CH0+CO 1 +rW
C«H»(OH)«O.CHO-r-H*0-C*H,(OH)»+H,aV
Many other synthetical processes for the production of the arid
or its salts are known. Hydrolysis of hydrocyanic acid by mam
of hydrochloric acid yields formic add. -Chloroform boiled wits
alcoholic potash forms potassium formate (J. Dumas, Bersetiat
Jahresberichte, vol. 15, p. 371), a somewhat similar deoorapostios
" chloral a - J L "
moist .carbon monoxide on soda lime at" 19c— aao - C (VT MenTaad
being shown by 1
1832, 1, p. 198).
and aqueous potash (L v. Liebig, Am ^
Formates are also produced by the actios d
J. Tibicira. Ber., 1880, 13, p. 23; A.,Geuther, Ants., 1880, am.
P- 317)» or by the action of moist carbon dioxide on potassuxa
(H. Kolbe and R. Schmitt, Ann.. 1861, 119, p. 251). HT Mobsas
(CompUs rend., 1903, 134, p. s6x) prepared potassium formate by
passing a current of carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide over heated
potassium hydride,
KH+Ca-KHCOTand KH+2CQ-Kr!C0,+C
A concentrated add may be obtained from the diluted acid either
by neutralization with soda, the sodium salt thus obtained oris*
then dried and heated with the equivalent quantity of anhydrous
oxalic acid (Lorin, Bull. soc. chim., 37, p. 104), or the lead or copper
salt may be decomposed by dry sulphuretted hydrogen at 130* C
L. Maquenne (Bull. soc. chim., 1888, 50, p. 662) distils the commercial
add, in vacuo, with concentrated sulphuric add below 75* C.
Formic add is a colourless, sharp-smelling liquid, which crystal-
lites at o° C, melts at 8*6* C. and boils at ioo-8* C Its sperific
gravity is 1-22 (30V4*). It is miscible in all proportions with water.
alcohol and ether. When heated with zinc dust, the add Aj*»F»r*rn
into carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The sodium and potamuffi
■alts, when heated to 400 s C, give oxalates and carbonates of ths
FORMOSA
669
alkali metals, bat tha magnesium, calcium, and barium salts yield
carbonates only. The free acid, when heated with concentrated
sulphuric acid, is decomposed into water and pure carbon monoxide;
when heated with nitric acid, it is oxidized first to oxalic acid and
finally to carbon dioxide. The salts of the acid are known as for-
mates, and arc mostly soluble in water, those of silver and lead being
the least soluble. They crystallize well and are readily decomposed.
Concentrated sulphuric add converts them into sulphates, with
simultaneous liberation of carbon monoxide. The calcium salt,
when heated with the calcium salts of higher homologues, gives
aldehydes. The silver and mercury salts, when heated, yield the
metal, with liberation of carbon, dioxide and formation of free
formic acid; and the ammonium salt, when distilled, gives some
formamidc, HCONH a . The esters of the add may be obtained
by distilling a mixture of the sodium or potassium salts and the
corresponding alcohol with hydrochloric or sulphuric acids.
Formamidi, HCONHt, is obtained by heating ethyl formate with
ammonia; by heating ammonium formate with urea to 140* G,
2HCOONH i +CO(NH > )t-2HCONH,+(NH 4 ) 1 CO,;
by heating ammonium formate in a sealed tube for some hours at
230* C, or by the action of sodium amalgam on a solution of
potassium cyanate (Fk Basarow, Ber., 1871 . 4, p. 409). It is a liquid
which boils in vacuo at 150°, but at 192-195* C. under ordinary
atmospheric pressure, with partial decomposition into carbon
monoxide and ammonia. It dissolves mercuric oxide, with the
formation of mercuric formamide, (HCONH)jHg.
FORMOSA, a northern territory of the Argentine republic,
bounded N. by Bolivia, N.E. and E. by Paraguay, S. by
the Chaco Territory, and W. by Salta, with the Pilcomayo
and Bermejo forming its northern and southern boundaries.
Estimated area, 41.402 sq. m. It is a vast plain, sloping gently
to the S.E., covered with marshes and tropical forests. Very
little is known of it except small areas along the Bermejo and
Paraguay riven, where attempts have been made to form
settlements. The unexplored interior is still occupied by tribes
of wild Indians. The climate is hot, the summer tempera-
ture rising to a maximum of 104° F. Timber-cutting is the
principal occupation of the settlers, though stock-raising and
agriculture engage some attention in the settlements on the
Paraguay. The capital, Formosa (founded 1879), is a small
settlement on the Paraguay with a population of about 1000 in
1000. The settled population of the territory was 4839 in 1895,
which it was estimated had increased to 1,3,431 in 1905. The
nomadic Indians are estimated at 800a
FORMOSA (called Taiwan by the Chinese, and following
tbcm by the Japanese, into whose possession it came after their
war with China in 189s), an island in the western Pacific Ocean,
between the Southern and the Eastern China Sea, separated
from the Chinese mainland by the Formosa Strait, which has
a width of about 90 m. in its narrowest part. The island is
235 m. 1ob£ and from 60 to 80 m. broad, has a coast -line measuring
731 m., an area of 13,429 sq. m. — being thus nearly the same
sue as Kiushiu, the most southern of the four chief islands
forming the Japanese empire proper— and extends from 20° 56'
to 25° 15' N. and from xao° to 122° £. It forms part of the long
line of islands which are interposed as a protective barrier
between the Asiatic coast and the outer Pacific, and is the cause
of the immunity from typhoons enjoyed by the ports of China
from Amoy to the Yellow Sea. Along the western coast is a low
plain, not exceeding 20 m. in extreme width; on the east coast
there is a rich plain called Giran, and there are also some fertile
valleys in the neighbourhood of Karenko and Pinan, extending
up the longitudinal valleys of the rivers Karenko and Pinan,
between which and the east coast the Taito range intervenes;
but the rest of the island is mountainous and covered with virgin
forest. In the plains the soil is generally of sand or alluvial
clay, covered in the valleys with a rich vegetable mould. The
scenery of Formosa is frequently of majestic beauty, and to
this it is indebted for its European name, happily bestowed by
the early Spanish navigators.
On the addition of Formosa to her dominions, Fuji ceased
to be Japan's highest mountain, and took the third place on the
list. Mount Morrison ( 14,270 ft.), which the Japanese re-named
Niitaka-yama (New High Mountain), stands first, and Mount
Sylvia (12,480 ft.), to which they give the name of Setzu-zan
(Snowy Mountain), comes second. Mount Morrison stands
nearly under the Tropic of Cancer. It ia not volcanic, but coast**
of argillaceous schist .and quarUite. An ascent made by Dr
Honda of the imperial university of Japan showed that, up to
a height of 6000 ft, the mountain is clothed with primeval
forests of palms, banyans, cork trees, camphor trees, tree ferns,
interlacing creepers and •dense thickets of rattan or stretches
of grass higher than a man's stature. The next interval of 1000
ft. has gigantic cryptomerias and chamoecyperis^ then follow
pines; then, at a height of 9500 ft, a broad plateau, and then
alternate stretches of grass and forest up to the top, which
consists of several small peaks. There is no snow. Mount
Morrison, being surrounded by high ranges, is not a conspicuous
object. Mount Sylvia lies in 24° 30' N. lat There are many
other mountains of considerable elevation. In the north is
Getsurobi-zan (4x01 ft.); and on either side of Setzu-zaa, with
which they form a range running due east and west across the
island, are Jusampunaan (4608 ft.) and Kali-zan (7027 ft.).
Twenty-two miles due south of Kali-xan stands Hakumdsha-zan
(5282 ft.), and just 20 m. due south of Hakumosha-can begins
a chain of three peaks, Suisha-zan (6200 ft,), Hoo-zan (4028),
and Niitaka-yama. These five mountains, Hanv*an, Hakmnnsha-
can, Suisha-zan, Hoo-zan and Niitaka-yama, stand almost
exactly under 12 1° & long. , in the very centre of the island But
the backbone of the island lies east of them, extending S. from
Setzu-zan through Gokan-zan, and Noko-an and other peaks
and bending S.W. to Niitaka-yama. Yet farther south, and
stiH lying in line down the centre of the Island, are Sankyakunaa-
zan (3752 ft.), Shurogtaan (5729 ft.), Poren-zan (4057 ft.), and
Kado-aan (0055 ft), and, finally, in the south-east. Arugan-zan
(4085 It.). These, it will be observed, are all Japanese names,
and the heights have been determined by Japanese observers.
In addition to these remarkable inland mountains, Formosa's
eastern shores show magnificent cliff scenery, the bases of the
hills on the seaside taking the form of almost perpendicular
walls as high as from 1500 to 2500 ft. Volcanic outbreaks of
steam and sulphur-springs are found. Owing to the precipitous
character of the east coast few rivers of any size find their way to
the sea in that direction. The west coast, on the contrary, has
many streams, but the only two of any considerable length
are the Kotansui, which rises on Shurogi-zan, and has its mouth
at Toko after a course of some 60 m. and the Seirakei, which
rises on Hakumosha-zan, and enters the sea at a point 57 m.
farther north after a course of 90 m.
The climate is damp, hot and malarious. In the north, the
driest and best months are October, November and December;
in the south, December, January, February and March. The
sea immediately south of Formosa is the birthplace of innumer>
able typhoons, but the high mountains of the island protect it
partially against the extreme violence of the wind.
Flora and Fauna. — The vegetation of the island is charac-
terised by tropical luxuriance,— -the moutainous regions being
clad with dense forest, in which various species of palms, the
camphor-tree (Laurus Campkora), and the aloe are conspicuous.
Consul R. Swinhoe obtained no fewer than 65 different kinds of
limber from a large yard in Taiwanfu; and his specimens are
now to be seen in the museum at Kew. The tree which supplies
the materials for the pith paper of the Chinese is not uncommon,
and the cassia tree is found in the mountains. Travellers are
especially struck with the beauty of some of the wild flowers,
more especially with the lilies and convolvuluses; and European
greenhouses have been enriched by several Formosan orchids and
other ornamental plants. The pine-apple grows in abundance.
In the lowlands of the western portion, the Chinese have intro-
duced a large number of cultivated plants and fruit trees. Rice
is grown in such quantities as to procure for Formosa, in former
days, the title of the " granary of China "; and the sweet potato,
laro, millet, barley, wheat and maize are also cultivated.
Camphor, sugar, tea, indigo, ground peanuts, jute, hemp, oil
and rattans are all articles of export.
The Formosan fauna has been but partially ascertained; but
at least three kinds of deer, wild boars, bears, goats r monkeys
(probably Macacus sptciosus), squirrels, and flying squirrels
670
FORMOSA
are fairly common, and panthers and wild call are not unf rcquent.
A poisonous but beautiful green snake is often mentioned by
travellers. Pheasants, ducks, geese and snipe are abundant,
and Dr C. Collingwood in his Naturalist's Rambles in the China
Seas mentions Ardea prasinoseeles and other species of herons,
several species of fly-catchers, kingfishers, shrikes and larks,
the black drongo, the Cotyle sinensis and the Prima sonitans.
Dogs are kept by the savages for bunting. The horse is hardly
known, and his place is taken by the ox, which is regularly bridled
and saddled and ridden with all dignity. The rivers and neigh-
bouring seas seem to be well stocked with fish, and especial
mention must be made of the turtles, flying-fish, and brilliant
coral-fish which swarm in the waters warmed by the Kurosivo
current, the gulf-stream of the Pacific, Shell-fish form an
important artide of diet to both the Chinese and the aborigines
along the coast— a species of Cyrena, a species of Tapes, Cytkeraea
pcteckiana and Modiola teres being most abundant.
Population.— The population of Formosa, according to a
census in 1004, is estimated at 3,022,687, made up as follows:
aborigines 104,334, Chinese 3,860,574 and Japanese 51,770*
The inhabitants of Formosa may be divided into four classes:
the Japanese, who are comparatively few,, as there has not been
much tendency to immigration; the Chinese, many of whom
immigrated from the neighbourhood of Amoy and. speak the
dialect of that district, while others were Hakkas from the
vicinity of Swatow; the subjugated aborigines, who largely
intermingled with the Chinese; and the uncivilized aborigines
of the eastern region who refuse to recognize authority and
carry on raids as opportunity occurs. The semi-civilized
aborigines, who adopted the Chinese language, dress and customs,
were called Pe-pa-hwan (Angiice Pepo-hoans), while their
wilder brethren bear the name of Chin-hwan or" green savages,"
otherwise Shcng-fan or " wild savages." They appear to belong
to the Malay stock, and their language bears out the supposition.
They are broken up into almost countless tribes and clans,
many of which number only a few hundred individuals, and
their language consequently presents a variety of dialects, of
which no classification has yet been effected: in the district
of Posia alone a member of the Presbyterian mission distin-
guished eight different mutually unintelligible dialects. The
people themselves. are described as of "middle height, broad-
chested and muscular, with remarkably large hands and feet,
the eyes large, the forehead round, and not narrow or receding
in many instances, the nose broad, the mouth large and disfigured
with betel." The custom of tattooing is universal. In the north
of the island at least, the dead are buried in a sitting posture
under the bed on which they have expired. Petty wars are
extremely common, not only along the Chinese frontiers, but
between the neighbouring clans; and the heads of the slain are
carefully preserved as trophies. In some districts the young
men and boys sleep in the skull-chambers, in order that they
may be inspired with courage. Many of the tribes that had
least intercourse with the Chinese show a considerable amount
of skill In the arts of civilization. The use of Manchester prints
and other European goods is fairly general; and the women,
who make a fine native doth from hemp, introduce coloured
threads from the foreign stuffs, so as to produce ornamental
devices. The office of chieftain is sometimes held by women.
The chief town is Taipe (called by the Japanese Taihokv),
which is on the Tamsui-yet river, and has a population of about
118,000, induding 5850 Japanese. Taipe may be said to have
two ports; one, Tamsui, at the mouth of the river Tamsui-yei,
xo m. distant on the north-west coast, the other Kelung (called
by the Japanese Kiirun), on the north-east shore, with which
It is connected by rail, a run of some 18 m. The foreign settle-
ment at Taipe lies outside the walls of the city, and is called
Twatutia (Tattotei by the Japanese). Kelung (the ancient
Pekiang) is an excellent harbour, and the scenery is very beauti-
ful. There are coal-mines in the neighbourhood. Tamsui
(called Tansui by the Japanese) is usually termed Kobe by
foreigners. It is the site of the first foreign settlement, has a
population of about 7000, but cannot bo made a good harbour
without considerable expenditure. On the west coast that 1
no place of any importance until reaching Anptng (if N. lat),
a port where a few foreign merchants reside for the sake of tat
sugar trade. It is an unlovely place, surrounded by mad tax
and a hotbed of malaria. It has. a population of 4000 Gum
and 200 Japanese. At a distance of some a J m. inland is tat
former capital of Formosa, the walled city of Tainan, which In
a population of 100,000 Chinese, 2300 Japanese, and a ie»
British merchants and missionaries. Connected with Aapisj
by rail (26 m.) and laying south of it is Takau, a treaty port, h
has a population of 6800, and is prettily situated on two ssdes
of a large lagoon. Six miles inland from Takau is a prospers
Chinese town called Fengshan (Japanese, Hozan). The aneb*
ages on the east coast are Soo, Karenko and Pinan, which A»
not call for special notice. Forty-seven m. east of the txtrrae
south coast there is a little island called Botd-tobago (Japan*
Koto-sho), which rises to a height of 19x4 ft. and is inhahitd
by a tribe whose customs differ essentially from those of tk
natives on the main island.
Administration and Commerce.— The island is treated is at
outlying territory; it has not been brought within the fd
purview of the Japanese constitution. Its affairs are administerai
by a governor-general, who is also commander-in-chitf of ik
forces, by a bureau of civil government, and by three prefetnol
governors, below whom are the heads of twenty territoriil
divisions called cho\ its finances are not included in the general
budget of the Japanese empire; it is garrisoned by a misji
brigade taken from the home divisions; and its currency s «
a silver basis. One of the first abuses with which the Japanese
had to deal was the excessive use of opium by the Chinese
settlers. To interdict the importation of the drug altogether,
as is done in Japan, was the step advocated by Japanese pubic
opinion. But, influenced by medical views and by the abac*
insuperable difficulty of enforcing any drastic import veto ii
the face of Formosa's large communications by junk with Quia.
the Japanese finally adopted the middle course of licensing tit
preparation and sale of the drug, and limiting its use to peratt
in receipt of medical sanction. Under the administration of the
Japanese the island has been largely devdoped. Among othet
industries gold -mining is advancing rapidly. In 1902 48-**
oz. of gold representing a value of £168,626 were obtained fron
the mines and alluvial washings. Coal is also found in Urge
quantities near Kelung and sulphur springs exist in the not!
of the island.
An extensive scheme of railway construction has been planned,
the four main lines projected being (1) from Takau to Tainan;
(2) from Tainan to Kagi; (3) from Kagi to Shoka; and (4) &"■
Shoka to Kelung; these four forming, fn effect, a main rnnk
road running from the south-west to the north-east, its com*
being along the foot of the mountains that border the wfsten
coast-plains. The Takau-Tainan section (26 m.) was opened to
traffic on the 3rd of November 1000, and by 1005 the whole hat
of 259 m. was practically complete. Harbour improvements also
are projected, but in Formosa, as in Japan proper, paucity cf
capital constitutes a fatal obstacle to rapid development
There are thirteen ports of export and import, but 75 % of the
total business is done at Tamsui. Tea and camphor are the
staple exports. The greater part of the former goes to Amoy
for re-shipment to the west, but ft is believed that if harbo*
improvements were effected at Tamsui so as to render it accessWe
for ocean-going steamers, shipments would be made thence direct
to New York. The camphor trade being a government monopoly,
the quantity exported is under strict control.
History.— The island of Formosa must have been known fron
a very early date to the Chinese who were established in the
Pescadores. The inhabitants are mentioned in the official worb
of the Yuan dynasty as Tung-fan or eastern barbarians; **&
under the Ming dynasty the island begins to appear as Kfluos
In the beginning of the 16th century it began to be known to
the Portuguese and Spanish navigators, and the latter at least
made some attempts at establishing settlements or mtssioBi
The Dutch were the first, however, to take footing in the island;
FORMOSDS (POPE)'
671
i* 16*4 they biaH a* fast; Zeiandia, on the east coast, where
subsequently rose the town of Taiwan, aad the settlement was
maintained lor thrity-seven years. On the expulsion of the
Xiing dynasty in China, a number oC their defeated adherents
came over to Formosa, and under a leader called in European
accounts Coxinga, succeeded in expelling the Dutch and taking
possession of a good part of the island. In 1682 the Chinese
of Formosa recognized the emperor K'ang-hi, and the. island
then began to form part of the Chinese empire. From the dose
of the 17th century a long era of conflict ensued between the
Chinese and the aborigines. A more debased population than
the peoples thus struggling for supremacy could scarcely be
conceived. The aborigines, Shcng-fan, or " wild savages,"
deserved the appellation in some respects, for they lived by the
chase and had little knowledge even of husbandry; while the
Chinese themselves, uneducated labourers, acknowledged no
right except that of might. The former were not implacably
cruel or vindictive. They merely clung to their homesteads, and
harboured a natural resentment against the raiders who had
dispossessed them. Their disposition was to leave the Chinese in
unmolested possession of the plain. But some of the most
valuable products of the island, as camphor and rattan, are to be
found in the upland forests, and the Chinese, whenever they
ventured too far in search of these products, fell into ambushes
of hill-men who neither gave nor sought quarter, and who
regarded a Chinese skull as a specially attractive article of
household furniture. A violent rebellion is mentioned in 1788,
put down only after the loss, it is said, of 100,000 men by disease
and sword, and the expenditure of 1,000,000 tads of silver.
Reconciliation never took place on any large scale, though it is
true that, in the course of time, some fitful displays of ad-
ministrative ability on the part of the Chinese, and the opening
of partial means of communication, led to the pacification of a
section of -the Shcng-fan, who thenceforth became known as
Pe-pa-hwan (Pepohoan).
In the early part of the 19th century the island was chiefly
known to Europeans on account of the wrecks which took place
on its coasts, and the dangers that the crews had to run from
the cannibal propensities of the aborigines, and the almost
equally cruel tendencies of the Chinese. Among the most
notable was the loss in 2843 of the British brig " Ann," with
fifty-seven persons on board, of whom forty-three were executed
at Taichu. By the treaty of Tientsin (i860) Taichu was opened
to European commerce, but the place was found quite unsuitable
for a port of trade, and the harbour of Tam-sui was selected
instead. From 1859 both Protestant and Presbyterian missions
were established in the island. An attack made on those at
Feng-shan (Hoxan) in 1868 led to the occupation of FortZelandia
and Anping by British forces; but this action was disapproved
by the home government, and the indemnity demanded from
the Chinese restored. In 1874 the island was invaded by the
Japanese for the purpose of obtaining satisfaction for the murder
of a shipwrecked crew who had been put to death by one of the
semi-savage tribes on the southern coast, the Chinese govern-
ment being either unable or unwilling to punish the culprits.
A war was averted through the good offices of the British
minister, Sir T. F. Wade, and the Japanese retired on payment
of an indemnity of 500,000 tacls. The political state of the
island during these years was very bad; in a report of 1872
there is recorded a proverb among the official classes, " every
three years an outbreak, every five a rebellion "; but subsequent
to 1877 some improvement was manifested, and public works
were pushed forward by the Chinese authorities. In 1884, in
the course of belligerent proceedings arising out of the Tongking
dispute, the forts at Kelung on the north were bombarded by
the French fleet, and the place was captured and held for some
months by French troops. An attack on the neighbouring town
of Tamsui failed, but a semi-blockade of the island was main-
tained by the French fleet during the winter and spring of
1884-1885. The troops were withdrawn on the condusion of
peace in June 1885.
In 1895 the island was ceded to Japan by the treaty of
SMmenosekj at the dose of the Japanese war. Hie resident
Chinese omdals, however, Tef used to recognbe the cession, declared
a republic, and prepared to offer resistance. It is even said they
offered to transfer the sovereignty to Great Britain if that
power would accept it, A formal transfer to Japan was made
in June of the same year in pursuance of the treaty, the ceremony
taking place on board ship outside Kelung, as the Chinese
commissioners did not venture to land. The Japanese were
thus left to take possession as best they could, and some four
months elapsed before they effected' a landing on the south of
the island. Takau was bombarded and captured on the 1 5th of
October, and the resistance collapsed. Lin Yun|-f u, the notori-
ous Black Flag general,, and the back-bone of the resistance,
sought refuge in flight. The general state of the island when the
Japanese assumed possession was that the plain of Giran on
the eastern coast and the hill-districts were inhabited by semi-
barbarous, folk, the western plains by Chinese of a degraded type,
and that between the two there existed a traditional and con-
tinuous feud, leading to mutual displays of merciless and
murderous violence. By many of these Chinese settlers the
Japanese conquerors, when they came to occupy the island^
were regarded in precisely the same hght as the Chinese them-
selves had been regarded from time immemorial by the abori-
gines. Insurrections occurred frequently, the insurgents receiv-
ing secret aid from sympathizers in China, and the difficulties
of the Japanese being increased not only by their ignorance of
the country, which abounds in fastnesses where bandits can find
almost inaccessible refuge, but also by the unwillingness of
experienced officials to abandon thdr home posts for the purpose
of taking service in the new territory.
BlBLIOCPAf Jiir.— C, ]mh.iu(t-lluart, VJh Formosa, ktsimrf et
description (Paris. 1*93), 4*; J. L>. Clark, forntMa (Shanghai,
1896); W. A. Pitfctnnp. Piomarirtg in Formtna \ Loudon, ifcoSt;
George Candidiofr, A Short Aaourtt of the liiand #} Fiffmoia in tkr
Indies . . ., vol. 1.: Cli tire hill'* CotUttian 0/ Voyatts (1744);
Robert S* in hoc, Notrt tm the Island oj Formosa, read before the
British Association. (1863)1 W, Campbell, " Aboriginal Savajjn of
Formosa,' Of tan Highways (April 1&73J; H. /. Klaproth, Dtvriphoa
<U I'Ue d€ Fermw. mtm> rtk & I A Si* (ro*6) : Mrs T. V. Hughei,
Notes of <t Six lVor*' Retidtmt in Formosa (London, 1881); Y.
Takekosh> r JaMneic Rule in Formosa £iran>1. by C. Braithwaite)
(London, 1907).
FORMOSUS, pope from 801 to 806, the successor of Stephen
V. (or VI.). He hist appears in history when, as bishop of Porto,
he was sent on an embassy to the Bulgarians. Having afterwards
sided with a faction against John VIII., be was excommunicated,
and compelled to take an oath never to return to Rome or again
toassume his priestly functions. From this oath he was, however,
absolved by Marinus, the successor of John VIII., and restored
to his dignities; and on the death of Stephen V. in 891 he was
chosen pope. At that time the Holy See was engaged in a struggle
against the oppression of the princes of Spoleto, and a powerful
party in Rome was eager to obtain the intervention of Arnulf,
ki ng of Germany, against these dangerous neighbours. Formosus
himself shared this view; but he was forced to yield to circum-
stances and to consecrate as emperor Lambert, the young son
of Guy of Spoleto. Guy had already been consecrated .by
Stephen V., and died in 894. In the following year Arnulf
succeeded in seizing Rome, and Formosus crowned him emperor.
But, as he was advancing on Spoleto against Lambert, Arnulf
was seized with paralysis, and was forced to return to Germany.
Overwhelmed with chagrin, Formosus died on the 4th of April
896. The discords in which he had been involved continued
alter his death. The validity of his acts was contested on -the
pretext that, having been originally bishop of Porto, he could
not be a legitimate pope. The fundamental factor in these
dissensions was the rivalry between the princes of Spoleto and
the Carol ingian house, . represented by the king of Germany,
The body of Formosus was disinterred in 897 by Stephen VI.,
and treated with contumely as that of a usurper of the papal
throne; but Theodore II. restored it to Christian burial, and at
a council presided over by John IX. the pontificate of Formosus
was declared valid and all his acts confirmed. (L. D *)
674
F0R8T— PORSTEK, J. G. A;
Ctitkisms (1S75, iS8&>. In the year x«8x f at the death of the
historian Anders Fryxell, Forssell was elected to the vacant seat
on the Swedish Academy. The energy ©I Forssell was so great,
and he understood to little the economy of strength, that he
unquestionably overtaxed his vital force. His death, however,'
which occurred with great suddenness on the 2nd of August xooi
while he was staying at San ^Bernardino in Switzerland, was
wholly unexpected. There was little of the typical Swedish
urbanity in Forssell's exterior manner, which was somewhat dry
and abrupt. Like many able men who have from early life
administered responsible publk posts, there appeared a certain
want of sympathy in his demands upon others; His views were
distinct, and held with great firmness; for example, he was a
free-trader, and his consistent opposition to what he called " the
new system ' ' had a considerable effect on Swedish policy. He
was not exactly an attractive man, but he was a capable, upright
and efficient public servant, In 1867 he married Miss Zulamith
Eneroth, a daughter of the well-known pomologist of Upsala;
she survived him,, with two sons and two daughters. (£. G.)
FORST (originally Forsta or Foxgte), a town of Germany,
in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on the Neisse, 44 m.
S.E. of Frardcfort-bn-Oder. Pop. (1005) 33>757« I* has two
Evangelical, a Roman Catholic and an Old Lutheran church;
there are two schools and two hospitals in the town. The chief
industry of Forst as the manufacture of cloth, but spinning,
dyeing and the making of artificial flowers are also carried on.
Pounded in the 13th century, Forst passed in 1667 to the duke
of Saxe-Merseburg, becoming part of electoral Saxony in 1740.
It was ceded to Prussia in 181 5.
FORSTER* FRANCOIS (1700-1872), French engraver, was
born at Lode in Neufchatel, on the 22nd of August 1700. In
1805 he was apprenticed to an engraver in Paris, and he also
studied painting and engraving simultaneously in the £cole des
Beaux-Arts. His preference was ultimately fixed on the latter
art, and on his obtaining in 18x4 the first " grand prix de gravure,"
the king of Prussia, who was then with the allies in Paris,
bestowed on him a. gold medal, and a pension of 1500 francs for
two years. With the aid of this sum he pursued his studies in
Rome, where his attention was- devoted chiefly to the works
of Raphael. In 1844 he succeeded Tardieu in the Academy.
He died at Paris on the 27th of June 1872. Forster occupied
the first position Among the French engravers of his time, and
was equally successful in historical pieces and in portraits.
Among his works may be mentioned—The Three Graces, and
La Vierge de la Ugende, after Raphael; La Vierge au bas-relief,
after Leonardo da Vind; Francis I. and Charles V., after Gros;
St Cecilia, after Paul Delaroche; Albert Dflrer and Henry IV.,
after Porbns; Wellington, alter Gerard; and Queen Victoria,
after Winterhalter.
FORSTER, FRIBDRICH CHRISTOPH (1791-1868), German
historian and poet, was the second son of Karl Christoph FOrster
(1751-181 x), and consequently a brother of the painter, Ernest
Joachim F5rster (1800-1885). Born at Munchengosserstadt on
the Saale on the 24th of September 1791, he received his early
education at Altenburg, and after a course of theology at Jena,
devoted some time to archaeology and the history of art. At
the outbreak of the War of Liberation in 18x3, he joined the army,
quickly attaining the rank of captain; and by his war-songs
added to the national enthusiasm. On the conclusion of the
war he was appointed professor at the school of engineering and
artillery in Berlin, but on account of some democratic writings
he was dismissed from this office in 18x7. He then became
connected with various journals until about 1829, when he
received an appointment at the royal museum in Berlin, with
the title of court councillor (H of rat). He was the founder and
secretary of the Wissenschaftlkher Kunstverein in Berlin, and
died in Berlin on the 8th of November 1868. F8rster*s principal
works are: BeUr&ge zur neueren Krkgsgeschkhte (Berlin, 1816);
CrundzUge der Geschichle des preussischen Staales (Berlin, x8i8);
Der Fcldmarschall BlUcher und seine Umgtbungen (Leipzig,.
*8ao); Friedrich der Crosse, Jugendjahrc, Bildung und Geisl
(Berlin, 1822); Albruht von WaUenski* (Potsdam, 1834);
Friedrich \VilhelmL\Kdnig9on Pttutst* (Potsdam, tSjtnlift
Die Hdfe und KabineUe Europas im iH.Jahwhunierl (Fttsda,
1 836-1839); Leben und Taten Friedrichs des Grass** (Moan,
1840-1 841); WaUensleins Protest (Leipzig, 1844); and JVncMB
HeUen in Krieg und Frieden ¥ neuere wad nemesU prwsxk
Gesckickle, 7 volumes (Berlin, 1840-1860). The three ceadadiig
volumes of this work contain the history of the war of Ebaaaa
of 1813-14-15. He brought- ont an edition of Hegel's ran,
adapted several of Shakespeare's plays for the theatre, wrote 1
number of poems and an historical drama, Gusto* Adolf (Beria,
Many of his leaser writings were collected and published »
KrietUteder, Romaruen, EruMungen und Ltg§ndtn (Berlin, i&&
The beginning of an autobiography of Farster, edited by H. Kkik,
has been published under the title, Kunst und Leben (Berlin, ib73>
FORSTBR. JOHANN OBORO ADAM (1754-1704), Genoa
traveller and author, was born at Nassenhuben, a small viDage
near Danzig, on the 27th of November 1754. His father, Johsa
Reinhold Forster, a man of great sc i en t ific attainments but a
intractable temper, was at that time pastor of the place; tk
family are said to have been of Scottish extraction. In 1765 tk
elder 'Forster was commissioned by the empress Cathente
to inspect the Russian colonies in the province of Straw,
which gave his son an opportunity of acquiring the Rsssss
language and the elements of a scientific education. After 1
few years the father quarrelled with the Russian govenunest,
and went to England, where he obtained a professorship d
natural history and the modern languages at the famous oca-
conformist academy at Warrington. His violent temper soca
compelled him to resign this appointment, and for two yets
he and his son earned a precarious livelihood ify transhuoosB
London— a practical education, however, exceedingly usda*
to the younger Forster, who became a thorough master d
English, and acquired many of the ideas which chiefly iaftaeocei
his subsequent life. At length the turning point in his oner
came in the shape of an invitation for him and his father t»
accompany Captain Cook in his third voyage round the woHd.
Such an expedition was admirably calculated to call fonl
Footer's peculiar powers. His account of Cook's voysgt
(A Voyage round the World, London, 1777; in German, Berfio,
1778-1780), is almost the first example of the glowing >*
faithful description of natural phenomena which has since
made a knowledge of them the common property of the educated
world. The publication of this work was, however, impeded is
some time by differences with the admiralty, during wax*
Forster proceeded to the continent to obtain an appointioa*
for his father as professor at Cassel, and found to his surprise
that it was conferred upon himself. The elder Forster, bowe**,
was soon provided for elsewhere, being appointed profess*
of natural history at Halle. At Cassel Forster formed an intimate
friendship with the great anatomist Stimmerring, and abooi
the same time made the acquaintance of Jacobi, who gave fain
a leaning towards mysticism from which he subsequently
emancipated himself. The want of books and scientific apparaia
at Cassel induced him to resort frequently to Gdttingen, whet
he became betrothed to Therese Heyne, the daughter of tfc
illustrious philologist, a clever and cultivated woman, but ill-
suited to be Forster's wife. To be able to marry he accepted
(1784) a professorship at the university of Wilna, which he did
not find to his taste. The penury and barbarism of Fobs*
circumstances are graphically described in his and his wife'}
letters of this period. After a few years' residence at Wilna he
resignedTus appointment to participate in a scientific expedition
projected by the Russian government, and upon the relinquish-
ment of this undertaking became librarian to the elector d
Mainz. He actively promoted the incorporation of theleft
bank of the Rhine with France and in 1793 went to Puis to
carry on the negotiations. Meanwhile, however, the GermiBS
seized Mainz, and Forster— already disheartened by the tun
of events in France— was cut off from all return. Domestic
sorrows were added to his political troubles and he died suddenly
at Paris on the xoth of January 1794.
FORSTER,. J.— FORSTER, W. E.
67J
Fonterii masterpiece fe his AnsUhten worn Mederrkeon, mm
Brabant, Plondtm, Holland, England und Frankreick (179*-
1704), one of the ablest books of travel of the 18th century.
His style is dear and vivid; his method of describing what
he sees extraordinarily plastic; above all, he has the art of pre-
senting objects to us from their most interesting and attractive
side. The same qualities are also more or less conspicuous in
his minor writings. By bis translation- (from the English) of the
Sahtmtala of JCalidasa (1791), he first awakened German interest
in Indian literature.
Fowler's Samtticke Werie appeared at Leipzig In 9 vols. In 1843.
The Ansiekten vom Rhein, &c. has been frequently reprinted (best
edition by A. Leitzmann, Halle, 1893); Lettzmann has also pub-
i published by ,_ _.„... ......
wtechset mit Sdmmernng by H. HettneY (Brunswick, 1877). See
I. Moteschott, G. Forster, der Naturforsehor des Volhs (1854: yd
«d., 187a); K. Klein, G. Farstet in Maim* (Goth*, 1863); A. Lettz-
mann, & Tor sim (Vorlesung) (Halle, 1893). '
FORSTER, JOHN (18x^1876), English biographer and critic,'
was born on the 2nd of April 1812 at Newcastle. His father,
who was a Unitarian and belonged to the junior branch of a
good Northumberland family, was a cattle-deafer. After being
well grounded in classics and mathematics at the grammar school
of his native town, John Forster was sent in 1828 to Cambridge*
but after only a. month's residence he removed to London, where
he attended classes at University College, and was entered at the
Inner Temple. He devoted himself, however, chiefly to literary
pursuits. He contributed. to The True Sun, The Morning
Chronicle and to The Examiner, for which he acted as literary
and dramatic critic; and the influence of his powerful in-
dividuality soon made itself felt. His lives of the Statesmen of
the Commonwealth (1836-1839) appeared partly in Lardner's
Cyclopaedia. He published the work separately in 1840 with
a Treatise on the Popular Progress in English History* Its
merits obtained immediate recognition, and Forster became
a prominent figure in that distinguished circle of literary men
which included Bulwer, Tatfourd, Albany, Fonhlanque, Landor,
Carlyte and Dickens. Forster is said to have been for some time
engaged to Letitia Landon, but the engagement was broken off;
and Miss Landon married George Maclean. In 1843 he was
called to the bar but he never became a practising lawyer.
For some years he edited the Foreign Quarterly Review; in 1846,
on the retirement of Charles Dkkens, he took charge for some
months el the Daily News; and from 1847 to 1856 he edited the
Examiner. From 1836 onwards he contributedto the Edinburgh
Quarterly and Foreign Quarterly ftsriews a variety of articles,
some of Which were republished in two volumes of Biographical
and Historical Essays (1838). In 1848 appeared his admirable
Life and Times of Oliver Goldsmith (revised in 1854). Continuing
his researches into English history under the early Stuarts, he
published in i860 the Arrest of the Five Members by Charles /.-?*
A Chapter of English History rewritten, and The Debates on the
Grand Remonstrance, with an Introductory Essay on English
Freedom. These were followed by his Sir John Eliot: a Bio*
graphy (1864)* elaborated front one of his earlier studies-for the
Lives of Eminent British Statesmen* In 1868 appeased his Lift
of Lander, and, on the death of his friend Alexander Dyce,
Forster undertone the publication of his third edition of Shakes-
peare. For several years be had been collecting marcriah for
a life of Swift, but he interrupted his studies ia this direction
to write his standard Life of Charles Dickens, He had song been
intimate with the novelist, and H is by this work that John
Forster is now chiefly remembered. The first volume appeared
in 187 a , and the biography was completed in 1874. Towards the
close of 1875 the first volume of his Life of Swift was published;
and he had made some progress in Use preparation of the second
at the time of his death on the and of February 1876. In 1*55
Forster had been appointed secretary to the lunacy commission,
and from 1861 to 1873 he held the office of a commissioner fa
lunacy. His valuable collection of manuscripts, Including the
original copies of Charles Dickens's novels, together with his
books and tf ctam, was bequeathed to South Kensington
An adrnftabie account of htm by Henry Morky is prefixed to the
official handbook (1877) of the Dyce and Forster bequests.
IDR&TR, JOHN COOPEB (i8*3Hi880), British surgeon, was 1
bora in 1803 In Lambeth, London, where Ms father and grand-
father before him had beenlotal medical practitioners. He entered
Guy's hospital in 1841, was appointed demonstrator of anatomy
in 1850, assuttant<surgeon, 185s, and surgeon, 1870. He became
a member of the College of Surgeons in 1844, fellow in 1840 and
president in 1 884. He was a prompt and sometimes boldoperator.
In 185S he performed practically the first gastrostomy m England
for a case of cancer of the oesophagus. Among his best-known
papers were discussions of acupressure, syphilis, hydrophobia,
intestinal obstruction, modified obturator hernia, torsion, and
colloid cancer of the large intestine; and he published a book
on Surgical Diseases of Children in i860, founded on his ex-
perience as surgeon to the hospital for children and women in
Waterloo Road. He died suddenly in London on the and of
March 1880.
fOtUTBB, WILLIAM EDWARD (i8i*-i886), British states-
man, was bom of Quaker parents at Bradpole in Dorsetshire
on the nth of July 1818. He was educated at the Friends' 1
school at Tottenham, where his father's family had long been
settled, and on leaving school he was put into business. He
declined, however, on principle, to enter a brewery. Becoming
m due time a woollen manufacturer in a large way at Bradford,
Yorkshire (from which after bis marriage he moved to Burley-in-
Wharfedale), he soon made himself known as a practical philan-
thropist In 1846-1847 he accompanied Ms father to Ireland
as distributor of the Friends' relief fund for the famine in
Connctnara, and the' state of the country made a deep impression
on him. -In 1840 he wrote a preface to a new edition of Clarkson's
life of William Penn, defending the Quaker statesman against
Macaiuay's criticisms. In 1650 he married Jane Martha, eldest
daughter of the famous Dr Arnold of Rugby. She was not a
Quaker, and her husband was formally excommunicated for
marrying her, but the Friends who were commissioned to
announce the sentence " shook hands and stayed to luncheon."
Forster thereafter ranked himself as a member of the Church of
England, for which, indeed, be was in later life charged with
having too great a partiality. There were no children of the
marriage, but when Mrs Forster's brother, William Arnold, died
in 1S59, leaving four orphans, the Forsters adopted them as
theirown.
One of these children was Mr H. 0. Arnold-Forster (1855-
tooo), the well-known Liberal-Unionist member of parliament,
who eventually became a member of Mr Balfour's cabinet; he
was secretary to the admiralty (1000-1903), and then secretary
of state for war (1003-1905), and was the author of numerous
educational books published by Cassell ft Co., of which firm he
was a director.
W. E. Forster gradually began to take an active part in public
affairs by speaking and lecturing. In 1858 he gave a lecture
before the Leeds Philosophical Institution on " How we Tax
India." In 1859 he stood as Liberal candidate for Leeds, but
was beaten. But he was highly esteemed in the West Riding,
and in 1861 he was returned unopposed for Bradford. In 1865
(unopposed) and in 1868 (at the head of the poll) he was again
returned. He took a prominent partin parliament in the debates
on the American Civil War, and in 1868 was made under*
secretary forth* colonies in Earl Russell's ministry. It was then
that he first became a prominent advocate of imperial federation.
In 1866 his attitude on parliamentary reform attracted a good
deal of attention. His speeches were full of knowledge of the
real condition of the people, and contained something like ad
original programme of Radical legislation. "We have other
things to do/' he said, " besides extending the franchise. We
want to make Ireland loyal and contented; we want to get rid
of pauperism in this country; we want to fight against a dass
hich is more to be dreaded than the holders of a £7 franchise—
I mean the dangorous class in our large towns. We want to see
676
FORSTER, W. E.
whether we cannot make for the agricultural labourer some
bet ter hope than the workhouse in his old age. We want to have
Old England as well taught as New England." In these words
he heralded the education campaign which occupied the country
for so many yean afterwards. Directly the Reform Bill had
passed, the necessity of " inducing our masters to learn their
letters" (in Robert Lowe's phrase) became pressing. Mr
Forster and Mr Cardwell, as private members in opposition,
brought in Education Bills in 1867 and 1868; and in i368, when
the Liberal party returned to office, Mr Forster was appointed
vice-president of the council, with the duty of preparing a
government measure for national education. The Elementary
Education Bill (see Education) was introduced on the 17th of
February 1 870. The religious difficulty at once came to the front.
The Manchester Education Union and the Birmingham Education
League had already formulated in the provinces the two opposing
theories, the former standing for the preservation of denomina-
tional interests, the latter advocating secular rate-aided education
as the only means of protecting Nonconformity against the
Church. The Dissenters were by no means satisfied with Forster's
41 conscience clause" as contained in the bill, and they regarded
him, the ex-Quaker, as a deserter from .their own side; while
they resented the " 25th clause," permitting school boards to
pay the fees of needy children at denominational schools out of
the rates, as an insidious attack upon themselves. By the 14th
of March, when the second reading came on, the controversy
had assumed threatening proportions; and Mr Dixon, the
Liberal member for Birmingham and chairman of the Education
League, moved an amendment, the effect of which was to
prohibit aU religious education in board schools. The govern-
ment made its rejection a question of confidence, and the amend-
ment was withdrawn; but the result was the insertion of the
Cowper-Temple clause as a compromise before the bill passed.
Extremists on both sides abused Forster, but the government
had a difficult set of circumstances to deal with, and he acted
like a prudent statesman in contenting himself with what he
could get. An ideal bill was impracticable; it is to Forster's
enduring- credit that the bill of 1870, imperfect as it was, estab-
lished at last some approach to a system of national education
in England without running absolutely counter to the most
cherished English ideas and without ignoring the principal
agencies already in existence.
Forster's next important work was in passing the Ballot Act
of 1873, but for several years afterwards his life was uneventful.
In 1874 he was again returned for Bradford, in spite of Dissenting
Attacks, and he took his full share of the work of the Opposition
Front Bench. In 1875, when Mr Gladstone " retired," he was
strongly supported for the leadership of the Liberal party, but
declined to be nominated against Lord Harrington. In the same
year he was elected F.R.S., and made lord rector of Aberdeen
University. In 1876, when the Eastern question was looming
large, he visited Servia and Turkey, and his subsequent speeches
on the subject were marked by studious moderation, distasteful
to extremists on both sides. On Mr Gladstone's return to office
in 1880 ho was made chief secretary for Ireland, with Lord
Cowper as lord-lieutenant. He carried the Compensation for
Disturbance Bill through the Commons, only to see it thrown
out in the Lords, and his task was made more difficult by the
agitation which arose in consequence. During the gloomy
autumn and winter of 1880-1881 Forster's energy and devotion
in grapphng with the situation in Ireland (see Ireland) were
indefatigable, his labour was enormous, and the personal risks
he ran were many; but he enjoyed the Irish character in spite
of all obstacles, and inspired genuine admiration in all his
coadjutors. On the 24th of January z88i he introduced a new
Coercion Bill in the House of Commons, to deal with the growth of
the Land League, and in the course of his speech declared it to be
" the most painful duty " he had ever had to perform, and one
which would have prevented bis accepting his office if he bad
known that it would fall upon him. The bill passed, among its
provisions being one enabling the Irish government to arrest
without trial persons " reasonably suspected " of crime and
conspiracy. The Irish party used every opportanitym sad m
of parliament for resenting this act, and Forster was kept e»
stantly on the move between Dublin and London, coodoctai
his campaign against crime and anarchy and defending it a
the House of Commons. His scrupulous consdentiounca us
anxiety to meet every reasonable claim availed him nothng
with such antagonists, and the strain was intense end co ntu ro oa .
He was nicknamed " Buckshot " by the Nationalist pita, «
the supposition that he had ordered its use by the police vta
firing on a crowd. On the 13th of October Mr ParneH vn
arrested, and on the 20th the Land League was proclaimed
From that time Forster's life was in constant danger, and k
had to be escorted by mounted police when he drove in DoUia.
Early in March 1882 he visited some of the worst districts is
Ireland, and addressed the crowd at Tulkmore on the subject
of outrages, denouncing the people for their want of courage ia
not assisting the government, but adding, " whether you do a
not, it is the duty of the government to stop the outrages, at>d
stop them we wUL" Forster's pluck in speaking out like this
was fully appreciated in England, but it was not till after the
revelations connected with the Phoenix Park murders that tfc
dangers he had confronted were properly realized, and it beast
known that several plans to murder him had only been frustrated
by the merest accidents. On the and of May Mr Gladstone
announced that the government intended to release Mr Paraefl
and his fellow-prisoners in Kilmainham, and that both Lad
Cowper and Mr Forster had in consequence resigned; and
the following Saturday Forster's successor, Lord Frederic!
Cavendish, was, with Mr Burke, murdered in Phoenix Park. It
was characteristic of the man that Forster at once offered to p
back to Dublin temporarily as chief secretary, but the offer vat
declined. His position naturally attracted universal attention
towards him, particularly during the debates which ensued is
parliament on the " Kilmainham Treaty." But Mr Gladstone *j
influence with the Liberal party was paramount, in spite of the
damaging appearance of the compact made with PameU, aod
Forster's pointed criticisms only caused thoroughgoing partiss»
to accuse him of a desire to avenge himself. It was not till u»
next session that he delivered his fiercest attack on Parocll is
the debate on the address, denouncing him for his connexion with
the Land League, and quoting against him the violent speeches
of his supporters and the articles of his newspaper organs. It
was on this occasion that Parnell, on Forster's charging him,
not with directly planning or perpetrating outrages or xriurdcr,
but with conniving at them, ejaculated "It's a lie"; aod,
replying on the next day, the Irish leader, instead of disproves
Forster's charges, bitterly denounced his methods of administra-
tion. Though, during the few remaining years of his life,
Forster's political record covered various interesting subjects,
his connexion with these stormy times in Ireland throws then
all into shadow. He died on the 6th of April 1886, on the evt
of the introduction of the Home Rule 981, to which he wai
stoutly opposed. In the interval there had been other question
on which he found himself at variance with Gladstonian Liberal-
ism, for instance, as regards the Sudan and the Transvaal, oar
was he inclined to stomach the claims of the Caucus or the
Birmingham programme. When the Redistribution Act divided
Bradford into three constituencies, Forster was returned for U*
central division, but he never took his seat in the new parliament.
Forster, like John Bright, was an excellent representative
pf the English middle-class in public life. Patriotic, energetic,
independent, incorruptible, shrewd, fair-minded, he was endowed
not only with great sympathy with progress, but also with a fuB
faculty for resistance to mere democratidsm. He was tall (the
Yorkshiremen called htm " Long Forster ") and strongly though
stiffly built, and, with his simple tastes and straightforward
manners and methods,- was a typical North-country figure.
His oratory was rough and unpolished, but full of freshness asd
force and genuine feeling. It was Forster who, when appeahnf
to the government at the time of Gordon's danger at Khartum,
spoke of Mr Gladstone as able " to persuade most people of most
things, and himself of almost anything," and though the phrase
FORSYTH— FORT EDWARD
677
was much reseated by Mr Gladstone's entoarogrf, the truth that
underlay it may be token as representing the very converse of
his own character. His personal difficulties with some of bis
colleagues, both in regard to the Education Act of 1870 and his
Irish administration, must be properly understood if a complete
comprehension of his political career is to be obtained. For an
account of them we need only refer to the Lije of the Right Horn
W. & Porster , by Sir T. Wemyss RekL (H. Cta.)
FORSYTH, FETCH TAYLOR (184&- ), British Noncon-
formist divine, was born at Aberdeen in 1848. He took first-class
honours in classics at Aberdeen, subsequently studied at Got-
tingen (under Ritschl) and at New College, Hampstead, and
entered the Congregational ministry. Having held pastorates
at Shipley, Hackney, Manchester, Leicester and Cambridge, he
became principal of Hackney Theological College, Hampstead,
in 1 go 1. In 1007 he delivered the Lyman Beecher lectures on
preaching at Yale University, published as Positive Preaching and
Modern Mind. Among his other publications may be mentioned
Religion in Recent Art, and articles in the Contemporary Review,
Hibbert Journal, and London Quarterly. He was chairman of the
Congregational Union of England and Wales in 1005.
FORTALEZA (usually called CearA by foreigners), a city
and port of Brazil and the capital of the state of Ceara, on a
crescent-shaped indentation of the coast-line immediately W.
of Cape Mucuripe or Mocoripe, 7} m. from the mouth of the
Ceara river, in lat. 3* 42' S., long. 38* 30' W. Fop. ( 1800) of the
municipality, including a large rural district, 40,902. The city
stands on an open sandy plain overlooking the sea, and is
regularly hid out, with broad, well-paved, gas-hghted streets
and numerous squares. Owing to the aridity of the climate
the vegetation is less luxuriant than in most Brazilian cities.
The temperature is usually high, but it is modified by the strong
sea winds. Fortaleza has suffered much from epidemics of
yellow-fever, small-pox and beri-beri, but the climate is con-
sidered to be healthy. A small branch of the Ceara river, called
the Pajehu, traverses the city and divides it into two parts,
that on its right bank being locally known as Outefro. Fortaleza
is the see of a bishopric, created in 1854, but it has no cathedral,
one of its ten churches being used for that purpose. Its public
buildings include the government house, legislative chambers,
bishop's palace, an episcopal seminary, a lyceum (high school),
Misericordia hospital, and asylums for mendicants and the
insane. The custom-house stands nearer the seashore, if m.
from the railway station in the city, with which it is connected
by rail. The port is the principal outlet for the products of the
state, but its anchorage is an open roadstead, one of the most
dangerous on the northern coast of Brazil, and all ships are
compelled to anchor well out from shore and discharge into
lighters. Port improvements designed by the eminent engineer
Sir John Hawkshaw have been under construction for many
years, but have made very slow progress. The Battirite railway,
built by the national government partly to give employment
to starving refugees in times of long-continued droughts, connects
the city and its port with fertile regions to the S.W., and extends
to Senador Pompeu, 178 m. distant. The exports include sugar,
coffee, rubber, cotton, rum, rice, beans, fruits, hides and
skins.
Fortaleza had its origin in a small village adjoining a fort
established at this point in early colonial times. In 1654 it took
the name of Villa do Forte da Assumpcao, but it was generally
spoken of as Fortaleza. In 1810 it became the capital of Ceara,
and in 1823 it was raised to the dignity of a city under the title
of Fortaleza da Nova Braganca.
FORT AUGUSTUS, a village of Inverness-shire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 706. It is delightfully situated at the south-western
extremity of Loch Ness, about 30 m. S.W. of Inverness, on the
rivers Ofch and Tarff and the Caledonian CanaL A branch line
connects with Spean Bridge on the West Highland railway via
Invergarry. The fort, then called KHcbumin, was built in 17 16
for the purpose of keeping the Highlanders in check, and was
enlarged in 1730 by General Wade. It was captured by the
Jacobites in 1745. but reoccupied after the battle of CuUoden,
when it received its present name in honour of William Augustus,
duke of Cumberland, the victorious general The fort was used
as a sanatorium until 1857, when it was bought by the 1 sth Lord
Lovat, whose son presented it in 1870 to the English order of
Benedictines. Within four years there rose upon its site a pile
of stately buildings under the title of St Benedict's Abbey and
school, a monastic and collegiate institution intended for the
higher education of the sons of the Roman Catholic nobility and
gentry. The series of buildings consists of the college, monastery,
hospice and scriptorium— the four forming a quadrangle con-
nected by beautiful cloisters. Amongst its benefactors were
many Catholic Scots and English peers and gentlemen whose
arms are emblazoned on the windows of the spacious refectory
halL The summit of the college tower is z to ft. high.
FORT DODGE, a city and the county-seat of Webster county.
Iowa, U.S.A., on the Dca Moines river, 65 m. (by rail) N. by W.
from Des Moines. Pop. (1800) 4*7* ; Uooo) i*,i6a; (1905, state
census) 14*569, (2269 being foreign-born); (1910) 1&543- It is
served by the Illinois Central, the Chicago Great Western, the
Minneapolis & Saint Louis, and the Fort Dodge, Des Moines &
Southern railways, the last an electric mterurban line. Eureka
Springs and Wild Cat Cave are of interest to visitors, and
attractive scenery is furnished by the river and its bordering
bluffs. The river is hens spanned by the Chicago Great Western
railway steel bridge, or viaduct, one of the longest in the country.
Fort Dodge is the seat of Tobin College (420 students in 1007-
1008), a commercial and business school, with preparatory,
normal and classical departments, and courses in oratory and'
music; among its other institutions are St Paula school
(Evangelical Lutheran), two Roman Cathohc schools. Corpus
Christi Academy and the Sacred Heart school, Our Lady of
Lourdet convent and a Carnegie library. Oleson Park and
Reynold's Park are the city's principal parks. Immediately
surrounding Fort DbdgO is a rich, farming .country. To the E.
of the city lies a gypsum bed, extending over an asea of about
50 sq. m., and considered so be the most valuable in the United
States; to the & coal abounds; there-are also limestone quarries'
and deposits of day in the vicinity —the clay being, for the most
part, obtained by imning. FortDodgeisamars^fortheproducts
of the surrounding country, and is a shaping centre of con.
siderable importance. It .has various manufactures, including
gypsum^ plaster, oatmeal, brick and tile, sewer pipe,. pottery,
foundry and inachine-shop products, and shoes. In 1005 the
value of all the factory products was $3,0*5,650, an increase
of joo'8% over that for 1900. Fort Clark was erected
on the site in 1850 to protect settlers against the Indians; in
rgsr the name was changed by order of the secretary of war to
Fort Dodge In honour of Colonel Henry Dodge (1782-1867),
who was a lieutenant-colonel of Missouri Volunteers in the War
of 181a, served with distinction as a colonel of Michigan Mounted
Volunteers in the Black Hawk War, resigned from- the military
service in March 1833, was governor of Wisconsin Territory
from 1836 to 1841 and from 1846 to 1848, and was a delegate
from Wisconsin Territory to Congress from 1841 to 184$, and a
United States senator from Wisconsin in 1848-1657. The fort
was abandoned in 1853, and in 1854 a town was laid out.
It was chartered as- a city in i860. From the gypsum beds
near Fort Dodge was. taken in z868 the block of gypsum from
which was modelled the " Cardiff Giant," a ruddy-fashioned
human figure, which was buried near Cardiff, Onondaga county,
New York, where it was " discovered " late in. 1869. It was
then exhibited in various-parts of the country as a u petrified
man." The hoax was finally exposed by Professor Othniel C.
Marsh of Yale; and George Hall of Binghamton, N.Y., confessed
to .the fraud, his object having been to discredit belief in the
" gianta * of Genesis vi. 4. (See a The Cardiff Giant: the True
Story of a Remarkable Deception," by Andrew D. White, in
the Century liagaum, vol. xliL, 1902.)
FORT BDWABD, a village of Washington county, New York,
U.S.A., in* the township of Fort Edward, on the Hudson river r
56 m. by rail N. of Albany. Pop. of the village (rooo) 3591, of
whom 385 were foreignJjorn; (1905) 3806; (1910) 3760; of
678
FORTESCUE
the township, including the village (1900), 5216; (190$, 5300*
(1910) 5740. The village lies mostly at the foot of a steep hill,
Is at the junction of the main line and the Glens Palls branch
of the Delaware & Hudson railway, and is also served by electric
line to Albany and Glens Falls; the barge canal connecting
Lake Champlain and the Hudson river enters the Hudson here.
The river furnishes good water-power, which is used in the
manufacture of paper and wood pulp, the leading industry.
Shirts and pottery (flower pots, jars and drain tile) are manu-
factured also. The village is the seat of the Fort Edward
Collegiate Institute, a non«-sectarian school for girls, which was
founded- in 1854 and until 1693 was coeducational. The village
owns and operates the waterworks. Indian war parties on their
way to Canada were accustomed to make a portage from this
place, the head of navigation for small boats 011 the Hudson,
to Lake George or Lake Champlain, and hence it was known
as the Great Carrying Place. Governor (afterwards Sir) Francis
Nicholson in 1709, in his expedition against Canada, built
here a stockade which was named Fort Nicholson. Some years
afterwards John Henry Lydius ( 1693- 1 791) established a
settlement and protected it by a new fort, named Fort Lydius,
but this was destroyed by the French and Indians in 1745. In
X755, a third fort was built by General Phineas Lyman (1716-
1774), as preliminary to the expedition against Crown Point
under General William Johnson, and was named Fort Lyman;
in 1756 Johnson renamed it Fort Edward in honour of Edward,
Duke of York. In the War for Independence Fort Edward was
the headquarters of General PhiHp Schuyler while he and his
troops were blocking the march of General Burgoyite's army
from Fort Ticonderoga. When a part of Burgoyne's forces was
distant Only $ or 4 m. from Fort Edward, on Fort Edward Hill,
on the 37th of July 1777, the leader of an Indian band whose
assistance the British had sought is supposed to have murdered
Jane McCrea (e. I757-X777)> * young girl who had been visiting
friends in Fort Edward, and who was to be escorted on that day
to the British camp and there to be married to David Jones, a
loyalist serving as a lieutenant in Burgoyne's army; it is possible
that she was shot accidentally by Americans pursuing her Indian
escorts, but her death did much to rouse local sentiment against
Burgoyne and his Indian allies, and caused many volunteers to
join the American army resisting Burgoyne's invasion. A
monument has been erected by the Jane McCrea Chapter of the
Daughters of the American Revolution near the spot where she
was killed, and she is buried in Union Cemetery in Fort Edward.
Fort Edward township was erected in 181S from a part of the
township of Argyle. Fort Edward village was incorporated
in 185a.
See R.O. Bascotn. The Fort Edward Book (Fort Edward, 1903).
FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (r. 1304-*. 1476), English lawyer,
the second son of Sir John Fortescue, of an ancient family in
Devonshire, was born at Norm, near South Brent, in Somerset-
shire. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. During the
reign of Henry VL he was three times appointed one of the
governors of Lincoln's Inn. In 1441 he was made a king's
sergeant at law, and in the following year chief justice of the
king's bench. As a judge Fortescue is highly recommended for
his wisdom, gravity and uprightness; and he seems to have
enjoyed great favour with the king, who is said to have given
him some substantial proofs oT esteem and regard. He held his
office during the remainder of the reign of Henry VI., to whom
he steadily adhered; and having, faithfully served that un-
fortunate monarch in all his troubles, he was attainted of treason
in the first parliament of Edward IV. When Henry subsequently
fled into Scotland, he is supposed to have appointed Fortescue,
who appears to have accompanied him in his flight, chancellor
of England. In 1463 Fortescue accompanied Queen Margaret
and her court in their exile on the Continent, and returned with
them afterwards to England. During their wanderings abroad
the chancellor wrote for the instruction of the young prince
Edward his celebrated work Dt laudibus legum Angliae. On
the defeat of the Lancastrian party he made his submission
to Edward IV., from whom he received a general pardon dated
Westminster, October 13, 1471. He died at an adraceaqt,
but the exact date of his death has not been ascettainrri.
Fdfteacue's masterly vindication of the laws of Eaghad, (fesjh
received with great favour by the learned t>f the profess** to its
it was communicated, did not appear in print until the pop *
Henry VIII., when it was published, but without a date. It is
subsequently many times reprinted. Another valuable and ken
work by Fortescue, written in English, was published in 1714. asce
the title of The Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Uvss?&
In the Cotton library there is a manuscript of this work, ia the tr;
of which it is said to have been addressed to Henry VI.; bat cs
passages show plainly that it was written in favour of Edward T
A revised edition of this work, with a very valuable historical wi
biographical introduction, was published in iMsbyCharlesPlasor,
under the title The Governance of England. All of Fortescue's nx-
writings appear in The Works of Sir John Fortescue, now first CeU;
and Arranged, published in' 1869 for private rirculatwo, fey '■
descendant, Lord Clermont.
Authorities.— Plummer's Introduction to The Gemwxt r
England; Life in Lord Clermont's edition; Gairdser's Pun
Letters ; Foss s Lives of the Judges.
FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1 531-1607), English staieaai
was the eldest son of Sir Adrian Fortescue (executed in is:*
and of his second wife, Anne, daughter of Sir William Rodef
Rede of Borstall in Buckinghamshire. The exact date d I-
birth is unrecorded. 1 He was restored in blood and to b
estate at Shirburn in Oxfordshire in 1551. Through his faibei
mother, Alice, daughter of Sir Geoffrey Boleyn, he was a stccsi
cousin once removed from Queen Elizabeth. He acquired easy
a considerable reputation as a scholar and was chosen to dine
the Princess Elizabeth's classical studies in Mary's reign, ft
the accession of Elizabeth he was appointed keeper of the pat
wardrobe. He was returned in 1572 to parliament for Wiflia;-
ford, in 1586 for Buckingham borough, in 15B8 and 1597 k
Buckingham county, and in 1601 for Middlesex. In ts&k
was appointed chancellor of the exchequer and a member ri
the privy council. In 1592 he was knighted, and in November
1601, in addition to his two great offices, he received thai d
chancellor of .the duchy of Lancaster. By means of his locate
employments he amaivd great wealth, with which be bo#t
large estates in Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire, and kept =?
much state and a large household. He took a prominent F-~>
in public business, was a member of the court of the star duota
and an ecclesiastical commissioner, sat on various unporus
commissions, and as chancellor of the exchequer explained ik
queen's financial needs and proposed subsidies in parliamtfi.
On the death of Elizabeth he suggested that certain restrkt-OJ
should be imposed on James's powers, in order probably loa-
the appointment of Scotchmen to office,' but his advice wssu
followed. He was deprived by James of the chancellorship £
the exchequer, but evidently did not forfeit his favour, is k
retained his two other offices and entertained James sevt^
times at Henden and Salden. In 1604 Sir John, who stood fcr
Buckinghamshire, was defeated by Sir Francis Goodwin, vbex
election, however, was declared void by the lord chancellor oa ih
ground of a sentence of outlawry under which he lay, ^
Fortescue was by a second election returned in his place. Tb
incident gave rise to a violent controversy, regarding the c]a*
cellor's jurisdiction in deciding disputed elections to partial-
which was repudiated by the Commons but maintained by i&
king. The maUer after much debate was ended by a comprocu-
which, while leaving the principle unsettled, set aside the ca-
tions of both candidates and provided for the issue of a new ro
Fortescue was then in February 1606 returned for Midfel
which he represented till bis death on the 23rd of December ifc
He was buried in Mursley church in Buckinghamshire, when ■
monument was erected to bis memory. His long public ewe^
was highly honourable, and be served his sovereign and cousin
with unswerving fidelity and honesty. His learned atlainaxas*
too were considerable— -Camden styles him " vir integer, Crius.
1 The inscription on his -tomb states that he was 76 at his den. 11
on the 23rd of December 1607 (Lord Clermont's Hist, oftktfi*:
of Fortescue, 377), but according to a statement ascribed to mo>
he was born the same year as Queen Elizabeth and therefore in 15U
(Bucks. Architect, and Archasolog. Soc. Records of {tucks, i. p^ *
' David Lloyd's Slate Worthies (1670), 556. •
FORTEVIOT—FORrriFICA'TION . AND. SIEOECRAFT 679
I^atinequc apprime eruditus," * and his scholarship Is also praised
\»y Lloyd, while his friendship with Sir Thomas Bodley procured
sji f is of books and manuscripts to the latter's library. Fortescue
married <s) Cecily, daughter, of Sir Edmund Ashfield of Ewelme,
r>y whom, besides a daughter, he had two sons, Sir Frauds and
Sir William; and (2) Alice, daughter of Christopher Smyth
of Annabels in Hertfordshire, by whom he had one daughter.
His descent in the male line became extinct with the death of
Sir John Fortescue, 3rd baronet, in 1717.
Bi»llOGftA»HY.— Article in the Diet. of Nat. Biopophy; Lord
Clermont's Hist, of the family of the ForUseucs; Hist. Notice* of the
Parishes of Swyneonibe and Ewelme, by A. Napier, p. 390; IX Lloyd's
Stole Worthies (1670). p. 556; Add. MSS. 1*497 f. 143 (" s,r J otm
Foctescoe's meanes of nine by Sir R. Thikstm told me fSir Julius
r|"); HisL MSS. Comm., Marquis of Salisbury's MSS.;
Meperidine's Life of Baton; Architectural and Archaeological Soc. for
Bucks, Records of Bucks, vol. i. p. 86. (P. C. Y.)
FORTEVIOT, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, on
the Water of May, a right-hand affluent of the Earn, 6i m. $.W.
of Perth. Pop. of parish (1001) 56a. It is a place of remote
antiquity, having been a capital of the Pkts, when the district
was known as Fortrcnn, and afterwards of the Scots. The army
led by Edward Baliol camped here before the battle of Dupplin
(1331), in which the regent, Donald, earl of Mar, was slain along
with 15,000 out of 30,000 men. The pariah of FinoVGask
adjoining it on the N.W. contains remains of a Roman road,
station and outpost, besides the " auld hoose " of Cask in whkh
the Baroness Nairne was born, an4 which forms the theme of one
of her most popular songs. The new house in which she died
dates from 1801.
FORT GEORGE, a military station of Inverness-shire, Scotland.
It lies 12 m. N.E. of Inverness, and is the terminus of the small
branch line connecting with the Highland railway at GoUaaneld
junction. It occupies a sandy promontory forming the extreme
end of the southern shore of Inner Moray Firth (also called the
Firth of Inverness), which is here only 1 m. wide. There is
communication by ferry with Forlrosc on the opposite coast of
the Black Isle, The fort was begun in 1 748, partly after the plan
of one of Yauban's works, and named in honour of George II.
Wolfe, who saw it in course of erection in 1751, was much im-
pressed with it and thought it would, when finished, be " the
most considerable fortress and best situated in Great Britain."
It covers 16 acres and contains accommodation for nearly a 200
men. It is the depot of the Seaforth Highlanders, and a
military training-ground of some size and importance because
the surrounding country gives ample facilities for exercise and
manoeuvres. General Wade's road is maintained in good order.
Fort George, it is said, had almost been chosen as the place of
detention for Napoleon when the claims of St Helena were put
forward. About 2 m, S.E. is the fishing village of Campbelltown,
in growing repute as a seaside resort. Midway between the fort
and Inverness stands Castle Stuart, a shooting-box of the earl
of Moray.
FORTH, a river and firth of the east of Scotland. The river
is formed by two head streams, Duchray Water (12 m.) and
Avondhu (to m.), or Laggan as it is called after it leaves Loch
Ard, both rising in the north-east of Ben Lomond in Stirlingshire,
and uniting z m. west of Aberfoyle. From this point till it
receives the Kclty, the Forth continues to be a Perthshire
stream, but afterwards it becomes the dividing line between
the counties of Perth and Stirling as far as the confluence of the
Allan. Thence it belongs to Stirlingshire to a point 1} m. due
west of Cambus, whence it serves as the boundary between the
shires of Stirling and Clackmannan. Owing to the extremely
tortuous character of its course between Gartmore and Alloa—
the famous " links of the Forth,"— the actual length of the river
is 66 m., or nearly double the distance in a direct line (30 m.)
between the source of the Duchray and Kincardine, where the
firth begins. The river drains an area Of 64 5 sq. m. Its general
direction is mainly easterly with a gentle trend toward* the
south, and the principal tributaries on the left are the Goodie,
Teitb, Allan and Devon, and on the right, the Kelly, Boquhan
» Annalas, 613*
and Bannock. The alluvial plain extending from Gartmore to
the county town is called the Carte of Stirling. The placet of
interest on the banks are Aberfoyle, Kippen, Stirring, Cambus*
kenneth, Alloa and Kincardine, but after it crosses the Highland
tine the Forth does not present many passages of remarkable
beauty. Them are bridges at Aberfoyle, Gartmore, Frew, Drip
and Stirling (a), besides railway viaducts at Stirling and Attorn;
and there are ferries at Stirling (for Cambuskenneth), Alloa (for
South Alloa) and Kincardine (for Airth). The tide rises to *i m.
above Stirling, where the river is navigable at high water by
vesselsof 100 tana There is, however, a brisk shipping trade at
AUoa, where the dock accommodates vessels of at least 300 tons.
The Firth of Forth extends from Kincardine to the North Sea,
that is, to an imaginary line drawn, just west of the Isle of May,
from the East Neuk of Fife to the mouth of the Tyne in Hadding-
tonshire— a distance of 48 m. Thus, according to some calcula-
tions, the Forth measures from source lo sea 1 14 m. The width
of the .firth varies from } m. at Kincardine and t$ m. at Queens-
ferry to 6} m. at Leith and 17$ m. at the mouth. The chief
affluents are, on the south, the Canon, Avon, Almond, Leith,
Esk and Tyne, and on the north, the Tiel, Leven; Kiel and
Dreel. The principal ports on the south shore are Grangemouth,
Bo'ness, Granton and Leith, and en the north, Burntisland and
Kirkcaldy; but fishery centres and holiday resorts are very
iwsnerous on both coasts. Since the opening of the Forth Bridge
(see BiiBGZs) in 1800 the ferries at Queensferry and Burntisland
have greatly diminished in importance. The fisheries are still
considerable, though the oyster trade is dwindling. The larger
islands are Inchcolm, with the ruins of an abbey, Inchkeith,
with fortifications and a lighthouse, and the Isle of May, with a
lighthouse The anchorage of St Margaret's Hope, with the
naval base of Rosytb, lies off the shore of Fife immediately to
the west of the Forth Bridge.
The Forth was the Bodotria of Tacitus and the Scots Water
of the -chroniclers of the xith and rath centuries; while Bede
(d. 735} knew the firth as Sinut oriensalis (iat Eastern Gulf),
and Nennius (fi. 7*06) as Mare Friesicum (the Frisian Sea).
FORTIFIOATUMi AND filEGEORAFT. "Fortification" is
the military art of strengthening positions against attack. The
word (Lat./*riir, strong, and/owe, to make) implies the creation
of defences. Thus the boy who from the top of a mound defies
his comrades, or shelters from their snowballs behind a fence,
is merely taking advantage of ground; but if he puts up a hurdle
on his mound and stands behind that he has fortified his position.
Fortification consists of two elements, via. protection and
obstacle. The protection shields the defender from the enemy's
missiles; the obstacle prevents the enemy from coining to dose
quarters, and delays him under fire.
Protection may be of several kinds, direct or indirect. Direct
protection is given by a wall or rampart of earth, strong enough
to stop the enemy's missiles. The value of this is reduced m
proportion as the defender has to expose himself to return the
enemy's fire, or to resist his attempts to destroy the defences.
Indirect protection is given by distance, as for instance by a high
wall placed on a cliff so that the defender on the top of the wall
is out of reach of the enemy's missiles if these are of short range,
such as arrows. This kind of defence was very popular in the
middle ages. In the present day the same object is attained by
pushing out detached forts to such a distance from the town
they are protecting that the besieger cannot bombard the town
as long as he is outside the forts. Another form of indirect
protection of great importance is concealment.
The obstacle may consist of anything which will impede the
enemy's advance and prevent him from coming to close quarters.
In the earliest forms of fortification the protecting wall was also
the obstacle, or it may be a wet or dry ditch, an entanglement,
a swamp, a thorn hedge a spiked pahsade, or some temporary
expedient, such as crows' feet or chevaux de frise. The two
elements must of course be arranged in co m b inat ion. The
besieged must be able to defend the obstacle from their protected
position, otherwise it can be surmounted or destroyed at leisure.
But a dose connexion is no longer cssentiaL The effect of modero
68o
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
IH1ST0KY
firearms permits of great elasticity in the disposition of the
obstacle; and this simplifies some of the problems of defence.
Protection must be arranged mainly with reference to the
enemy's methods of attack and the weapons he uses. The
obstacle, on the other hand, should be of such a nature as to
bring out the best effects of the defender's weapons. It follows
from this that a well-armed force operating against a badly-
armed uncivilized enemy may use with advantage very simple
old-fashioned methods of protection; or even dispense with it
altogether if the obstacle is a good one.
When the assailant has modern weapons the importance of
protection is very great. In fact, ft may be said that in propor-
tion as missile weapons have grown more effective, the importance
of protection and the difficulty of providing it have increased,
while the necessity for a monumental physical obstacle has
decreased.
The art of the engineer who b about to fortify consists in
appreciating and harmonizing all the conditions of the problem,
such as the weapons in use, nature of the ground, materials
available, temper of assailants and defenders, strategical possi-
bilities, expenditure to be incurred, and so forth. Few of these
conditions are in themselves difficult to understand, but they are
so many and their reactions are so complex that a real familiarity
with all of them is essential to successful work. The keynote
of the solution should be simplicity; but this is the first point
usually lost sight of by the makers of " systems," especially by
those who during a long period of peace have time to give play
to their imaginations.
Fortification is usually divided into two branches, namely
permanent fortification and field fortification. Permanent fortifica-
tions are erected at leisure, with all the resources that a state can
supply of constructive and mechanical skill, and are built of
enduring materials. Field fortifications are extemporized by
troops in the field, perhaps assisted by such local labour and
tools as may be procurable, and with materials that do not
require much preparation, such as earth, brushwood and light
timber. There is also an intermediate branch known as semi-
permanent fortification. This is employed when in the course
of a campaign it becomes desirable to protect some locality
with the best imitation of permanent defences that can be made
in a short time, ample resources and skilled civilian labour being
available.
The objects of fortification are various. The vast enceintes
of Nineveh and Babylon were planned so that in time of war
they might give shelter to the whole population of the country
except the field army, with their flocks and herds and household
stuff. The same idea may be seen to-day in the walls of such
cities as Kano. In the middle ages feudal lords built castles
for security against the attacks of their neighbours, and also to
watch over towns or bridges or fords from which they drew
revenue; whilst rich towns were surrounded with walls merely
for the protection of their own inhabitants and their property.
The feudal castles lost their importance when the art ol cannon-
founding was fairly developed; and in the leisurely wars of the
17th and 1 8th centuries, when roads were few and bad, a swarm
of fortified towns, large and small, played a great part in delaying
the march of victorious armies.
In the present day isolated forts are seldom used, and only for
such purposes as to block passes in mountainous districts.
Fortresses are used either to protect points of vital importance,
such as capital cities, military depots and dockyards, or at
strategic points such as railway junctions. Combinations of
fortresses are also used for more general strategic purposes,
as will be explained later.
I. History
The most elementary type of fortification is the thorn hedge,
a type which naturally recurs from age to age under primitive
conditions. Thus, Alexander found the villages of the
Hyrcamans defended by thick hedges, and the same
arrangements may be seen to-day among the least
civilized-tribes of Africa, The next advance from the hedge is
Aochat
the bank of earth, with the exterior made steep by irctoaii
of sods or hurdle-work. This has a double advantage over ik
hedge, as, besides being a better obstacle against assault, it rita
the defenders an advantage of position in a hand-to-hand ft^L
Such banks formed the defences of the German towns in dear's
time, and they were constructed with a high degree of ski
Timber being plentiful, the parapets were built of aken*
layers of stones, earth and tree trunks* The latter were baft 1
at right angles to the length of the parapet, and were thus tbj
difficult to displace, while the earth prevented their being se
on fire. The bank was often strengthened by a palisade of t»
trunks or hurdle-work.
After the bank the most important step in advance (or 1
nation progressing in the arts was the wall, of masonry, sim-&ei
brick or mud. The history of the development of the wiD tsi
of the methods of attacking it is the history of fortificatioa far
several thousand years.
The first necessity for the wall was height, to give stearin
against escalade. The second was thickness, so that the defeafa
might have a platform on the top which would give then sjwt
to circulate freely and to use their weapons. A lofty wall, tfcd
enough at the top for purposes of defence, would be very ex-
pensive if built of solid masonry; therefore the plan was tiri?
introduced of building two walls with a filling of earth or robUr
between them. The face of the outer wall would be carried up »
few feet above the platform, and crenellated to give protectka
against arrows and other projectiles.
The next forward step for the defence was the constrartMa
of towers at intervals along the wall. These provided flanking
fire along the front; they also afforded refuges for the gxrreoa
in case of a successful escalade, and from them the plttfan
could be enfiladed.
The evolution of the wall with towers was simple. ' The msa
requirements were despotic power and unlimited labour. Tbas
the finest examples of the system known to history are ito
amongst the earliest; One of these was Nineveh, built more tbn
2000 years B.C. The object of its huge perimeter, more uYa
50 m., has been mentioned. The wall was z 20 ft. high and 30 ft.
thick; and there were 1500 towers.
After this no practical advance in the art of fortifies! ioo to
made for a very long time, from a constructional point of vie*
Many centuries indeed elapsed before the inventive genus ^
man evolved engines and methods of attack fit to cope wits sad
colossal obstacles.
The earliest form of attack was of course escalade, either by
ladders or by heaping up a ramp of faggots or other portabk
materials. When the increasing height of walls made escab*
too difficult, other means of attack had to be invented. Probably
the first of these were the ram, for battering down the walk, asd
mining. The latter might have two objects: (a) to drive a
underground gallery below the wall from the besiegers' posttoa
into the fortress, or (b) to destroy the wall itself by undermining
The use of missile engines for throwing heavy pro/ectila
probably came later. They are mentioned in the preparation!
made for the defence of Jerusalem against the Philistines is tk
8th century B.C. They are not mentioned in connexion viih the
siege of Troy. At the sieges of Tyre and Jerusalem by Nebuchad-
rezzar in 587 B.C. we first find mention of the ram and of movable
towers placed on mounds to overlook the walls.
The Asiatics, however, had not the qualities of mind necessary
for a systematic development of siegecraft, and it was kit to
the Greeks practically to create this science. Taking cbfUd
it up in the 5th century B.C. they soon, under Philip am*
of Macedon and Alexander, arrived at a very high
degree of skill. They invented and systematized metbo*
which were afterwards perfected by the Romans. Alexanders
siegecraft was extremely practical. His successors endcavouRd
to improve on it by increasing the size of their missile and otto
engines, which, however, were so cumbrous that they mst «
little use. When the Romans a little later took up the science
they returned to the practical methods of Alexander, and by t»
time of Caesar's wars had become past-masters of it 1*
HISTORY}
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
6*1
t of siefeoraft before the nee of _
wu probably attained in the eariy days of the Roman empire.
The beginning of the Christian era is therefore a suitable period
at which to take a survey of the arts of fortification and siege-
exalt as practised by the ancients.
In fortification tea wall with towers was stilt the feeding idea.
The towers were p re f er r ed oscular in plan, as this form offered the
best resistance to the ram. The wall was usually re-
frumtwnn infoi^ by a ditch, which had three advantages: it
w tH* increased the height of the obstacle, made the bringing
o Jf!Ti.. up of the engines of attack more difficult, and supplied
~y nmm material for the filling of the wall, in special cases, as at
Jerusalem and Rhodes, the enclosure walls were doubled
and trebled. Citadels were also built on a large scale.
The typical site preferred by the Romans for a fortified town
'was on nigh ground sloping to a river on one side and with steep
slopes falling away on the other three sides. At the highest point
was a castle serving as citadel. The town enclosure was designed
i n accordance with the character of the surrounding country. Where
the enemy's approach was easiest, the walls were higher, flanking
towers stronger and ditches wider and deeper. Some of the towers
were made high for look-out posts. If there was a bridge over the
river, it was defended by a bridge-bead on the far side; and stockades
defended by towers were built out from either bank above and
below the bridge, between which chains or booms could be stretched
to bar the passage.
The natural features of the ground were skilfully utilised. Thus
when a large town was spread over an irregular site broken by hills,
the enceinte wall would be carried over the top of the hills; and in
the intervening valleys the wall would not only be made stronger,
but would be somewhat drawn back to allow of a flanking defence
from the hill tops on either side*- The walls would consist of two
strong masonry faces, 20 ft. apart, the apace between filled with
earth and stones. Usually when the He of the ground was favourable,
the outside of the wall would be much higher than the inside, the
parapet walk perhaps being but a little above the level of the town.
Palisades were used to strengthen the ditches, especially before the
gates.
There was little scope, however, in masonry for the genius of
Roman warfare, which had a better opportunity in the active work
of attack and defence. For siegecraft the Roman legions were
specially apt. No modern engineer, civil or military, accustomed
to rely on machinery, steam and hydraulic apparatus, could hope
to emulate the feats of the legionaries. In earthworks they ex*
celled; and in such work as building and moving about colossal
wooden towers under war. conditions, they accomplished things at
which nowadays we can only wonder.
The attack was carried on mainly by the use of " engines," under
which head were included all mechanical means of attack — towers,
missile engines such as catapults, and balistae, rams of different
lands, " tortoises " (see below), &a Mining, too, was freely resorted
to, also approach trenches, the use of which had been introduced
by the Greeks.
The object of mining, as has been said, might be the driving of a
gallery under the wall into the interior of the place, or the destruction
of the wall. The latter was effected by excavating large chambers
under the foundations. These were supported while the excavation
was proceeding by timber struts and planking. When the chambers
were large enough the timber supports were burnt and the wall
collapsed. The besieged replied to the mining attack by counter-
mines. With these they would undermine and destroy the be-
siegers* galleries, or would break into them and drive out the workers,
either by force of arms or by filling the galleries with smoke,.
Breaches in the wall were made by rams. These were of two
kinds. For dislodging the cemented masonry of the face of the
wall, steel-pointed heads were used; when this was done, another
head, shaped like a ram's head, was substituted for battering down
the filling of the wall.
For escalade they used ladders fixed on wheeled platforms; but
the most important means of attack against a high wall w— »be
movable towers of wood. These were built so high that fn >m t half
tops the parapet walk of the wall could be swept with arrows .<nd
■tones; and drawbridges were let down from them, by which a
storming party could reach the top o( the wail The heigl 1 oi the
towers was from 70 to 150 ft. They were moved on wheel! . >■ lid
oak or elm. 6 to 12 ft. in diameter and 3 to 4 ft. thick. Th< ad
floor contained one or two rams. The upper floors, of wmVh there
might be as many as fifteen, were furnished with missile eogiues
of a smaller land. The archers occupied the top floor. There also
were placed reservoirs of water to extinguish fire. These were filled
by force pumps and fitted with hose made of the intestines of cattle.
Drawbridges, either hanging or worked on rollers, were placed at
the proper height to give access to the top of the wall, or to a breach,
as might be required. Apollodorus proposed to place a couple of
rams in the upper part of the tower to destroy the crenellations of
the wall.
The siege towers had of course to be very solidly built of strong
timbers to resist the heavy stones thrown by the engines of the
in order
defence, They were protected against are by
plaited rope or raw hides. Sometimes it was ne cessa ry,
to gain greater height, to place them on high terraces of earth. In
that case they would be built on the site. At the siege of "milan
described by- Caesar, special methods of attack had to be employed
on account of the strength of the engines used by the besieged and
their frequent sallies to destroy the siege works. A square fort,
with brick walls 30 ft long and 5 ft. thick, was built in front of one
of the towers of the town to resist sorties. This fort was subse-
quenfjy raised to a height of six storeys, under shelter of a roof which
projected beyond the walls, and from the eaves of which hung heavy
The mats protected the men working
mats made of ships' cables. _. r „ ,__ m
at the walls, and as these were built up the roof was gradually
raised by the use of endless screws. The roof was made of heavy
beams and planks, over which were nM bricks and day. and the
whole was covered with mats and hides to prevent the bricks from
being dislodged. This structure was completed without the loss of
a man, and could only have been built by the Romans, whose soldiers
were all skilled workmen.
Although these towem were provided with bridges by which
storming parties could reach the top of the wan, their mam object
was usually to do mi n at e the defence and keep down the fire from
the walls and towers. Under this protection breaching operations
could be carried on. The approaches to the wall were usually made
under shelter of galleries of timber or hurdle-work, which were placed
on wheels and moved into position as required. When the wall
was reached, a shelter of stronger construction, known as a " rat,"
was placed In position against it. Under this a ram was swung or
worked on rollers; or the rat might be used as a shelter for miners
or for workmen cutting away the face of the wall. The great rat at
Marseilles, which extended from the tower already described to the
base of the tower of the city, was 60 ft. long, and built largely of
great beams a ft. square, connected by iron pins and bands. It
was unusuahVnarrow, the ground sins of the side walls being only
4 ft. apart This was no doubt in order to keep down the weight
of the structure, which, massive as it was, had to be movable. The
sloping roof and sides of timber were protected, like those of the
tower, with bricks and moist day, hides and wool mattresses. Huge
stones and barrels of blazing pitch were thrown from the wall upon
this rat without effect, and under its cover the soldiers loosened and
removed- the foundations of the tower until it fell down.
In order that it might be possible to move these heavy structures,
it was Usually necessary to nil op the ditch or to level the surface of
the ground. For this purpose an " approach tortoise " was often
used. This was a shelter, something between the ordinary gallery
and the rat, which was moved end on towards the wall, and had an
open front witha hood, under cover of which the earth brought up
for filling the ditch was distributed.
The missile engines threw atones up to 600 lb weight, heavy
darts from 6 to ta ft. long, and Greek fire. Archimedes at the siege
of Syracuse even made some throwing 1800 n\ The ranges varied,
according to the machine and the weight thrown, up to 600 yds.
for direct fire and 1000 yds. for curved fire. At the siege of Jeru-
salem Titus employed three hundred catapults of different sixes
and forty balistae, of which the smallest threw missiles of 75 R»
weight At Carthage Stipio found 120 lame and 281 medium
catapults, 23 large and 52 small balistae, and a great number of
scorpions and other small missile engines.
Screens and mantlets for the protection of the engine-workers
were used in great variety.
In addition to the above, great mechanical skill was shown in
the construction of many kinds of machines for occasional purposes.
A kind of jib crane of great height on a movable platform was used
to hoist a cage containing fifteen or twenty men on to the wall.
A long spar with a steel daw at the end, swung in the middle from
a lofty frame, served to pull down the upper parts of parapets and
overhanging galleries. The defenders on their side ware not slow
in replying with similar devices. Fenders were let down from the
wall to soften the blow of the ram, or the ram heads were caught
and held by cranes. Grapnels were lowered from cranes to seise the
rats and overturn them. Archimedes used the same idea in the
defence of Syracuse for lifting and sinking the Roman galleys.
Wooden towers were built on the walls to overtop the towers of the
besiegers. Many devices for throwing fire were employed. The
tradition that Archimedes burnt the Roman fleet or a portion of h,
at Syracuse, by focusing the rays of the sun with reflectors, is
supported by an experiment made by Button in 1747. With a re-
flector having a surface of 50 sq. ft, made up of 168 small mirn
each 6 by 8 in., lead was melted at a distance of 140 ft and wood a
set on fire at 160 ft.
sent for t ifica ti on had long
of against the
...._ extemporised
defences were, as is always the case, worn down by a resolute besieger,
and the attack was stronger than the defence;
Through the dark ages the Eastern Empire kept affve the
twin sciences of fortification and siegecraft long enough for the
Crusaders to learn from them what had been lost in the West
sec on nre at 100 it.
The development of masonry in permanent fortificatk
since reached its practical limit, ana was 00 longer proof
destructive methods that had been evolved. The ex
68s
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGKBRAFT
WSTQIY
Byzantium, however, always a storehouse of military science,
While conserving a knowledge of the ancient methods and
mMA the great missile engines, contributed no new ideas
££~ to fortification, so far as we know. In practice the
Byzantines favoured multiplied enceintes or several
concentric lines of defence. This of course is always a tendency
of decadent nations.
In the West the Roman fortifications remained standing, and
the Visigoths, allies of Rome, utilised their principles in the
defences of Carcassonne^ Toulouse, &c. in the 5th century.
VioEet-le-Duc's description and illustrations of the defences of
Carcassonne will give a very good idea of the methods then in
The Visigoth fortification of the city of Carcassonne, which is
of small cubical massnry alternating With courses of brick; the
middle portion being filled, not With earth but with rubble run with
lime. The towers were raised above these curtains, and their com-
munication with the latter might be cut off, so as to make of each
tower a small inde-
pendent fort; ex*
tcrnaUy these towers
are cylindrical, and
on the side of the
. town square; they
rest* also towards
the country, upon a
cubical oase or
foundation. We
subjoin (fig. 1) the
plan of one of these
tows. 1 with the cur-
tains adjoining. A
is the plan of the ground-level; B the plan of the first storey at the
level of the parapet. We see, at C and D, the. two excavations
formed in front of the gates of the tower to intercept, when the
drawbridges were raised, all communication between the town
or the parapet walk and the several storeys of the tower. From the
first storey access was had to the upper crenellated or battlemented
portion ot the tower by a ladder of wood placed interiorly against
the side of the flat wall. The external ground-level was much lower
than that of the tower, and also beneath the ground -levd of the
town, from which it was reached by a descending -flight of from ten
to fifteen steps. Fig- 9 shows the tower and its two curtains on the
Fig. 1.-
-Plao of one of the Towers at
Carcassonne.
Fig. a.— One of the Towers at Carcassonne, inside view.
side of the town; the bridges of communication are supposed to have
been removed. The battlemented portion at the top is covered with
a roof, and open on the side of the town in order to permit the
defenders of the tower to see what was going on therein, and also
to allow of their hoisting up stones and other projectiles by means
of a rope and pulley, rig. 3 shows the same tower on the side
towards the Country; we nave added a postern, the sill of which
is sufficiently raised above the ground to necessitate the use of a
scaling or step ladder, to obtain ingress. The postern is defended,
as was customary, by a palisade or barrier, each gate or postern
being provided with a work of this kind."
Meanwhile, in western Europe, siegecraft had almost dis-
appeared. Its perfect development was only possible for an
army like that of the Romans. The Huns and Goths .knew
Fig. 3.— One of the Towers at CaroMOtae,
outside view.
nothing of It, and the efforts of Charlemagne and others d t»
Freakish kings to restore the art were hampered by the hd tta
their warriors despised handicrafts and understood w*te*
but the use of their weapons. During the <iaik ages the tow
of the Gauls retained their old Roman and Visigoth detest*
which no one knew properly how to attack,. and accordingly th
sieges of that period dragged themselves out through Icngyaa
and if ultimately
successful were so as
a rule only through
blockade and famine.
It was not until the
xxth century that
siegecraft was revived
in the West on the
ancient lines.
By this time a new
departure of great
sns «-*
made in the seig-
neurial castle (?.v.),
which restored for
some centuries a defi-
nite superiority to
the defence. Built
primarily as strong-
holds for local' mag-
nates or for small
bodies . of warriors
dominating a conquered country, the conditions which caM
them into existence offered several marked advantages. The
defences of a town had to follow the growth of the torn
and would naturally have weak points. It was not to »
expected that a town would develop itself in the manner ©0*
suitable for defence; nor indeed that any position large eowgi
for a town could be found that would be naturally sfrecc
all round. But the site of a castle could be chosen purcy
for its natural strength, without regard, except as a seoxdaiT
consideration, to the protection of anything outside it; and a
its area was small it was often easy to find a natural posits*
entirely suited for the purpose. In fact it frequently happesd
that the existence of such a position was the raise* f<*
of the castle. A small hill with steep sides might well be in-
approachable in every "direction by such cumbrous strocttro
as towers and rats, while the height of the hill, added to tfcr
height of the walls, would be too much for the besieger missta-
If the sides of the hill were precipitous and Tocky, mi ?4
became impossible, and the site was perfect for defence. A
castle built under such conditions was practically impregiut'x,
and this was the cause of the independence of the barons in ik
nth and iath centuries. They could only be reduced bj
blockade, and a blockade of long duration was very difficult &
the feudal age.
A very instructive example of 12th-century work is tU
Chateau Gaillard, built by Richard Cceur-de-Lion in H9*
This great castle, with ditches and escarpments cut out of tt«
solid rock, and extensive outworks, was completed in one y#-
In the article Castle will be found the plan of the maia *tfk.
which is here supplemented by an elevation of the donjoo itf
keep). The waved face of the inner or main wall of thecal.
giving a divergent fire over the front, is an interesting laiM
in advance of the time. So also is the masonry protection <*
the machicolation at the top of the donjon, a protection whici
at' that time was usually given by wooden hoardings- A/w
the death of Richard, Philip Augustus besieged the chateau.
and carried it after a blockade of seven months and a regular
attack of one month. In this attack the tower at A was fiat
mined, after which the whole of that outwork was abandoned ty
the defenders. The outer enceinte was next captured by sur-
prise; and finally the gate of the main wall was breached by the
pioneers. When this happened a sudden rush of the besie** 1
HISTORY)
FORTIFICATION AND SIEQECRAET
6*3
prevented the remains of the garrison from gaining the shelter
of the donjon, and they had to lay down their arms.
Chateau GaiUard, designed by perhaps the greatest general
of his time, exemplifies in its brief resistance the weak points of
the designs of the 12th century. It is easy to understand how
at each step gained by the besiegers the very difficulties which
had been placed in the way of their further advance prevented
the garrison from reinforcing strongly the points attacked.
In the 13th century many influences were at work in the
development of castellar fortification. The experience of such
sieges as that of Chateau Gaiuard, and still more that gained in
the Crusades, the larger garrisons at the disposal of the great
feudal lords, and the importance of the interests which they had
to protect in their towns, led to a freer style of design. We must
also take note of an essential difference between the forms of
attack preferred by the Roman soldiery and by the medieval
chivalry. The former, who were artisans as well as soldiers, pre-
ferred i n siege works thecer-
tain if laborious methods of
breaching and mining. The
latter, who considered all
manual labour beneath
them and whose only ideal
of warfare was personal
combat, affected the tower
and its bridge, giving access
to the top of the wall rather
than the rat and battering-
ram. They were also fond
of surprises, which the bad
discipline of the time
favoured.
We find, therefore, im-
portant progress in enlarg-
ing the area of defence and
in improving arrangements
for flanking. The size and
height of all works were
increased. The keep of
Coucy Castle, built in x 220,
was soo ft. high. Mon-
targis Castle, also built
about this time, had a
central donjon and a large
open enclosure, within
which the whole garrison could move freely, to reinforce quickly
any threatened point. The effect of flanking fire was increased
by giving more projection to the towers, whose sides were in
some cases made at right angles to the curtain walls.
We find also a tendency, the influence of which lasted long
after medieval times, towards complexity and multiplication
of defences, to guard against surprise and localize successful
assaults. Great attention was paid to the "step by step "
defence. Flanking towers were -cut off from their walls and
arranged for separate resistance. Complicated entrances with
traps and many doors were arranged.- Almost all defence was
from the tops of the walls and towers, the loopholes on the
lower storeys being mainly for light and air and reconnoitring.
Machicouli galleries (for vertical defence) were protected either
by stone wans built out on corbels, or by strong Limber hoardings
built in war time, for which the walls were prepared beforehand
by recesses left in the masonry. Loopholes and crenelles were
protected by shutters. Great- care and much ingenuity were
expended on details of all kinds.
Already in the 12th century the engineers of the defence bad
made provision for Countermining, by building chambers and
galleries at the base of the towers and walls. Further protection
for the towers against the pioneer attack was given by carrying
out the masonry in front of the tower in- a kind of projecting
horn. This was found later to have the further advantages of
doing away with the dead ground in front of the tower unseen
from the curtain, and of increasing the projection and therefore
Fxc. 4.— Donjon, Chateau Gafllard.
the flanking power of the tower itaeli The arrangement isaeen
in several of the towers at Carcassonne, and has in it the germ
of the idea of the bastion.
The defences of Carcassonne, remodelled in the latter half of the
13th century on the old Visigoth foundations, exemplify some of
the best work of the period. Figs. 5 and 6 (reproduced from Violtet-
le-Duc) show the blan of the defences of the town and castle, and a
bird s-eye view of the castle with its two barbicans. The thick
black line shows the main wall; beyond this are the lists and then
the moat. 'It will be noted that the wall of the lists as well as the
roam wall is defended by towers. There are only two gates. That
on the east is de-
fended by two
great lowers and
a semicircular bar-
bican. The gate
of the castle, on
the west, has a
most complicated
approach defended
by a labyrinth of
gates ana flanking
walls, which can-
not be shown on ,
this small scale, / **— <■'
and beyond these I Sh
is a huge circular
barbican in several
storeys, capable of
holding 1500 men.
On the side of the
town the castle is
protected by a
wide moat, and the
entrance is masked
by another large
semicircular barbi-
can. An interest*
ing feature of the
general arrange-
ment is the import-
ance which the lists
have assumed. The slight wooden barricade of older times has
developed into a wall with towers: and the effect is that the
besieger, if he gains a footing in the lists, has a very narrow space
in which to work the engines of attack. The castle, after the
Roman fashion, adjoins the outer wall, of the town, so that there
may be a possibitity of communicating with a relieving force from
outside after the town has fallen. There were also several posterns,
small openings made in the wall at some height above the ground,
for use with rope ladders.
The siegecrait of the period was still that of the andents.
Mining was the most effective form of attack, and the approach
to the walls was covered by engines throwing great stones against
the hoardings of the parapets, and by cross-bowmen who were
sheltered behind light mantlets moved on wheels. Barrels of
burning pitch and other incendiary projectiles were thrown as
before; and at one siege we read of the carcasses of dead horses
and barrels of sewage being thrown into the town to breed
pestilence, which had the effect of forcing a capitulation.
With all this the attack was inferior to the defence. As
Professor C. W. C» Oman has pointed out, the mechanical
application of the three powers of tension, torsion and counter-
poise (in the missile engines) had its limits. If these engines were
enlarged they grew too costly and unwieldy. If they were
multiplied it was impossible on account of their short range and
great bulk to concentrate the fire of enough of them on a single
portion of the wall.
It is difficult to give anything like an accurate account, in a
small space, of the changes in fortification which took place in the
first two centuries after the introduction of gunpowder.
FtC. 5.— Plan of Carcassonne, 13th century.
The number of existing fortifications that had to be «•• •/
modified was infinite, so also was the number of g *\
attempted solutions of the new problems. Engineers
had not yet begun to publish descriptions of their " systems ";
also the new names and terms which came into use with the new
works were spread over Europe by engineers of different countries,
and adopted into new languages without much accuracy.
Artillery was in use for some time before it began to have any
effect on the design of fortification. The earliest cannon threw
so very light a projectile that they bad no effect on masonry and
68 +
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[HBTOW
were more useful for the defence than the attack. Later, larger
pieces were made, which acted practically as mortars, throwing
stone balls with high elevation, and barrels of burning com-
position. In the middle of the 15th century the art of cannon-
founding was much developed by the brothers Bureau in France.
They introduced iron cannon balls and greatly strengthened
the guns. In 1428 the English besieging Orleans were entirely
defeated by the superior artillery of the besieged. By 1450
Charles VII. was furnished with so powerful a siege train that he
captured the whole of the castles in Normandy from the English
in one year.
But the great change came after the invasion of Italy by
Charles VIIL with a greatly improved siege train in 1494- The
astonishing rapidity with which castles and fortified towns fell
before him proved
the uselessness of
the old defences.
It became neces-
sary to create a
new system of
defences, and,
says Cosseron
de Villenoisy,
" thanks to the
mental activity of
the Renaissance
and the warlike
conditions pre-
vailing every-
where, the time
could not have
been more fav-
ourable." There
is no doubt that
the engineers of
Italy as a body
were responsible
for the first ad-
vance in fortifi-
cation. There,
where vital and
mental energy
were at boiling-
point, and where
the first striking
demonstration of
the new force had been given, the greatest intellects, men such
as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Machiavelli, busied
themselves over the problem of defence.
It has been claimed that Albert Dflrer was the first writer on
modern fortification. This was not so; Duress work was
published in 1527, and more than one Italian engineer, certainly
Martini of Siena and San Gallo, had preceded him. Also Machia-
velli, writing between 1512 and 1527, had offered some most
valuable criticisms and general principles. Durcr, moreover,
had little influence on the progress of fortification; though we
may see in his ideas, if we choose, the germ of the " polygonal "
system, developed long afterwards by Montalembert. Dttrer's
work was to some extent a connecting link between the old
fortification and the new. He proposed greatly to enlarge the
old towers; and he provided both them and the curtains with
vaulted chambers for guns (casemates) in several tiers, so as to
command both the ditch and the ground beyond it. His projects
were too massive and costly for execution, but his name is
associated with the first practical gun casemates.
Before beginning to trace the effect of gunpowder on the
design of fortification, it may be noted that two causes weakened
the influence of the castles. First, their owners were slow to
adopt the new ideas and abandon their high strong walls for
low extended parapets, and, secondly, they had not the men
necessary for long lines of defence. At the same time the
corporations of the towns had learnt to take an active part in
Fig. 6. — Carcassonne Castle and Barbican.
warfare, and provided trained and disciplined sokEen in k-p
numbers.
When artillery became strong enough to destroy busk?
from a distance two results followed: it was necessarjr to w&
the masonry defences so as to make them less vulnerable, oi
to improve the means of employing the guns of the ddot
For both these purposes the older castles with their wtrcte
area were little suited, and we must now trace the derdopes
of the fortified towns.
Probably the first form of construction directly due to the appes
ance of the new weapons was the bulwark {botdttard, hlmk 1
bollwerk). This was an outwork usually semicircular in _ u
plan, built of earth consolidated with timber and revetted "*f
with hurdles. Such works were placed as a shield in *"*
front of the gates, which could be destroyed even by the early Igt
cannon-balls; and they offered at the same time advanced poatco
for the guns of the defence. They were found so useful fcr re
positions for flanking fire that later they were placed ia few c
towers or at intervals along the wall* for that purpose.
This, however, was only a temporary expedient, and we haw m
to consider the radical modifications in designs. These aifeet
both the construction and trace of the walls.
The first lesson taught by improved artillery was that the ae
should not be set up on high as targets, but in some manner ansae
One method of doing this in the case of old works was n . wA
by placing bulwarks tn front of them. In other cases the
lists or outer walls, being surrounded by moats, 1
screened and suitable for conversion
into the main defence; and as with
improved flanking defence great height
was no longer essential, the tops of the
walls were in some cases cut down.
In new works it was natural to sink
the wall in a ditch, the earth from
which was useful for making ramparts.
As regards resistance to the effect
of shot, it was found that thin masonry
walls with rubble filling behind them
were very easily destroyed. A bank
of earth behind the wall lessened the vibration of the dwt, fes
once a breach was made the earth came down, making a &*
easv of ascent. To obviate this, horizontal layers of bruskroi
timber and sometimes masonry were built into the earth bait
and answered very well (fig. 7).
e already partaly
Flo. 7.
F10. 8.
Fig. 9.
Another expedient of still greater value was the use of cooot*
forts. The earliest counterforts were simply buttresses ba«
inward from the wall into the rampart instead of outward (fig &
Their effect was to strengthen the wall and make the breaches aw*
difficult of ascent. An alternative arrangement for strengthens?
the wall was an arched gallery built behind it under the ramp*
(fig. 9). This construction was in harmony with the idea, alretfY
familiar, of a passage in the wall from which countermines ceuM
be started; but it has the obvious weakness that the detfroct^
of the face wall takes away one of the supports of the arch. T»
best arrangement, which is ascribed to Albert Durer, was tv
" counter-arched revetment." This consisted of a series of ard*»
built between the counterforts, with their axes at right sagfe p
the face of the wait Their advantage was that, while support^
the wall and taking all the weight of the rampart, they iorfl>N
an obstacle after the destruction of the wall more difficult to a*
mount than the wall itself and very hard to destroy. ThecoonfJ
arches might be in one, two or three tiers, according to the bop
of the wall (figs. 10 and 11, the latter without the earth « *
rampart and showing also a countermine gallery). ,
A more important question, however, than the unprovetaeat,*
the passive defence or obstacle was the development of theses*
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
HISTORY)
defence by artillery. For this purpose it was necessary to find room
for the working of the guns. At the outset it was of course a question
y. of modifying the existing defences at as little cost as
"*/"•" possible. With this object the roofs of towers were
* arf> removed and platforms for guns substituted, but this
only gave room for one or two guns. Also the loopholes in the lower
storeys of towers were converted into embrasures to give a grazing
fire over the ditch ; this became the commonest method of strengthen-
ing old works for
cannon, but was of
685
n _ n _ rt n n n n n n n ^^jting fi^ f
fire was so small.
In some cases the
towers were made
larger, with a semi-
circular front and
side walls at right
angles to the cur
Flo. to.
tain. Such towers built at Langres early in the 16th century had
walls 20 ft. thick to resist battering.
Even in new works some attempts were made to combine artillery
defence with pure masonry protection. The works of Albert Durer
in theory, and the bridge-head of Schaffhausen in practice, are the
best examples of this. The Italian engineers also showed much
ingenuity in arranging for the defence of ditches with masonry
caponiers. These were developed from external buttresses, and
equally with the casemated flanking towers of Durer contained the
germs of the idea of " polygonal M defence.
The natural solution, however, which was soon generally adopted,
was the rampart ; that is, a bank of earth thrown up behind the wall,
which, while strengthening the wall as already indicated, offered
plenty of space for the disposal of the guns.
The ditch, which had only been occasionally used in ancient and
medieval fortification, now became essential and characteristic.
T±~**rt. Serving as it did for the double purpose of supplying
T*e muca. eartJl ^ a ^mp^ an< j allowing the wall to be sunk for
concealment, it was found also to have a definite use as an obstacle.
Hitherto the wall had sufficed for this purpose, the ditch being
useful mainly to prevent the
besieger from bringing up his
engines of attack.
When the wall (or escarp) was
lowered, the obstacle offered by
the ditch was increased by revet-
ting the far side of it with a
counterscarp. Beyond the
counterscarp wall some of the
earth excavated from the ditch
was piled up to increase the
protection given to the escarp
walL This earth was sloped
down gently on the outer side
to meet the natural surface of
the ground in such a manner as
to be swept by the fire from the
ramparts and was called the
tracts.
Now, however, a 1*
culty arose. In all times a chief element in a successful def
consisted in action by the besieged outside the walls. Tl
ditches, when they existed, had merely a slope on the fai
leading up to the ground-level; and the ditch was a co
place in which troops preparing for a sortie could asseml w
out being seen by the enemy, and ascend the slope to ma
attack. The introduction of the counterscarp wall p
sorties from the ditch. At first it was customary, after tl
duction of the counterscarp, to leave a narrow space on th
it, behind the glacis, for a patrol path. Eventually the dill ,
was met by widening this patrol path into a space of aboi_. ju ft.,
in which there was room for troops to assemble. This was known as
the covered way.
With this last addition the ordinary elements of a profile of
modern fortification were complete and are exemplified in fig. 12.
Fig. 'it.
Al-
ias
old
ide
itient
th-
eir
:ed
ntro-
■P of
Ity
Pig. 12.
Up to the gunpowder period the trace of fortifications, that isj
the plan on which they were arranged on the ground, was very
simple. It was merely a question of an enclosure wall adapted
to the site and provided with towers at suitable intervale. The
Tbotnoo.
foot of the wall could be seen and defended everywhere, from
the tops of the towers and the machicoulis galleries. The intro-
duction of ramparts and artillery made this more diffi-
cult in two ways. The rampart, interposed between
the defenders and the face of the wall, put a stop to vertical
defence. Also with the inferior gun-carriages of the time very
little depression could.be given to the guns, and thus the top of
the enceinte wall, with or without a rampart, was not a suitable
position for guns intended to flank the ditch in their immediate
neighbourhood. The problem of the " trace " therefore at the
beginning of the 16th century was to rearrange the line of defence
so as to give due opportunity to the artillery of the besieged,
both to oppose the besiegers' breaching batteries and later to
defend the breaches. At the outset the latter role was the more
important.
In considering the early efforts of engineers to solve this
problem we must remember that for economical reasons they
had to make the best use they could of the existing walls. At
first for flanking purposes casemates on the ditch level were
used, the old flanking towers being enlarged for the purpose.
Masonry galleries were constructed across the ditch, containing
casemates which could fire to either side, and after this casemates
were used in the counterscarps. Some use was also made of the
fire from detached bulwarks. It was soon realized, however, that
the flanking defence of the body of the place ought not to be
dependent on outworks, and that greater freedom was required
for guns than was consistent with casemate defence. The
bulwark (which in its earliest shape suggests that it was in some
sort the offspring of the barbican, placed to protect an entrance)
gave plenty of space for guns, but was too detached for security.
The enlarged tower, as an integral part of the lines, gave security,
and its walls at right angles to the curtain gave direct flanking
fire, but the guns in it were too cramped. The blending of the
two ideas produced the bastion, an element of fortification which
dominated the science for three hundred years, and so impressed
itself on the imagination that to this day any strong advanced
position in a defensive line is called by that name by unscientific
writers. The word had been in use for a long time in connexion
with extemporized towers or platforms for flanking purposes,
the earliest forms being bastille, bos fide, bastillon, and in its origin
it apparently refers rather to the quality of work in the construc-
tion than to its defensive intention.
The earliest bastions were modified bulwarks with straight faces
and flanks, attached to the main wall, for which the old towers
often acted as keeps; and at first the terms bulwark and bastion
were more or less interchangeable. Fig. 13, taken from a con-
temporary MS. by
Viollet-le-Duc, cfc-
shows a bastion
added to the old
wall of Troycs about
I5?3. On the other
hand, in fig. 14
(taken from an
English MS. of
I53'j. which aajtn i»
ba>cd an (he Hjlhn
work of Zurich* pub-,
lishcd in 1554). we
find & a epoken of
as " bulwarks "and
b b a* " baj#Ho#av*
Thf t r i a n n l 1 1 j r
work* between I he
ba'.rm.m* are de-
scribed it " rum-
parti," intended to
protect the curtain* from breaching fire.
this design the broad ditch, the counterscarp with narrow covered
way, and lyupholc* indicting counterscarp galleries.)
Towards the end of the 16th century the term " bulwark "
began to be reserved for banks of earth thrown up a little distance
in front of the main wall to protect it from breaching fire, and it
thus reverted to its original defensive intention. The term
" bastion " henceforth denoted an artillery position connected
by flanks to the main wall, and the question of the arrangement
of these flanks was one of the main preoccupations of engineers.
Fig. 13.— Bastion at Troyes.
(We may also notice in
686
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
(Hem
Flanks retired, casemated or open, or sometimes in several tiers
were proposed io infinite variety.
Fig. 14.
Thus, while in the early part of the 16th century the actual
modification of existing defences was proceeding very slowly on
account of the expense involved, the era of theoretical " systems "
had begun, based on the mutual relations of flank and face.
These can be grouped under three heads as follows:-*
1. The crimoMfre or indented trace: Faces and flanks succeeding
each other in regular order (fig. 15).
js^/V^
Fig. 15. Fig. 16.
a. The tenaille trace: Flanks back to back between the faces
(fig. 16). The development of the flanks in this case gives us the
star trace (fig. 17).
r^M ^.
Fig. 17. Fig. 18
3. The bastioned trace: Flanks facing each other and connected
by curtains (fig. 18).
In comparing these three traces it will be observed that unless
casemates are used the flanking in the first two is incomplete.
Guns on the ramparts of the faces cannot defend the flanks, and
therefore there are " dead " angles in the ditch. In the bastioned
trace there is no " dead " ground, provided the flanks are so far
apart that a shot from the rampart of a flank can reach the ditch
at the centre of the curtain.
Here was therefore the parting of the ways. For those who
objected to casemate fire, the bastioned trace was the way of
salvation. They were soon in the majority; perhaps
Iti((nm(t DCCausc tne symmetry and completeness of the idea
tm, captivated the imagination. At all events the
bastioned trace, once fairly developed, held the field in
one form or another practically without a rival until near the
end of the 1 8 th century. The Italian engineers, who were supreme
throughout most of the 16th century, started it; the French,
who took the lead in the, following century, developed it, and
officially never deserted it until late in the 19th century, when
the increasing power of artillery made enceintes of secondary
importance.
It will be useful at this point to go forward a little, with a couple
of explanatory figures, in order to get a grasp of the component
Fig. 19.
parts of the bastioned trace as ultimately developed, and of its
outworks.
. In fig. 19 ABCD represents part of an imaginary line drawn round
the place to be fortified, forming a polygon, regular or irregular.
. ABC is an exterior angle or angle of the polygon.
BCuin tiUtier side.
u is »fi interior side*
abt&fihijk i* the trace of the enceinte,
bedtj ti j hutivti.
eff is a /ard of the burian,
ti is a flank at the bastion,
}l ti the curtain.
ty is the pw£f ,
(Two iiemt'ba*U<iris with the connecting curtain make the h»
tkmtd ffoo( H defgkt)
id bisecting the ttkrivt angle ABC is the capital of the dmUh.
xy is the perpend tiniar, the proportionate length of which tc tfc
ext mor side BC (usually about one-sixth) is an important eksxn
of the trace.
efC is the angle of defente.
BQ[ is the diminished angle.
cde is the flanked anile or salient angle of the bastion ■
e is the shoulder of tne bastion,
is the angle of the shoulder.
is the angle of the flank.
line of the escarp is called the magistral Una since k refifcts
the trace. When plans of fortifications are given without and
detail, this line, with that of the counterscarp and the crest of tk
parapet, are often the only ones shown, — the crest of the panpc
as being the most important line, whence the fire proceeds, be*
usually emphasized by a thick black line.
Fig. 30, reproduced from a French engraving of 1705. than u
imaginary place fortified as a hexagon with bastions and all tk
£
Fig. 20.
different kinds of outworks then in use. The following is the a-
planation of its figuring and lettering.
1. Flat bastion: Placed in the middle of a curtain when the b«*
of defence were too long for musketry range.
3. Demi-bastion: Used generally on the bank of a river.
3. Tenaille bastion: Used when the flanked angle is too scute:
that is, less than 70*.
4. Redans: Used along the bank of a river, or when the parapet
of the covered way can be taken in reverse from the front.
A, B. Ravelins.
C. Demi4unes: So catted from the shape of the gorge. TV*
differ from the ravelins in being placed in front of the bastiotf
instead of the curtains.
D. Counter-guards: Used instead of demi-lunes, whkh were tsa
going out of fashion.
E. Simile tenaille.
F. Double tenaille (see L and M).
(If the tenaille E is reduced in width towards the gorge, as sbo**
alternatively, it is called a twaUemrtail. If the double
HISTORY]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
687
reduced as at C, it it caMed a bonnet do pritre. Such works were
rarely uced.)
H. Horimork: Much used for gates &c-
I. Crown-work.
VL Crowned homwoek.
L. M. New forms of tenaille: (N.B.— These are the forma which
ultimately retained the namc.^
N. New form of work called a demt-lune lunettle, the ravelin N
being protected by rwb counter-guards, O.
P. Re-tnlermg placss of arms,
Q. Traverses.
R. Salient Places of arms.
S. Places of arms without traverses.
T. Orillon, to protect the flank V.
X- A double bastion or cavalier.
Y. A retrenchment with a ditch, of the breach Z.
Sl Traverses to protect the tcrreplein of the ramparts from
enfilade.
Turning back now to the middle of the 16th century we find
in the early examples of the use of the bastion that there is no
attempt made to defend its faces by flanking fire, the .curtains
being considered the only weak points of the enceinte. Accord-
ingly, the flanks are arranged at right angles to the curtain,
and the prolongation of the faces sometimes falls near the middle
of it When it was found that the faces needed protection, the
first attempts to give it were made by erecting cavaliers, or
raisefl parapets, behind the parapet of the curtain or in the
bastions.
The first example of the complete bastioned system is found in
Paciotto's citadel of Antwerp, built in 1568 (fig. 21). Here we
TboKtb
Fig. 2|.
have faces, flanks and curtain in due proportion; the faces
long enough to contain a powerful battery, and the flanks able
to defend both curtain and faoes. The weak points of this trace,
due to its being arranged on a small pentagon, are that the tcrre-
plein or interior space of the bastions is rather cramped, and the
salient angles too acute.
, In the systems published by Speckle of Strassburg in 1589
we find a distinct advance. Speckle's actual constructions in
fortification are of no great importance; but he was a
great traveller and observer, and in his work, published
just before his death, he has evidently assimilated,
and to some extent improved, the best ideas that had been put
forward up to that time.
Two specimens from Speckle's work are well worth studying
as connecting links between the 16th and 17th centuries.
Fig. 22 is early 16th-century work much improved. There are no
outworks, except the covered way, now fully developed, with a
battery in Che re-entering place of arms. The bastions are large,
but the faces directed on the curtain get little protection from the
flanks. To make up for this they are flanked by the large cavaliers
in the middle of the curtain. The careful arrangement of the flank
should be noted; part of it is retired, with two tiers of fire, some of
which » arranged to bear on the face of the bastion. The great
•aliency of the bastion is a weak point, but the whole arrangement
is simple and strong.
la the second example, known as Speckle's " reinforced trace "
(fig. 23), we find him anticipating the work of the next century.
The ravelin is here introduced, and made so large that its faces are
in prolongation of those of the bastions. Speckle's other favourite
ideas are here: the cavaliers and double parapets and his own
particular invention of the low batteries behind the reentering
place of arms and the gorge of the ravelin. These low batteries
did not find favour with other writers, being liable to be too easily
destroyed by the
besiegers'battcries
crowning the
salients of the
covered way.
Speckle's book
is of great import-
anceasembodyinff
the best work of
the period. His
own ideas are large
and simple, but
rather in advance
of the powers of
the artillery of his
day.
At the begin-
ning of the 17th
century we find
the Italian en-
gineers following
Paciotto in de-
veloping the com-
plete bastioned p I6 Zim
trace; but they
got on to a bad line of thought in trying to reduce everything
to symmetry and system. The era of geometrical j^tlik
fortification (or, as Sir George Clarke has called it, notary*
" drawing-board " fortification) had already begun
with Marchi, and his followers busied themselves entirely in
finding geometrical solutions for the application of symmetrical
bastioned fronts to such imaginary forms of perimeter as the
oval, club, heart, figure of eight, &c. Marchi, however, was one
of the first to think of prolonging the resistance of a place by
means of outworks such as the ravelin. De Villcnoisy says that
Busca was the first to discuss the proportions and functions of.
Fig. 23.— Speckle's Reinforced Trace.
all the component parts of a front; and Floriani, about 1630,
was the last of the important Italians. The characteristics of
a good deal of Spanish fortification carried out at this time
were, according to the same authority, that the works were well
adapted to sites, and the masonry excellent but too much exposed,
while the bastions were too small. The Dutch and German
schools will be referred to later.
The Freneh engineers now began to take the lead m adapting
the principles already established to actual sites. In the first
half of the century the names of dc Ville and Pagan stand out as
having contributed valuable studies to the advancement of the
science. In putting forward their designs they discussed very
fully such practical questions as the length of the line of defence,
whether this should be governed by the range of artillery or
musketry fire, the length of flanks, the use in them of orfllons,
casemates and retired flanks, the size of bastions, &c.
It is the latter half of the 17th century, however, which b one
688
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
of the most important periods in the history of fortification,
chiefly because it was illuminated by the work of Vauban.
It was at this time also that a prodigious output of purely
theoretical fortification began, which went on till the French
Revolution. Many of the "systems" published at this time
were elaborated by men who had no practical knowledge
of the subject, some of them priests who were engaged in
educating the sons of the upper classes, and who had to
teach the elements of fortification among other things.
They naturally wrote treatises, which were valuable for
their clearness of style; and with their industry and
ingenuity the elaboration of existing methods was a very
congenial task. Most of these essays took the form of
multiplication and elaboration of outworks on an im-
possible scale, and they culminated in such fantastic
extravagances as the system of Rhana, published in 1769
(fig. 24). These proposals, however, were of no practical
importance.
The work of the real masters who knew more than
they published can always be recognized by its com-
Vambmm. P arativc simplicity. The greatest of these was
Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban (g.v.). Born in
1633, and busied from his eighteenth year till his death in
x 707 in war or preparations for war, he earned alike by his
genius, his experience, his industry and his personal char-
acter the chief place among modern military engineers. His
experience alone puts him in a category apart from others.
Of this it is enough to say that he took part in forty-eight
sieges, forty of which he directed as chief engineer with-
out a single'failure, and repaired or constructed more than
160 places. Vauban's genius was essentially practical, and he was
no believer in systems. He would say, " One does not fortify
by systems but by common sense." Of new ideas in fortification
he introduced practically none, but he improved and modified
existing ideas with consummate skill in actual construction.
His most original work was in the attack (see below), which he
reduced to a scientific method most certain in its results. It
is therefore one of the ironies of fate that Vauban should be
chiefly known to us by three so-called " systems," known as his
" first," " second " and " third." How far he was from following
a system is shown by de Villenoisy, who reproduces twenty-eight
fronts constructed by him between 1667 and 1698, no two of
which are quite alike and most of which vary very considerably
to suit local conditions.
Vauban's "first system," as variously described by other
writers even in his own time, is pieced together from some
of the early examples of
his work. The "second
system" is the "tower
bastion " defence of Bel-
fort and Landau (1684-
1688) .obviously suggested
by a design of Castriotto's
one hundred years earlier;
and the " third system "
is the front of Neu-
Breisach (1698), which is
merely Landau slightly
Fic - 2 * improved. In other
works, between 1688 and 1698, he did not keep to the tower
bastion idea.
It will be convenient to take the " first system," as reproduced
in the Royal Military Academy text book of fortification (fig. 25)
as typical of much of Vauban's work. It may be observed that
be sometimes uses the straight flank, and sometimes the curved
flank with orillon. Parapets in several tiers are never used, nor
cavaliers. The ravelin is almost always used. It is small,
having little artillery power and giving no protection to the
shoulders of the bastions. Sometimes it has flanks and occasion-
ally a keep.
The tenaille is very generally found. In this form, viz. as a
shield to the escarp of the curtain, it was probably invented by
him. Fig. 95 shows two forms. In both the parapet d Ik
tenaille had to be kept low, so that the flanks might defend 1
breach at the shoulder of the opposite bastion, with artiQery
fire striking within 12 ft. of the base of the escarp. Tzaveoa
are used for the first time on the covered way to guard agasut
enfilade fire; and the re-entering place of arms, to which Vanbaa
attached considerable importance, is large.
For the construction of the trace an avenge length of abort
Flo. 25.— Vauban's First System.
400 yds. (which, however, is a matter entirely dependent <n &
site) may be taken for the exterior side. The perpendicular, actp
for polygons of less than six sides, b one-sixth, and the faces of tat
bastions two-sevenths of the exterior side. The flanks are char*
of arcs struck from the opposite shoulder as centres. An arc described
with the same radius, but with the angle of the flank as a centre, and
cutting the perpendicular produced outwardly, gives the safest d
the ravelin : the prolongations of the faces of the ravelin fail spas
the faces of the bastions at 11 yds. from the shoulders. The maa
ditch has a width of 38 yds. at the salient of the bastions, sod the
counterscarp is directed upon the shoulders of the adjoining bastws.
The ditch of the ravelin is 24 yds. wide throughout.
As regards the profile the bastions and curtain have a coausud
of 25 ft. over the country, 17 ft. over the crest of the glads and S n.
over the ravelin. The ditches are 18 ft. deep throughout. The
parapets are 18 ft. thick with full revetments. In his later works
he used demi-revetments.
Fig. 26 shows the tower bastions of Neu-Breisach, or the
so-called " third system." It is worth introducing, sUnprr as
showing that even a mind like Vauban's could not resist in oU
age the tendency to duplicate defences. Here the main bsstioas
and tenaille are detached from the enceinte. The fine of tl*
enceinte is broken with flanks and further flanked by the towea
The ravelin is large and has a keep. The section through tk
face of the bastion shows a demi-revetment with wide bam,
and a hedge as an additional obstacle.
After Vauban died, though the theories continued, the valoabk
additions to the system were few. Among bis successors in the
early part of the 18th century Cormontaingne (o.t.) fmg9i
has the greatest reputation, though' his experience tfttor
and authority fell far short of Vauban's. He was a a*f»
clear thinker and writer, and the elements of the system
were distinctly advanced by him. His trace includes an eshrfed
ravelin with flanks, the ends of which were intended to dose the
gaps at the end of the tenaille, and a keep to the ravelin vita
flanks. He provides a very large re-entering place of anas,
also with a keep, the ditches of which are carefully traced so as
to be protected from enfilade by the salients of the ravelin and
bastion. He was also in favour of a permanent retrenchment
of the gorge of the bastion. His works were printed, with nuor
alterations, more than twenty years after his death, to serve as
a text-book for the'school of Mtzieres. This school was estab-
lished in 1748, and from this time forward there was an oflidaJ
school of thought, based on Vauban. Cormontaingne's vork,
therefore, represents the modifications of Vauban's ideas accepted
HISTORY!
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
689
by French engineers In the latter part of the 18th century. The
school of Meneres was afterwards replaced by that of Metz,
which carried on its traditions. Such schools are necessarily
conservative, and hence, in spite of the gradual improvement
in ordnance and firearms, we find the main elements of the
bastioned system remaining unchanged right up to the period of
Fig. 26.— Neu-Breisach.
the Franco-German War in 1870. Chasseloup-Laubat tells us
that, before the Revolution, to attempt novelties in fortification
was to write one's self down ignorant. How far the general form
of the bastion with its outworks had become crystallized is
evident from a cursory comparison of fig. 27 with Vauban's
Fig. 27.— Noizet
early work. This figure is the front of the Metz school in 1822,
by General Noizet.
Since, therefore, the official view was that the general outlines
of the system were sacred, the efforts of orthodox engineers from
Cormontaingne's time onwards were given to improvements of
detail, and mainly to retard breaching operations as long as
possible. We find enormous pains being bestowed on the study
of the comparative heights of the masonry walls and crest levels;
with the introduction here and there of glacis slopes in the ditches.
put in both to facilitate their defence and to protect portions of
the escarps.
Among the unorthodox two names deserve mention. The first
of these is Chasseloup-Laubat (q.v.), who served throughout the
wars of the Republic and Empire, and constructed the fortress
of Alessandria in Piedmont.
Chasseloup's main proposals to improve the bastioned system
were two:
First, in order to prevent the bastions from being breached
through the gaps made by the ditch of the ravelin, he threw forward
the ravelin and its keep outside the main glacis. This had the
further advantage of giving great saliency to the ravelin for cross-
fire over the terrain of the attack. On the other hand, it made the
ravelin liable to capture by the gorge. It is probable that this
system would have lent itself to a splendid defence by an able
commander with a strong force; but under the opposite conditions
it has a dangerous element of weakness.
Secondly, in order to get freedom to use longer fronts than those
admissible for the ordinary bastioned trace, he proposed to extend
his exterior side up to about 650 yds. and to break the faces of his
bastions; the portion next the shoulder being defended from the
flank of the collateral bastion and coinciding with the line of defence,
and the portion next the salient, up to about 80 yds. in length,
being defended from a central keep or caponier placed in front of the
tenauk. The natural criticism of this arrangement is that it
combines some of the defects of both the bastioned and polygonal
systems without getting the full advantages of either.
Fig. 28 shows a half, front of Chasseloup's system, of ordinary
length, as actually constructed. The section shows an interesting
Fig. 28.— Chasseloup-Laubat.
detail, viz. the Chasseloup mask— a detached mask with tunnels
for the casemate guns to fire through, the intention of which is to
save them from being destroyed from a distance.
The second name is that of Captain Choumara of the French
Engineers, born in 1787, whose work was published in 1827.
2a
690
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
Two leading ideas are due to him. The first is that of the
" independence of parapets." A glance at any of the plans that
have already been shown will show that hitherto the crests of
parapets had always been traced parallel to the escarp or
magistral line. Choumara pointed out that, while it was
necessary for the escarp to be traced in straight lines with
reference to the flanking arrangements, there was no such
necessity as regards the parapets. By making the crest of the
parapet quite independent of the escarp line he obtained great
freedom of direction for his fire. The second idea is that of the
" inner glacis." This was a glacis parapet placed in the main
ditch to shield the escarp; its effect being to prevent the escarp
of the body of the place from being breached in the usual way
by batteries crowning the crest of the covered way.
The need for Choumara's improvements has passed by, but
he was in his time a real teacher. One sentence of his strikes a
resounding note: " What is chiefly required in fortification is
simplicity and strength. It is not on a few little contrivances
carefully hidden that one can rely for a good defence. The fate
of a place should not depend on the intelligence of a corporal shut
Up in a small post prepared for his detachment"
Before leaving the bastioned system it will be of interest to study
a couple of actual and complete examples, one irregular and one
regular. Fig. 29 shows the defences of Sedan as they were at the
end of the 17th century. One sees the touch of Vauban here and
there, but the work is for the most part apparently early 17th
century. It will be observed that on the river side of the town the
defence consists of very irregular bastions with duplicated wet
FlC. 29.— Sedan in 1705.
ditches (sec the Dutch style, below) ; and on the other side, where
water is not available, strength b sought for by pushing a succession
of hornworks far out.
Fig. 50 is Saarlouis, constructed by Vauban in 1680 in his early
manner, a remarkable example of symmetry. Vauban of course
never thought of aiming at symmetry, which is of itself neither good
nor bad, but it is interesting to note such a perfect example of the
system.
It must here be remarked that the reproach of " geometrical "
fortification is in no way applicable to the works of Vauban and
his immediate successors. The true geometric fortification, which
worshipped symmetry as a fetish, marked, as has been already
pointed out, the decadence of the Italian school. Vauban and his
fellows excelled in adapting works to sites, the real test of the
engineer.
The bastioned system was the 17th-century solution of the forti-
fication problem. Given an artillery and musketry of short range
and too slow for effective frontal defence, a ditch is necessary as an
obstacle. What is the best means of flanking the ditch and of
protecting the flanking arrangements? If Vauban elected for the
bastion, we must before criticizing his choice remember that he was
the most experienced engineer of nis day, a man of the first ability
and quite without prejudice. What is matter for regret is that the
authority of Vauban should have practically paralysed the French
school during the 18th and most of the 19th century, so that while
the conditions of attack and defence were gradually altering they
could admit no change of idea, and their best men, who could not
help being original, were struggling against the whole weight of
official opposition.
Again, such duplication of outworks as we sec at Sedan is not
geometric fortification. It is a definite attempt to retard the attack,
on ground favourable to it, by successive lines of defence. As to the
policy of this, no axiom can be laid down. Nowadays most of us
think, as Machiavelli did, that a single line of defence is best and that
(HISTORY
a second line only serves to suggest the advisability of trace.
There are also, of course, the recognized drawbacks of <*t*afa,
difficulty of retreat, of relief and so forth, and the moral dfer. <j
their loss. But the engineers of such defences as Ostettd sad IV*
might well say, " Oh, u only when we had held on to that bast^a b
so many months we had had a second and a third line of pensaaec
Fig. 30.
retrenchment to fall back upon, we could have held the pbex fa
ever." And who shall say that they were wrong ? Let us at J
events remember that the leading engineers of that time war tar
who had passed their lives in a state of war, and that we ouret^
in comparison with them are the theorists.
From the end of the 16th century the Dutch methods d
fortification acquired a great reputation, thanks to the sto:
resistance offered to the Spaniards by some of their ~ ^
fortresses, the three years' defence of Ostend being wck m f
perhaps the most striking example. Prolonged de-
fences, which were mainly due to the desperate energy of tk
besieged, were credited to the quality of their defences. In pas*
of fact the Dutch owed more to nature, and more still to ihc
own spirit, than to art; but they showed a good deal of ski 3
adapting recent ideas to their needs.
Three conditions governed the development of the Dtfci
works at this time, viz. want of time, want of money and &bi>
dance of water. When the Netherlands began their rev?:
against Spain, they would no doubt have been glad enoogfc -
expensive masonry fortresses on such models as Paricttc:
citadel of Antwerp. But there was neither time nor money f
such works. Something had to be extemporized and fortune?
for them tbey had wet ditches to take the place of high revets
walls. Everywhere water was near the surface, and rivers c
canals were available for inundations. A wide and shalk*
ditch, while making a good obstacle, was also the readiest aa^
of obtaining earth for the ramparts. High command was, on'*:
to the flatness of the country, unnecessary and even undesirai
as it did not allow of grazing fire
What the Dutch actually did in strengthening their tor-
gives little evidence of system. Starting as a rule from a
existing enceinte, sometimes a medieval wall, they would provi^
a broad wet ditch. No further provision was usually made c:
the sides of the town which were additionally protected by 1
river or inundation. On the other sides the wet ditch was Dai-
still broader, and sometimes contained a counterguard, soc"
times ravelins and lunettes. These were quite irregular in tke'
design and relation to each other. At the foot of the glacis wot'
be found another but narrower wet ditch, which was a peculiar.
Dutch feature; and sometimes if the town was in a bend of »
river there would be a canal cut across the bend in a straight lac,
strengthened by several redans.
Speaking generally, they endeavoured to provide for the vst*
HISTORY)
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
691
of a first-class masonry obtttde by multiplication of wet ditches,
a.r>d further to strengthen these obstacles by great quantities
of palisading, for which purpose the timber of old ships was used.
They also recognized the inherent weaknesses of wet ditches,
&s» for instance, that when frozen they no longer provide an
obstacle; and they studied the means, not only of causing
inundations, but also of arranging to empty as well as to
oil the ditches at wilL Simon Stevin was the leader in this
work.
Nevertheless a Dutch school of design did come into existence
at this time. The leaders, early in the 17th century, were Simon
Stevin, Maurice and Henry of Nassau, Marollois and Freitag.
The fortress of Coevorden, constructed by Prince Maurice, of
which fig. 31 shows a front, is a well-known example of this, and
the section shows clearly some typical features of the school
Flo. 31.— Coevorden.
The elements of the plan are those of the early bastioned trace,
but we find added both ravelins and lunettes, very regular in design.
There is also the ditch at the foot of the glacis, and surrounding
the rampart of the enceinte a continuous fausse-braie. This work,
which partook of the nature of both boulevard and counterguard,
served several purposes. It was desirable that the weight of the
rampart should be drawn back a little from the edge of the ditch,
and the fausse-braie filled what would otherwise have been dead
ground at the foot of the rampart It also afforded a grazing fire
over the ditch, which was very important, and which toe rampart
supported by a plunging fire.
Coehoorn (q.t.), the contemporary and nearest rival to Vauban,
was the greatest light of the Dutch school. Like Vauban he was
distinguished as a fighting engineer, both in attack and
defence; but in the attack he differed from him in
relying more on powerful artillery fire than systematic earth-
works. He introduced the Coehoorn mortar. His "first
system," which was employed at Mannheim (fig. 32), is repro-
duced for the sake of comparison with the Coevorden front
designed a hundred years earlier. Among other points will be
Fig. 33.— Coehoorn 's First System.
noticed the combination of wet and dry ditches; the very broad
main ditch with counterguard; the roomy keep of the ravelin;
the expansion of the fausse-brais into an independent low
parapet; and the powerful flanking fire in three tiers.
The " tenaille " system and the " polygonal " system whkh
grew out of it are mainly identified with the German school.
That school, says von Zastrow, does not, like that of
France, represent the authoritative teaching of an
official establishment, but rather the general practice
of the German engineers. It was founded on the principles of
Durer, Speckle and especially Rimpler, and much influenced in
execution by Montalembert. " The German engineers desired
a simple trace, a strong fortification with retrenchments and
keeps, bomb-proof accommodation and an organization suitable
for an offensive defence."
These had always been the German principles. Already in the
16th century the Prussian defences of Kustrin, Spandau and
Peitz had large bomb-proof casemates sufficient for a great
part of the garrison. The same thing is seen in the defences of
Glogau, Schweidnitz, &c, built by Frederick the Great. These
works show various applications of the tenaille system. In
1776 Frederick became acquainted with the work of Montalem-
bert, and his influence is seen in the casemates of KoseL
Whether through the influence of Albert Durcr or not cannot
be said, but while the bastion was being developed in France
the tenaille and the accompanying casemates from the first
found acceptance in Germany, and thence in eastern and northern
Europe. De Groote, who wrote in 161 8, produced a sort of
tenaille system, and may have been the inspiration of Rimpler.
Dillich (1640), Landsberg the elder (1648), Griendel d'Aach
(1677), Werthmuller (1685) and others advocated both bastion
and tenaille, sometimes in combination; the German bastion
being usually distinguished by short faces and long flanks.
Rimpler, who*was present at the siege of Candia (taken by the
Turks in 1669) and died at that of Vienna in 1683, exercised a
great influence. He had been struck by the weakness of the
early Italian bastions at Candia, and published a book in 1673
called Fortification with Central Bastions, which was practically
the polygonal trace. Zastrow thinks that Rimpler inspired
Montalembert. He left unfortunately no designs to illustrate
his ideas,
Landsberg the younger (1670-1746), a major-general in the
Prussian service, who saw many sieges, also had a great influence.
He appears to have
been the first who
frankly advocated
the tenaille alone,
chiefly on the ground
that the flank, which
was the most im-
portant part of the ,
bastioned system,
was also the weakest.
Fig. 33 shows his
system, published in
171a.
It was, however,
ultimately a French-
man, Marc Ren6
Montalembert (q.v.),
who was the great
apostle of the tenaille,
though in his later
years he leaned more to the polygonal trace,
to the bastioned trace on many grounds; principally
that the bastion was a shell trap, that the flanks by Jjjjjjj^
crossing their fire lost the advantage of the f\i\\ cmnu.
range of their weapons, and that the curtain was
useless for defence. He took the view that the bastions with
their ravelins constituted practically a tenaille trace, spoilt by
the detachment of the ravelins and cramped by the presence of
the curtains and flanks. His tenaille system consisted of redans,
with salient angles of 6o° or more, flanking each other at right
angles; from which he gave to his system the name of " per-
pendicular fortification."
Lazare Carnot (q.v.), the " Organizer of Victory," was, in
Fig. 33.
He objected
692
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
pnsTon
fortification, a follower of Montalcmbcrt, and produced in 1797
a tenaille system (fig. 34) on strong and simple lines.
In 1812 Carnot offered three systems. For a dry and level site be
recommended a bastioned trace ; but for wet ditches and (or irregular
ground, tenaille traces. Both of these Utter differ from his 1797
trace in that the re-entering angle is reinforced by a tenaille whose
faces are parallel to the main faces and reach almost to the salients.
There are also oounterguards in front of the salients, whose ends
overlap the ends of the tenaille. (N.B. To avoid confusion between
the tenaille trace and the
tenaille, it should be noted
that the latter is a low de-
tached parapet "placed in
front of the escarp of the
body of the place, partly as
a shield, ana partly as an
additional line of defence.
It is used in front of the
curtain in the bastioned
trace, and in the re-entering
angle in the tenaille trace.)
Other important features
of Carrot's work were: a
continuous general retrench-
FlG. 34. ment, or interior parapet,
following more or less the
tines of the main parapet; the use of the detached wall in place
of the escarp revetment; and the countersloping glacis. This last
(of which Carnot was not the inventor), instead of sloping gently
outwards from a crest raised about 8 ft. down to the natural level
of the ground, sloped inwards from the ground-level to the bottom
of the ditch. The advantage of the additional obstacle of the
counterscarp was thus lost to the defence. On the other hand, the
besiegers* saps, as they progressed down the glacis, were exposed to a
plunging fire from the parapet.
Carnot was also, like Coehoorn, a great' believer in the
mortar; but while Coehoorn introduced the small portable
mortar that bears bis name, Carnot expected great results from
a 13 in. mortar throwing 600 iron balls at each discharge. He
endeavoured to
prove mathemati-
cally that the dis-
charge of these
mortars would in
due course kill off
ftG.3S-M«tar«asen»reandD b^e^f lor^
These mortars he emplaced in open fronted mortar-casemates,
In concealed positions. Fig. 35 shows in section one of these
mortar-casemates, placed between the parapet of the retrench-
ment and a detached wall
The leading idea of Montalembert was that for a successful
defence it was necessary for the artillery to be superior to that
r*#Mfr» °* *k e enem y' Thi* idea led him to the adoption of
g^JSi casemates in several tiers; in preference to open
trmm. parapets, exposed to artillery fire of all kinds, high
angle, ricochet and reverse. In considering the defects
of bastions he had arrived at the conclusion that for flanking
purposes two forms of trace were preferable; either the tenaille
form, connecting the
ravelins with the body of
the place, or the form in
which the primary flank-
ing elements, instead of
facing each other -with
overlapping fire, as with
the bastions, should be
placed back to back in
the middle of the exterior
[side Fig. 36 is an ex-
ample of this. The central
flanking work resulting
from this arrangement is
the caponier of the early Italians, reintroduced and developed;
and with it Montalembert laid the foundation of the polygonal
system of our own time.
Montalembert was one of the first to foresee the coming
necessity for detached forts, and it was for these that he chiefly
Flo. 36.— Montalembert, 1786.
proposed to use his caponier flanking, preferring the tcui
system for large places. In abandoning the bastioned tat*
he was already committed to the principle of casemate ddeas
for ditches; and the combination of this principle irah ks
desire for an overwhelming artillery defence led him in the coax
of years of controversial writing into somewhat exuraps
proposals. For instance, for a square fort of about 400 yi
side, he proposed over xooo rsvmstf guns; and one of ks
caponier sections shows xo tiers of masonry gun-casemates ase
above the other. Confiding in the power of such an aruTky,
he freely exposed the upper parts of his casemates to direct tit
Montalembert is said to have contributed more new ideas
to fortification than any other man. His designs most k
considered in some ways unworkable and unsound, but til tie
best work of the 19th century restson his teaching. The Genua
who already used the tenaille system and made free ptwisa
of bomb-proof casemates, took from him the polygonal tract sjn
the idea of the entrenched camp.
The polygonal system in fortification implies straight or
slightly broken exterior sides, flanked by casemated capockn
The caponier is the vital point of the front, and is protected j
important works by a ravelin and keep. The essence of tit
system is its simplicity, which allows of its being applied to uy
sort of ground, level or broken, and to long or short fronts.
The final period of smooth bore artillery is an important est
in the history of fortification. It is true that the many expeasw
works that were constructed at this time were obsolete
almost as soon as they were finished; but this was ^
inevitable, thanks to the pace at which the world was «^
travelling. After the Napoleonic wars the Germanic
Confederation began to strengthen its frontiers; and considemf
that they had not derived much strategic advantage from ties
existing fort- %
resses, the Ger- \\\\
mans took up
Montalembert's
idea of entrench-
ed camps, utilis-
ing at the same
time his poly,
gonal system
with modifica-
tions for the
main enceintes.
The Prussians
began with the
fort resses of Cob-
lenz and Cologne;
later Posen,
Kdnigsberg and
other places were
treated on the
same lines. The
Austrian* con-
structed, among
other places,
Linz and Verona.
The Germanic
Confederation
reinforced Mainz
with improved
works, and re-
organised en-
entirely Rastatt
and Ulm. The
Bavarians built Germersheim and Ingolstadt. While all the*
works were conceived in the spirit of Rimpler and Moot*
lembert, they showed the differences of national temperaDest
The Prussian works, simple in design, relied upon powerfs
artillery fire, and exposed a good deal of masonry to the tnctt ^
view. The Austrians covered part of their masonry with ata
and gave more attention to detail.
Fxg. 37.— Front at Posen.
HISTORY]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
*93
The German development of the polygonal system at this
time is not of great importance, since the great masonry caponiers
were designed without sufficient consideration for the increasing
powers of artillery. One example (fig. 37) is given for the
sake of historical comparison. It is a front of Posen.
" The exterior side of the front is about 650 yds. (600 metres) long.
It is flanked by a central caponier, which is protected by a detached
bastion. . . . The main front is broken back to flank the faces of the
bastion from casemates behind the escarp, as well as from the parapet.
" The central caponier forms the keep of the whole front and
sweeps both the interior and the ditch by its flanking fire. It has
two floors of gun-casemates and one for musketry, and
Mm**v on the t0 P ig a parapet completely commanding alike the
outworks and the body of the place. It contains barrack accom-
modation for a battalion of 1000 men, and has a large inner courtyard
closed at the gorge by a detached wall. The caponier b itself flanked
by three small caponiers at the head, and one at the inner end of each
flank.
" The escarp of the body of the place is a simple detached wall;
that of the detached bastion is cither a detached wall with piers and
arches, or a counter-arched revetment. At the salient of the bastion
there is a mortar battery under the rampart, and a casemated
traverse for howitzers upon the terreplein. The flanks of the bastion
are parallel to those of the caponier, and at the same distance from
it as the faces.
" Masonry blockhouses, loopholed for musketry, are provided as
keeps of the re-entering and salient places of arms. In the latter
case they have stairs leading down into a counterscarp gallery,
which serves as a base for countermine galleries, and is connected
with the detached bastion by a gallery under the ditch. The counter-
scarp is not revetted if the ditch is wet.
" The angle of the polygon should not be less than 160*, in order
that the prolongation of the main ditch may fall within the salients
of the detached oastions of the neighbouring fronts, and the masonry
of the caponiers may thus be hidden from outside view." (R.MA
Text-book of F. fir M&, 1886.)
We have now reached a period when the " detached fort "
becomes of more importance than the organization of the enceinte.
The early conception of the role of detached forts in
The rfr- connexion with the fortress was to form an entrenched
camp within which an army corps could seek safety
if necessary. The idea had occurred to Vauban, who
added to the permanent defences of Toulon a large camp defended
by field parapets attached to one side of the fortress. The
substitution of a ring of detached forts, while giving it the
greater safety of permanent instead of field defences, gave also
a wider area and freer scope for the operations of an army
seeking shelter under the guns of a fortress, and at the same time
made siege more difficult by increasing the line of investment.
The use of the detached fort as a means of protecting the body
of the place from bombardment had not yet been made necessary
by increased range of artillery.
When these detached forts were first used by Germany the
scope of the idea had evidently not been realised, as they were
placed much too close to the fortress. Those at Cologne, for
instance, were only some 400 or 500 yds. in advance of the
ramparts. The same leading idea is seen in most of these forts
as in the new enceintes; i.e. a lunette, with a casemated keep
at the gorge. The keep is the essential part of the work, the
rampart of the lunette serving to protect it from frontal artillery
fire. The keep projects to the rear, so as not only to be able to
flank its own gorge, but to give some support to the neighbouring
works with guns protected from frontal fire. This is a valuable
arrangement, which is still sometimes used. The front ditches
of the lunettes were flanked by caponiers. Some of the larger
forts were simple quadrangular works with casemate barracks
and caponier ditch defence.
In 1830, in Austria, the archduke Maximilian made an entirely
fresh departure with the defences of Linz. The idea was to
provide an entrenched camp at the least possible cost, whose
works should require the smallest possible garrison. With this
object Linz was surrounded with a belt of circular towers spaced
about 600 yds. apart. The towers, 25 metres in diameter, were
enclosed by a ditch and glacis, and contained 3 tiers of casemates.
The masonry was concealed from view by the ditch and glacis.
On the top of the tower was an earth parapet, over which a
battery of 13 guns fired en barbette. In order to find room for
so many guns in the restricted space, the whole 13 were placed
parallel and close together on a single specially designed mounting.
This new departure was received with a certain amount of
approval at the time, which is somewhat difficult to account for,
as a more faulty system could hardly be devised; but the
experiment was never repeated.
The credit for much of the clear views and real progress made
in Germany during this period is due to General von Brese*
Winiari, inspector-general of the Prussian engineers.
France, for a few years after 1815, could spare little money for
fortifications, and nothing was done but repairs and minor
Improvements on the old lines. Belgium, having some money
in hand, rebuilt and improved in detail a number of bastioned
fortresses which had fallen into disrepair.
In 1830 France began to follow the lead of Germany with
entrenched camps. The enceinte of Paris was reconstructed,
and detached forts were added at a cost, according to von
Zastrow, of £8,000,000. The Belgian and German frontiers
The Fortress or
ANTWERP
Fig. 38.
of France being considered fairly protected by the existing
fortresses, they turned their attention to the Swiss and Italian
frontiers, and constructed three fortresses with detached forts at
Belfort, Bcsancon and Grenoble. The cost of the new works at
Lyons was, according to the same writer, £1,000,000 without
the armament. Here and elsewhere the enceinte was simplified
on account of the advanced defences. That of Paris, which was
influenced by political considerations, was a simple bastioned
trace with rather long fronts and without ravelins or other
outworks; the escarp was high and therefore exposed, and the
counterscarp was not revetted.
As regards the detached forts there was certainly a want of
clearness of conception. Those of Paris were simply fortresses
in miniature, square or pentagonal figures with bastioned fronts
and containing defensible barracks. Those of Lyons were much
more carefully designed, but the authors wavered between two
ideas. Unwilling to give up the bastion, but evidently hankering
after the new caponiers, they produced a type which it is difficult
to praise. The larger works were irregular four- or five-sided
figures with bastioned fronts; and practically the whole interior
space was taken up by a large keep, with its ditch, on the
694
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
fHETOCT
Fig. 39.
polygonal system. The smaller works, instead of a keep, had
defensible barracks in the gorge.
During the period 1855-1870 a considerable impulse was given
to the science of fortification, both by the Crimean War and the
arrival of the rilled gun. One immediate result of these
was the condemnation of masonry exposed to artillery
teism fire. The most important work of the period was the
new scheme of defence of Antwerp, initiated in 1859.
This is chiefly interesting as giving us the last and finest ex-
pression of the medieval enceinte, at a time when the war
between the polygonal and bastioned traces was still raging,
though the boom of the long-range guns had already given
warning thai a new era had begun. Antwerp is also asso-
ciated wiih the name of General Briabnont (?.*.), of the
Belgian engineers, whom posterity will no doubt regard as
the greatest writer on fortification of the latter half of the
19th century.
We give in figs. 38, 39 and 40 the general plan of the 1859
defences of Antwerp, the plan of a front of the enceinte, and its
Amtwt ^ sections, as showing almost the last word of fortification
before the arrival of high explosives.
The defences of Antwerp were designed, as the strategic centre
of the national defence of Belgium, for an entrenched camp for
100,000 men. The length of the enceinte is about 9 m. The
detached forts, which on the sides not defended by inundation
are about lira, apart and from 2 to 3 m. in front of the enceinte,
are powerful works, arranged for a garrison of 1000 men. They
have each a frontal crest -line of over 700 yds. and arc intended
for an armament of 120 guns and 15 mortars.
The general
arrangement of the
fronts of the en-
ceinte should be
compared with the
earlier German
type of Poscn. It
will be noticed that
while the large
casemated capo-
nier at Posen breaks
the enceinte and
flanks it both with-
out and within, at
Antwerp the cauo*
nicr is detached —
a much sounder
arrangement — and
flanks the front
only. The defence
of the faces rests
on the width of the
wet ditches and on
the flanking power
of the caponier;
there is no attempt
to add to it by
faussc-braie or
detached wall.
The dimensions arc
everywhere very
generous, allowing
free movement for
the troops of the
defence; the cov-
ered way is 22 yds.
StcttoouGH. Uwfiatttry
Fio. 40.~~Sectkxui of fig. 39*
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
tISTORY]
We and there b a double terrepteln on the face. The parapet
f the face is 27 ft. thick. The masonry of the casemate guns
1 the caponier, first flank and low battery, is protected by earth,
la Haxo.
In 1859 Austria acknowledged the influence of the new artillery
ith some new forts at Verona. The detached forU built by
ladetaky in 1848 were only from xooo to 2000 yds. distant from
be ramparts. Those now added, of which fig. 41 is an example,
;ere from 3000 to 4000 yds. out.
In the same year the land defences of some of the British
ockyards were taken in hand. These first serious attempts at
69$
Fig. 41. — Austrian Fort at Verona,
>ermanent fortification in England were received with approval
m the continent, as constituting an advance tn anything that
lad been done before. The detached forts intended to keep an
memy outside bombarding distance were roomy works with
imall keeps. The parapets were organized for artillery and the
1 itches were defended by caponiers or counterscarp galleries.
The forts were spaced about a mile apart and arranged so as to
support each other by their fire.
The sieges of the Franco-German War of 1870 are alluded
:o in the section below dealing with the " Attack of Fortresses."
As regards their effect on the designs of fortification
fro**/*7» t * l€ most ""P 01 **" 1 thing to note is the distance to
to IMA which it was thought necessary to throw out the
detached forts. These distances were of course in-
luenced by the character of the ground, but for the most part
Jiey were very largely increased. Thus at Paris the fort at St Cyr
was 18,000 yds. from the enceinte; at Verdun the distances
/aried from 2300 to 12,000 yds.; at Belfort the new forts were
from 4500 to 11,500 yds. out; at Metz 2300 to 4500; and at
Strassburg 5200 to 10,000. One result of these increased
distances was of course to increase very largely the length of
he zone of investment, and therefore the strength necessary
:or the besieging force.
As regards the character of the works, the typical shape
idopted both in France and Germany was a very obtuse-angled
lunette, shallow from front to rear. The German type had one
parapet only, which was organized for artillery and heavily
traversed, the living casemates being under this parapet. The
ditch defence was provided for by caponiers and a detached wall
[see fig. 42).
The French forts had two parapets, that in the rear being
placed over living casemates (in two tiers, as shown in the section
>f fig- 43 by a dotted line), and commanding the front one.
There was a long controversy as to whether the artillery of the
ort should be on the upper or the lower parapet, the advocates
>f the upper parapet attaching great importance to the command
hat the guns would have over the country in front. The other
ichool, objecting to having guns on the skyline, preferred to
sacrifice the command and place them on the lower parapet, as
in fig. 43, the infantry occupying the upper parapet. It will be
observed that the bastioned trace is abandoned, the ditches,
like those of the German fort, being defended by caponiers.
While a great deal of work was done on these lines, a very
active controversy had already begun on the general question
as to whether guns should be employed in forts at all. Some
Fie. 42.— German Fort about 1880.
declared that the accuracy and power of artillery had already
developed so far, that guns in fixed and visible positions must
needs be put out of action in a very short time. The remedy
proposed by these was the removal of the guns from the forts into
" wing-batteries " which should be less conspicuous; but soon
the broader idea was put forward of placing the guns in concealed
positions and moving them from one to another by means of
Fie. 43.— French Fort about 1880.
previously prepared roads or railways. Others declared that
there was no safety for the guns outside the forts, and that the
use of steel turrets and disappearing cupolas was the only
solution of the difficulty. General Brialmont, who had by this
time become the first European authority on fortification ques-
tions, ranged himself on the side of the turrets. The younger
6 9 6
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
IMG33X
school were largely in favour of mobility and expressed them-
selves eagerly in a shower of pamphlets.
It was at this juncture that a new factor was introduced,
namely, the obos-torpille, or long shell with high-explosive
bursting charge. With its appearance we say good-bye to (he
oJd school and enter upon the consideration of the fortification
of to-day.
II. Modern Permanent Fortification
Modern fortification dates by universal consent from 1SS5.
The Germans had begun experiments a year or two before this,
with long shell containing large charges of gun-cotton.
JJJ^JJf* ® ul * l was tk* experimentsat Fort Malmaisonin France
tomgsbttt. in 1886 that set the military world speculating on the
future of fortification. The fort was used as a target
for 8-in. shell of five calibres length containing large charges of
melinite. The reported effects of these made a tremendous
sensation, and it was thought at first that the days of permanent
fortification were over. Magazine casemates were destroyed
by a single shell, and revetment walls were overturned and
practicable breaches made by two or three shells falling behind
them. It must be remembered, however, that the works were
not adapted to meet this kind of fire. The casemates had
enough earth over them to tamp the shell thoroughly, but
not enough to prevent it from coming into contact with the
masonry, and the latter was not thick enough to resist tk ex-
plosion of the big charges. Other experiments were side a
the same direction in Germany, Holland, Belgium and Aaua
The Germans used shell containing from 60 to 130 !b of t$
explosive.
After the first alarm had subsided foreign engineers set abotf
adapting their works to meet the new projectiles. Rmtaao
were enormously strengthened, and designed so that their *#t
resisted overturning. Concrete roofs were made from 6 to 10 h.
thick, and in many cases the surface of the concrete wis left bet
so as to expose a hard surface to the shell without any or*
tamping. The idea of cupolas and shielded guns gained groai
and is now practically accepted all over the continent of Euroct
In many cases the main armament, in some only the sam<
armament (see below), is in cupolas in the forts.
But meanwhile Europe had been flooded with tiimm
on the subject, and the whole policy of fortification as *& u
its minutest details were discussed ab ow>. The extremists d
both sides revelled in their opportunity. Some declared tk,
with the use of heavy guns and armour, fortresses could be aa&
stronger than ever. Others held that modern fortresses mttte
too expensive, that their use led to strategic mistakes, asd
(arguing from certain well-known examples) that cxtemponad
field defences could offer as good a resistance as ]
works.
From FIcab and LefmuFs Manuel amptd it h fortification, by penafanion.
Fig. 44.— Metx in i8oo>
MODERN)
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
697
European military opinion generally b now more or leas
agreed on the following lines: —
1. Important placet must be defended by fortresses.
2. Their girdle of forts must Je far enough out to prevent the
bombardment of the place.
3. An enceinte is desirable, but need not be elaborate
4. A few guns (called " safety armament ") should be in the forts,
and these must be protected by armour.
5. The bulk of the artillery of the defence should be outside the
forts; the direct-fire guns preferably in cupolas, the howitzers
in concealed positions.
6. The forts should be connected by lines of entrenched infantry
positions and obstacles, permanent bomb-proof shelters being
Provided for the infantry.
7. There should be ample communication* — radial and peripheral
— between the place and the forts, both by road and rail.
8. Special lines of communication — such as mountain passes-
should be closed by barrier forts.
These considerations will now be taken somewhat more in
detail, but first it will be useful to deal with the plan of Melz
in 1809 (fig. 44).
Here the fortifications of successive periods can be readily recog-
•-- j first the old enceinte, unaltered by the Germans and now
didassie. Next the detached forts, begun by the French
engineers in 1868 and still unfinished in 1870, can be
readily recognised by their bastioned trace. Among them are Port
Manteuffel. formerly St Julien. and Fort Goeben (fig. 45), formerly
Queuleu. These were not altered in their general lines.
From PtcHtx and LegratxTs itmmtl etmpUt it U loriificttUm, by p
Fig. 45.— Fort Goeben, Met*.
This early line of detached forts, less than 3000 yds. from the
enceinte, was completed by the Germans with forts of polygonal
type such as Fort Prinz August. The hill of St Quentin (fig. 46), a
very important point, was converted into a fortified position, with
two forts and connecting parapets, and a communication running
north to Fort Alvenslebeu.
The arrangement of wing batteries in connexion with the forts
can be clearly noted at Fort Manteuffel. These are reinforced by
other batteries either for the defence of the intervals or to dominate
important lines of approach such as the valley of the Moselle (canal
battery at Montigny ). To these were added later armoured batteries.
There are also infantry positions, shelters and magazines in con-
nexion with this line.
Finally some new forts of modern type were commenced in 1899
at about 9000 yds. from the place.
Leaving out of consideration at present the strategic use of
f^ rtnat9t groups of fortresses, the places which, as mentioned
above, are intrinsically worth being defended as
fortresses arc-
Centres of national, industrial or military resources.
Places which may serve as points d'appui for manoeuvres.
Points of intersection of important railroads;
Bridges over considerable rivers.
(«) Certain lines of communication across a frontier.
Examples of (a) are Paris, Antwerp, Lyons, Verdun. Again
for (a) and (©), as is pointed out by Plessix and Legrand, Metz
in the hands of the Germans may serve both as a base of supplies
and a point d'appui for one flank. Strassburg is a bridge-head
giving the Germans a secure retreat across the Rhine if beaten
in the plains of Alsace, and an opportunity of resuming the
offensive when they have re-formed behind the river.
The distance of detached forts from the place depends on the
range of the siege artillery and the distance at which it can
usually be established from the forts, and is variously js*
given by different continental writers at from 4 to 9 km. Hag &
(4 soo to 10,000 yds.). The bombarding range of siege *******
howitzers with heavy shells is considered to be about 9mta '
8000 yds., and If it is possible for them to be eniplaced within
say moo yds. of the forts, this would give a minimum distance
of 6000 yds. from the forts to the body of the place. Some writers
extend the minimum distance to 7 km., or nearly 8000 yds.
In practice, however, it must happen that the position of the
forts is determined to a very large extent by the lie of the ground.
Thus some good positions for forts may be found within 4000 or
From Plesrix tad Letruxf* Uemut c—pUt i* U fcrtifUslUm, by pernfaloe.
Fig. 46.— St Quentin position, Metz.
5000 yds. of the place, and no others suitable on the same front
within 15,000 yds. In that case the question of expense might
necessitate choosing the nearer positions. Some example* of
the actual distances of existing forts have already been given.
Others, more recent, are, at Bucharest 7-10 km., Lyons 8-xof,
Copenhagen 7-8 and Paris 14-17. Strategic pivots are in a different
category from other fortresses. While not necessarily protected
from bombardment, they may yet have one or two forts thrown
out from 9 to 12 km., to get advantage of ground. Such are
Langres, Epinal and Belfort.
The Enceinte.— -The desirability of this is almost universally
allowed; but often it is more as a concession to tradition than for
any solid reason. The idea is that behind the line of forts, which is
the main defensive position, any favourable points that exist should
be provisionally fortified to assist in a " step-by-step " defence: and
behind these again the body of the place should be surrounded by a
last line of defence, so that the garrison may resist to the last moment.
It may be remarked that apart from the additional expense of an
enceinte, such a position would not, under modern conditions, be
the most favourable for the last stages of a defence. Again, there is
the difficulty that it is practically impossible to shut in a large
modern town by a continuous enceinte. It has been proposed to
construct the enceinte in sections in front of the salient portions of
the place. This system of course abandons several of the chief
advantages claimed for an enceinte.
In actual practice enceintes have been constructed since 1870 in
France and other countries, consisting of a simple wall 10 or 12 ft.
high with a banquette and loopholes at intervals. This of course can
only be looked upon as a measure of police. For war purposes, in
face of modern artillery, it is a teductio ad absurdum.
The Safety Armam4nl.—U the bulk of the artillery is to be placed
in positions prepared on the outbreak of war, it is considered very
necessary that a few heavy long-range guns should be permanently
in position ready at any moment to keep an enemy at a distance,
forcing him to open his first batteries at long range and checking the
advance of his investment line. Such guns would naturally be in
secure positions inside the forts, and if they are to be worked from
such positions they must have armour to shield them from the
concentrated fire of the numerous field artillery that a besieger
could bring to bear from the first. ,
Artillery outside the forts constitutes the most important
part of the defence, and there is room for much discussion as to
whether it should have positions prepared for it beforehand
6 9 8
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
poms
or should be placed in positions selected as the attack develops
itself. On the one hand the preparation of the positions before-
noqmw hand, which in many cases means the use of armour
<fa* of and concrete, increases very largely the initial expense
****£?? °f tne defence, and ties the defender somewhat in
pM * the special dispositions that become desirable once
the attack has taken shape. Moreover, such expenditure
must be incurred on all the fronts of the fortress, whereas
the results would only be realised on the front or fronts
actually attacked. On the other hand much time and Labour
are involved in emplacing heavy and medium artillery with
extemporised protection, and this becomes a serious considera-
tion when one remembers how much work of all kinds is necessary
in preparing a fortress against attack. Again, to avoid the danger
of a successful attack on the intervals between the forts before
their defences have been fully completed, the fire of the guns
in the intermediate positions might be urgently required. The
solution in any given case would no doubt depend on the import-
ance of the place. In most cases a certain amount of compromise
will come in, some preparation being made for batteries, without
their being completed. Armoured batteries of whatever kind
must in any case be prepared in peace time. It should not be
overlooked that as, whatever theories may exist about successive
lines of defence, the onus of the defence will now lie on the fort
line, just as it formerly did on the enceintes, so that line should
be fully prepared, and should not have to commence its fight in
a position of inequality.
Defence, of Intervals of Forts.— The frontal fire of the batteries in
the intervals and the flanking fire of tome of the guns in the forts
will play an important part, but the main reliance should be on
infantry defence. A fully prepared fortress would have practically
a complete chain of infantry fighting positions and obstacles between
the forts, at all events on the fronts likely to be seriously attacked.
The positions would consist largely of fire trenches, with good
communications; but it is pretty generally recognized that there
Section and Elevation No.t
must be some totals d'apfui in the shape of fedoubts or «&«*-»
forts, and also bomb-proof shelter for men, ammunhtoo aod v -a
near the fighting line. This is usually included in the rcc. • . i
If they are to resist the heaviest shell, such shelters must be lui
in peace time.
Communications arc of the first importance, not merely to hcL^t
the movement of the enormous stores of ammunition and nat-^
required in the fighting line, but also that defenders may fully -
the advantage of acting on interior lines. They should indite* : o
railways and roads running from the centre of the place n ^
different sectors of defence, and ah* round, in rear of the line ci -•
also ample covered approaches to the fighting line. Concr - =
is essential, and where the lie of the ground does not hdp. it nujt \<
got from earth parapets or plantations.
The principal use of barrier forts is in country where it
necessary line of communication cannot be easily divot:-
For instance, in a comparatively flat country a barrier
fort commanding a road or railway is of little use JS"
because roads may be found passing round it, or a tine
of railway may be diverted for some miles to avoid it. Bu -
mountainous country, where such diversion is impossible, it « .
be necessary for the enemy to capture the fort before be en
advance; and the impossibility of surrounding it, the '.-»
positions from which siege artillery can be brought into ?*-
and the fact that there is practically only one road of sports
to be denied, make these positions peculiarly suitable for ferj
with armoured batteries. Italy makes considerable use of s*i
forts for the defence of frontier passes.
Central Brialmont's Theoretical Claim for the Defence of a Cw-
—Before going into details, it is worth while to state the full ^^
of strategic fortification advanced by General Brialmont, the t~*
thorough of all its advocates. It is as follows: —
A. Fortify the capital.
B. Fortify the points where main lines of communication psai
strategic barrier.
C. Make an entrenched camp at the roost important centre : J
communication in each zone of invasion : and support it ft
one or two places arranged so as to make a fortified dams.
Section N0.5
MODERN)
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGEGRAFT 699
G. Make a large place in each theatre of war which is far from the
D. Close with barrier forts the line*
mountains or marshes.
E. Make a central place behind a mountain chain as a pivot for
the army watching it.
F. Defend mountain roads by p rovisional fortification*.
principal theatre, and where the enemy might wish to eatab*
fish himself.
H. Fortify coasts and harbours.
Objections to these proposals will be readily supplied by the
FlO. «3.
700
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
(MODERN
officials of the national treasury and the commanriers'iinzhicf of the
active *
So many types of detached forts have been proposed by
competent authorities, as well as actually const rutted
ffijjjj^ in recent years, that it is impossible here to consider
tot* all of them, and a few only wfll be reproduced of
those which are most representative of modem con*
tinental thought.
Taking first the type of heavily armed fort, which contain* gun*
for the artillery fight as well as safety armament, we must give
precedence to General Brialmont. The two works here shown are
taken from the Progres d$ la difenu des Stats, fire, pubhihud in 189a.
The pentagonal fort (fig. 47) has two special features. I n suction 1
is shown a concrete infantry parapet, with a gallery in which the
defenders of the parapet may take shelter from the bombardment
preceding an assault. In section 2 it will be seen that the counter-
scarp galleries flanking the ditch are drawn back from the tans of the
counterscarp. This is to counteract proposals that have been made
to obscure the view from the flanking galleries, and per h,ij* drive
the defenders out of them by throwing smoke-producing materia
into the ditch at the moment of an assault. The arrangement
save the occupant* of the galleries from excessive beat and no
fumes, but will not of course prevent the smoke from obscuring l
view.
The following points may be noticed about this design
it with earlier types. There is no escarp, the natural
rampart being carried down to the bottom of the ditch
counterscarp to the faces, but no covered way. The '
have no counterscarp, but a steel fence at the foot _.
slope, and the covered way which is utilized for a wire
tanglement which is under the fire of the parapet,
gorge has a very slight bastioncd indentation, which _
for an efficient flanking of the ditch by a couple of machine
guns placed in a single casemate on either side.
The abolition of the covered way as such is note-
worthy. It marks an essential difference between
the fort and the old enceinte profiles; showing that
offensive action is not expected from the garrison of
the fort, and is the duty of the troops ofthe inter-
mediate lines.
The great central mass of concrete containing all
the casemates and the gun-cupolas, a very popular
feature, is omitted in this design, advantage being
taken of the great lateral extent of the fort to spread
the casemates under the faces, flanks and gorge,
with a communication across the centre of the"
*<**' ™* arrangement gives more freedom to the
disposition of the cupolas.
The thickness of the con-
crete over the casemate
arches b more than 8 ft.
Communication between „ ..- .
the faces and the counter- Ev^*"**
scarp galleries is obtained
Thi* parapet hat no conerew shelter for the defenders. The case*
mate* are alt collected in the keep and Lh* gorge, with a passage all
round Riving arceas to the parapet and the cupolas.
Fig. 40 it a German worfc t Fort Motsheim at Straesbttttg. This is
a simple type of triangular fori. The main mass of concrete rests oa
the gorge, and is divided hy a narrow courtyard to give light and air
to the front casemate*. The fort has a medium armamedt for the
artillery fight, consisting of four 6- in, howiiaert in cupolas. On each
face are two amall Q,F> guns in cupolas for close defence, for which
purpose, it will be seen, there is alto an infantry parap et. At t he
angles are look-out turrets. The ditch has escarp and counterscarp,
and ii defended by counterscarp galleries at the angles. There is no
covered way. The thickness of concrete over the casemates, where
it ts uncovered* is about 10 ft*
Fig. 50 in Fort LynKby at Copenhagen. The new Copenhagen
defences are very interesting, giving evidence of dear and original
thfWRiht, and eftectivcnMs combined with economy. There is one
special feature worth noting about the outer ring Of forts, of which
Lyngby is one. These ww ks are intended for the artillery fight only,
their main armament being four 6-in. gotta (in pairs) and three 6-in.
howiuuf*. all in cupolas. The armament for immediate defence ir
\ <p ttajtrNsariratr
,KlArff/flS
c . sfpnWay C i»i i a
Section 00 AR
by posterns under the ditch. From Drialmoot's ftvgrfe 4 Js sV/oucrfcs too, ©V, by pcrmfcrisa of Com— what O.
TTie armament, which is all Fie. 49.— Fort Molsheim, Strassburg.
protected by cupolas, is
powerful. It consists of two 150- mm. (6 in.) guns, four 120* mm
(4*7 in.) guns, two 210-mm. (£4 in.) howitzers, two 210-mm. (8*4
There is
in.) mortars, four 57-mm. Q.lFV guns for close defence,
also a shielded electric light projector in the centre.
This fort is a great advance on General Brialmont's designs before
1885. These were marked by great complexity of earth parapets
and various chicanes which would not long survive bombardment*
This type is simple and powerful. It is also very expensive.
The second Brialmont fort (fig. 48) is selected because it shows a
keep or citadel, an inner work designed to hold out after the capture
of the outer parapet. General Brialmont held strongly to the
necessity of keeps for all important works. History of course gives
instances of citadels which have enabled the garrison to recapture
the main work with assistance, or caused a really useful delay in the
p r ogress of the general attack. It affords still more instances in
which the keeps have made no resistance, or none of any value.
Some think that the existence of a keep encourages the defenders of
the main work; others that it encourages the idea of retreat. The
British school of thought is against keeps. In any case they add
largely to expense.
In flic present design the keep is a mass of concrete, which depends
for the defence of its front ditches on counterscarp galleries in the
main work, the few embrasures for frontal defence being practically
useless. Its main function is to prevent the attackers from estab-
lishing themselves on the gorge, thus leaving the way open for a
reinforcement from outside to enter (assisted by bamboo flying
bridges) through the passages left for the purpose in the outer and
inner gorge parapets.
Am regards the main work, the arrangements for defence of the
ditch and the armament are similar to the design last considered.
trifling, consisting of only two 57-mm. guns and a 1 „
There is no provision for infantry defence. The ditch has no escarp
or counterscarp, and is flanked by counterscarp galleries at the salient.
It is usual in the case of works so slightly organised for their own
defence, and intended only for the long-range artillery fight, to with-
draw them somewhat from the front line. The Danish engineers,
however, have not hesitated to put these works in the very front line,
some 2000 metres in front of the permanent intermediate batteries.
The object of this is to force the enemy to establish his heavy artillery
at such long ranges that it will be able to afford little assistance to
the trench attack of the infantry. The intermediate batteries, being
withdrawn, are comparatively safe. They therefore do not require
expensive protection, and can reserve their strength to resist the
advance ofthe attack. The success of this arrangement will depend
on the fighting strength of the cupolas under war conditions; and
what that may be, war alone can tell us.
In the details of these works, besides the bold cutting down of
defensive precautions, we may note the skilful and economical use
of layers of large stones over the casemates to diminish the thickness
of concrete required. The roofs of the casemates are stiffened
underneath with steel rails, and steel lathing is used to prevent lumps
of concrete from falling on the occupants. The living casemates
look out on the gorge, getting plenty of light and air, while the
magazines are under the cupolas.
The forts above described are all armed with a view to their taking
an important part in the distant artillery fight. The next type to be
considered (fig. 51) is selected mainly because it b a good example
of the use of concealed flanking batteries, known on the continent
as hatteries iradUores, which seem to be growing in popularity.
This design by Colonel Voorduin of the Dutch engineers has •
ODERN]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
701
_ cupola concealed from view, though
«.£-»«r* /•?£*>**# oot protected, by a bank of earth in
m£^iJ6££?Z,of™. fronrTheotherixareinanarmoured
*$F:,%iy Cv * oU *' Q ''' tM battery behind the cupola. It may be
remarked that as the cupola gets no
Section No.a
From Brlalaosri Avfrfe * ft ii/mtt in Mais, a*., by pcmbriao of Commandant G. Meefe.
Fig. 50.— Fort Lyngby, Copenhagen.
medium armament, which b not intended for the artillery duel, but I
to command the immediate front of the neighbouring forts and the
intervals. The fort is long and narrow with small casemate accom-
modation. It contains eight 4'7-in. guns. Two of these are in a |
real protection from the covering m
of earth, it would be better to be a
to utilize the fire of its guns to the
front. The botUrietraditort, if properly
protected overhead, would be very
difficult to silence, and its flanking fire
would probably be available up to the
last moment. There is very much to
be said both for and against the policy
of so empbdng the guns. The im-
mediate defence of the work, with the
aid of a broad wet ditch, is easy; but
the great mass of concrete, which is in-
tended to form an indestructible plat-
form and breastwork for the infantry,
would seem to be a needless expense.
Fig. 52, designed by the Austrian
lieutenant field-marshal Monti Ritter
von Brunner (i83o-iQ0a),is selected as
.a type of the intermediate fort which
is intended only to be a strong point
in the infantry line of defence between
the main forts. It has a pro-
tected armament, but this,
which consists only of four
small Q.F. guns m cupolas, is
for its own defence, and not
to take part in the artillery
dud. There is also a movable
armament of four light Q.F.
Sns on wheels, for which a
dter is provided between the
f two observatory cupolas. The
!*r garrison would be a half com-
r\ ( pany of infantry, for whom
**•'•" casemates are provided in the
gorge. The gorge ditch is
Banked by a caponier, but
there is no flank defence (or
the front ditch. This is de-
fended by a glacis parapet. At
the bottom of the ditch b a wire entanglement and the glacis slope b
planted with thorns. The thickness of concrete on the casemates b
2 metres (6 ft. 7 in.). Tab b a strong and simple form of infantry
work, bat considering its rate it appears to be needlessly expensive.
Pram Utters BaUuUp £c/«rf>fMf .
Fig. 51.
703
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
[mossh
Fig. S3 is an Italian type of barrier fort in mountainous country.
A powerful battery of eight medium guns protected by a Gruson
shield commands the approach. The fort with its dwelling case-
mates is surrounded by a deep ditch flanked by counterscarp galleries.
There are certain apparent weaknesses in the type, but the difficulties
of the attack in such country and its limitations must be borne in
Modem Details of Protection and Obstacle.— After considering
the above types of fort, it will be of use to note some of the
details in which modern construction has been modified to
provide against the increasing power of artillery.
The penetration of projectiles varies according to the nature
of the soil— the lighter the better for protection. Sand offers
the greatest resistance to penetration, clay the least.
JJJJf" Since, however, the penetration of heavy shells fired
52** from long ranges with high elevation may be 20 ft.
or more in ordinary soil, we can no longer look to earth
alone as a source of protection against bombardment. Again
a moderate quantity of earth over a casemate increases the ex-
plosive effect of a sheU by " tamping " it, that is by preventing
the force of the explosion from being wasted in the open air.
From Brialmoot'i Progrls it la difaue da flafc, 6V, by |
ouodant G. Mectts. _
Fig. 53.
We find therefore that in most modern designs the tops of
casemates are left uncovered, or with only a few inches of earth
over them, in which grass may be grown for concealment.
For the materials of casemates and revetment walls exposed
to fire, concrete (q.v.) has entirely replaced masonry and brick*
work, not because of its convenience in construction, but because
it offers the best resistance. The exact composition of the
concrete is a matter that demands great care and knowledge.
It should be, like an armour plate, hard on the surface and tough
within. The great thickness of xo ft. of concrete for casemate,
arches, very generally prescribed on the continent in important
positions, is meant to meet the danger of several successive
shells striking the same spot. To stop a single shell of any siege
calibre in use at present, 5 ft. of good concrete would be enough.
A good deal is expected from the use of " reinforced concrete "
(that is concrete strengthened by steel) both for revetment
walls and casemates.
Parapets are frequently made continuous or glacis-wise, that
is the superior slope is prolonged to the bottom of the ditch so
Ifrniprtfc tn at the whole rampart can be swept by the fire of the
defenders from the crest, and there is no dead ground
in front of it. It is also common to build the crest of the parapet
in solid concrete, with sometimes a concrete banquette, so that
bombardment shall not destroy the line the defenders have to
man in repelling an assault. This concrete parapet ^- *
further reinforced by hinged sLeel bullet -proof plates, te 1 ■
head cover; which when not in use hing do#n behind Lis u^l
The escarp is falling into disfavour, on atcoiinl ol \kz p^
expense of a revetment that can withstand breaching fiat- k
counterscarp of very wtid construction & gtntraJJy mmmtl
used. It is low and gives cover to a wire enuuigleoaent
in the ditch This may be supplemented by a stcti aadUUsr
A
t
Section od AB.
Fic + S3*
fence, and by entanglements or thorn plantations on the arm*
way and the lower slopes of the parapet. Entanglement**
attached to steel posts bedded in concrete. The upper '
revetments and the foundations ol walla are protected *f«" :
the action of shells, that fallin? steeply might act as »
overturn them, by thick aprons of large stones. Fig, 54 •***
most ol these dispositions.
Electric searchlights are now used in all important *o<**
and batteries. Tbcy are usually placed in disappearing capes^
Tbc y are of great val ue for discovering working parties mj ^
at night, and lighting up the foreground during an *»»
attack: and since only the projector need be eiposed,
they are not very vulnerable. Their value, however, most P*
be over-estimated. The most powerful search-light tan b> '*
way compare >vith daylight as an illuminanl, aod, like all o^f
mechanical contrivances, they have certain marled da*** if
in war. They may give rise lo a false confidence; an imports
light may fail at a critical moment; and in foggy wcaiher IW
;:tc ItteicD.
The use of armyur (see also AnifOua-PulTEs) for coast bsttff*
followed closely upon its employment for ships, for these^
the days of short ranges and close fighting, and it '
natural not to Leave the battery In a position of inferiMfcy*
MOOERJQ
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
703
From DagafartL* PmttUttim ptrm mm d; by penflfarioa of J.
FlO.54.
the ship in the matter of protection. In England the coast battery
for a generation after the Crimean War was a combination of
.ismtmn mta °niy and iron; and in 1860 Brialmont employed
armoured turrets at Antwerp in the forts which
commanded the Scheldt. For land defence purposes, however,
engineers were very slow to adopt armour. Apart from all
questions of difficulty of manufacture, expense, &c, the idea was
that sea and land fronts were radically different. It was pointed
out that a ship gun, fired from an unsteady platform, had not
enough accuracy to strike repeated blows on the same spot;
so that a shield which was strong enough to resist a single shot
would give complete protection. A battery on a land front, on
the other hand, was exposed to an accurate fire from guns which
could strike successive blows on the same spot, and break down
the resistance of the strongest shield. But in time continental
opinion gradually began to turn in favour of iron protection.
Practical types of disappearing and revolving cupolas were
produced, and many engineers were influenced in their favour
by the effect of the big high-explosive shclL Eventually it was
argued that, after all, the object of fortification is not to obtain a
resisting power without limit, but to put the men and guns of a
work in an advantageous position to defend themselves as long
as possible against a superior force; and that from this point of
view armour cannot but add strength to defensive works.
The question has of course long passed beyond the stage of
theory. Practically every European state uses iron or steel
casemates and cupolas. German, Danish, Italian and other
types of forts so armed have been shown. Recent French types
have not been published, but it is known that cupolas are
employed; and Velichko, the Russian authority, long an
uncompromising opponent of armour, in the end changed his
views. These countries have had to proceed gradually, by
improving existing fortresses, and with such resources as could
be spared from the needs of the active armies. Among the
smaller states Rumania and Belgium have entered most freely
into the new way. In England, which is less directly interested,
opinion has been led by Sir George Clarke, since the publication
in 1800 of his well-known book on fortification. Having witnessed
officially the experiments at Bucharest in 1885 with a St Chamond
turret and a Gruson cupola, he expressed himself very strongly
against the whole system. Besides pointing out very clearly
the theoretical objections to it, and the weak points of the con-
structions under experiment, he added: "The cost of the French
turret was about £10,000 exclusive of its armament, and for
this sum about six movable overbank guns of greater power
could be provided." In view of the weight that belongs of right
to his criticisms it is as weU to point out that while this remark
is quite true, yet the six guns would require also six gun detach-
ments, with arrangements for supply, &c; a consideration
which alters the working of this apparently elementary sum.
The whole object of protection is to enable a few men and guns
successfully to oppose a larger number.
At the time when Sir George Clarke's first edition came out,
such extravagances were before the public as Mougin's fort; "a
mastless turret ship," as he called it, buried up to the deck-level
in the ground and manned by mechanics." Such ideas tended to
throw discredit on the more reasonable use of armour, but whether
the system be right or wrong, it exists now and has to be takeo
account of. Nowhere has it been applied more boldly than in
Rumania. The defences of Bucharest (designed by Brialmont)
consist of 18 main and 18 small forts, with intermediate batteries.
The main forts are some 4500 yds. apart, and 11,000 to 12,000 yds.
from the centre of the place. The typical armament of a main fort
is six 6-in. guns in three cupolas (one for indirect fire), two 84-in.
bowitxers in cupolas, one 4'7-in. howitzer in a cupola, six small
Q.F. guns in disappearing cupolas. The total armament of the place
(all protected) is eighty-six 6-m. guns, seventy-four 84-in. howitzers,
eighteen 4*7-in. howitzers, 127 small calibre Q.F. guns in disappear-
ing cupolas, 476 small calibre Q.F. guns in casemates for flanking
the ditches. The " Sereth Line " will be described later.
Different Forms of Protection; Casemate, Cupola, 6rc— The
broad difference between casemates or shielded batteries and
turrets and cupolasjs that the former are fixed while the latter
revolve and in some cases disappear. The casemate thus has
the disadvantages that the arc of fire of the gun, which has to
fire through a fixed embrasure or port-hole, is very limited, and
that the muzzle of the gun and the port-hole, the weak points
of the system, are constantly exposed to the fire of the enemy.
The advantage of the casemate lies in its comparative cheapness
and the greater strength of a fixed structure. It is well suited
for harrier forts (fig. 53) and other analogous positions; and the
Italians amongst other nations have so employed it at such
places as the end of the Mont Cenis tunnel. Steel and iron case-
mates are also useful as caponiers for ditch flanking (fig. 55).
Turrets and Cupolas.— The difference between a turret and a
cupola is that the former is cylindrical with a flat or nearly flat
top and presents a vertical target; while the latter is a flattened
^
1 f^l fTL
V^ 1 «Lr~1^ XTT&L £$ ' ^"wr-vac
/'•. •'
/A 1 r
y&
'£•
9nm I rfUagfr Bt ** #p B*hM$**4, by pw sil wio n .
Fig. 55.
7°4
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
dome, the vertical supports of which arc entirely concealed. The
turret appears to be little used. The object of both forms h at
once to give an all-round art of fire to the guns and to allow of
the weak point of the structure, ibe port-hole and muzzle of
the gun, being turned away from the enemy in the intervals of
fifing, Both usually emerge from a mass of concrete, which is
strengthened round the opening by a collar of chilled cast iron
about 11 to 15 in. thick.
There are four types or cupolas* via. (a) Disappearing, (b) Oscillat-
ing, (c) Central pivot, {d) On roller tings.
(a) Disappearing cupolas are used chiefly for small quick-firing
guns, on account of the expense of the various systems, They can
CubqIm*. k* usec ' ^ Qr me d' Unl gun*- The detail* cf the best foreign
_ system* are secret, [h) The oscillating turret is a Mougin
typo, in which the turret is supported, in the centre by a knife-edge
on which it can swing. The oscillation is controlled by powerful
springs. The effect of It is that after firing, the front of the cupola
with the port-hole swings down wards under cover, and is held there
until the gun is ready to fire again, (c) Schumann's centre pivot is
understood to be approved in Gerotany, It has been adopted in
Rumania and Belgium lor how i tier cupolas. It is only suitable for
a single piece; d is strong and steady — the best cupola for coast
batteries; c and d are best for rapid fire because they eon be loaded
without lowering. They are suited for long guns.
The fallowing types are illustrated as being generally representative
Of the different classes of cupola.
Ftg. 56 is a section of Messrs Krupp's typical cupola for one 6-tn.
gun. The shield is of nickel steel, the collar of cau. steel, A small
•pace is left between the cupola and its collar to prevent the po«,i-
bility of the shield jamming after being damaged* The guns are
muzzle-pivoting and thickened out near the muzzle by the addition
of a ring, so as to close the port as much as possible, The recoil is
Controlled within narrow limit* both to economize space and to
prevent the smoke from the muzzle from getting into the cupola.
To facilitate the elevation and depression of the gun (with muxrle
pt votings the breech has of course to be moved through a much larger
arc than with ordinary mountings) it is balanced by a counterweight.
The cupola rests on a roller ring and is traversed by a winch. It can
be turned through a complete circle in about one minute
pram
Fig- 59 shows a disappearing turret for an electric light pet:*?*
Fii;, &° *hows a Krupp transportable cupola for a &-<— : v
This is drawn on a four-wheeled carnage, and when comim b:„
action slides on rollers on to a platform in the para pet. It vrjfss
about 1 \ tons, and with carriage and platform about 4 toss.
'^■^■V^U-
57
Fig. 56.— Cupola for 6-in. gun (Friedr. Krupp A.G.)
._ „. shows a Schumann shielded mortar (sphere-mortar,
Kutdmdrser). In this case it will be observed that the cupola is
replaced by an enlargement of the encircling collar; and the mortar
(8-4-in. calibre) is enclosed in a sphere of cast iron, so as to close
completely the opening of the collar in any position.
Fig. 58 shows a Crusoa cupola for one 47-in. Q.F. howitzer.
FtG. 57. — Gruson Spherical Mortars
Hie mechanism of these cupolas is for the most part simpler *!--»
it appears. Coun trrw eights and hand winches are much in u*- r
the bghter natures of guns. The armouring of course keeps jit*
with improvement* in manufacture. The chilled cast tfoc &■'*
made popular by the Gruson firm is now Utile u*edJ except for kJ
purposes as the collar round a cupola. Wrought iron, sterl i«
compound plates for the tops of cupolas have all been tried, the =■:*
recent Knrpp'Grtjson designs being of nickel steel.
The sighting in some cases may be done by sights on the zun. r. b
suitable enlargements in the j:^ci' -'.
in others by sights affived to the eu^i
itself (which of course can give beratstsi
direction only); in others traimtg w*
elevation are given in accordance ■* -i
the readings on electric dials, or insfcK*
tions by telephone or speaking rd*
There is of course nothing usrt»»ihk
in this in the case of indirect fire p»
and howitzers, for if not firing ir s
cupolas they would be behind the skefctf
of some wood or quarry.
Sch umann's Sy item; U A r m p 1 * ti
Fwmis. M — Lieut* - Colonel Maun^a
Schumann {1 827-1889) of the Pressss
engineers, who took a very procaine^
part in the design and advocacy &
armoured defences, eventually ; &
a system which dispensed entirely •*■
forts and relied on the fire of proiecd
guns. It consists of several line* ut '•
terics for Q.F. guns and bowiLfrr< »
cupolas. He considered that M*cfl ti-
leries would be able to defend thrir -*t
front, and the infantry garrison «> fJt
to be called into action emcept in i 4 *
case of the enemy breaking liuvvi* At
some point or the line.
This system was actually adopted ty
Rumania (16B9-J892) for theScrrthUr*
There are three routes by which W
Russians can enter the country *<"■>-•«
the Sereih river: through Fcfs^tt
Nemolassa and Galatx* These iM
routes are barred by bridge- hrads, iV-e
at Focshani. the most important. 1*^4
on the left bank of the Milkov, a tnoe-
tary of the Screth.
The Focshant works consist of V
batteries arranged on a semicircular front about la m. long sod
from 6000 to 1 0,000 yds. in advance of the bridges. The hitter**
are placed in three lines, which are about 500 yds. apart, and sit
subdivided into groups. The normal group consists of 5 battenes
of which 3 arc in the first line, 1 in the second, and 1 in the th»rd
The first-line batteries each contain five small Q.F. fans in travel**!
JJ^M^-M*
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
MODERN]
cupolas. The second-line batteries, each six smell Q.F. guns in dis-
appearing cupolas. The third-line batteries have one 120-mm. gun
in a cupola, and two 210mm. spherical mortars with Gruson shields.
The immediate defence of the Batteries consists of a glacis planted
with thorn bushes and a wire entanglement.
The fortification of these three bridge-heads are said to have cost
about £1.100,000. But the system of" armoured fronts " is never
likely to be reproduced, having been condemned by all authoritative
continental opinion. Its defects have been summarised by Schroeter
as follows: weakness of artillery at long ranges, want of security
against a surprise ruth, the neglect of the use of infantry in the
defence, and the difficulty of command. This last is the most
705
Ftosa XjUmt's MnHmUgt BtltMgmt.
Fig. 58.— Cupola for 4»r-in. Howitzer.
1 of all. It is indeed difficult to conceive that any one should
expect half-a-dozen expert gunners, each shut up in an Iron box with
a gun, to stop the rush of a thousand men, even by day. But
imagine the feelings of the gunner on the night of a big attack, alone
in his box, bis nerves already strained by a preliminary bombardment
and nights of watching. He hears the sounds of battle all around;
he knows nothing of the progress of the attack, but expects every-
thing, and feels every moment the door of his box being opened and
the bayonet entering his back. No wise- commander would submit
his troops to such a test*
Sir George Clarke and Unarmowei Systems.— Before leaving
the subject of fortresses it is necessary to consider the ideas of
those who, while recognizing the necessity for places permanently
organized for defence, prefer to treat them more from the point
of view of perfected field defences. It is to the credit of English
military science that Sir George Clarke may be taken as the
representative of this school of thought. His study of fortifica-
tion, as he tells us, began with a history of the defenceof Plevna
(q.v.). He was led to compare the resistance made behind . Fig. 6x shows the design.— two rows of casemates, one under
extemporized defences at such places as Sevastopol, Kars and
Plevna, with those at other places fortified in the most complete
manner known to science. From this comparison he drew the
conclusion that the true strength of fortification does not depend
on great masonry works intricately pieced together at vast
expense but on organization, communications and invisibility.
In his X907 edition he says: —
"Future defences will divide themselves naturally into the
following categories: (1) Permanent works wholly constructed in
peace time and forming the key points
of the position. (2) Gun emplacements,
magazines and shelters for men in rear
of the main line, all concrete struc-
tures and platforms to be completed,
though some earthwork may be left
until the position is placed in a state
of defence. (3) Field works, trenches,
&c., guarding the intervals between
the permanent defences in the main
line, or providing rear positions.
These should be deliberately planned
in time of peace ready to be put in
hand at short notice. The essence of
a well-fortified position is that the
weapons of the defender shall obtain
the utmost possible scope of action,
and that those of the attacker shall have the minimum chances of
effecting injury."
Since Sir George Clarke published his first edition in 1 890 conti-
nental ideas have expanded a good deal. The foregoing statement
as to the three categories of defences would be accepted
anywhere now: the differences of opinion come in
when we reach the stage of classifying under the first
head the permanent works to be constructed in peace time.
In most countries these would include forts with guns for the
artillery duel, forts with safety armaments, fixed batteries with
or without armour/ and forts for infantry only. Sir George
Drawn from Olustntko {a Lefthacrt B*tUnHt* JM«tffem#. by p
Fjg. 59.— Disappearing Turret for Searchlight.
Clarke will have no armour for guns except in certain special
cases of barrier forts. Heavy guns and howitzers requiring
permanent emplacements (concrete platforms, &c.) must either
be well concealed or be provided with alternative positions.
The only permanent works which he admits are for infantry.
They are redoubts of simple form intended for 350 or 400 men,
with casemate accommodation for three-fourths of that number.
the front parapet, one under a parados; frontal musketry
defence; obstacle consisting of entanglements, mines, &c,
with or without escarp and counterscarp.
The intervals (he says) between the infantry redoubts may be
, ; but this will necessarily depend upon the con-
formation of the ground. Where there are good artillery positions
about 3500
yds.;
of the 1
falling within the sphere of protection of the redoubts, large intervals
will be permissible. Thus, in the case of an extended line of defence
where the ground offers marked tactical features, the idea of a
continuous chain of permanent works may be abandoned in favour
•
FtG. 6o.«-Transportabfe Cupola for 57-cm. Gun. (fricdr. Krupp A.G.1-
706
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
IMOEOX
u»Y
Sketch plan of a Redoubt
From Str George S. Oukt'tFortifuatUm.bj pennbfeaef JohaMmn*
PlG. 6l.
of groups of redoubts guarding the artillery positions. In this case,
the redoubts in a group might be distributed on a curve bent pack
in approximately horse-shoe form."
The keystones of the close defence of the fighting line in
future will undoubtedly be these infantry redoubts, and therefore
it is of great interest to compare with the above types two
studies put forward by Schroeter {Die Festung in der keuligen
KriegfUkrung), one in his first edition in 1898 (fig. 62), and the
other in the second in 1005 (fig. 63). In both these the defensive
arrangements are merely trenches of field profile with entangle-
ments, the command and the obstacle being less than in Sir
George Clarke's work; and it will be noticed that in the 1005
type, published after the Russo-Japanese War, the plan is much
M
mm.$htitersfor 120 mt* Mci
*• tettlne
€t. St*tryp*ttt
d. Wmhfilace
ft. S**tryp*»ttfortmtA*gltm*mt
Tnm SetaMNr'B Di* Ptttmmg U in ktwtigtn KrUtWnutg. by pamUoo of E. S. Miuler u. Soha.
Fig. 6a.
less simple and arrangements for close flanking defence have bees
introduced. But these works of Schroeter's are merely infantry
supporting points in a line which contains forts of the triang^r
type with guns, and armoured batteries, as well as a very com-
plete arrangement of field defences and communications; while
Sir G. Clarke's redoubts are the only permanent works grvisg
casemate protection in the front line.
The comparative merits of either design for an infantry
redoubt are not of much importance. It is agreed that the
main line of defence must consist of a more or less commons
line of field defences and obstacles, and that at some points
in the line there should be infantry supporting points wiii
bomb-proof protection capable of resisting big sheila. The
open question is, what additional
works, if any, are required for the
artillery, whether for the median
and heavy guns that will take part
in the "artillery duel," or for the
lighter natures that will help ia
the close fight and defence of th*
intervals. Is it best for the defenders
to rely on armoured protection or oa
concealment for his guns?
Official opinion outside England his
certainly sanctioned armour, since aO
over the continent it is to
some extent adopted in
practice. National practice to t
isusuallybasedontheadvice *ZHZ° ZL
of the most distinguished ****'
officers of the day, and therefore it is
unsafe to condemn it hastily. Sir
George Clarke and those who are with
him — and they are many, both inGreat
Britain and abroad — object entirely
to armour. He says (ForiificaHon, ed
1907, p. 06): 'The great advantage
possessed by the attack in all ages
has been the employment of a mobile
artillery against armaments cribbed,
cabined and confined by fortification.
It is necessary to perpetuate this ad-
vantage?" Of course the effect of
long-range weapons, in increasing the
length of front that can be held by
a given force, has given much greater
A.TTACKJ
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
& r ..jQtttk<ttfc'\ti
mtfr.JttHtrgpoit*
Action on CD. SealoofY*ni*r« S#ctk>«CD. zr Section on EF.
*....« y
Fkwn SdoMtcrt W» ftrfwtf lit A* kmUfrnt Kritgjthnmg . by peraiafoc of E. S. Mktkr a. Sohfl.
FlO. 63.
freedom of action to the defence and this should be taken full
advantage of.
The argument as to the vulnerability of shielded guns is
not at present strong. Sir George says (*6, p. 04), " If the high
angle fire ... is ever to find a favourable opportunity, it will
surely be against a cupola, the site of which can generally be
determined with accuracy." On the other hand he says (p. 90),
" During the long and costly experiments carried on at Bucharest
in 1885-1886, 164 rounds were fired from the Krupp ax cm.
mortar at targets of about 40 sq< metres area " (about 430 sq. ft.)
" without obtaining a single hit. The range was 2700 yds.; the
targets were towers built upon a level plain; the shooting
conditions were ideal, and the fall of each shell was telephoned
back to the firing point; but it must have been evident to the
least instructed observer that to attempt to group 6 or 8 shells
on an invisible area 2 metres square would have been absolutely
futile. 1 * These facts are adduced to prove that it is not necessary
to give great thickness to concrete casemates, to resist successive
bursts of shells in the same place; but surely they are equally
applicable to cupolas. Again (p. 252), " The experience gained
at Port Arthur was not altogether encouraging as regards the
use of high angle fire. The Russian vessels in the harbour were
sunk by opening their sea-valves. . . . Fire was subsequently
directed upon them from x x in. howitzers at ranges up to about
7500 yds. This was deliberate practice from siege batteries at
stationary targets; but the effect was distinctly disappointing."
The cupolas therefore can hardly be considered ideal targets;
and the probability is that they would bold their own against
both direct and indirect fire for a long time. There are other
707
and stronger arguments against the
general use of them, all of which are
clearly set forth by Sir George Clarke.
**. . Mt ntrtfv uo m* tHk The worst objections to the cupola
*** -***** 1 '**' ft ***!** are the military disadvantages of
isolation and immobility, and the
multiplication of mechanical arrange-
ments. For a successful round from
a disappearing cupola, the elevating
and traversing arrangements, the
elevating and loading gear of the
gun, and the telephone communica^
tion, must all be in good order. At
night the successful co-operation of
the searchlight is also in many cases'
necessary.
The teaching of history Is all against
immobile mechanical defences. Initi-
ative, surprise, unforeseen offensive
action, keeping the besieger in ignor-
ance of the dispositions of the
garrison, and of what progress he is
making: all these, with their influ-
ence on the morale of both sides, tend
towards successful defences and do
not point towards the use of armour.
It may further be said that the
use of armour as a general rule is un-
necessary, because a concealed battery
is a protected one; and with the long
ranges now usual for heavy guns and
howitzers,there-is not generally much
difficulty about concealment.
In the opinion, however, of the
present writer an exception must be
made for guns intended to flank the
line of defence, which wouM generally
need bomb-proof over-head cover.
Further, when we leave theory and
come to the consideration of actual
problems of defence, it will often be
found that it is necessary to place guns
in certain positions where good con-
cealment cannot be got. In such cases some form of protection
must be given if the guns are to engage the concealed batteries of
the attack.
m. The Attack op Fo*teesses
In considering the history of siegecraft since the introduction
of gunpowder, there are three main lines of development to
follow, via. the gradually increasing power of artillery, the
systematizing of the works of attack, and in recent times
the change that has been brought about by the effect of modern'
small-arm fire.
Cannon appear to have been first used in sieges as* mortars,
to destroy hoardings by throwing round stones and barrels of
burning composition. Early in the 15th century we find cannon
throwing metal balls, not Only against boarding and battlements,
but also to breach the bases of the walls. It was only possible
tor work the guns very slowly, and archers or crossbowmen were
needed in support of them, to drive the defenders from the
crenellations or loopholes of the battlements. At that period
the artillery was used in place of the medieval siege engines and
in much the same manner. The guns of the defence were in-
accurate, and being placed high on the walls were made ineffective
by bad mountings, which did not allow of proper depression.
The besieger therefore could place his guns dose to the walls,
with only the protection of a few large gabions filled with earth,
set up on the ground on either side of the muzzle.
In the course ef the 15th century the power of artillery was
largely increased, so that walls and gates were destroyed by it
in an astonishingly short time. Three results shortly followed.
708
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
IATOC1
The guns of the defence having gained equally in effectiveness,
greater protection was needed for the attack batteries; bastions
and outworks were introduced to keep the besieger at a distance
from the inner walls; and the walls were sunk in ditches so that
they could only be breached by batteries placed on the edge
of the glacis.
Early in the x6th century fortresses were being Tepidly re-
modelled on these lines, and the difficulties of the attack were at
once very much increased. The tendency of the assailants -was
still to make for the curtain, which had always been considered
the weak point; but the besiegers now found that they had to
bring their guns right up to the edge of the ditch before they could
make a breach, andindoing so had to pass over ground which was
covered by the converging fire from the faces of the bastions.
Towards the end of the century the attack of the curtain was
delayed and the cross-fire over the ground in front increased by
the introduction of ravelins.
The slight gabion protection for the siege batteries was at
first replaced by strong timber shelters. These were found in-
adequate; but a still greater difficulty was that of bringing up the
siege guns to their positions, emplacihg them and maintaining
communication with them under fire. In addition to this, the
guns of the defence until they could be overpowered (a slow '
process) dominated a wide belt of ground in front of the fortress;
and unless the besiegers could find some means of maintaining
a strong guard close to their batteries these- were liable to be
destroyed by sorties from the covered way.
Gradually the whole problem of siege work centred round the
artillery. The besiegers found that they had first to bring up
enough guns to overpower those of the defence; then
£**£**** to advance their guns to positions from which they
y mjbmjtt could breach the walls; and throughout these opera-
tions to protect them against sorties. Breaches once
made, the assault could follow on the old lines.
The natural solution of the difficulty of approach to the
battery positions was the use of trenches. The Turks were the
first to make systematic use of them, having probably inherited
the idea from the Eastern Empire. The soldiers of Christendom,
however, strongly disliked digging, and at t first great leaders like
Bayard and Montluc had themselves to use pick and shovel, to
give their men an example. In due course the necessity of the
trenches was recognized, but the soldiers never took kindly to
them, and the difficulty was dealt with in a manner reminiscent
of the feudal ages, by impressing large bodies of peasantry as
workmen whenever a siege was in contemplation.
Through the x6th and most of the 17th century, therefore,
we find the attack being conducted by means of trenches leading
to the batteries, and supported by redoubts often called " places
of arms " also made by trench work. During this period the
result of a siege was always doubtful. Both trenches and
batteries were arranged more or less at haphazard without any
definite plan; and naturally it often happened that offensive
action by the besieged against the trenches would disorder the
attack and at times delay it indefinitely. Fig. 64, taken from a
late 17th-century print by de Fer of Paris, gives a good idea of
the general practice of that day when Vauban's methods were
not yet generally known.
Another weak point about the attack was that after the
escarp walls had been strengthened to resist artillery fire as has
been described, there was no clear idea as to how they should
be breached. The usual process was merely an mdiscriininate
pounding from batteries established on the crest of the glads.
Thus there were cases of sieges being abandoned after they had
been carried as far as the attempt to breach.
It is in no way strange that this want of method should have
characterized the attack for two centuries after artillery had
begun to assert its power. At the outset many new ideas had
to be assimilated. Guns were gradually growing in power;
sieges were conducted under all sorts of conditions, sometimes
against medieval castles, sometimes against various and widely-
differing examples of the new fortification; and the military
systems of the time were not favourable to the evolution of
method. It is the special feature of Vauban's practical ged*
for siege warfare that he introduced order into this chaos iad
made the issue of a siege,under normal conditions, a mere maita
of time, usually a very short time.
The whole of Vauban's teaching and practice cannot be
condensed into the limits of this article, but special rdeseoce
must be made to several points. The most important
of these is his general arrangement of the attack. m
The ultimate object of the attack works was to make
a breach for the assaulting columns. To do this it was necessary
to establish breaching batteries on the crest of the glads; uc
before this could be done it was necessary to overpower the
enemy's artillery. This preliminary operation is nowada;^
called the "artillery duel." In Vauban's day the effective
range of guns was 600 to 700 yds. He tells us that it was cus-
tomary to establish batteries at xooo yds. from the place, bu
Fig. 64.— Siege-works of the 17th century.
that at that range they did little more than make a great deal
of noise. The first object of the attack, therefore, after the
preliminary operations of investment, &c, had been completed,
was to establish batteries within 600 or 700 yds. of the place,
to counter-batter or enfilade all the faces bearing on the frost
of attack; and to protect these batteries against sorties. After
the artillery of the defences had been subdued— if it could cot
be absolutely silenced— it was necessary to push trenches to
the front so that guns might be conveyed to the breachinj
positions and emplaced there in batteries. Throughout these
processes it was necessary to protect the working parties and the
batteries against sorties.
For this purpose Vauban devised the Places fames or lig*s
paraUeks. He tells us that they were first used in 1673^ the
siege of Maestricht, where he conducted the attack, and which
was captured in thirteen days after the opening of the trenches.
The object of these parallels was to provide successive positions
for the guard of the trenches, where they could be at hand to
repel sorties. The latter were most commonly directed against
the trenches and batteries, to destroy them and drive out the
working parties. The most vulnerable points were the heads
of the approach trenches. It was necessary, therefore, that the
guard of the trenches should be in a position to reach the beads
of the approaches more quickly than the besieged could do so
from the covered way. This was provided for as follows.
The first parallel was usually established at about 600 yds.
from the place, this being considered the limiting range of actios
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGEGRAFT
tsck.
TTACK]
a sortie. The parallel was a trench 12 to 15 ft wide and 3 ft.
rep, the excavated earth being thrown forward to make a
irapct 3 or 4 ft. high. In front of the first parallel and close
it were placed the batteries of the " first artillery position."
While these batteries were engaged in silencing the enemy's
tillery, for which purpose most of them were placed in pro-
longation of the faces of the fortress so as to enfilade
them, the " Approach Trenches " were being pushed
forward. The normal attack included a couple of
istions and the ravelin between, with such faces of the fortress
. could support them; and the approach trenches (usually
rce sets) were directed on the capitals of the bastions and
velin, advancing in a zigzag so arranged that the prolongations
the trenches always fell clear of the fortress and could not be
1 Waded.
Fig. 65, taken from Vauban's Attack and Defence of Places,
iowb clearly the arrangement of trenches and batteries.
After the approach trenches had been carried forward nearly
tlf-way to the most advanced points of the covered way, the
second parallel " was constructed, and again the approach trenches
?re pushed forward. Midway between the second parallel and the
ivered way, short branches called Demi-parallels were thrown out
cither flank of the attacks: and finally at the foot of the glacis
.me the third parallel. Thus there was always a secure position
r a sufficient guard of the trenches. Upon an alarm the working
1 r ties could fan back and the guard would advance.
Trenches were either made by common trenckwork, ftyint trench'
yrk or sap. In the first two a considerable length of trench was
xavated at one time by a large working party extended along the
ench: flying trenchwork (formerly known as flying sap) being
stinguished from common trenchwork by the use of gabions, by
ie help of which protection could be more quickly obtained. Both
tesc kinds of trenchwork were commenced: at night, the position
the trench having been previously marked out by tape. The
tasks " or quantities of earth to be excavated by each man were
709
trench 1 ft. 6 in. wide and deep. To protect the head of the trench
he had a shield on wheels, under cover of which he placed the
gabions inposition one after another as the sap-head pro- smmtOa*
gressed. Other men following strengthened the parapet *waf»
with fascines, and increased the trench to a depth of 3 ft., and a
width of 1 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. Fig. 66, taken from vauban's treatise on
the attack, shows the process clearly. The sap after being completed
to this extent could be widened at leisure to ordinary trench
dimensions by infantry working parties.
> calculated that by daybreak the trench would afford a fair amount
f cover. Flying trenchwork was generally used for the and parallel
id its approaches, and as far beyond il as possible. In proportion
> the attack drew nearer to the covered way, the fire of the defenders'
nail-arms and wall-pieces naturally grew more effective, though
y this time most of their artillery would have been dismounted
y the fire of the siege batteries. It therefore became n ecessar y
1 fore reaching the 3rd parallel 10 have recourse to sap.
Sapping required trained men. It consisted in gradually pushing
>rward the end of a narrow trench in the desired direction. At the
ip-head was a squad of sappers. The leading man excavated a.
Fie. 66.— Sapping (Vauban).
As the work at the sap-head was very dangerous, Vauban encouraged
his sappers by paying them on the spot at piecework rates, which
increased rapidly in proportion to the risk. He thus stimulated all
concerned to do their best, and reckoned that under average con-
ditions he could depend on a
rate of progress for an ordinary
sap of about 50 yds. in 24
hours.
It is interesting to compare
the more recent method of
sapping with that above de-
scribed (fig. 67 taken from the
Instruction in Military Engin-
oerint, 1896). It b no longer
possible to place gabions in
position at the sap-head
under fire. Accordingly the
leading sapper excavates to the
full depth of 4 ft. 6 in,, and
the rate of progress is retarded
proportionately, so that an
advance of only 15 to 30 yds.
in 24 hours can be reckoned
on instead of 5a The head
of the sap is protected by a
number of half -filled sandbags,
which the leading sapper
throws forward as he goes on.
The nearer the approaches
drew to the covered way, the
more oblique became the zig-
zags, so that little forward
progress was made in propor-
tion to the length of the trench.
The approaches were then
carried straight to the front,
by means of the "double
sap," which consisted of two
single saps worked together
with a parapet on each side
Fie. 65.— Regular Attack (Vauban). f nfm being enfila'ded'from the
front, traverses had to be left
at intervals, usually by turning the two saps at right angles to right
or left for a few feet, then forward, and so on as shown in fig. 69,
the distance apart of these traverses being of course regulated by
the height from which the enemy's fire commanded the trench.
The later stages in the attack are illustrated in fig. 70. From
the third parallel the attack was pushed forward up the glacis
by means of the double sap. It was then pushed right and
left along the glacis, a lit\lc distance from the crest of the
covered way. This was called " crowning " the covered way.
7io
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
and on the position thus gained breaching batteries were estab-
lished in full view of the escarp. While the escarp was being
breached, if it was intended to use a systematic attack
J ,-tor f throughout, a mine gallery (see Mining below) was
tbfStMck. driven under the covered way and an opening made
through the counterscarp into the ditch. The sap was
then pushed across the ditch, and if necessary up the breach, the
defenders' resistance being kept under by musketry and artillery
fire from the covered way. The ravelin and bastions were thus
captured successively, and where the bastions had been re-
trenched the same methods were used against the retrenchment.
Vauban showed bow to breach the escarp with the least
expenditure of ammunition. This was done by making, with
successive shots placed close together (which was feasible even
in those days from a position so close as the crest of the covered
way) horizontal and vertical cuts through the revetment wall.
The portion of revetment enclosed by the cuts being thus
detached from support was overturned by the pressure of the
Pram Mltiury EtgUwmius, by perramioo of the Controller of H. M. Stationery
Office.
Fig. 67.—" Deep " Sap.
earth from the rampart. Ricochet fire was also the invention
of Vauban. He showed how, in enfilading the face of a work,
by using greatly reduced charges a shot could be made to drop
over the crest of the parapet and skim along the terreplein,
dismounting guns and killing men as it went.
The constant success of Vauban must be ascribed to method
and thorough organization. There was a deadly certainty
about his system that gave rise to the saying " Place
assiegee, place prise." He left nothing to chance,
pHmdphB and preferred as a rule the slow and certain progress
of defence. £ ^pg j^nj^ ^ fitch ^j up the breach to the loss
and delay that might follow an unsuccessful assault. His con-
temporary and nearest rival Coehoorn tried to shorten sieges
by heavy artillery fire and attacks across the open; but in the
long run his sieges were slower than Vauban's.
So much a matter of form did the attack become under these
conditions, that in comparing the supposed defensive powers
of different systems of fortification it was usual to calculate the
number of days that would be required in each case before the
breach was opened, the time being measured by the number of
hours of work required for the construction of the various
trenches and batteries. It began to be taken as a matter of
course that no place under any circumstances could hold out
more than a given number of days; and naturally, when the
whole question had become one of formula, it is not surprising
to find that places were very often surrendered without more
than a perfunctory show of resistance.
The theory of defence at this time appeared to be that since
it was impossible to arrest the now methodical and protected
progress of the besiegers' trenches, no real resistance was possible
until after they had reached the covered way, and this idea is
at the root of the extraordinary complications of outworks
and multiplied lines of ramparts that characterized the "systems"
of this period. No doubt if a successor to Vauban could have
zmMmmgsmm
Fxc. 68.— Double Sap.
fATTAd
brought the same genius to bear on the actual defence d phca
as he did on the attack, he would have discovered that ut
essence of successful defence lay in offensive action outside tk
body of the place, viz. with trench against trench. For via
of such a man the engineers of the defence resigned themsehQ
contentedly to the loss of the open ground outside their v&.
and relied cither upon
successive permanent lines
of defence, or if these did
not exist, upon extem-
porized retrenchments,
usually at the gorge of the j
bastion.
It is curious that such
experienced soldiers as
most of them were should
not have realized the fatal
effect upon the minds of
the defenders which this
almost passive abandon-
ment of line after line
must needs produce. Even
a civilian — Machiavelli —
had seen into the truth
of the matter years before
when he said (Treatise on
the Art of War, Book vii.):
"And here I ought to
give an advice ... to
those who are construct-
ing a fortress, and that
is, not to establish within its circuit fortifications which mj
serve as a retreat to troops who have been driven back fata
the first line. ... I maintain that there is no greater danger
for a fortress than rear fortifications whither troops can msc
in case of a reverse; for once the soldier knows that he basi
secure retreat after he has abandoned the first post, he docs
in fact abandon it and so causes the loss of the entire fortress."
It must, however, be remembered that in those days wfca
soldiers were mostly of a separate or professional caste, tk
whole thing had become a matter of business. Fighting w
so much regulated by the laws and customs of war that wa
thought nothing of giving up a place if, according to acceptd
opinion, the enemy had advanced so far that they could do
longer hope to defend it successfully. Once this idea had set
in it became hopeless to expect successful defences, save not
and then when
some officer of
very unusual re-
solution was in
command. This
is the real reason
for the feeble re-
sistance so often
made by fortresses
in the 17th and
18th centuries,
which has been
attributed to in-
herent weakness
in fortifications.
Custom exacted that a commandant should not 4,1 ve Up a place
until there was an open breach or, perhaps, until he had stood it
least one assault. Even Napoleon recognized this hmitatk*
of the powers of the defence when in the later years of his retga
he was trying to impress upon his governors the importance d
their charge. The limitation was perfectly unnecessary, to
history at that time could have afforded plenty of instances d
places that had been successfully defended for many mootis
after breaches were opened, and assault after assault repulsed
on the same breach. But the same soldiers of the iyth *sd
iSth centuries who had created this artificial condition of affairs.
Fig. 69.— Direct advance by Double Sap.
ITTACIQ
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
7"
stablished it by making it an understood thing that a garrison
rhich surrendered without giving too much trouble after a
>reach had been opened should have honourable consideration;
vbile if they put the besiegers to the pains of storming the breach,
hey were liable to be put to the sword.
It has been necessary to dwell at some length on the siegecraft
>f Vauban and his time, not merely for its historical interest,
, tmm but because the system he introduced was practically
rilrv^ unaltered until the end of the xoth century. The
sieges of the Peninsular War were conducted on his
ines; so was that of Antwerp in 1830; and as far as the disposi-
ion of siege trenches was concerned, the same system remained
n the Crimea, the Franco-German War and the Russo-Turkish
Var. The sieges in the Napoleonic wars were few, except in the
berian peninsula. These last differed from those of the Vauban
teriod and the 18th century in this, that instead of being dclibcr-
iely undertaken with ample means, against fortresses that
nswered to the requirements of the time, they were attempted
Fig. 70.— Later Stages of the Attack (Vauban).
nth inadequate forces and materials, against out-of-date
rorks. The fortresses that Wellington besieged in Spain had
udimentary outworks, and escarps that could be seen and
(reached from a distance. At that time, though the power of
mall arms had increased very slightly since the last century,
here had been a distinct improvement in artillery, so that it
iras possible to breach a visible revetment at ranges from 500
o 1000 yds. Wellington was very badly off for engineers,
iege artillery and material. Trench works could only be carried
•ut on a small scale and slowly. Time being usually of great
mportance, as in the first two sieges of Badajoz, his technical
dvisers endeavoured to shorten sieges by breaching the escarp
rom a distance — a new departure — and launching assaults
rom trenches that had not reached the covered way. Under
hese circumstances the direct attacks on breaches failed several
imes, with great loss of life. Wellington in one or two earlier
lespatches reflected on his engineers for not establishing their
>atteries on the crest of the glacis. The failures are, however,
learly due to attempts to push sieges to a conclusion without
iroper preparation.
So much has been written of late years in criticism of the fortifica-
ion to what may be called the Vauban period that it is important
o note what were the preparations considered necessary for a siege
at that time (Journals of Sieges in Spam, 1811 to 1814). Sir John
Jones summarizes his own experience m Spain and the data accumu-
lated by practical engineers in former sieges from the time of
Vauban onwards, in the following conclusions: The actual work
of entrenching, sapping, Ac., on the front attacked was much the
same whether the fortress contained 5000 or 10,000 men. On the
other hand the guard of the trenches was proportionate to the fighting
men inside the fortress. (The tout number of men had of course to
be sufficient to allow three or four complete shifts or " reliefs " for all
work and duties.) Adding a proportion of men for camp and other
duties, he calculates, for the vigorous siege of an ordinary place
situated in open country and containing 5000 men, a corps of 32,080
effectives, and remarks further that this force would be greatly
exhausted after a month's service. The same place held by 10,000
would call for a besieging army of 50,830 men (guards and duties
increasing, but not working parties). Thus the besieger should ii
possible have a superiority of 7 to 1 if the garrison numbered 5000,
6 to 1 if 10,000 and 5 to 1 if 15,000 and so on. As regards artillery,
he should have as many, and if possible twice as many, guns as those
of the defender on the front of attack, as well as howitters for sweep-
ing every line subject to enfilade and mortars for destroying traverses,
&c. Later in the siege, more howitzers and mortars to clear the
covered way and places of
arms, and finally, after the
covering of the covered way,
fifty additional battering guns
would be required. It is
apparent from this that the
Kractical engineers of the day
mked upon a siege as a seri-
ous matter, and did not find
permanent fortifications want*
ing in defensive strength.
During the long peace that
followed the Napoleonic
wars, one advance
was made in siege-
craft. In England in 1824
successful experiments were
carried out in breaching an
unseen wall by curved or
indirect fire from howitzers.
At Antwerp in 1830 the in-
creasing power and range
of artillery, and especially
of howitzers, were used for
bombarding purposes, the
breaches there being mostly
made by mines. Then came
one of the world's great
sieges; that of Sevastopol
in 1854-1855 (see Crimeah
War). The outstanding
lesson of Sevastopol is the
value of an active defence;
of going out to meet the besieger, with countertrench and
countermine. This lesson has increased in value for us in pro-
portion to the increased power of the rifle.
In comparing the resistance made behind the earthworks of
Sevastopol with the recorded defences of permanent works, it is
essential to remember that the conditions there were quite abnormal.
Sir John Jones has told us what the relative forces of besiegers and
besieged should be, and the necessary preponderance of artillery
for the attack. The following quotations may be added :
•' The siege corps should be sufficiently strong — (1) To invest the
fortress completely, and maintain the investment against all the
efforts of the garrison. (2) If a regular siege is contemplated, to
execute and guard all the siege works required for it. Complete
investment may sometimes be impossible, but experience has
repeatedly shown that the difficulties of a siege are enormously
increased if the garrison are able to draw fresh troops and supplies
from outside, and to rid themselves of their sick and Wounded "
(Lewis). Again as regards artillery: "Ina regular attack, where
every point is gained inch by inch, it is impossible to succeed without
overpowering the defensive artillery *'; and '* it is useless to attempt
to sap near a place till its artillery fire is subdued ..." (Jones).
These conditions were so far from being fulfilled at Sevastopol
that (a) there was no investment— in fact the Russians came nearer
to investing the Allies; (b) the Russians had the preponderance in
guns almost throughout; (c) the Russian force in and about
Sevastopol was numerically superior to that of the Allies. We must
add to this that Todlcben had been able to get rid ol most of his
712
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
valid
civilian population, and those who remained were chiefly dockyard
workmen, able to give most valuable assistance on the defence works.
The circumstances were therefore exceptionally favourable to an
active defence. The weak point about the extemporised earthworks,
which eventually led to the fall of the place, was the want of good
bomb-proof cover near the parapets.
The Franco-German War of 1870 produced no great novelty.
The Germans were not anxious to undertake siege operations
when it could be avoided. In several cases minor
fortresses surrendered after a slight bombardment.
Wtt. In others, after the bombardment failed, the Germans
contented themselves with establishing a blockade or
detaching a small observing force. By far the most interesting
siege was that of Belfort (q.v.). Here Colonel Denfert-Rochereau
employed the active defence so successfully by extemporizing
detached redoubts and fortifying outlying villages, that he
obliged the besiegers (who, however, were a small force at first)
to take up an investing line 25 m. long; and succeeded in holding
the village of Danjoutin, 2000 yds. in advance of the enceinte,
for two months after the siege began. He also used indirect fire,
withdrawing guns from the ramparts and placing them in the
ditches, in the open spaces of the town, &c. At Paris the French
found great advantage in placing batteries in inconspicuous
positions outside the forts. Their direct fire guns were at a
disadvantage in being fired through embrasures. These had
served their purpose when artillery fire was very inaccurate,
but had now for a long time been recognised by the best engineers
as out of date. The Germans since the siege of Dtippcl in 1864
had mounted their siege guns on " overbank " carriages; that
is, high carriages which made it possible to fire the guns over the
parapet of the battery without embrasures. The guns in the
Paris forts which were further handicapped by conspicuous
parapets and the bad shooting of the gunners were easily
silenced.
At Strassburg indirect fire against escarps was used. The
escarp of Lunette 53 was successfully breached by this method.
The breaching battery was 870 yds. distant, and the shot struck
the face of the wall at an angle (horizontally) of 55 , the effect
being observed and reported from the counterscarp. 1000 rounds
from 60-pounder guns sufficed to make a breach 30 yds. wide.
Fig. 71 is a good example of the attack in the late stages. It will
be observed that batteries for mortars and field guns are established in
the captured lunettes. The narrow wet ditch of Lunette 53 was
crossed by a dam of earth and fascines, the headway protected by a
parapet or screen of sandbags.
" Lunette 52 was unrevetted, and its ditch was more than 60 yds.
wide, and 6 to 9 ft. deep. ... It was determined to effect the
passage by a cask bridge, for which the casks were furnished by
breweries near at hand. . . . The formation of the bridge was begun
at nightfall. A pioneer swam across, hauled over a cable, and made
it fast to the hedge on the rx-rm. Four men were stationed in the
water, close to the covered way, the casks were rolled down to them
one after the other, and fitted with saddles, so as to form piers . . .
these piers were successively boomed out along the line of the cable.
... In two hours the bndgc was finished, and the lunette was
entered. . . . The work had not been discovered by the besieged,
and the formation of lodgments inside the lunette was already begun,
when fhe noise made by some troops in passing the bridge attracted
attention, and drew a fire which cost the besiegers about 50 men.
A dam was afterwards substituted for the bridge, as it was repeatedly
struck by shells." (R.E. Professional Papers, vol. xix.)
It is curious to realize that this happened at so recent a time.
Such operations would be impossible now, as bug as any defending
guns remained in action.
On the whole it may be said that siegecraf t gained practically
nothing from the Franco-German War. The Ru&so-Turkish
war taught less, Plevna (q.v.) having been defended
__ by fic ^ d wor ^ tI an ^ attacked by the old-fashioned
Un* methods. For the last ten years of the 19th century
military opinion was quite at a loss as to how the
sieges of the future would work out. As guns and projectiles
continued to improve the " attaque brusquee " proposed by von
Sauer had many adherents. It was thought that a heavy
bombardment would paralyse resistance and open the way for
an attack, to be delivered by great numbers and with special
appliances for crossing obstacles. Others thought that the
Strength of the defence, as manifested by the Plevna field works,
would be greater than ever' when the field works were backed sy
permanent works, good communications and the reaourcesd 1
fortress. One thing was obvious—namely, that as long as tk
artillery of the place, of even the smallest calibres, renuiasi
unsubdued, the difficulty of trenchwock and sapping weakl be
enormously increased, and no one seemed to have formed a den
conception of how that difficulty was to be met. A kcrsa
delivered in Germany about 1895 is worth quoting as a irr
example of the vagueness of idea then prevailing: " For tk
attack, the following is the actual procedure: Accumulation tad
preparation of material for attack before the fortress: advasa
of attacking artillery, covered by infantry. Artillery dad
Throwing forward of infantry: destruction of the capaKfe?
for defence of the position attacked; when possible by ksf-
Office.
Fxc. 71.— Strassburg, Lunettes 52 and 53, 1870.
range artillery fire, otherwise by the aid of the engineers. Oces-
pation of the defensive position. Assault on the inner lines
of the fortress. 1 ' That seemed quite a simple prescription, bet
the necessary drugs were wanting. And even since Port Arihcr
great uncertainty as to the future of the attack remains.
Modern artillery has much simplified the construction of aSes?
batteries. Formerly siege batteries and rampart batteries oppose-.*
each other with direct fire at ranges not too long for the ucaiord
human eye, and the shells, travelling with low velocity, bit into tk
parapets, and, exploding, produced their full effect. Acc os Uu is *
the task of the gunners was, by accurate fire, to destroy the paxaprc.
and embrasures, and to dismount the guns. The parapets of s*s*
batteries were therefore made from 18 to 30 ft. thick, and the ob-
struction of such batteries, with traverses, Sac, involved much wool
The height of parapet necessary for proper protection being 7 ft
6 in. to 8 ft., a great deal of labour could be saved by sinking tu
gun-platforms about 4 ft. below the surface level, but of coarse ua
was only possible where rock or water were not near the surface.
The effect of modern projectiles was to reduce the thickness d
earth necessary for parapets. High velocity projectiles are ver*
easily deflected upwards by even a slight bank ot earth. This a
ATTACK]
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
7'3
especially ike case with sand. Loose earth is better than compacted
earth, and day offers the least resistance to penetration. These
facts were taken note of in England more than on the Continent in
the design of instructional siege batteries.
The construction of batteries is moreover vastly simplified by the
long ranges at which artillery will fight in future. It will as a rule
be possible to place howitzer batteries in such positions that even
From balloons it will be difficult to locate them; and even direct fire
batteries can easily be screened from view. This renders parapets
unnecessary, and probably no more .protection will be used than light
»plinter-proof screens to stop shrapnel bullets or fragments of
:ommon shell. Moreover batteries can be constructed at leisure
and by daylight.
The most important point about the modern battery is the gun
platform for the larger natures of guns and howitzers. These require
very solid construction to resist the heavy shock of discharge. Not
long ago it was thought that the defence would have larger ordnance
than the attack, as anything heavier than an 8 in. howitzer required
1 concrete bed, which could not be made at short notice. The
Japanese, however, at Port Arthur made concrete platforms for 1 1 in.
howitzers. It may be remarked that difficulties which loom largely
in peace are often overcome easily enough under the stress of war.
Another gain to the attack is in connexion with magazines. The
}ld powder magazines were particularly dangerous adjuncts to
lotteries, and had to be very carefully bomb-proofed. # Such pro-
pellants as cordite, however, are comparatively harmless in the open.
They are very difficult to detonate, and if set on fire do not explode
ike gunpowder. It is therefore unnecessary to provide bomb-proof
magazines for them in connexion with the batteries.
In future sieges the question of supply will be more important
than it has ever been. Leaving out of the question the bringing up
•A supplies from the base of operations, the task of distribution at
the front is a very large one. The Paris siege manoeuvres of 1894
furnish some instructive data on this point. The main siege park
was at Meaux, 10 m. from the 1st artillery position, and the average
distance from the 1st artillery position to the principal fort attacked
was 5000 yds. The front of attack on Fort Vaujours and its collateral
batteries covered 10,000 yds. There were 24 batteries in the 1st
irtillcry position; say 100 guns, spread over a front of 4000 yds.
To connect Meaux with the front, the French laid some 30 m. of
narrow gauge railway largely along existing roads. The line was
single, with numerous branches and sidings. They ran tl regular
trains to the front daily and half-a-dozcn supplementary. The
amount of artillery material sent up was over $000 tons, without
any projectiles; but it can easily be imagined that large demands
were also made on transport for other purposes. For instance, one
complete bakery train was sent up daily. The amount of ammuni-
tion sent up would be limited only by the power of transporting it.
A siege train of 100 pieces could probably dispose of from 500 to
1000 tons of ammunition a day, at the maximum rate of firing.
But the most important question affecting the sieges of the future
(putting aside accidental circumstances) win be the configuration of
the ground. Assuming that local conditions do not specially favour
the artillery of either side, it is highly probable that the artillery
duel will result in a deadlock. If the besiegers' guns do not succeed
in silencing those of the defence from the 1st or distant artillery
position (which, whether they arc in cupolas or in concealed positions,
will in any case be an extremely difficult task), it will be necessary
for the infantry to press in; to feel for weak points, and to fight
for those that offer better positions for fire and observation. In
doing this they will have to face the defenders' infantry, entrenched,
backed by their unsilenced guns, and having secure places of assembly
from which to deliver counter-attacks. The distance to which they
can work forward and establish themselves under these conditions
will depend on the ground. It will then be for the engineers to
cross the remaining space by sap. This, under present conditions,
will be a tedious process, and may even take long enough to cause
the failure of the siege.
As to the manner of the sap, it will certainly be " deep," as long
as the defence retains any artillery power. When the 4 it. 6 in. sap
already described was first introduced, it was known as a "deep sap ' ;
but the sieges of the future wilt probably necessitate a true deep
sap, that is one in which the whole of the necessary cover is got
below the surface of the earth.
Such a sap may consist of an open trench, about 6 ft. deep, the
whole of the excavated earth being carried away through the trench
to the rear; or a blinded trench, covered in as it progresses by
splinter-proof timbers and earth; or a tunnelled trench, leaving a
foot or so of surface earth undisturbed. In cither case nothing should
be visible from the front to attract artillery fire. As the sap is
completed, it will sometimes be necessary to add a slight parapet
in places, to give command over the foreground for the rifles of the
guard of the trenches.
The sap will have to be pushed up quite close to the defenders'
trenches and obstacles. After that further progress must either be
made by mining, or as seems very probable, by getting the better
of the defenders in a contest with shells from short-range mortars.
Just as in the feudal ages a castle was built on some solitary
eminence which lent itself to the defensive methods of the time, so
in the future the detached forts and supporting points in the girdle
of a fortress will be sited where smooth and gentle slopes of ground
give the utmost opportunity to the defenders' fire, and the least
chance of concealment to the enemy. There will be considerable
latitude of choice in the defensive positions; though not, of course,
the same latitude as when the existence of a precipitous hill was the
raison d'itre of the castle. In some places, as at Port Arthur, the
whole country-side may by reason of its steep and broken slopes be
unfavourable to the defence, though even then genius will turn the
difficulties to account. But wherever it is possible the defender will
Erovide for a space of 1000 yds. or so, swept by fire and illuminated
y searchlights, in front of his lines. That space will have to be
crossed by sap, and it needs little imagination to realize how great
the task will be for the besieger.
There are other modern methods of siege warfare to be noticed,
the use of which is common to besiegers and besieged. Much is
expected of balloons; but the use of these in war is unlikely to
correspond to peace expectations. They must be kept at a consider-
able distance from the enemy's guns, a distance which will increase
as the means of range-finding improve; and as the height from which
they can observe usefully is limited, so is the observers' power to
search out hidden objects behind vertical screens. Thus, suppose a
captive balloon at a height of 2000 ft., and distant 4000 yds. from
an enemy's howitzer battery: and suppose the battery placed
behind a steep hill-side or a grove of trees, at such a distance that a
shell fired with 30* elevation can just clear this screen. The line of
sight from the observer to the battery is inclined to the horizontal
at » X 40oo ' that is 1, or roughly io°. It is obvious, therefore, that
the observer cannot see the battery.
Balloon observers are expected to assist the batteries by marking
the effects of their fire. For this to be done on any practical scale
a balloon would be required for each battery: that is, for only too
guns, some 20 or 25 balloons. These would require an equal number
of highly skilled observers (of whom there are not too many in
existence), besides the other balloon personnel and accessories, and
the means of making gas, which is too much to expect, even if an
enemy were obliging enough to give notice of his intentions'.
Telephones and all other means of transmitting intelligence rapidly
are now of the utmost importance to both attack and defence. Maps
marked with numbered squares arc necessary for directing artillery
fire, especially from cupolas. Organization in every branch will give
better results than ever before, and the question of communication
and transport from the base of supplies right up to the front needs
detailed study, in view of the great weight of ammunition and
supplies that will have to be handled.
The use of light mortars for the trenches, introduced by Coehoorn
and revived with extemporized means at Port Arthur, needs great
attention. It may be prophesied that the issue of important sieges
in the future, when skilfully conducted on both sides with sufficient
resources, will depend mainly on the energy of the defenders in
trench work, on mining and countermining in connexion with the
trenches, and on the use of light mortars made to throw large charges
of high explosive for short distances with great accuracy.
For a brief narrative of the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, one of
the greatest sieges of history, both as regards its epic interest and its
military importance, the reader is referred to the article Russo-
Japanese War.
Definitions.— The following definitions may be useful, but have
no place in the evolution of the attack, to which this section is
mainly devoted.
Investment. — This most necessary, almost indispensable operation
of every siege consists in surrounding the fortress about to be be-
sieged, so as to cut off its communications with the outside world.
Preliminary investment which is carried out by cavalry and light
troops before the arrival of the besieging force, consists in closing
the roads so as to shut out supplies and reinforcements. Close
investment should be of such a character as to prevent any sort of
communication, even by single messengers or spies. The term
" blockade " is sometimes loosely used instead of investment.
Lines of CircumvaJlation and Contravatlation. — These now obsolete
terms were in great use until the 19th century. The circumvaUatiom
was a line of parapet which the besieger made outside the investing
position of his own force, to protect it when there was a chance of
attack by a relieving army. The line of contravatlation was the line
of parapet and trench sometimes made by the besieger all round the
town he was attacking, to check the sorties of the garrison.
Observing Force. — When circumstances make the reduction of a
particular fortress in the theatre of operations unnecessary a force
is often detached to " observe " it. The duty of this force will be
to watch the garrison and prevent any hostile action such as raids
on the lines of communications.
Bombardment. — This operation, .common to all ages, consists in ft
general (sometimes an indiscriminate) fire against either the whole
target offered by the fortress or a particular section of that target.
In ancient and medieval times the effect of a bombardment — whether
of ordinary missiles, of incendiary projectiles, or of poisonous matters
tending to breed pestilence — upon a population closely crowded
within its walls was very powerful. In tne present day little military
importance is attached to bombardment, since under modern
conditions it cannot do much real harm.
7 14
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
mnnsc
IV. Military Mining
It has been noted already that mining is one of the most ancient
resources of siege warfare. The use of gunpowder in mining
operations dates from the end of the 15th century. When
Shakespeare makes Flucllcn say, at Henry V.'s siege of Harfleur,
" th'athversaryisdigt himself four yardsunderthe countermines;
I think 'a will plow up all, if there is not better directions,"
he is anticipating the development of siegecraft by nearly 100
years. Pedro di Navarro, a Spanish officer, is credited with the
first practical use of explosive mines. He employed them with
great success at the siege of Naples in 1503; and afterwards,
when rebuilding the Castello Nuovo after the siege, was probably
the first to make permanent provision for their use in counter-
mines. Countermining had been a measure of defence against
the earlier methods of attack-mining; the object being to break
into the besiegers' galleries and fight hand to hand for the posses-
sion of them. When the explosive mine was introduced, it
became the object of the defenders to establish their counter-
mines near the besiegers' galleries and destroy them by the effect
of the explosion. In the 400 years or so that have passed this
branch of warfare has changed less than any other. Methods of
mining have not advanced much, and the increased power
of high explosives as compared with gunpowder has its least
advantage in moving masses of earth.
When a besieger has arrived by means of trenches within a
certain distance of the enemy's works without having subdued
their fire, he may find that the advance by sap becomes too slow
and too dangerous. He can then advance underground by means
of mine galleries, and by exploding large charges at the heads of
these galleries can make a series of craters. These craters are
then occupied by infantry, and arc connected with each other
and with the parallel in rear by trenches, thus forming a new
parallel. If not interfered with by the defenders the besieger
can advance in this way until he reaches the counterscarp.
His mines will now be turned to a new purpose, viz. to breach the
counterscarp and afterwards the escarp. This is done by
placing suitable charges at intervals behind the scarps at such a
height above the foundations that the pressure of the earth above
the mine will more than counterbalance the resistance of the
masonry.
But if the defenders are active, they will countermine. There
is as a general rule this broad difference between the mines of
the defence and those of the attack, that the defenders
Mima ma4 ( j not ^^ ^ sur f ace f ^ ground broken, lest
increased opportunities of getting cover should be
offered to the besiegers. The object of the defence,
therefore, is to destroy the besiegers' galleries without forming
craters, and for this purpose they generally endeavour to get
underneath the attack galleries. The defenders may, however,
wish, if the opportunity is allowed them, to explode mines under
the attack parallels, in which case there is of course no objection
to disturbing the surface.
" At the commencement of the subterranean war the main object
of the defence is to force the besieger to take to mining operations
as early as possible, as it is a tedious operation and will prolong the
siege. Every endeavour must be made to push forward counter-
mines so as to meet and check the attack. On the approach of the
opponents to each other careful listening for the enemy must be
resorted to. To this end it is necessary at irregular intervals to
suspend all work for some minutes at a time, closing doors of com-
munication and employing experienced listeners at the heads of the
countermines. This matter is a most important one, as a premature
explosion of the defender's mines is a double loss to the defender, a
loss of a mine and an advantage to the enemy in more than one way.
As soon as the overcharged mines of the besieger have been fired, a
heavy fire should be brought to bear on the craters, and if possible
sorties should be made to prevent the enemy occupying them. At
the same time every effort should be made underground to surround
with galleries, and as it were isolate, the craters so as to prevent the
besieger making a new advance from them. The efforts of the
attack at this stage will probably be directed to the formation of
what are called " Boule shafts " (i.e. shafts partially lined in which
charges are hastily fired with little or no tamping), and to meet these
in time the defender may resort to the use of boring tools, and so
place charges somewhere in advance of the heads of the counter-
His great object must be to prevent as tot*.
the besieger from getting underground again; and these <
when the power of resistance is temporarily equal to. if not emuT
than, that of the attack, should be made the most of by the deksu '
(Lewis. Text-book on Fortification, eVc, 1893.)
The defence has the advantage, in the case of fortresses, d
being able to establish beforehand a system of countering
galleries in masonry. Many systems have been worked out (u
this purpose. A good typical arrangement is that of Geceoi
Marescot, published in 1799, shown in fig. 7 a
Section on mm.
Section on ae.
From Ttxtb-k »/ Fortification, by permission of the Controller HJf. Suti—ry
Oficr.
Fig. 72.
The main galleries (those running out in a straight line from
the counterscarp gallery e to three of the points a) fall gently
to the front to a depth of 30 or 40 ft. below the surface — the
deeper they arc the less they will suffer from the enemy's mines.
Branch galleries (marked c b+d c) run obliquely upward from
them to right and to left, leading to the mines, which are placed
at various depths, according to circumstances.
Two main points must be observed in any system of counter-
mines: the branch galleries must run obliquely forward, so as
not to present their sides to the action of the enemy's mines;
and the distance between the ends of the branches from adjacent
main galleries should be such that the enemy cannot pass bet wees
them unheard. This distance will vary with the nature of the
soil, but may be taken roughly as 20 yds. A convenient six
for main galleries is 6 ft. high by 3 ft. wide: branch galleries
may be 5 ft. by 3 ft. When the enemy is approaching, other
branch galleries, called listeners, will be pushed out from main
MINING)
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
and branch galleries. The section to fig. i of fig. 7 1 show s op en ings
left for the purpose. *
Another use of mines in defence is in connexion with breaches.
A permanent arrangement for this purpose, by General Dufour,
is shown in fig. 7 a. Yet another use, on which much ingenuity
was expended in the z8th century, is to extemporize retrench-
The charges of mines depend of course upon the effect which
is desired. When the charge is strong enough to produce a
crater, the radius of the circular opening on the surface
ffiyff of the ground is called the radius of the crater. The
mtutt line drawn from the centre of the charge to the nearest
surface, which is expressed in feet, is called the line
of least resistance (L.L.R.). When a mine produces a crater the
diameter of which is equal to the line of least resistance, it is
called a one-lined crater; when the diameter is double the L.L.R.,
a two-lined crater and so on. Common mines are those which
produce a two-lined crater. Over-charged mines produce craters
greater than two-lined, and undercharged mines less. A camou-
/Ut does not produce a crater; it is used when the object is to
destroy an enemy's gallery without breaking the surface. Fig.
73 shows sections of the different kinds of mines, with their
Action of a Common Mine
wCSmm * l * : I i •
4MNtfJ*f*„ f+MC) Sd,OS-96/.L «j j } •
?ȣ&: SSS j 2te::::::::::::.v:.-.v.f... J
Pram ImtrwdUmmUmirj £tffae»*v , by pmaWoo of tt» Gsstrallcr ef HJC.
ftatkaoiOAcc
F10. 73.— Mines,
craters and the effect they will produce downwards and horizon-
tally in ordinary earth.
Consideration of this figure will show that it is possible to place
a long charge at such a depth below the surface that it will
destroy all galleries of the enemy within a considerable radius,
without much disturbing the surface of the ground.
Bored mines, which have been alhided to above, are a com-
paratively recent innovation. When the enemy is heard at work in
one of his galleries and his position approximately determined by the
sound, it is necessary to drive a branch gallery with all speed in that
direction, and when it has advanced as far as appears necessary, to
load, tamp and discharge a mine before the enemy can fire his own
mine. This is one of the most delicate and dangerous operations
of war, and success will fall to those who are at the same time most
aldlf ul and most determined. The work can be hastened and made
715
_ Instead of driving a branch gallery, a
hole several inches in diameter is bored in the required direction.
With suitable tools there is no difficulty in driving a straight bore
hole 20 or 30 ft. long. A small charge of high explosives is then
pushed up to the end of the borehole and fireaT This forms a small
camouflet chamber by compressing; the earth around it. Into this
chamber the charge for the mine is passed up the bore-hole. No
tamping of course is required.
Mine warfare is slow, dangerous and uncertain in its results.
It will certainly delay the besiegers' advance very much and may
do so indefinitely. One point is distinctly in favour of the defence,
namely that when ground has been much mined it becomes
charged with poisonous gases. Some explosives are less noxious
than others in this way, and it will be advantageous for the attack,
but not necessarily for the defence, to make use of these.
Calculation of Charges. — The quantity of powder required for a
charge is expressed in lbs. in terms of L.L.R.*, and the following
formulae are used:
/»L.LR. in feet, r- radius of crater in feet. *- powder charge in
pounds, * -a variable dependent on the nature of the soil.
For a common mine «■ jq**
For an overcharged mine c--Lf/+.g( r _/.))!
For an undercharged mine ("joll— *9(/— ')!'•
The values to be given to s are:
Nature of Soil. Value of j.
Very light earth 080
Common earth .
Hard sand
Earth mixed with stones.
Clay mixed with loam *
Inferior brickwork .
Rock or good new brickwork.
Very good old brickwork
12$
1 40
!:g
225
250
[Shafts asrf
Military mining is carried on by means of vertical shafts and
horizontal or inclined galleries. When the soil is very stiff, very
little or even no lining is required for shafts and galleries; but
usually they have to be lined either with cases or frames.
Cases make a complete lining of 2 in. planking. Frames are used
at intervals of 4 or 5 ft. to support a partial lining of planks. Cases
are of course preferable in other respects; but in ordinary soil they
take up more timber.
There are two kinds of gallery in ordinary use in the British
service, namely the common gallery whose interior dimensions with
cases are 5 ft. 6 in. X2 ft., and the branch gallery which' ,
is 4 ft.Xa It. The shaft has about the same dimensions as )
a branch gallery. Formerly it was sometimes necessary *
in the systematic attack of a fortress to get guns down into the ditch.
Fortius purpose a " great gallery " was used, 6 ft. 6 in. in height and
6 ft. 8 in. wide, internal dimensions.
Miners' Tools.— -These are few and simple. The pick and shovel
differ from the ordinary types in having rather shorter helves suitable
for the confined space in which they are used. There is also a push-
pick, an Implement with a straight helve and a pointed shovel head
6 in. long and 3) in. wide. The miner's truck, used for drawing the
earth from the end of the gallery to the bottom of the shaft, is a small
wooden truck holding about 2 cub. ft. of earth. Formerly the noise
of the wheels of the truck passing over the uneven wooden floor of
the gaHery was very liable to be oeard by the enemy. To obviate
this they now have leather tyres and should run on battens nailed
to the floor. The miner's bucket is a small canvas bucket with a
couple of ropes attached* by which the earth can be drawn up the
shaft. Nowadays, however, the truck itself has chains attached to
it, by which it is drawn up, with the aid of a windlass, to the surface.
By this method more earth can be taken up in one lift, and time and
labour are not wasted in transferring the contents of the truck to the
bucket.
Ventilation is an important poiot. The breath of the miners and
the burning of their candles (when electric light is not available)
vitiates the air in the galleries; so that even in clean ground a
gallery should not be driven more than 60 ft. without providing
some means of renewing the air. This is usually done by forcing
fresh air, by means of a pump or bellows, through a flexible hose to
the head of the gallery. Where mines have been fired close by.
there is groat danger from poisonous gases faltering through the sod
into the gallery. This difficulty is nowadays met by the use of
special apparatus, such as helmets into which fresh air is pumped,
so that the wearers need not breathe the air of the gallery at all
Ventilation can also be assisted by boring holes vertically to the
surface of the ground. .... ,
Where a point has been reached at which it is proposed to fire a
mint, a chamber just large enough to bold the charge is cut ia the
716
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT field fortifichw
side of the gallery. The object of this is to keep the charge out of
the direct line of the gallery and thus increase the force of the
explosion. The charge may be placed in canvas bags, barrels or
boxes, precautions being taken against damp.
The operation of loading is of the first importance, for if the mine
is not exploded with success, not only is valuable time lost, which
^ ^ may give the enemy his opportunity, but it will probably
*22J^ be necessary to untamp the mine in order to renew Che
fuze; an operation attended by considerable danger.
The loading of the mine should therefore be done by the officer in
charge with his own hands. He has to work in a very cramped
position and practically in the dark (unless with electric light) as of
course no naked lights can be allowed near powder. Everything
should therefore be prepared beforehand to facilitate the loading of
the mine and placing of the fuze. At Chatham a icoo lb mine, at
the end of a gallery 136 ft. long, has been loaded in 30 minutes.
The powder was passed up the gallery by hand in sandbags, and
emptied into a box of the required size.
Whatever method of firing (see below) is employed, the officer
who loads the mine must be careful to see that it is so arranged as to
make firing certain, and that the leads passing out of the gallery
are not liable to damage in the process ol tamping.
Tamping.. — This operation consists in filling up the head of the
gallery solidly, for such a distance that there shall be no possibility
of the charge wasting its force along the gallery. The distance
depends on the charge and on the solidity of the tamping. For a
common mine it should extend to about j L.L.R. from the charge,
when the tamping is of earth in sandbags; for a 3-lincd crater, to
about 2 L.L.K. Tamping can be improved by jamming pieces of
timber across the shaft or gallery among the other filling.
Firing. — This may be done electrically, or by means of safety or
instantaneous fuze or powder hose.
Electric firing is the safest and best, and allows of the charge being
exploded at any given moment. For this purpose electric fuses (for
powder) or electric detonators (for guncotton or other high explosive)
arc employed. The current that fires them is passed through copper
wire leads.
The safety fuze used in the British service burns at the rate of
about 3 ft. a minute. Instantaneous fuze burns at the rate of a mile
a minute. Both can be fired under water. They are often used in
conjunction, a considerable length of instantaneous fuze, leading
from the charge, being connected to a short length of safety fuze.
Powder hose, an old- time expedient, can be extemporized by
making a tube of- strong linen, say 1 in. in diameter, and filling it with
powder. It burns at the rate olio to 20 ft. per second.
Explosives. — The old-fashioned gunpowder of the grained black
variety is still the best for most kinds of military mines. Pebble and
prism powders do not give as good results, presumably because
their action is so slow that some of the gases of explosion car escape
through the pores of the earth. High explosives, with their quick
shattering and rending effect, are little more effective than gun-
powder in 'actually moving large, quantities of earth. Most of them
give off much more poisonous fumes than gunpowder. Some recent
igh explosives, however, have been specially designed to be com-
paratively innocuous in this respect.
Some formulae have been given above for the calculation
of charges. It will, however, simplify matters for the
jjjjjjj reader to record some actual instances of charges
fired both in peace and war.
In the matter of scientific experiment we find Vauban as usual
leading the way, and the following results among others were obtained
by him at Tournay in 1686 and 1689: A charge of 162 lb placed
13 ft. below the surface produced a crater of 13 ft. radius (a two-lined
crater, or " common mine "). Galleries were destroyed at distances
equal to the L.L.R. in both horizontal and vertical directions.
Double the charge, placed at double the depth, \x* 324 lb with an
L.L.R. of 27 ft. made no crater, but like the first destroyed galleries
below it and on each side at distances equal to the L.L.R. A charge
of 3826 lb with L.L.R. of 37 ft. made a two-lined crater and destroyed
a gallery distant 61 ft. horizontally.
.Bernard Forest de Belidor, a French engineer, made many experi-
ments at La Fere about 1732, and 20 years later, as a general officer
and inspector of miners, continued them on a larger scale. His
experiments were directed towards destroying an enemy's galleries
at greater distances than had hitherto been supposed possible, by
means of very large charges (in proportion to the L.L.R.) which he
called " globes of compression." In one of them a charge of 4320 lb
of powder placed only 15 ft. 9 in. below the surface damaged or
" compressed " a gallery distant 65 ft. horizontally. The radius of
the crater was 34 ft. 8 in.
At Frederick the Great's siege of Schweidnitz in 1762 some very
large charges were exploded. One of them, of 5400 lb with an L.L.R.
of 16 ft. \ in., made a crater of 42 ft. 3 in. radius. Readers of Carlyle's
Frederick the Great may recall his description of the contest of the
rival engineers on this occasion.
At Graudenz in 1862 (experiments) a charge of 103T lb of powder
placed 10 ft. deep, untamped, in a vertical shaft, made a crater of
15 ft. 6 in. radius. A charge of 412 lb of guncotton. calculated as
being equivalent to the above charge of po wd e r and pjacra sate
the same conditions, made a crater of 14 ft. radius. The ibxca
of tamping in both cases of course placed the gunpowder at a -»
advantage.
Perhaps the most interesting mine ever fired was that at rit
siege of Petersburg in the American Civil War, in June 1864, Ik
circumstances were all abnormal, and the untechnical _.
account of it in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (voL Z* . I
iv.) is well worth perusal. No mining tools or material* 3U~*
and no military miners were available; and no one had ~Z?
any confidence in the success of the attempt except its
originator, Lieut.-Colonel Pleasants, a mining engineer by prok»-L?
his regiment which was recruited from a mining population, *_< I
General Burnside the corps commander. The opposing entracr j
ments were 130 yds. apart. The mine gallery was started behisn ok
Federal lines and driven a distance of 510 ft- till it came under i
field redoubt in the Confederate lines. There two branches *e>
made right and left, each about 38 ft. long, and in tbexn eight s »
aggregating 8000 lb of powder were placed. Trie first attract •:
fire them failed, and an officer and a sergeant volunteered to esscr
the gallery to seek the cause of the failure. A defective splice b rw
lengths of fuze was thus discovered and repaired. At the sect*:
attempt all the mines were fired simultaneously with success, it:
made a gigantic crater 170 ft. long by 60 ft. wide and 30 ft. dc?>
The occupants of the redoubt, at least several hundred men (1V7
have been stated at 1000), were blown up and mostly killed. Tk
assault which followed, however, failed completely, for waat a
organization. The infantry was drawn up in readiness to advance,
but no outlets had been provided from the parallel, and this and orbT
causes delayed the occupation of the crater and gave the defrac-q
artillery a moment's respite. Thus the assailants sained the ca:t
but could not advance beyond it in face of the defenders' fire, a.c
could they establish themselves within it, on its steep clay sii \
for want of entrenching tools. A good many troops were sent to-
wards in support, but being in many cases of inferior quality, tJx-»
could not be induced to go forward, and huddled in disorder is *b;
already overcrowded crater. Over 1000 of these were captsnJ
when the Confederates retook the crater by a counter-attack and nc
total loss of the Federals in the attack was nearly 400a.
The wars of the last generation have done little or cottiu
to advance the science of military mining, but a good deal >•*
been done in peace to improve the means. Electric lighting 1? :
electric firing of mines will be a great help; modern druucf
machines may be used to go through rock; ventilating arrarg^
ments are much improved; and the use of bored mines is kz?
to have great developments. The Russo-Japanese War taie^ :
nothing new in mine-warfare, or as to the effects ol mines, h*:
the siege of Port Arthur had this moral among others; just as _
future, in the frontal attack of positions, trench must oppose
trench, so in fortress warfare mines wHl be more necessary tica
ever. It appears that they wOl be essential to destroy bttfc
the ditch-flanking arrangements of forts and the escarp or other
permanent obstacle beyond the ditch.
V. Field Foetotcation
Field Fortifications % now more often spoken of as field defences,
are those which are constructed at short notice, with the means
locally available, usually when the enemy is near at haa4
Subject to the question of time, a very high degree of strcr.r*b
can be given to them, if the military situation makes it w»r i
while to expend sufficient labour. A century or more ag".
the dividing line between permanent and field fortificntico
was very rigidly drawn, since in those days a high masonr?
escarp surmounted by a rampart was essential to a perrnanc.it
fortress, and these could naturally not be extemporized
Works without masonry, in other ways made as strong as
possible with deep ditches and heavy timbers, — such as -wc:Jd
require about six weeks for their construction— were knovn
as semi-permancnt t and were used for the defence of places
which acquired strategic importance in the course of 1
war, but were not immediately threatened. The term Jfc'i
fortification was reserved for works constructed of light «
materials, with parapets and ditches of only moderate develop-
ment. Redoubts of this class required a fortnight at most for
their construction.
In modern forti£:alion if cupolas and deep revetted ditch^
were essential to permanent defences, the dividing line wouki
be equally clear. But as has been shown, this is not universal!)
admitted, and where the resources exist, the use of our presttf
field FORTiFicATONi FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
717
means of construction, such as steel joists, railway rails, rein-
forced concrete and wire, in conjunction with the defensive
power of modern fire-arms, makes it possible to extemporize
in a very short time works having much of the resisting power
of a permanent fortress. Further, such works can be expanded
from the smallest beginnings; and, if the site is not too exposed,
in the presence of the enemy.
Field fortification offers, as regards the actual constructions,
a very limited scope to the engineer; and a little consideration
will show that its defensive possibilities were not greatly affected
by the change from machine-thrown projectiles to those fired
by rude smooth-bore guns. There is therefore nothing in the
history of this branch of the subject that is worth tracing, from
the earliest ages to about the end of the 18th century. One or
two points may be noticed. The use of obstacles is probably
one of the earliest measures of defence. Long before missile
weapons had acquired such an importance as to make it worth
while to seek shelter from them, it would obviously have been
found desirable to have some means of checking the onrush of
an enemy physically or numerically superior. Hence the use
by savage tribes, to this day, of pits, pointed stakes bidden in
the grass, entanglements and similar obstacles. In this direction
the ages have made no change, and the most highly civilized
nations still use the same obstacles on occasion.
Another use of field defences common to all ages is the pro tec.
tion of camps at night, where small forces are operating against
an enemy more numerous but inferior In arms and discipline.
In daylight such an enemy is not feared, but at night his numbers
might be dangerous. Hence the Roman practice of making
each foot-soldier carry a couple of stakes for palisades; and the
simple defence of a thorn sariba used by the British for their
camps in the Sudan.
Palisades and trenches, abatis and sharpened stakes have
always been used. Except wire, there is practically no new
material. As to methods, the laagers of the Boers are preceded
by the wagon-forts of the Hussites, and those no doubt by
similar arrangements of British or Assyrian war chariots; and
*o in almost every direction it will be found that the expedient
of to-day has had its forerunners in those of the countless yester-
days- The only really marked change in the arrangements of
field defences has been caused not by gunpowder but by quick-
firing rifled weapons. For that reason it Is worth while to
consider briefly what went the principles of field fortification at
the end of the 18th century. That period has been chosen
because it gives us the result of a couple of centuries of constant
fighting between disciplined troops with fairly effective fire-
arms. The field defences of the 19th century are transitional in
character. Based mainly on the old methods, they show only
faint attempts at adaptation to new conditions, and it was not
till quite the end of the century that the methods now accepted
began to take shape.
The essential elements of fieldworks up to the time of the
Peninsular War were command and obstacle; now they are
protection and concealment.
The command and obstacle were as necessary in the days of
smooth-bore muskets and guns as in those of javelins and
arrows. When the enemy could get close up to a
jyjiSf* worIc w ' taout Kriou* loss » ftnd attack in close order,
rfrfrT ff . the defenders needed a really good obstacle in front
of them. Moreover, since they could not rely on their
fire alone to repulse the attack, they needed a two-deep line, with
reserves dose at band, to meet it with the " arme blanche."
For this purpose a parapet 7 or 3 ft. high, with a steep slope,
perhaps palisaded, up which the attackers must climb after
passing the obstacle, was excellent. The defenders after firing
their last volley could use their bayonets from the top of the
parapet with the advantage of position. The high parapet had
also the advantage that the attackers could not tell what was
going on Inside the redoubt, and the defenders were sheltered
from their fire as well from view until the last moment.
The strength of a fortified line in the tftth century depended
principally on its redoubts. Lines of shelter trenches bad little
power of defence at the time, unless they held practically as
many men as would have sufficed to fight in the open. Obstacles
on the other hand had a greater value, against the inelastic
tactics of the time, than they have now. A good position there-
fore was one which offered good fire-positions for redoubts and
plenty of facilities for creating obstacles. Strong redoubts,
which could resist determined assaults; good obstacles in the
intervals, guns in the redoubts to sweep the intervals, and troops
in formed bodies kept in reserve for counter-strokes— these
were the essentials in the days of the smooth-bore.
The redoubts were liable to a heavy cannonade by field-guns
before the attack. To withstand this, the parapets had to be
made of a suitable thickness — from 4 or 5 ft. upwards — according
to the time available, the resisting nature of the soil, and the
severity of the bombardment expected.
The whole of the earth for the parapet was as a rule obtained
from the ditch, in order to make as much as possible of this
obstacle. The garrison in all parts of the interior of the redoubt
were to be sheltered, if possible, from the enemy's fire, and with
this object great pains were bestowed on the principle of " de-
filade." The object of defilade, which was a great fetish in
theoretical works, was so to arrange the height of the parapet
with reference to the terreplein of a work that a straight line
(not, be it observed, the trajectory of the projectiles) passing
from the muzzle of a musket or gun on the most commanding
point of the enemy's position, over the crest of the parapet,
should just clear the head of a defender standing in any part ox
the work. This problem of defilade became quite out of date
after the development of time shrapnel, but was nevertheless
taught with great rigour till within the last twenty years.
The sectional area of the ditch was calculated so that with
an addition of about 10% for expansion it would equal that of
the parapet. If a wider and deeper ditch was considered neces*
sary, the surplus earth could be used to form a glacis.
The interior of the redoubt had to afford sufficient space to
allow the garrison to sleep in it, which was sometimes a matter
of some difficulty if a small irregularly shaped work had to
contain a strong garrison. Consideration of the plan and sections
of these works will show that the banquette for infantry with
its slopes, and the gun platforms, took off a good deal from the
interior space within the crest-line. Guns were usually placed
at the salients, where they could get the widest field of fire.
They were sometimes placed on the ground level, firing through
embrasures in the parapet, and sometimes on platforms so as to
fire over the parapet {en barbcUc).
As in permanent fortification, immense pains were taken to
elaborate theoretically the traces of works. A distinction was
made between forts and redoubts, the former being those which
were arranged to flank their own ditches, while the redoubts did
not. Redoubts again were classed as " closed," those which had
an equally strong defence all round; and " half-closed," those
which had only a slight parapet or timber stockade for the gorge
or rear faces. Open works (those which. had no gorge defence)
were named according to their trace, as redans and lunettes. A
redan is a work with two faces making a salient angle. It was
frequently used in connexion with straight lines of trench or
breastwork A lunette is a work with two faces, usually forming
an obtuse angle, and two flanks.
The forts described in the text-books, as might be expected,
were designed with great ingenuity, with bastioned or demi-
bastioned fronts, star traces, and so forth, and in the same books
intricate calculations were entered into to balance the remblai
and diblai, that is, the amount of earth in the parapets with that
excavated from the ditches. In practice such niceties of course
disappeared, though occasionally when the ground allowed of it
star forts and bastioned fronts were employed.
On irregular ground the first necessity was to fit the redoubt
to the ground on which it stood, so as to sweep the whole of the
foreground, and this was generally a sufficiently difficult maUer
without adding the complications of flanking defences. Sir
John Jones, speaking of the traces of the several works in the
Torres Vedra* lines, says:—
7i8
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT field FORnncATira
" The redoubt* were made of every capacity, from that of fig. 74 a,
limited by want of apace on the ground it occupied to 50 men and
_ two pieces of artiltcry, to that of fig. 74 b, for 500 men and
JJ22. six pieces of artillery, the importance of the object to be
roarmM. attained being the only guide in forming the dimensions.
Many of the redoubts first thrown up, even some of the smallest,
were shaped like stars, under the idea of procuring a flank defence
for the ditches; but this construction was latterly rejected, it being
found to cut up the interior space, and to be almost fallacious with
Fig. 74.— Torres Vedras Works.
respect to flank defence, the breadth of the exterior slopes being in
some cases equal to the whole length of the flanks so obtained. Even
when, from the greater size of the work, some flanking fire was thus
Sained, the angle formed by the faces was generally so obtuse that it
emanded more coolness in the defenders than ought reasonably
to be expected to aim along the ditch of the opposite face: and
further, this construction prevented the fire of the work being more
powerful in front than in rear.
In order to decide on the proper trace of a work, it is necessary to
consider whether its object be to prevent an enemy establishing
himself on the ground on which it is to bo placed, or whether it be to
insure a heavy fire of artillery on some other point in its vicinity.
In the first case every consideration should be sacrificed to that of
adding to its powers of self-defence by flanks or other expedients.
In the second, its powers of resistance are secondary to the estab-
lishment of a powerful offensive fire and its trace cannot be too
simple. Latterly, the shape of the redoubts was invariably that most
fitted to the ground, or such as best parried the enfilade fire or
musketry plunge of neighbouring heights, care being taken to present
the front of fire deemed necessary towards the pass, or other object
to be guarded; and such will generally be found the best rule of
proceeding.
This recommendation, however, is not intended to apply to
isolated works of large dimensions, and more particularly to those
considered the key of any position. No labour or expense should be
spared to render such works capable of resisting the most furious
assaults, either by breaking the parapet into flanks, or forming a
flank defence in the ditch; for the experience gained in the Peninsula
shows that an unflanked work of even more than an ordinary field
profile, if skilfully and determinedly assaulted, will generally be
carried Nor does the serious evil of curtailing the interior
•pace, which renders breaks in the outline so objectionable in small
works, apply to works of large dimensions Under this view
the great work on Monte Agraca (fig. 75) must be considered as very
Ftc. 75.— Monte Agraca* Torre* YVdra*.
. Jcing
of a few feet in the trace, caused by a change of direction in the
contour of the height, whilst the interior space is more than doubly
flufneient for the number of its allotted garrison to encamp.
Interior and other Defences. — This work, however, had some of its
salient points . . . cut off by earthen lines of parapet, steeply
revetted externally, and so traced as to serve for traverses to tfcr
interior. It had also three or four small enclosed posts formed wirila
it; and the work at Torres Vedras (fig. 76) had each of its safer.
points formed into an independent post. These interior cWe-Kis
and retrenchments were intended to guard against a general para:
amongst the garrison, which would necessarily be composed in pst
Ffo. 76.— Torres Vedras Works.
of indifferent troops, and also to prevent the loss of the work by
the entry of the assailants at any weak or ill-defended point. Slcj
Interior lines to rally on are absolutely essential to the security at a
large field-work. They serve as substitutes for a blockhouse or toucr.
placed in the interior of all well-constructed permanent cart bra
works, and merit far more attention than they generally receive.
The small circular windmills of stone, which were frequently
found occupying salient knolls . . . readily converted into admir-
able interior posts of that nature. The profile of the several »orb
varied on every face and flank, according to its liability to be attacked
or cannonaded ; the only general rule enforced being that all ditcbr*
should be at least 15 ft. wide at top and 10 ft. in depth, and the err*
of the parapet have at least 5 ft, command over the crest of the
counterscarp. No parapet exceeded 10 ft. in thkrknes*. unfov
exposed to be severely cannonaded, and few more than 6 or 8 It.;
ana some, on high knolls, where artillery could not by any possibility
be brought against them, were made of stone or rubble less than 2 ft
in thickness, to gain more interior space, and allow full liberty for the
use of the defenders' bayonets."
Fig. 77 gives two typical sections of these works.
4«
Fig. 77-
The works of Torres Vedras have been chosen for illustration
because they offer very good historical examples, and also
because of the value of the critical remarks of Sir John Jones,
who as a captain was the engineer in charge of their construction.
At the same time it must be remembered that they differ from
ordinary field-works in having an unusual degree of strength,
plenty of time and civilian labour having been available for their
construction. In this respect they approximate more to semi
permanent works, the main reason why they did not receive
under the circumstances a greater development of ditch and
parapet being that in addition to the large number of works
required, much labour was expended in abatis, inundations,
scarping hill-sides and constructing roads.
Some further remarks of Sir John on the siiuaiums cf the
works are very instructive:—
" Many of the redoubts were placed on very elevated situations
on the summit of steep hills, which gave them a most imposing
nHDKHmncATKW] FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
719
appearance; hut it was in reality a defect ... for the fife of their
artillery on the object to be guarded became so plunging as to lose
half its powers; the musketry could not be made to scour the (ace
of the hill sufficiently; and during the night both arms became of
most uncertain effect.
" The domineering situation of the redoubts, however, gave con-
fidence to the young troops which composed their garrisons, pro-
tected them from a cannonade, and screened their interior from
musketry, unless fired at a high angle, and consequently at random.
Th*se considerations perhaps justify the unusually elevated sites
selected for most of the redoubts on the lines, though they cannot
induce an approval of them as a general measure."
The chief principle of the period was thus that the redoubts
were the most important features of lines of defence, and that
they combined physical obstacle and protection with good
musketry and artillery positions. The value of concealment
J was not Ignored, but it was as a rule subordinated to other
considerations.
The principles of this time remained unaltered until after the
Crimean War. In the American Civil War the power of the rifle
began to assert itself, and it was found that a simple
' cMisflr. breastwork defended by a double rank of men could
1 * protect itself by its fire against an ordinary assault.
This power of the rifle gave greatly enhanced importance to
any defences that could be hastily extemporized behind walls,
hedges or any natural cover. About the period of the Franco-
German War other considerations came in. The increased
velocity of artillery projectiles reduced* in some ways their
destructive effects against earth parapets, because the shell bad
an increasing tendency to deflect upwards on striking a bank
of loose earth. Also the use of shrapnel made it impossible for
troops to find cover on the terreplein of a work some distance
behind the parapet.
These considerations, however, were not fully realized at that
time. The reason was partly a want of touch between the
engineers and the non-technical branches of most armies, and
partly that original writers from the Napoleonic wars to the
present day have been more occupied with the primary question
of the value of field defences as a matter of tactics than with
their details considered from the standpoint of fortification.
There was always an influential school of writers who declaimed
against all defences, as being injurious to the offensive spirit so
essential to success. Those writers who treated of the arrange-
ments of defences devoted themselves to theoretical details of
trace quite after the old style; discussing the size and shape of
typical redoubts, their distance apart and relation to lines of
trenches, 8x. The profiles — the thick parapet with command
of 7 ft. or more, the deep ditch, and the inadequate cover behind
the parapet— remained as they had been for a century.
The American Civil War showed the power of rifles behind
slight defences. Plevna in 1877 taught a further lesson. It
proved the great resisting power of extemporized lines; but
more than that, we begin to find new arrangements for protection
against shell fire (see plans and sections in Greene's The Russian
A rmy and its Campaign in Turkey). The trace of the works and
the sections of parapet and ditch suggest Torres Vedras; but
a multiplication of interior traverses and splinter-proof shelters
show the necessity for a different class of protection. The
parapet was designed according to the old type, for want of a
better; the traverses and shelters were added later, to meet the
necessities of the case. The Turk* also used two or three tiers
of musketry fire, as for instance one from the crest of the glads,
one from the parapet, and one from a traverse in rear of it.
This, however, is a development which will not be necessary in
future, thanks to magazine rifles.
From 1877 to 1809 the efficiency of rifles and guns rapidly
increased, and certain new principles, causing the field defences
PHacipht °f th* present day to differ radically from those of
otmotfra the 18th century, remained to be developed. These
*W may be considered under the following heads: the
4f*m» na t ur e of protection required, the diminished need
of obstacle, and the adaptation of works to ground.
The principle that thickness of parapet is no longer required,
to resist artillery fire, was first laid down at Chatham in 1806.
The distance at which guns now engage makes direct hits 011
parapets comparatively rare. Further, a shell striking near the
crest of a parapet may perhaps kill one man if he is in the way,
and displace a bushel of earth. That b nothing, It is the
contents of the shell, whether shrapnel of explosive, that is
the source of danger and not the shell itself. Thus the enemy's
object is to burst his common shell immediately behind the
parapet, or bos shrapnel a short distance in front of it, in order
to get searching effect. It follows that a parapet is thick enough
if it suffices to stop rifle bullets, since the same thickness will
a fortiori keep out shrapnel bullets or splinters of shell For this
purpose 3 ft. is enough.
Real protection is gained by a trench close in rear of the
parapet, deep enough to give shelter from high angle shrapnel,
and narrow enough to minimize the chance of a common shell
dropping Into it. This protection is increased by frequent
traverses across the trench.
The most essential point of all is conuaimenL In gaining this
we say good-bye finally to the old type of work. Protection
is now given by the trench rather than the parapet; command
and the ditch-obstacle (which furnished the earth for the high
parapet) are alike unnecessary. Concealment can therefore be
studied by keeping the parapet down to the lowest level above
the surface from which the foreground can be seen. This may be
18 in. or less.
The need of obstacle, in daylight and when the defenders
are not abnormally few, has practically disappeared. For night
work, or when the assailant is so strong as to be able to force
home his attack in face of protected rifle fire, what is needed is not
a deep ditch immediately in front of the parapet, difficult to
climb, but also difficult to flank, but an obstacle that will
detain him under fire at short range. It may be an entangle-
ment, an abatis, an inundation: anything that will check the
rush and make him move slowly.
In the adaptation of works to ground, the governing factor is
the power of the rifle in frontal defence. We have seen that in
Peninsular times great reliance was placed on the flanking defence
of lines by guns in redoubts. Infantry extended behind a simple
line of trench could not resist a strong attack without such
support. Now, however, infantry behind a slight trench, with
a good field of fire should be able to defend themselves against
any infantry attack.
This being so, the enemy's artillery seeks to locate the trenches
and to cover them with a steady hail of shells, so as to force the
defenders to keep down under cover. If they can succeed in
doing this, it is possible for the attacking infantry to advance,
and the artillery fire is kept up until the last moment, so that the
attack may have the narrowest possible space to cover after the
defenders have manned their parapets and opened fire Fig. 78
shows the action of various natures of projectiles.
0— tk wljHmtfwH
fwtfwmrpiaitegj
From Mil. Bmguueri**. br permfcfoa of u» Controller of H M. Stittowry Oflc*.
Fig. 78.— Effect of Projectiles.
We need not bore discuss the r61e of the defenders' artillery in
replying to that of the enemy and playing on the attack; nor
for the moment consider how far the defence of the trenches
while under artillery fire can be made easier by overhead cover*
The main question is— what is, in view of the nature of the attack,
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT ifield fortoicmw
Concealment of trenches it generally attempted by c o w i ng tat
freshly turned earth of the small parapet with sods, leafy bnacha
"it should
720
the best disposition of lines of trench; and do they require the
addition of redoubts?
The most important point, with the object of protection, is
that the trenches must not be conspicuous; this is the best
defence against artillery. With the object of resistance by their
own fire they must have a good view, or, as it is generally
described, no dead ground in front of them. For this purpose
300 or 400 yds. may be enough if the ground is even and affords
no cover.
This necessity for invisibility, together with the shallowness
of the zone that suffices for producing a decisive fire effect, has
of late years vtry much affected the choice of ground for a line
of trenches.
For a defensive position on high ground, it was usually laid down
until the South African War that a line of trenches should be on the
" military crest " (Fr. crlte mUitaire), 1.*. fhe highest
2»* P° int on tnc h ' 11 ' rom wnic h the whole of the slopes in
"***•** front can be seen. Thus in the three sections of ground
shown in fig. 79 it would be at a, b and c respectively. The simplicity
Fic. 79-
of this prescription made it attractive and it came to be rather
abused in the text-books. There were, even before the improvements
in artillery, objections to it, because on most slopes the military
crest would be found at very different elevations on different parts
of the line, so that by a strict adherence to the rule some of the
trenches would be paced near the top of the hill, and some in
dangerous isolation near the bottom. Moreover a rounded hill has
no military crest.
Further, we have to consider nowadays not only the position of
the fire-trenches, but those of supports, reserves and artillery, and
the whole question is extremely difficult.
For instance, considering the sections alone, as if they did not
vary along the line, the positions at a and b, fig. 79, are bad because
they are on the sky-line and therefore a good mark for artillery.
That at b is especially bad because the slope in front is so sleep that
the defenders would have to expose themselves very much to fire
down it, and the artillery fire against them can be kept up until the
very last moment. The position c has the advantage of not being
on the sky-line, but the position of the supports in rear is exposed.
Such a position as that at
d, fig. 80, is good, but pro-
tected or concealed com-
munications must be made
for the supports coming
r (r a/* from* over the brow of the
Fic. 80. hm
Another possible position for the infantry line is at /. fig. 8i, with
the guns on the high ground behind. They might easily be quite
concealed from the enemy's artillery. The drawback is that no
retirement up the
exposed slope
would be possible
for them, except
at night. The fire
from / will be
rIG. 81. . grating, which will
be a great advantage as compared with the plunging fire that would
be obtained from a position up the hill.
It is idle, however, to give more than the most cursory consideration
to sections of imaginary positions. It is only by actual practice on
the ground that skill can be attained in laying out positions, and
only a trained soldier with a good eye can succeed in it. Briefly, the
advantages of view and position given by high ground must be paid
for in some degree by exposure to the enemy's artillery; and at
least as much consideration — possibly as much labour — must be
given to communications with the fire-trenches as to the trenches
themselves. Irregular ground simplifies the question of concealment
but also gives cover to the enemy's approach. The lie of the ground
will itscll dictate the position of the trenches, subject to the pre-
dispositions of the responsible officer. On flat featureless ground the
general trace of the trenches should be irregular. This makes a
more difficult target for artillery, and affords a certain amount of
cross and flanking fire, which is a very great advantage. Great care
Should, however, be taken not to expose the trenches to oblique
or enfilade fire; or at least to protect them, if so exposed, Vy
traversing.
Fic. *a.
or grass, in this connexion it should be remembered'
that after a day or two cut leaves and grass wither and
may become conspicuous against a green surface. Where the grand
is so even that a good view of the foreground is possible from lie
surface level, the trench may be made
without a parapet; but this entails
great labour in removing and disposing
of the excavated earth. A common <
device is to conceal the parapet as well
as possible and to make a dummy
trench some distance away to draw
fire.
Besides the direct concealment of
trenches, care must be taken that the site is not co ns pi c uous. TV*.
a trench should not be placed along the meeting line of two differ. t
kinds of cultivation, or along the edge of a belt of heather oa 4 ► -
side, or where a difference of gradient is sharply defined; or w'r rc
any conspicuous
landmark would
help the enemy's
artillery to get the
ranee.
Trenches are
broadly distin-
guished as " fire
trenches' and
" cover trenches,"
according as they
are for the firing
line or supporting troops. The following simple types are takes
from the 1908 edition of Military Engineering (part 1): "F^i
Defences."
Fig. 82 is the most common form of fire trench, in which labour
is saved by equalizing trench and parapet. This would take i\ t»
2 hours in ordinary soil. Fig. 83 snows the same trench unprottd
by 2 or 3 hours' more work. Fig. 84 shows a fire trench wabcw
parapet, with cover trench and communication.
The addition of a loophole of sand-bags, sodded on the top fcr
fiff Trtmck
From J/J. Emcinterimt: FM4 Delfntts (190I), by pcrafasioo of tfe* Costrdfa
H. M. S * ~~-
Fio. 83.
Fic. 84.
concealment (called head-<tmer) t gives increased protection, but at
the cost of greater prominence for the parapet (fig. 85). Overhead
cover can only be provided in fire trenches by giving the parapet stZ
greater height and it is not usually done. Portions of the trenca
not used for firing can, however, be given splinter-proof protectko
by putting over them branches or bundles, covered with a lew inches
of earth: or by boards, or sheets of corrugated iron if they can be
had. A better plan when time permits is to provide cover treocho
immediately behind and communicating with the fire trench.
The question of redoubts has been a vexed one for years: partly
they were thought to be unnecessary in view of the resisting powtr
of a line of trenches, but chiefly because the redoubt was _ . ..
always imagined as one of the older type, with a high J " ,J "-* ft
conspicuous parapet. Of course a redoubt of such a nature would
be readily identified and made untenable But the idea of a redoubt
docs not neces-
s a r i 1 y (imply
command. Its
object is that it
shall be capable
of all-round de-
fence. There
can be no doubt
that as there
is always a pos-
sibility of fines
being pierced
somewhere, it is
desirable, unless
the whole line is
to be thrown Fnan y a> BnttmHrint: FiridDtfaun. by penawfaa of tfc
into Confusion CootraUwH-U.Suiiootfy Office,
and forced Fic. 85.
back, to have . .
some point at which the defenders can maintain themselves.
This is not possible unless at such points there is provision for
defence towards both flanks and rear, that is to say, when there are
redoubts, which can hold on after certain portions of the line have
been lost and thereby can localise the enemy's success and simplify
fieu) fortification] FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
Che action of supporting troops, in order that redoubt* may
exercise this function, all that is necessary is that their defenders
should be able to see the ground Cor a furlong in front of them in
every direction. Their parapets therefore} need be in no way more
conspicuous than those of the neighbouring fire trenches, and in
that case there is no fear of their drawing special attention from, the
enemy's artillery. Whatever theories may have been out forward
on the subject in practice they are constantly used, and in the Russo-
Japanese War, where the experience of South Africa was already
available we find them in the fighting lines on both sides
Fie. 86.
The modern type of field redoubt is a fire trench no more con*
tpicuous than the others, in any simple form adapted to the ground
that will give effective all-round fire such as a square with blunted
3,
t -'T'-Hr :r -,
^
• Fig. 87.
angles. Enhanced strength may be given by deepening the trenches
and improving the overhead cover; and special use may here be
made of obstacles.
Within the redoubt cover may be provided for men in excess of
those required to man the parapet, by means of cover trenches and
Fig 88.
field casemates Fig. 86 gives the general idea of such a redoubt,
and figs. 87, 88 the plan and section of the interior shelters. Such a
work can easily be made quite invisible from a distance. It gives
excellent cover against shrapnel, but would not be tenable against
howitzer common shell, if the enemy did manage to bring an accurate
fire to bear on it.
Fig. 89 shows the section of a parapet with two shelters behind
it for a work with a high command 015 or 6 ft. This work would
From MU.Emgnmmg: FitU Ekfmaa OoolU* p
Stationery Office
Fig. 89.
require a concealed position, which can often be found a little in
rear of the firing line.
In the South African War a good deal of interest was excited by
a type of trench used by the Boers. It was very narrow at the
surface, giving only just room for a man to stand; but undercut
or hollowed out below, so that he could sit down with very good
X. 12*
72I
Suchasectbnbonly possu^invetyfirmsoa. Apart from
this, the type is really only suited to rifle pits, as a trench proper
should have room for officers and N.C.0 a to move along „,..
within it. The Boers showed great skill in concealing their
trenches. One good point was that there was generally
something making a background immediately behind the
men's heads, so that they did not stand out ia relief
when raised above the parapet.
In the Russo-Japanese War the Russian trenches at the outset
were of old-fashioned type and very conspicuous. Later on better
types were evolved. Figs. 90 and 91 are a couple of sections from
Port Arthur; the first Borrowed from the Boers but wider at the
From *ma*I»*mm$W*i Briiitk Ofmt Jtywfc, «eL ft, by psnahsjas el 0»
Controller H.J*. Sutiooery Offiot.
FZgs. 90 and 91.
top. The Japanese appear to have taken their type mainly from
the latest British official books, but applied them with great skill
to the ground studying especially invisibility. In their prepared
positions they used large redoubts manned by several companies.
Cover fofCuns. — Some degree of cover for guns, in addition to the
shield, is always desirable. If the gun stands on the natural surface
of the ground, the cover is called an epaulment. In that case a bank
is thrown up in front of the gun, about 1 ft. high in the centre, and
From Uil. fiifiwcHaf ; Fidd Dtjmm, by {xrakska of u» CsattoOv H.M.
Sutiooery Office.
Flo. 92.— Gun-pit.
3 ft. 6 in. high at the ends. On either side of the gun and dose up
to the bank is a small pit for the gunners. The rest of the earth for
the epaulment is got from a trench in front. If the gun is sunk, the
shelter is called a gun-pit.
In this case there is no bank immediately in front of the gun.
Shelter can be got more quickly with a pit than an epaulment, but
it is generally undesirable to break the surface of the ground.
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT [field Foimnamw
Blockhouses are familiar to the public from the part they ftsje*
in the South African War of 1099-1902. In the oJd-Jashueg
permanent fortification they were used as keeps in sodi ^_
positions as re-entering places of arms ana built of T^
masonry. Stone blockhouses have long been used in the mmm
Balkans for frontier outposts; they are sometimes built uacfoia,
so as to get some flanking defence, In the form of ballet-proa* kg-
cabins they have played a great part in warfare between pons
settlers and savages.
7-22
The commonest forms of obstacle now used are abatis and www
entanglements. Fig. 93 shows a well-finished type of abatis. The
nK.4^ ^ branches are stripped and pointed, and the butts are
uoa * ms * buried and pegged firmly down. Wire entanglement
may be added to this with advantage. An abatis should be protected
from artillery fire, which is sometimes done by placing it in a shallow
excavation with the earth thrown up in front of its
From ita EntUmri»g% Fidd Dtjmut. by permlarioo of uw Controller Bit
Stationery Office.
Fig. 93.— Abatis.
Wire may be used as a high or low entanglement or as a fence or
trip wire or concealed obstacle. The usual form of high wire entangle-
ment consists of several rows of stout stakes 4 or 5 ft. long, driven
firmly into the ground about 6 ft. apart, and connected horizontally
and diagonally with barbed wire.
Palisades are still used, and need no description. They were
formerly often made bullet-proof, but this is no longer possible.
Praises are seldom beard of now, though they may appear occasion-
ally in a modified form. They were much used in connexion with
deep ditches, and are palisades placed
so as to project horizontally from the
escarp, or sloping forward in the bottom
of the ditch. Military pits both deep and
shallow (the latter, shown in fig. 95. called
trous de loup) are not so much used aa
formerly, because the obstacle is hardly
worth the labour expended on it. Both,
Fig. 94-— Crows* Feet Fta. 95— Plan and section
of Trous-de-loup
however, were employed in the Russo-Japanese War. Crows* feet,
formerly much used as a defence against cavalry, are practically
obsolete. They co n sis ted of four iron spikes joined together at their
bases in such a manner that however they were thrown down one
point would always be pointing upwards (tig. 94). Ckevaux-de-frise
\q.v.) were formerly a much-used type of obstacle.
Toe best obstacle is that which can be made to fulfil a given object
with the least expenditure of time and labour. From this point of
view barbed wire is far the best. One of its greatest advantages is
that it gives no cover whatever to the enemy.
Fougasses have always for convenience been classed as obstacles.
A fougasse is a charge of powder buried at the bottom of a sloping
pit. Over the powder is a wooden shield, 3 or 4 in. thick, and over
the shield a quantity of stones are piled. The illustration, fig. 96,
gives a clear idea of the arrangement. A fougasse of this form,
charged with 80 lb of powder, will throw 5 tons of stones over a
surface 160 yds. long by 120 wide. They may be fired by powder
hose, fuze or electricity. Their actual effect is very often a matter
of chance, but the moral effect is usually considerable.
Dams are most effective obstacles, when circumstances allow of
their use. They are constructed by military engineers as small
temporary dams would be in civil works.
A most important question, especially in connexion with obstacles,
is that of lighting up the foreground at night. Portable electric
searchlights are most valuable, especially for detecting
the enemy's movements at some distance; but their use
will naturally always be restricted. Star shells and
parachute lights fired from guns are not of much use for the immediate
foreground, and do not bu
. . . duced ngi
probably have a considerable future.
> not burn very long. They were formerly chiefly
of use in siege works, to light up an enemy's working parties.
Germany has introduced lightballs fired from pistols, which will
• Various civilian forms of flare4igkt would be very useful to
illuminate obstacles, but cannot well be carried in the field. Bonfires
are very useful when material is available. They require careful
treatment, e.g. they must be so arranged that they can be lighted
instantaneously (they may be lighted automatically, by means of a
trip wire and a fuze); they must give a bright light at once (this
can be ensured with shavings or straw sprinkled with petroleum) ;
they must be firmly built so that the enemy cannot destroy them
easily; and if possible there should be a screen arranged behind
them so that they may not light up the defence as well as the attack.
From MB. B*si**tri*tM permWon of the CoocroBer BJf. i
Fig. 96. — Fougasse.
In the 19th century blockhouses were usually designed to 1
partial protection against field artillery; the walls betas '
two thicknesses of logs with earth between them, the roof
covered with 2 or 3 ft. of earth, and earth being piled ags
walls up to the loopholes. Nowadays they are employed only a
positions where ft is not likely that artillery will be bro u ght agauast
them : but they may be made tenable for a while even under araUery
fire if they are surrounded by a trench and parapet.
r»i _,. L . .. ' • f or sm an posts prott
enemy may attempt to <
„ ._._„ _. „„ — feature is a bullet-proof loop-holed
wallj arranged for all-round fire, with enough interior space for tie
garrison to sleep in. The roof may be simply weathe r proo f . Son*
arrangement for storing water must be provided. Circular block-
bouses were very popular in South Africa. They were made of
sheets of corrugated iron fastened 6 in. apart on a wooden framework,
the space between the sheets being filled with small stones. Tat
loop-holes were made of sheet-iron frames inserted in the weHs.
Fig. 97 shows a section of one of these blockhouses.
By pwmbtfoo of the Controller H.B4. StettOMry Office.
Fig. 97.— Blockhouse, South Africa, 1900-1903.
The defence of woods was formerly an important branch of field
defences. Abatis and entanglements could readily be extemporised,
trunks of trees made strong breastworks, and the wood u . .
concealed the numbers of the defenders. A wood was ™*
therefore generally considered a useful addition to a line of defence.
It was customary to hold the front edge of the wood, the irregularis
of the outline being utilized for frontal and flanking fire, while
obstacles were disposed some 50 yds in front In a carefully pre-
pared position, clearings would be made parallel to the front aad
some distance back from it, for support positions, and great attention
was paid (in theory at least) to clearing communications, erecrJcsa,
signposts, &c, so that the defending troops might move freely in any
desired direction.
Woods, however, had their inherent drawbacks. The ground a
hard to dig, clearing involves great labour; and communicatee,
at the best, is cramped. Nowadays a wood can hardly be considered
a strong defensive element in a line. The front of it is an excetieet
ranging mark for artillery, and positions within the wood are act
easily made, because of the difficulty of trenching, and the fact that
no reasonable amount of timber will make a breastwork proof agatost
the modern bullet. Once an enemy gets a footing within a wood
the position is more favourable to offensive than to defensive actios.
If a wood has to be occupied in a line of defence, it is probable thai
in most cases the rear edge or a line slightly behind it would be the
best to fortify, though the front edge would no doubt be held by the
fighting Ifne at the outset
The defence of villages is another question which has been much
affected by recent improvements in artillery. Formerly villages
were very important adjuncts to a line of defence, and m^— «
strong points for a detached force to hold. There were ^^*
indeed always drawbacks. The preparations for defence enxaSsd
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
CONCLUSION!
a good deal of labour, and the defending force was Mattered in houses
and enclosures, so that control and united action were difficult
But the value of the ready-made protection afforded by walls was so
great — and sometimes even decisive—that villages were occupied
as a matter of course. This w certainly now changed, but precisely
to what extent it will be impossible to say, until after the next
European war A village under fire is not now an ideal defensive
position A single shrapnel penetrating the outer wad may kill
all the occupants of a room; a single ficld-howittcr shell may
practically ruin a house At the same time, a house or lute of houses
may (without any preliminary labour at all) give very good protection
against shell fire to troops behind them Further, the value to the
defence of the slightest cover, once the infantry attack has developed,
is so great that the ruins of walls and houses occupied at the right
moment may prove an impregnable stronghold This class of fighting*
however, does not properly come under the present heading: For the
details of the defence of walls, houses. Ac. see the official Mil.
Enttneertn^ (1008)
Entrencktnr under Ftre — Progress m this direction has been
delayed by the reluctance of military authorities to add a portable
entrenching tool to the heavy burden already earned by the infantry
soldier Further delay has resulted from the at tempts of enthusiastic
inventors to produce a tool that shall weigh nothing, go easily in the
pocket, and be available as a pick, shovel, saw. hand-axe or cork-
screw A tool that wilLserve more than one use isseldom satisfactory
for any
The object of entrenching under fire is to enable attacking Infantry,
when their advance is checked by the enemy's fire, to maintain the
p f~» ground they have won by extemporizing cover where
TT" none exists. The need of this was first felt in the American
Civil War. and towards the close of it a small entrenching
spade 22 in long and weighing only t (lb was introduced
the Linnemann spade, which is used by most continental armies
and by the Japanese The Austrian form of this tool is a rectangular
spade with straight handle The length over all is a little less than
20 in The blade is 8 in long by 6 wide. One tide of it has a saw
edge, and the other a cutting edge. For carriage, the blade Is enclosed
in a leather case, which is strapped to the pack or the waist-belt.
In the British armv the Wallace combined pick and shovel was used
for some time, but was eventually dropped. There was always great
doubt whether the utility of a portable entrenching tool was such as
to justify the inconvenience caused to the soldier in carrying it
But the experience of the Russo-Japanese War seems to have finally
established the necessity of it, and also the fact that it must generally
be used lying down. For this purpose and for convenience in carrying
it on the person, a very light short-handled tool is required
The soldier lying down cannot attempt to dig a trench, but can
make a little hole by his side as he lies, and put the earth in front of
his head A method introduced by the Japanese is that at each check
in the advance the front line should do this, and. as they go forward,
the supporting lines in succession should improve the cover thus
commenced
There are few things that soldiers dislike more, in the way of
training, than trenchwork. For men unused to it. it is tiring and
a-mmni tedious work, and it is difficult for them to realize it*
fCmrfta. importance At the same time it is a commonplace of
•vaw» recent history that men who have been In action a few
times develop a great affection for the shovel. The need of trenches
grows with the growth of firearms, and the latest feature of modern
tactics is the use of them in attack as well as in defence. The
observation has often been made— with what truth as a general
proposition we cannot here discuss— that modern battles tend more
and more to resemble a siege. The weaker side, it Is said, entrenches
itself; the other bombards and attacks. After gaining as much
ground as they can, the attacking troops wait for nightfall and
entrench, perhaps making a further advance and entrenchment
before dawn. In the last stage the attack might even be reduced
to gai '
where _ ...
soldier very much what the breast-plate was to the man-at-arms,
an absolute essential.
The most important point in connexion with modern field fortifica-
tion is the effect on both strategy *nd tactics of the Increased resisting
power of the defence. A small force well entrenched can check the
frontal attack of a very much larger force, and while holding its
position can make itself felt over a wider radius than ever before.
This must needs have a marked effect on strategy, and it is quite
possible to foresee such an ultimate triumph of field fortification
as that one force should succeed in surrounding another stronger
than itself, and by entrenching prevent the latter from breaking out
and compel its surrender.
VI. Conclusion
In tracing the history of the science of fortification and m
outlining the practice of our own time it has been necessary to
> gaining ground by sapping. In open and featureless ground,
here the rule and gun have full play, the trench is to the modem
723
dwell chiefly 00 the material means of defence and attack
The human element has bad to be almost ignored But here
comes in the parados, that the material means are after all the
least important element of defence. Certainly it is inconceivable
that the designer of a fortress should not try to make it as strong
as is consistent wilh the object in view and the means at his
disposal And yet while engineers in all ages have sought eagerly
for strength and refinements of strength, the fact remains that
the best defences recorded in history owed little to the builders
art The splendid defence in 1007 of Candia, whose enceinte,
of early Italian design, was already obsolete but whose capture
cost the Turks 100,000 men, the three years defence of Ostend
in tool , the holding of Arcot by Clive, are instances that present
themselves to the memory at once. The very weight of the odds
against them sometimes calls out the best qualities of the
defenders; and the man when at his best is worth many timet
more than the rampart behind which he fights. But it would be a
poor dependence deliberately to make a place weak in order to
evoke these qualities. One cannot be sure that the garrison
will rise to the occasion, and the weakness of the place has very
often been found an excuse for giving it up with little or no
resistance.
Very much depends on the governor. Hence the French
saying, " tant vaut l'bommc, tant vaut la place." Among modern
men we think of Todleben (not governor, but the soul of the
defence) at Sevastopol, Fenwick Williams at Kara, Denfcrt-
Rochereau at Bclfort, and Osman Pasha at Plevna. The sieges
of the 16th and 17th centuries offer many instances in which
the event turned absolutely on the personal qualities of the
governor, in some cases distinguished by courage, skill and
foresight, in others by incapacity, cowardice or treachery.
The reader is referred to Carnot's Difense des places fortes for a
most interesting summary of such cases, one or two of which
are quoted below.
Naarden was besieged by the prince of Orange In September
id^j and defended by Philippe de Proc6, sfeur Dupas. The
duke of Luxemburg visited the place some hours
before it was invested, and arranged with Dupas to %%£**
relieve him as soon as he had collected his cavalry. Hfttm
But the governor lost his head when he saw the enemy
encamped round the place, and surrendered it before he had even
lost the covered way. He was subsequently tried by a council of
war and sentenced to be degraded before the troops and im-
prisoned for life. The reason the court gave for not condemning
him to death was that they could find no regulation which
condemned a man to loss of life for being a coward. (At that
period the decapitation of a governor who was considered to
have failed In his duty was not uncommon ) This man, however,
was not wanting in physical courage. He was in prison at Grave
when it was besieged a year later, obtained leave to serve as a
volunteer in the defence, fought well and was killed.
A similar case occurred In the English Civil War In 1645 the
young governor of the royal post at Bletchingdon House was
entertaining a party of ladies from Oxford, when Cromwell
appeared and summoned him to surrender. The attacking force
had no firearm more powerful than a carbine, but the governor,
overawed by Cromwell's personality, yielded. Charles I., who
was usually merciful to his officers, caused this governor to be
shot.
A defence of another kind was that of QuiDebceuf in 150*.
Henry IV. had occupied it and ordered it to be fortified. Before
the works had been well begun, Mayenne sent 5000 men to retake
it. BeUegarde undertook its defence, with 115 soldiers, 4$
gentlemen and a few inhabitants. He bad^ammunition but not
much provisions. With these forces and a line of defence a
league in length, he sustained a siege, beat off an assault on the
17th day, and was relieved immediately afterwards. The
relieving forces were astonished to find that he had been defend-
ing not a fortified town but a village, with a ditch which, in the
places where it had been begun, measured no more than 4 ft.
wide and deep.
At that period the business aspect of siege warfare already
724
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT
(00OTCLE5D5
alluded to had been recognized, but many commanders retained
the old spirit of chivalry in their reluctance to say the " loth
word." The gallant Marshal d'Esst, who feared nothing but the
idea of dying in his bed, was lying ill at his country house when
he was sent for by the king. He was ordered to take command
at Therouanne, then threatened by Charles V., and made his
farewell with these words, which remind us somewhat of Grenviile :
" Sire, je m'y en vais done de bon et loyal cceur; mais j'ai ouT dire
que la place est mal envitaillee, non pas seulement pourvue de
palles, de tranches, ni de hottes pour remparer et remuer la
terre; mais lors, quand entendrez que Therouanne est prise,
dites hardiment que d'Esse est gueri de sa jaunisse et mort."
And he made good his word, for he was killed at the breach by
a shot from the arquebus of a Spanish soldier.
Sometimes the ardour of defence inspired the whole body of
the inhabitants. Fine examples of this are the defences of
Rochelle (1637) and Saint-Jean de Lone (1636), but these are too
long to quote. We may, however, mention Livron, which is
curious. In 1574 Henry III. sent one of his favourites, Saint
Lary Bellegarde, against the Huguenots in the Dauphine. Being
entrusted with a good army, this gentleman hoped to achieve
some distinction. He began by attacking the little town of
Livron, which had no garrison and was defended only by the
inhabitants. But he was repulsed in three assaults, and the
women of the town conceived such a contempt for him that they
came in crowds to empty their slops at the breach by way of
insult. This annoyed him very much, and he ordered a fresh
assault. The women alone sustained this one, repulsed it
Ughtheartedly, and the siege was raised
The history of siege warfare has more in it of human interest
than any other branch of military history. It is full of the
. ' personal element, of the nobility of human endurance
^*^ and of dramatic surprises. And more than any battles
in the open field, it shows the great results of the courage of men
fighting at bay. Think of Give at Arcot. With 4 officers, 120
Europeans and 200 sepoys, with two i8-pounders and 8 lighter
guns, he held the fort against 150 Europeans and some 10,000
native troops. " The fort " (says Orme) " seemed little capable
of sustaining the impending siege. Its extent was more than a
mile in circumference. The walls were in many places ruinous;
the rampart too narrow to admit the firing of artillery; the
parapet low and slightly built; several of the towers were
decayed, and none of them capable of receiving more than one
piece of cannon; the ditch was in most places fordable, in others
dry and in some choked up," &c. These feeble ramparts were
commanded almost every where by the enemy's musketry from
the houses of the city outside the fort, so that the defenders were
hardly able to show themselves without being hit, and much
loss was suffered in this way. Yet with his tiny garrison, which
numbered about one man for every 7 yds. of the enclosure,
dive sustained a siege of 50 days, ending with a really severe
assault on two large open breaches, which was repulsed, and
after which the enemy hastily decamped.
.Such feats as this make arguments about successive lines of
defence and the necessity of keeps seem very barren. History,
as far as the writer knows, shows no instances where successive
lines have been held with such brilliant results.
Give's defence of his breaches, which by all the then accepted
rules of war were untenable, brings us to another point which has
been already mentioned, namely, that a garrison might honour-
ably make terms when there was an open breach in their main
line of defence. This is a question upon which Caroot ddjvers
himself very strongly in endeavouring to impress upon French
officers the necessity of defence to the last moment. Speaking of
Cormontaingne'* imaginary Journal of the Attack of a Portress
(which is carried up to the 35th day, and finishes by the words
" It is now time to surrender "), he says with great scorn: " Crillon
would have cried, * It is time to begin fighting/ He would have
said as at the siege of Quillebceuf , ' Crillon is within, the enemy
is without.' Thus when Bayard was defending the shattered
walls of Meaeres, M. de Cormontaingne, if he had been there,
would have said, 'It is time to surrender.' .Thus when Guise
Heap
was repairing the breaches of .Met* under the redonbied fee d
the enemy, M. de Cormontaingne, if he had been there, vesk
have saidj ' It is time to surrender.' " Carnot of comse aSsv
that Cormontaingne was personally brave. His scam is far &
accepted principle, not for the man.
It is interesting to contrast with this passage a
by Sir John Jones, made in answer to Carnot'a book.
in the notes to the second volume of the Jcmmsls
of the Sieges in Spain: " When the breach shall be
pushed properly forward, if the governor insists upon s«*>«~
the ceremony of his last retrenchment being stormed,
as by so doing he spills the blood of many brave men withos 1
justifiable object, his life and the lives of the garrison should i-
made the forfeit A system enforced by terror must be connte-
acted by still greater terror. Humanity towards an enemy a
such a case is cruelty to one's own troops. . . . The principle -
be combated is not the obligation to resist behind the breach-
fox where there is a good retrenchment the bastion should be
disputed equally with the counter-guard or the ravelin and oh.
as safely be so—but the doctrine that surrender shall not tab
place when successful resistance becomes hopeless."
Carnot'a word is " fight to the last." Sir John Jones says tat
commander has no right to provoke further carnage wfea
resistance is hopeless. The question of course is, When is us*
ance hopeless? Sir John Jones's reputation leaves little dssh
that if he had been commanding a fortress on British sol be
would not have thought resistance hopeless as long as tkrt
was anything whatever left to defend. The reason why the*
two men of similar temper are found in opposition is qss£
simple. When Carnot wrote, the French army occupied eaoa
of the important fortresses of Europe, and it was to the interest
of the emperor that if attacked they should be held to the hs
moment, in order to cause the enemy as much delay and ha
as possible. Jones, on the other hand, was one of the **y»— «
who were engaged in besieging those fortresses, and his arr>
ments .were prompted by sympathy for his own country oa
whose lives were sacrificed by the prolongation of such resistance.
A century has passed since Carnot and Jones wrote, and the
ideas in which they had been educated were those of the pa-
Napoleonic era. In the 18th century fortresses were many, good
roads few, and campaigns for the most part leisurely. To tat
European nations of that time, inheritors of a perennial state
of war, the idea of concentrating the national resources c& t
short and decisive campaign had not occurred. The " knocked
blow " had not been invented. All these conditions are act
so changed that new standards must be and indeed have bees
set up, both for the defence of places and the general employaxst
of fortification.
As regards the conduct of the defence, the massacre ot »
garrison as a penalty for holding out too long would meet *&
no sympathy in the present day. On the other hand, the bse*
of modern wars is worked out so rapidly that if a fortress is vet
defended, with the advantage of the present weapons, there s
always a .chance of holding out till the dose of the war. If tfc
place is worth holding, it should as a rule be held to the biuff
end on the chance of a favourable turn in affairs; moreovec,
the maintenance of an important siege under modern condition
imposes a severe strain on the enemy and immobilizes a large
number of his troops.
In conduding this artide some elementary consideration
in connexion with the use of permanent defences may be noticed}
though the general question of strategic fortification
is outside its scope. The objects of fortification differ, ^j?
as has been shown, from age to age. In former times nill , ,
a peaceful people exposed to the raids of piratical
Norsemen might find their refuge tower essential; later, t robber-
baron might look on his castle as so much capital invested,
a wealthy medieval town might prove the value of its waLs
more than once in a generation; a country without a standiag
army might gain time for preparation by means of fb r u c ase s
barring the roads across the frontier. But how does the questioa
stand to-day among European countries which can mobilist
FORTLAGE— FORTROSE
725
o//ort«
their lull fighting strength at n few hours' notice? It can only
be answered when the circumstances of a particular country are
examined*
If we assume such an impossible case as that of two nations
of equal fighting strength and equal resources standing ready
Xh9um m anns t0 defend a common frontier, and that the
amhmm theatre of war presents no difficulties on either side,
then the use of permanent fortifications, merely as
****** an adjunct to military strength, is wrong. Fortresses
do not decide the issue of a campaign; they can only influence
it. It is better, therefore, to put all the money the fortress would
have cost, and all the man-power that its maintenance implies,
into the increase and equipment of the active army. For the
fate of the fortress must depend utlimately on the result of the
operations of the active armies. Moreover, the very assumption
that resources on both sides are equal means that the nation
which has spent money on permanent fortifications will have
the smaller active army, and therefore condemns itself beforehand
to a defensive role.
This general negation is only useful as a corrective to the
tendency to over-fortify, for such a case cannot occur. In
practice there will always be occasion for some use of fortification.
A mountain range may lend itself to an economical defence
by a few men and some inexpensive barrier forts. A nation may
have close to its frontier an important strategic centre, such as a
railway junction, or a town of the first manufacturing importance,
which must be protected. In such a case it may be necessary
to guard against accidents by means of a fortress. Again, if one
nation is admittedly slower in mobilisation than the other,
it may be desirable to guard one portion of the frontier by
fortresses so as to force invasion into a district where concentra-
tion against it is easiest.
As for the defence of a capital, this cannot become necessary
if it stands at a reasonable distance from the frontier until the
active armies have arrived at some result. If the fighting
strength of the country has been practically destroyed, it is not
of much use to stand a siege in the capital. There can be but
one end, and it is better, as business men say, to cut losses.
If the fighting strength is not entirely destroyed and can be
recruited within a reasonable time, say two or three months,
then it appears that under modern conditions the capital might
be held for that time by means of extemporised defences.
The question is one that can only be decided by going into the
circumstances of each particular case.
The case of a weak country with powerful and aggressive
neighbours is in a different category. If she stands alone she
will be eaten up in time, fortifications or no fortifications; but
if she can reckon on assistance from outside, it may be worth
while to expend most of the national resources on permanent
defences.
These hypothetical cases have, however, no value, except as
illustrations to the most elementary arguments. The actual
problems that soldiers and statesmen have to consider are too
complex to be dealt with in generalities, and no mere treatise
can supply the place of knowledge, thought and practice.
BiBLiOGRAfHf .— The more important works on the subject arc:
DOrer, UnUrrichl sur Befestigung (Nuremberg, 1527); Speckle,
ArckiUctur von Festungen (btnsaburz, 1589); Fritach, L' Architecture
IParis, 1637); ft " " " ~ '
§tvn \rar19, xf*^)\ d. r. uc ucuuw, iwohc «m injcnKori, vt
(Paris, 17SO); works of Coehoom, Vauban, Montalembert, Cormon
taingne; Mandar, De I' architecture des forteresses (Paris, 1801);
Chaieloap-Laubat, Bssais sur queloues parties da for til. ci de la
fortification (Milan, 1811); Carnot, Diffuse des pious fortes (Paris,
1 8m; Jones, Journals of Sieges in Spain (3rd ed\, London, 1846);
T. Chonmara, Mimoire svr la fortification (1847); A. von Zastrow,
Geschichte ier btstdndigen Befestigung (n.d., Fr. trans.); works of
LArchir
T. Chonmara, Mimoire svr la fortification {
Geuhickte ier btstdndigen Befestigung (n.d .
Sir C. Pasley; Noizet. Principe* is fortif, (Paris, 1859);
De la fortif. permanente (Paris, 1850); E. Viollet le Due, «-/irc.«»-
tecture mUttatre an moytn die (Paris, 1854) ; Cosseron de ViJIenoisy,
Essai historique sur la fortification (Paris, 1869); works of Brialmont
tf*0; Delambte, La Fortification dans set rapports a*rt la tactiqua
et la straUgie (Paris, 1887) 1 v. Sauer, Angriff und Verteidigung fester
Pl&tze (Berlin, 1885); Scbroeter, Die Festunj in der heuUgen Kricf
fthrung (Berlin, 1898-1906); Baron E. v. Leithoer, Dubestamdig*
Plessix
_ r # — , „ , .,__ , — edition
1909) ; Kitter v. Brunner, Die bestandige Befestigung (Vienna, 1909),
Die FeldbefesHgung (Vienna, 1004) ; Rocchi, Traccia per lo studio delta
fortifications permanente (Turin, 100a) ; Sir G. S. Clarke, Fortification
O907); V. Deguiac, La Fortification permanente contemporaine
(Brussels, 1908) ; Royal Military Academy, Text-book of Fortification,
pt. ii. (London, 1893); British official Instruction in Military
Engineering, pt*. L, ii. and iv. (London, 1900-1908). ' (L. J.)
FORTLAGB, KARL (x8o6-x88x), German philosopher, was
born at Osnabrilck. After teaching in Heidelberg and Berlin,
he became professor of philosophy at Jena (1846), a post which he
held till his death. Originally a follower of Hegel, he turned to
Fichte and Beneke (q.v.), with whose insistence on psychology as
the basis of all philosophy he fully agreed. The fundamental idea
of his psychology isimpulse, which combines representation (which
presupposes consciousness) and feeling (i.e. pleasure). Reason
is the highest thing in nature, i.e. is divine in its nature, God fs
the absolute Ego and the empirical egos are his instruments.
Fortlage'a chief works are: Genetiscke Geschichte d. Philos. seit
(2 vols., Leipzig, 1855); Darstellungund Kritik der BeweisefUr das
Dasein GotUs (Heidelberg, 1840) ; Bcitr&ge sur Psych, als Wissen-
sckaft (Leipzig, 1875).
FORT USB, a borough of Bergen county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
in the N.E. part of the state, on the W. bank of the Hudson
river, opposite the northern part of New York City. Pop. (1005)
3433 ; (19 to) 4472. It is connected with the neighbouring towns
and cities by electric railways, and by ferry with New York City,
of which it is a residential suburb. The main part of the borough
lies along the summit of the Palisades; north of Fort Lee is an
Interstate Palisades Park. Early in the War of Independence the
Americans erected here a fortification, first called Fort Constitu-
tion but later renamed Fort Lee, in honour of General Charles Lee.
The name of the fort was subsequently applied to the village that
grew up in its vicinity. From the 15th of September until the 20th
of November 1776 Fort Lee was held by Gen. Nathanacl Greene
with a garrison of 3500 men, bnt the capture by the British of
Fort Washington on the opposite bank of the river and the
crossing of the Hudson by Lord Cornwallis with 5000 men made
it necessary for Greene to abandon this post and join Washington
in the famous " retreat across the Jerseys. n An attempt to
recapture Fort Lee was made by General Anthony Wayne in
1 780, but was unsuccessful. On the site of the fort a monument,
designed by Carl E. Tefft and consisting of heroic figures of a
Continental trooper and drummer boy, was erected in 1008.
The borough of Fort Lee was incorporated in 1004.
FORT MADISON, a city and the county-seat of Lee county,
Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, in the S.E. corner of the
state, and about 20 m. S.W. of Burlington. Pop. (1800) 7901;
(1900) 9278, of whom 1025 were foreign-born; (1005) 8767; (1910)
890a Fort Madison is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa
Fe" (which has repair shops here) and the Chicago, Burlington
& Quincy railways. The city has various manufactures, including
canned goods, chairs, paper and farm implements; the value
of its factory product in 1005 was $2,378,892, an increase of
5o>8% over that of 1000. Fort Madison is the seat of one of
Iowa's penitentiaries. A stockade fort was erected on the site
of the- city in 1808, but was bumed in 1813. Permanently
settled in 1833, Fort Madison was laid out as a town in 1836,
and was chartered as a city in 1839.
FORTROSE (Gaelic /or t'rois, " the wood on the promontory "),
a royal and police burgh, and seaport of the county of Ross
and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (ioox) 1179. It is situated
on the south-eastern coast of the peninsula of the Black Isle,
8 m. due N.N,E. of Inverness, 26} m. by rail. It is the terminus
of the Black Isle branch of the Highland railway; there is com-
munication by steamer with Inverness and also with Fort
George, 2} m. distant, by ferry from Chanonry Ness. Fortrose
consists of the two towns of Rosemarkie and Chanonry, about x
m. apart, which were united into a free burgh by James II. in
1455 and created a royal burgh in x 59a It is a place of consider-
able antiquity, a monastery having been established In the 6th
century by St Moraag, a friend of Coltunba's, and St Peter's
726
FORT SCOTT— FORTUNATUS
church built in the 8th century. In 1x24 David I. instituted
the bishopric of Ross, with its seat here, and the town acquired
some fame for its school of theology and law. The cathedral
is believed to have been founded in 1330 by the countess of Ross
(her canopied tomb, against the chancel wall, still exists) and
finished in 1485 by Abbot Frascr, whose previous residence at
Melrose is said to account for the Perpendicular features of his
portion of the work. It was Early Decorated in style, cruciform
in plan, and built of red sandstone, but all that is left are the
south aisles of the nave and the chancel, with the chapter-house,
a two-storeyed structure, standing apart near the north-eastern
corner. The cathedral and bishop's palace were destroyed by
order of Cromwell, who used the stones for his great fort at
Inverness. Another relic of the past survives in the bell of 1460.
These ruins form the chief object of interest in the town, but
other buildings include the academy and the Black Isle com-
bination poorhouse. The town is an agricultural centre of some
consequence, and the harbour is kept in repair. Rosemarkie,
in the churchyard of which is an ancient Celtic cross, is much
resorted to for sea-bathing, and there is a golf course in Chanonry
Ness. The burgh belongs to the Inverness district group of
parliamentary burghs.
FORT SCOTT, a city and the county-seat of Bourbon county,
Kansas, U.S.A., on the Marmaton river, about 100 m. S. of
Kansas City, Missouri. Fop. (1880) 5372; (1890) 11,046;
(1900) 10,322, of whom IS05 were negroes; (1910 census)
10463. It is the point of intersection of the Kansas City, Fort
Scott & Memphis (St Louis & San Francisco system), the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri Pacific railways,
and has in consequence a large traffic The city is built on a
rolling plain. Among its institutions are an Epworth house
(1899), Mercy hospital (1889), the Goodlander home, and a
Carnegie library. Near the city there is a national cemetery.
Fort Scott is in the midst of the Kansas mineral fields, and its
trade in bituminous coal is especially important. Building
stones, cement rock, days, oil and gas, lead and zinc are also
found in the neighbourhood. An excellent white sulphur water
is procured from artesian wells about 800 ft. deep, and there is
a mineral- water bath house. The dty is also a trading centre
for a rich farming region, and is a horse and mule market of
considerable importance. Among its manufactures are mat-
tresses, syrup, bricks, pottery, cement and foundry products.
In 1905 the total value of the dty's factory product was
$1,349,026, bdng an increase of 89% since 1900. The dty
owns and operates its waterworks. The fort after which the
dty is named was established by the Federal government in 1842,
at a time when the whole of eastern Kansas was still parcelled
out among Indian tribes; it was abandoned in 1855. The
town was platted in 1857, and Fort Scott was chartered as a
dty in i860.
FORT SMITH, a dty and the county-seat of Sebastian county,
on the extreme W. border of Arkansas, U.S.A., lying about
440 ft. above sea-lcvd, on the S. bank of the Arkansas river,
at its junction with the Poteau, and at the point where the
Arkansas breaks through the Boston mountains. Pop. (1890)
">3Xi; (1000) 11,587, of whom 2407 were of negro descent and
684 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 23,975. Transporta-
tion is afforded by the river and by six railways, {he St Louis &
San Francisco, the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, the
Arkansas Central, the Fort Smith & Western, the Midland Valley
and the Kansas City Southern. A bdt line round the business
centre of the dty facilitates freight transfers. Some of the
business streets are unusually broad, and the streets in the
residential district are well shaded. Fort Smith is the business
centre of a fine agricultural country and of the Arkansas coal
and natural gas region. It has extensive wholesale jobbing
interests and a large miscellaneous trade, partly in its own
manufactures, among which are cotton and timber products,
chairs, mattresses and other furniture, wagons, brooms and
bricks. In 1905 the total value of the factory product was
$2,329454, an increase of 66-2% since 1900. The public
schools have a rich endowment: the proceeds of lands (about
200 acres) once belonging to the local military
which— except the part occupied by a national cemetery— *»
given by Congress to the city in 1884. Near the centre of ik
dty are a Catholic academy, convent and infirmary; and thee
is a Carnegie library. A United States army post was cstabfisSad
here in 1817, the town was laid out in 1821; and the coeat;
was created in 1851. Fort Smith was incorporated as a tows !a
1842, and was chartered as a dty in 1845. All trmaspoztaikt
was by river and wagon until 1876, when the railway to
completed from Little Rock. The military post, in earner yeas
the chief depot for the western forts, was »>—tw fr n n i m 1S7T
During the Civil War Fort Smith was strongly in sympathy wes
the Confederacy. The fort was seized by state troops in Aprs
x86i, and was reoccupied by the Union forces in Septemhet
1863. There was considerable unrest due to border "bmk-
whacking " throughout the war, and several skirmishes toek
place here in 1864. The area of the city was more than doubted
in 1005.
FORTUNA (Fortune), an Italian goddess of great auttiqrit;,
but apparently not native at Rome, where, according to vnxvenal
Roman tradition, she was introduced by the king Servius Talis
as Fors Fortuna, and established in a temple on the Etrosoa
side of the Tiber outside the dty, and also under other titles a
other shrines. In Latium she bad two famous places of worship.
one at Praeneste, where there was an oracle of Fortuna primigesu
(the first-born), frequented especially by women who, as we mr/
suppose, desired to know the fortunes of their children or thrir
own fortune in child-birth; the other at Antium, w«n knows
from Horace's ode (i. 35). It is highly probable that Fortius
was never a ddty of the abstract idea of chance, but represented
the hopes and fears of men and especially of women at differed
stages of their life and experience; thus we find her worshipped
as time went on under numerous cult-titles, such as mtdkbw,
virilis, hujusce did, cquestris, redux, &c, which connected her
supposed powers with individuals, groups of individuab, «
particular occasions. Gradually she became more or less dosefy
identified with the Gr. Tfopt, *&d was represented on coins, *c,
with a cornucopia as the giver of prosperity, a rudder as the
controller of destinies, and with a wheel, or standing on a haE.
to indicate the uncertainty of fortune. In this semi-Greek ion
she came to be worshipped over the whole empire, and Pliny
(N.H. ii. 32) declares that in his day she was invoked in al
places and every hour. She even became identified with Iss>
and as Pantkca was supposed to combine the attributes of al
other deities.
The best account of this difficult subject is to be found in Roscher's
Mythological Lexicon (*.».); see also Wissowa, Rditiou und KtUfn
der Rimer, p. 206 folL (\V. W. F.*)
FORTUNATIANUS, ATTUU3, Latin grammarian, flourished
in the 4lh century a.d. He was the author of a treatise oa
metres, dedicated to one of his pupils, a youth of senatorial rank,
who desired to be instructed in the Horatian metres. The
manual opens with a discussion of the fundamental ideas of
metre and the chief rules of prosody, and ends with a detailed
analysis of the metres of Horace. The chief authorities used
are Caesius Bassus and the Latin adaptation by Juba the
grammarian of the Tcx*i? of Heliodorus. Fortunatianus being a
common name in the African provinces, it is probable that the
author was a countryman of Juba, Terentianus Maurus and
Victorious.
Editions of the An in H. Kdl.Crammaiui Lntitti. vi.«and separately
by him (1885).
FORTUNATUS, the legendary hero of a popular European
chap-book. He was a native, says the story, of Famagusta in
Cyprus, and meeting the goddess of Fortune in a forest received
from her a purse which was continually replenished as often as
he drew from it. With this he wandered through many lands,
and at Cairo was the guest of the sultan. Among the treasures
which the sultan showed him was an old napless bat which had
the power of transporting its wearer to any place he desired.
Of this hat he feloniously possessed himself, and returned to
Cyprus, where he led a luxurious life. On his death he left the
FORTUNATUS— FORT WAYNE
1*1
purse and the hat to his tons Ampedo and Andetosia; but they
were jealous of each other, and by their recklessness and folly
soon fell on evil days. The moral of the story is obvious: men
should desire reason and wisdom before all the treasures of the
world. In its fall form the history of Fortunatus occupies in
Karl Simrock's Die dentscken VolksbOchcr, voL Hi., upwards of
158 pages. The scene is continually shifted— from Cyprus to
Flanders, from Flanders to London, from London to France;
and a large number of secondary characters appear. The style
and allusions indicate a comparatively modern date for the
authorship; but the nucleus of the legend can be traced back
to a much earlier period. The stories of Jonathas and the three
jewels in the Cesta Romonerum, of the emperor Frederick and
the three precious stones In the Cento Novell* antichs, of the
Mazin of Khorassan in the Thousand end one Nights, and the
flying scaffold in the Bahar Donetsk, have all a certain similarity.
The earliest known edition of the German test of Fortunatus
appeared at Augsburg in 1500, and the modern German in*
vestigators are disposed to regard this as the original form.
Innumerable versions occur in French, Italian, Dutch and
English. The story was dramatized by Hans Sachs in 1553,
and by Thomas Dekker in 1600; and the letter's comedy
appeared in a German translation in Engliscke Komddien und
Tragddien, 1620. Ludwig Ticck has Utilized the legend In his
Pkantasus, and Adelbert von Chamisso in bis Peter SchUmikl;
and Ludwig Uhland left an unfinished narrative poem entitled
" Fortunatus and his Sons."
Sec Dr Fr. W. V. Schmidt's Fortunatus und seine Sbkne, eine
Zouber-Tragodie, von Thomas Decker, mit eintm Anheng, Sec. (Berlin,
1819) ; Joseph Johann Gorres, Die dentscken VotksbOcker (1807).
FORTUNATUS, VENAMTIUS HOrtORIUS CLBMENTCANU3
(530-609), bishop of Poitiers, and the chief Latin poet of his time,
was born near Ceneda in Treviso in 530. He studied at Milan
and Ravenna, with the special object of excelling as a rhetorician
and poet, and in 565 be journeyed to France, where he was
received with much favour at the court of Sigbert, king of
Austrasia, whose marriage with Brunhild he celebrated in an
epithalamium. After remaining a year or two at the court of
Sigbert he travelled in various parts of France, visiting persons
of distinction, and composing short pieces of poetry on any
subject that occurred to him. At Poitiers he visited Queen
Radegunda, who lived there in retirement, and she induced him
to prolong his stay in the city indefinitely. Here he also enjoyed
the friendship of the famous Gregory of Tours and other eminent
ecclesiastics. He was elected bishop of Poitiers in 509, and
died about 609. The later poems of Fortunatus were collected
in 11 books, and consist of hymns (including the VexUla regis
prodeunt, Englished by J. M. Neale as " The royal banners
forward go "), epitaphs, poetical epistles, and verses in honour
of his patroness Radegunda and her sister Agnes, the abbess of
a nunnery at Poitiers. He also wrote a large poem in 4 books
in honour of St Martin, and several lives of the saints in prose.
His prose is stiff and mechanical, but most of his poetry has an
easy rhythmical flow.
An edition of the works of Fortunatus was published by C. Brewer
at Fulda in 1603 (2nd ed.. Mainz, 1617). The edition of M. A.
Luschi (Rome, 1785) was afterwards reprinted in M ianc's Patrologiae
cursus computus, vol. Ixxxviil. See the edition by Leo and Krusch
(Berlin, 1881-1885). There are French lives by Nisard (1880) and
Leroux (1885).
FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-1880), Scottish botanist and
traveller, was born at Kelloe in Berwickshire on the 16th of
September 18x3. He was employed in tbe botanical garden at
Edinburgh, and afterwards in the Royal Horticultural Society's
garden at Chiswick, and upon the termination of the Chinese
War in 1642 was sent out by the Society to collect plants in
China. His travels resulted in the introduction to Europe of
many beautiful flowers; but another journey, undertaken in
1848 on behalf of the East India Company, had much more
important consequences, occasioning the successful introduction
into India of the tea-plant. In subsequent journeys he visited
Formosa and Japan, described the culture of the silkworm and
the manufacture of rice paper, and Introduced many trees.
shrubs and flowers now generally cultivated in Europe. The
incidents of his travels were related in a succession of interesting
books. He died in London on the 13th of April 1880.
FORTUNY, MARIANO JOSB MARIA BERNARDO (1838-
1874), Spanish painter, was born at Reus on the nth of June
1838. His parents, who were in poor circumstances, sent him
for education to the primary school of his native town, where he
received some instruction in the rudiments of art. When he was
twelve years old his parents died and he came under the care of
his grandfather, who, though a joiner by trade, had made a
collection of wax figures, with which he was travelling from
town to town. In the working of this show the boy took an active
part, modelling and painting many of the figures; and two years
biter, when he reached Barcelona, the cleverness of his handfwork
made so much impression on some people in authority there that
they induced the municipality to make him an allowance of
forty-two francs monthly, so that he might be enabled to go
through a systematic course of study. He entered the Academy
of Barcelona and worked there for four year) under Claudio
Lorensale, and in March 1857 he gained a scholarship that
entitled him to complete his studies in Rome. Then followed
a period of more than two years, during which he laboured
steadily at copies of the old pictures to which he had access at
Rome. To this period an end was put by the outbreak of the
war between Spain and the emperor of Morocco, as Fortuny
was sent by the authorities of Barcelona to paint tbe most
striking incidents of the campaign. The expedition lasted for
about six months only, but it made upon him an impression that
was powerful enough to affect the whole course of his subsequent
development, and to implant permanently in his mind a pre-
ference for the glitter and brilliancy of African colour. He re-
turned to Spain in the summer of i860, and was commissioned
by the city of Barcelona to paint a large picture of the capture
of the camps of Muley-el-Abbas and Mulcy-el-Hamed by the
Spanish army. After making a large number of studies he went
back to Rome, and began the composition on a canvas fifteen
metres long; but though it occupied much of his time during
the next few years, he never finished^ it. He busied himself
instead with a wonderful series of pictures, mostly of no great
size, in which he showed an astonishing command over vivacities
of technique and modulations of colour. He visited Paris in
1868 and shortly afterwards married the daughter of Federico
Madraxo, the director of the royal museum at Madrid. Another
visit to Paris in 1870 was followed by a t wo years' stay at Granada,
but then he returned to Rome, where he died somewhat suddenly
on the 21st of November 1874 from an attack of malarial fever,
contracted while painting in the open air at Naples and Portici in
the summer of 1874.
Tbe work which Fortuny accomplished during his short life
is distinguished by a superlative facility of execution and a
marvellous cleverness in the arrangement of brilliant hues, but
the qualities of his art are those that are attainable by a master
of technical resource rather than by a deep thinker. His insight
into subtleties of illumination was extraordinary, his dexterity
was remarkable in the extreme, and as a cdourist he was vivacious
to the point of extravagance. At the same time in such pictures
as " La Vicaria " and " Choosing a Model," and in some of his
Moorish subjects, like " Tbe Snake Charmers " and " Moors
playing with a Vulture," he showed himself to be endowed with
a sensitive appreciation of shades of character and a thorough
understanding of the peculiarities of a national type. His love
of detail was instinctive, and he chose motives that gave him the
fullest opportunity of displaying his readiness as a craftsman.
See DeviUier, Fortuny, so He, son mure, sa correspondence, Gfc.
(Paris, 1876); C. Yriarte, Fortuny (Artistes cttlbrts series) (Paris,
FORT WAYlfB, a city and the county-seat of Allen county,
Indiana, U.S.A., 101 m. N.E. of Indianapolis, at the point where
the St Joseph and St Mary's rivers join to form the Maumee
river. Pop. (1880) 26,880; (1800) 35.393: O900) 45." 5. o*
whom 6791 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 63,933. * It is
served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton k Dayton, the Fort Wayne,
728
FORT WILLIAM— FORT WORTH
Cincinnati & Louisville, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the Lake
Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago & St Louis,
the Pennsylvania and the Wabash railways, and also by inter-
urban electric lines. The site of the city is high (about 770 It.
above sea-level) and level, and its land area was in 1006 a little
more than 6 sq. m. The streets are laid out on a rectangular
plan and bordered by a profusion of shade trees. The city has
several parks, including Lawton Park (31 acres), in which there
is a monument in honour of Major-General Henry Ware Lawton
(1843-1899), who lived in Fort Wayne for a time, Lake Side
Park (22 acres), Reservoir Park (13 acres), Piqua Park (x acre),
and Old Fort Park (| acre), which is on the site of Old Fort
Wayne. The educational institutions include the German
Concordia Collegium (Lutheran), founded in 1839, and having
a ao students in 1908, and the state school for feeble-minded
youth (1879). The city has a Carnegie library. Fort Wayne
is one of the most important railway centres in the Middle West,
and several railways maintain here their principal car and repair
shops, which add greatly to the value of its manufacturing
industries; in 1905 it ranked first among the cities of the state
in the value of cars constructed and repaired by steam-railway
companies. The other manufactories include foundries and
machine shops, iron and steel mills, knitting mills, planing mills,
sash and door, car-wheel, electrical machinery, and woodenware
factories and flour mills* In 1905 the total value of the factory
product of the city was $15,129,562, showing an increase of
34*3% since 1900.
The Miami Indians had several villages in the immediate neigh*
bourhood, and the principal one, Kekionaga (Miami Town or
Great Miami Village), was situated on the £. bank of the St
Joseph river, within the limits of the present city. On the E, bank
of the St Mary's a French trading post was built about 1680. In
1749-1750 the French fort (Fort Miami) was moved to the £.
bank of the St Joseph. The English occupied the fort in 1 760 and
Pontiac captured it in May 1 763, after a siege of more than three
months. In 1700 the Miami villages were destroyed. In Septem-
ber 1794 General Anthony Wayne built on the S. bank of the
Maumee river the stockade fort which was named in his honour,
the site of which forms the present Old Fort Park. By the treaty
of Greenville, concluded by General Wayne on the 3rd of August
1795, a piece of land 6 sq. m. in area, including the tract of the
Miami towns, was ceded to the United States, and free passage
to Fort Wayne and down the Maumee to Lake Erie was
guaranteed to the people of the United States by the Indians.
By the treaty of Fort Wayne, concluded by General W. H.
Harrison on the 7th of June 1803, the tract about Vinccnnes
reserved to the United States by the treaty of Greenville was
described and defined; by the second treaty of Fort Wayne,
concluded by Harrison on the 30th of September 1800, the
Indians sold to the United States about 2,900,000 acres of land,
mostly S.E. of the Wabash river. In September 1813 Fort
Wayne was besieged by Indians, who withdrew on the arrival,
on the 1 2th of September, of General Harrison with about 2700
men from Kentucky and Ohio. The fort was abandoned on the
19th of April 1819 and no trace of it remains. The first per-
manent settlement here was made in 1815, and the village was
an important fur-trading depot until 1830. The opening of the
Wabash & Erie canal in 1 843 stimulated its growth. A town was
platted and was made the county-seat in 1824; and in 1840
Fort Wayne was chartered as a city.
See W. A. Brice, History of Fort Wayne (Ft. Wayne, 1868) ; John
B. Dillon, History of Indiana, from its Earliest Exploration by
Europeans to Ike Close of the Territorial Government in 1816 (Indiana-
polis, lnd., 1859); and Charles E. Slocum, History of the Maumee
River Basin, from the Earliest Accounts to Us Organization into
Counties (Defiance, Ohio, 1905).
FORT WILLI AM, the principal town of Thunder Bay district,
Ontario, Canada, 426 m. (by rail) E.S.E. of Winnipeg, on the
Kaministiquia river, about a mile from Lake Superior. It
is the lake terminus of the Canadian Pacific railway, of the new
Grand Trunk Pacific railway, and of several steamship lines.
Port Arthur, the terminus of the Canadian Northern railway,
lies 4 m. to the N.E. Fort William contains numerous grain
elevators, railway repair shops and docks, and has a large apart
trade in grain and other farm produce. Minerals are ase
exported from the mining district, of which it is the cents.
Industries, such as saw, planing and flour mills, hare six-
sprung up. The population was 4800 in 1001, but has ssa
increased with great rapidity.
FORT WILLIAM, a police burgh of Inverness-shire, Scotlaei
Pop. (1001) 2087. It lies at the north-eastern end of Loch Lkak.
an arm of the sea, about 62 m. S.S.W. of Inverness by road *
canal, and was, in bygone days, one of the keys of the Highland
It is 123} m. N.E. of Glasgow by the West Highland raifr-r;
The fort, at first called Kilmallie, was built by General Mosia
1655 to hold the Cameron men in subjection, and was enhrp:
in 1600 by General Hugh Mackay, who renamed it after Wales
III., the burgh then being known as Maryburgh in honour of
his queen. Here the perpetrators of the massacre of Gksac
met to share their plunder. The Jacobites unsiioteasfijiv
besieged it in 17x5 -and 1746. The fort was dismantled in tscc.
and demolished in 1800 to provide room for the railway and &t
station. Amongst the public buildings are the Bdford bosp.ti
public hall, court house and the low-level raeteorologjnj
observatory, constructed in 1891, which was in connexion *ia
the observatory on the top of Ben Nevis, until the latter ws
closed in 1904. Its great industry is distilling, and the <t»
tilleries, about 2 m. N.E., are a familiar feature in the laadscsre.
Beyond the railway station stands the obelisk to the memc.7
of Ewen Maclachlan (1 775-1822), the Gaelic poet, who was tea
in the parish. Fort William is a popular tourist resort and p^rc
of call for the Steamers passing through the Caledonian cac£
The town is the point from which the ascent of Ben Nevis— 4 1 rr
E.S.E. as the crow flies— is commonly made. At Corpic v
about 2 m. N., the Caledonian canal begins, the series of lous
between here and Bauavie— within little more than a miic—
being known as " Neptune's Staircase." Both the Lodby sod
the Nevis enter Loch Linnhe immediately to the north of Fort
William. A mile and a half from the town, on the Lochy. stand*
the grand old ruin of Inverlochy Castle, a massive qtaadraagehr
pile with a round tower at each corner, a favourite subject wsi
landscape painters. Close by is the scene of the battle of the
2nd of February 1645, in which Montrose completely defeated
the earl of ArgylL The modern castle, in the Scottish Barosal
style, 1 J m. to the N E. of this stronghold and farther from tbe
river, is the scat of Lord Abinger.
FORT WORTH, a city and the county-seat of Tarrant county.
Texas, U.S.A., about 30 m. W of Dallas, on the S. bank of tst
West Fork of the Trinity river* Pop. (1880) 0663; (iSgo)
23,076; (1000) 26,688, of whom 1793 were foreign-born and
4249 were negroes; (1910, census) 73*3* »• It is served by the
Chicago, Rock Island & Gulf, the Fort Worth & Denver City,
the Fort Worth & Rio Grande, and the St Louis, San Frandsoj
& Texas of the " Frisco " system, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa
F«, the Houston & Texas Central, the International & Great
Northern, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the St Louis South-
western, the Texas & Pacific, and the Trinity ft Brazos Valley
(Colorado & Southern) railways. Fort Worth is beantifaflv
situated on a level space above the river. It is the seat of Fort
Worth University (coeducational), a Methodist Episcopal in-
stitution, which was established as the Texas Wesleyan College
in 188 1, received its present name in 1889, comprises an academy,
a college of liberal arts and sciences, a conservatory of musk, a
law school, a medical school, a school of commerce, and a depart-
ment of oratory and elocution, and in 1007 had 802 students;
the Polytechnic College (coeducational; Methodist Episcopal
South), which was established in x$oo, has preparatory, collegiate,
normal, commercial, and fine arts departments and a summer
school, and in 1006 had 12 instructors and (altogether) 646
students; the Texas masonic manual training school; a kinder-
garten training school; St Andrews school (Protestant
Episcopal)* and St Ignatius Academy (Roman Catholic). There
are several good business, municipal and county buildings, and
a Carnegie library. On the 3rd of April 1909 a fire destroyed
ten blocks in .the centre of the city. Fort Worth lies in Uc
FORTY— FOSBROKE
7*9
midst of a stocktaking and fertile agricultural region; then
is an important stockyard and packing establishment just
outside the city; and considerable quantities of cotton are
raised in the vicinity. Among the products are packed meats,
flour, beer, trunks, crackers, candy, paint, ice, paste, cigars,
clothing, shoes, mattresses, woven wire beds, furniture and
overalls; and there are foundries, iron rolling mills and tan-
neries. In 1005 the total value of the city's factory product
was $5,668,391, an increase of 62.5% since 1000; Fort
Worth in 1900 ranked fifth among the dties Of the state in the
value of its factory product; in 1005 it ranked fourth. Fort
Worth's numerous railways have given it great importance
as a commercial centre. The municipality owns and operates
the waterworks and the electric-lighting plant*
A military post was established here in 1849, being called
first Camp Worth and then Fort Worth. It was abandoned in
1853. A settlement grew up about the fort, and the city was
incorporated in 1873. The fort and the settlement were named
in honour of General William Jenkins Worth (1704-1849), a
native of Hudson, New York, who served in the War of 1812,
commanded the United States forces against the Seminole
Tnriians in 1841-1842, served under both General Taylor and
General Scott in the Mexican War, distinguishing himself at
Monterey (where he earned the brevet of major-general) and in
other engagements, and later commanded the department of
Texas. In 1907 Fort Worth adopted a commission form of
government.
FORTY* the cardinal number equal to four tens. The word
is derived from the O. Eng. fctwertig, a combination of fe&wer,
lour, and tig, an old form of " ten," used as a sums, cf. Ice!.
tiu, Dan. It, ten, and Ger. vierzig, forty. The name " The Forty "
has been given to various bodies composed of that number of
members, particularly to a judicial body in ancient Athens,
who tried small cases in the rural districts, and to a court of
criminal jurisdiction and two civil appeal courts in the Venetian
republic The French Academy (see Academies) has also been
known as "The Forty" or "The Forty Immortals." The
period just before the repeal of the corn laws in the United
Kingdom is frequently alluded to, particularly by the free trade
school, as the " hungry forties "; and the u roaring forties "
is a sailor's name for the stormy region between the 40th and
50th latitudes N» and S., but more particularly applied to the
portion of the north Atlantic lying between those latitudes.
FORUM (Lat. from joris, "out of doors"), in Roman
antiquity, any open place used, like the Greek &Wa, for the
transaction of mercantile, judicial or political business, some-
times merely as a promenadk It was level, rectangular m form,
surrounded by porticoes, basilicas, courts of law and other
public buildings. In the laws of the Twelve Tables the word is
used of the vestibule of a tomb (Cicero, De legibus, ii. 24); in
4 Roman camp the forum was an open place immediately beside
the praetorium; and the term was no doubt originally applied
generally to the space in front of any public building or gateway.
In Rome (q.v.) itself, however, during the period of the early
history, forum was almost a proper name, denoting the flat and
formerly marshy space between the Palatine and Capitoline hills
(also called Forum Romanum), which probably even during the
segal period afforded the accommodation necessary for such
public meetings as could not be held within the area Capitolina.
In early times the Forum Romanum was used for athletic games,
and over the porticoes were galleries for spectators; there were
also shops of various kinds. But with the growth of the city
and the increase of provincial business, more than one forum
became necessary, and under the empire a considerable number
of cimlia (judicial) and venalia (mercantile) fora came into
existence. In addition to the Forum Romanum, the Fora of
Caesar and Augustus belonged to the former class; the Forum
boar turn (cattle), holitorium (vegetable), piscarium (fish),
piUorium (bread), vinarium (wine), to the latter. The Fora of
Nerva (also called iransiiorium or pervium, because a main road
led through it to the Forum Romanum), Trajan, and Vespasian,
although partly intended to facilitate the course of pubfic
business, were chiefly erected to embellish the dty. The con*
fetniction of separate markets was not, however, necessarily the
rule in the provincial fora; thus, in Pompeii, at the north-east end
of the forum, there was a maceUum (market), and shops for
provisions and possibly money changers, and on the east side a
building supposed to have been the dothworkera' exchange,
and at Timgad in North Africa (a military colony founded under
Trajan) the whole of the south side of the forum was occupied by
shops. The forum was usually paved, and although on festal
Occasions chariots were probably driven through, it was not a
thoroughfare and was enclosed by gates at the entrances, of
which traces have been found at Pompeii. When the sites for
new towns were being selected, that for the forum was in the
centre, and the two main streets crossed one another dose to
but not through h. At Timgad the main streets are some 5 or
6 ft. lower than the forum. The word forum frequently appears
in the names of Roman market towns; as, for example, in
Forum Appii, Forum Julii (Frejxs), Forum Livii (Forli), Forum
Sempronii (Fossombrone). These /ora were distinguished from
mere vki by the possession of a municipal organization, which,
however, was less complete than that of a prefecture. In legal
phraseology, which distinguishes the forum commune from the
forum pri*uegiatum> and the forum generate from the forum
special*, the word is practically equivalent to "court" or
" jurisdiction."
For the fora at Rome, see Rous: Archaeology, and works quoted.
FORUM APPII, an ancient post station on the Via Appia,
43 m. S.E. of Rome, founded, no doubt, by the original con-
structor of the road; Horace mentions it as the usual halt at
the end of the first day's journey from Rome, and describes it
as full of boatmen and cheating innkeepers. The presence of
the former was due to the fact that it was the starting-point of
a canal which ran parallel to the road through the Pomptine
Marshes, and was used instead of it at the time of Strabo and
Horace (see Appia, Via). It is mentioned also as a halting place
in the account of Paul's journey to Rome (Acts xxviii. 15).
Under Nerva and Trajan the road was repaired; one inscription
records expressly the paving with silex (replacing the former
gravelling) of the section from Tripontium, 4 m» N.W., to Forum
Appii; the bridge near Tripontium was similarly repaired, and
that at Forum Appii, though it bears no inscription, is of the
same style. Only scanty relics of antiquity have been found
here; a post station was placed here by Pius VL when the Via
Appia was reconstructed. (T. As,)
FORUM CLODII, a post station on the Via Clodia, about
93 m. N.W. of Rome (not 3a m. as in the AnUmim Itinerary),
situated above the western bank of the Lacus Sabatinus (mod.
Lake of Bracciano), and connected with the Via Cassia at
Vacanae by a branch road which ran round the N. side of the
lake (A nn. Inst., 1859, 43). The site is marked by the church of
SS. Marcus, Mardanus and Liberatus, which was founded in the
8th or 9th century aj>. Inscriptions mentioning the Foro-
Clodienses have come to light on the spot; and an inscription
of the Augustan period, which probably stood over the door of a
villa, calls the place Pausilypon— a name justified by the beauty
of the site.
See Noti$U degli tcafi (1869), 5 J D. Vaglieri, ibid (1895). 34*
FORUM TRAIAMI (mod. Fordongianus), an ancient town of
Sardinia, on the river Thyrsus (Tirso), and a station on the
Roman road through the centra of the island from Carales to
Ottua and Tunis Libisoms. Many of its rums have been
destroyed since i860. The best preserved are the baths, erected
over hot mineral springs. The tanks for collecting the water
and the large central piscina are noteworthy. The bridge over
the Tirso has been to some extent modernised. On the opposite
bank are the scanty remains of an amphitheatre. Not far off
is a group of numghi, of which that of St Barbara in the commune
of Vilknova Truschedda is one of the finest.
See Taramellt in Notirie degli scaoi (1903). 469.
FOSBROKE, THOMAS DUDLEY (1770-1842), English anti*
quary, was born in London on the 27th of May 177a He was
educated at St Paul's school and Pembroke College, Oxford,
730
FOSCARI— F0SC0LO
graduating M.A. in 1792. In* that year he was ordained and
became curate of Horsley, Gloucestershire, where he remained
till 18 10. He then removed to Walford in Herefordshire, and
remained there the rest of his lite, as curate till 1830, and after-
wards as vicar. His first important work, British Monachism
(a vols., 1802), was a compilation, from manuscripts in the
British Museum and Bodleian libraries, of facts relating to
English monastic life. In 1709 Foabroke had been elected
fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. The work for which he
is best remembered, the Encyclopaedia of Antiquities, appeared
in 1824. A sequel to this, Foreign Topography, was published
in 1828. Fosbroke published many other volumes. He died
at Walford on the 1st of January 1842.
FOSCARI, FRANCESCO (1373-1457), doge of Venice, belonged
to a noble Venetian family, and held many of the highest offices
of the republic— ambassador, president of the Forty, member
of the Council of Ten, inquisitor, procurator of St Mark, avoo-
gadore di comun, &c His first wife was Maria Priuli and his
second Maria Nani; of his many children all save one son
(Jacopo) died young. But although a capable administrator
be was ambitious and adventurous, and the reigning doge
Tommaso Mocenigo, when speaking on his deathbed of the
various candidates for the succession, warned the council against
electing Foscari, who, he said, would perpetually plunge the
republic into disastrous and costly wars. Nevertheless Foscari
was elected (1423) and reigned for thirty-four years. In pro-
claiming the new doge the customary formula which recognised
the people's share in the appointment and asked for their
approval— the last vestige of popular government— was finally
dropped.
Foscari's reign bore out Mocenigo's warning and was full of
wars on the terra fermo, and through the doge's influence Venice
joined the Florentines in their campaign against Milan, which was
carried on with varying success for eight years. In 1430 an
attempt was made on Foscari's life by a noble to whom he had
refused an appointment; and three years later a conspiracy of
young bloods to secure the various offices for themselves by
illicit intrigues was discovered. These events, as well as the
long and expensive wars and the unsatisfactory state of Venetian
finances, induced Foscari to ask permission to abdicate, which
was, however, refused. In 1444 began that long domestic tragedy
by which the name of Foscari has become famous. The doge's
son Jacopo, a cultivated and intelligent but frivolous and
irresponsible youth, was in that year accused of the serious
crime of having accepted presents from various citizens and
foreign princes who either desired government appointments or
wished to influence the policy of the republic. Jacopo escaped,
but was tried in contumacy before the Council of Ten and
condemned to be exiled to NapoH di Romania (Nauplia) and
to have his property confiscated. But the execution of the
sentence was delayed, as he was lying ill at Trieste, and eventually
the penalty was commuted to banishment at Trcviso (1446).
Four years later Ermolao Donato, a distinguished official who
had been a member of the Ten at the time of the trial, was
assassinated and Jacopo Foscari was suspected of complicity
in the deed. After a long inquiry he was brought to trial for
the second time, and although all the evidence dearly pointed
to his guilt the judges could not obtain a confession from the
accused, and so merely banished him to Candia for the rest of his
life, with a pension of two hundred ducats a year. In 1456 the
council received information from the rector (governor) of Candia
to the effect that Jacopo Foscari had been in treasonable corre-
spondence with the duke of Milan and the sultan of Turkey.
He was summoned to Venice, tried and condemned to a year's
imprisonment, to be followed by a return to his place of exile.
His aged father was allowed to see htm while in prison, and to
Jacopo's entreaties that he should obtain a full pardon for him,
he replied advising him to bear his punishment without protest.
When the year was up Jacopo returned to Candia, where he died
in January 1457. The doge was overwhelmed with grief at this
bereavement and became quite incapable of attending to busi-
ness. Consequently the council decided to ask him to abdicate;
at first he refused, but was finally obliged to conform to their
wishes and retired on a yearly pension of 1500 ducats. Ulia
a week Pasquale Malipiero was elected in his place and two U71
later (1st of November 1457) Francesco Foscari was dead
The story is a very sad ami pathetic one, but legend has added
many picturesque though quite apocryphal details, most of tfefs.
tending to show the iniouity and harshness of Jacopo's judges em
accusers, whereas, as we nave shown, he was treated with cxceptxrjl
leniency. The most accurate account is contained in S. Hcaat^'i
Storia doeumentala di Vtnetia, lib. x. cap. iv. viL and x. (\ "en n
; where the original authorities are quoted ; tee also Bctosl
} 8 & ;
Foscari (Turin, l8<p). Among the poetical works on '•
subject Byron's tragedy is the most famous (1821), and Rngr>
poem Italy (182 1); Giuseppe. Verdi composed an opera oa the
Subject entitled / due Foscari, (I- V.'}
FOSCOLO, UGO (1778-1827), Italian writer, was bora 2
Zante in the Ionian Isles on the 26th of January 1778. On ik
death of his father, a physician at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, the
family removed to Venice, and in the University of Pufca
Foscolo prosecuted the studies begun in the Dalmatian gramsar
school The fact that amongst hisPaduan masters was the ibfee
Ccsarotti, whose version of Ossian had made that work highi?
popular in Italy, was not without influence on Foscolo 's biercrj
tastes, and his early knowledge of modern facilitated his stales
in ancient Greek. His literary ambition revealed itself by the
appearance in 1797 of his tragedy Tieste—a production whka
obtained a certain degree of success. Foscolo, who, froc
causes not clearly explained, had changed his Christian saoe
Niccolo to that of Ugo, now began to take an active part in the
stormy political discussions which the fall of the republic d
Venice had provoked. He was a prominent member of the
national committees, and addressed an ode to Napoleon the
liberator, expecting from the military successes of the French
general, not merely the overthrow of the effete Venetian oligarchy,
but the establishment of a free republican government.
The treaty of Campo Formio (17th Oct. 1797), by which
Napoleon handed Venice over to the Austrians, gave a rode
shock to Foscolo, but did not quite destroy his hopes. The state
of mind produced by that shock is reflected in the Letters M
Jacopo Ortis (1798), a species of political Werther, — for the hen
of Foscolo embodies the mental sufferings and suicide of ss
undeceived Italian patriot just as the hero of Goethe places before
us the too delicate sensitiveness embittering and at last cattisf
short the life of a private German scholar. The story of Foscolo,
like that of Goethe, had a groundwork of melancholy fact.
Jacopo Ortis had been a real personage; he was a young studcat
of Fadua, and committed suicide there under tircuxosuaees
akin to those described by Foscolo. At this period FosceJo'i
mind appears to have been only too familiar with the thought
of suicide. Cato and the many classical examples of self-destruc-
tion scattered through the pages of Plutarch appealed to the
imaginations of young Italian patriots as they had done in France
to those of the heroes and heroines of the Gironde. In the case
of Foscolo, as in that of Goethe, the effect produced on the
writer's mind by the composition of the work seems to have beta
beneficial. He bad seen the ideal of a great national future
rudely shattered; but he did not despair of his country, and
sought relief in now turning to gaze on the ideal of a great national
poet At Milan, whither he repaired after the fall of Venice, he
was engaged in other literary pursuits besides the composition
of Ortis, The friendship formed there with the great poet Farim
was ever afterwards remembered with pride and gratitude.
The friendship formed with another celebrated Milanese poet soon
gave place to a feeling of bitter enmity. Still hoping that bis
country would be freed by Napoleon, he served as a volunteer
in the French army, took part in the battle of the Trebfaia and
the siege of Genoa, was wounded and made prisoner. When
released be returned to Milan, and there gave the last touches
to his Ortis, published a translation of and commentary upon
CaUimachus, commenced a version of the Iliad, and began bis
translation of Sterne's Sentimental Journey. The result of a
memorandum prepared for Lyons, where, along with other
Italian delegates, he was to have laid before Napoleon the state
of Italy, only proved that the views cherished by him for his
FOSS— FOSSOMBRONE
73'
country were too bold to be even submitted to the dictator of
France. The year 1807 witnessed the appearance of his Cams*
sui sepdcri, of which the entire spirit and language may be
described as a sublime effort to seek refuge in the past from the
misery of the present and the darkness of the future. The
nighty dead are summoned from their tombs, as ages before
they had been in the masterpieces of Creek oratory, to fight
again the battles of their country. The inaugural lecture on
the origin and duty of literature, delivered by Foscolo in January
1809 when appointed to the chair of Italian eloquence at Pavia,
was conceived in the same spirit. In this lecture Foscolo urged
his young countrymen to study letters, not in obedience to
academic traditions, but in their relation to individual and
r »t;rifi»i life and growth. The sensation produced by this
lecture bad no slight share in provoking the decree of Napoleon
by which the chair of national eloquence was abolished in all the
Italian universities. Soon afterwards Foscolo 's tragedy of Ajax
was represented but with little success at Milan, and its supposed
allusions to Napoleon rendering the author an object of suspicion,
he was forced to remove from Milan to Tuscany. The chief
fruits of his stay in Florence are the tragedy of Ricciarda, the
Ode to the Graces, left unfinished, and the completion of his
version of the Sentimental Journey (1813). His version of Sterne
is an important feature in his personal history. When serving
with the French he had been at the Boulogne camp, and had
traversed much of the ground gone over by Yorick; and in his
memoir of Didimo Cherico, to whom the version is ascribed,
he throws much curious light on his own character. He returned
to Milan in 1813, until the entry of the Austrians; thence he
passed into Switzerland, where he wrote a fierce satire in Latin
on bis political and literary opponents; and finally he sought the
shores of England at the close of 1816.
During the eleven years passed by Foscolo in London, until
his death there, he enjoyed all the social distinction which the
most brilliant circles of the English capital confer on foreigners
of political and literary renown, and experienced all the misery
which foDows on a disregard of the first conditions of domestic
economy. His contributions to the Edinburgh and Quarterly
Reviews, his dissertations in Italian on the text of Dante and
Boccaccio, and still more his English essays on Petrarch, of
which the value was enhanced by Lady Dacre's admirable
translations of some of Petrarch's finest sonnets, heightened his
previous fame as a man of letters.. But his want of care and
forethought in pecuniary matters involved him in much em-
barrassment, and at last consigned him to a prison; and when
released he felt bitterly the change in his social position, and the
coldness now shown to him by many whom he had been
accustomed to regard aa friends. His general bearing in society
— if we may accept on this point the testimony of so keen an
observer and so tolerant a man as Sir Walter Scott — had un-
happily not been such as to gain and retain lasting friendships.
He died at Turnham Green on the xoth of October 1837. Forty-
four years after his death, in 1871, his remains were brought to
Florence, and with all the pride, pomp and circumstance of a
great national mourning, found their final resting-place beside
the monuments of Macchiavelli and Alfieri, of Michelangelo
and Galileo, in Italy's Westminster Abbey, the church of Santa
Croce. To that solemn national tribute Foscolo was fully
entitled. For the originality of his thoughts and the splendour
of his diction bis country honours him as a great classic author.
He had assigned to the literature of his nation higher aims than
any which it previously recognized. With all his defects of
character, and through all his vicissitudes of fortune, be was
always a sincere and courageous patriot.
Ample materials for the study of Foacolo's character and career
may be found in the complete scries of his works published in
Florence by Le Monnier. The series consists of Prose leUcrarie,
(4 vol*., 1850); Rpisletario (3 vols., 1854): Prose politick* (1 vol.,
1850); Poeste (1 vol, 1856); Letters dtOrtis (1 vol.. 1838); Satri
di critica storico-lcUerari* (1st vol., 1859; 2nd vol., 1862). To this
series must be added the very intcrestingwork published at Leghorn
in 1876, Letters inediU del Foscolo, delOiordani, t delta Signora di
Stall, a Vincenwo Monti. The work published at Florence in the
summer of 1878, Vita di Ugo fosceio, di PeUegrme Artusi, throws
much doubt on the genuineness of the teat in Fosoolo's writings at
given in the complete Florence edition, whilst it furnishes some
curious and original illustrations of Fosoolo's familiarity with the
English language. (J. M. S.)
FOSS, EDWARD (1 787-1870), English lawyer and biographer,
was born in London on the xoth of October 1787. He was a
solicitor by profession, and on his retirement from practice in
1840, he devoted himself to the study of legal antiquities. His
Judges of England (0 vols., 1848-1864) is a standard work,
characterized by accuracy and extensive research. Biographia
Juridica, a Biographical Dictionary of English Judges, appeared
shortly after his death. He assisted in founding the Incorporated
Law Society, of which he was president in 1842 and 1843. He
died of apoplexy on the 27th of July 1870.
FOSSANO, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy,
in the province of Cuneo, 15 m. N.E. of it by rail, xx8o ft. above
sea-level Pop. (xooi) 7606 (town), 18,175 (commune). It has
an imposing castle with four towers, begun by Filippo d'Acaia
in 13x4. The cathedral was reconstructed at the end of the
x8th century. The place began to acquire some importance in
the 13th century. It appears as a commune in 1237, but in
1 251 had to yield to Asti. It finally surrendered in 13x4 to
Fdlippo d'Acaia, whose successor handed it over to the house of
Savoy. It lies on the main bne from Turin to Cuneo, and has
a branch line to Mondovi.
FOSSANUOVA, ah abbey of Italy, in the province of Rome,
near the railway station of Sonnino, 64 m. S.E. of Rome. It
is the finest example of a Cistercian abbey, and of the Burgundian
Early Gothic style, in Italy, and dates from the end of the 12th
to the end of the 13th century. The church (1 187-1208) is
closely similar to that of CasamarL The other conventual
buildings also are noteworthy. Thomas Aquinas died here in
1274.
See C. Enlart, Origuus francaises de Farchtiectun gothique en
Italte (Paris, 1894) {BiUietMne des icoles francaises £ Athene* et
de Rome, lax. &fi. *"
(or Foss) WAT; the Early English name of a Roman
road or series of roads in Britain, used later by the English,
running from Lincoln by Leicester and Bath to Exeter. Almost
all the Roman line is still in use as modern road or lane. It
passes from Lincoln through Newark and Leicester (the Roman
Rotoe) to High Cross ( Venonae), where it intersects Watling Street
at a point often called "the centre of England." Hence it runs to
Moieton-in-the-Marsh, Cirencester, Bath and Uchester, crosses
the bills near Chard, Axminster and Honiton, and enters Exeter.
Antiquaries have taken it farther, usually to Totnes, but without
warrant. (See further under Eumrs Strut.) (F. J. H.)
FOSSICK (probably an English dialectical expression, meaning
fussy or troublesome), a term applied by the gold diggers of
Australia to the search for gold by solitary individuals, in
untried localities or in abandoned diggings. A w fossicker,"
or pocket miner, is one who buys up the right to search old
claims, in the hope of finding gold overlooked by previous
diggers. -
FOBSOMBRONE (ana Forum Sempronii), a town and episcopal
see of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino,
1 1 m, E.S.L of the latter by road, 304 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(xooi) town, 7531, commune, 10,847. Tbe town is situated
in the valley of the Metauro, in the centre of fine scenery, at the
meeting-point of roads to Fano, to the Furlo pass and Fossato
di Vico (the ancient Via Flaminia), to Urbino and to Sinigagha,
the last crossing the river by a fine bridge. The cathedral,
rebuilt in 1772-1784, contains the chief work of the sculptor
Domenico Rosselli of Rovezzano, a richly sculptured ancona
of 1480, S. Francesco has a lunette by him over the portaL
The library, founded by a nephew of Cardinal Passionei, contains
some antiquities. Above the town is a medieval castle. There
is a considerable trade in silk.
The ancient Forum SempronH lay about 2 m. to the N.E.
at S. Martino al Piano, where remains still exist. . It was a station
00 the Via Flaminia and a municipimm. The date of its founda-
tion is not known. Excavations in 1870-1880 led to the discovery
of a house and of other buildings 00 the ancient load (A.
73*
Veraarecd in Notkie degli scavi, 1880, 458). It already had
a bishop in the years 490-502. In 1295 the Malatesta obtained
possession of it, and kept it until 1444, when it was sold, with
Pesaro, to Federico di Montefeltro of Urbino, and with the
latter it passed to the papacy under Urban VIIL in 1631.
FOSSOMBRONI, VITTORIO, Count (i 754-1844), Tuscan
statesman and mathematician, was born at Arezzo. He was
educated at the university of Pisa, where he devoted himself
particularly to mathematics. He obtained an official appoint-
ment in Tuscany in 1782, and twelve years later was entrusted
by the grand duke with the direction of the works for the drainage
of the Val di Chiana, on which subject he had published a treatise
in 1789. In 1796 he was made minister for foreign affairs, but
on the French occupation of Tuscany in 1799 he fled to Sicily.
On the erection of the grand duchy into the ephemeral kingdom
of Etruria, under the queen-regent Maria Louisa, he was ap-
pointed president of the commission of finance. In 1809 he went-
to Paris as one of the senators for Tuscany to pay homage to
Napoleon. He was made president of the legislative commission
on the restoration of the grand duke Ferdinand III. in 1814,
and subsequently prime minister, which position he retained
under the grand duke Leopold II. His administration, which
Was only terminated by his death, greatly contributed to promote
the well-being of the country. He was the real master of Tuscany,
and the bases of his rule were equality of all subjects before the
law, honesty in the administration of justice and toleration of
opinion, but he totally neglected the moral improvement of the
people. At the age of seventy-eight he married, and twelve
years afterwards died, in 1844.
Bibliography. — Gino Capponi, U Conte V. Fossombroni, A. von
Rcumont, Geschichfe Toscanas unier dem Hausc Lothringen-Habsburg
(Gotha, 1877); Zobt, Storia civile della Toscana (Florence, 1850-
1853) ; Galeotti, Delle Leggi e dell' amministratione della Toscana
(Florence, 1847); Baldasseroni, Leopaldo II. (Florence, 1871); see
also under Capponi, Gino; Ferdinand III., of Tuscany, and
Leopold II., of Tuscany. (L. V.*)
FOSTER. SIR CLEMENT IB NEVR (1841-1904), English
geologist and mineralogist, the second son of Peter Le Neve
Foster (for many years secretary of the Society of Arts), was
born at Camberwell on the 23rd of March 1841. After receiving
his early education at Boulogne and Amiens, he studied succes-
sively at the Royal School of Mines in London and at the mining
college of Freiburg in Saxony. In i860 he joined the Geological
Survey in England, working in the Wealden area and afterwards
in Derbyshire. Conjointly with William Topley (1841-1894)
he communicated to the Geological Society of London in 1865
the now classic paper " On the superficial deposits of the Valley
of the Medway, with remarks on the Denudation of the Weald."
In this paper the sculpturing of the Wealden area by rain and
rivers was ably advocated. Retiring from the Geological
Survey in 1865, Foster devoted his attention to mineralogy
and mining in Cornwall, Egypt and Venezuela. In 187a he was
appointed an inspector of mines under the home office for
the S.W. of England, and in 1880 he was transferred to the N.
Wales district; In 1800 he was appointed professor of mining
at the Royal College of Science and he held this post until the
dose of his life. His later work is embodied largely in the reports
of mines and quarries issued annually by the home office. He
was distinguished for his extensive scientific and practical
knowledge of metalliferous mining and stone quarrying. He
was -elected F.R.S. in 1892 and was knighted in 1003.' While
investigating the cause of a mining disaster in the Isle of Man
in 1897 his constitution suffered much injury from carbonic-
oxide gas, and he never fully recovered from the effects. Ho
died in London on the 19th of April 1004. He published Ore and
Stone Mining, 1894 (ed. 5, 1904); and The Elements of Mining
and Quarrying, 1903.
FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847- ), Canadian politician
and financier, was born in New Brunswick on the 3rd of
September 1847, of U.E. Loyalist descent. After a brilliant
university career at the university of Brunswick, at Edinburgh
and Heidelberg, he returned to Canada and taught in various
local schools, eventually becoming professor of. classics and
FOSSOMBRONI— FOSTER, J.
history in the local university. In 188s he became Conservatm
member for King's County, N.B., in the Dominion perfcaiaeaa,
and in 1885 entered the cabinet of Sir John Macrionald as nuasia
of marine and fisheries; in 1888 he became minUt^ of finance,
which position he held till the defeat of has party in 189ft. *
careful and even brilliant financier, and a keen debater, be
became known as a strong believer in protection fox f*««rft»i
industries and in preferential trade within the British <
FOSTER, JOHN (1770-1843), English author and -
minister, generally known as the " Essayist," was born in a scsi
farmhouse near Halifax, Yorkshire, on the 17th of September
1770. Partly from constitutional causes, but partly also frsn
the want of proper companions, as well as from the grave and
severe habits of his parents, his earlier years were enshroooed
in a somewhat gloomy and sombre atmosphere, which was neve?
afterwards wholly dissipated. His youthful energy, finding at
proper outlet, developed within him a tendency to morbid
intensity of thought and feeling; and, according to his ova
testimony, before he was twelve years old be was ponrinnrd d
a " painful sense of an awkward but entire individuality.'*
The small income accruing to Foster's parents from tin
farm they supplemented by weaving, and at an early age at
began to assist them by spinning wool by the hand wheel, and
from his fourteenth year by weaving double stuffs. JEven " whet
a child," however, ho had the " feelings of a foreigner in the
place "; and though he performed his monotonous task wiia
conscientious diligence, he succeeded so indifferently in fixing
his wandering thoughts upon it that his work never withe*
difficulty passed the ordeal of inspection. He had acquired •
great taste for reading, to gratify which he sometimes that
himself up alone in a barn, afterwards working at his looa
" like a horse," to make up for lost time. He had also at this
period " a passion for making pictures with a pen." Shortly
after completing his seventeenth year he became a member of
the Baptist church at Hebden Bridge, with which his parents
were connected; and with the view of preparing himself fee
the ministerial office he began about the same time to attend
a seminary at Brearley Hall conducted by his pastor Dr Fawcett
After remaining three years at Brearley Hall he was admitted
to the Baptist College, Bristol, and on finishing his course of
study at this institution he obtained an engagement at Newcastle*
on-Tyne, where he preached to an audience of less than a hundred
persons, in a small and dingy room situated near the river at the
top of a flight of steps called Tuthffl Stairs. At Newcastle he
remained only three months. In the beginning of 1793 be pro-
ceeded to Dublin, where, after failing as a preacher, be attempted
to revive a classical and mathematical school, but with so little
success that he did not prosecute the experiment for more thaa
eight or nine months. From 1797 to 1709 he was minister of a
Baptist church at Chichester, but though he applied himsdf
with more earnestness and perseverance than formerly to the
discharge of his ministerial duties, his efforts produced little
apparent impression, and the gradual diminution of his hearers
necessitated his resignation. After employing himself for a few
months at Battersea in the instruction of twenty African youths
brought to England by Zachary Macaulay, with the view of
having them trained to aid as missionaries to their fellow-country-
men, he in 1800 accepted the charge of a small congregation at
Downend, Bristol, where he continued about four years. In
1804, chiefly through the recommendation of Robert Hall, he
became pastor of a congregation at Frome, but a swelling in the
thyroid gland compelled. him in 1806 to resign his charge. In the
same year he published the volume of Essays on which his
literary fame most largely if not mainly rests. They were
written in the form of letters addressed to the lady whom he
afterwards married, and consist of four papers,—' 4 On a Man
writing Memoirs of himself "; " On Decision of Character M ;
" On the Application of the Epithet Romantic "; and " On some
Causes by which Evangelical Religion has been rendered un-
acceptable to Men of Cultivated Taste." The success of this
work was immediate, and was so considerable that on resigning
his charge he determined to adopt literature as his profession.
FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL— FOSTORIA
733
lie Eclectic Renew was the only periodical with which be estab-
shed a connexion; but his contributions to that journal,
hich were begun in 1807, number no fewer than 185 articles,
to his marriage in May 1808 he removed to Bourton*on-the-
/ater, a small village in Gloucestershire, where he remained
II 1817, when he returned to Downend and resumed his duties
) his old congregation. Here he published in 1820 his Essay
I Popular Ignorance, which was the enlargement of a sermon
riginally preached on behalf of the British and Foreign School
aciety. In 182 1 he removed to Stapleton near Bristol, and in
I2 a he began a series of fortnightly lectures at Broadmead
lapel, Bristol, which were afterwards published. On the
I I lement of Robert Hall at Bristol this service was discontinued,
i in such circumstances it appeared to Foster to be " altogether
iperfluous and even bordering on impertinent." The health
f Foster during the later years of his life was somewhat infirm,
le result chiefly of the toil and effort of literary composition;
ad the death of his only son, his wife and the greater number
[ his most intimate friends combined with his bodily ailments
> lend additional sombreness to his manner of regarding the
/ents and arrangements of the present world — the " visage of
sath " being almost his " one remaining luminary." He died
t Stapleton on the 15th of October 1843.
The cast of Foster's mind was meditative and reflective rather
tan logical or metaphysical, and though holding moderately
alvinislic views, his language even in preaching very seldom
x>k the mould of theological forms. Though always retaining
is connexion with the Baptist denomination, the evils result-
ig from organized religious communities seemed to him so
reat that he came to be " strongly of opinion that churches are
seless and mischievous institutions, and the sooner they are
issolved the better." The only Christian observances which
e regarded as of any importance were public worship and the
ord's Supper, and it so happened that he never administered
je ordinance of baptism. His cast of thought is largely coloured
y a constant reference to the " endless future." He was a firm
elicver in supernatural appearances, and cherished a longing
ope that a ray of light from the other world might sometimes
1 this way be vouchsafed to mortals. As a writer he was most
ainstaking and laborious in his choice of diction, and his style
as its natural consequent defects, though the result is eloquent
1 its way.
Besides the works already alluded to, Foster was the author of a
discourse on Missions (1818); " Introductory Essay" to Dod-
ridge's Rise and Progress of Religion (1825); "Observations on
Ir Hall's Character as a Preacher, prefixed to the collected edition
f Hall's Works (1832); an " Introduction " to a pamphlet by Mr
larahman on the Serampore Missionaries; several political letters
> the Morning Chronicle, and contributions to the Eclectic Review,
ublished posthumously in a vols., 1844. His Life and Cone-
tondence, edited by J. E. Ryland, was published in 1846.
FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-1007), English physiologist,
as born at Huntingdon on the 8th of March 1836. After
raduating in medicine at London University in 1859, he began
9 practise In his native town, but in 1867 he returned to London
3 teacher of practical physiology at University College, where
wo years afterwards he became professor. In 1870 he was
ppointed by Trinity College, Cambridge, to its praelectorship in
hysiology, and thirteen years later he became the first occupant
f the newly-created chair of physiology in the university,
olding it till 1903. He excelled as a teacher and administrator,
nd had a very large share in the organization and development
f the Cambridge biological school. From 1881 to 1903 he was
ne of the secretaries of the Royal Society, and in that capacity
ccrcised a wide influence on the study of biology in Great
ritain. In 1899 he was created K.C.B., and served as president
f the British Association at its meeting at Dover. In the
>llowing year he was elected to represent the university of
ondon in parliament. Though returned as a Unionist, his
oliiical action was not to be dictated by party considerations,
nd he gravitated towards Liberalism; but he played no
rominent part in parliament and at the election of 1906 was
efeated. His chief writings were a Textbook of Physiology
(1876), which became a standard work, and Lectures on the
History of Physiology in the t6lh, jylh and iBth Centuries (1901),
which consisted of lectures delivered at the Cooper Medical
College, San Francisco, in 1900. He died suddenly in London
on the 29th of January 1007^
FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899), English painter,
was born at North Shields. At the age of sixteen he entered the
workshop of Ebeneaer Landells, a wood engraver, with whom
he worked for six years as an illustrative draughtsman, devoting
himself mainly to landscape. During the succeeding fifteen
years he became famous as a prolific and accomplished illustrator,
but about 1861 abandoned illustration for painting, and gained
wide popularity by his pictures, chiefly in water colours, of
landscapes and rustic subjects, with figures, mainly of children.
He was elected in i860 associate and in 1862 full member of the
Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours. His work is memor-
able for its delicacy and minute finish, and for Its daintiness and
pleasantness of sentiment.
See Birket Poster, his Life and Work (extra number of the Art
Journal) by Marcus B. Huish (1890) r an interesting sketch; and
Birket Poster, R.W.S.. by H. M. Cundall (London, 1906), a very
complete and fully illustrated biography.
FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864), American song
and ballad writer, was born near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the
4th of July 1816. He was the youngest child of a merchant of
Irish descent who became a member of the state legislature
and was related by marriage to President Buchanan. Stephen
early showed talent for music, and played upon the flageolet,
the guitar and the banjo; he also acquired a fair knowledge
of French and German. He was sent to school in Towanda,
Pennsylvania, and Later to Athens, Pennsylvania, and when
thirteen years old he wrote the song " Sadly to Mine Heart
Appealing." At sixteen he wrote " Open thy Lattice, Love ";
at seventeen he entered his brother's business house, Cincinnati,
Ohio, where he remained about three years, composing meanwhile
such popular pieces as " Old Uncle Ned," "O Susannah I" and
others. He then adopted song-writing as a profession. His chief
successes were songs written for the negro melodists or Christy
minstrels. Besides those mentioned the following attained
great popularity: " Nelly was a Lady," " Old Kentucky Home,"
" Old Folks at Home," " Massa's in de Cold, Cold Ground," &c.
For these and other songs the composer received considerable
sums, "Old Folks at Home" bringing him, it is said, 15,000
dollars. For most of his songs Foster wrote both songs and music.
In 1850 he married and moved to New York, but soon returned
to Pittsburg. His reputation tests chiefly on his negro melodies,
many of which have been popular on both sides of the Atlantic
and sung in many tongues. " Old Black Joe," the last of these
negro melodies, appeared in 1861. His later songs were senti-
mental ballads. Among these are " Old Dog Tray," " Gentle
Annie," " Willie, we have missed you, 11 &c. His " Come where
my Love lies Dreaming " is a well known vocal quartet. Al-
though as a musician and composer Foster has little claim to high
rank, bis song-writing gives him a prominent place in the modem
developments of popular music He died at New York on the
13th of January 1864.
FOSTORIA. a city, partly in Seneca, partly in Hancock, and
partly in Wood county, Ohio, U.S.A., 35 m. S. by E. of Toledo.
Pop. (1890) 7070; (1900) 773© (584 foreign-bom); (i9*<>)9597«
It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the New York, Chicago &
St Louis, the Ohio Central, the Lake Erie & Western, and the
Hocking Valley railways, and by two interurban electric lines.
The city is situated in an agricultural region, and oil abounds in
the vicinity. Among the city's manufactures are glass, flour,
planing mill products, brass and iron, carriages, barrels, incan-
descent lamps, carbons, wire nails and fences, automobile
engines and parts, railway torpedoes and muslin underwear.
The waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality.
In 1832, upon the coming of the first settlers, two towns, Rome
and Risdon, were laid out on the site of what is now Fostoria.
A bitter rivalry arose between them, but they were finally united
under one government, and the city thus formed was named in
734
FOTHERGILL— FOUCHfi
honour of Charles W. Foster, whose son Charles Foster (18,28-
1904), governor of the state from 1880 to 1884 and secretary of
the United States treasury from 1891 to 1893, did much to pro-
mote its growth. Fostoria was chartered as a city in 1854.
FOTHERGILL, JOHN (1712-1780), English physician, was
born of a Quaker family on the 8th of March 1712 at Carr End
in Yorkshire. He took the degree of M.D. at Edinburgh in 1 736,
and after visiting the continent of Europe he in 1740 settled in
London, where he gained an extensive practice. In the epidemics
of influenza in 1775 and 1776 he is said to have had sixty patients
daily. In his leisure he made a study of conchology and botany;
and at Upton, near Stratford, he had an extensive botanical
garden where he grew many rare plants obtained from various
parts of the world. He was the patron of Sidney Parkinson, the
South Sea voyager. A translation of the Bible (1764 sq.) by
Anthony Purver, a Quaker, was made and printed at his expense.
His pamphlet entitled " Account of the Sore Throat attended
with Ulcers" (1748) contains one of the first descriptions of
diphtheria in English, and was translated into several languages.
He died in London on the 26th of December 1780.
FOTHERINGHAY, a village of Northamptonshire, England,
picturesquely situated on the left bank of the river Nene, i)m.
from Elton station on the Peterborough branch of the London
& North- Western railway. The castle, of which nothing but the
earthworks and foundations remain, is famous as the scene
of the imprisonment of Mary queen of Scots from September
x 586 to her trial and execution on the 8th of February x 587. The
earthworks, commanding a ford of the river, are apparently of
very early date, and probably bore a castle from Norman times.
It became an important stronghold of the Plantagenets from
the time of Edward III., and was the birthplace of Richard III.
in 1452. The church of St Mary and All Saints, originally
collegiate, is Perpendicular, and only the nave with aisles, and
the tower surmounted by an octagon, remain; but the building
is in the best style of its period. Edward, second duke of York,
who was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415, Richard, the
third duke, and his duchess, Cicely (d. 1495), also his son the
earl of Rutland, who with Richard himself, fell at the battle of
Wakefield in 1460, are buried in the church. Their monuments
were erected by Queen Elizabeth, who found the choir and tombs
in ruins.
FOUCAULT. JEAN BERNARD LtON (1819-1868), French
physicist, was the son of a publisher at Paris, where he was born
on the x8th of September 1819. After an education received
chiefly at home, he studied medicine, which, however, he speedily
abandoned for physical science, the improvement of L. J. M.
Daguerre's photographic processes being the object to which
he first directed his attention. During three years he was experi-
mental assistant to Alfred Donne" (1801-1878) in his course of
lectures on microscopic anatomy. With A. H. L. Fizeao he
carried on a series of investigations on the intensity of the light
of the sun, as compared with that of carbon in the electric arc,
and of lime in the flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; on the
interference of heat rays, and of light rays differing greatly in
lengths of path; and on the chromatic polarization of light.
In 1849 he contributed to the Comptes Rendus a description
of an electromagnetic regulator for the electric arc lamp, and,
in conjunction with H. V. Regnault, a paper on binocular vision.
By the use of a revolving mirror similar to that used by Sir
Charles Wheatstone for measuring the rapidity of electric
currents, he was enabled in 1850 to demonstrate the greater
velocity of light in air than in water, and to establish that the
velocity of light in different media is inversely as the refractive
indices of the media. For his demonstration jn 1851 of the
diurnal motion of the earth by the rotation of the plane of oscilla-
tion of a freely suspended, long and heavy pendulum exhibited
by him at the Pantheon in Paris, and again in the following;
year by means of his invention the gyroscope, he received the
Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1855, and in the same year
he was made physical assistant in the imperial observatory at
Paris. In September of that year he discovered that the force
required for the rotation of a copper disk becomes greater when
it is made to rotate with its rim between the poles of a sape,
the disk at the same time becoming heated by the edcy c
" Foucault currents " induced in its metal. Foucault brci*!
in 1857 the polarizer which bears his name, and in the sscdk —^
year devised a method of giving to the speculum of kAkli*
telescopes the form of a spheroid or a paraboloid of revateirc.
With Wheatstone's revolving mirror he in 1862 determine ?hr
absolute velocity of light to be 298,000 kilometres (about iS\ -&
m.) a second, or 10,000 kilom. less than that obtained by pre: .
experimenters. He was created in that year a member 4 lie
Bureau des Longitudes and an officer of the Legion of Hot- j
in 1864 a foreign member of the Royal Society of LgsJc
and next year a member of the mechanical section of •>
Institute. In 1865 appeared his papers on a modifkaik: 1
Watt's governor, upon which he had for some time been et^
menting with a view to making its period of revolution coos' r*
and on a new apparatus for regulating the electric light; asi':*.
the following year (Com pi. Rend. Ixiii.) he showed how, br at
deposition of a transparently thin film of silver on the outer si
of the object glass of a telescope, the sun could be viewed *r>. f
injuring the eye by excess of light. Foucault died of paral^f
on the nth of February 1868 at Paris. From the year ila
he edited the scientific portion of the Journal des D&ata. H*
chief scientific papers are to be found in the CompUs Resit*.
1 84 7-1 869.
See Revue court scient. vi. (1869), pp. 484*489; Proc. Rej Sx.
xvii. (1869), pp. lxxxiii.-Ixxxiv.; Lissaious. Notice Hsioriqu* ssr ii
vie et Us travcux de Lion Foucault (Pans, 1875).
FOUCHf, JOSEPH, Duke of Otkanto (1763-18*0), Fresd
statesman, was born in a small village near Nantes on the r:s
of May 1763. His father, a seafaring man, destined him for uV
sea; but the weakness of his frame and the precocity of ks
talents soon caused this idea to be given up. He was edtscr.d
at the college of the Oratorians at Nantes, and showed roared
aptitude for studies both literary and scientific Desirisg »
enter the teaching profession he was sent to an institution kepi
by brethren of the same order at Paris. There also he cade
rapid progress, and soon entered upon tutorial duties at tk
colleges of Niort, Saumur, Vendome, Juilly and Arras. At Arts
he had some dealings with Robespierre at the time of the bega-
ning of the French Revolution (1789).
In October 1700 he was transferred by the Oratorians ts
their college at Nantes, owing to irregularities due to his as*
for revolutionary principles; but at Nantes he showed e%rc
more democratic fervour. His abilities and the seal with «hj£
he espoused the most subversive notions brought >»«» isi*
favour with the populace at Nantes; he became a ks&ss
member of the local Jacobin club; and on the dissolution of tie
college of the Oratorians at Nantes in Hay 1793, Fouch£ &\e
up all connexion with the church, whose major vows he !»J
not taken. After the downfall of the monarchy on the ioti si
August 1791, he was elected as deputy for the depart meet d
the Lower Loire to the National Convention which met at tie
autumnal equinox and proclaimed the republic. The litem?
and pedagogic sympathies of Fouch6 at first brought him &»
touch with Condorcet and the party, or group, of the Girondist
but their vacillation at the time of the trial and execution cf
Louis XVI. (December 1793* January ax, 1793) led him ts
espouse the cause of the Jacobins, the less scrupulous and morr
thoroughgoing champions of revolutionary doctrine. On tht
question of the execution of the king, Fouche\ after some pre-
liminary hesitations, expressed himself with the utmost vigear
in favour of immediate execution, and denounced those who
" wavered before the shadow of a king."
The crisis which resulted from the declaration of war by the
Convention against England and Holland (Feb. t, 1703), and
a little later against Spain, brought Foodie 1 into notoriety
one of the fiercest of the Jacobinical fanatics who then heM
power at Paris. While the armies of the first coalition threatened
the north-east of France, a revolt of the royalist peasants d
Brittany and la Vendee menaced the Convention on the wcs:.
That body deputed Fouche* with a colleague, Villers, to procrH
FOUCHS
735
> the west as commissioner* invested with Almost dictatorial
owers for the crushing of the revolt of M the whites." The
igour with which he carried out these duties earned him other
ork, and he soon held the post of commissioner of the republic
t the department of the Nievre. Together with Chaumette,
e helped to initiate the atheistical movement, the founders of
hich in the autumn of 1793 began to aim at the extinction of
hristianity in France. In the department of the Nievre he
insacked the churches, sent their spoils to the treasury and
itablishcd the cult of the goddess of Reason. Over the
smeteries, he ordered these words to be inscribed: " Death is
11 eternal sleep." lie also waged war against luxury and
calth, and desired to abolish the use of money. The new cult
as inaugurated at Paris at Notre Dame by the strange orgy
down as " The Festival of Reason " (November 10, 1793).
Fouche* then proceeded to Lyons to execute the vengeance
* the Convention on that city, which had revolted against the
ew Jacobin tyranny. Preluding his work by a festival remark-
>Ie for its obscene parody of religious rites, he then, along with
is colleague, Coilot d'Herbois, set the guillotine and cannon to
ork with a rigour which made his name odious. Modern
search, however, proves that at the close of those horrors
ouche* exercised a moderating influence. Outwardly his
mduct was marked by the utmost rigour, and on his return
> Paris early in April 1704, he thus characterised his policy:
The blood of criminals fertilises the soil of liberty and estab-
ihes power on sure foundations." By that time Robespierre
id struck down the other leaders of the atheistical party;' but
trly in June 1794, at the time of the " Festival of the Supreme
ring," Fouche ventured to mock at the theistic revival which
obespierre then inaugurated. Sharp passages of arms took
lace between them, and Robespierre procured the ejection of
ouche from the Jacobin Club (July 14, 1 794). Fouche, however,
as working with his customary skill and energy, and along with
allien and others, managed to effect the overthrow of the
leistic dictator on Thermidor 10 (July 28), 1794. The ensuing
raction in favour of more merciful methods of government
ireatened to sweep away the group of Terrorists who had been
lainly instrumental in carrying through the coup d'tlat of
hermidor; but, thanks largely to the skill of Fouche* in intrigue,
ley managed for a time to keep at the head of affairs. Discords,
owever, crept in which left him for a time almost isolated, and
needed all his ability to withstand the attacks of the moderates.
. vigorous attack on him by Boissy d'Anglas, on the 9th of
ugust 1795, caused him to be arrested, but the troubles which
isued in Vendemiaire averted the doom that seemed to be
ending; and he owed his release to the amnesty which was
assed on the proclamation of the new constitution of the year
795-
In the ensuing period, known as that of the Directory (1795-
799), Fouchl remained at first in obscurity, but the relations
hich he had with the communists, once headed by Chaumette
id now by Francois N. (" Gracchus ") Babcuf Iq.v.), helped
im to rise once more. He is said to have betrayed to the
irector Barras the secret of the strange plot which Babeuf and
few accomplices batched in the year 1796; but recent research
is tended to throw doubt on the assertion. His rise from
Dverty was slow, but in 1797 he gained an appointment for the
lpply of military ma Uriel, which offered opportunities direct
id indirect. After offering his services to the royalists, whose
lovement was then gathering force, he again decided to support
le Jacobins and the director Barras (q.v.). In the coup <?tlat
: Fructidor 1797 he made himself serviceable to Barras, who in
jg& appointed him to be French ambassador to the Cisalpine
public. At Milan he carried matters with so high a hand
rainst the Gallophobes of that government that his actions
ere disavowed and he himself was removed; but in the confused
ate In which matters then were, he was able for a time to hold
is own and to intrigue successfully against his successor. Early
t 1709 he returned to Paris, and after a brief tenure of office
i ambassador at The Hague, he became minister of police at
aria (July 20, 1799}. The newly elected director, Sieves (?.».),
was then in the ascendant and desired to curb the excesses of
the Jacobins, who had recently reopened their club. Fouche,
casting consistency to the winds, closed the Jacobins dub in a
manner at once daring and clever. Thereupon he bunted down
the pamphleteers and editors, whether Jacobins or royalists,
who were obnoxious to the government, so that at the time of
the return of Bonaparte from Egypt (October 1709) the ex-
Jacobin was one of the most powerful men in France.
Knowing well the unpopularity of the directors, Fouch6 lent
himself to the schemes of Bonaparte and Sieves for their over-
throw. His activity in furthering the coup d'etat of Brumaire
18-19 (November 0-10), 1799, procured him the favour of
Bonaparte, who kept him in office (v. Napoleon I.). In the
ensuing period of the Consulate (1 799-1804) Fouche behaved
with the utmost adroitness. While curbing the royalists and
extreme Jacobins who at first alone opposed Bonaparte, Fouche
was careful to temper as far as possible the arbitrary actions of
the new master of France. In this difficult task he acquitted
himself with so much skill as to earn at times the gratitude
even of the royalists. Thus, while countermining a foolish
intrigue of theirs in which the duchesse de Gukhe was the chief
agent, Fouch6 took care that she should escape. Equally skilful
was his action in the affair of the so-called Arena-Ceracchi plot,
in which the agents proPocateurt of the police were believed to
have played a sinister part. The chief " conspirators " were
easily ensnared and were executed when the affair of Nivose
(December 1800) enabled Bonaparte to act with rigour. This
far more serious attempt (in which royalist conspirators exploded
a bomb near the First Consul's carriage with results disastrous
to the bystanders) was soon seen by Fouche to be the work of
royalists; and when the First Consul, eager to entrap the still
formidable Jacobins, sought to fasten the blame on them, Foment
firmly declared that he would not only assert but would prove
that the outrage was the work of royalists. All his efforts,
however, failed to avert the punishment which Bonaparte was
resolved to inflict on the leading Jacobins. In other matters
(especially in that known as the Plot of the Placards in the
spring of 1802) Fouch* was thought to have secured the Jacobins
concerned from the vengeance of the First Consul. In any case
the latter resolved to rid himself of a man who had too much
power and too much skill in intrigue to be desirable as a sub-
ordinate. On the proclamation of Bonaparte as First Consul
for life (August 1, 1803) Fouche was deprived of his office;
but the blow was softened by the suppression of the ministry of
police and by the attribution of most of iu duties to an extended
ministry of justice. Fouchft also became a senator and received
half of the reserve funds of the police which had accumulated
during his tenure of office. He continued, however, to intrigue
through his spies, whose information was so superior to that of
the new minister of police as to render great services to Napoleon
at the time of the Cadoudal-Pichegru conspiracy (February-
March 1804).
As a result Napoleon, now emperor, brought back Fouchl
to the re-constituted ministry of police (July 1804); he also
later on entrusted to him that of the interior. His work was no
less important than at the time of the Consulate. His police
agents were ubiquitous, and the terror which Napoleon and
Foueh6 inspired, owing to their proven ability to benefit by plots,
partly accounts for the absence of conspiracies after 1804. After
Austerllta (December 1805) Fouche uttered the mot of the
occasion: " Sire, Austerlitx has shattered the old aristocracy;
the boulevard St Germain no longer conspires."
That Napoleon retained some feeling of distrust, or even of
fear, of Fouche* was proved by bis conduct in the early days
of 1808. While engaged in the campaign of Spain, the emperor
heard rumours that Fouche and Talleyrand, once bitter enemies,
were having interviews at Paris in which Murat, king of Naples,
was concerned. At once the sensitive autocrat hurried to Paris,
but found nothing to incriminate Fouche. In that year Fouche*
received the title of duke of Otranto. During the absence of
Napoleon in Austria in the campaign of 1809, the British
Walcheren expedition threatened for a time the safety of
73*
FOUCHER
Antwerp. Fouche thereupon issued an order to the prefects of
the northern departments of the empire for the mobilization of
60,000 National Guards. He added to the order a statement
in which occurred the words: " Let us prove to Europe that
although the genius of Napoleon can throw lustre on France,
his presence is not necessary to enable us to repulse the enemy."
The emperor's approval of the measure was no less marked
than his disapproval of the words just quoted. The next months
brought further causes of friction between emperor and minister.
The latter, knowing the desire of his master for peace at the
dose of the year 1809, undertook on his own account to make
secret overtures to the British ministry, A Utile later Napoleon
opened negotiations and found that FoucM had forestalled him.
His rage against his minister was extreme, and on the 3rd of June
18x0 he dismissed him from his office. However, as it was not
the emperor's custom completely to disgrace a man who might
again be useful, Fouche received the governorship of Rome.
He went thither, not as governor but as fugitive, for on receiving
the emperor's order to give up certain important documents of
his former ministry, he handed over only a few, declaring that
the rest were destroyed. At this the emperor's anger burst
forth again, and Fouche on learning, after his arrival at Florence,
that the storm was still raging at Paris, prepared to sail to the
United States. Compelled, however, by stress of weather and
sickness to put back again, he found a mediator in Eltsa Bona*
parte, grand duchess of Tuscany, thanks to whom he was allowed
to settle at Aix and finally to return to his domain of Point
Can*. In 1812 he sought vainly to turn Napoleon from the
projected invasion of Russia; and on the return of the emperor
in haste from Smorgoni to Paris at the close of that year, the
ex-minister of police was suspected of complicity in the con-
spiracy of General Malet, which came so strangely near to success.
From this suspicion Fouche cleared himself and gave the emperor
useful advice concerning internal affairs and the diplomatic
situation. Nevertheless, the emperor, still distrustful of the
arch-intriguer, ordered him to undertake the government of the
Ulyrian provinces. On the break-up of the Napoleonic system
in Germany in October 1813 FoucM was ordered to repair to
Rome and thence to Naples, in order to watch the movements of
Murat. Before Fouche arrived at Naples Murat threw off the
mask and invaded the Roman territory, whereupon Fouche
received orders to return to France. He arrived at Paris on the
10th of April 1814 at the time when Napoleon was being con-
strained by his marshals to abdicate.
The conduct of FoucW at this crisis was characteristic As
senator he advised the senate to send a deputation to the comte
d'Artois, brother of Louis XVIII., with a view to a reconciliation
between the monarchy and the nation. A little later he ad-
dressed to Napoleon, then at Elba, a letter begging him in the
interests of peace and of France to withdraw to the United
States. To the new sovereign Louis XVIII. he sent an appeal
in favour of liberty and recommending the adoption of measures
which would conciliate all interests. It was not successful, but
FoucW remained unmolested.
This was far from satisfying him, and when he found that
there were no hopes of advancement, be entered into relations
with conspirators who sought the overthrow of the Bourbons.
Lafayette and Davout were concerned in the affair, but their
refusal to take the course desired by Fouche and other bold
spirits led to nothing being done. Soon Napoleon escaped from
Elba and made his way in triumph to Paris. Shortly before
his arrival at Paris (March 19, 1815) Louis XVIII. sent to
Fouch6 an offer of the ministry of police, which he declined,
saying, " It is too late; the only plan to adopt is to retreat."
He then foiled an attempt of the royalists to arrest him, and on
the arrival of Napoleon he received for the third time the port-
folio of police. That, however, did not prevent him from
entering into secret relations with Metternich at Vienna, his aim
being then, as always, to prepare for all eventualities. Meanwhile
he used all his powers to induce the emperor to popularise his
rule, and he is said to have caused the insertion of the words
" The sovereignty resides in the people; it is the source of
power " in the declaration of the council of state. Bat &
autocratic tendencies of Napoleon could scarcely be bek *
check, and Fouche seeing the fail of the emperor to be imtn^i,
took measures to expedite it and secure his own interests, us
the 22nd of June Napoleon abdicated for the second thee, 1^
Fouche was next day elected president of the commission wbi
provisionally governed France. Already he was in loach %ik
Louis XVIIL, then at Ghent, and now secretly received ue
overtures of his agent at Paris. While ostensibly workm* fat
the recognition of Napoleon IL, he facilitated the success d the
Bourbon cause, and thus procured for himself a place ia tit
ministry of Louis XVIIL Even his skill, however, was un*v-:
to the task of conciliating hot-headed royalists who rememberr:
his vote as regicide and his fanaticism as terrorist. He rearwl
office, and after acting for a brief space as ambassador at Drtsdo.
he retired to Prague. Finally be settled at Trieste, what t*
died on the 15th of December 1820. He had accumulated era.'
wealth.
Marked at the outset by fanaticism, which, though cruel, **
at least conscientious, Fouchl's character deteriorated in aid
after the year x 794 into one of calculating cunning. The rxu»
tion represented all that was worst in the life of France dsret
the period of the Revolution and Empire. In Fouche u*
enthusiasm of the earlier period appeared as a cold, seusa ar.
remorseless fanaticism; in him the bureaucracy of the penal
1 795-1 799 and the autocracy of Napoleon found their aHet
instrument. Yet his intellectual pride prevented him sinkc?
to the level of a mere tool. His relations to Napoleon vat
marked by a certain aloofness. He multiplied the meacs <t
resistance even to that irresistible autocrat, so that tbogs
removed from office, he was never wholly disgraced. Desperi
by all for his tergiversations, he nevertheless was sought by al
on account of his cleverness. He repaid the contempt of hs
superiors and the adulation of his inferiors by a mask of im-
penetrable reserve or scorn. He sought for power and negketd
no means to make himself serviceable to the party whose soot*
appeared to be imminent. Yet, while appearing to be tie
servant of the victors, present or prospective, he never gra
himself to any one party. In this versatility he reseoUa
Talleyrand, of whom he was a coarse replica. Both professd.
under all their shifts and turns, to be desirous of serving Fraot
Talleyrand certainly did so in the sphere of diplomacy; Fouui*
may occasionally have done so in the sphere of intrigue.
Bibliography. — Fouche wrote some political pamphlets and rrpen,
the chiciof which are Reflexions sur kjurement de Louis Capet (17*31
RifUxions sur Vtdueation publique (1793) ; Rapport et projet at 'l *
relatif aux colleges (1791); Rapport sur la situation da cVmsrm-
Affrauchie [Lyons] 0794); LeUre aux prefets concemant Us prifre.
&c. (1801); also the letters of 18x5 noted above, and a Ltstn e*
due de Wellington (1817V. The best life of Fouche is that by L
Madelin, Foucki (2 vols., Paris, 1901). The so-called Foucki Memari
are not genuine, but they were apparently compiled, at kast -1
pare, from notes written by Fouche, and are often valuable. tbe.*t
their account of events {e.g. of the negotiations of 1809- iSxc u
not seldom untrustworthy. For those negotiations sec Coqucl-.
Napolion et V Angle tcrre (Paris, 1903, Eng. trans., London, 1904
For the plots with which Fouchi had to deal see £. Daudet. L*
Polka el Us Chouans sous le Consulat et F Empire (Para, is^ .
P. M. C. Dcsmarest, Timoignages kistoriques. ou quins* ans de Ki '
police (Paris, 1833, 2nd ed., 1900); E. Picard, Bonaparte et Men:*
(Paris 1905); C. A. Thierry, Conspirateurs et gens da poiite. -'
comploi delibeUes (Paris, 1903) (Eng. trans., London. 100a): H
Wcfchm^,Z^Z)«c^£i»«A^(Pari^i888);E.GuiUon./> J ^k^
mUUaires sous le Consulat et V Empire (Paris, 1894). (J. Hi_ R_ .
FOUCHER, SIMON (1644-1696). French philosopher, **»
born at Dijon on the xst of March 1644. He was the son oi 3
merchant, and appears to have taken orders at a very early age.
For some years he held the position of honorary canon at I> : .y-~
but this be resigned in order to take up his residence in r^-
He graduated at the Sorbonne, and spent the remainder of !
life in literary work in Paris, where he died on the 27th of A,-.- .
1606. In his day Foucher enjoyed considerable repute as a km
opponent of Malebranche. His philosophical standpoint v«
one of scepticism in regard to external perception. He revivtd
the old arguments of the Academy, and advanced them uita
much ingenuity against Malebranche's doctrine. Otherwise
FOUCQUET— FOULD
737
tt scepticism it subordinate to orthodox belief, the fundament*!
ogmas of the chinch teeming to him intuitively evident. His
bject was to reconcile his religious with his philosophical creed,
ad to remain a Christian without ceasing to be an academician.
Us writings against Malebranche were collected under the
tie Dissertations sur la recherche de la adraCf, 1693.
See F. Rabbe, VAbU Sim** Poucker (1867)? C Jourdaio in
idumnaire its sciences pkilosefhienes (1875), pp. 557-550.
F0UCQU1T, JBABf, or Jehan (c. 1415-1485), French painter,
am at Tours, is the most representative and national French
sinter of the 15th century. Of his life little is known, but it is
>rtain that he was in Italy about 1437, where he executed the
»rtrait of Pope Eugenius IV., and that upon his return to
ranee, whilst retaining his purely French sentiment, he grafted
le elements of the Tuscan style, which be had acquired during
is sojourn in Italy, upon the style of the Van Eycks, which was
le basis of early 15th-century French art, and thus became
le founder of an important new school He was court painter
> Louis XI. Though his supreme excellence as an illuminator
id miniaturist, of exquisite precision in the rendering of the
nest detail, and his power of clear characterization in work on
lis minute scale, have long since procured him an eminent
osltion in the art of his country, his importance as a painter
as only realized when his portraits and altarpieces were for
le first time brought together from various parts of Europe
1 1904, at the exhibition of the French Primitnes held at the
ibliotheque Nationale in Paris. One of Foucquet *s most
nportant paintings is the diptych, formerly at Notre Dame
e Melun, of which one wing, depicting Agnes Sorel as the
irgin, is now at the Antwerp Museum and the other in the
erlin Gallery. The Louvre has his oil portraits of Charles
II., of Count Wilcxek, and of Jouvenal des Ursins, besides a
ortrait drawing in crayon; whilst an authentic portrait from
is brush is in the Liechtenstein collection. Far more numerous
re his illuminated books and miniatures that have come down
3 us. The Brentano-Laroche collection at Frankfort contains
>rty miniatures from a Book of Hours, painted in 1461 for
Itienne Chevalier who is portrayed by Foucquet on the Berlin
ring of the Melun altarpiece. From Foucquet's hand again
re eleven out of the fourteen miniatures illustrating a translation
l Josephus at the Bibliotheque Nationale. The second volume
f this MS., unfortunately with only one of the original thirteen
uniatures, was discovered and bought in 1903 by Mr Henry
r ates Thompson at a London sale, and restored by him to France.
See (Euvres de Jehan Foucquet (Curmer, Paris, 1866-1867);
.. de Champeaux and P. Gaucher/, (Euvres d'arl exicuUes pour le due
t Berry; * f Facsimiles of two histories by Jean Foucquet " from
ols. i. and ii. of the Anciennetes its Juifs (London, 100a); Charles
Line, Histoire its peintres dt toutes les icoles (introduction); and
reorges Lafenestre, Jehan Fouquel (Paris, 1902).
FOUG&RES, a town of north-western France, capital of an
rrondissement in the department of llle-et-Vilaine, 30 m.
r.E. of Rennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 21,847* Fougeres is
uilt on the summit and slopes of a hill on the left bank of the
fancon, a tributary of the Couesnon* It was formerly one of
ic strongest places on the frontier towards Normandy, and it
:ill preserves some portions of its medieval fortifications,
otably a gateway of the 15th century known as the Porte St
ulpice. The castle, which is situated in the lower part of the
3wn, directly overlooking the Nancon, is now a picturesque
jin, but gives abundant evidence in its towers and outworks of
s former strength and magnificence. The finest of the towers
ras erected in 1242 by Hugues of Lusignan, and named after
I elusine, the mythical foundress of the family. The churches
f St Leonard and St Sulpice both date, at least in part, from
he 1 5th century. An h6tel de ville and a belfry, both of the isth
cntury, are of architectural interest, and the town possesses
lany curious old houses. There is a statue of General B. de
.ari Coisidre (d. 181 2), born in the town. Fouge'res is the seat
f a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber
f commerce and a communal college. It is the chief industrial
own of its department,. being a centre for the manufacture of
•oots and shoes; tanning and leather-dressing and the manu-
facture of sailcloth and other fabrics an also important in-
dustries. Trade is in dairy produce and in the granite of the
neighbouring quarries. Fougeres frequently figures in Breton
history from the 1 xth to the x 5th century. It was taken by the
English in 1166, and again in 1448; and the name of Surienne,
the captor on the second occasion, is still borne by one of the
towers of the castle. In X488 it was taken by the troops of
Charles VIII. under la Tremoille. In the middle ages Fougeres
was a lordship of some importance, which in the 13th century
passed into the possession of the family of Lusignan, and in
1307 was confiscated by the crown and afterwards changed
hands many times. In 1703, during the wars of the Vendee,
it was occupied hy the insurgents.
POUILL&B, ALFRED JULES BHILB (1838- ), French
philosopher, was born at La FouSse on the x 8th of October
1838. He held several minor philosophical lectureships, and
from 1864 was professor of philosophy at the lycees of Douai,
MontpeUier and Bordeaux successively. In 1867 and 1868 he
was crowned by the Academy of Moral Science for his work
on Plato and Socrates. In 1873 he was elected master of con-
ferences at the £cole Normale, and was made doctor of philosophy
in recognition of his two treatises, Piatonis Hippias Minor stat
Socratica contra liberum arbitrium argumenta and La Uberti el I*
dUerminisme. The strain of the next three years' continuous
work undermined his health and his eyesight, and he was com-
pelled to retire from his professorship. During these years he
had published works on Plato and Socrates and a history of
philosophy (1875); but after his retirement he further developed
his philosophical position, a speculative eclecticism through
which he endeavoured to reconcile metaphysical idealism with
the naturalistic and mechanical standpoint of science. In
L'&oluticnnisme des idies-forces (x8oo), La PsychohgU des
idSes-ferces (1893), and La Morale des idies-forces (1007), is
elaborated his doctrine of idies-forces, or of mind as efficient
cause through the tendency of ideas to realise themselves in
appropriate movement Ethical and sociological developments
of this theory succeed its physical and psychological treatment,
the consideration of the antinomy of freedom being especially
important. FouWeVs wife, who by a previous marriage was the
mother of the poet and philosopher Jean Marie Guyeu (1854-,
x888), is well known, under the pseudonym of " 0. Bruno,"
as the author of educational books for children.
His other chief works are: VIdte modern* du droit en ABemnfne,
en AngfeUrre et en France (Paris, 1878); La Science sociale eon*
temporaine (l83o); La Preprint seciale et la democrat* {1884);
Le Mouvement
positmsU et la conception sociotoiique du monde (1896) ;
idealiste et la reaction centre la science positive (1896)1
La Psychologic du peuple fro\
point de one moral (1900);
(1001); Wernicke et F *
lisme de Kant (190$).
FOULD, ACH1LLB (1800-1867), French financier and politician,
was born at Paris on the 17th of November 1800. The son of
a rich Jewish banker, he was associated with and afterwards
succeeded his father in the management of the business. As
early as 1842 he entered political life, having been elected in
that year as a deputy for the department of the Hautes Pyrenees.
From thai time to his death be actively busied himself with the
attain of his country. He readily acquiesced in the revolution
of February 18481 and is said to have exercised a decided influence
in financial matters on the provisional government then formed.
He shortly afterwards published two pamphlets against the use
of paper money, entitled, Pas d'Assignatst and Observations
sur la question financiire. During the presidency Of Lou»
Napoleon he was four times minister of finance, and took a
leading part in the economical reforms then made in France.
His strong conservative tendencies led him to oppose the doctrine
of free trade, and disposed him to hail the coup d'Hai and the
new empire. On the 25th of January 1852, in consequence ol
the- decree confiscating the property of the Orleans family.
738
FOULIS— FOUNDATIONS
he resigned the office of minuter of finance, but was on the
same day appointed senator, and soon after rejoined the govern-
ment as minister of state and of the imperial household. In
this capacity he directed the Paris exhibition of 1855. The
events of November i860 led once more to his resignation, but
he was recalled to the ministry of finance in November of the
following year, and retained office until the publication of the
imperial letter of the 19th of January 1867, when £mSe Ollivkr
became the chief adviser of the emperor. During bis last tenure
of office he had reduced the floating debt, which the Mexican
war had considerably increased, by the negotiation of a loan
of 300 millions of francs (2863). Fould, besides uncommon
financial abilities, had a taste for the fine arts, which he developed
and refined during his youth by visiting Italy and the eastern
coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1857 he was made a member
of the Academy of the Fine Arts. He died at Tarbes on the 5th
of October 1867.
FOULIS, ANDREW (1712-1775) and ROBERT (1707-1776),
Scottish printers and publishers, were the sons of a Glasgow
maltman. Robert was apprenticed to a barber; but his ability
attracted the attention of Dr Francis Hutcheson, who strongly
recommended him to establish a printing press. After spending
1738 and 1739 in England and France in company with his
brother Andrew, who had been intended for the church and had
received a better education, he started business in 1741 in
Glasgow, and in 1743 was appointed printer to the university.
In this same year he brought out Demetrius PkaUreus de
elocution*, in Greek and Latin, the first Greek book ever printed
in Glasgow; and this was followed in 1774 by the famous iamo
edition of Horace which was bug but erroneously believed to
be immaculate: though the successive sheets were exposed in
the university and a reward offered for the discovery of any
inaccuracy, six errors at least, according to T. F. Dibdin, escaped
detection. Soon afterwards the brothers entered into partner-
ship, and they continued for about thirty years to issue carefully
corrected and beautifully printed editions of classical works in
Latin, Greek, English, French and Italian. They printed more
than five hundred separate publications, among them the small
editions of Cicero, Tacitus, Cornelius Nepos, Virgil, Tibullus and
Propertius, Lucretius and Juvenal; a beautiful edition of the
Greek Testament, in small 4 to; Homer (4 vols, fol., 1756-1758);
Herodotus, Greek and Latin (9 vols, iamo, 1761); Xenophon,
Greek and Latin (12 vols, iamo, 1762-1767); Gray's Poems;
Pope's Works; Milton's Poems. The Homer, for which Flax-
man's designs were executed, is perhaps the most famous produc-
tion of the Foulis press. The brothers spared no pains, and
Robert went to France to procure manuscripts of the classics,
and to engage a skilled engraver and a copper-plate printer.
Unfortunately it became their ambition to establish an institution
for the encouragement of the fine arts; and though one of their
chief patrons, the earl of Northumberland, warned them to
"print for posterity and prosper," they spent their money in
collecting pictures, pieces of sculpture and models, in paying
for the education and travelling of youthful artists, and in
copying the masterpieces of foreign art. Their countrymen
were not ripe for such an attempt, and the " Academy " not only
proved a failure but involved the projectors in ruin. Andrew
died on the 18th of September 1775, and his brother went to
London, hoping to realize a large sum by the sale of his pictures.
They were sold for much less than he anticipated, and Robert
returned broken-hearted to Scotland, where he died at Edinburgh
on the 2nd of June 1776. Robert was the author of a Catalogue
of Paintings with Critical Remarks. The business was afterwards
carried on under the same nam* by Robert's son Andrew.
See W. I. Duncan, Notices and Documents illustrative of the Literary
History of Glaspno % printed (or the Mattland Club (1831), which
inter alia contains a catalogue of the works printed at the Foulis
press, and another of the pictures, statues and busts in plaster of
Paris produced at the " Academy " in the university of Glasgow.
FOULLON, JOSEPH FRANCOIS (17x7-1789), French admini-
strator, was born at Sauraur. During the Seven Years' War he
was intendant-general of the armies, and intendant of the army
and navy under Marshal de Belle-Isle. In 177 * he was appointed
intendant of finances. In 1789, when Neckex w;
Foullon was appointed minister of the king's household, ud
was thought of by the reactionary party as a substitute. Ea
he was unpopular on all sides. The farmers-general deieuei
him on account of his severity, the Parisians on account <*
his wealth accumulated in utter indifference to the snserisp
of the poor; he was reported, probably quite without foundauc
to have said, " If the people cannot get bread, let them eat fciy. ,
After the taking of the Bastille on the 14th of July, he withdrs '
to his estate at Vitry and attempted to spread the news of sk
death; but he was recognised, taken to Paris, carried off «ia ,
a bundle of hay tied to his back to the hotel de ville, and, in spat
of the intervention of Lafayette, was dragged out by the popdaa
and hanged to a lamp-post on the sand of July 1780.
See Eugene Bonnemere, Histoire des paysems (atn ed-, i&%
tome Ui. ; C. L. Chassin, Les Elections el Us cahiers de Paris en ij±*
(Paris, 1889), tomes in. and iv.
FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found), tit
act of building, constituting or instituting on a pernunes
basis; especially the establishing of any institution by endemic*
or providing it with funds for its continual maintenance. IV
word is thus applied also to the institutions so established, suci
as a college, monastery or hospital; and the terms "aiit
foundation," or " foundationer," are used of members of suet 1
college or society who enjoy, as fellows, scholars, &c., the bene£*5
of the endowment. Formerly "foundation" also meant ihr
charter or incorporation of any such institution or society, tzi
it is still applied to the funds used for the endowment of sul
institutions.
The terms " old foundation " and " new foundation " used a
connexion with the organizing of English cathedral chaptcc
have no reference to the age of the cathedrals, At the list
of the Reformation under Henry VIII. the old college chapter
were left unchanged, and are referred to as the " old foundations
but the monastic chapters were all suppressed, consequ<nu>
new chapters had to be formed for their cathedrals and their
constitute the " new foundations."
" Foundation " also means the base (natural or artifickT'
on which any erection is built up; generally made below &
level of the ground (see Foundations below). A foundation
stone is one of the stones at the base of a building, generally t
corner-stone, frequently laid with a public ceremony to cekbr&tt
the commencement of the building. The term is also applied
to the ground-work of any structure, such as, in fress-rnakifi&
the underskirt over which the real skirt is hung, any materul
used for stiffening purposes, as "foundation muslin or net"
In knitting or crochet the first stitches on to which all the res:
are worked are called the " foundation chain." In gem~cuuicg
the " foundation-square " is the first of eight squares round tin
edges of a brilliant made in bevel planes and from which the
angles are all removed to form three-corner facets.
FOUNDATIONS, in building. The object of foundations s
to distribute the weight of a structure equally over the ground.
In the construction of a building the weights are concentrated
at given points on piers, columns, &c, and these foundations
require to be spread so as to reduce the weight to an average.
In the preparation of a foundation care must be taken to prevec:
the lateral escape of the soil or the movement of a bed upoa
sloping ground, and it is also necessary to provide against any
damage by the action of the atmosphere. The soils met with
in ordinary practice, such as rock, gravel, chalk, day and sand.
vary as to their capabilities of bearing weight. There b no
provision in any English building acts as to the load that may
be placed on any of these soils, but under the New York Building
Code it is provided that, where no test of the sustaining power
of the soil is made, different soils, excluding mud, at the bottom
of the footings shall be deemed to safely sustain the following
loads to the superficial foot:
per aq. ft.
Soft clay 1 ton.
Ordinary sort clay and sand, together in layers,
wet and springy 3 tons.
Loam, clay or fine sand, firm and dry ... 3 tons.
Very firm coarse sand, stiff gravel or hard clay 4 I
FOUNDATIONS
739
A comparison of the pressure exerted on an ordinary founda-
tion by the walls of the several thicknesses and heights provided
for by the London Building Act of 1804, *nd a com-
parison of a few of the principal authorities, will be
found useful in helping us to arrive at a decision as to
what can safely be allowed. Take as an example a
wall of the warehouse class, 70 ft. high, whose section at the base
for a height of 27 ft. is a} bricks thick (or aa) in.), and for the
same distance in height again is a bricks thick (or 18 in.), the
remainder to the top being 1$ bricks thick (or 14 in.). The
weight of brickwork per foot run of such a wall is 4*05 tons on
any area of 3*75 ft. super, of brickwork. According to the act
the concrete is to project 4 in. on each side; we have then an
additional area of *66 ft. super, to add, thus making the total
foundation area of each foot run of wall 4*41 ft. super, to take
a weight of 4-05 tons or nearly a ton per foot super, (vis.
•9 ton.)
Another factor must, however, be taken into consideration,
viz. the weight distributed from the loaded floor and from the
roof. In this case there would be at least six floors, and the
entire weight could hardly be taken at less than 6 tons, which
would give a total weight of 10*05 tons on an area of 4-41 ft.
super, or a load of a* 28 tons per foot super. This is on the
assumption that no extra weight has been thrown on the founda-
tions by openings or piers, or by girders, &c, in which case, in
addition to the work being executed in cement, the foundations
should be increased in area. Piers always involve a great
increase of weight on the foundations, and in very many instances
this increased weight, instead of being provided for by increasing
the area of the foundations and so reducing the weight per foot
super., is only partly met by the improper method of merely
increasing the depth of the concrete, while keeping the same
projection of concrete round the footings as for the walls. As an
example take an iron column to carry a safe load of 80 tons,
standing on a York stone template, and in turn supported by
a brick pier a 2} in. square. In this case we should have, after
allowing for the projection of concrete on either side, an area of
4 ft. 5 in. square, or 19*6 ft. super., and this would give a pressure
of 4*i tons per foot on the* foundations, or almost twice as much
as in the previous example of a warehouse wall. Here, instead
of increasing the depth of the concrete, it would be necessary
to increase its width; if it were made 6 ft. square, we should have
an area of 36 ft. super, to take the 80 tons, and thus the pressure
would only be a* a tons per foot, and the cost of the foundation
be much the -same.
If we compare a section of wall of the dwelling-house class,
as prescribed by the London Building Act, we find that, taking a
waU 50 ft. high and having a thickness at base of 22$ in. as* for
the warehouse wall to which we have referred, we have a wall
weighing 3-75 tons per foot super, on an area of 4*41 feet super.,
or -85 ton per foot without weight of floors and roof as against
the *9 ton in the warehouse example. To this must be added the
weight of, say, 5 floors and roof at a total of 3 tons per foot run
of wall, and we then have an aggregate of 6*75 tons per foot run
andz 50 tons per foot super, as against a- 28 tons in the warehouse
class.
If we turn from the act to text-books we find that Colonel
Seddon in the Aide Memoir gives the load which ordinary founda-
tions will bear as a safe load per foot super, as follows:
tons.
Rock, moderately hard 9
Rock of strength of good concrete . . . 1
Rock, very soft i>8
Firm earth 1 to li
Hard clay I to if
Clean dry gravel and clean sharp sand prevented from
spreading sideways 1 to 1}
Most of the work in London may be classed under one of the
latter heads, and according to this table we have, when we erect
walls in accordance with the building act, to overload our
foundations.
As to the possibility of spreading weights, we have as an
example the chimney at Adkin's £oap Works in Birmingham,
31a ft. high, so arranged that its pressure on the foundations b
only 1} tons per foot super.; also the great St Rollox chimney
at Glasgow, which has a pressure of if tons; the weight of the
Eiffel Tower (7500 tons) is so spread over 4 bases', each 130 ft.
square, that the pressure is only -117 ton, or af cwt., per foot
super. The Tower Bridge has a load of 16 tons per foot on the
granite bed under the columns of towers, reduced by spreading
to an actual pressure on the clay foundation of 4 tons. The piers
under the Holborn Viaduct have a load of a} tons only, those of
the Imperial Institute i\ tons, and those of the destructor cells
and chimney shaft at Great Yarmouth 4 tons 6} cwt. per foot
super. From these various examples it would appear that on
sound clay or gravel foundation a load of from 2 J to 4 tons may
be employed with safety.
One of the first and most important requirements in preparing
drawings for a large building is to ascertain the nature of the sub-
soil and strata at different kvels over the proposed site, _. #
so as to be able to arrange the footings accordingly at the JiJJL-
various depths and to decide as to the various forms and 0on| V a>
methods to be employed. For this purpose trial holes or borings
are sunk until a suitable bed or bottom is found, upon which the
concrete foundation may safely be put. If no such solid bottom is
found, as often happens near the water side, special foundations
must be employed, such as dock, gridiron, cantilever and pile founda-
tions, Ac., all of which will be described hereafter. As examples
of the varying subsoils we may mention the following, in which will
be noticed the great depths dug before getting through the made
ground: At the Bank of England there were 22 ft. of made ground
resting on 4 ft. of gravel. Some of the made ground was of ancient
date, and preserved relics of Roman occupation. In some parts the
subsoils have been excavated for ballast or gravel, as at Kensington,
or for brick earth, as at Highbury, and the pits filled in with rubbish.
RivV, wbii'h form* an excellent arrf unchanging foundation in one
situation, may prove a da nitrous foundation in another. Thus
chalk form* a good limestone foundation in certain position*,, but
when it dip towards a slope gt a did with an outcrop of the gault
or underlying clay, it is a very urj&ui table foundation for any building,
as the landslips 111 the hie of Wight and on the Dor ^ctf hire toast
bear witness. A boring mode in Tallis Street, near the Thames
embankment, showed : (O 18 in. ballast, dirty : (?) 6 in. jjrecnsind,
wet ami dirty; U) 1 ft. peat clay ; (4) 64n. greensand 1 (5) 5 \ ft. peaty
bog; {(*) 9 ft. running sand; and f j) 4 ft, clean ballast, resting at a
depth of 2\ ft. below the ground line ujjoo blue clay. A boring at
Highbury fc* w Parle gave; <i) 2 ft- made ground, (1) iS ft* loam,
(3) 9 ft. sand, {*) 4 ft. peat.and (j) 8 It. travel and! sand* These
ezamptn show that while trial holes should always be made before
dfr^i piling a inundation, to ascertain the nature oi the subsoil* care
roust be taken not to calculate upon uniformity. Thus at the block
2 of the admiralty extension new buildings (London), one of the trial
holes upon the southwest side of the old buildings showed the day
to be a pout jq { ft, below the surface of the ground, while actual
excavation praved the dip of the clay to be euch that in the execution
of the new building it became necessary tQ underpin the north- west
comer of the old building at the deepest part 42 ft. below the ground*
The foundations oj block 1 of the new admiralty buildings ate placed
in a dock, buijt upon the London clay at a depth of 30 (u in solid
concrete d ft* thick* At the Hotel Victoria* in Northutnbcfiand
Avenue (London)* the various subedit ate as follows: fij &{ ft*
made ground day and gravel mixed, (2) 4 ft. gravel and sand, (3)
6 ft. rising uand ; (j) 2 ft- fine ballast, and at a depth of 50 ft- blue
clay* At the south end the clay was 43 ll. down and at the north
end 37 ft. The front wall was constructed on a concrete bed ft.
wide. The site was surrounded by a similar wall of concrete about
6 ft. wide, forming a species of boxes, and the whole was covered
with a depth of 6 It. of concrete upon which the walls were raised.
The foundation for 53 Parliament Street, where running sand was
encountered, was constructed with short piles, 7 or 8 ft. long and
6 in. chain., pointed and placed as dose together as possible over
the whole foundation, the tops were then sawn off level, and a
c oncr ete raft, 7 or 8 ft. thick, was built over the whole area. At the
Institution of Civil Engineers, Great George Street, Westminster,
the foundations to the two party walls upon each side of the
building were carried down about 22 ft. below the pavement level,
that on the west side being 22 ft. deep and that on the east side
24 ft.
The London Building Act and the model by-laws prohibit the
erection of buildings on sites that have been used as " shoots " for
faecal matter or vegetable refuse, and in such cases the t ^ tllmtrut .
objectionable material must be removed prior to the Zzz~"^
commencement of building operations, and the holes DO °*
from which it was taken filled up with dry brick or other rubbish
well rammed. Foundations are usually executed by excavators or
navvies, and the tools and implements used are boning rods, level
pegs, lines, spirit level, pickaxe, various shovels, whed-barrow.
rammer or punnnr, Ac la digging the ordinary trenches and
742
FOUNDATIONS
to building' to be erected upon it, and the interior is fitted up with
rubble work. All the public buildings at Madras were erected upon
foundations of this kind. Well foundations were employed under
the cky hall, Kansas City, and the Stock Exchange, Chicago
Coffer dams arc wooden structures used to keep back the water
whilst putting in foundations on the waterside, and are constructed
with two rows of timbers, 12 in. square as piles spaced
about 6 ft. apart, and filled in between with a double row
of 2 in. or 3 in. boards, the space between the rows being
packed with clay puddle (fig. ioK The general rule for the thickness of
a coffer dam is to make it equal to the depth of water. An interesting
C»J*r
Fie. io.
example of a coffer dam is that at the Keyham dock extension,
where piles varied in length from 65 ft. to 85 ft. They were driven in
a double row 5 ft. apart, and over 13,000 were used.
Dock foundations are constructed after the fashion of a large
concrete tank, and arc adapted to large sites where a difficulty
. arises as to the ingress of water. They are considered
*T ^ am _ the best method of constructing a building on soft ground
2JJ* - " and of keeping a building dry (fig. u). This type of
MmmMt foundation was used at the new colonial office, Whitehall,
London, and the new admiralty buildings at St James's Park,
London. A few buildings treated after the style of a dock, but in
some instances without the enclosing walls, arc the following:
Fie. 11.
At the admiralty buildings already mentioned a concrete retaining
wall completely surrounds the exterior below the ground, and is
joined up to the underpinning work; the whole site being covered
with concrete 6 ft. thick, a huge tank is formed of an average inside
clear depth of 20 ft. in which the basements arc built. The new
" Old Bailey " buildings in Newgate Street, London, are constructed
on a concrete table 5 ft. thick, as also are the Army and Navy
Auxiliary Stores, Victoria Street. At Rennet's Wharf, near South-
wark Bridge, a concrete table, 8 ft. thick, was spread all over the
site, with an extra thickness under the walls. Foundations fan%4
similarly to dock foundations, but in addition having steel joound
rods inserted in the thickness of the concrete table, to tie the abgk
together, are known as gridiron foundations.
In the Henncbiquc concrete system, all beams. AYc.. are fared
with small rods and then surrounded with concrete; it is dcwrwJ
for floors and for spreading the weight of a building over an cxtesosd
foundation on soft ground.
Where a heavy wall is to be built against an old one and therr «
not sufficient room for the foundations, the plan is adopted
building pier foundations at some distance from the pro-
posed new wall. On the top of these piers rest T L "fr- J
steel cantilevers over steel pin rockers upon cast H^
iron bedplates; the cantilevers arc secured at one ^""^
end to a column, while the other ends go through the hi
thickness of the new wall. Upon these last ends is pbcfi a
steel girder upon which the wall is built. This con&trurtirc
(fig. 12) has been used in America, and in the Riu Hold
Piccadilly, London.
Another form of cantilever foundations was employed a
the case of some premises at Carr's Lane, Birrningfex^.
Krtlv built over the Great Western railway tunnel (ag. ly
this instance large piers were built below the groucd 21
the side of the tunnel. From the tops of these piers lam-
steel cantilevers were erected projecting over the crows -*
the tunnel, and on these steel girders were fixed and the
building constructed upon them.
In modern Tunis, a section of which city is built on nanfey
ground, the subsoil is an oozy sediment, largely deposited
by the sewage water from the ancient or Arab - ^
quarter of the city, which b situated on an adjacent "^7 ^
hill. This semi-fluid mud has a depth of about JsIL
33 ft. To prepare the soil for supporting an
ordinary house, pits from 8 ft. to 10 ft. square »n exca-
vated to a depth of about 10 ft., to the level of the grocsd
water. A mixture is made of the excavated sod iad
powdered fat lime, procured from clinkers and unburn*
stone from the lime-kilns, which soon crumbles to fine das
when exposed to the air. The mixture is thrown into pits a
layers about 12 in. thick and rammed down for a very left
time by specially trained labourers. A gang of is or &
men will work at least 10 or 12 days ramming for tk
foundations of a moderate-sired house. An extremely banl
bed is thus obtained, reaching to within 18 in. of the surUct
of the ground, and on this artificial bed the foundations d
the building arc laid. Although this method of construc-
tion is crude, it is stated that the practical results ait
superior to those obtained by using piles, concrete or other
recognized methods, and in all cases the cost is much lest,
for labour is cheap.
A novel and interesting foundation was designed for a
signal station at Cape Hcmoncn, Delaware. This is built on
top of the highest sandhill at Cape Hcnlopcn, so n m tg\n
that the observer may have an unobstructed ~ ^
view; it rises about 80 ft. above the level of the
sea and is exposed to all winds and weather, while it is
absolutely required that it shall stand firmly planted is
such a way that even a hurricane shall not shake it or
make it tremble, since that would affect the sight of the telescope
in the observatory. The usual mode of securing such a building o
by means of a foundation of screw piles or of heavy timbers sunk
into the sand; this method, however, has the disadvantage that ff
(f*j otefcr (oiled <A?wn ml
Yi&J&ul titHi Structure dta*
I
sfed gi-J^
dia gram tf
dtaaramj*
the wind shifts the sand away from around the foundation, it
becomes undermined and its effect is destroyed. To avoid such as
accident, recourse was had to the following design, which was
considered to be cheap and at the same time to provide an effective
anchorage. The building is entirely of wood; it has a cellar,
above which are two rooms one above the other, and the whole is
FOUNDING
743
I by the observatory proper. First, the ground sill » a
square of 20 It., made of yellow pine sticks mortised together and
Sinned with stout trunnefs. The sill of the observatory b made
kewise of heavy timbers, 12 ft. long. The two sills are joined
together by four stout yellow pine corner posts, which in turn art
mortised into both sills. The posts are 26 ft. in length. Five feet
above the lower sill is the sill which supports the floor of the first
room. Ten feet above this is the sill which supports the upper
room. Both these sills again are mortised into the corner posts.
The structure is sheathed outside with German siding, and inside
with rough boards covered with felt, and again by tongued and
grooved yellow pine boards. The observatory proper, octagonal
m shape is securely mortised into the top sill ana covered with a
Fig. 1$.— Cantilever Foundation over Railway Tunnel
corrugated iron roof conical in shape. The cellar is floored with
3 in. wood, and boarded all round on the inside of the posts. A pit
was first dug in the sand about 6 ft. deep and fully 20 ft. wide on
the bottom. The cellar sill was laid on this bottom, and the structure
built upon it ; thus the whole depth of cellar is sunk below the top
of the hill or the level of the sand. The cellar was then filled up
with sand and packed solid all round, consequently the building is
anchored in its place by the load in the cellar, about 100 tons in
The subject of foundations, being naturally of the first importance,
is one that calls for most careful study. It is not of so much import-
ance that the ground be hard or even rocky as that h be compact
and of similar consistency throughout. It is not always that a site
answers to this description, and the problem of what will be the best
form of foundation to use in placing a building, more especially if
that building be of large dimensions and consequently great weight,
on a site of soft yielding soil, is one that is often most difficult 01
solution. The foregoing article indicates in a brief manner some of
the obstacles the architect or engineer is required to surmount before
his work can even be started on its way to completion.
Authorities. — The principal books for reference on this subject
are: A Practical Treatise on Foundations, by W. M. Pat ton, C. E.;
Building Construction and Superintendence, part i., by F. E. Kidder;
Notes on Building Construction, vols. i. ii. and hi.; Aide Memoir,
vol. ii., by Colonel Seddon, R.E.; Advanced Buildint Construction,
by C. F. Mitchell: Modern House Construction, by G. L. Sutdiffe;
Building Construction, by Professor Henry Adams; Practical
Building Construction, by J. P. Alien. (J- Bt.)
FOUNDING (from Lat. f under*, to pour), the process of casting
in metal, of making a reproduction of a given object by running
molten metal into a mould taken in sand, loam or plaster from
that object. To enable the founder to prepare a mould for the
casting, he must receive a pattern similar to the casting required.
Some few exceptions occur, to be noted presently, bat the above
statement is true of perhaps 98 % of all castings produced. The
construction of such patterns gives employment to a large
number of highly skilled men, who can only acquire the necessary
knowledge through an apprenticeship lasting from five to seven
years. A knowledge of two trades at least is involved in the
work of pattern construction— that of the craft itself and that
of the moulder and founder. Patterns have to be constructed
strongly. They are generally of wood, and they thus require
skill in the use of woodworking tools and the making of timber
joints, together with a knowledge of the behaviour of timber,
&c Some few patterns are made in iron, brass or white metal
alloys. They have to be embedded in a matrix of sand by the
founder, and being enclosed, they have to be withdrawn without
inflicting any damage in the way of fracture in the sand. Since
cast work involves shapes that are often very intricate, including
projections and hollow spaces of all forms, it is obvious that the
withdrawal of the patterns without entailing tearing up and
fracture of the sand must involve many difficult problems that
have to be as fully understood by the pattern-maker as by the
moulder. It is from this point of view that the work of the pattern-
maker should be approached in the first place. No dosed mould
can possibly be made without one or more joints, for if a pattern
is wholly enclosed in a matrix of sand it cannot be withdrawn
except by making a parting in the sand, and it is not difficult to
conceive that the parting In the pattern might advantageously
be made to coincide, either exactly or approximately, with that
of the mould. Nor must obstacles exist to the free withdrawal
of patterns. They must therefore not be wider or larger in the
lower than in the upper parts; actually they are made a trifle
smaller or " tapered." Nor may they have any lateral extensions
into the lower sand, unless these can be made to withdraw
separately from the main portion of the pattern. Finally, there
are "many internal spaces which cannot be formed by a pattern
directly in the sand, but provision for which must be made by
some means extraneous to the pattern, as by cores.
A single example must illustrate the main principles which have
just been stated. The object selected is a bracket which involves
questions of joints, of cores, of pattern construction and of moulding.
The casting, the pattern, and its mould are illustrated. Fig. 1
illustrates in plan the casting of a double bracket, the end elevation
of which n seen in fig. 2 ; the pattern of which presents obvious
Fig. a.
difficulties in the way of withdrawal from a mould, supposing it 1
were made just like its casting. But if it be made as in fig. 3, with
the open spaces A. B, in fig. 2, occupied with core prints, and the
f>ieces A, A in fig. 3 left loosely skewered on, everything will " de-
iver " freely. Moreover the pattern might be made solidly as
shown in fig. 3, or else jointed and doweued in the plane a-a. as .
in fig, 4, or along the upper faces of the prints b-b, fig. 3. The
744
FOUNDING
timber shadings in figs. 3 and 4 illustrate points in the most suitable
arrangement of material. The prints are " boxed up." Fig. 4
shows a certain stage of the moulding, in which one half of the pattern
has been " rammed " in sand, and turned over in the " bottom box,"
and the upper half is ready to be rammed in the " top box," with
" runner pin " or " git stick " A. set in place. The lower loose piece
has had its skewer removed during the ramming. Fig. 5 illustrates
the mould completed and ready for pouring. The boxes have been
parted, the pattern has
been withdrawn, cores
inserted in the impres-
sions left by the prints,
vents taken from the
central body of
cinders, the pouring
basin made and the
boxes cottered
together.
Every single detail
now briefly noted in
connexion with this
bracket is applied and
modified in an almost
infinite number of
ways to suit the ever
varying character of
foundry work. Yet
this process does not
jlaing an
Fio. 3.
touch some of the great subdivisions of moulding and casting.
There is a large volume of large and heavy work for which complete
patterns and core boxes are never made, because of the great expense
that would be involved in the pattern construction. There are also
some cases in which the methods adopted would not permit of the
use of patterns, as in that group of work in which the sand or loam
is " swept " to the form required for the moulds and cores by means
of striking boards, loam boards, core boards or strickles. In these
classes of moulding the loose green sands and core sands arc not
much used; instead, loam — a wet and plastic sand mixture — »
employed, supported against bricks (loam moulds) or aga;n«t core
bars and plates, and hay ropes (loam c*>re*>. Ail heavy marine
engine cylinders are thus madr by sweeping, and all massive cores
for engine cylinders and large pipes, besides much large circular and
cylindrical work, as foundation cylinders, soap pans, lead pans,
mortar pans, large propeller blades, &c. In these cases the edge of
the striking board is a counterpart of the profile of the work swept
up. Joints also have to be made in such moulds, not of course in
order to provide for the removal of a pattern, but for the exposure
Fio. 4.
of the separate parts in course of construction, and for dosing them
up, or putting them together in their due relations. These joints
also are swept by the boards, generally cut to produce suitable
" checks," or " registers " to ensure that they accurately fit together.
Fig. 6, showing a portion of a swept- up mould, illustrates the general
arrangement. A plate, A, carries a quantity of bricks, B, which arc
embedded in loam, and break joint. To a striking bar, C, sup-
ported in a step, a striking board or sweeping board, D, is bolted,
and is swept round against plastic loam, which is afterwards dried.
The check on the board at A corresponds with a similar check on the
board which strikes the interior of the pan, and by which top and
bottom portions of the mould are registered together. This is
indicated: in dotted outline. Its mould also is swept on bricks, and
turned over into place, and the metal is pouted into the space k, t,
between the two moulds. There is also a large poop of swept-*?
... ' * o. Tsm
ft
work which is not symmetrical about a centre of rotation,
the movements of the sweeping boards are controlled by the edsj
of " core plates," or of " core irons " (fig. 7). Bend pipes, and t
. Fig. 5.
volute casings of centrifugal rumr^ and pipes, afford examples d
this kind, (n fig. 7, A is the core iron, held down by weights, asd
R the <x strickle," sweeping up the half bend C, two such haiva
pasted together completing the core.
Fio. 6.
Core-making is a special department of foundry work, ofcei
involving as much detail as the construction ana moulding d
Ktterns. Two perfectly plain boxes are shown in figs. 8 and 9, '-=
th of which provision exists for removing the box parts from ti:
core after the latter has been rammed. Core boxes are jointed ax=4
tapered, and often have loose pieces within them, and also prints,
into the impressions of which other cores are inserted.
Fio. 7.
Machirte-tHoulding.— There is a development of modem
methods of founding which is effecting radical changes in some
departments of foundry practice, namely, moulding by machines
The advantages of this method are manifold, and its limitation*
FOUNDING
7+5
are being lessened continually. There are two broad departments
between which machine-moulding is divided. One, of less
importance, is that of toothed wheels; the other is that of general
work, except of a very massive character.
Gear-wheel moulding machines are essentially a special
adaptation of the mechanism of the dividing engine, by means
of which, instead of using a complete pattern of a toothed wheel,
two or three pattern teeth
are used, and the machine
takes charge of the correct
pitching or division of the
teeth moulded therefrom,
leaving to the moulder the
Fig. 8. Fig. 9.
work only of turning the handle of the division plate, and
ramming the sand around the pattern teeth. The result is
accurate pitching, and the use of two or three teeth instead of a
full pattern, together with any core boxes and striking boards
that are necessary for the arms.
The other department of machine moulding includes nearly
every conceivable class of work of small and medium dimensions.
There are some dozens of distinct types of machines in use, for
no one type is suitable for all classes of moulds, while some are
designed specially for one or two kinds only.
The fundamental principles of operation are briefly these: The
pattern parts constitute, by their method of attachment to a plate
or table A (fig. 10), an integral portion of the machine, so that they
must partake of
certain move-
ments which
are imparted to
it. Often pat-
terns mounted,
as in fie. 10, are
moulded by
hand, without
any aid from
a machine, by
methods of
" plate - mould-
ing." The de-
livery of the
pattern .from
the sand is in-
variably ac-
complished by
a perpendicular
movement of a
portion of the
machine (fig.
II), withdraw-
ing* either the
pattern from
the mould or
the mould from
the pattern.
The important
point is that
the perpendicu-
lar movement,
being under the
coercion of the
vertical guides
provided in the
hand machines,
or the hydraulic
ram in fig. 11, is free from the unsteadiness which is incidental
to withdrawal by the hands of the moulder; and if the machine
Eerformcd nothing more than this it would justify its existence,
ittle or no taper is required in the pattern, and the moulds
a.re more nearly uniform in dimensions than hand-made moulds.
But there are other advantages. In machine-moulding the joint
Fig. 10.
faces for parting moulds are produced by the faces of the plates
on which the pattern is mounted (figs. 10 and 11), instead of by
the hands and trowel of the moulder. When the joint face is of
irregular outline, as it often is, this item alone saves a good deal of
time, which again is multiplied by the number of moulds repeated,
often amounting to thousands. Further, provision is generaf 1 -
made on machine plates for the ingates and runners (fig. 1
through which the metal enters the mould, the preparation of whi
in hand work occupies a considerable amount ol time. Another
great advantage applies especially to the case of deep moulds*
These give much trouble in band-moulding in consequence of the
liability of the sand to become torn up during the withdrawal of
the pattern. But in machine-moulding such patterns are encircled
by a plate, termed a " stripping plate," which is pierced to allow
the patterns to pass through, and which, being maintained firmly
on the sand during the luting of the pattern, prevent* it from
becoming torn up. This b not merely a matter of convenience, but
is a necessity in numerous instances. The most familiar example
is that of the teeth of gear wheels, in which even a very slight amount
of taper interferes with accurate engagement, ana this b repre-
sentative of many other portions of mechanism. These stripping
Fig. ii.
plates are of metal, but in order to save the cost of filing them in
iron or steel, many are cheaply made by casting. a white metal alloy
round the actual pattern itself in the first place, the white metal
being enclosed ana retained in a plain iron frame which forms the
body of the plate. Lastly, many machines, but not the majority,
include provision for mechanically ramming the sand around the
pattern by power instead of by hand. This b really the least
valuable feature of a moulding machine, because it b not applicable
to any but rather shallow moulds. It b commonly used for these,
but the consistence and homogeneity of a mass of sand round a
pattern having deep perpendicular sides can only be ensured. by
careful hand ramming.
The highest economies of machine-moulding are obtained when
(1) several small patterns arc mounted and moulded at once on a
single plate (fig. 10); (2) when top and bottom parts of a mould
are produced on different machines, carrying each its moiety of
the pattern; (3) when the machine and pattern details are simplified
so much that the labour of trained moulders b displaced by that of
unskilled attendants who are taught in a month or two the few
simple operations required. That b the direction in .which repetitive
casting b now rapidly tending.
In fig. 1 1 A is the plate, which in its essentials corresponds with
the plate A in fie. 10, but which in the machine b made to swivel so
as to bring each half of the pattern B, B in turn uppermost for
ramming in the box parts C, C. The ramming b done by hand, the
final squeeze being imparted against the presser D by the action of
the hydraulic rare E pushing the plate, mould and box up against D.
The plate being then lowered, and turned over, the further descent
of the ram withdraws the bottom box from the pattern, which b the
stage seen in the illustration. Then the half mould b run away on
the carriage F, provided with wheels to run on rails.
Though casting in iron, steel, the bronzes, aluminium. Ac, b
746
FOUNDLING HOSPITALS
carried oo by different men in distinct shorn, yet the foregoing
principles and methods apply to all alike. Work is done in green,
i.e. moist sand, in dry sand (the moulds being dried before heing
used), and in plastic loam (which is subsequently dried). Hand and
machine moulding are practised in each, the last-named excepted.
The differences in working are those due-to the various characteristics
of the different metals and alloys, which involve differences in the
■and mixtures used, in the dimensions of the pouring channels, of
the temperature at which the metal or alloy must be poured, of the
fluxing and cleansing of the metal, and other details of a practical
character. Hence the practice which is suitable for one department
must be modified in others. Many castings in steel would inevitably
fracture if poured into moulds prepared for iron, many iron castings
would fracture if poured into moulds suitable for brass, and neither
brass nor steel would fill a mould having ingates proportioned
suitably for iron.
A special kind of casting is that into " chill moulds," adopted in
a considerable number of iron castings, such as the railway wheels
in the United States, ordinary tramway wheels, the rolls of iron and
steel rolling mills, the bores of cast wheel hubs. Ac The chill ranges
in depth from J in. to I in:, and is produced by pouring a special
mixture of mottled, or strong, iron against a cold iron surface, the
parts of the casting which are not required to be chilled being sur-
rounded by an ordinary mould of sand. The purpose of chill-casting
is to produce a surface hardness in the metaL
The shrinkage of metal is a fact which has to be taken account
of by the pattern-maker and moulder. A pattern and mould are
made larger than the size of the casting required by the exact amount
that the metal will shrink in cooling from the molten to the cold
state. This amount varies from i in. in 15 in., in thin iron castings,
to § in. in 12 in. in heavy ones. It ranges from A; in. to ft in. per
foot in steel, braes and aluminium. Its variable amount has to be
borne in mind in making light and heavy castings, and castings with
or without cores, for massive cores retard shrinkage. It is also a
fruitful cause of fracture in badly proportioned castings, particularly
of those in steel. Brass is less liable to suffer in this respect than
iron, and iron much less than steeL (J. G. H.)
FOUNDLING HOSPITALS, originally institutions for the
reception of " foundlings," i.e. children who have been abandoned
or exposed, and left for the public to find and save. The early
history of such institutions is connected with the practice of
infanticide, and in western Europe where social disorder was
rife and famine of frequent occurrence, exposure and extensive
sales of children were the necessary consequences. Against these
evils, which were noticed by several councils, the church provided
a rough system of relief, children being deposited (jactati) in
marble shells at the church doors, and tended first by the
matricularii or male -nurses, and then by the nutricarii or foster-
parents. 1 But it was in the 7th and 8th centuries that definite
institutions for foundlings were established in such towns as
Treves/ Milan and Montpellier. In the 15th century Garcias,
archbishop of Valencia, was a conspicuous figure in this charitable
work; but his fame is entirely eclipsed by that of St Vincent de
Paul, who in the reign of Louis XIII., with the help of the
countess of Joigny, Mme le Gras and other religious ladies,
rescued the foundlings of Paris from the horrors of a primitive
institution named La Couche (rue St Landry), and ultimately
obtained from Louis XIV. the use of the Bicelre for their accom-
modation. Letters patent were granted to the Paris hospital
in 1670. The Hotel-Dieu of Lyons was the next in importance.
No provision, however, was made outside the great towns; the
houses in the cities were overcrowded and administered with
laxity; and in 1784 Necker prophesied that the state would yet
be seriously embarrassed by this increasing evil* From 1453
to 1789 the law had imposed on the seigneurs de haute justice the
duty of succouring children found deserted on their territories.
The first constitutions of the Revolution undertook as a state
debt the support of every foundling. For a time premiums were
given to the mothers of illegitimate children, the " enfants de la
patrie." By the law of 1 2 Bruraaire, An II. " Toute recherche
de la paternite" est intcrdite," while by art. 341 of the Code
Napoleon, " la recherche de la maternite* est admise."
Franc*.— The laws of France relating to this part of what is called
L'Assistance PubUque are the decree of January 18 1 1 , the instruction
of February 1823, the decree of the 5th of March 1852, the law of
1 See Capitularia return Francorum, ii. 474.
* De V administration de* finances, iii. 136; see also the article
" Enfant expose " in Diderot '* Encyclopedic, 1755, and Chamousaet s
Uhnoire politique sur Us enfants, 1757.
the 5th of May 1869, the law of the 24th of Jury stto and nebs
of the J7th of June 1904. These laws carry out the general cr-.r. -.«
of the law of 7 Frinuire An V., which completely accentr a-iir-: \a
system of national poor relief established by the Revohitxxi. Tv
enfants assistes include, besides (1) orphans and (*) loooiSsf
proper, (3) children abandoned by their parents, (4) tU-tics^.
neglected or morally abandoned children whose parents bait t*n
deprived of their parental rights by the decision of a court oi ji t *
(5) children, under sixteen years of age of parents condemned - 1
certain crimes, whose parental rights have been delegated fo 1
tribunal to the state. Children c la mw fieri under 1-5 are toss*
puftiiles de V assistance, " wards of public- charity," and are di«&
guished by the law of 1904 from children under the protect i on «*' ur
state, classified as : ( 1 ) enfants secourus, t<e. children whose pares*
or relatives are unable, through poverty, to support them: J>
enfants en dipdt, xx. children of persons undergoing a j udkial seauns
and children temporarily taken in while their parents axe in bosoitaL
and (3) enfants en garde, ix. children who have either committed *
been the victim of some felony or crime and are placed under ssst
care by judicial authority. The asylum which receives all the*
children is a departmental (Hablissemeut ditositaire), and oor a
communal institution. The etablissement depositaire b um£*
the ward of an hospice, in which — with the exception of chidm
en dipdt— the stay is of the shortest, for by the law of 1904, centime
the principle laid down in 181 1. all children under thirteen yesor
age under the guardianship of the state, except the mentaSv «
physically infirm, must be boarded out in country districts. ffer.
are generally apprenticed to some one engaged in the agricoeisi.
industry, and until majority they remain under the gvardiaa&i?
of the administrative commissioners of the department. The str*
pays the whole of the cost of inspection and supervision. Ti;
expenses of administration, the " home " expenses* for the asn?
(nourrice sidentaire) or the wet nurse (nourrice am sdn), the *ns?
de survie (premium on survival), washing, clothes, and the or-
door " expenses, which include (1) temporary assistance to ss*
married mothers in order to prevent desertion; (a) allowances to dr
foster-parents {nourriciers) in the country for board, school-mean.
Ac; (3) clothing; (4) travelling-money for nurses and cfcikbes
(5) printing, &c, (6) expenses in time of sickness and for borwfa
and apprentice fees— are borne in the proportion of two-fifths by
the state two-fifths by the department, and the remaining Efts tv
the communes. The following figures show the number ct drikirca
(exclusive of enfants setourus) relieved at various periods:
Year. Number relieved.
189a , # , . 95.701
1895 .... tailor
1900 .... 138,308
1005 .... 149.803
The droit de recherche is conceded to the parent on p ay m ent d 1
small fee. The decree of 181 1 contemplated the repayment of at
expenses by a parent reclaiming a child. The same decree di*ect«
a tour or revolving box (Drehtylinder in Germany) to be kept £
each hospital. These have been discontinued. The ** Assists- j:
PubUque M of Paris is managed by a " directeur " appointed by : -
minister of the Interior, and associated with a representative cem
de surveillance. The Paris Hospice des Enfant*- Assistes coma::'
about 700 beds. There are also in Paris numerous private char>k-
for the adoption of poor children and orphans. It is unpack e.
here to give even a sketch of the long and able controversies wh*: 1 -
have occurred in France on the principles of management of founc-
ling hospitals, the advantages of tours and the system of adnnVw*
& bureau ouverl, the transfer of orphans from one department n
another, the hygiene and service of hospitals and the inspectior J
nurses, the education and reclamation of the children and the x\Jt*
of the state in their future. Reference may be made to the works
noticed at the end of this article.
Belgium. — In this country the arrangements for the relief si
foundlings and the appropriation of public funds for that purpo*
very much resemble those in France, and can hardly be useful
described apart from the general questions of local government 3m
poor law administration. The Commissions des Hospices Ci\ iSrs.
however, are purely communal bodies, although they recent
pecuniary assistance from both the departments and the state. A
decree 01 181 1 directed that there should be an asylum and a wber-'
for receiving foundlings in every arrondissement. The last ** wheci.'
that of Antwerp, was closed in i860. (See Des Iustitnliems is
bienfaisanu et de prhoyance en Bclgique, 1850 a i860, par M. P.
Lentz.)
Italy is very rich in foundling hospitals, pure and simple, orphan
and other destitute children being separately provided for. (St
Delta carita preoentha in Italia, by Signor Fano.) In Rome err
branch of the Santo Spirito in Sassia (so called from the Scbob
Saxonurd built in 728 by King Ina in the Borgo) has, since the tirr-
of Pope Sixtus TV., been devoted to foundlings. The average annus*
number of foundlings supported is about 3000. (See The CkaritaS*
Institutions of Rome, by Cardinal Morichini.) In Venice the Casa
dtal, founded in 1346, and receiviot
.„ ,. er provincial administration. The
splendid legacy of the last doge, Ludovko Manin, is applied totbt
FOUNTAIN
747
ipport of about 160 children by tht " Cocsjiegaaione di Carta "
:ting through 30 parish boards (deputation* fraternate).
A iw/r«d.— In Austria foundling hospitals occupied a very prominent
lace in the general instruction* which, by rescript dated 16th of April
;8i, the emperor Joseph II. issued to the charitable endowment
rnimission. In 1818 foundling asylums and lying-in houses were
xlared to be state institutions. They were accordingly supported
f the state treasury until the fundamental law of roth October
i6o handed them over to the provincial committees. They are
>w local institutions, depending on provincial funds, and are quite
parate from the ordinary parochial poor institute. Admission is
atuitous when the child is actually found on the street, or is sent
f a criminal court, or where the mother undertakes to serve for
•ur months as muse or midwife in an asylum, or produces a
rtificate from the parish priest and " poor-father " (the parish
spector of the poor-law aaministtation) that she has no money.
1 other cases payments of 30 to 100 florins are made. When two
onths old the child is sent for six or ten years to the houses in the
•ighbourhood of respectable married persons, who have certificates
om the police or the poor-law authorities, and who are inspected
f the latter and by a special medical officer. These persons receive
constantly diminishing allowance, and the arrangement may be
:termined by 14 days r notke on cither side. The foster-parents
ay retain the child in their service or employment till the age of
ay retain the child in their service or employment till the age
rcnty-two, but the true parents may at any time reclaim the
•undling on reimbursing the asylum and compensating the foster-
ixcnts.
Russia. — Under the old Russian system of Peter I. foundlings
ere received at the church windows by a staff of women paid by
te state. But since the reign of Catherine 1 1, the foundling hospitals
ive been in the hands of the provincial officer of public charity
>rykaz obshestvennago pryzrenya). The great central institutions
/ospitatelnoi Dom), at Moscow and St Petersburg (with a branch
: Gatchina). were founded by Catherine. When a child is brought
ie baptismal name is asked, and a receipt is given, by which the
lild may be reclaimed up to the age of ten. The mother may nurse
ar child. After the usual period of six years in the country very
neat care is taken with the education, especially of the more promis-
ig children. The hospital is a valuable source of recruits for the
ublic service. Malthus (The Principle* of Population, voL i. p. 434)
as made a violent attack on these Russian charities. He argues
lat they discourage marriage and therefore population, and that
ie best management is unable to prevent a high mortality. He
ids: "An occasional child murder from false shame is saved
t a very high price if it can be done only by the sacrifice of some
f the best and most useful feelings of the human heart in a great
art of the nation/' It does not appear, however, that the rate of
legitimacy in Russia is comparatively high : it is so in the two great
ities. The rights of parents over the children were very much re-
jected, and those of the government much extended by a ukase
sued by the emperor Nicholas in 1 837. The most eminent Russian
riter on this subject is M. Gourov. See his Recherche* sur Us
%fants tromes, and Essai sur Fhistoire des enfants trovves (Paris,
829). '
In A merica, foundling hospitals, which are chicly private charities,
xist in most of the large cities.
Great Britain. — The Foundling Hospital of London was incor-
orated by royal charter in 1739 * r for the maintenance and education
f exposed and deserted young children." The petition of Captain
*bomas Coram, wbqis entitled to the whole credit of the foundation, 1
tates as its objects " to prevent the frequent murders of poor
liserable children at their birth, and to suppress the inhuman
ustom of exposing new-born infants to perish in the streets." At
rst no questions were asked about child or parent, but a dlstin-
uishing mark was put 00 each child by the parent. These were
f ten marked coins, trinkets, pieces of cotton or ribbon, verses
xitten on scraps of paper. The clothes, if any, were carefully
scorded. One entry k, u Paper on the breast, clout on the head/*
he applications became too numerous, and a system of balloting
ith red, white and black balls was adopted. In 1756 the House of
'ommom came to a resolution that all children offered should be
iceived, that local receiving places should be appointed all over
he country, and that the funds should be publicly guaranteed. A
sur years 14.934 children were presented, and a vile trade grew up
rnong vagrants of undertaking to carry children from the country
o the hospital,— an undertaking which, like the French meneurs,
hey often did not perform or performed with great cruelty. Of
hese 15,000 only 4400 lived to be apprenticed out. The total ex-
ense was about £500.000. This alarmed the House of Commons,
tfter throwing out a bill which proposed to raise the necessary
unds by fees from a general system of parochial registration, they
ame to the conclusion that the indiscriminate admission should be
tsrontinued. The hospital, being thus thrown on its own resources,
doptcd a pernicious system of receiving children with considerable
* Addison had suggested such a charity {Guardian, No. 3).
sums (c.f . £100), which sometimes led to the children being re-
claimed by the parent. This was finally stopped in 1 801; and it
is now a fundamental rule that no money is received. The com-
mittee of inquiry must now be satisfied of the previous good char-
acter and present necessity of the mother, and that the father of the
child has deserted it and the mother, and that the reception of
the child will probably replace the mother in the course of virtue
and in the way of an honest livelihood. All the children at the
Foundling hospital are those of unmarried women, and they are all
first children of their mothers. The principle is in fact that laid
down by Fielding in Tom Jones — " Too true 1 am afraid it is that
many women have become abandoned and have sunk to the last
degree of vice by being unable to retrieve the first slip." At present
the hospital supports about $00 children up to the age of fifteen.
The average annual number of applications is over aoo, and of
admissions between 40 and 50. The children used to be named
after the patrons ana governors, but the treasurer now prepares a
list. Children are seldom taken after they are twelve months old.
On reception they are sent down to the country, where they stay
until they are about four or five years old. At sixteen the girls
are generally apprenticed as servants for four years, and the boys at
the age of fourteen as mechanics for seven years. There is a small
benevolent fund for adults. The musical service, which was origin-
ally sung by the blind children only, was made fashionable by the
Christ presenting a little Child. In 1774 Dr Burney and Slgnor
Giardim made an unsuccessful attempt to form in connexion with
the hospital a public music school, in imitation of the Cbmerva*
torium of the Continent. In 1847, however, a successful " Juvenile
Band " was started. The educational effects of music have been
found excellent, and the hospital supplies many musicians to the best
army and navy bands. The early connexion between the hospital
and the eminent painters of the reign of George II. is one of extreme
interest. The exhibitions of pictures at the Foundling, which were
organized by the Dilettanti Club, undoubtedly led to the formation
of the Royal Academy in 1768. Hogarth painted a portrait of
Captain Coram for the hospital, which also contains his March to
Finchley , and Roubillac't bust of Handel. (See History and Objects of
Ike Foundling Hospital, with Memoir of its Founder, by J. BrownJow.)
In 1704 the Foundling hospital of Dublin was opened. No
inquiry was made about the parents, and no money received. From
1500 to aooo children were received annually. A large income was
derived from a duty on coal and the produce of car licences. In
1822 an admission fee of £5 was charged on the parish from which
the child came. This reduced the annual arrivals to about 500,
In 1829 the select committee on the Irish miscellaneous estimates
recommended that no further assistance should be given. The
hospital had not preserved life or educated the foundlings. The
mortality was nearly 4 in 5, and the total cost £ 1 0.000 a year.
Accordingly in 1835 Lord Glcnelg (then Irish Secretary) closed the
institution.
Scotland never seems to have possessed a foundling hospital. In
1759 John Watson left funds which were to be apphed to the pious
and charitable purpose "of preventing child murder" by the
establishment of a hospital for receiving pregnant women and
taking care of their children as foundlings. But by an act of parlia-
ment in 1822, which sets forth " doubts as to the propriety " of the
original purpose, the money was given to trustees to erect a hospital
for the maintenance and education of destitute children.
Authorities. — Histoire statistiaue et morale des enfants howls
by MM.Terme et Montfalcon (Pans, 1817) (the authors were eminent
medical men at Lyons, connected with the administration of the
foundling hospital) ; Remade, Des hospices d' enfants Irenes en
Europe (Paris, 1838); Hugel. Die Findelhduser unddas Findehsasen
Europas ( Vienna, 1863); Emminghaus, " Das Armenwesen und die
Armengesetsgcbung," in Eurofaisthen Staaten (Berlin. 1870):
Sennichon. Histoire des enfants abandonmis (Paris, 1880); the annual
Rapport sur Ie senice des enfants assktis dn dipartement da /a Seine;
Epstein, Studien zur Frage der Findelanstallen (Prague, 1882) t
Florence D. Hill. Children of the Slate (and cd., 1889). For United
States, see H. Folks, Care of Neglected and Dependent Children (1901) •
A. G. Warner, America* Chanties (enlarged, 1908) and Reports of
Massachusetts Slate Board of Charities. Information may also be got
in the Reports on Poor Laws in Foreign Countries, communicated to
the Local Government Board by the foreign secretary ; Accounts and
Papers (1875), vol. brv. c. 1225: Report of Committee on the Infant
Life Protection Bill (1890); Report of Lords Committee on the Infant
Life Protection Bill (1896). (See also Charity akd Charities.)
FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from /mm, a spring), a term
applied In a restricted sense to such outlets of water as. whether
fed by natural or artificial means, have contrivances of human
art at a point where the water emerges. A very early existing
example is preserved in the carved Babylonian basin (about 3000
B.C.) found at Tello, the ancient Lagash, and Layard mentions
an Assyrian fountain, found by him in a gorge of the river Gomel,
748
FOUNTAIN
which consists of a series of basins cut In the solid rock and
descending in steps to the stream. The water had been originally
led from one to the other by small conduits, the lowest of which
was ornamented by two rampant lions in relief. The term is
applied equally to the simpler arrangements for letting water
gush into an ornamental basin or to the more elaborate ones
by which water is mechanically forced into high jets; and a
" fountain " may be either the ornamental receptacle or the jet
of water itself. In modern times the examples of ornamental
or useful fountains are legion, and it will suffice here to mention
some of the more important facts of historical interest.
Among the Greeks fountains were very common in the cities.
Springs being very plentiful in Greece, little engineering skill
was required to convey the water from place to place. Receptacles
of sufficient size were made for it at the springs; and to maintain
its purity, structures were raised enclosing and covering the
receptacle. In Greece they were dedicated to gods and goddesses,
nymphs and heroes, and were frequently placed in or near temples.
That of Pirene at Corinth (mentioned also by Herodotus) was
formed of white stone, and contained a number of cells from which
the pleasant water flowed into an open basin. Legend connects
it with the nymph Pirene, who shed such copious tears, when
bewailing her son who had been slain by Diana, that she was
changed into a fountain. The city of Corinth possessed
many fountains. In one near the statues of fila.ua. and Belle-
rophon the water flowed through the hoofs of the horse
Pegasus. The fountain of Glauce, enclosed in the Odeum, was
dedicated to Glauce, because she was said to have thrown
herself into it believing that its waters could counteract the
poisons of Medea. Another Corinthian fountain had a bronze
statue of Poseidon standing on a dolphin from which the water
flowed. The fountain constructed by Theagenes at Megara
was remarkable for its size and decorations, and for the number
of its columns. One at Lerna was surrounded with pillars, and
the structure contained a number of seats affording a cool
summer retreat. Near Pharae was a grove dedicated to Apollo,
and in it a fountain of water. Pausanias gives a definite archi-
tectural detail when he says that a fountain at Patrae was
reached from without by descending steps. Mystical, medicinal,
surgical and other qualities, as well as supernatural origin,
were ascribed to fountains. One at Cyane in Lycia was said
to possess the quality of endowing all persons descending into
it with power to see whatever they desired to see; while the
legends of fountains and other waters with strange powers to
heal are numerous in many lands. The fountain Enneacrunus
at Athens was called Callirrhoe before the time the water was
drawn from it by the nine pipes from which it took its later name.
Two temples were above it, according to Pausanias, one dedicated
to Demeter and Persephone, and the other to Triptolemus. The
fountain in the temple of Erechtheus at Athens was supplied
by a spring of salt water, and a similar spring supplied that in
the temple of Poseidon Hippios at Mantinea.
The water-supply of Rome and the works auxiliary to it were
on a scale to be expected from a people of such great practical
power. The remains of the aqueducts which stretched from the
city across the Campagna are amongst the most striking monu-
ments of Italy. Vitruvius (book viii.) gives minute particulars
concerning the methods to be employed for the discovery,
testing and distribution of water, and describes the properties
of different waters with great care, proving the importance which
was attached to these matters by the Romans. The aqueducts
supplied the baths and the public fountains, from which last
all the populace, except such as could afford to pay for a separate
pipe to their houses, obtained their water. These fountains
were therefore of large size and numerous. They were formed
at many of the costeUo of the aqueducts. According to Vitruvius,
each casUllum should have three pipes, — one for public fountains,
one for baths and the third for private houses. Considerable
revenue was drawn from the possessors of private water-pipes.
The Roman fountains were generally decorated with figures
and heads. Fountains were often also the ornament of Roman
villas and country houses; in those so situated the water gener-
ally fell from above into a large marble basin, with at uaat
second fall into a still lower receptacle. Two adjacent hoes
in Pompeii had very remarkable fountains. One, says Gel,
" is covered with a sort of mosaic consisting of vitrified tesserae
of different colours, but in which blue predominates. These as
sometimes arranged in not inelegant patterns, and the goad
divisions as well as the borders are entirely formed and orna-
mented with real sea-shells, neither calcined by the heat of tie
eruption nor changed by the lapse of so many centuries * (?**-
pciana, i. 106). Another of large size was similarly deconu4
with marine shells, and is supposed to have borne two sculptors'
figures, one of which, a bronze, is in the museum at Naples
This fountain projects 5 ft. 7 in. from the wall against which H a
placed, and is 7 ft. wide in front, while the height of the slructcc
up to the eaves of the pediment is 7 ft 7 in. On a central cotans
in the piscina was a statue of Cupid, with a dove, from the moui
of which water issued. Cicero had, at his villa at Formise, a
fountain which was decorated with marine shells.
Fountains were very common in the open spaces and at uv
crossways in Pompeii. They were supplied by leaden piyw
from the reservoirs, and had little ornament except a busaz
or animal head, from the mouth of which it was arranged that tk
water should issue. Not only did simple running fotmtais
exist, but the remains of jets d'eau have been found; and 1
drawing exists representing a vase with a double jet of water,
standing on a pedestal placed in what is supposed to have bee
the impluvham of a house. There was also a jet d'eau at tk
eastern end of the peristyle of the Fullonica at FomperL
As among the Greeks, so with the early Celts, traces of super-
stitious beliefs and usages with relation to fountains can be
traced in monumental and legendary remain*. Near the vtHist
of Primaleon in Brittany was a very remarkable monument,—
one possibly unique, as giving distinct proof of the existence
of an ancient cult of fountains. Here is a dolmen composed d a
horizontal table supported by two stones only, one at each esd
AH the space beneath this altar is occupied by a long square
basin formed of large flat stones, which receives a fountain d
water. At Lochrist is another vestige of the Celtic cult d
fountains. Beneath the church, and at the foot of the hill upei
which it is built, is a sacred fountain, near which is erected at
ancient chapel, which with its ivy-covered walls has a most
romantic appearance. A Gothic vault protects this fountuL
Miraculous virtues are still attributed to its water, and cc
certain days the country people still come with offerings to draw
it (see La Poix de Freminville, AfUiquiUsdelaBrctagme,i. p. lof
In the enchanted forest of Brochelande, so famous from ir>
connexion with Merlin, was the fountain of Baranton, which n
said to possess strange characteristics. Whoever drew water
from it, and sprinkled the steps therewith, produced a tremendous
storm of thunder and hail, accompanied with thick darkness.
Christianity transferred to its own uses the ancient religiMS
feeling concerning fountains. Statues of the Virgin or of saii£s
were erected upon the rude structures that collected the water
and preserved its purity. There is some uniformity in the
architectural characteristics of these structures during the
middle ages. A very common form in rural districts was thai
in which the fountain was reached by descending steps (fcxXaiM
grotte). A large basin received the water, sometimes from a
spout, but often from the spring itself. This basin was covered
by a sort of porch or vault, with at times moulded arches and
sculptured figures and escutcheons. On the bank of the dais
at Poitiers is a fountain of this kind, the Fontaine Joubcrt,
which though restored in 1597 was originally a structure of the
14th century. This kind of fountain is frequently decorated with
figures of the Virgin or of saints, or with the family arms of its
founder; often, too, the water is the only ornament of the
structure, which bears a simple inscription. A large number
of theselountains are to be found in Brittany and indeed through
out France, and the great antiquity of some of them is proved
by the superstitions regarding them which still exist aunonctf
the peasantry. A form more common in populous districts was
that of a large open basin, round, square, polygonal, or lobed in
FOUNTAINS ABBEY— FOUQUE
749
form, with a columnar structure at the centre, from the lower
part of which it was arranged that spouts should issue, playing
into an open basin, and supplying vessels brought for the purpose
in the cleanest and quickest manner. The columns take very
various forms, from that of a simple regular geometrical solid,
with only grotesque masks at the spouts, to that of an elaborate
rod ornate Gothic structure, with figures of virgins, saints and
warriors, with mouldings, arches, crockets and fixuals. At
Frovins there is a fountain said to be of the 12th century, which
is in form an hexagonal vase with a large column in the centre,
the capital of which is pierced by three mouths, which are
furnished with heads of bronze projecting far enough to cast the
water into the basin. In the public market-place at Brunswick
js a fountain of the 15th century, of which the central structure
s made of bronze. Many fountains are still existing in France
ind Germany which, though their actual present structure may
date no earlier than the 15th or x 6th century, have been found
an the place of, and perhaps may almost be considered as restora-
tions of, pre-existing fountains. Except in Italy few fountains
ue of earlier date than the 14th century. Two of that date are
at the abbey of Fontaine Daniel, near Mayenne, and another,
[>f granite, is at Limoges. Some of these middle-age fountains
are simple, open reservoirs enclosed in structures which, however
plain, still carry the charm that belongs to the stone-work of
those times. There is one of this kind at Cully, Calvados, walled
on three sides, and fed from the spring by two circular openings.
Its only ornamentation is a small empty niche with mouldings.
At Lincoln is a fountain of the time of Henry VIII., in front of
the church of St Mary Wickford. At Durham is one of octangular
plan, which bears a statue of Neptune.
The decay of architectural taste in the later centuries is shown
by the fountain of Limoges. It is in form a rock representing
Mount Parnassus, upon which are carved in relief Apollo, the
horse Pegasus, Philosophy and the Nine Muses. At the top
Apollo, in the 1 6th-century costume, plays a harp. Rocks, grass
and sheep fill up the scene.
Purely ornamental fountains and jets d'eeu are found in or
near many large cities, royal palaces and private seats. The
celebrated Fontana di Trcvi, at Rome, was erected early in the
1 8th century under Pope Clement XII., and has all the character*
istics of decadence. La Fontana Paolina and those in the piazza
of St Peter's are perhaps next in celebrity to that of Trevi, and
are certainly in better taste. At Paris the Fontaine des Innocent
(the earliest) and those of the Place Royal, of the Champs Eiysees
and of the Place de la Concorde are the most noticeable. The
fountain of the lions and other fountains in the Alhambra palace
are, with their surroundings, a very magnificent sight. The
largest jets d'exxu are those at Versailles, at the Sydenham
Crystal Palace and at San Ildefonso.
About the earliest drawing of any drinking fountain in England
occurs in Moxon's Tutor to Astronomic and Geographic (1659);
it is " surmounted by a diall, which was made by Mr John Leak,
and set upon a composite column at Leadenhall corner, in the
majoralty of Sir John Dcthick, Knight." The water springs
from the top and base of the column, which stands upon a square
pedestal and bears four female figures, one at least of which
represents the costume of the period.
In the East the public drinking fountains are a very important
institution. In Cairo alone there are three hundred. These
" sebeels " are not only to be seen in the cities, but arc plentiful
in the fields and villages.
The Metropolitan Drinking Fountain Association (1850) has
done much to provide facilities In London for both man and
beast to get water to drink in the streets. And in the United
States liberal provision has also been made by private and public
enterprise.
FOUNTAINS ABBEY, one of the most celebrated ecclesiastical
ruins in England. It ties in the sequestered valley of the river
Skell, 3 m. S. W. of the city of Ripon in Yorkshire. The situation
is most beautiful. The little Skell descends from the uplands
of Pateley Moor to the west a dear swift stream, traversing a
valley clothed with woods, conspicuous among which are some
ancient yew trees which may have sheltered the monks who
first sought retreat here. Steep rocky hills enclose the vale.
Mainly on the north side of the stream, in an open glade, rise
the picturesque and extensive ruins, the church with its stately
tower, and the numerous remnants of domestic buildings which
enable the great abbey to be almost completely reconstructed
in the mind. The arrangements are typical of a Cistercian
house (see Abbey). Building began in earnest about 1135,
and was continued steadily until the middle of the 13th century,
after which the only important erection was Abbot Huby's
tower (c. 1500). The demesne of Studley Royal (marquess of
Ripon) contains the ruins. It is in part laid out in the formal
Dutch style, the work of John Aislabie, lord of the manor in the
early part of the 1 8th century. Near the abbey is the picturesque
Jacobean mansion of Fountains Hall.
In 1 13 a the prior and twelve monks of St Mary's abbey, York,
being dissatisfied with the easy life they were living, left the
monastery and with the assistance of Thurstan, archbishop of
York, founded a house in the valley of the Skell, where they
adopted the Cistercian rule. While building their monastery
the monks are said to have lived at first under an elm and then
under seven yew trees called the Seven Sisters. Two years
later they were joined by Hugh, dean of St Peter's, York, who
brought with him a large sum of money and a valuable collection
of books. His example was followed by Serb, a monk of St
Mary's abbey, York, and by Tosti, a canon of York, and others.
Henry Land succeeding sovereigns granted them many privileges.
During the reign of Edward I. the monks appear to have again
suffered from poverty, partly no doubt owing to the invasion of
the Scots, but partly also through their own " misconduct and ex*
travagance." On account of this Edward I. in 1291 appointed
John de Berwick custodian of the abbey so that be might pay
their debts from the issues of their estates, allowing them enough
for their maintenance, and Edward II. in 1319 granted them
exemption from taxes. After the Dissolution Henry VIII. sold
the manor and site of the monastery to Sir Richard Greaham,
and from him after passing through several families it came to
the marquess of Ripon.
See Victoria County History, Yorkshire; Dugdale, Monasticon;
Surtees Society, Memorials of the Abbey of Si Mary of Fountains,
collected and edited by J. R. Walbran (1863-78).
POUQUi, FERDINAND ANDR* (1828- 1004), French geologist
and petrologist, was born at Mortain, dept. of La Manche, on
the 21st of June 1828. At the age of twenty-one he entered the
6eoU Normale in Paris, and from 1853 to 1858 he held the ap-
pointment of keeper of the scientific collections. In 1877 he
became professor of natural history at the College de France,
in Paris, and in 1881 he was elected a member of the Academy
of Sciences. As a stratigraphical geologist he rendered much
assistance on the Geological Survey of France, but in the course
of time he gave his special attention to the study of volcanic
phenomena and earthquakes, to minerals and rocks; and he was
the first to introduce modern petrographies! methods into France.
His studies of the eruptive rocks of Corsica, Santorin and else-
where; his researches on the artificial reproduction of eruptive
rocks, and his treatise on the optical characters of felspars
deserve special mention; but he was perhaps best known for
the joiat work which he carried on with his friend Michel Levy.
He died on. the 7th of March 1004. His chief publications
were: Santorin et ses eruptions, f8?o; (with A. Michel Levy)
MinSrolotie nicrograpkiqme, Roches eruptive* (ranqaises (a vols.,
1870) ; and Synthese des tmniraux et des roches (1882).
FOUQUf, FRIBDR1CH HBINRICH KARL DB U MOITB.
Baron (1777-1843), German writer of the romantic movement,
was born on the 12th of February 1777 at Brandenburg. « His
grandfather had been one of Frederick the Great's generals
and his father was a Prussian officer. Although not originally
intended for a military career, Friedrich de la Motte Fouque
ultimately gave up his university studies at Halle to join the
army, and he took part in the Rhine campaign of 1704. The rest
of his life was devoted mainly to literary pursuits. Like so many
of the younger romanticists^ Fouque owed bis introduction to
75°
FOUQUET
literature to A. W. Schlcgel, who published his first book,
Dramatiscke Spiele von PeUegrin in 1804. His next work,
Romanttn torn Tal Ronccvcl (1805), showed more plainly his
allegiance to the romantic leaders, and in the Historic torn edlen
RiUer Galmy (1806) he versified a 16th-century romance of
medieval chivalry. Sigurd der Scklangcnldter, tin Hddenspid
(2808), the first modern German dramatization of the Nibdungen
saga, attracted attention 10 him, and influenced considerably
subsequent versions of the story, such as Hebbel's Nibclungen
and Wagner's Ring des Nibdungen. These early writings indicate
the lines which Fouque's subsequent literary activity followed;
his interests were divided between medieval chivalry on the one
hand and northern mythology on the other. In 1813, the year
of the rising against Napoleon, he again fought with the Prussian
army, and the new patriotism awakened in the German people
left its mark upon his writings.
Between 1810 and 1815 Fouque's popularity was at its height;
the many romances and novels, plays and epics, which he turned
out with extraordinary rapidity, appealed exactly to the mood
of the hour. The earliest of these are the best— Undine, which
appeared in 181 1, being, indeed, one of the most charming of all
German Mdrcken and the only work by which Fouqul's memory
still lives to-day. A more comprehensive idea of his powers
may, however, be obtained from the two romances Der Zauberring
(1813) and Die Fakrten Tkiodulfsdes I slanders (i&i$). From 1820
onwards the quality of Fouque's work rapidly degenerated, partly
owing to the fatal ease with which he wrote, partly to his inability
to keep pace with the changes in German taste. He remained
the belated romanticist, who, as the reading world turned to
new interests, clung the more tenaciously to the paraphernalia
of romanticism; but in the cold, sober light of the post-romantic
age, these appeared merely flimsy and theatrical. The vitalizing
imaginative power of his early years deserted him, and the
sobriquet of a " Don Quixote of Romanticism " which his
enemies applied to him was not unjustified.
Fouque's first marriage bad been unhappy and soon ended
in divorce. His second wife, Karoline von Briest (1773-1831)
enjoyed some reputation as a novelist in her day. After her
death Fouqu6 married a third time. Some consolation for the
ebbing tide of popular favour was afforded him by the munifi-
cence of Frederick William IV. of Prussia, who granted him a
pension which allowed him to spend his later years in comfort.
He died in Berlin on the 23rd of January 1843.
Fouque's Ausgew&hlte Werke. edited by himself, appeared in 12
ols. (Berlin. 1841); a selection, edited by M. Koch, will be found
in Kurschncr's Deutsche NalionaUiteratur, vol. 146, part ii. (Stuttgart,
,'bt 1
tteai
Btbli
vols.
in . .
1893); Undine, Sinlram, &c, in innumerable reprints. Btblio-
fraphy in Goedcke's Crundriss zur Gcschickte der deutseken Diehtung
2nd ed.. vi. pp. 115 ft*., Dresden, 1808). Most of Fouque's works
have been translated, and the English versions of Aslauga's Knight
(by Carlylc), Sinlram and his Companions and Undine, have been
frequently republished. For Fouque's life cp. Lebensgeschichte des
Baron Friednch de la Motle Fouqui. Aufgeteichnet durch ihn sdbst
(Halle, 1840), (only to the year 1813), and also the introduction to
Koch's selections in the Deutsche NationaUiUratur. (J- G - &•)
FOUQUET (or Foucquet), NICOLAS (1615-1680), viscount of
Melun and of Vaux, maxquis of Belle-l&le, superintendent of
finance in France under Louis XIV., was born at Paris in 1615.
He belonged to an influential family of the noblesse de la robe,
and after some preliminary schooling with the Jesuits, at the age
of thirteen was admitted as avocat at the parlement of Paris.
While still in his teens he held several responsible posts, and in
1636, when just twenty, he was able to buy the post of maitre
des r edutles. From 1642 to 1650 he held various intendancics at
first in the provinces and then with the army of Mazarin, and,
coming thus in touch with the court, was permitted in 1650 to
buy the important position of procureur gintral to the parlement
of Paris. During Mazarin '3 exile Fouquet shrewdly remained
loyal to him, protecting his property and keeping him informed
of the situation at court.
Upon the cardinal's return, Fouquet demanded and received
at reward the office of superintendent of the finances (1653), a
position which, in the unsettled condition of the government,
threw into his hands not merely the decision as to which funds
should be applied to meet the demands of the state's cre&ss,
but also the negotiations with the great financiers who lest
money to the king. The appointment was * popular one « *
the moneyed class, for Fouquet's great wealth had been Lirr >
augmented by his marriage in 1651 with Marie de Cas:&
who also belonged to a wealthy family of the legal nobflity. Hr,
own credit, and above all his unfailing confidence in hia»L
strengthened the credit of the government, while his high nostra
at the parlement (he still remained procureur general) sens*!
financial transactions from investigation. As minister of ficaau
he soon had Mazarin almost in the position of a supp&s:
The long wars, and the greed of the courtiers, who followed ik
example of Mazarin, made it necessary at times for Fouqaet t
meet the demands upon him by borrowing upon his own ctk. 4
but he soon turned this confusion of the public purse with his e*3
to good account. The disorder in the accounts became bapnc*
fraudulent operations were entered into with impunity, and tie
financiers were kept in the position of clients by official bvass
and by generous aid whenever they needed it. Fouquet 's fon^r
now surpassed even Mazarin's, but the latter was too 4*t&
implicated in similar operations to interfere, and was obliged *
leave the day of reckoning to his agent and successor Celber-
Upon Mazarin's death Fouquet expected to be made head of \*:
government; but Louis XIV. was suspicious of bis peer;
dissembled ambition, and it was with Fouquet in mind that is
made the well-known statement, upon assuming the govere-
ment, that he would be his own chief minister. Colbert fed tkc
king's displeasure with adverse reports upon the deficit, *ad
made the worst of the case against Fouquet. The extravac^
expenditure and personal display of the superintendent scrvec a
intensify the ill-will of the king. Fouquet had bought the por.
of Belle Isle and strengthened the fortifications, with a vie* u
taking refuge there in case of disgrace. He bad spent enemas
sums in building a palace on his estate of Vaux, which in cxien
magnificence, and splendour of decoration was a forecast *
Versailles. Here he gathered the rarest manuscripts, the fiats
paintings, jewels and antiques in profusion, and above all ssr-
rounded himself with artists and authors. The table was opts
to all people of quality, and the kitchen was presided over by
VateL Lafontaine, Corneille, Scarron, were among the muliJiei
of his clients. In August 1661 Louis XIV., already set upon Ls
destruction, was entertained at Vaux with a Jtte rivalled s
magnificence by only one or two in French history, at whks
Moliere's Les FAckeux was produced for the first time. Tbs
splendour of the entertainment sealed Fouquet's fate. The hag
however, was afraid to act openly against so powerful a nriaistcr.
By crafty devices Fouquet was induced to sell his office of frr-
cureur general, thus losing the protection of its privileges, aad be
paid the price of it into the treasury.
Three weeks after his visit to Vaux the king withdrew :«
Nantes, taking Fouquet with him, and had him arrested when fee
was leaving the presence chamber, flattered with the assurance
of his esteem. The trial lasted almost three years, and its viola-
tion of the forms of justice is still the subject of frequent mono-
graphs by members of the French bar. Public sympathy wis
strongly with Fouquet, and Lafontaine, Madame de Sevigs*
and many others wrote on his behalf; but when Fouquet wis
sentenced to banishment, the king, disappointed, " commuted '
the sentence to imprisonment for life. He was sent at tbs
beginning of 1665 tothe fortressof Pignerol, where heundoubtedry
died on the 23rd of March 1680. 1 Louis acted throughout M 2s
though he were conducting a campaign," evidently fearing that
Fouquet would play the part of a Richelieu. Fouquet bote
himself with manly fortitude, and composed several mediocrr
translations in prison. The devotional works bearing his name
are apocryphal. A report of his trial was published in Holland,
in is volumes, in 1605-1667, in spite of the remonstrances
which Colbert addressed to the States-General. A second
edition under the title of (Euvres de Af. Fouquet appeared
in i6$6.
1 Fouquet has been Identified with the " Man with the Iron Mask *
(see laoif Mask), but this theory is Quite i
FOUQUIER-TINVILLE— FOURIER, F. C. M.
75»
tpres ses tettres et des piiees itUdtUs (a vols., Paris, 1864): I. Lair t
icotos Foucquel, proeureur general, surinlendant des finances,
inistre d"£tat de Louis XIV (2 vols., Paris, 1 890) ; U. V. Chltelain,
' Surintendant Nicolas Fouquet, protecteur des lettres, des arts et
s sciences (Paris. 190s); R- Pfnor et A. France, U Ckdteau 4*
iux4e- Viccmre dessiui et graui (Paris, 1888).
FOUQUIER-TINVILLE, AMTOINS QUENTIM (1746-179$),
•ench revolutionist, was born at Herouel, a village in the
part me nt of the Aisne. Originally a proeureur attached to
e Chatelet at Paris, he sold his office in 1783, and became a
;rk under the lieutenant-general of police. He seems to have
rly adopted revolutionary ideas, but tittle is known of the part
played at the outbreak of the Revolution. When the Revolu-
>nary Tribunal of Paris was established on the 10th of March
93, he was appointed public prosecutor to it, an office which
filled until the 28th of July 1704. His activity during this
ne earned him the reputation of one of the most terrible and
lister figures of the Revolution. His function as public
osecutor was not so much to convict the guilty as to see that
e proscriptions ordered by the faction for the time being in
wer were carried out with a due regard to a show of legality.
: was as ruthless and as incorrupt as Robespierre himself; he
uld be moved from his purpose neither by pity nor by bribes;
■r was there in his cruelty any of that quality which made the
dinary Jacobin enragi by turns ferocious and sentimental It
is this very quality of passionless detachment that made him
effective an instrument of the Terror. He had no forensic
xjuence; but the cold obstinacy with which he pressed his
arges was more convincing than any rhetoric, and he seldom
tied to secure a conviction.
His horrible career ended with the fall of Robespierre and the
rrorists on the 9th Thermidor. On the xst of August 1794 he
is imprisoned by order of the Convention and brought to trial
is defence was that he bad only obeyed the orders of the Com-
ittee of Public Safety, but, after a trial which lasted forty-one
tys, he was condemned to death, and guillotined on the 7th of
ay 179s-
See Memoir* pour A. Q. Fowquur ex^scensntenr public pits It
Ibunal reootutionnairo, &c (Paris, 1794). Domeoget. Fouquur-
invite et U tribunal rcvotuHonnaire (Paris, 1878); H. Wallon,
istoire du tribunal rhotutionnaire de Paris (1880-1882) (a work
general interest, but not always exact) ; George Lecocq, Notes et
cumenti sur Fouquier-Tinvitle (Paris, 1885). Sec also the docu-
ents relating to his trial enumerated by M. Touroeux in B4btic~
ophte de I'kistoire de Paris pendant la Resolution Fmncaise, vol. i.
as. 4445*4454 (*8oo).
FOURCHAMBAULT, a town of central France in the depart-
ent of Nievre, on the right bank of the Loire, 4} m. N.W. of
evers, on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1006) 4591. It owes
s importance to its extensive iron-works, established In 1821,
hich give employment to 2000 workmen and produce engineer-
g material for railway, military and other purposes. Among
ie more remarkable ehefs-d'auvri which have been produced at
ourchambault are the metal portions of the Pont du Carrousel,
te iron beams of the roof of the cathedral at Chartres, and the
ist spans of the bridge over the Dordogne at Cubxac. A small
inal unites the works to the Lateral canal of the Loire.
FOURCROY, AMTOIaTB FRANfOIS, Conn de (1755-1800),
rench chemist, the son of an apothecary m the household of
ie duke of Orleans, was born at Paris on the 15th of Jane 1755.
e took up medical studies by the advice of the anatomist
frlix Vicq d'Azyr -(1748-1794), and after many difficulties
msed by lack of means finally in 1780 obtained his doctor's
ploma. His attention was specially turned to chemistry by
B. M. Bucquet (1 746-1 780), the professor of chemistry at the
[edical School of Paris, and in 1784 he was chosen to succeed
. J. Macquer (17 18-1784) as lecturer in chemistry at the college
' the Jardin du Roi, where bis lectures attained great popularity,
e was one of the earliest converts to the views of Lavoisier,
hich he helped to promulgate by his voluminous writings,
at though his name appears on a large number of chemical
id also physiological and pathological memoirs, either alone or
ith others, he was rather a teacher and an organizer than an
original investigator. A member of the committees for public
instruction and public safety, and later, under Napoleon,
director general of instruction, he took a leading part in the
establishment Of schools for both primary and secondary educa-
tion, scientific studies being especially provided for. Fourcroy
died at Paris on the 16th of December 1809, the very day on
which he had been created a count of the French empire. By
his conduct as a member of the Convention he has been accused
of contributing to the death of Lavoisier. Baron Cuvier in his
Bioge hxstorujut of Fourcroy repels the charge, but he can
scarcely be acquitted of time-serving indifference, if indeed
active, though secret, participation be not proved against him.
The Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific Paters enumerates 50
memoir* by Fourcroy himself, and 58 written jointly by him and
others, mostly L. N. Vauquelin.
FOURIER, FRANCOIS CHARLES MARIE (1 772-1837),
French socialist writer, was born at Besancon in Franche-Comte
00 the 7th of April 1772. His father was a draper in good
circumstances, and Fourier received an excellent education at
the college in his native town. After completing his studies
there be travelled for some time in France, Germany and Holland.
On the death of his father he inherited a considerable amount of
property, which, however, was lost when Lyons was besieged
by the troops of the Convention. Being thus deprived of bis
means of livelihood Founer entered the army, but after two
years' service as a chasseur was discharged on account of ill-
health. In 1803 he published a remarkable article on European
politics which attracted the notice of Napoleon, some of whose
ideas were foreshadowed in it. Inquiries were made after the
author, but nothing seems to have come of them. After leaving
the army Fourier entered a merchant's office in Lyons, and
some years later undertook on his own account a small business
as broker. He obtained in this way just sufficient to supply his
wants, and devoted all his leisure time to the elaboration of his
first work on the organization of society.
During the early part of his life, and while engaged in com-
merce, he had become deeply impressed with the conviction that
social arrangements resulting from the principles of individualism
and competition were essentially imperfect and immoral. He
proposed to substitute for these principles co-operation or united
effort, by means of which full and harmonious development
might be given to human nature. The scheme, worked out In
detail in his first work. Tkiorie des quatre nuntvements (2 vols.,
Lyons, 1808, published anonymously), has for foundation a
particular psychological proposition and a special economical
doctrine. Psychologically Fourier held what may with some
laxity of language be called natural optimism,— the view that
the full, free development of human nature or the unrestrained
indulgence of human passion is the only possible way to happiness
and virtue, and that misery and vice spring from the unnatural
restraints imposed by society on the gratification of desire.
This principle of harmony among the passions he regarded as his
grandest discovery — a discovery which did more than set him on
a level with Newton, the discoverer of the principle of attraction
or harmony among material bodies Throughout his works,
in uncouth, obscure and often unintelligible language, he
endeavours to show that the same fundamental fact of harmony
is to be found in the four great departments, — society, animal
life, organic life and the materia) universe. In order to give
effect to this principle and obtain the resulting social harmony,
it was needful that society should be reconstructed; for, as
the social organism is at present constituted, innumerable
restrictions are imposed upon the free development of human
desire. As practical principle for such a reconstruction Fourier
advocated co-operative or united industry. In many respects
what he says of co-operation, in particular as to the enormous
waste of economic force which the actual arrangements of
society entail, still deserves attention, and some of the most
recent efforts towards extension of the co-operative method,
e.g. to house-keeping, were in essentials anticipated by him.
But the full realization of his scheme demanded much more than
the mere admission that co-operation is economically more
752
efficacious than individualism. Society as a whole must be
organized on the lines requisite to give full scope to co-operation
and to the harmonious evolution of human nature. The details
of this reorganization of the social structure cannot be given
briefly, but the broad outlines may be thus sketched. Society,
on his scheme, is to be divided into departments or phalanges,
each phalange numbering about 1600 persons. Each phalange
inhabits a phalanstere or common building, and has a certain
portion of soil allotted to it for cultivation. The phalansteres
are built after a uniform plan, and the domestic arrangements
are bud down very elaborately. The staple industry of the
phalanges is, of course, agriculture, but the various series and
troupes into which the members are divided may devote them-
selves to such occupations as are most to their taste; nor need
any occupation become irksome from constant devotion to it.
Any member of a group may vary his employment at pleasure,
may pass from one task to another. The tasks regarded as
menial or degrading in ordinary society can be rendered attractive
if advantage is taken of the proper principles of human nature:
thus children, who have a natural affinity for dirt, and a fondness
for " cleaning up," may easily be induced to accept with eager-
ness the functions of public scavengers. It is not, on Fourier's
scheme, necessary that private property should be abolished,
nor is the privacy of family life impossible within the phalanstere.
Each family may have separate apartments, and there may
be richer and poorer members. But the rich and poor are to be
locally intermingled, in order that the broad distinction between
them, which is so painful a feature in actual society, may become
almost imperceptible. Out of the common gain of the phalange
a certain portion is deducted to furnish to each member the
minimum of subsistence; the remainder is distributed in shares
to labour, capital and talent, — five-twelfths going to the first,
four-twelfths to the second and three-twelfths to the third.
Upon the changes requisite in the private life of the members
Fourier was in his first work more explicit than in his later
writings. The institution of marriage, which imposes unnatural
bonds on human passion, is of necessity abolished; a new and
ingeniously constructed system of licence is substituted for it.
Considerable offence seems to have been given by Fourier's
utterances with regard to marriage, and generally the later
advocates of his views are content to pass the matter over in
silence or to veil their teaching under obscure and metaphorical
language.
The scheme thus sketched attracted no attention when the
Theorie first appeared, and for some years Fourier remained in
his obscure position at Lyons. In 181 a the death of his mother
put him in possession of a small sum of money, with which he
retired to Bellay in order to perfect his second work. The
Traitt de V association arricoU domestique was published in 2 vols,
at Paris in 1822, and a summary appeared in the following year.
After its publication the author proceeded to Paris in the hope
that some wealthy capitalist might be induced to attempt the
realization of the projected scheme. Disappointed in this
expectation he returned to Lyons. In 1826 be again visited
Paris, and as a considerable portion of his means had been
expended in the publication of his book, he accepted a clerkship
in an American firm. In 1829 and 1830 appeared what is
probably the most finished exposition of his views, Le Nouweau
Monde industrid. In 183 x he attacked the rival socialist doc-
trines of Saint-Simon and Owen in the small work Pieges el
ckarlatanisme de deux secies, St Simon et Owen. His writings now
began to attract some attention. A small body of adherents
gathered round him, and the most ardent of them was Victor
Considerant (q.v.). In 1832 a newspaper, Le PhalansUre ou la
reform* industrielle was started to propagate the views of the
school, but its success was not great. In 1833 it declined from
a weekly to a monthly, and in 1834 it died of inanition. It was
revived in 1836 as Le Phalange, and in 1 843 became a daily paper,
La Democratic pacifique. In 1850 it was suppressed.
Fourier did not live to see the success of his newspaper, and
the only practical attempt during his lifetime to establish a
phalansUre was a complete failure. In 1832 M. Baudet Dulary,
FOURIER, J. B. J.
deputy for Seine-et-Oise, who had become a co n v er t , purebsef
an estate at Condt-sur-Vesgre, near the forest of RambociK
and proceeded to establish a socialist community The cir ^
supplied was, however, inadequate, and the community trv»s
up in disgust Fourier was in no way discouraged by this oim-c
and till his death, on the 10th of October 1837, be lived in dV.
expectation that wealthy capitalists would see the merits of &.s
scheme and be induced to devote their fortunes to its reaJuaika.
It may be added that subsequent attempts to «*o*Mid> ^
phalanstere have been uniformly unsuccessful. 1
Fourier seems to have been of an extremely retiring And tesst-
tive disposition. He mixed little in society, and appeared, indeai
as if be were the denizen of some other planet Of the itjc
nature of social arrangements, and of the manner in which Lij
naturally grow and become organized, he must be pronouscri
extremely ignorant. The faults of existing institutions present
themselves to him in an altogether distorted manner, and he
never appears to have recognized that the evils of actual socct
are immeasurably less serious than the consequences of te
arbitrary scheme. Out of the chaos of human passion he suppoyj
harmony was to be evolved by the adoption of a few theoretkal'v
disputable principles, which themselves impose restraints eres
more irksome than those due to actual social facts. With regzai
to the economic aspects of his proposed new method, it is of cause
to be granted that co-operation is more effective than indivici.
effort, but he has nowhere faced the question as to the prob&tk
consequences of organizing society on the abolition of those
great institutions which have grown with its growth. Eb
temperament was too ardent, his imagination too strong. aed
his acquaintance with the realities of life too slight to enable ha
justly to estimate the merits of bis fantastic views, That ti 5
description of him is not expressed in over-strong Ianga:rr
must be clear to any one who not only considers what is true 12
his works,— and the portion of truth is by no means a pecoLi:
discovery of Fourier's,— but who takes into account the whefr
body of his speculations, the cosmological and historical as vr.
as the economical and social. No words can adequately describe
the fantastic nonsense which he pours forth, partly in the tan
of general speculation on the universe, partly in the form a
prophetic utterances with regard to the future changes is
humanity and its material environment. From these extra-
ordinary writings it is no extreme conclusion that there was macs
of insanity in Fourier's mental constitution.
Authorities.— Ch. Pellarin, Fourier, same at sa ihiorie (5th ed,
1872); Sargant. Social Innovators (1899); Reybaud, Riformaicmrs
modemes (7th ed., 1864); Stein, Socialtsmus uud Commtuuismms Ja
heutigen Franhreichs (2nd ed., 1848); A. J. Booth, /Wftuftsv
Review, N S., vol xii., Czynski, Notice bibliogrtspkique sur C
Fourier (1841) ; Ferras, Le Socialism*, le uaturtlisme et U positirism
(1877) ; Considerant, Exposition abrigtc du systhne de Founer ( 184V
Transon, Theorie socictatrc de Charles Fourier (1832); Sn •
Ceschuhte der sotialen Bewegung in Franheich (1850); Mr-,
Untersuchungen iberdie Organisation der Arbeit (1853); J. H. Nc\»,
History of American Socialisms (1870); Bebel, (Charles Fe^mr
(1888); Yarachauer, Ceschichte des Sosialismus und Kommuuismx-
un to. Jahrhundert (1903) ; Sambuc, Le Socialism* de Fourier (19m .
M Hillquit, History of Socialism in the United States (190- .
H. Bourgin, Fourter, contribution 6 Vitude, de socialisme frsr^.u
Owl (R- Ad. )
FOURIER, JEAN BAPHSTB JOSEPH (1768-1830), Fret-;
mathematician, was born at Auxerre on the 21st of March i;g5.
He was the son of a tailor, and was left an orphan in bis eight!*
year, but, through the kindness of a friend, admission was gairo;
for him into the military school of his native town, which was the a
under the direction of the Benedictines of Saint-Maur. He socc
distinguished himself as a student and made rapid progress,
especially in mathematics. Debarred from entering the anrr
on account of his lowness of birth and poverty, he was appoint
1 Several experiments were made to this end in the United Surr*
(see Communism) by American followers of Fourier, whose doct ri.:n
were introduced there by Albert Brisbane (1809-1890). lnd«c*l. b
the years between 1840 and 1850, during which the movetner?
waxed and waned, no fewer than forty-one phalanges were found* 1 ,
of which some definite record can be found. The most interest;}- ,*
of all the experiments, not alone from its own history, but also fn - •
the fact that it attracted the support of many of the most ir.:»'
tactual and cultured Americans was that of Brook Farm («.».)
FOURIER'S SERIES
753
rofessor of mathematics In the school fa which he had been a
upU. In 1 787 he became a novice at the abbey of St Benott-sur-
oire; but he leit the abbey in 1789 and returned to his college,
here, in addition to his mathematical duties, he was frequently
illed to lecture on other subjects,— rhetoric, philosophy and
istory. On the institution of the ficole Normale at Paris in
795 he was sent to teach in it, and was afterwards attached
> the £cole Polytechnique, where he occupied the chair of
nalysis. Fourier was one of the savants who accompanied
onaparte to Egypt in 1798; and during this expedition he
as called to discharge important political duties in addition to
is scientific ones. He was for a lime virtually governor of half
gypt, and for three years was secretary of the Institut du
aire; he also delivered the funeral orations for Kleber and
>esaix. He returned to France in 1801, and in the following
car he was nominated prefect of Isera, and was created baron
ad chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He took an important
srt in the preparation of the famous Description de V Bey pie
id wrote the historical introduction. . He held his prefecture
•r fourteen years; and it was during this period that he carried
1 his elaborate and fruitful investigations on the conduction
I heat. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, in 1815, Fourier
tiblished a royalist proclamation, and left Grenoble as Napoleon
itered it. He was then deprived of his prefecture, and, although
amediately named prefect of the Rhone, was soon after again
eprived. He now settled at Paris, was elected to the Academic
es Sciences in 18x6, but in consequence of the opposition of
ouis XVIII. was not admitted till the following year, when he
leceeded the Abbe* Alexis de Rochon. In x8aa he was made
erpelual secretary in conjunction with Cuvier, in succession to
telambre. In 1826 Fourier became a member of the French
cademy, and in 1827 succeeded Laplace as president of the
wncil of the £cole Polytechnique. In 1828 he became a
.ember of the government commission established for the
icouragement of literature. He died at Paris on the 16th of
lay 1830.
As a politician Fourier achieved uncommon success, but his
une chiefly rests on his strikingly original contributions to
aence and mathematics. The theory of heat engaged his
ttention quite early, and in 18x2 he obtained a prize offered
y the Academie des Sciences with a memoir in two parts,
hiorie des tnouvematis de la ckaleur dans Us corps solides. The
rat part was republished in 1822 as La Thiorie anatytique de la
ialcMf, which by its new methods and great results made an
x>cb in the history of mathematical and physical science
tee below: Fousxsa's Suites). An English translation has
ecn published by A. Freeman (Cambridge, 1872), and a German
y Weinstein (Berlin, 1884). His mathematical researches
ere also concerned with the theory of equations, but the
uestion as to his priority on several points has been keenly
iscussed. After his death Navier completed and published
ourier's unfinished work, Analyse des equations' inditerminies
1831), which contains much original matter. In addition to the
orks above mentioned, Fourier wrote many memoirs on
rientific subjects, and Hcges of distinguished men of science,
[is works have been collected and edited by Gaston Darboux
ith the title (Euvres de Fourier (Paris, 1889-1890).
For a list of Fourier's publications tee the Catalogue of Scientific
apers of the Royal Society of London. Reference may also be made
> Arago, " Joseph Fourier, in the Smithsonian Report (1871).
FOURIER'S SERIES, in mathematics, those series which
rocecd according- to sines and cosines of multiples of a variable,
it various multiples being in the ratio of the natural numbers;
iey are used for the representation of a function of the variable
>r values of the variable which lie between prescribed finite
mits. Although the importance of such series, especially in the
leory of vibrations, had been recognized by D. Bernoulli,
a grange and other mathematicians, and had led to some dis-
ussion of their properties, J. B. J. Fourier (see above) was the
rst clearly to recognize the arbitrary character of the functions
hich the series can represent, and to make any serious attempt
> prove the validity of such representation; the series are
X. I)
consequently usually associated with the name of Fourier
More general cases of trigonometrical series, in which the
multiples are given as the roots of certain transcendental equa-
tions, were also considered by Fourier.
Before proceeding to the consideration of the special class of
series to be discussed, it b necessary to define with some precision
what is to be understood by the representation of an arbitrary
function by an infinite series. Suppose a function of a variable x
to be arbitrarily given for values ot x between two fixed values -a
and b; this means that, corresponding to every value of x such
that a£x£», a definite arithmetical value of the function is assigned
by means of some prescribed set of rules. A function so defined
may be denoted by /(x); the rules by which the values of the
function are determined may be embodied in a single explicit
analytical formula, or in several such formulae applicable to different
portions of the interval, but it would be an undue restriction of
the nature of an arbitrarily given function to assume a priori that
it is necessarily given in this manner, the possibility of the repre-
sentation of such a function by means of a single analytical ex*
pression being the very point which we have to discuss. The
variable x may be represented by a point at the extremity of an
interval measured along^ a straight line from a fixed origin; thus
we may speak of the point c as synonymous with the value x — c
of the variable, and ot /(r) as the value of the function assigned to
the point c. For any number of points between a and b the function
may be discontinuous, i.e. it may at such points undergo abrupt
changes of value; it will here be assumed that the number of such
points is finite. The only discontinuities here considered will be
those known as ordinary discontinuities. Such a discontinuity
exists at the point e if /(«+«), f{c—t) have distinct but definite
limiting values as « is indefinitely diminished; these limiting values
are known as the limi's on the right and on the left respectively
of the function at c, and may he denoted .by f(c +0), He — o). The
discontinuity consists therefore of a sudden change of value of the
function from rtc— o) to/(e+o), as x increases through the value c.
If there is such a discontinuity at the point x-o, we may denote
the limits on the right and on the left respectively by/(+o),/(— o).
Suppose we have an infinite series «i (x) +%(*)+. . . +sj«(x)+. . .
in which each term is a function of x, of known analytical form;
let any value x~c(a m c~b) be substituted in the terms of the
scries, and suppose the sum of n terms of the arithmetical series so
obtained approaches a definite limit as n is indefinitely increased:
this limit is Known as the sum of the series. If for every value of
c such that s stc £b the sum exists and agrees with the value of
f(c), the series z«,(x) is said to represent the function(/x) between
the values «, 6 of the variable. If this is the case for all points
within the given interval with the exception of a finite number, at
any one of which either the series has no sum, or has a sum which
does not agree with the value of the function, the series is said to
represent in general " the function for the given interval. If
t he sum ol n c ->rms of the series be denoted by 5*(c). the condition
that SJ,c) converges to the value /(c) is that, corresponding to any
finite positive number t as small as we please, a value *i of n can
be found such that if n&m, |/(c)-»S»(cX<s\
Function-* fcsve also been considered which for an infinite number
of point* within the given interval have no definite value, and scries
have a ho been discussed which at an infinite number of points in
the interval cc ase either to have a sum, or to have one which agrees
with the value of the function; the narrower conception above will
however be retained in the treatment of the subject in this article,
reference to the wider class of cases being made only in connexion
with the history of the theory of Fourier's Series.
Uniform Convert*** of Series. — If the series «i(x)+ *t(x)*f . . . +•
*t(x)-K . .converge for every value of x in a given interval a to 6,
and its sum be denoted by S(x), then if, corresponding to a finite
positive number b, as small as we please, a finite number *i can be
found such that the arithmetical value of S(x)— S„(x). where *^*i
is less than i, for every value of x in the given interval, the series is
said to converge uniformly in that interval. It may however happen
that as x approaches a particular value the number of terms 01 the
series which must be taken so thatlS(x}— Sn(x) I may be <*, in-
creases indefinitely; the convergence of the senes is then infinitely
slow in the neighbourhood of such a point, and the series is not uni-
formly convergent throughout the given interval, although it con-
verges at each point of the interval. If the number of such points
in the neighbourhood of which the series ceases to converge uni-
formly be finite, they may be excluded by taking intervals of finite
magnitude as small as we please containing such points, and con-
sidering the convergence of the series in the given interval with
such sub-intervals excluded; the convergence of the series is now
uniform throughout the remainder of the interval. The series is
said to be t'» general uniformly convergent within the given interval
a to b if it can be made uniformly convergent by the exclusion
of a finite number of portions of the interval, each such portion
being arbitrarily small. It is known that the sum of an infinite
series of continuous terms can be discontinuous only at points in
. the neighbourhood of which the convergence of the series is not
2o
754
FOURIER'S SERIES
&sin^+A.iin2f*+.
uniform, bat non-uniformity of convergence erf the aeries does not
necessarily imply discontinuity in the sum.
Form of FourteYs Series. — If it be assumed that a function /(x)
arbitrarily given for values of x such that o£x<l is capable of
being represented in general by an infinite series ot the form
.+A.sin2J?+..^
and if it be further assumed that the series is in general uniformly
convergent throughout the interval to /, the form of the co-
efficients A can be determined. Multiply each term of the series
by sin£j£, and integrate the product between the limits o and /,
then in virtue of the property ^818^** sin ^p^x-O, or ft accord-
ing as »' is not, or is, equal to n, we have |/A»- J /(x) un-j-dx, and
thus the series k of the fonn^sin^j^/(x)sii^p^ . . „ (i)
This method of determining the coefficients in the series would
not be valid without the assumption that the series is in general
uniformly convergent, for in accordance with a known theorem
the sum of the integrals of the separate terms of the scries is otherwise
not necessarily equal to the integral of the sum. This assumption
being made, it is further assumed that/(x) is such that f/(x)sin5j*dx
has a definite meaning for every value of n.
Before we proceed to examine the justification for the assumptions
made, it is desirable to examine the result obtained, and to deduce
other series from it. In order to obtain a scries of the form
Bo+Bi cos^+B, cosHp+ . . . +B. cos 2J2+ . . .
for the representation of /(x) in the interval o to A let us apply the
scries (i) to represent the function /(x) sin^r; we thus- find
On rearrangement of the terms this becomes
\ sin yffW* +j2 sm=JW^JV(*> cos*J£ir.
hence /(x) is represented for the interval o to / by the series of cosines
}J^(x)^+^wt^^(x)cos2prfx . . . Ca)
We have thus seen, that with the assi rnad<\ I he a rbi I rary
function /(x) may be represented, for tin given Interval, diner by a
series of sines, as in (l), or by a scries uf cumuli, a* in {2). Some
important differences between the two aeries must, howi.-vcr, be
noticed. In the first place, the scries >>f tine* ha* a vjniihirtg *um
when x»o or x«/: it therefore docs not iL~ure<*.-ji{ ihe function at
the point x«=o, unless /(o)-o, or at the point x=t. unit* */{/}=; a,
whereas the scries (2) of cosines may repn tnH the furutiuin at both
these points. Again, let us consider wJ j j t U represented by {!) and
(2) for values of x which do not lie bets. ■: ■- a o j r.d t. Ai f[x) is given
only for values of x between o and /, the ' ■?>■ urul 1 husc.
limits have no necessary connexion with fix) urnest wte *uppo*c that
f(x) is also given for such general value, oi x in such a way that ihe
series continue to represent that function, if in ( f) wc change 1 into
-x, leaving the coefficients unaltered, the senes change* *ign t
and if x be changed into x+2/, the scric > ia unalttrvd ; v, K mfrr that
the scries (l) represents an odd function of x and Ls periodic ai
period 2/; thus (1) will represent /(x 1 in gonial for lvalues d" x
between *», only if /(x) is odd and 1 .4 a {K-riud if* If in (j) h
change x into— x, the series is unaltered, and it L albo una hi. red
by changing x into x+2/; from this we tec that the terki (2) rcpre-
scnts/(x; for values of x between *co,onl) U f{x)l > even function,
and is periodic of period 2/. Jn general a function fit) arl
given for all values of x between «oo i» i^.^c puivUic jiw* *, .
nor even, and is therefore not represented by cither (1) or (2) except
lor the interval o to /.
From (1) and (2) we can deduce a scries containing both sines
and cosines, which will represent a function f(x) arbitrarily given
in the interval -4 to I. for that interval. We can express by (1)
the function J(/(x)— /(— x)J which is an odd function, and thus
this function is represented for the interval — / to +/ by
\ Ssin 2p j^l/M -/(-*)) »in^dr;
we can also express §|/(x)+/(-x)}, which is an even function, by
means of (2), thus for the interval — / to +/ this function is repre-
sented by
7 f t JM(*)H(^*)\dx+ J ? cos 5«J^/(r)4-/(-x)}cos^r.
It must be observed that /(— x) is. absolutely independent of /(x).
the former being not necessarily deduciUe from tbe latter by paeng
—x for x in a formula; both /(x) and /(— x) are firactioss p«n
arbitrarily and independently for the interval o to L On ad&m 'ir
expressions together we obtain a series of sines and CQ*jae» sfai
represents /(x) for the interval — / to L The integrals)
f/(-x) cos 2«dx, /^-*> ** T 2 ^
are equivalent to
-/>0 cot 2f&, + J^/Cx) sin 2J^
thus the series is
which may be written
The series (3), which represents a function /Jar) arbitrarily ci—
for the interval — / to /, is what is known as Fourier's Sens; -±:
expressions (1) and (2) being regarded as the particular farms »r -
(3) takes in the two cases, in which /(—x) - — /(x). or/(— x) =
respectively. The expression (i) does not represent /C*)"at pu-r
beyond the interval -t to /, unless /fx) has a period 2L For a v*l.f
of x within the interval, at which f(x) is discontinuous, the sua a
the series- may cease to represent /(x), but, as will be seen hereafter.
has tbe value i|/(x+o)+/(x-o;|, the mean of the limits at tfe
points on the right and the left. The series represents the fuocv-:
at x«o, unless the function is there discontinuous, in which a*
the senes is i{/(+o)+/(— o)}; the series does not necessary
represent the function at the points / and — /, unless /(/> »/t-»;-
Its sum at cither of these points is *(/(/) +/(-/)!•
Examples of Fourier's Series. — (a) Let fix) be given from o to i.
by /(x)-r, when o<x<J/, and by/(x)-^-c from \l to /; it b
required to find a sine scries, and also a cosine scries, which s£a3
represent the function in the interval.
We have
/; / (x)sm2^-r/|'^^-,/jain5prf,
mj£ (COS »S— 2 COS ifHT+l).
This vanishes if n is odd, and if n -am, but if n -4*14-3 it is equal t-i
4r//nr; the series is therefore
Ac /l . 2irx. 1 . firr^l . lOirx^ \
7 ( 2 sm- r + 5 s,n nr + B sin- T -+ . . .).
For unrestricted values of x, this series r epr e s en ts the ordinal?*
of the series of straight lines in fig. I, except that it vanishes at
the points o, ft /, |/ . . .
Fig. 1.
We find similarly that the same function is' r epr e sente d by the
series
v(«T-a~ 2 r+»~T ! -+---)
during the interval o to /; for general values of x the series repre-
sents the ordinate of the broken Tine in fig. 2, except that it vanishes
at the points ft %l .
Fig. 2.
(6) Let /(x)-x from o to ft and /(x) «/-x, from \l to h thea
P n-r , P . nr , P f nw \
FOURIER'S SERIES
755
4±( . nxl . 3rx, 1 . 6«r \
For general values of x, the series represents the ordinate* of the
row of broken lines in fig. 3.
Fie. 3.
The cosine series, which represents the same function for the
Interval o to /, may be found to be
1, 21/ 2«r,l 6»x . 1 10«r , \
^-jl(cos-jr-+^cos-j-+pcos— j— + ...J
This series represents for general values of 2 the ordinate of the
set of broken fines in fig. 4.
Fig. 4.
DiricUefs Integral.— The method indicated by Fourier, but first
carried out rigorously by Dirichlet, of proving that, with certain
restrictions as to the nature of the function fix), that function is in
general represented by the series (3), consists in finding the sum of
m+! terms of that series, and then investigating the limiting value
of the sum, when » is increased indefinitely. It thus appears that
the series is convergent, and that the value towards which its sum
converge* is il/(x+o)+/(*-o)l, which is in general equal to/(x).
It will be convenient throughout to take -rtoru the given in-
terval; any interval -i to I may be- reduced to this by changing x
into befw, and thus there is no loss of generality.
We find by ah elementary process that
j+cos (*-*0+ cos 2(*-x0+ .
ain-
,?"±I
1 «(*-*')
W-x)
m 2 sin Kx'-x) '
Hence, with the new notation, the sum of the first *+i terms
of (3) is
HlM
..in^LtV-x)
<fc\
2 sin JC* -*)
If we suppose /(*) to be continued beyond the interval -r to r, In
such a way that f(x)»f(x+2w), we may replace the limits in this
integral by x+», x-r respectively; if we then put x'-jc-ax, and
let /0O-F(s), the expression becomes \p_ w Hif^-*** where
« a 2fl+l; this expression may be written in the form
i/jw^H/^-'^ w
We require therefore to find the limiting value, when m is
indefinitely increased, of J*F(s)^jj^& ; the form of the second
integral being essentially the same. This integral, or rather the
slightly more general one J^FW^j—* <&. when 0< k$W, is known
as Dirichlet's integral. If we write X(s) «F(s) gjjy the integral
becomes PxCt)^^ 4s, which is the form in which the integral
is frequently considered.
The Second Mean-Value Theorem.— -The limiting value of Dirich-
let's integral may be conveniently investigated by- means of a
theorem in the integral calculus known as the second mean-value
theorem. Let a, b be two fixed finite numbers such that »<*,
and suppose /(x), ♦(*) are two functions which have finite and
determinate values everywhere in the interval except for a finite
number of points; suppose further that the functions /(x), 4(x)
arc integrable throughout the interval, and that as x increases
from to 6 the f unction /(x) is monotone, ue. either never diminishes
or never increases; the theorem is that
when I is some point between a and b, and f(a), Kb) may be written
for /(a+o), /(*-o) unless a or 6 is a point of discontinuity of the
function f(x).
To prove this theorem, we observe that, since the product of two
integrable functions is an integrable function, P/(x)$(*)<fc exists,
and may be regarded as the limit of the sum of a series
/(x»)*(x,) <*r-x») +/(x.W*i) <*r-*i)+ . . . +/<x_,Wxwi) <*V-*-t>
where *»-»«, x»«o and xi, a* . . . *»_i are *-i intermediate
points. We can express 4(x,) (x*r-*v) in the form Y*i~Yr» by
putting Y *T J 5 *v*w) (**-*w). Yo-o-
Writing Xr for/(x,), the series becomes
or Y 1 (X^X,)+Y,(X r X 1 )+. . .+Y^x£-X0-ry,,X.. .
Now, by supposition, all the numbers Yi, Y» . . . Y» are finite,
and all the numbers X_i-X, are of the same sign, hence by a known
algebraical theorem the series is equal to M(X«-X.)-f Y»X. where
M is a number intermediate between the greatest and the least of
the numbers Yi» Yt. • . » Y*. This remains true however many
partial intervals are taken, and therefore, when their number is
increased indefinitely, and their breadths are diminished indefinitely
according to any law, we have
/^x)^(x)ax-{/Ca)-/(5)}Sr+/(6)J^(x>fe
when M is intermediate between the greatest and least values
which J*«\(x)dx can have, when x is in the given integral. Now
this integral is a continuous function of its upper limit x, and there*
fore there is a value of x in the interval, tor which it takes any
particular value between the greatest and least values that it has.
There is therefore a .value | between c and b, such that M - f *(x)dx»
hence
P a M^x)ix-lJ(a)^f^fl^x)dx+mJ^ydx
~/{*)fo(x)dx+f(b)fy(x)dx.
If the interval contains any finite numbers of points of discontinuity
of /(x) or £(x), the method of proof still holds good, provided these
points are avoided in making the subdivisions; in particular if
either of the ends be a point of discontinuity of /(x), we write /(a +0)
or/(6-o), for /(a) or /(ft), it being assumed that these limits exist.
Functions, with Limited Variatum. — The condition that/(x), in the
mean-value theorem, either never increases or never diminishes as x
increases from a to b, places a restriction upon the applications of the
theorem. We can, however, show that a function fix) which is finite
and continuous between a and b, except for a finite number of
ordinary discontinuities, and which only changes from increasing to
diminishing or vice versa, a finite number 01 times, as x increases
from a to b, may be expressed as the difference of two functions
/i(x), /i(x), neither of which ever diminishes as x passes from atob,
and that these functions are finite and continuous, except that one
or both of them are discontinuous at the points where the given
function is discontinuous. Let a, be two consecutive points at
which fix) is discontinuous, consider any point Xi, such that *£ xi < 0,
and suppose that at the points Mi, Mi . . . M p between a andTxt,
/(x) is a maximum, and at mi, m% . . . m r it is a minimum; we will
suppose, for example, that the ascending order of values is a, M«, mi,
Mi, m% . . . M r , mr, x\ ; it will make no essential difference in the
argument if t»i comes before Mi, or if M r immediately precedes xi,
Mr_i being then the last minimum.
now let xi increase until it reaches the value Mr+i at which /(x) is
again a maximum, then let
*(x.) -r/(M 1 )-/r«+o)]+r/(M,)-/(« l )i+ . . .
+(/(M r M«^)l+l/(M r )-/(«r)J; u N
and suppose as x increases beyond the value M«.i, w*i) remains
constant until the next minimum aw is reached, when it again
becomes variable; we see that ^(xi) is essentially positive and
iver diminishes as x increases.
... -H/MWWfr
the next maximum Mr+i,
x(xi) -[/(M,)-/(i»i)]+(/tM,)-/(i»,)I+
en let x t increase until it is beyond
thus x(xO never diminishes, and is alternately constant and variable.
We sec that «XxiHc(xi) is continuous as xi increases from a to fi,
and that sXxfHcCxi) "/(xi)-/(«+o), and when Xi reaches p, we have
^(0)-x(xi) «»/(0-<>)-/(«i-i-o). Hence it is seen that between a and
A/(*)-l*(x)+/(«+o»-x(x), where *Cx) +/(«+©). x(x) are con-
tinuous and never diminish: as x increases^ - the same reasoning
756
FOURIER'S SERIES
applies to every continuous portion of f(x), for which the functions
*(*). x(x) are formed in the same manner ; we now take/i (x) m f (x) -f
/(a+o) +C t / a (x) «»x(*)+C, where C is constant between consecutive
discontinuities, but may have different values in the next interval
between discontinuities; the C can be so chosen that neither A (x)
nor/i(r) diminishes as x increases through a value for which /(x) is
discontinuous. We thus see that /(x) -7i(xH»(x), where /i(x), /,(x)
never diminish as x increases from a to 5, and are discontinuous only
where /(x) is so. The function /(x) is a particular case of a class of
functions defined and discussed by Jordan, under the name " func-
tions with limited variation" (fonciions & variation bornie); in
general such functions have not necessarily only a finite number of
maxima and minima.
Proof of .the Convergent* of Fourier's Series.— It will now be
assumed that a function Jf(x) arbitrarily given between the values
•v and +*» has the following properties:—
(a) The function is everywhere numerically less than some fixed
positive number, and continuous except for a finite number of values
of the variable, for which it may be ordinarily discontinuous.
(ft) The function only changes from increasing to diminishing or
vice versa, a finite number of times within the interval; this is
usually expressed by saying that the number of maxima and minima
is finite.
These limitations on the nature of the function are known as
Dirichlet's conditions; it follows from them that the function is
integrable throughout the interval.
On these assumptions, we can investigate the limiting value of
Dirichlet's integral; it will be necessary to consider only the case
of a function F(s) which does not diminish as s increases from o to
is-, since it has been shown that in the general case the difference
of two such functions may be taken. The following lemmas will
be required:
I. Since
p^™L»!ldz- p 9 (1 +2 cos 2s+2 cos 4s+. . . +2 cos2*sJ<is«|;
this result holds however large the odd integer m may be.
a. Uo<a<fi<j,
where *<y<fl, hence
I J«lanTH < »(stn^ + sml/ K m sin a' ;
ft precisely similar proof shows that I /* *'", ^ 'U^*
hence the integrals f[ 7577^ f[ —^ *. converge to the limit
xero, as m is indefinitely increased.
3. Ifa>o,l PSlyAfrl cannot exceed fcr. For by the mean-
value theorem) J^fi»i*| < | + J,
mparticularife £»,| J* 4*1*^ ;<J
thereforeJ^Si^fe increases as a diminishes, when *<«<*;
**«. jr«^-$»— i/r*F#i<i.
where a < r, and <- where a ^ #. It follows that
J j'j^lu, ] ^ ,, provided 0^ *<A
To find the limit of Jj F (,) 5J2J5««fe, ^ obswve thsLt it ^ ^
written in the form " *
+JJ{F(s)-F(0))£5^rfs
where h is a fixed number as small as we please; hence if we use
lemma (1), and apply the second mean-value theorem,
/Jw^fc-jFfl))
-/;if<,™^-^
+|F(M+o)-F(o)^^ f A+|F(K-o)-F(o)|J*^A
when ? lies between m and }«-. When m U indefinitely
the two last integrals have the limit xero in virtue of* k
To evaluate the first integral on the right-hand side, lee G<
{F(s)-F(o));4-^ and observe that G(s) increases m
from o toil* hence if we apply the mean-value theorem
|£CM*M»fc| -JG00/;SSJ=2*J
where ©< f <u, since G(r) has the limit zero when s—o. If • be a
arbitrarily chosen positive number, a fixed value of * may be a
chosentliat«CCM)<Kandthusthat(^G(s)2!L!5^,j < | < . ui»
n has been so fixed, ss may now be so chosen that
|/TFMSrr*-pwi<*
It has now been shown that when m is indefinitely increased
rjF(*)^^ds-|F(0) has the limit zero,
Returning to the form (4), we now see that the limi ting valor d
hence the sum of »+i terms of the series
converges to the value i(/(x+o)+/(*-o>l. or to f(i) at a dm*
where /(x) is continuous, provided /(x) satisfies Dirichiet's /yw*^"—
for the interval from -i to /.
Proof thai Fourier's Series is in General Uniformly ComoerfenL—
To prove that Fourier's Scries converges uniformly to its sjs
for all values of x, provided that the immediate neighbouirbuocs
of the points of discontinuity of /(x) are excluded, we have
ipFO^to-EFCo) I < r G(p) + ^4^FC,+o)-FCo)}
Using this inequality and the corresponding one for F(-x), we hajr
ISa^iCsjH&rXo cosec M !/(*+»*•)-/(*) I +tA*-^)-/(x;i J
A . , +A|« cosec m.
where A is some fixed number independent of s*. In a-,
interval (a, b) in which f(x) is continuous, a value mi of u can be
chosen such that, for every value of x in (a, b). L/(x+aj»)- r i
|/(x-2M)-/(*)l.are less than an arbitrarily prescribed poic*
number «, provided *•-«. Also a value *. of m can be so cbc«r
that t* cosec Mt<h. where ? is an arbitrarily assigned posh..:
number. Take for m the lesser of the numbers M „ Ms. then | S»^.-
/(x)l< n + A I m cosec m for every value of x in (o, b). It follows t hit
since n and m are independent of x, | S^r/(x) |<at, provided « a
greater than some fixed value n t dependent only on a. Therefor
5I.+1 converges to/(x) uniformly in the interval (a, b).
Case of a Function with Infinities.— The limitation that/Tx) mast
be numerically less than a fixed positive number throughout iS-
interval may, under a certain restriction, be removed. Suppose F :
is indefinitely great in the neighbourhood of the point x-c and *
such that the limits of the two integrals f **
is indefinitely, diminished, then
f\ F(s) S^Srfg denotes the limit when ««o, s»«o of
r« FW sinm, ^ ft F^jsinjat^
J» x ' sin s Jt+J w sin s
F(s)is are both xero, as ♦
1 both these limiu existing; the
first of these integrals has }rF(+o) for its limiting value when m v : *~
definitely increased, and the second has xero for its limit. The th«or< s
therefore holds if F(s) has an infinity up to which it is ab&otuti>f
integrable;' this will, for example, be the case if Ffs) near the per
C is of the form x(s) (*-*)->»+*(s), where x(«), +1$ are finittr»^f
o<m<i. It is thus seen thar/(x) may have a finite number d
infinities within the given interval, provided the function is ia-
tegrable through any one of these points; the function is in that
case still represcntable by Fourier's Series.
The Ultimate Values of the Coefficients in Fourier** Series,— li
/(x) is everywhere finite within the given interval — «• to +»% it
can be shown that a*, b n , the coefficients of cos nx, sin sue in the
series which represent the function, are such that na«, aft* however
FOURIER'S SERIES
757
eat n ia, are each less than a fixed finite quantity. For witting
-/i(*) -/t(«). we have
'* /x(x)coeiixi»-/»(^+0)J^coeiM«^+/»(«^)r* cos***
^sin i
r^/»00 cosaxiix-AC^+O)^ +AMD 1
ith a similar expression, with /»(*) for/i(*) t I being between *
id -r; the result then follows at once, and is obtained similarly
r the other coefficient.
If /(*) is infinite. at x ■ t, and b of the form j^ft noar *■* P°* nt
where o<K<l, the integral
* /(x) cos ««&f contains porttont of the form J fi^g coanxd*
"*. (j^yi coa axrfx; consider the first of these, and put x-*+«.
thus becomes f' ^'J^ coa nfc+ajdn. which is of the form
Cc+0«) C~jpr~ du; now let »« -a, the integral becomes
., . * x i cosac f- cose,, , nnnc /*• atnt\._ I .
ence » l_K j /(x) coa axdx becomes, as n b definitely increased,
f the form »(«) j cos smj ^g^aV-sin nc j ^r* (
rhich is finite, both ihe intr^nfi being convergent and of known
alue. The other inteer.il has a similar property, and we infer
hat « l "Ka«, f* l ~Ka H nfl ftss than fixed finite numbers.
The Differential >n <>/ Fourier* m Series.— If we assume that the
lifterential coefnckrH of a function /Ha) represented by a Fourier's
>eries exists, that N notion/" <*) U rot necessarily Teoresentable by
he series obtatne by dffftytfrrsitlrjf the terms of the Fourier s
ieriea, such derive [ «ri« being in fart not necessarily convergent.
>tokes baa obtain* i\ general fanauJa* Tor finding the series which
epresent /"(*),/* 6ucctMiv« differential coefficients of a
imited function f[z ). A*
the sine series (i; ; Jfy ) U
I of such formulae, consider
a_ . nwx f „y .nrx.
j-2 wn-j-J JW sin^j-aVc;
on integration by parts we have J fix) sin^pdx
-,/,[/(+0) */<M»+X cos^l/(*+0H(e-0)i]
where a represent the points where /(a) is discontinuous. Hence
if /(x) is represented by the series Za. sin *p, and f{x) by the
series I*, cos ^p.we have the relation
».- Ttc-*[/(+0) */CM» + 2 cos^l/(a+0)-/(«-0)}]
hence only when the function is everywhere continuous, and /(+o),
fil-o) are both zero, is the series which represents f{x) obtained
at once by differentiating that which represents f(x). The form
of the coefficient a, discloses the discontinuities of the function and
of its differential coefficients, for on continuing the integration
by parts we find
«.-£[/t+0W(«>)+ Xcos^l/ta+0)-/(«-<»)l]
+^p[/'<+0) */'(i-0)+ Xsin^2|/'0J+O)-/'OM»|] +&c
where are the points at which f(x) is discontinuous.
History and Literature op the theory
The history of the theory of the representation of functions by
scries of sines and cosines is of great interest in connexion with
the progressive development of the notion of an arbitrary function
of a real variable, and of the peculiarities which such a function
may possess; the modern views on the foundations of the infini-
tesimal calculus have been to a very considerable extent formed in
this connexion (see Function). The representation of functions by
these scries was first considered in the iBth century, in connexion
with the problem of a vibrating cord, and led to a controversy as to
the possibility of such expansions. In a memoir published in 1747
{Memoirs of the Academy oj Berlin, vol. iii.) D'Alembert showed that
the ordinate y at any time / of a vibrating cord satisfies a differential
equation of the form fj? - n*j£l. where x is measured along the
undisturbed length of the cord, and that with the ends of the cord of
length / fixed, the appropriate solution is y>/toi+x)-/(ai -ah where
/ is a function such that /(x)-/fx+a/): in another memoir in the
same volume he seeks for functions which satisfy this condition.
In the year 1748 {Berlin Memoirs, vol. iv.) Euler, in discussing
the problem, gave /(x) -a sin y+0 sin -j 2 + . . . as a particular
solution, and maintained that every curve, whether regular or
irregular, mint be represent Able in this form. This was obweted
to by D'Alembert {1750) and also by Lagrange 00 the ground that
irregular curvei are inadmissible- IX Bernoulli (B*rtin At em vies,
vol. ix., I75.|) basrd a similar result to that of Euler on physical
intuition; his method wna criticised by Euler (1753)- The question
was then considered frqm a new point of view by l-agTangr. in a
memoir on the nature; and propagation of sound {MiKttfonrst
Taurensia, m<j; QZuvrtt, vol, L), who, while erkinring Eukr's
method, consider* a finite number of vibrating partirle*, and then
makes the number of them innnitc; he did not, however H rjuiie fully
carry out the dcicrmi nation 01 the coefficients in Bernoulli'* Series,
These mathematicians were hampered by the narrow conception of
a function, ia which it U regarded as ' ncoc^arily continuous; a
discontinuous function was considered only as a succession of
several different functions. Thus the possibility of the expansion
of a broken function was not generally admitted. The first cases
in which rational functions are expressed in sines and cosines were
given by Euler {Subsidium calculi sinuum, Novi Comm. Petrop.,
voL v., l754-'755)» who obtained the formulae
*#-sin +-} sin 2s>+| sin 3*. .,
12 4-cos+-t cos^^t co*34...
In a memoir presented to the Academy of St Petersburg in 1777,
but not published until 1708, Euler gave the method afterwards
used by Fourier, of determining the coefficients in the expansions;
he remarked that if * is expansible in the form
A+Bcc**+Ccos2*+~,,thenA-Jr r *fc, B-* f'wcosrfcV.&c
The second period in the development of the theory commenced
in 1807, when Fourier communicated his first memoir on the Theory
of Heat to the French Academy. His exposition of the present
theory is contained in a memoir sent to the Academy in 181 1, of
which his great treatise the Theorie analytique de la chaleur, pub-
lished in 1822. is, in the main, a reproduction. Fourier set himself
to consider the representation of a function given graphically,
and was the first fully to grasp the idea that a single function may
consist of detached portions given arbitrarily by a graph. He
had an accurate conception of the convergence of a series, and
although he did not give a formally complete proof that a function
with discontinuities is representabk by the series, he indicated in
eirticular cases the method of procedure afterwards carried out by
irichlet. As an exposition of principles, Fourier's work is still
worthy of careful perusal by all students* of the subject. Poisson's
treatment of the subject, which has been adopted in English works
(see the Journal de Ftcde polytecknioue, vol. xL, 1820, and voL
xiL, 1823, and also bis treatise, Thame de la chaleur, 1835),
depends upon the equality 'Cji*) I-2Acos(x-«)-|-a»**
whereo<a<i; the limit of the integral on the left-hand side is
evaluated when A-i, and found to be i(/(x-fo)+/(x-o)}, the
series on the right-hand aide becoming Fourier's Series. The
equality of the two limits b then inferred. If the series b assumed
to be convergent when *"t, by a theorem of Abel's its sum ia
continuous with the sum for values of k less than unity, but a
froof of the convergency for a— 1 is requisite for the validity of
bisson's proof; aa Poisson gave no such proof of convergency,
his proof of the general theorem cannot be accepted. The deficiency
cannot be removed except by a process of the same nature as that
afterwards applied by Dirichlet. The definite integral has been
carefully studied by Schwara (see two memoirs in his collected
works on the integration of the equation jp+ra-0), who showed
that the limiting value of the integral depends upon the manner
in which the limit b approaches!. Investigations of Fourier's
Series were also given by Cauchy (see hb " Memoire sur les dlvdoppe-
ments des fonctions en series periodiques," M6m. de FInst., vol. vi.,
also (Euvres completes^ vol. vii.); hb method, which depends upon
a use of complex variables, was accepted, with some modification,
as valid by Kiemann, but one at least of hb proofs is no longer
regarded as satisfactory. The first completely satisfactory in-
vestigation is due to Dirichlet ; his first memoir appeared in Cr die's
Journal for 1 829, and the second, which b a model of clearness, in
Dove's Repertorium der Pkytik. Dirichlet laid down certain definite
sufficient conditions in regard to the nature of a function which
u expansible, and found under these conditions the limiting value
of the sum of n terms of the series. Dirichlet's determination
of the sum of the series at a point of discontinuity has been criticised
by Schlafli (see Cr tile's Journal, vol. lxxii.) and by Du Bois-Reymond
(Uatkem. Annalen, vol. viL). who maintained that the sum b really
758
FOURMIES— FOURNIER
indeterminate. Their objection appears, however, to rest upon a
misapprehension as to the meaning of the sum of the series; if xi be
the point of discontinuity, it is possible to make * approach x\,
and » become indefinitely great, so that the sum of the series
takes any assigned value in a certain interval, whereas we ought
to make *-*i first and afterwards »-»«>, and no other way of
going to the double limit is really admissible. Other papers by
Direksen (CreUe, vol. iv.) and Bessel (Astronomisehe Nachrtehten, voL
xvi.), on similar lines to those by Dirichlet, are of inferior importance.
Many of the investigations subsequent to Dirichlet *s have the object
of freeing a function from some of the restrictions which were imposed
upon it in Dirichlet's proof, but no complete set of necessary and
sufficient conditions as to the nature of the function has been ob-
tained. Lipschitz (" De explicatione per series trigonometricas,"
CreUe's Journal, vol lxiii., 1864) showed that* under a certain con-
dition, a function which has an infinite number of maxima and
minima in the neighbourhood of a point is still expansible; his
condition is that at the point of discontinuity fi, \f(0+t) -fifi) I < BA*
as i converges to 2ero, B bcing^ a constant* and a a positive exponent.
A somewhat wider condition ia
/(*+*) -/(*» log 3-0,
*-*
for which Lipschitz's results would hold. This last condition is
adopted by Dial in his treatise (Sopra la serie di Fourier, &c, Pisa,
1880).
The modern period in the theory was inaugurated by the publi-
cation by Riemann in 1867 of his very important memoir, written
in 1854, liber die DarsteUbarheit finer Function durch etne trigo-
nometnsche Reihe. The first part of his memoir contains a historical
account of the., work of previous investigators; in the second part
there is a discussion of the foundations of the Integral Calculus,
and the third part is mainly devoted to a discussion of what can
be inferred as to the nature of a* function respecting the changes in
its value for a continuous change in the variable, u the function is
capable of representation by a trigonometrical series. Dirichlet
and probably Riemann thought that all continuous functions were
everywhere representable by the series; this view was refuted by Du
Bois-Reymond (Abh. der Bayer. Akad. vol. xii. 2). It was shown
by Riemann that the convergence or non-convergence of the series
at a particular point x depends only upon the nature of the function
in an arbitrarily small neighbourhood of the point x. The first to call
attention to the importance of the theory of uniform convergence of
series in connexion with Fourier's Series was Stokes, in his memoir
" On the Critical Values of the Sums of Periodic Series " (Comb. Phil.
Trans., 1847 ; Collected Papers, vol. I). As the method of determin-
ing the coefficients in a trigonometrical scries is invalid unless the
series converges in general uniformly, the question arose whether
series with coefficients other than those cif Fourier exist which
represent arbitrary functions. Heine showed (CreUe's Journal,
voL lxxi., 1870, and in his treatise Kugelfunctionen, voL i.) that
Fourier's Series is in general uniformly convergent, and that if
there is a uniformly convergcnt*series which represents a function,
it is the only one of the kind* G. Cantor then showed {Cr die's
Journal, vols, lxxii. Ixxiii.) that even if uniform convergence be
not demanded, there can be but one convergent expansion for a
function, and that it is that of Fourier. In the Math. Ann, vol.
v., Cantor extended his investigation to functions having an in-
finite number of discontinuities. Important contributions to the
theory of the series have been published by Du Bois-Reymond
(Abh. der Bayer. Ahademie, vol. xii.,- 1875, two memoirs, also in
CreUe's Journal, vols, tariv. lxxvt. borix.), by Kronecker {Berliner
Berichte, 1885), by O. Holder (Berliner Berichte, 1885), by Jordan
(Comptes rendus, 1881, vol. xcii.), by Ascoli (Math. Annal., 1873,
and Annali di matematiea, voL vi.), and by Genocchi (Atti data
R. Ace. di Torino. voL x., 1875). Hamilton's memoir on " Fluctuat-
ing Functions " (Trans. R.IJL., vol. xix., 1842) may also be studied
with profit in this connexion. A memoir by Broden (Math. Annalen,
vol hi.) contains a good investigation of some of the most" recent
results 00 the subject. The scope of Fourier's Series has been
extended by Lebesgue, who introduced a conception of integration
wider than that due to Riemann. Lebesgue's work on Fourier's
Series will be found in bis treatise, Leeons sur Us shies trigono-
Annalen, vollxiv. (1905).
Authorities.-- The foregoing historical account has been mainly
drawn from A. Sachses work, "Versuch einer Geschichte der
Darstellung wiUkuriicher Functionen einer Variabeln durch trigono-
metrische Reihen," published in Schl6miUh*s ZeUschrift fur Mathe-
matih, Supp., vol. xxv. 1880, and from a paper by G. A. Gibson
*\0n the History of the Fourier Series " (Proc. Ed. Math. Soc. vol.
xi,). Reiff's Geschichte der unendlichen Reihen may also be consulted,
and # also the first part of Riemann's memoir referred to above.
Besides Dini's treatise already referred to, there is a lucid treatment
of the subefct from an elementary point of view in C. Neumann's
treatise, Vber die nach Kreis-, Kugd- und Cylinder- Functionen
forUchreUenden Bntvichelungen. Jordan's discussion of the subject
in his Coursd 'analyse is worthy of attention; an account of functions
with limited variation is given in vol. i. ; see also a paper by Study
in the Math. AmnaUn, vol. xlviL On the second mean-value tfcseez
papers by Bonnet (Brux. Memoir es, voL xxiii., 1849. L ie ■.wi i
Journal, vol. xiv., 1849), by Du Bois-Reymond (CrelU's JemsL ?i.
lxxix., 1875), by Hankel (ZeUschrift fur Math, und Pkysmh, voL «.,..
1869), by Meyer (Math. Ann., vol. vi, 1872) and by Holder (CiSafr
Anzeigen, 1894) may be consulted; the most general form oi t*«
theorem has been given by Hobson (Proc. London Math. Soc , Ser.-j
II. vol. vit., 1009). On the theory of uniform convergence of ser*-
a memoir by W. F. Osgood (Amer. Journal of Mask. xix. J may be •. -i
advantage consulted. On the theory of series in general, in nrlar^:
to the functions which they can represent, a memoir by Bain-
(Annali di matematiea. Series III. vol. ill-) is of great hnpor-
ance. Bromwich's Theory of Infinite Series (1908) contains aa*i
information on the general theory of series. Bdchcr's "' lrr>
duction to the Theory of Fourier's Series," Annals of Math,, Sm£
H. vol. vii., 1906, will be found useful. See also Caxslaw's in-
troduction to the Theory of Fourier* s Series and Integrals, ass* a*
Mathematical Theory of tKe Conduction of Heat (1906). A full an-u=2
of the theory will be found in Hobson'S treatise On the TVrn
of Functions of a Real Variable and on the Theory of Fourier' t Sna
6907). <E. W. H-;
FOURMIES, a town of northern France, in the departmes
of Nord, on an affluent of the Sambre, 39 m. S.E. of Valentiemifl
by rail. Fop. (1906) 13,308. It is one of the chief centres u
France for wool combing and spinning, and produces a grti!
variety of cloths. The glass-works of Founnie* date fao
x 599, and were the first established in the north of Fiance. Inc
is worked in the vicinity, and there are important forges led
foundries. Enamel- ware is also manufactured. In 1891 labour
troubles brought about military intervention and consecpn£
bloodshed. A board of trade arbitration and a school of com-
merce and industry are among the public institutions.
FOURMONT, BTIENNE (1683-1745), French orientalist, was
born at Herbelai, near Saint Dcnfc, on the 23rd of June i6Sj.
He studied at the College Mazarin* Paris, and afterwards in the
College Montaigu, where his attention was attracted to Orients!
languages. Shortly after leaving the college he published t
Traduction du commetUaire du Rabbin Abraham Abe* Esra sv
VeccUsiasU. In 1711 Louis XIV. appointed Founsont to
assist a young Chinese, Hoan-ji, in compiling a Chinese granunir.
Hoan-ji died in 1716, and it was not until 1737 that Founnost
published Meditaliones Sinicae and in 174a GrammcHca Shr.x.
He also wrote Reflexions critiques sur Us histoircs des cfeiou
pcuplcs (1735), and several dissertations printed in the Memova
of the Academy of Inscriptions. He became professor of Arabic
in the College de France in 17x5. In 1723 he was elected a
member of the Academy of Inscriptions, in 1738 a member
of the Royal Society of London, and in 1742 a member of that
of Berlin. He died at Paris on the 19th of December 1745.
His brother, Michel Fourmont (1690- 1 746), was also a member
of the Academy of Inscriptions, and professor of the SyriK
language in the Royal College, and was sent by the governmesi
to copy inscriptions in Greece.
An account of £tienne Fourmont's life and a catalogue of tai
works will be found in the second edition (1747) of his R&uxieu
critiques.
FOURNBT, JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTE XAVTER (1801-186?),
French geologist and metallurgist, was born at Strassburg oa
the x 5th of May i8ox. He was educated at the ficole des Miss
at Paris; and after considerable experience as a mining engineer
he was in 1834 appointed professor of geology at Lyons. He was
a man of wide knowledge and extensive research, and wrote
memoirs on chemical and mineralogical subjects, on eruptive
rocks, on the structure of the Jura, the meUunorphism of the.
Western Alps, on the formation of oolitic limestones, on kaoJia-
ization and on metalliferous veins. On metallurgical subjects
also he was an acknowledged authority; and he published
observations on the order of sulphurability of metals (lei di
Foumet). He died at Lyons on the 8th of January i860. Ha
chief publications were: hudes sur Us dtpdts nUlallifercs (Paris,
1834); Bisloire de la dolomie (Lyons, 1847); &* Vextcnsu*
des terrains houillers (1855); Geologic lyonnaisc (Lyons, i8$i).
FOURNIER. PIERRE SIMON (17x2-1768), French engraver
and typefounder, was born at Paris on the 15th of September
X712. He was the son of a printer, and was brought up to bis
father's business. After studying drawing under the painter
FOURNIER L'HERITIER— -FOWEY
759
Cobon, he practised for some time the art of wood-engraving,
and ultimately tuned bis attention to the engraving and casting
of types. He designed many new characters, and his foundry
became celebrated not only in France, but in foreign countries.
Not content with his practical achievements, he sought to
stimulate pubUc interest in his art by the production of various
works on the subject. In 1737 he published his Table des
proportions qu'U faut observer entre let car adores, which was
followed by several other technical treatises. In 1758 he assailed
the title of Gutenberg to the honour awarded him as inventor
of printing, claiming it for Schdffef, in his Dissertation sur
Pontine et let progrks de Pari de pater en bois. This gave rise
to a controvesay in which Schftpfiin and Baer were his opponents.
Fournier's contributions to this debate were collected and re-
printed under the title df Trailis historiques et critiques sur
l f origin* de I'imprimerie. His principal work* however r was the
Manuel typotfapkique, which appeared in a vols. 8vo in 1764,
the first volume treating of engraving and type-founding, the
second of printing, with examples of different alphabets. It
was the author's design to complete the work in four volumes,
but he did not live to execute it He died at Paris on the 8th of
October 1768.
FOURNIER L'HBRITIER, CLAUDE ('745-1835), French
revolutionist, called " l'Americain," was born at Auaon (Haute-
Loire) on the list of December 1745, the ton of a poor, weaver.
He went to America to seek his fortune, and started at San
Domingo an establishment for making tafia (an inferior quality
of rum), but lost his money in a fire. Returning to France
he threw himself into the Revolution with enthusiasm, and
specially distinguished himself by the active part he took in the
organization of the popular armed force by means of which the
most famous of the revolutionary coups were effected. His
influence was principally manifested in the insurrections of the
5th and 6th of October 1780, the 17th of July 1701, and the
aoth of June and the zoth of August 1792. He was on bad
terms with tbe majority of the politicians, and particularly
with Marat, and spent a great part of his time in prison, all the
governments regarding him as an agitator and accusing him of
inciting to insurrection. Arrested for tbe first time for trying
to force an entrance into the club of the Cordeliers, from which
be had been expelled, he was released, but was in prison from
tbe lath of December 1703 to the 21st of September 1794, and
again from the 9th of March 1795 to the 26th of October 1795.
After the attempt on the First Consul in the rue Sainte-Nicaise
he was deported to Guiana, but was allowed to return to France
in 1809. In 181 1, while under surveillance at Auxerre, he was
accused of having provoked an tmeute against taxes known as
the droits reunis (afterwards called contributions indiredes),
and was imprisoned in the Chateau dlf , where be remained till
1814. On the second restoration of the Bourbons Fournier
was confined for about nine months in the prison of La Force.
After 1816 he was left unmolested, turned royalist, and passed
his last years in importuning the Restoration government for
compensation for his lost property in San Domingo. He died
in obscurity.
For further details see preface toF. A. Aula rd'g edit ion of Fournier's
Memoir** secrets (Paris. 1890), published by the Societe de I'histoire
de la Revolution.
FOURTOU, MARIS FRANCOIS OSCAR BARDT DB (1836-
1897), French politician, was* born at Riberac (Dordogne) on
the 3rd of January 1836, and represented his native department
in the National Assembly after the Franco-German War. There
he proved a useful adherent to Thiers, who made him minister
of public works in December 1872. He was minister of religion
in the cabinet of May 18-24, 1873, being tbe only member of the
Right included by Thiers in that short-lived ministry. As
minister of education, religion and the fine arts in the recon-
structed cabinet of the due de Brogtie he had used his adminis-
trative powers to further clerical ends, and as minister of the
interior in Broglie's cabinet in 1877 be resumed the adminis-
trative methods of tbe Second Empire. With a well-known
Bonapartist, Baron R.CF. Reille, as his secretary, he replaced
republican functionaries by Bonapartist partisans, reserving
a few places for the Legitimists. In the general elections of
that year he used tbe whole weight of officialdom to secure a
majority for the Right, to support a clerical and reactionary
programme. He accompanied Marshal MacMahon in his tour
through southern France, and the presidential manifesto of
September, stating that the president would rely solely on the
Senate should the elections prove unfavourable, was generally
attributed to Fourtbu. In spite of these efforts the cabinet fell,
and a commission was appointed to inquire into their uncon-
stitutional abuse of power. Fourtou was unseated in consequence
of the revelations made in the report of the commission. In the
Chamber of Deputies Gambetta gave the lie direct to Fourtou's
allegation that the republican party opposed every republican
principle that was not antiquated. A duel was fought in con-
sequence, but neither party was injured. He was re-elected to
the chamber in 1879 and entered the Senate the next year.
Failing to secure re-election to the Senate in 1885 he again entered
the popular chamber as Legitimist. candidate in 1889, but he
took no further active part in politics. He died in Paris in 1897.
His works include Hisloir* de touts XVI (1840); Ristoire de
Saint Pie V (1645); Mm* Swetekine, sa vie et ses auvres (2 vols.,
1859); La Question ilaiienue (i860); Do la comtre+eoolution (1876);
and Mtmoires d'un royalist* (3 vols.! 1688).
F0U5SA, or Fossa, the native name of Cryptoprocta ferox, a
somewhat cat-like or civet -like mammal peculiar to Madagascar,
where it is the largest carnivorous animal. It is about twice
the size, of a cat (5 ft. from nose to end of taH), with short close
fur of nearly uniform pale brown. Little is known of its habits,
except that it is nocturnal, frequently attacks and carries off
goats, and especially kids, and shows great ferocity when
wounded, on which account it is much dreaded by the natives.
An example lived in the London zoological gardens for nearly
fourt een y ears. See Carntvora.
FOWEY (usually pronounced Pay), a seaport and market-
town in the Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England,
on the Great Western railway, 25 m. by sea W. of Plymouth.
Pop. (root) 2258. It lies on the west shore of the picturesque
estuary of the river Fowcy, close to the water's edge, and
sheltered by a screen of hills. Its church of St Nicholas is said
to have been built in the 14th century, on the site of a still older
edifice dedicated to St Ftnbar of Cork. It has a fine tower and
late Norman doorway. Within are a priest's chamber over the
porch, a handsome oak ceiling, a 15th-century pulpit, and some
curious monuments and brasses. Place House, adjacent to the
church, is a highly ornate Tudor building. A few ancient
houses remain in the town. Deep-sea fishing is carried on;
but the staple trade consists in the export of china clay and
minerals, coal being imported. Fowey harbour, which is easy
of access in clear weathci, will admit large vessels at any state
of the tide. St Catherine's Fort, dating from the days of Henry
VlII. and now ruined, stands at the harbour's mouth, and
once formed the main defence of the town. Opposite the town,
and connected with it by Bodeneck Ferry, is the village of Polruan.
Its main features are St Saviour's Chapel, with an ancient rood-
stone, and the remains of Hall House, which was garrisoned
during the civil wars of the 17th century.
Fowey (Fawy, Vawy, Fowyk) held a leading position amongst
Cornish ports from the reign of Edward I. to the days of the
Tudors. The numerous references to the privateering exploits
of its ships in the Patent and Gose Rolls and the extraordinary
number of them at the siege of Calais in 1346 alike testify to its
importance. During this period the king's mandates were
addressed to the bailiffs or to the mayor and bailiffs, and no
charter of incorporation appears to have been granted until tbe
reign of James II. Under the second charter of 1690 the common
council consisted of a mayor atfd eight aldermen and these
with a recorder elected the free burgesses. A member for Fowey
and Looe was summoned to a council at Westminster in 1340,
but from that date until 1571, when.it was entrusted with the
privilege of returning two members, it had no parliamentary
representation. By the Reform Act of 183 a it lost both its
760
FOWI^-FOWLER, E.
members. It had ceased to exercise its municipal functions a
few years previously. In 13 16 the prior of Tywardreath, as
lord of the manor, obtained the right to hold a Monday market
and two fairs on the feasts of St Finbar and St Lucy, but by the
charter of 1600 provision was made for a Saturday market and
three fairs, on the zst of May, 10th of September and Shrove
Tuesday, and only these three continue to be held.
FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogcf), a term originally used in the
sense that bird 1 now is, but, except in composition, — as sea-fowl,
wild-fowl and the like,— practically almost confined* at present
to designate the otherwise nameless species which struts on our
dunghills, gathers round our barn-doors, or stocks our poultry
yards— the type of the genus Callus of ornithologists, of which
four well-marked species are known. The first, of. these is the
red jungle-fowl of the greater part of India, G. ferrugineus, —
called by many writers G. banhiva, — which is undoubtedly the
parent stock of all the domestic races (cf. Darwin, Animals and
Plants under Domestication, i. pp. 233-246). It inhabits northern
India from Sind to Burma and Cochin China, as well as the Malay
Peninsula and many of the islands as far as Timor, besides the
Philippines. It occurs on the Himalayas up to the height of
4000 ft, and its southern limits in the west of India proper are,
according to Jerdon, found on the Raj-peepla hills to the south
of the Nerbudda, and in the east near the left bank of the
Codavery, or perhaps even farther, as he had heard of its being
killed at Cummum. This species resembles in plumage what is
commonly known among poultry-fanciers as the " Black-breasted
game " breed, and this is said to be especially the case with
examples from the Malay countries, between which and examples
from India some differences are observable— the latter having
the plumage less red, the ear-lappets almost invariably white,
and slate-coloured legs, while in the former the ear-lappets are
crimson, like the comb and wattles, and the legs yellowish. If
the Malayan birds be considered distinct, it is to them that the
name G. bankiva properly applies. This species is said to be
found in lofty forests and in dense thickets, as well as in ordinary
bamboo-jungles, and when cultivated land is near its haunts,
it may be seen in the fields after the crops are cut in straggling
parties of from 10 to 20. The crow to which the cock gives
utterance morning and evening is just like that of a bantam,
never prolonged as in most domestic birds. The hen breeds
from January to July, according to the locality; and lays from
8 to 12 creamy-white eggs, occasionally scraping together a few
leaves or a little dry grass by way of a nest. The so-called G.
giganteus, formerly taken by some ornithologists for a distinct
species, is now regarded as a lame breed of G. ferrugineus or
bankiva. The second good species is the grey jungle-fowl, G.
sonnerati, whose range begins a little to the northward of the
limits of the preceding, and it occupies the southern part of the
Indian peninsula, without being found elsewhere. The cock
has the end of the shaft of the neck-hackles dilated, forming a
horny plate, like a drop of yellow sealing-wax. His call is very
peculiar, being a broken and imperfect kind of crow, quite unlike
that of G. ferrugincus and more like a cackle. The two species
where their respective ranges overlap, occasionally interbreed
in a wild state, and the present readily crosses in confinement
with domestic poultry, but the hybrids are nearly always sterile.
The third species is the Sinhalese jungle-fowl, G. stanleyi (the
G. lafayettii of some authors), peculiar to Ceylon. This also
greatly resembles in plumage some domestic birds, but the cock
is red beneath, and has a yellow comb with a red edge and
purplish-red checks and wattles. He has also a singularly
different voice, his crow being dissyllabic. This bird crosses
readily with tame bens, but the hybrids are believed to be infertile.
The fourth species, G. ttarius (the G. fureatus of some authors),
inhabits Java and the islands eastwards as far as Flores. This
differs remarkably from the others in not possessing hackles, and
1 iHrd (cognate with breed and brood) was originally the young of
any animal, and an early Act of the Scottish parliament speaks of
M Wolf-birdis," i.e. Wolf-cubs.
* Like Deer (Dan. Dyr. Ger. Tier). BeasU too, with some men
has almost attained as much specialization.
in .having a large underrated comb of red and bine tad esit 1
single chin wattle. The predominance of green In its pksap
is another easy mark of distinction. Hybrids between ta
species and domestic birds are often produced, but they are ess
commonly sterile. Some of them have been mistaken lor distal
species, as those which have received the names of G. atmx
and G. temmincki.
Several circumstances seem to render it likely that feck
were first domesticated in Burma or the countries adjaoK
thereto, and it is the tradition of the Chinese that they retejii
their poultry from the West about the year 1400 b.c By i>
Institutes of Manu, the tame fowl is forbidden, though the *v.
is allowed to be eaten— showing that its domestkatioe v.-
accomplished when they were written. The bird is not meniisee:
in the Old Testament nor by Homer, though he has 'AXecs;
(cock) as the name of a man, nor is it figured on ancient E©-?'-^
monuments. Pindar mentions it, and Aristophanes calls it ih:
Persian bird, thus indicating it to have been introduced to Greece
through Persia, and it is figured on Babylonian cylinders between
the 6th and 7th centuries B.C. It is sculptured on the Lydr
marbles in the British Museum (c. 600 B.C.), and £. Bbi
remarks (Ibis, 1867, p. 157) that it is there represented with xbt
appearance of a true jungle-fowl, for none of the wild Gr*
have the upright bearing of the tame breed, but carry the:
tail in a drooping position. For further particulars of the*
breeds see Poultry. (A. X.)
FOWLER. CHARLES (1792-1867), English sjchitect, wu
born at Cullompton, Devon, on the 17th of May 1791. Af&s
serving an apprenticeship of five years at Exeter, he vest te
London in 18x4, and entered the office of David Laing. where
he remained till he commenced practice for himself. His its
work of importance was the court of bankruptcy in n**«^*i
Street, finished in 1821. In the following year he gained tst
first premium for a design for the new London bridge, wnki
however, was ultimately built according to the design of another
architect. Fowler's other designs for bridges include one con-
structed across the Dart at Totnes. He was also the archUee
for the markets of Covent Garden and Hungerford, the err
market at Gravesend, and Exeter lower market, and beside
several churches he designed Devon lunatic asylum (i&aX
the London fever hospital (1849), and the hall of the Wai
Chandlers 1 'Company, Gresham Street (1853). For some yeas
be was honorary secretary of the institute of British architects.
and he was afterwards created vice-president. He retired fros
his profession in 1853, and died at Great Marlow, Bucks, on tie
26th of September 1867.
FOWLER, EDWARD (1632-17x4), English divine, was dor
in 163 2 at Westerleigh, Gloucestershire, and was educated 1:
Corpus Christi College, Oxford, afterward* migrating to Trick?
College, Cambridge. He was successively rector of NorfcE.
Bedfordshire (1656) and of All Hallows, Bread Street, LoncXc
(1673),- and in 1676 was elected a canon of Gloucester, his friesJ
Henry More, the Cambridge Platonist, resigning in his favocr.
In 168 1 he became vicar of St Giles, Cripplegate, but after far
years was suspended for Whiggism. When the Dcdara , _^
of Indulgence was published in 1687 he successfully influenced
the London clergy against reading it. In 1691 he was consecrate:
bishop of Gloucester and held the see until his death on the
26th of August 1714. Fowler was suspected of Pelagian ten-
dencies, and his earliest book was a Free Discourse in defence of
The Practices of Certain Moderate Divines called Latitudmari&u
(1670). The Design of Christianity, published by him in the
following year, in which he laid stress on the moral design d
revelation, was criticized by Baxter in his How far Holiness
is the Design of Christianity (1671) and by Bunyan in his Defcnct
of the Doctrine of Justification by Faith ( 167 2) , the latter describing
the Design as "a mixture of Popery, Socinianism and Quakerism, 1 *
a horrid accusation to which Fowler replied in a scurrilous
pamphlet entitled Dirt Wip'd Off. He also published, in r6oj.
Twenty-Eight Propositions, by which the Doetrine of Ike Trinity
is endeavoured to be explained, challenging with some success the
Soctnian position.
FOWLER, J.— FOX, C, J.
761
FOWLBR, JOHN {1826-1864), English inventor, was bom
t Melksham, Wilts, on the nth of July 1826. He learned
radical engineering at Middlesborough-on-Tces, and about
850 invented a mechanical system for the drainage of land.
n 1852 he began experiments in steam cultivation, and in 1858
he Royal Agricultural Society awarded him the prize of £500
•hich it had offered for a steam-cultivator that should be an
conomic substitute for the plough or the spade. In i860 he
funded at Hunslet, Leeds, the firm of Fowler & Co., manu-
icturers of agricultural machinery, traction engines, &c. He
lied at Ackworth, Yorkshire, on the 4th of December 1864.
FOWLER, SIR JOHN (18x7-1808), English civil engineer,
ias born on the 15th of July 18 17 at Wadsley Hall, near Sheffield,
there his father was a land-surveyor. At the age of sixteen
ie became a pupil of John Towlerton Leather, the engineer of
he Sheffield water-works. The fetter's uncle, George Leather,
ras engineer of the Great Aire and Calder Navigation Company,
t the Goole Docks, and other similar works, and Fowler passed
ccasional]y 4 into his employment, in which he acquired a
horough knowledge of hydraulic engineering. The era of
ailway construction soon swept both Fowler and his employers
nto its service, and one of his first employments was to oppose
he route of the Midland railway, chosen by the Stephensons,
vhich left Sheffield on a branch line, and was therefore strongly
esented by the inhabitants. The prestige of the Stephensons
rarried all before it, but in later life Sir John Fowler had the
satisfaction of seeing the opposition of his clients justified, and
Sheffield placed on the main line. In 2838 he went into the
>ffice of John Urpeth Rastrick, one of the leading railway
engineers of the day, where he was employed in designing bridges
lor the line from London to Brighton, and also in surveying for
railways in Lancashire. In 1839 he went as representative of
Mr Leather to take charge of the construction of the Stockton
& Hartlepool railway and remained as manager of the line after
it was finished. In 1844 he began his independent career as an
engineer, and from the first was largely employed, more particu-
larly in laying out the small railway systems which eventually
were amalgamated under the title of the Manchester, Sheffield
& Lincolnshire. In the course of this work he designed a
bridge known as Torksey Bridge, which was disallowed by the
Board of Trade inspector, Captain (afterwards Field-Marshal Sir)
Lintorn Simmons. The engineering profession espoused Fowler's
side in the controversy which followed, and as a result the verdict
of the Board of Trade was modified. The episode was the
beginning of a warm friendship between these distinguished
representatives of dvil and military engineering. Fowler was
engineer of the London Metropolitan railway, the pioneer of
underground railways, and noteworthy in that it was mostly
made not by tunnelling, but by excavating from the surface and
then covering in the permanent way; and he lived to be one of
the engineers officially connected with the deep tunnelling " tube"
system extensively adopted for electric railways in London.
He was also engaged in the making of railways in Ireland, and
in 1867 he was selected by Disraeli to serve on a commission to
advise the government in respect of a proposal for a state-
purchase of the Irish railway system. He also carried out
considerable works in relation to the Nene Valley drainage and
the reclamation of land at the Norfolk estuary.
In 1865 he was elected president of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, the youngest president who had ever sat in the chair.
He was strongly opposed to the project of a Channel tunnel to
France, and in 1872 he endeavoured to obtain the consent of
parliament to a Channel ferry scheme, whereby trains were to be
transported across the strait in large ferry steamers. The
proposal involved the making of enlarged harbours at Dover
and AudresseHes on the French coast, and the bill, after passing
the Commons, was thrown out by the casting vote of the chairman
of a committee of the House of Lords. In 1875 he was enabled
to render, in his private capacity, a signal service to the Italian
government, which was much embarrassed by impracticable
proposals pressed on it by Garibaldi for a rectification of the
course of the Tiber and other engineering works. He had
several interviews with the Italian patriot, and persuaded him
of the impracticable nature of his plan, thereby obtaining for
the government leisure to devise a more reasonable scheme.
For eight years from 1871 he acted as general engineering adviser
in Egypt to the Khedive Ismail. He projected a railway to the
Sudan, and also the reparation of the barrage. These and many
other plans came to an end owing to financial reasons. But the
maps and surveys for the railway were given to the war office,
and proved most useful to Lord Wolseley in his Nile expedition.
For his service Fowler was made K.C.M.G. (1885). He was
created a baronet in 1800 on the completion of the Forth bridge,
of which with his partner Sir Benjamin Baker he was joint
engineer. He died at Bournemouth on the 20th of November
X808.
FOWLER, WILLIAM (c. 1560-1614)! Scottish poet, was born
about the year 1560. He attended St Leonard's college, §t
Andrews, between 1574 and 1578, and in 1581 he was in Paris
studying civil law. In 1581 he issued a pamphlet against John
Hamilton and other Catholics, who had, he said, driven him from
his country. He subsequently (about ?isoo) became private
secretary and Master of Requests to Anne of Denmark, wife of
James VI., and was renominated to these offices when the queen
went to England. In 1609 his services were rewarded by a grant
of 2000 acres in Ulster. His sister Susannah Fowler married
Sir John Drummond, and was mother of the poet William
Drummond of Hawthornden. On the title-page of The Triumphs
of Pctrarke, Fowler styles himself "P. of Hawick," which has
been held to mean that he was parson of Hawick, but this is
doubtful A MS. collection of seventy-two sonnets, entitled
The Taranttda of Love, and a translation (1587) from the Italian
of the Triumphs of Petrarhe are preserved in the library of the
university of Edinburgh, in the collection bequeathed by his
nephew, William Drummond. Two other volumes of his manu-
script notes, scrolls of poems, &c, are preserved among the
Drummond MSS. f now in the library of the Society of Anti-
quaries of Scotland Specimens of Fowler's verses were pub-
lished in 1803 by John Leyden in his Scottish Descriptive Poems.
Fowler contributed a prefatory sonnet to James VI.'s Furies;
and James, in return, commended, in verse, Fowler's Triumphs.
FOX, CHARLES JAMBS (1740-1806), British statesman and
orator, was the third son of Henry Fox, 1st Lord Holland, and
his wife, Lady Caroline Lennox, eldest daughter of Charles
Lennox, 2nd duke of Richmond. He was born at 9 Conduit
Street, Westminster, on the 24th of January 1740. The father,
who treated his children with extreme indulgence, allowed him
to choose his school, and he elected to go to one kept at Wands-
worth by a French refugee, named Pampelonne. In a very short
time he asked to be sent to Eton, where he went in 1757. At
Eton he did no more work than was acceptable to him, but he
had an inborn love of literature, and he laid the foundation of
that knowledge of the classic languages which in after years was
the delight of his life. The vehemence of his temper was con-
trolled by an affectionate disposition. When quite a boy he
checked his own tendency to fits of passion on learning that his
father trusted him to cure his defects.
That he learnt anything, and that he grew up an amiable and
magnanimous man, were solely due to his natural worth, for no
one ever owed less to education or to family example. The
relations of Lord Holland to his sons would be difficult to parallel.
He not only treated them, and in particular Charles, as friends
and companions in pleasure from the first, but he did his best
to encourage them in dissipation. In 1763 he took Charles for
a tour on the continent, introduced him to the most immoral
society of the time and gave him money with which to gamble.
The boy came back to Eton a precocious rake. It was his good
fortune that he did go back, for he was subjected to a wholesome
course of ridicule by the other boys, and was flogged by Dr
Barnard, the headmaster. In 1764 Charles proceeded to
Hertford College, Oxford. At Oxford, as at Eton, he read
literature from natural liking, and he paid some attention to
mathematics. His often quoted saying that he found mathe-
matics entertaining was probably meant as a jest at the expense
762
FOX, C. J.
of Sir G. Macartney, to whom he was writing, and who was
known to maintain that it was useless. His own account of his
school and college training, given in & letter to the same corre-
spondent (6th August 1767)1 is: "I employed almost my
whole lime at Oxford in the mathematical and classical know-
ledge, but more particularly in the latter, so that I understand
Latin and Greek tolerably well I am totally ignorant in every
part of useful knowledge. I am more convinced every day how
little advantage there is in being what at school and the uni-
versity is called a good scholar: one receives a good deal of
amusement from it, but that is all. At present I read nothing
but Italian, which I am immoderately fond of, particularly of
the poetry. ... As for French, I am far from being so thorough
a master of it as I could wish, but I know so much of it that I
could perfect myself in it at any time with very little trouble,
especially if I pass three or four months in France." The passage
is characteristic. It shows at once his love of good literature
and his thoroughness. Fox's youth was disorderly, but it was
never indolent. He was incapable of half doing anything which
he did at alL He did perfect himself in French, and he showed
no less determination to master mere sports, At a later period
when he had grown fat he accounted for his skill in taking " cut
balls " at tennis by saying that he was a very " painstaking
man." He was all bis life a great and steady walker.
The disorders of his early years were notorious, and were a
common subject of gossip. In the spring of 1767 he left Oxford
and joined his father on the continent during a tour in France
and Italy. In 1768 Lord Holland bought the pocket borough
of Midhurst for him, and he entered on his parliamentary career,
and on London society, in 1 760. Within the next few years Lord
Holland reaped to the full the reward for all that was good, and
whatever was evil, in the training he had given his son. The
affection of Charles Fox for his father was unbounded, but the
passion for gambling which had been instilled in him as a boy
proved the ruin of the family fortune. He kept racehorses,
and bet on them largely. On the racecourse he was successful,
and it is another proof of his native thoroughness that he gained
a reputation as a handicapper. It is said that he won more than
he lost on the course. At the gambling table he was unfortunate,
and there can be little question that he was fleeced both in
London and in Paris by unscrupulous players of his own social
rank, who took advantage of his generosity and whose worth-
lessness he knew. In the ardour of his passion Fox took his
losses and their consequences with an attractive gaiety. He
called the room in which he did business with the Jew money-
lenders his " Jerusalem chamber." When his elder brother had
a son, and his prospects were injured, he said that the boy was
a second Messiah, who had appeared for the destruction of the
Jews. " He had his jest, and they had his estate." In 1774
Lord Holland had to find £140,000 to pay the gambling debts of
his sons. For years Charles lived in pecuniary embarrassment,
and during his later years, when he had given up gambling, he
was supported by the contributions of wealthy friends, who in
1793 formed a fund of £70,000 for his benefit.
His public career did not supply him with a check on habits
of dissipation in the shape of the responsibilities of office. He*
began, as was to be expected in his father's son, by supporting
the court; and in 1770, when only twenty-one, he was appointed
a junior lord of the admiralty with Lord North. During the
violent conflict over the Middlesex election (see Wilkes, John)
he took the unpopular side, and vehemently asserted the right
of the House of Commons to exclude Wilkes. In 1772 during
the proceedings against Crosby and Oliver— a part of the " Wilkes
and liberty " agitation—he and Lord North were attacked by
a mob and rolled in the mud. But Fox's character was incom-
patible with ministerial service under King George III. The
king, himself a man of orderly life, detested him as a gambler
and a rake. And Fox was too independent to please a master
who expected obedience. In February 1772 he threw up his
place to be free to oppose the Royal Marriage Act, on which
the king's heart was set. He returned to office as junior lord
of the treasury in December. But he was insubordinate; his
sympathy with the American colonies, which 1
to resist the claims of the mother country to tax them, mu
him intolerable to the king and he was dismissed in Feke*.-
1774. The death of his father on the xst of July of last }cl
removed an influence which tended to keep him subordissif
the court, and his friendship for Burke drew him ia;e u.-..
alliance with the Rockingham Whigs. From tha first hs it-
had won him admiration in the House of Commons Be it.
prepared to distinguish himself as an orator by the euboa-
cultivation of his voice, which was naturally harsh and sk-
His argumentative force was recognized at once, but the full *<v
of his powers was first shown on the 2nd of February 1775, wt-
he spoke on the disputes with the colonies. The speed .
unfortunately lost, but Gibbon, who heard it, told his irks.
Holroyd (afterwards Earl of Sheffield) that Fox, " takicg i L *
vast compass of the question before us, discovered powers ir-
regular debate which neither his friends hoped nor his eser-'
dreaded/"
His great political career dates from that day. It is ucj.v
among the careers of British statesmen of the first rank, for it »*
passed almost wholly in opposition. Except for a few moatba .:
1782 and 1783, and again for a few months before his deatk -
1806, he was out of office. If he was absolutely sincere is ^
statement he made to his friend Fitzpatrick, in a letter of ut
3rd of February 1778, his life was all he could have vbLu
" I am," he wrote, " certainly ambitious by nature, but 1 1«£«
have, or think I have, totally subdued that passion. I have s*J
as much vanity as ever, which is a happier passion by far, dccuk
great reputation I think I may acquire and keep, great silastic
I never can acquire, nor if acquired keep, without miliar
sacrifices that I never will make." His words show that he jur's -
himself and read the future accurately. Yet it was cemialv
a cause of bitter disappointment to him that he had to suud fc?
while the country was in his opinion not only misgoverned, U.
led to ruin. His reputation as an orator and a political crk -
which*was great from the first and grew as he lived, most aswatcK
did not console him for his impotence as a statesman. (X lis
causes which rendered his brilliant capacity useless for the
purpose of obtaining practical success the most impoiust.
perhaps the only one of real importance, was his pcrso^
character. Lord John Russell (afterwards Earl Russell,', 1-
friendly biographer, has to confess that Fox might have joined
the confession of Mirabeau: " The public cause suffers for tie
immoralities of my youth." His reputation as a rake 2d
gambler was so well established at the very beginning of ^
career that when he was dismissed from office in 1774 there «jj
a general belief among the vulgar that he had been defected s
actual theft. His perfect openness, the notoriety of his bank-
ruptcies and of the seizure of his books and furniture in execute,
kept him before the world as a model of dissipation. In i;-t
when he was leading the resistance to Lord North's colore
policy, he " neither abandoned gaming nor his rakish life, ft
was seldom in bed before five in the morning nor out of it before
two at noon." At the most important crisis of his life in 17$ 5.
he almost made an ostentation of disorder and of indifference not
only to appearances, but even to decency. Horace Walpok hii
drawn a picture of him at that time which Lord Holland, Fei s
beloved and admiring nephew, speaking from his early recap-
tions of his uncle, confesses has " some justification." Cocnr?
from such an authority the certificate may be held to confirm the
substantial accuracy of Walpole. " Fox lodged in St Jan***
Street, and as soon as he rose, which was very late, bad a kWt
of his followers and of the gaming club at Brooks's— all lu
disciples. His bristly black person, and shagged breast quite
open and rarely purified by any ablutions, was wrapped in a f<<c!
linen nightgown and his bushy hair dishevelled. In these cycie
weeds and with Epicurean good humour did he dictate his politics.
and in this school did the heir of the empire attend his lessons
and imbibe them." That this cynic manner, and Epicures
speech, were only the outside of a manly and generous nature
was well known to the personal friends of Fox, and i$ bo*
universally allowed. But by the bulk of his contemporaries,
FOX, C. J.
763
o could not fail to see the weaknesses be ostentatiously
played, Fox was, sot unnaturally, suspected as being immoral
i untrustworthy. Therefore when be came into collision with
t will of the king he failed to secure the confidence of the nation
uch was his only support. Nor ought any critical admirer
Fox to deny that George III. was not wholly wrong when
said that the great orator " was totally destitute of discretion
d sound judgment." Fox made many mistakes, due in some
ses to vehemence of temperament, and in others only to be
cribed to want of sagacity. That he fought unpopular causes
a very insufficient explanation of his failure as a practical
uesman. He could have profited by the reaction which
[lowed popular excitement but for his bad reputation and his
mt of discretion.
During the eight years between his expulsion from office in
•74 and the fall of Lord North's ministry in March 1782 he
ay indeed be said to have done one very great thing in politics,
c planted the seed of the modem Liberal party as opposed to
le pure Whigs. In political allegiance he became a member
' the Rockingham party and worked in alliance with the marquis
nd with Burke, whose influence on him was great. In opposing
lie attempt to coerce the American colonists, and in assailing
he waste and corruption of Lord Norths administration, as
;e\\ as the undue influence of the crown, he was at one with the
Rockingham Whigs. During the agitation against corruption,
nd in favour of honest management of the public money,
thich was very strong between 1779 and 1782, he and. they
vorked heartily together. It had a considerable effect, and
>reparcd the way for the reforms begun by Burke and continued
>y Pitt. But if Fox learnt much from Burke he learnt with
originality. He declined to accept the revolution settlement
is final, or to think with Burke that the constitution of the House
uf Commons could not be bettered. Fox acquired the conviction
that, if the House was to be made an efficient instrument for
restraining the interference of the king and for securing good
government, it must cease to be filled to a very large extent
by the nominees of boroughmongers and the treasury. He be-
came a strong advocate for parliamentary reform. In all ways
he was the ardent advocate of what have in later times been
known as " Liberal causes," the removal of all religious dis-
abilities and tests, the suppression of private interests which
hampered the public good, the abolition of the slave trade, and
the emancipation of all classes and races of men from the strict
control of authority.
A detailed account of his activity from 1774 to 1782 would
entail the mention of every crisis of the American War of In-
dependence and of every serious debate in parliament. Through-
out the struggle Fox was uniformly opposed to the coercion of
the colonies and was the untiring critic of Lord North. While
the result must be held to prove that he was right, he prepared
future difficulties for himself by the fury of his language. He
was the last man in the world to act on the worldly-wise maxim
that an enemy should always be treated as if he may one day
be a friend, and a friend as if he might become an enemy. On
the 29th of November 1779 Fox was wounded in a duel with
Mr William Adam, a supporter of Lord North's whom he had
savagely denounced. He assailed Lord North with unmeasured
invective, directed not only at his policy but at his personal
character, though he well knew that the prime minister was an
amiable though pliable man, who remained in office against
his own wish, in deference to the king who appealed to his
loyalty. When the disasters of the American war bad at last
made a change of ministry necessary, and the king applied to
the Whigs, through the intermediary of Lord Shelburne, Fox
made a very serious mistake in persuading the marquess of
Rockingham not to insist on dealing directly with the sovereign.
The result was the formation of a cabinet belonging, in Fox's
own words, partly to the king and partly to the country— that
15 to say, partly of Whigs who wished to restrain the king, and
partly of the king's friends, represented by Lord Shelburne,
whose real function was to baffle the Whigs. Dissensions began
from the first, and were peculiarly acute between Shelburne
abd Fox, the two secretaries of state. The old division of duties
by which the southern secretary had the correspondence with
the colonies* and the western powers of Europe, and the northern
secretary with the others, had been abolished on the formation
of the Rockingham cabinet. All foreign affairs were entrusted
to Fox. Lord Shelburne meddled in the negotiations for the
peace at Paris. He also persuaded his colleagues to grant some
rather scandalous pensions, and Fox's acquiescence in this abuse
after his recent agitation against Lord North's waste did him
injury. When the marquess of Rockingham died on the 1st of
July 1782, and the king offered the premiership to Shelburne,
Fox resigned, and was followed by a part of the Rockingham
Wbigs.
In refusing to serve under Shelburne he was undoubtedly
consistent, but his next step was ruinous to himself and his
party. On the 14th of February 1783 he formed a coalition
with Lord North, based as they declared on " mutual goodwill
and confidence." Plausible excuses were made for the alliance,
but to the country at krge this union, formed with a man whom
he had denounced for years, had the appearance of an un-
scrupulous conspiracy to obtain office on any terms. In the
House of Commons the coalition was strong enough to drive
Shelbume from office on the 24th of February. The king made
a prolonged resistance to the pressure put on him to accept Fox
and North as his ministers (see Pitt, William). On the and
of April he was constrained to submit to the formation of a new
ministry, in which the duke of Portland was prime minister and
Fox and North were secretaries of state. The new administration
was ill liked by some of the followers of both. Fox increased its
unpopularity both in the House and in the country by consenting
against the wish of most of his colleagues to ask for the grant
of a sum of £100,000 a year to the prince of Wales. The act had
the appearance of a deliberate offence to the king, who was on
bad terms with his son. The magnitude of the sum, and his
acquiescence in the grant of pensions by the Shelburne ministry,
convinced the country that his zeal for economy was hypocritical.
The introduction of the India Bill in November 1783 alarmed
many vested interests, and offended the king by the provision
which gave the patronage of India to a commission to be named
by the ministry and removable only by parliament. The
coalition, and Fox in particular, were assailed in a torrent of
most telling invective and caricature. Encouraged by the
growing unpopularity of his ministers, George III. gave it to
be understood that be would not took upon any member of the
House of Lords who voted for the India Bill as his friend. The
bill was thrown out in the upper House on the 17th of December,
and next day the king dismissed his ministers.
Fox now went into opposition again. The remainder of his
life may be divided into four portions— his opposition to Pitt
during the session of 1784; his parliamentary activity till his
secession in 1707; his retirement till 1800; his return to
activity and his short tenure of office before his death in 1806.
During the first of these periods he deepened his unpopularity
by assailing the undoubted prerogatives of the crown, by claiming
for the House of Commons the right to override not only the
king and the Lords but the opinion of the country, and by
resisting a dissolution. This last pretension came very ill from
a statesman who in 1780 had advocated yearly elections. He
lost ground daily before the steady good judgment and un-
blemished character of Pitt. When parliament was dissolved
at the end of the session of 1784, the country showed its senti-
ments by unseating 180 of the followers of Fox and North.
Immense harm was done to both by the publication of a book
called The Beauties of Fox, North and Burke, a compilation of
their abuse of one another in recent years.
Fox himself was elected for Westminster with fewer votes
than Admiral Lord Hood, but with a majority over the ministerial
candidate, Sir Cecil Wray. The election was marked by an
amazing outflow of caricatures and squibs, by weeks of rioting
in which Lord Hood's sailors fought pitched battles in St James's
Street with Fox's hackney coachmen, and by the intrepid
canvassing of Whig ladies. The beautiful duchess of Devonshire
764
FOX, C. J.
(Georgian* Spencer) is said to have von at least one vote for
Fox by kissing a ahoemaker who bad a romantic idea of what
constituted a desirable bribe. The high bailiff refused to make
a return, and the confirmation of Fox's election was delayed
by the somewhat mean action of the ministry. He had, however,
been chosen for Kirkwall, and could fight his cause in the House.
In the end he recovered damages from the high bailiff. In his
place in parliament he sometimes supported Pitt and sometimes
opposed him with effect. His criticism on the ministers' bill
for the government of India was sound in principle, though the
evils he foresaw did not arise. Little excuse can be made for
his opposition to Pitt's commercial policy towards Ireland.
But as Fox on this occasion aided the vested interests of some
English manufacturers he secured a certain revival of popularity.
His support of Pitt's Reform Bill was qualified by a just dislike
of the ministers' proposal to treat the possession of the franchise
by a constituency as a property and not as a trust. His un-
successful opposition to the commercial treaty with France in
1787 was unwise and most injurious to himself. He committed
himself to the proposition that France was the natural enemy
of Great Britain, a saying often quoted against him in coming
years. It has been excused on the ground that when he said
France he meant the aggressive house of Bourbon. A statesman
whose words have to be interpreted by an esoteric meaning
cannot fairly complain if he is often misunderstood. In 1788
he travelled in Italy, but returned in haste on hearing of the
illness of the king. Fox supported the claim of the prince of
Wales to the regency as a right, a doctrine which provoked Pitt
into declaring that he would " unwhig the gentleman for the rest
of his life." The friendship between him and the prince of
Wales (see George IV.) was always injurious to Fox. In 1787
he was misled by the prince's ambiguous assurances into denying
the marriage with Mrs Fitzherbert. On discovering that he had
been deceived he broke off all relations with the prince for a
year, but their alliance was renewed. During these years he
was always in favour of whatever measures could be described
as favourable to emancipation and to humanity. He actively
promoted the impeachment of Warren Hastings, which had the
support of Pitt. He was always in favour of the abolition of
the slave trade (which he actually effected during his short
tenure of office in 1806), of the repeal of the Test Acts, and of
concessions to the Roman Catholics, both in Great Britain and
in Ireland.
The French Revolution affected Fox profoundly. Together
with almost all his countrymen he welcomed the meeting of the
states-general in 1789 as the downfall of a despotism hostile
to Great Britain. But when the development of the Revolution
caused a general reaction, he adhered stoutly to his opinion that
the Revolution was essentially just and ought not to be con-
demned for its errors or even for its crimes. As a natural
consequence he was the steady opponent of Pitt's foreign policy,
which he condemned as a species of crusade against freedom in
the interest of despotism. Between 1790 and 1800 his un-
popularity reached its height. He was left almost alone in
parliament, and was denounced as the enemy of his country.
On the 6th of May 1791 occurred the painful scene in the House
of Commons, in which Burke renounced his friendship. In 179a
there was some vague talk of a coalition between him and Pitt,
which came to nothing. It should be noted that the scene with
Burke took place in the course of the debate on the Quebec Bill,
in which Fox displayed real statesmanship by criticizing the
division of Upper from Lower Canada, and other provisions of
the bill, which in the end proved so injurious as to be unworkable.
In this year he carried the Libel Bill. In 1792 his ally, the duke
of Portland, and most of his party left him. In 1 797 he withdrew
from parliament, and only came forward in 1798 to reaffirm
the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people at a great Whig
dinner. On the 9th of May he was dismissed from the privy
council.
The interval of secession was perhaps the happiest in his life.
In 1783 he formed a connexion with Elizabeth Bridget Cane,
commonly known as Mrs Armstcad or Armistead, an amiable ,
and well-mannered woman to whom -he was pasascr^?
attached. In company with her he established himself a* :<•
Anne's Hill near Chcrtsey in Surrey. In 1795 he mane! her
privately, but did not avow his marriage till 1802. In his Ate
bespoke of her always as Mrs Armistead, and some of his frieadj-
Mr Coke of Holkham, afterwards Lord Leicester, with wham hr
stayed every year, being one of them — would not invite her •
their houses. It is hard to explain this solitary instance 3
shabby conduct in a thoroughly generous man towards a pert-
to whom he was unalterably attached and who fully deservee "*
affection. Fox's time at St Anne's was largely spent in girdl-
ing, in the enjoyment of the country, and in correspondescc -
literary subjects with his nephew, the 3rd Lord Holland, ir
with Gilbert Wakefield, the editor of Euripides. His \cv.r.
show that he had a very sincere love for, and an enlighu' .
appreciation of, good literature. Greek and Italian were his fe-
favourites, but he was well read in English literature and n
French, and acquired some knowledge of Spanish. His favour
authors were Euripides, Virgil and Racine, whom he drie^-
against the stock criticisms of the admirers of- Corndllc v -j
equal zeal and insight.
Fox reappeared in parliament to take part in the votr -
censure on ministers for declining Napoleon's overtures U' ■
peace. The fall of Pitt's first ministry and the formation ci ' •:
Addington cabinet, the peace of Amiens, and the establish^:
of Napoleon as first consul with all the powers of a mOitir.
despot, seemed to offer Fox a chance of resuming power in puM :
life. The struggle with Jacobinism was over, and he could kr«i
no hesitation in supporting resistance to a successful general «*-?
ruled by the sword, and who pursued a policy of perpetc:.
aggression. During 1802 he visited Paris in company with t*
wife. An account of his journey was published in xSxx by Ls
secretary, Mr Trotter, in an otherwise poor book of reminiscence:
It gives an attractive picture of Fox's good-humour, and of rr
enjoyment of the " species of minor comedy which is consiani j
exhibited in common life." His main purpose in visiting r«ns
was to superintend the transcription of the correspoodcr.ee -\
Barillon, which he needed for his proposed life of James II. Ts
book was never finished, but the fragment he completed *-
published in 1808, and was translated into French by Annar.
Carrel in 1846. Fox was not favourably impressed by Kapoksa.
He saw a good deal of French society, and was himself Ee:i?
admired for his hearty defence of his rival Pitt against a fooli^
charge of encouraging plots for Napoleon's assassination. C=
his return he resumed his regular attendance in the House ci
Commons. The history of the renewal of the war, of the fall ci
Addington's ministry, and of the formation of Pitt's secacc
administration is so fully dealt with in the article on Pilt (;.?.}
that it need not be repeated here.
The death of Pitt left Fox so manifestly the foremost niar iz
public life that the king could no longer hope to exclude bin
from office. The formation of a ministry was entrusted by &t
king to Lord Grenville, but when he named Fox as his proposed
secretary of state for foreign affairs George III. accepted hiss
without demur. Indeed his hostility seems to a large cxtest
to have died out A long period of office might now haw
appeared to lie before Fox, but his health was undermined. Had
he lived it may be considered as certain that the war witi
Napoleon would have been conducted with a vigour which was
much wanting during the next few years. In domestic politics
Fox had no time to do more than insist on the abolition of the
slave trade. He, like Pitt, was compelled to bow to the king's
invincible determination not to allow the emancipation of ihe
Roman Catholics. When a French adventurer calling himself
Guillet de la Gevrilliere, whom Fox at first " did the honour to
take for a spy," came to him with a scheme for the murder of
Napoleon, he sent a warning on the aoth of February to Talley-
rand. The incident gave him an opportunity for rcopecir^
negotiations for peace. A correspondence ensued, and British
envoys were sent to Paris. But Fox was soon convinced that the
French ministers were playing a false game. He was resolved
not to treat apart from Russia, then the ally of Great Britain,
FOX, E.— FOX, G.
765
or to consent to the surrender of Sicily, which Napoleon insisted
pon, unless full compensation could be obtained lot King
erdinanri. The later stages of the negotiation were not
irected by Fox, but by colleagues who took over his work at
be foreign office when his health began to fail in the sunnier
t 1806.' He showed symptoms of dropsy, and operat i ons only
irocured him temporary relief. After carrying his motion for
he abolition of the slave trade on the lothof June, he was forced
o give up attendance in parliament, and he died in the house of
he duke of Devonshire, at Chiswick, on the 13th of September
806. His wife survived him till the 8th of July 184a. No
fcildren were born of the marriage. Fes is buriedin Westminster
Vbbey by the side of Pitt.
The striking personal appearance of Fox has been rendered
rery familiar by portraits and by innumerable caricatures. The
atter were no doubt deliberately exaggerated, and yet a com-
parison between the head of Fox in Saver's plate M Carlo Khan's
rhimphal entry Into Leadenhall t n and in Abbot's portrait, shows
that the caricaturist did not depart from the original. Fox was
Lwice painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, once when young in a
group with Lady Sarah Bunbury and Lady Susan Straugeways,
and once at full length. A half-length portrait by the German
painter, Karl Anton Hickel, is in the National Portrait Gallery,
where there is also a terra-cotta bust by NoUekens.
Authorities.— The materials for a life of Fox were first collected
by his nephew. Lord Holland, aod were then revised and rearranged
by Mr Allen and Lord John Russell. These materials appear as
Memoirs and Correspondence of C J. Fox (London. 1853-1857). On
them Lord John Russell based his Life and Times of C. J. Fox
(London, 1859-1866); Sir G. O. Trevelyan's Early History of C. J.
Fox (London. 1880) brings new evidence; Charles James Fox, a
Political Study, by J. L. Le B. Hammond (London t 1903), is a series
of studies written by an extreme admirer. His Speeches were
collected and published in 1815. The newspaper articles (e.g. in
The Times) published on the occasion of the centenary of his death
contain Interesting appreciations. See also Lloyd Sanders. The
Holland House Circle (1908). (D. H.)
FOX, EDWARD {c. 1406-1538), bishop of Hereford, was born
about 1406 at Dursley in Gloucestershire; he is said on very
doubtful authority to have been related to Richard Fox (9.*.).
From Eton be proceeded to King's College, Cambridge, and after
graduating was made secretary to Wobey. In 1518 he was sent
with Gardiner to Rome to obtain from Clement VIL a decretal
commission for the trial and decision of the case between Henry
VHL and Catherine of Aragon. On his return he was elected
provost of King's College, and in August 1520 was the means of
conveying to the king Cranmer's historic advice that he should
apply to the universities of Europe rather than to the pope. This
introduction led eventually to Cranmer's promotion over Fox's
bead to the archbishopric of Canterbury. After a brief mission
to Paris in October 1529, Fox in January 1530 befriended
Latimer at Cambridge and took an active part in persuading that
university and Oxford to decide in the king's favour. He was
sent to employ similar methods of persuasion at the French
universities in 1530-1531, and was also engaged in negotiating a
closer league between England and France. In April 1533 he
was prolocutor of convocation when it decided against the validity
of Henry's marriage with Catherine, and in 1534 published his
treatise De vera differentia regiae potesUtfis et ccclesiae (second
ed. 1538, English transL 1548). Various eccles i asti c al prefer-
ments were now granted him, including the archdeaconry of
Leicester (1531) and the bishopric of Hereford (1555). In 1 535-
1536 he was sent to Germany to discuss the basis of a political
and theological understanding with the Lutheran princes and
divines, and had several interviews with Luther, who could not
be persuaded of the justice of Henry YlIL's divorce. The
principal result of the mission was the Wittenberg articles of
1536, which had no slight influence on the English Ten Articles
of the sane year. Bucer dedicated to him in 1536 his Com-
mentaries on the Gospels, and Fox's Protestantism was also
illustrated by his patronage of Alexander Aless, whom he defended
before Convocation. Fox is credited with the authorship of
several proverbial sayings, such as " the surest way to peace is a
constant preparedness for war " and " time and 1 will challenge
any two in the world." The fonner at any rata is only a variation
of the Latin si vis from, para bellum, and probably the latter a
not more original in Fox than in Philip IL, to whom it is usually
ascribed. Fox died on the 8th of May 1538 and was buried in the
church of St Mary Mountbaw, London. His chief distinction is
perhaps that be was the most Lutheran of Henry VIII.'s bishops,
and was largely responsible for the Ten Articles of 1536.
See Letters and Papers of Henry VI II., vols, iv.-xhr.; Cooper's
Athena* Cantabriptnses\ Diet. Nat. Biogr.; R. W. Dixon's Church
History ,G. Menu, Die Wittenberger Artikel von 1536 (1905). (A. F.P.)
FOX. GEORGE (1624-1091), the founder of the " Society of
Friends " or " Quakers, 1 ' was born at Drayton, Leicestershire,
in July 1624. His father, Christopher Fox, called by the neigh-
bours " Righteous Christer," was a weaver by occupation;
and his mother, Mary Lago, " an upright woman and accom-
plished above most of her degree," was " of the stock of the
martyrs." George from his childhood " appeared of another
frame than the rest of his brethren, being more religious, inward,
still, solid and observing beyond bis years"; and he himself
declares: " When I came to eleven yean of age I knew purenesa
and righteousness; for while a child I was taught how to walk
to be kept pure." Some of his relations wished that be should
be educated for the ministry; but Bis father apprenticed him to
a shoemaker, who also dealt in wool and cattle. In this service
he remained till his nineteenth year. According to Penn, " he
took most delight in sheep," but he himself simply says: " A
good deal went through my hands. . . . People had generally
a love to me for my innocency and honesty." In 1643, being
upon business at a fair, and having accompanied some friends
to the village public-bouse, he was troubled by a proposal to
" drink healths," and withdrew in grief of spirit. " When I
had done what business I had to do 1 returned home, but did
not go to bed that night, nor could I sleep, but sometimes
walked up and down, and sometimes prayed and cried to the
Lord, who said unto me, 'Thou seest bow young people go
together into vanity and old people into the earth; thou must
forsake all, both young and old, aod keep out of all, and be a
stranger unto all.' Then, at the command of God, on the ninth
day of the seventh month, 16431 I left my relations and broke
off all familiarity or fellowship with old or young."
Thus briefly he describes what appears to have been the
greatest moral crisis in his life. The four years which followed
were a time of great perplexity and distress, though sometimes
" I had intermissions, and was sometimes brought into such a
heavenly joy that I thought I had been in Abraham's bosom."
He would go from town to town, " travelling up and down as a
stranger in the earth, which way the Lord inclined my heart;
taking a chamber to myself in the town where I came, and
tarrying sometimes a month, more or less, in a place "; and the
reason he gives for this migratory habit is that he was " afraid
both of professor and profane, lest, being a tender young man,
he should be hurt by conversing much with either." The same
fear often led him to shun all society for days at a time; but
frequently he would apply to " professors " for spiritual direction
and consolation. These applications, however, never proved
successful; he invariably found that his advisers " possessed
not what they professed." Some recommended marriage,
others enlistment as a soldier in the civil wars; one " ancient
priest " bade him take tobacco and sing psalms; another of
the same fraternity, " in high account," advised physic and
blood-letting.
About the beginning of 1646 his thoughts began to take more
definite shape. One day, approaching Coventry, " the Lord
opened to him " that none were true believers but such as were
born of God and had passed from death unto life; and this was
soon followed by other "openings" to the effect that "being
bred at Oxford or Cambridge was not enough to fit and qualify
men to be ministers of Christ," and that " God who made the
world did not dwell in temples made with hands." He also
experienced deeper manifestations of Christ within his own
soul. " When I myself was in the deep, shut up under all (the
burden of corruptions], 1 could not believe that I should ever
766
FOX, R.
overcome; my troubles, my sorrows and my temptations
were so great that I thought many times I should have despaired,
I was so tempted. But when Christ opened to me how He was
tempted by the same devil, and overcame him and bruised his
head, and that through Him, and His power, light, grace and
spirit, I should overcome also, I had confidence in Him; so He
it was that opened to me, when I was shut up and had no hope
nor faith. Christ, who had enlightened me, gave me His light
to believe in; He gave me hope which He himself revealed in
me; and He gave me His spirit and grace, which I found
sufficient in the deeps .and in weakness." In 1647 he records
that at a time when all outward help had failed " I heard a
voice which said, ' There is one, even Christ Jesus, that can
speak to thy condition.' And when I heard it my heart did
leap for joy." In the same year he first openly declared his
message in the neighbourhood of Dukinficld and Manchester
(see Friends, Society or).
In 1649, as he was walking towards Nottingham, he heard the
bell of the " steeple bouse " of the city, and was admonished
by an inward voice to go forward and cry against the great idol
and the worshippers in it. Entering the church he found the
preacher engaged in expounding the words, " We have also a
more sure word of prophecy," from which the ordinary Protestant
doctrine of the supreme authority of Scripture was being enforced
in a manner which appeared to Fox so defective or erroneous
as to call for his immediate and most energetic protest. Lifting
up bis voice against the preacher's doctrine, he declared that it
is not by the Scripture alone, but by the divine light by which
the Scriptures were given, that doctrines ought to be judged.
He was carried off to prison, where be was detained for some
time, and from which he was released only by the favour of the
sheriff, whose sympathies he had succeeded in enlisting. In
1650 be was imprisoned for about a year at Derby on a charge
of blasphemy. On his release, overwrought and weakened
by six months spent " in the common gaol and dungeon," he
performed what was almost the only and certainly the most
pronounced act of his life which had the appearance of wild
fanaticism. Through the streets of Lichfield, on market day,
he walked barefoot, crying, " Woe to the bloody city of Lich-
field." His own explanation of the act, connecting it with the
martyrdom of a thousand Christians in the time of Diocletian,
is not convincing. His proceeding was probably due to a
horror of the city arising from a subconscious memory of what
he must have heard in childhood from his mother ("of the
stock of the martyrs ") concerning a martyr, a woman, burnt
in the reign of Mary at Lichfield, who had been taken thither
from Mancetter, a village two miles from his home in which
he had worked as a journeyman shoemaker (see The Martyrs
Glover and Lewis of Manet Iter, by the Rev B. Richings). He
must also have heard of the burning of Edward Wightman in
the same city in 1612, the last person burned for heresy in
England.
It would be here out of place to follow with any minuteness
the details of his subsequent imprisonments, such as that at
Carlisle in 1653; London 1654; Launceston 1656; Lancaster
1660, and again in 1663, whence he was taken to Scarborough
in 1665; and Worcester 1673. During these terms of imprison-
ment his pen was not idle, as is amply shown by the very
numerous letters, pastorals and exhortations which have been
preserved; while during his intervals of liberty he was unwearied
in the work of "declaring truth" in all parts of the country.
In 1669 he married Margaret, widow of Judge Fell, of Swarth-
moor, near Ulverston, who, with her family, had been among
his earliest converts. In 1671 he visited Barbados, Jamaica,
and the American continent, and shortly after his return in 1673
he was, as has been already noted, apprehended in Worcester-
shire for attending meetings that were forbidden by the law.
At Worcester he suffered a captivity of nearly fourteen months.
In 1677 he visited Holland along with Barclay, Penn and seven
others; and this visit he repeated (with five others) in 1684.
The later years of his life were spent mostly in London, where
he continued to speak in public, comparatively unmolested,
until within a few days of his death, which took place « at
13th of January 1601 (1600 o.s.).
William Penn has left on record an account of Fat in
personal knowledge — a Brief Account of Uha Rise ami Pnpe.
of the People called Quakers, written as a preface to Fox's Jew**
Although a man of large size and great bodily strength, be *s
" very temperate, eating little and sleeping less." He was 1
man of strong personality, of measured utterance, "chi*
(says Penn) " beyond all forms of breeding." From his Jam*!
we gather that he had piercing eyes and a very loud voice, asi
wore good clothes. Unlike the Roundheads, he wore his bis
long. Even before his marriage with Margaret Fell he seen
to have been fairly well off; be does not appear to have -mate
for a living after he was nineteen, and yet he had a horse, mi
speaks of having money to give to those who were in need. Be
had much practical common-sense, and keen sympathy tor tii
who were in distress and for animals. The mere fact thai fe
was able to attract to himself so considerable a body of re-
spectable followers, including such men as EJlwood, Bardxj,
Penington and Penn, is sufficient to prove that he possessed
in a very eminent degree the power of conviction, persoasoa,
and moral ascendancy; while of his personal uprightfiea,
single-mindedness and sincerity there can be no question.
The writings of Fox are enumerated in Joseph Smith's Csfc&rar
f Friends' Books. The Journal is especially interesting; of it sir
%
kintosh has said that " it is one of the most extraordiaanr
:ive narratives in the world, which no reader of Cosaptie-i
judgment can peruse without revering the virtue of the writer."
Thu Journal was originally published in London in 1604; 0*
edition kimwn as the Bicentenary Edition, with notes biograpfcral
and historical (reprint of 1901 or later), will be found the tsos
usUli.1 in practice. An exact transcript of the Journal has bees
issued by the Cambridge University Press. A Life *f Georgt Fa,
by Dr Thomas Hodglun; The Fells of Swartkmoor Hall, by Mara
Webb; and The Life and Character of George Fox, by John Stepbeewe
Rowntree, are valuable. For a mention of other works, and fs
details of the principles and history of the Society of Friends, tc-
gcther with some further information about Fox, see the artirfe
FaiENDs, Society of. <A. N. B.)
FOX. RICHARD (c. 1448-1528), successively bishop of Exeter.
Bath and Wells, Durham, and Winchester, lord privy seal, and
founder of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, was born about 144S
at Ropesley near Grantham, Lincolnshire. His parents beJoagRi
to the yeoman class, and there is some obscurity about Fox's
early career. It is not known at what school he was educated
nor at what college, though the presumption is in favour d
Magdalen, Oxford, whence he drew so many members of bis
subsequent foundation, Corpus Christi. He also appears to
have studied at Cambridge, but nothing definite is knows of
the first thiry-fivc years of his career. In 1484 he was in Pans,
whether merely for the sake of learning or because he had
rendered himself obnoxious to Richard HI. is a matter of specula-
tion. At any rate he was brought into contact with the eari of
Richmond, who was then beginning his quest for the Eng&h
throne, and was taken into his service. In January 1485 Richard
intervened to prevent Fox's appointment to the vicarage ol
Stepney on the ground that he was keeping company with the
" great rebel, Henry ap Tuddor."
The important offices conferred on Fox immediately after
the battle of Bos worth imply that he had already seen more
extensive political service than can be traced in records. Doubt-
less Henry VII. had every reason to reward his companions in
exile, and to rule like Ferdinand of Aragon by means of lawyers
and churchmen rather than trust nobles like those who had
made the Wars of the Roses. But without an intimate knowledge
of Fox's political experience and capacity he would hardly have
made him his principal secretary, and soon afterwards lord
privy seal and bishop of Exeter (14S7). The ecclesiastkil
preferment was merely intended to provide a salary not at
Henry's expense; for Fox never saw either Exeter or the diocese
of Bath and Wells to which he was translated in 1402. His
activity was confined to political and especially diplomatic
channels; so long as Morton lived, Fox was his subordinate,
but after the archbishop's death he was second to none in Henry's
confidence, and he had an important share in all the diplomatic
FOX, R. W.
767
oik of the feign. Id 1487* he negotiated a treaty with James
LL of Scotland, in 1491 he baptized the future Henry VIII.,
1 14.92 he helped to conclude the treaty of Etaples, and in 1407
e was chief conuniavoner in the negotiations for the famous
unznercial agreement with the Netherlands which Bacon seems
> have been the first to call the Magnus Intercursus.
Meanwhile in 1404 Fox had been translated to Durham,
ot merely because it was a richer see than Bath and Wells
ut because of its political importance as a palatine earldom
nd its position with regard to the Borders and relations with
ootland. For these reasons rather than from any ecclesiastical
cruples Fox visited and resided in his new diocese; and be
ccupied Norham Castle, which he fortified and defended against
Scottish raid in Perkin Warbeck's interests (1497). But his
nergies were principally devoted to pacific purposes. In that
use year he negotiated Perkin 'a retirement from the court of
ames IV., and in 1408-1409 he completed the negotiations
or that treaty of marriage between the Scottish king and
lenry's daughter Margaret which led ultimately to the union
i the two crowns in 1603 and of the two kingdoms in 1707.
The marriage itself did not take place until 1503, just a century
«f ore the accession of James I.
This consummated Fox's work In the north, and in 1501 he
res once more translated to Winchester, then reputed the
richest bishopric in England. In that year he brought to a
inclusion marriage negotiations not less momentous in their
ikimate results, when Prince Arthur was betrothed to Catherine
>f Aragon. His last diplomatic achievement in the reign of
Henry VII. was the betrothal of the king's younger daughter
Mary to the future emperor Charles V. In 1500 he was elected
chancellor of Cambridge University, an office not confined to
noble lords until a much more democratic age, and in 1507
master of Pembroke Hall in the same university. The Lady
Margaret Beaufort made him one of her executors, and in this
capacity as well as in that of chancellor, he had the chief share
with Fisher in regulating the foundation of St John's College
and the Lady Margaret professorships and readerships. His
financial work brought him a less enviable notoriety, though a
curious freak of history has deprived him of the credit which
is his due for " Morton's fork." The invention of that ingenious
HiUmm* for extorting contributions from poor and rich alike
is ascribed as a tradition to Morton by Bacon; but the story
is told in greater detail of Fox by Erasmus, who says he had it
from Sir Thomas More, a well-informed contemporary authority.
It is in keeping with the somewhat malidsus saying about Fox
reported by Tyndale that he would sacrifice his father to save
his king, which after all is not so damning as Wolsey's dying
words.
The accession of Henry VIIL made no immediate difference
to Fox's position. If anything, the substitution of the careless
pleasure-loving youth for Henry VII. increased the power of
his ministry, the personnel of which remained unaltered. The
Venetian ambassador calls Fox *" alter rex " and the Spanish
ambassador Carres says that Henry VIII. trusted him more than
any other adviser, although he also reports Henry's warning
that the bishop of Winchester was, as bis name implied, " a fox
indeed." He was the chief of the ecclesiastical statesmen who
belonged to the school of Morton, believed in frequent parlia-
ments, and opposed the spirited foreign policy which laymen
like Surrey are supposed to have advocated. His colleagues
were Warham and Ruthal, but Warham and Fox differed on
the question of Henry's marriage, Fox advising the completion
of the match with Catherine while Warham expressed doubts
as to its canonical validity. Tbey also differed over the pre-
rogatives of Canterbury with regard to probate and other
questions of ecclesiastical jurisdiction.
Wolse/s rapid rise in 1511 put an end to Fox's influence.
The pacific policy of the first two years of Henry VIII.'s reign
was succeeded by an adventurous foreign policy directed mainly
against France; and Fox complained that no one durst do
anything in opposition to Wolsey's wishes. Gradually Warham
and Fox retired from the government; the occasion of Fox's
resignation of the privy seal was Wolsey's ill-advised attempt
to drive Francis I. out of Milan by financing an expedition led
by the emperor Maximilian in 1 5x6. Tunstall protested, Wolsey
took Warham's place as chancellor, and Fox was succeeded by
Ruthal, who, said the Venetian ambassador, " sang treble to
Wolsey's bass." He bore Wolsey no ill-will, and warmly con-
gratulated him two years later when warlike adventures were
abandoned at the peace of London. But in 1522 when war was
again declared he emphatically refused to bear any part of the
responsibility, and in 1523 he opposed in convocation the
financial demands which met with a more strenuous resistance
in the House of Commons.
He now devoted himself assiduously to his long-neglected
episcopal duties. He expressed himself as being as anxious
for the reformation of the clergy as Simeon for the coming of
the Messiah; but while be welcomed Wolsey's never-realized
promises, be was too old to accomplish much himself in the way
of remedying the clerical and especially the monastic depravity,
licence and corruption he deplored. His sight failed during the
last ten years of his life, and there is no reason to doubt Matthew
Parker's story that Wolsey suggested his retirement from his
bishopric on a pension. Fox replied with some warmth, and
Wolsey bad to wait until Fox's death before he could add
Winchester to his archbishopric of York and his abbey of St
Albans, and thus leave Durham vacant as he hoped for the
illegitimate son on whom (aged 18) he had already conferred
a deanery, four archdeaconries, five prebends and a chancellor-
ship.
The crown of Fox's career was his foundation of Corpus Christ!
College, which he established in 1515-1516. Originally he in-
tended it as an Oxford house for the monks of St Switbin's,
Winchester; but he is said to have been dissuaded by Bishop
Oldham, who denounced the monks and foretold their fall. The
scheme adopted breathed the spirit of the Renaissance; provision
was made for the teaching of Greek, Erasmus lauded the institu-
tion and Pole was one of its- earliest fellows. The humanist
Viveswas brought from Italy to teach Latin, and the reader
in theology was instructed to follow the Greek and Latin Fathers
rather than the scholastic commentaries. Fox also built and
endowed schools at Tauton and Grantham, and was a benefactor
to numerous other institutions. He died at Wolvesey on the
5th of October 1528; Corpus possesses several portraits and
other relics of its founder.
See Letters and Papers Pf Henry VII. and Henry VIIL, vols, i.-iv. ;
Spanish and Venetian Calendars of Stale Papers; Gardner's Loliardy
and the Reformation and Church History 1485-1538; Pollard^
Henry VII f. ; Longman's Political History, vol. v. ; other authorities
cited in the article by Dr T. Fowler (formerly president of Corpus) in
the Did, NaL Biog. (A. F. P.)
FOX, ROBERT WBRB (1780-1877), English geologist and
natural philosopher, was born at Falmouth on the soth of April
1789. He was a member of the Society of Friends, and was
descended from members who had long settled in Cornwall,
although he was not related to George Fox who had introduced
the community into the county. He was distinguished for his
researches on the internal temperature of the earth, being the
first to prove that the heat increased definitely with the depth;
his observations being conducted in Cornish mines from 1815
for a period of forty years. In 1829 he commenced a series of
experiments on the artificial production of miniature metalli-
ferous veins by means of the long-continued influence of electric
currents, and his main results were published in Observations
on Mineral Veins (Rep. Royal Cornwall PolyUdi. Soc., 1836).
He was one of the founders in 1833 of the Royal Cornwall Poly-
technic Society. He constructed in 1834 an improved form of
deflector dipping needle. In 1848 he was elected F.R.S. His
garden at Penjerrick near Falmouth became noted for the
number of exotic plants which he bad naturalised. He died on
the 25th of July 1877. (See A Catalogue of Ike Works of Robert
Were Fox, P.R.S., with a Sketch of kis Life, by J. H. Collins,
1878.)
His daughter, Caroline Fox (1819-1871), born at Falmouth
on the 24th of May 1819, is well known as the authoress of a
768
FOX, SIR S.— FOX
diary, recording memories of many distinguished people, such
as John Stuart Mill, John Sterling and Carlyle, Selections from
her diary and correspondence (1835-1871) were published under
the title of Memories of Old Friends (ed. by H. N. Pym, 1881;
and ed., 1882). She died on the 12th of January 1871.
FOX. SIR STEPHEN (1627-1716), English statesman, born
on the 27th of March 1627, was the son of William Fox, of
Farley, in Wiltshire, a yeoman farmer. At the age of fifteen he
first obtained a situation in the household of the earl of North-
umberland; then he entered the service of Lord Percy, the earl's
brother, and was present with the royalist army at the battle
of Worcester as Lord Percy's deputy at the ordnance board.
Accompanying Charles IL in his flight to the continent, he was
appointed manager of the royal household, on Clarendon's
recommendation as "a young man bred under the severe
discipline of Lord Percy . . . very well qualified with languages,
and all other parts of clerkship, honesty and discretion.' 1 The
skill with which he managed the exiguous finances of the exiled
court earned him further confidence and promotion. He was
employed on several important missions, and acted eventually
as intermediary between the king and General Monk. Honours
and emolument were his reward after the Restoration; he was
appointed to the lucrative offices of first clerk of the board of
green cloth and paymaster-general of the forces. In November
1661 he became member of parliament for Salisbury. In 1665
he was knighted, was returned as M. P. for Westminster on the
27th of February 1679, and succeeded the earl of Rochester as
a commissioner of the treasury, filling that office for twenty-three
years and during three reigns. In 1680 he resigned the pay-
mastership and was made first commissioner of horse. In 1684
he became sole commissioner of horse. He was offered a peerage
by James II., on condition of turning Roman Catholic, but
refused, in spite of which he was allowed to retain his com-
mtssionerships. In 1685 he was again M. P. for Salisbury, and
opposed the bill for a standing army supported by the king.
During the Revolution he maintained an attitude of decent
reserve, but on James's flight, submitted to William III., who
confirmed him in his offices. He was again elected for West-
minster in 1601 and 1695, for Cricklade in 1698, and finally in
1713 once more for Salisbury. He died on the 28th of October
1716. It is his distinction to have founded Chelsea hospital,
and to have contributed £13,000 in aid of this laudable public
work. Though his place as a statesman is in the second or even
the third rank, yet he was a useful man in his generation, and a
public servant who creditably discharged all the duties with
which he was entrusted. Unlike other statesmen of his day,
he grew rich in the service of the nation without being suspected
of corruption, and without forfeiting the esteem of his con-
temporaries.
He was twice married (1651 and 1703); by his first wife,
Elizabeth Whittle, he had seven sons, who predeceased him,
and three daughters; by his second, Christian Hopes, be had
two sons and two daughters. The elder son by the second
marriage, Stephen (1704-1776), was created Lord Ilchester and
Stavordale in 1747 and earl of Ilchester in 1756; in 1758 he
took the additional name of Strangways, and his descendants,
the family of Fox-Strangways, still hold the earldom of Ikhester.
The younger son, Henry, became the xst Lord Holland (q.i.).
FOX, SIR WILLIAM (18x2-1893), New Zealand statesman,
third son, of George Townsbend Fox, deputy-lieutenant for
Durham county, was born in England on the 9th of June 1812,
and educated at Wadham CoHege, Oxford, where he took his
degree in 1832. Called to the bar in 1842, he emigrated im-
mediately thereafter to New Zealand, where, on the death of
Captain Arthur Wakefield, killed in 1843 in the Wairau massacre,
he became the New Zealand Company's agent for the South
Island. While holding this position be made a memorable
exploring march on foot from Nelson to Canterbury, through
Cannibal Gorge, in the course of which he discovered the fertile
pastoral country of Amuri. In 1848 Governor Grey made Fox
attorney-general, but he gave up the post almost at once in
order to join the agitation, then at its height, for a free constitu-
tion. As the political agent of the Wellington settlers far aid
to London in 1850 to urge their demand* in Downing Stmt
The colonial office, however, refused to recognise him, ix
after publishing a sketch of the New Zealand setdeneots, Tit
Six Colonies of New Zealand, and travelling in the United Stat*
he returned to New Zealand and again threw himself with now
into public affairs. When government by responsible orates
was at last initiated, in 1856, Fox ousted the first tnimstrv iw
formed a cabinet, only to be himself beaten in turn after bakfcv,
office but thirteen days. In 1861 he regained office. uA «=*
somewhat more fortunate, for he remained premier for wr»
thirteen months. Again, in the latter part of 1863 he tooke&a
this time with Sir Frederick Whitaker as premier, an amoceaes
which endured for another thirteen months. Fox's third pnsja-
ship began in 1869 and lasted until 1872. His fourth, vied *a
a matter of temporary convenience to his party, lasted <*!»
five weeks in March and April 1873. Soon afterwards he Is
politics, and, though he reappeared after some years and fed the
attack which overthrew Sir George Grey's ministry in 1S7+ b
lost bis seat in the dissolution which followed in that year &
did not again enter parliament. He was made K.C.M.G. is iSfc
For the thirty years between 1850 and 1880 Sir WiUka Fa
was one of the half-dozen most notable public men in the cckr
Impulsive and controversial, a fluent and rousing speaker ta
a ready writer, his warm and sympathetic nature made his 1
good friend and a troublesome foe. He was considered for hu-*/
years to be the most dangerous leader of the Opposition is :»
colony's parliament, though as premier he was at a disadvant^
when measured against more patient and more astute prj
managers. His activities were first devoted to secure seS-
government for the New Zealand colonists. Afterwards te
sympathies made him prominent among the champions of tin
Maori race, and he laboured indefatigably for their rights ud >
secure permanent peace with the tribes and a just settles
of their claims. It was during his third premiership that th
peace, so long deferred, was at last gained, mainly through th
influence and skill of Sir Donald M'Lean, native minister ia i«
Fox cabinet. Finally, after Fox had left parliament he dertt:
himself, as joint-commissioner with Sir Francis Dillon B4
to the adjustment of the native land-claims on the west cat?
of the North Island. The able reports of the commissi
were his last public service, and the carrying out of their recom-
mendations gradually removed the last serious native trwbit
in New Zealand. When, however, in the course of the n*u«
wars from i860 to 1870 the colonists of New Zealand *en
exposed to cruel and unjust imputations • in England, Fa
xealously defended them in a book, The War in New ZtdM
(1866), which was not only a spirited vindication of his fefiov-
scttlcrs, but a scathing criticism of the generalship of the office*
commanding the imperial troops in New Zealand. Througbc-J
his life Fox was a consistent advocate of total abstinence It
was he who founded the New Zealand Alliance, and he a>
doubtedly aided the growth of the prohibition movement amr-
wards so strong in the colony. He died on the 23rd of Jcae
1893, exactly twelve months after his wife, Sarah, daughter d
William Halcombe. (W.P.R)
FOX, a name (female, " vixen "') properly applicable to ire
single wild British representative of the family CouUat {at
Carnivoxa), but in a wider sense used to denote fox-like sprriei
from all parts of the world, inclusive of many from South America
which do not really belong to the same group. The fox ***
included by Linnaeus in the same genus with the dog and tbe
wolf, under the name of Cants wipes, but at the present day i*
regarded by most naturalists as the type of a separate genus, a*!
should then be known as Vulfes alopex or Vulpes wipes. Fron
1 The word is common to the Teutonic languages, of. Dutch r i
Gcr. Fucks; the ultimate origin is unknown, but a conntuoo
has been suggested with Sanskrit puccha, tail. The fernim*
" vixen " represents the O. Eng. fyxem, due to the change from * to?.
a ml add it ion of t he f emininc ter mina tion -en , cf. O. Eng. gydf* • god**
and Gcr. Fucksin, vixen. The t\ for /, is common in »«*£*"
English pronunciation; vox, for fox, is found in the Ancmsax
c. 1330.
FOX
769
5, wolves, jackals, Ac., which constitute the genus Cams in
more restricted sense, foxes are best distinguished by the
umstance that in the skull the (postorbitai) projection
aediatcly behind the socket for the eye has its upper surface
cave, with a raised ridge in front, in place of regularly convex,
rther character is the absence of a hollow chamber, or sinus,
bin the frontal bone of the forehead. Foxes are likewise
inguished by their slighter build, longer and bushy tail,
ich always exceeds half the length of the head and body,
rper muzzle, and relatively longer body and shorter limbs.
in again, the ears are large in proportion to the head, the pupil
the eye is elliptical and vertical when in a strong light, and
female has six pairs of teats, in place of the three to five pairs
ad in dogs, wolves and jackal*. From the North American
y foxes, constituting the genus or subgenus Urocyon, the true
es are distinguished by the absence of a crest of erectile long
rs along the middle line of the upper surface of the tail, and
) of a projection (subangular process) to the postero-inferior
fie of the lower jaw. With the exception of certain South
ican specks, foxes differ from wolves and jackals in that they
not associate in picks, but go about in pairs or are solitary.
From the Scandinavian peninsula and the British Islands
i range of the fox extends eastwards across Europe and
itral and northern Asia to Japan, white to the south it embraces
rthern Africa and Arabia, Persia, Baluchistan, and the north-
stern districts of India and the Himalaya. On the North
lerican side of the Atlantic the fox reappears. With such an
>nnous geographical range the species must of necessity
sent itself under a considerable number of local phases, differ-
; from one another to a greater or less degree in the matters
size and colouring. By some naturalists many of these local
ras are regarded as specifically distinct, but it seems better
d simpler to class them all as local phases or races of a single
ecies primarily characterized by the white tip to the tail and
e black or dark-brown hind surface of the ear. The " foxy
1 " colouring of the typical race of north-western Europe is
well known to require description, From this there is a more
less nearly complete gradation on the one hand to pale-
toured forms like the white-footed fox (K. olopex Uucopus) of
:raia, N.W. India and Arabia, and on the other to the silver
black fox (V. a. argtntatus) of North America which yields
e valuable silver-tipped black fur. Silver foxes apparently
so occur in northern Asia.
To mention all the other local races would be superfluous, and
will suffice to note that the North African fox is known as
. a. niloticus, the Himalayan as V. a. monUxnus, the Tibetan as
• a. waddii, the North American red or cross fox as V. a.
mnsylvenicus, and the Alaskan as V. a. karrimani; the last
Hned, like several other animals from Alaska, being the largest
' its kind.
The cunning and stratagem of the fox have been proverbial for
Any ages, and he has figured as a central character in fables
om the earliest times, as in Aesop, down to u Uncle Remus,"
iost notably as Reynard (Roginokardus, strong in counsel) in
* great medieval beast-epic " Reynard the Fox M (q*.). It
' not unlikely that, owing to the conditions under which
now lives, these traits are even more developed in England
tan elsewhere. In habits the fox is to a great extent solitary,
nd its home is usually a burrow, which may be excavated by
: * own labour, but is more often the usurped or deserted tene-
ment of a badger or a rabbit. Foxes will, however, often take
>P their residence in woods, or even in water-meadows with
irge tussocks of grass, remaining concealed during the day and
suing forth on marauding expeditions at night. Rabbits,
£Tes, domesticated poultry, game-birds, and, when these run
J°rt, rats, mice and even insects, form the chief diet of the fox.
'"hen living near the coast foxes will, however, visit the shore
l | low water in search of crabs and whelks; and the old story
» the fox and the grapes seems to be founded upon a partiality
» the part of the creature for that fruit. Flesh that has become
jfrNrted appears to be specially acceptable; but it is a curious
act ^a\ on no account will.a fox eat any kind of bird of prey.
After a gestation of from 6b to 65 days, the vixen during the
month of April gives birth to cubs, of which from five to eight
usually go to form a litter. When first bom these are xbthed
with a uniform slaty-grey fur, which in due course gives place
to a coat of more tawny hue than the adult livery. In a year and
a half the cubs attain their full development; and from observa-
tions on captive specimens it appears that the duration of life
ought to extend to some thirteen or fourteen years. In the care
and defence of her young the vixen displays extraordinary
solicitude and boldness, altogether losing on such occasions her
accustomed timidity and caution. Like most other young
animals, fox-cubs are exceedingly playful, and may be seen
chasing one another in front of the mouth of the burrow, or even
running after their own tails.
Young foxes can be tamed to a certain extent, and do not then
emit the well-known odour to any great degree unless excited.
The species cannot, however, be completely domesticated, and
never displays the affectionate traits of the dog. It was long
believed that foxes and dogs would never interbreed; but
several instances of such unions have been recorded, although
they are undoubtedly rare. When suddenly confronted in s
situation where immediate escape is impossible, the fox, like the
wolf, will not hesitate to resort to the death-feigning instinct.
Smartness in avoiding traps is one of the most distinctive traits
in the character of the species; but when a trap has once claimed
its victim, and is consequently no longer dangerous, the fox is
always ready to take advantage of the gratuitous meaL
Red fox-skins are largely imported into Europe for various
purposes, the American imports alone formerly reaching as many
as 60,000 skins annually. Silver fox is one of the most valuable
of all furs, as much as £480 having been given for an unusually
fine pair of skins in 1903.
Of foxes certainly distinct specifically from the typical repre-
sentative of the group, one of the best known is the Indian
Vulpcs bengalensis, a species much inferior in point of size to its
European relative, and lacking the strong odour of the latter,
from which it is also distinguished by the black tip to the tail
and the pale-coloured backs of the ears. The corsac fox (V<
cersac), ranging from southern Russia and the Caspian provinces
across Asia to Amurland, may be regarded as a northern repre-
sentative of the Indian species; while the pale fox ( V. futflidus),
of the Suakin and Dongola deserts, may be regarded as the
African representative of the group. Possibly the kit-fox ( V.
vclox), which has likewise a black tail-tip and pale ears, may
be the North American form of the same group. The northern
fennec {V. fomdkus), whose range extends apparently from
Egypt and Somaliland through Palestine and Persia into Afghan*
istan, seems to form a connecting link between the more typical
foxes and the small African species properly known as fenneca.
The long and bushy tail in the northern species has a white tip
and a dark gland-patch near the root, but the backs of the ears
are fawn-coloured. The enormous length of the ears and the
small bodily size (inferior to that of any other member of the
family) suffice to distinguish the true fennec ( V. zer&a) of Algeria
and Egypt, in which the general colour is pale and the tip of
the relatively short tail Mack. South of the Zambezi the group
reappears in the shape of the asse-fox or fennec. (V. cam*), a
dark-coloured species, with a black tip to the long, bushy tail
and reddish-brown ears.
Passing from South Africa to the north polar regions of both
the Old and the New World, inclusive of Iceland, we enter the
domain of the Arctk fox (V. lagopus), a very distinct species
characterized by the hairy soles of its feet, the short, blunt ears,
the long, bushy tail, and the great length of the fur in winter.
The upper parts in summer are usually brownish and the under
parts white, but in winter the whole coat, in this phase of the
species, turns white. In a second phase of the species, the
colour, which often displays a slaty hue (whence the name of blue
fox), remains more or less the same throughout the year, the
winter coat being, however, recognizable by the great length
of the fur. Many at least of the " blue fox " skins of the fim
trade are white skins dyed. About 9009 blue fox-skins were
770 FOXE, J.
annually imported into London from Alaska some five-and
twenty years ago. Arctic foxes feed largely on sea-birds and
lemmings, laying up hidden stores of the last-named rodents for
winter use.
The American grey fox, or Virginian fox, is now generally
ranged as a distinct genus (or a subgenus of Cants) under the
name of Urocyon cinereo-argentatus, on account of being dis-
tinguished, as already mentioned, by the presence of a ridge of
long erectile hairs along the upper surface of the tail and of a
projection to the postero-inferior angle of the lower jaw. The
prevailing colour of the fur of the upper parts is iron-grey.
The so-called foxes of South America, such as the crab-eating
fox (C. thous), Azara's fox (C. asarae), and the colpeo (C. magel-
lanicus), are aberrant members of the typical genus Canis. On
the other hand, the long-eared fox or Delalande's fox (Otocyon
megalotis) of south and east Africa represents a totally distinct
genus.
See St George Mivait, Dogs, Jackals, Wolverand Poxes (London,
1890); R. I. Pocock, "Ancestors and Relatives of the Dog," in
The Kennel Encyclopaedia (London, 1907). For fox-hunting, see
Hunting. *~*~~ *"" (R . £. }
FOXE, JOHN (15x6-1587), the author of the famous Book of
Martyrs, was born at Boston, in Lincolnshire, in 1516. At the
age of sixteen he is said to have entered Brasenose College,
Oxford, where he was the pupil of John Harding or Hawarden,
and had for room-mate Alexander Nowell, afterwards dean of
St. Paul's. His authenticated connexion at the university is,
however, with Magdalen College. He took his B.A. degree in
1537 and his M.A. in 1543. He was lecturer on logic in 1540-
1541. He wrote several Latin plays on Scriptural subjects, of
which the best, De Christo triumphant*, was repeatedly printed,
(London, x 551 ; Basel, x 556, &c), and was translated into English
by Richard Day, son of the printer. He became a fellow of
Magdalen College in 1539, resigning in 1545. It is said that he
refused to conform to the rules for regular attendance at chapel,
and that he protested both against the enforced celibacy of
fellows and the obligation to take holy orders within seven
years of their election. The customary statement that he was
expelled from his fellowship is based on the untrustworthy
biography attributed to his son Samuel Foxe, but the college
records state that he resigned of his own accord and ex honesta
causa. The letter in which he protests to President Oglethorpe
againsVthe charges of irreverence, &c, brought against him is
printed in Pratt's edition (vol. L Appendix, pp. 58-61).
On leaving Oxford he acted as tutor for a short time in the
house of the Lucys of Charlecote, near Stratiord-on-Avon, where
he married Agnes Randall. Late in 1547 or early in the next
year he went to London. He found a patron in Mary Fitxroy,
duchess of Richmond, and having been ordained deacon by
Ridley in 1550, he settled at Reigate Castle, where he acted
as tutor to the duchess's nephews, the orphan children of Henry
Howard, earl of Surrey. On the accession of Queen Mary, Foxe
was deprived of his tutorship by the boys' grandfather, the duke
of Norfolk, who was now released from prison. He retired to
Strassburg, and occupied himself with a Latin history of the
Christian persecutions which he had begun at the suggestion of
Lady Jane Grey. He had assistance from two clerics of widely
differing opinions— from Edmund Grindal, who was later, as
archbishop of Canterbury, to maintain his Puritan convictions
in opposition to Elizabeth; and from John Aylmer, afterwards
one of the bitterest opponents of the Puritan party This book,
dealing chiefly with Wydiffe and Huss, and coming down to
1500, formed the first outline of the AcUs and Monuments. It
was printed by Wendelin Richdius with the title of Commentarii
return in ecdesia gestarum (Strasburg, 1554). In the year of its
publication Foxe removed to Frankfort, where he found the
English colony of Protestant refugees divided into two camps.
He made a vain attempt to frame a compromise which should
be accepted by the extreme Calvinists and by the partisans of
the Anglican doctrine. He removed (1555) to Basel, where
he worked as printer's reader to Johann Herbst or Oporimis.
He made steady progress with his great book as he received
reports from England of the religious persecutions there, oik
issued from the press of Oporinus his pamphlet Ad md*e v
praepotentes Angliae proceres . . . supplicaHo (1557), tjkxn
toleration addressed to the English nobility. In 1559 be oco-
pleted the Latin edition 1 of his martyrology and retsned t>
England. He lived for some time at Aldgate, London, s the
house of his former pupil, Thomas Howard, now duke of Koiik.
who retained a sincere regard for his tutor and left hus a sai
pension in "his will. He became associated with John Day ski
printer, himself once a Protestant exile.' Faze was enkae
priest by Edmund Grindal, bishop of London, in 156a, d
besides much literary work he occasionally preached at Pr^
Cross and other places. His work had rendered great send
to the government, and he might have had high prefeiaes: i
the Church but for the Puritan views which he comftnrj
maintained. He held, however, the prebend of Shipaaa
Salisbury cathedral, and is said to have been for a short tat
rector of Cripplegate.
In 1563 was issued from the press of John Day the first Enr^
edition of the Actes and Monuments of these latter end pa&i
Dayes, touching matters of the Church, wherein are ctmprtkeci
and described the great Persecution and horribU Trouble m
have been wrought and practised by the Romishe Prelates, specie \
in this Realme of England and Scotland, from the yean */ a
Lorde a thousande to the time now present. Gathered and c£c j
according to the true Copies and Wry tinges certificatorie es «c \
the Parlies themselves that Suffered, as also out of the Bisk*\
Registers, which were the Doers thereof, by John Foxe, comnsw]
known as the Booh of Martyrs. Several gross errors which to
appeared in the Latin version, and had been since exposed, «3
corrected in this edition. Its popularity was immense and sipd
The Marian persecution was still fresh in men's minds, &&d u
graphic narrative intensified in its numerous readers tbt 2©
hatred of Spain and of the Inquisition which was one of ui
master passions of the reign. Nor was its influence tassci
For generations the popular conception of Roman Caibofca
was derived from its bitter pages. Its accuracy was imnedait]
attacked by Catholic writers, notably in the Dialogi sex (i$t!
nominally from the pen of Alan Cope, but in reality by Nkbob
Harpsfield and by Robert Parsons in Throe Contmieu t
England (1570). These criticisms induced Foxe to product 1
second corrected edition, Ecclesiastical History, contaynat M
Actes and Monuments of things passed in every kyn&s lym . .
in 1570, a copy of which was ordered by Convocation to b
placed in every collegiate church. Foxe based his accoosts 1
the martyrs partly on authentic documents and reports d is
trials, and on statements received direct from the (riendi a
the sufferers, but he was too hasty a worker and too viota 1
partisan to produce anything like a correct or impartial actotrj
of the mass of facts with which he had to deal. AmhcA
Wood says that Foxe " believed and reported ell that rj ■ >
him, and there is every reason to suppose that he was purpc* :
misled, and continually deceived by those whose interest it «i
to bring discredit on his work," but he admits that the bocki
a monument of his industry, his laborious research a&d -
sincere piety. The gross blunders due to carelessness k m
often been exposed, and there is no doubt that Foxe was of
too ready to believe evil of the Catholics, and he cannot a' 5 -.
be exonerated from the charge of wilful falsification of evia&n
It should, however, be remembered in his honour that ki
advocacy of religious toleration was far in advance of his &j
He pleaded for the despised Dutch Anabaptists, and rcrccJ
st rated with John Knox on the rancour of his First BUti ej •
Trumpet. Foxe was one of the earliest students of Anp-
Saxon, and he and Day published an edition of the &*"<
gospels under the patronage of Archbishop Parker. He <i-
on the 1 8th of April 1587 and was buried at Si Giles I
Cripplegate.
1 Printed by Oporinu9 and Nicolaus Brylingcr. The title 1
Return in eerie si a gestarum . . . pars prima, in qua pri*** &
rebus per Angtiam el Scotiam gestis atque in primis de horrexdas*
Maria uuper regina persotnnone narratio conttnetur.
FOXGLOVE— FOY
771
L list of his Latin tracts and sermons U given by Wood, and others,
le of which were never printed, appear in Bale. Four editions
the Aciet and Monuments appeared in Foxe's lifetime. The
uh edition (164T) contains a memoir of Foxe purporting to be
his son Samuel, the MS. of which is in the British Museum (Lans-
me MS. 388). Samuel Foxc's authorship is disputed, with much
w of reason, by Dr S. R. Maitland in On the Memoirs of Foxe
nbed to his Son (1841). The best-known modern edition of the
rtyrology is that (1837-1841) by the Rev. Stephen R. Cattlcy,
h an introductory life by Canon George Townscnd. The numer-
inaccuracies of this life and the frequent errors of Foxe's narra-
s were exposed by Dr Mairland in a scries of tracts (1837-1842),
ected (1841-1843) as Notes on the Contributions of the Rev. George
tmsend, Je\i4- . . . to the New Edition of Fox's Marlyrology.
i criticism lavished on Cattley and Townscnd 's edition led to a
t one (1846-1849) under the same editorship. A new text
pared by the Rev. Josiah Pratt was jssued (1870) in the " Refor-
rion Series " of the Church Historians of England, with- a revised
sion of Townsend's Life and appendices giving copies of original
uments. Later edition by W. Grinton Berry (1907).
r oic's papers are preserved in the Harleian and Lansdowne
lections in the Bntish Museum. Extracts from these were
ted by J. G. Nichols for the Camden Society (1859). See also
Winters, Biographical Notes on John Foxe (1876); James
irdner, History of the English Church in the Sixteenth Century.
FOXGLOVE, a genua of biennial and perennial plants of the
Loral order Scrophulariaceae. The common or purple foxglove,
"Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea).
• Corolla cut open showing the showing the thick axial pta-
four stamens; rather more centa bearing numerous small
than half oat. sue. seeds.
1. Unripe fruit cut lengthwise, 3. Ripe capsule split open,
& purpurea, is common in dry hilly pastures and rocky places
ind by toad-sides in various parts of Europe; it ranges in Great
Britain from Cornwall and Kent to Orkney, but it does not
occur in Shetland or in some of the eastern counties of England.
It flourishes best' in siliceous soils, and is not fqtind in the Jura
and Swiss AIds. The characters of the plant are as. follows:
stem erect, roundish, downy, leafy below, and from 18 in. to
5 ft. or more in height; leaves alternate, crenate, rugose, ovate
or elliptic oblong, and of a dull green, with the-under surface
downy and paler than the upper; radical leaves together with
their stalks often a foot in length; root of numerous, slender,
whitish fibres; flowers if-a§ in. long, pendulous, on one side of
the stem, purplish crimson, and hairy and marked with eye-like
spots within; segments of calyx ovate, acute, cleft to the base;
corolla bell-shaped with a broadly two-lipped obtuse mouth, the
upper Kp entire or obscurely divided; stamens four, two longer
than the other two (didynamous); anthers yellow and bilobed;
capsule bivalved, ovate and pointed; and seeds numerous,
small, oblong, pitted and of a pale brown. As Parkinson re-
marks of the plant, " It flowreth seldome before July, and the
seed is ripe in August "; but it may occasionally be found in
blossom as late as September. Many varieties of the common
foxglove have been raised by cultivation, with flowers varying
in colour from white to deep rose and purple; in the variety
gloxinioides the flowers are almost regular, suggesting those of
the cultivated gloxinia. Other species of foxglove with variously
coloured flowers have been introduced into Britain from the
continent of Europe. The plants may be propagated by un-
dowered off-sets from the roots, but being biennials are best
raised from seed.
The foxglove, probably from folks'-gfave, that is fairies' glove,
is known by a great variety of popular names in Britain. In '
the south of Scotland it is called bloody fingers; farther north,
dead-men's-bells; and on the eastern borders, ladies' thimbles,
wild mercury and Scotch mercury. In Ireland it is generally
known under the name of fairy thimble. Among its Welsh
synonyms are nenyg-dtyUon (elves' gloves), menyg y .Uwynog
(fox's gloves), bysedd cochion (redfingers) and bysedd y own
(dog's fingers). In France its designations are gants do noire
dame and doigis de la Vierge, The German name Fingerhut
(thimble) suggested to Fuchs, in 1542, the employment of the
Latin adjective digitalis as a designation for the plant. Other
species of foxglove or Digitalis although found in botanical
collections are not generally grown. For medicinal uses see
Digitalis.
FOX INDIANS, the name, from one of their clans, of an Algon*
quian tribe, whose former range was central Wisconsin. They
call themselves Muskwakiuk, " red earth people." Owing to
heavy losses in their wars with the Ojibways and the French,
they allied themselves with the Sauk tribe about 17S0, the two
tribes being now practically one.
POX MORCILLO, SEBASTIAN (15207-1550?), Spanish scholar
and philosopher, was born at Seville between 1526 and 1528.
About 1548 he studied at Louvain, and, following the example
of the Spanish Jew, Judas Abarbanel, published commentaries
on Plato and Aristotle in which he endeavoured to reconcile
their teaching.- In 1559 he was appointed tutor to Don Carlos,
son of Philip II., but did not live to take up the duties of the post,
as he was lost at sea on his way to Spain. His most original
work is the De imitatione, sen de informandi styli ration* librill.
(1554), a dialogue in which the author and his brother take part
under the pseudonyms of Gaspar and Francisco Enuesia. Among
Fox Morcillo's other publications arc : (1) In Topica Ciceronis
paraphrasis el scholia (1550); (a) In Platonis Timaeum com-
mentarn (1554); (3) Compendium ethices pkilasopkiae ex Plateme,
AristoteU, aliisque philosopkis colUctum; (4) De kistoriae in-
stitution* dialogue (1557), and (5) De naturae philosophic.
He is the subject of an excellent monograph by Urbano Gonzales
de Calle, Sebastidn Fox Mor cilia: estudio histdrico-criHco de sue
dactrinas (Madrid, 1903).
FOY. MAXIMIUBN SEBASTIEN (1775-1^5), French general
and statesman, was born at Ham in Picardy on the 3rd
of February 1775. He was the son of an old soldier who had
fought at Fontenoy and had become post-master of the town
in which he lived. His father died in 1780, and his early instruc-
tion was given by his mother, a woman of English origin and of
772
FRAAS— FRAGONARD
superior ability. He continued his education at the college of
Soissons, and thence passed at the age of fifteen to the artillery
school of La Fere. After eighteen months' successful study he
entered the army, served his first campaign in Flanders (i 791-92),
and was present at the battle of Jemmapes. He soon attained
the rank of captain, and served successively under Dampierre,
Jourdan, Pichegru and Houchard. In 1704, in consequence of
having spoken freely against the violence of the extreme party
at Paris, he was imprisoned by order of the commissioner of the
Convention, Joseph Lebon, at Cambray, but regained his liberty
soon after the fall of Robespierre. He served under Moreau
in the campaigns of 1796 and 1797, distinguishing himself in
many engagements. The leisure which the treaty of Campo
Formio gave him he devoted to the study of public law and
modern history, attending the lectures of Christoph Wilhelm von
Koch (1737-1813), the famous professor of public law at Strass-
burg. He was recommended by Desaix to the notice of General
Bonaparte, but declined to serve on the staff of the Egyptian
expedition. In the campaign of Switzerland (1798) he dis-
tinguished himself afresh, though ho served only with the greatest
reluctance against a people which possessed republican institu-
tions. In Massena's brilliant campaign of 1799 Foy won the
rank of chef de brigade. In the following year he sewed under
Moncey in the Marengo campaign and afterwards in TiroL
Foy'a republican principles caused him to oppose the gradual
rise of Napoleon to the supreme power and at the time of Moreau's
trial he escaped arrest only by joining the army in Holland.
Foy voted against the establishment of the empire, but the only
penalty for his independence was a long delay before attaining
the rank of general. In 1806 he married a daughter of General
Baraguay d'Hilliers. In the following year he was sent to
Constantinople, and there took part in the defence of the Darda-
nelles against the English fleet. He was next sent to Portugal,
and thenceforward he served in the Peninsular War from first
to last. Under Junot he won at last his rank of general of
brigade, under Soult he held a command in the pursuit of Sir
John Moore's army, and under Massena he fought in the third
invasion of Portugal (1810). Massena reposed the greatest
confidence in Foy, and employed him after Busaco in a mission
to the emperor. Napoleon now made Foy's acquaintance for the
first time, and was so far impressed with his merits as to make
him a general of division at once. The part played by General
Foy at the battle of Salamanca won him new laurels, but above
all he distinguished himself when the disaster of Vittoria had
broken the spirit of the army. Foy rose to the occasion; his
resistance in the Pyrenees was steady and successful, and only
a wound (at first thought mortal) which he received at Orthez
prevented him from keeping the field to the last. At the first
restoration of the Bourbons he received the grand cross of the
Legion of Honour and a command, and on the return of Napoleon
from Elba he declined to join him until the king had fled from the
country. He held a divisional command in the Waterloo
campaign, and at Waterloo was again severely wounded at the
bead of his division (see Waterloo Campaign). After the second
restoration he returned to civil life, devoting his energies for a
time to his projected history of the Peninsular War, and in 18x9
was elected to the chamber of deputies. For this position his
experience and his studies had especially fitted him, and by his
fust speech he gained a commanding place in the chamber,
which he never lost, his clear, manly eloquence being always
employed on the side of the liberal principles of 1789. In 1823
he made a powerful protest against French intervention in Spain,
and after the dissolution of 1824 he was re-elected for three
constituencies. He died at Paris on the 28th of November 1825,
and his funeral was attended, it is said, by 100,000 persons.
His early death was regarded by all as a national calamity. His
family was provided for by a general subscription.
The Histoire de la guerre de ta Pininsula sous Napolion was pub-
lished from his notes in 1827, and a collection of his speeches (with
memoir by Tiasot) appeared in 1826 soon after his death. Sec
Cuisin, Vte militaire. politique, fife, du giniral Foy; Vidal, Vte
militaire el politique du giniral Foy.
FRAAS, KARL NIKOLAS (1810-1875), German bond
agriculturist, was born at Rattelsdorf, near Bamberg, b~ I
of September 1810. After receiving his preliminary ek_-:j
the gymnasium of Bamberg, he in 1830 entered the- mens
Munich, where he took his doctor's degree in 1834- ~
devoted great attention to the study of botany, be »-
Athens in 1835 as inspector of the court garden; aa! a i
1836 he became professor of botany at the univenitj. b
he returned to Germany and became teacher at the or.
agricultural school at.Schkissbeim. In 1847 he wis 13*-
professor of agriculture at Munich, and in 1851 direoer :i
central veterinary college. For many years he was re.
of the Agricultural Society of Bavaria, but resigned m i£-
died at his estate of Neufreimann, near Munich, on &,-
November 1875.
His principal works are: Xr«x**« rf* Borameit (Atbea
Synopsis florae classicae (Munich, 1845); Klima mud Ffkata
dor Zeit (Landsh., 1847); Histor.-encyklopad. GnutdrweeJ
vnrihsckojtslekre (Stuttgart, 1848); Gesdfcate der U*k.*^
(Prague, 1851); Die Sckule dee Landbaua (Munich. 1852 >;&-
Rinderrassen (Munich, 1853); Die kuustlicke Fudrxi
(Munich, 1854); Die Nalur der Landwirtksckafl (Muaki i-
Buck der Naturf&r Landvrirtke (Munich, i860); Die Ackatew
und ikrt Heilmitlel (Munich, 1866); Das WmneUebc* ir ^
pflansen (Berlin, 1872) ; and Geschickte der Laxdbau und fe~*d
sckaft seit dem 16*— Johrk. (Munich, 1865). He abofosacJ
edited a weekly agricultural paper, the Schrannt.
FRACASTORO [Fracastokius], OIROLAMO [Hnr<a
(1483-1553), Italian physician and poet, was born at V«je|
1483. It is related of him that at his birth his lips ida*
closely that a surgeon was obliged to divide them whh In-
cision knife, and that during his infancy his mother was Ufi
lightning, while he, though in her arms at the moment,©^
unhurt. Fracastoro became eminently skilled, not <•
medicine and belles-lettres, but in most arts and socks.
studied at Padua, and became professor of philosophy u?
1502, afterwards practising as a physician in Verona. Ii «*
his advice that Pope Paul III., on account of the prevail
contagious distemper, removed the council of Trent to Bci^
He was the author of many works, both poetical and cd
and was intimately acquainted with Cardinal Bcmbo, W
Scaliger, Gianbattista Ramusio (?.?.), and most of the && [i
of his time. In 15x7, when the builders of the citadac-:-
Felice (Verona) found fossil mussels in the rocks, TnastirJ
consulted about the marvel, and he took the same viev-&j
ing Leonardo da Vinci, but very advanced for those day*-J
they were the remains of animals once capable of livirs ' |
locality. He died of apoplexy at Casi, near Verona, on u I
of August 1553; and in 1559 the town of Verona erected jw
in his honour.
The principal work of Fracastoro Is a kind of medki-p
entitled Syfihilidis. swe Morbi Gallici, libri tres (Verona if]
which has been often reprinted and also translated into F~t
and Italian. Among his other works (all published at Vtf^
De vini temperature, (1534); Homocentrieorum (1535);**']
fotka et anttpathia rerum (1546); and De contagienibns >y
His complete works were published at Venice in 155^ l ^\
poetical productions were collected and printed at Padm i* : ^
FRAGONARD, JEAN-HONORft (1733-1806), French ?~!
was born at Grasse, the son of a glover. He was artkW -I
Paris notary when his father's circumstances became strc^
through unsuccessful speculations, but he showed such td
and inclination for art that he was taken at the age of eifkeffl
Boucher, who, recognizing the youth's rare gifts but dseaj
to waste his time with one so inexperienced, sent him to Cte»
atelier. Fragonard studied for six months under the P
luminist, and then returned more fully equipped to Bo^fi
whose style he soon acquired so completely that the c^
entrusted him with the execution of replicas of bis paft^
Though not a pupil of the Academy, Fragonard gained uV P
de Rome in 1752 with a painting of '* Jeroboam sacrifidEfW
Idols," but before proceeding to Rome he continued to steer)
three years under Van Loo. In the year preceding his depjw
he painted the " Christ washing the Feet of the Apostles a
at Grasse cathedral. In 1755 he took up his abode at theft*
Academy in Rome, then presided over by Natoire. Ik* 1
FRAHN— FRAMINGHAM
773
efited from the study of the old masters whom he was set to
/— always remembering Boucher's parting advke not to
s Raphael and Michelangelo too seriously. He successively
led through the studios of masters as widely different in their
s and technique as Chaxdin, Boucher, Van Loo and Natoire,
a summer sojourn at the Villa d'Este in the company of the
£ de Saint-Non, who engraved many of Fragonard's studies of
se entrancing gardens, did more towards forming his personal
e than all the training at the various schools. It was in these
antic gardens, with their fountains, grottos, temples and
aces, that he conceived the dreams which he was subsequently
tmbody in his art. Added to this influence was the deep
ression made upon his mind by the florid sumptuousness of
polo, whose works he had an opportunity of studying in
ike before he returned to Paris in 1761. In 1765 his " Coresus
lallirhoe " secured his admission to the Academy. It was made
subject of a pompous eulogy by Diderot, and was bought by
king, who had it reproduced at the Gobelins factory. Hither-
Fragonard had hesitated between religious, classic and other
jects; but now the demand of the wealthy art patrons of
as XV. 's pleasure-loving and licentious court turned bim
nitely towards those scenes of love and voluptuousness with
ch his name will ever be associated, and which are only made
eptable by the tender beauty of his colour and the virtuosity
lis facile brushwork— such works as the " Serment d'amour "
tn Vow), "Le Verrou" (The Bolt), "La Culbute" (The
table), " La Chemise enlevce " (The Shift Withdrawn), and
he Swing " (Wallace collection), and his decorations for the
itments of Mme du Barry and the dancer Marie Guimard.
the Revolution made an end to the ancien rigime, and Fra-
isrd, who was so closely allied to its representatives, left Paris
[793 and found shelter in the house of his friend Maubert at
use, which he decorated with the series of decorative panels
)wn as the "Roman d'amour de la jeunesse," originally
nted for Mme du Barry's pavilion at Louvreciennes. The
lels in recent yean came into the possession of Mr Pierpont
rrgan. Fragonard returned to Paris early in the 19th cen-
y, where he died in 1806, neglected and almost forgotten,
r half a century or more he was so completely ignored that
bke, in his history of art (1873), omits the very mention of his
me. But within the last thirty years he has regained the posi-
n among the masters of painting to which he is entitled by his
lius. If the appreciation of bis art by the modern collector
1 be expressed in figures, it is significant that the small and
stchy " Billet Doux," which appeared at the Cronier sale in
lis in 1005 and was subsequently exhibited by Messrs Duveen
London (1006), realised dose on £19,000 at tbe H6tel Drouot.
Besides the works already mentioned, there are four important
Sures by Fragonard in the Wallace collection: " The Foun-
in of Love," " The Schoolmistress," " A Lady carving her
une on a Tree " (usually known as " Le Chiffre d'amour ")
id " The Fair-haired Child." Tbe Louvre contains thirteen
amples of his art, among them the " Coresus," " The Sleeping
icchante," " The Shift Withdrawn," " The Bathers," " The
ttpherd's Hour" ("L'Heure du berger"), and "Inspiration."
tier works are in the museums of Lille, Besancon, Rouen,
Kits, Nantes, Avignon, Amiens, Grenoble, Nancy, Orleans,
tarseilks, &c, as well as at Chantilly. Some of Fragonard 's
Kst work is in the private collections of the Rothschild family
> London and Paris.
See R. Portafis, Fragonard (Paris, 1809), fully illustrated; Felix
•Quet, Fragonard (Paris, 1890); Virgile Josz, Fragonard- -mteurs
* XVI If siede (Paris, 1901); E. and J. de Goncourt. L'Arl du
t-kuitihic stick— Fragonard (Paris, 1883). (P. G. K.)
RUHN, CHRISTIAN MARTIN (1782-1851), German numis-
atist and historian, was bom at Rostock. He began his
•riental studies under Tychsen at tbe university of Rostock, and
forwards prosecuted them at Gfittingen and Tubingen. He
*ame a Latin master in Pestalozzi's famous institute in 1804,
turned home in 1806, and in the following year was chosen to
U the chair of Oriental languages in the Russian university of
tazan. Though in 1815 he was invited to succeed Tychsen at
Rostock, he preferred to go to St Petersburg, where he became
director of the Asiatic museum and councillor of state. He died
at St Petersburg.
Frahn wrote over 150 works. Among the more important are:
Numcpkylacium oriental* Pototianum (1813) ; De numorum Buighari-
corum font* antiquissimo (1816); Das mukammedanische mHh»-
habinet des asiatiscken Museum der kaiserl. Akademie der Wissen-
schafien ra St Petersburg (1821); Numi eufici ex variis museis stlecti
(1823) ; Notice d'une centaine d* outrages arabes, fire, qui manquent
en grande partie aux bMiotkeques de F Europe (1834); and Nova
subflementa ad recensionem Num. Muhatn. Acad. Imp. Set. Petre~
potttanae (1855). His description of some medals struck by the
Samanid and Bouid princes (1804) was composed in Arabic because
he had no Latin types.
FRAME, a word employed in many different senses, signifying
something joined together or shaped. It is derived ultimately
from O.E. frarn, from, in its primary meaning "forward."
In constructional work it connotes the union of pieces of wood,
metal or other material for purposes of enclosure as in the case
of a picture or mirror frame. Frames intended for these uses
are of great artistic interest but comparatively modern origin.
There is no record of their existence earlier than the x6th century,
but the decorative opportunities which they afforded caused
speedy popularity in an artistic age, and the Renaissance found
in the picture frame a rich and attractive means of expression.
The impulses which made frames beautiful have long been ex-
tinct or dormant, but fine work was produced in such profusion
that great numbers of examples are still extant. Frames for
pictures or mirrors are usually square, oblong, round or oval,
and, although they have usually been made of wood or com-
position overlaid upon wood, the richest and most costly
materials have often been used. Ebony, ivory and tortotseshell*,
crystal, amber and mother-of-pearl; lacquer, gold and silver,
and almost every other metal have been employed for this
purpose. The domestic frame has in fact varied from the
simplest and cheapest form of a plain wooden moulding to the
most richly carved examples. The introduction in the 17th
century of larger sheets of glass gave the art of frame-making
a great essor, and in the x8th century the increased demand
for frames, caused chiefly by the introduction of cheaper forms
of mirrors, led to the invention of a composition which could
be readily moulded into stereotyped patterns and gilded. This
was eventually the deathblow of the artistic frame, and since
the use of composition moulding became normal, no important
school of wood-carving has turned its attention to frames. The
carvers of the Renaissance, and down to the middle of the
18th century, produced work which was often of the greatest
beauty and elegance. In England nothing comparable to that
of Grinling Gibbons and his school has since been produced.
Chippendale was a great frame maker, but he not only had
recourse to composition, but his designs were often extravagantly
rococo. Even in France there has been no return of the great
days when Oeben enclosed the looking-glasses which mirrored
the Pompadour in frames that were among the choicest work
of a gorgeous and artificial age. In the decoration of frames
as in so many other respects France largely followed the fashions
of Italy, which throughout the 16th and 17th centuries produced
the most elaborate and grandiose, the richest and most palatial,
of the mirror frames that have come down to us. English art
in this respect was less exotic and more restrained, and many
of the mirrors of the x8th century received frames the grace
and simplicity of which have ensured their constant reproduction
even to our own day.
FRAMINGHAM, a township of Middlesex county, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A., having an area of 27 sq. m. of hilly surface,
dotted with lakes and ponds. Pop. (1890) 9239; (1900) ii^orf,
of whom 2391 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,948.
It is served by the Boston & Albany, and the New York, New
Haven & Hartford railways. Included within the township
are three villages, Framingham Center, Saxonville and South
Framingham, the last being much the most important. Framing-
ham Academy was established in 1792, and in 185 1 became a part
of the public school system. A state normal school (the first
normal school in the United States, established at Lexington
77+
FRAMLINGHAM— FRANCATELLI
in 1839, removed to Newton In 1844 and to Framingham in 1853)
is situated here; and near South Framingham, in the township
of Sherborn, is the state reformatory prison for women. South
Framingham has large manufactories of paper tags, shoes,
boilers, carriage wheels and leather board; formerly straw
braid and bonnets were the principal manufactures. Saxonville
manufactures worsted doth. The value of the township's fac-
tory products increased from $3,007,301 in xooo to $4,173,579 in
1905, or 38-8%. Framingham was first settled about 1640, and
was named in honour of the English home (Framlingham) of
Governor Thomas Danforth (1622-1609), to whom the land once
belonged. In 1700 it was incorporated as a township. The " old
Connecticut path/ 1 the Boston-to- Worcester turnpike, was im-
portant to the early fortunes of Framingham Center, while the
Boston & Worcester railway (1834) made the greater fortune of
South Framingham*
See J. H. Temple, History of Framingham . . . 1640-1880
(Framingham, 1887).
FRAMUNGHAM, a market town in the Eye parliamentary
division of Suffolk, 91 m. N.E. from London by a branch of
the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (ioox) 2526. The church of
St Michael is a fine Perpendicular and Decorated building of
black flint, surmounted by a tower 96 ft. high. In the interior
there are a number of interesting monuments, among which the
most noticeable are those of Thomas Howard, 3rd duke of
Norfolk, and of .Henry Howard, the famous earl of Surrey,
who was beheaded by Henry VIII. The castle forms a picturesque
ruin, consisting of the outer walls 44 ft. high and 8 ft. thick,
13 towers about 58 ft. high, a gateway and some outworks.
About half a mile from the town is the Albert Memorial Middle
Class College, opened in 1865, and capable of accommodating
300 boys. A bronze statue of the Prince Consort by Joseph
Durham adorns the front terrace.
Framlingham (Frendlingham, Framalingaham) in early. Saxon
times was probably the site of a fortified earthwork to which
St Edmund the Martyr is said to have fled from the Danes in
870. The Danes captured the stronghold .after the escape of
the king, but it was won back in 921, and remained in the hands
of the crown, passing to William I. at the Conquest. Henry L
in 11 00 granted it to Roger Bigod, who in all probability raised
the first masonry castle. Hugh, son of Roger, created earl of
Norfolk in 1141, succeeded his father, and the manor and castle
remained in the Bigod family until 1306, when in default of
heirs' it reverted to the crown, and was granted by Edward II.
to his half-brother Thomas de Brotherton, created earl of
Norfolk in 13x2. On an account roll of Framlingham Castle
of 1324 there is an entry of " rent received from the borough/'
also of " rent from those living outside the borough/' and in
all probability burghal rights had existed at a much earlier
date, .when the town had grown into some importance under the
shelter of the castle. Town and castle followed the vicissitudes
of the dukedom of Norfolk, passing to the crown in 1405, and
being alternately restored and forfeited by Henry V., Richard
IU., Henry VII., Edward VI., Mary, Elisabeth and James I.,
and finally sold in 1635 to Sir Robert Hitcham, who left it in
1-636 to the master and fellows of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge.
In the account roll above mentioned reference is made to a fair
and a market, but no early grant of either is to be found. In
1792 two annual fairs were held, one on Whit Monday, the
other on the xoth of October; and a market was held every
Saturday. The market day is still Saturday, but the fairs
are discontinued.
See Robert Hawes, History of Framlingham in (he County of
Suffolk, edited by R. Loder (Woodbridge, 1798).
FRANC, a French coin current at different periods and of
varying values. The first coin so called was one struck in gold
by John II. of France in 1360. On it was the legend Johannes
Dei gracia Francomm rex; hence, it is said, the name. It
also bore an effigy of King John on horseback, from which
it was called a franc & cheval, to distinguish it from another
coin of the same value, issued by Charles V., on which the king
was represented standing upright under a Gothic dais; this
coin was termed a franc* pied. As a coin it disappeared tftetk
reign of Charles VI., but the name continued to be used a a
equivalent for the live iournois, which was worth twenty sot
French writers would speak without distinction of so mm
livres or so many francs, so long as the sum mentioned «as a
even sum; otherwise livre was the correct term, tins "trra
litres " or " trois francs" but " trois litres cinq sels." In 17;;
the livre was legally converted into the franc, at the rate oi S*
livres to 80 francs, the silver franc being made to weigh enrti?
five grammes. The franc is now the unit of the monetary syncs
and also the money of account in France, as well as in Bdpua
and Switzerland In Italy the equivalent is the lira, and a
Greece the drachma. The franc is divided into 100 centime.
the lira into xoo centesimi and the drachma into 100 kpa
Gold is now the standard, the coins in common use being ten
and twenty franc pieces. The twenty franc gold piece vdga
6-4516* grammes, -900 fine. The silver coins are five, to.
one, and half franc pieces. The five franc silver piece wts&b
25 grammes, *ooo fine, while the franc piece weighs 5 gramas.
•835 fine. See also Money.
FRANyAIS, ANTOINB, Count (1756-1836), better known a
Francais or Nantes, French politician and author, was tea
at Beaurepairc, in the department of Isere. In 1791 he to
elected to the legislative assembly by the department of Loot
Inf erieure, and was noted for his violent attacks upon the fames
general, the pope and the priests; but he was not re~decud is
the Convention. During the Terror, as he had belonged to tfe
Girondin party, he was obliged to seek safety in the mounters.
In 1798 he was elected to the council of Five Hundred by the
department of Isere, and became one of its secretaries; and a
the following year be voted against the Directory. He took oSa
under the consulate as prefect of Charente Infeneure, rose to
be a member of the council of state, and in 1804 obtained the
important post of director-general of the indirect taxes (*wfc
riunis). The value of his services was recognized by the titles at
count of the empire and grand officer of the Legion of Hossc:.
On the second restoration he retired into private life; but fros
1819 to 182a he was representative of the department of Isfat
and after the July revolution he was made a peer of France. Ht
died at Paris on the 7th of March 1836.
Francais wrote a number of works, but his name is more Bfcdy
to be preserved by the eulogies of the literary men to whass k
afforded protection and assistance. It is sufficient to mestisc
Le Manuscrit de feu M. Jlrdmc (1825); RecueU de fadaises amps*
sur la montagne a Vusage des habitants de la fdaiue (1826) ; Veyef
dans la -value des origtnaux (1828); Tableau de la vie rureb, «
I'agricuUure enseignie aune mauiire dramatique (1839).
FRANCAIS, FRANCOIS LOUIS (1814-1897), French ptinte.
was born at Plombieres (Vosges), and, on attaining the age of
fifteen, was placed as office-boy with a bookseller. After a i*»
years of hard struggle, during which he made a precarious Bvfeg
by drawing on stone and designing woodcut vignettes for book
illustration, he studied painting under Gigoux, and subsequcail?
under Corot, whose influence remained decisive upon Franc&is*
style of landscape painting. He generally found his subjects «
the neighbourhood of Paris, and though he never rivalled bis
master in lightness of touch and in the lyric poetry which is the
principal charm of Corot's work, he is still counted among the
leading landscape painters of his country and period. He ex-
hibited first at the Salon in 1837 and was elected to the Academe
des Beaux-Arts in 1890. Comparatively few of his picture* axe
to be found in public galleries, but his painting of " An Iuliu
Sunset " is at the Luxembourg Museum in Paris. Other work*
of importance are "Daphnis et Chloe" (187a), "Bas hieudoD*
(i86x), "Orpheus" (1863), "Le Bois sacrf" (1864), "Le Lac
deNemi"(x868).
FRANCATBIXI, CHARLES ELM* (1805-1876), Anglo-
Italian cook, was born in London, of Italian extraction, in i8o(,
and was educated in France, where be studied the art of cookery'
Coming to England, he was employed successively by vanoe
noblemen, subsequently becoming manager of Crockford's dub*
He left Crockford's to become chief cook to Queen Victoria,
and afterwards he was chef at the Reform Club. He was U*
FRANCAVILLA FONTANA— FRANCE
775
tthor of The Modem Cook (1845), which has since been fre-
mtly republished; of a Plain Cookery Book for ike Working
tosses (z86i), and of The Royal English and Foreign Con-
(tionery Book (1862). Francatefli died at Eastbourne on the
*h of August 1876.
FRANCAVILLA fOXTANA, a town and episcopal see of
polia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 22 m. by rail E. by N.
Taranto, 460 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 17,759 (town);
>,5io (commune). It is in a fine situation, and has a massive
[tare castle of the Umpcriali family, to whom, with Oria, it
as sold by S. Carlo Borromeo in the x6th century for 40,000
wees of gold, which he distributed in one day to the poor.
FRANCS; ANATOLE (1844- ), French critic, essayist and
>vdist (whose real name was Jacques Anatole Thibault), was
>ra in Paris on the x6th of April 1844. His father was a book-
tier, one of the last of the booksellers, if we are to believe the
oacourts, into whose establishment men came, not merely to
tier and buy, but to dip, and tum over pages and discuss. As
child he used to listen to the nightly talks on literary subjects
hich look place in his father's shop. Nurtured in an atmosphere
• essentially bookish, he turned naturally to literature. In 1868
s first work appeared, a study of Alfred de Vigny, followed
1 1873 by a volume of verse, Les Poemes dor is > dedicated to
ceonte de Lisle, and, as such a dedication suggests, an outcome
the " Parnassian " movement; and yet another volume of
•rse appeared in 1876, Les Noces corintkiennes. But the poems
these volumes, though unmistakably the work of a man of
tat literary skill and cultured taste, are scarcely the poems
' a man with whom verse is the highest form of expression.
He was to find his richest vein in prose. He himself, avowing
s preference for a simple, or seemingly simple, style ascompared
ith the artistic style, vaunted by the Goncourts— a style com-
wnded of neologisms and " rare " epithets, and startling
«ns of expression— observes: " A simple style is like white
got It is complex, but not to outward seeming. In language,
beautiful and desirable simplicity is but an appearance, and
suits only from the good order and sovereign economy of the
irious parts of speech." And thus one may say of his own style
ist its beautiful translucency is the result of many qualities—-
hdty, grace, the harmonious grouping of words, a perfect
easure. Anatole France is a sceptic. The essence of his
nTosophy, if a spirit so light, evanescent, elusive, can be said
► have a philosophy, is doubt. He is a doubter in religion,
etaphysics, morals, politics, aesthetics, science— a most genial
id kindly doubter, and not at all without doubts even as to his
vn negative conclusions. Sometimes his doubts are expressed
his own person— as in the J or din d y epicure (1804) from which
« above extracts are taken, or Le Lore de men ami (1885),
hich may be accepted, perhaps, as partly autobiographical;
metimes, as in La Patisserie de la reine PSdauque (1893) and
» Opinions de M. Jerome Coignard (1893), or UOrtne du mail
897), Le Mannequin d 1 osier (1897) , VAnneau d'omitkysle (1809),
id M. Bergerel d Paris (1901), he entrusts the expression of
s opinions, dramatically, to some fictitious character— the
ibe* Coignard, for instance, projecting, as it wen, from the
>th century some very effective criticisms on the popular
ditical theories of contemporary France— or the M. Bergeret
the four last-named novels, which were published with the
llective title of Hisloire contemporaine. This series deals
ith some modern problems, and particularly, in VAnneau
inUihysU and M. Bergerel a Paris, with the humours and follies
the anti-Dreyfusards. All this makes a piquant combination,
either should reference be omitted to his Crime de Sylvestre
mnard (1881), crowned by the Institute, nor to works more
stinctly of fancy, such as Balthasar (1889), the story of one of
e Magi or Thais (1800), the story of an actress and courtesan
Alexandria, whom a hermit converts, but with the loss of
s own soul. His Ironic comedy, Crainquebille (Renaissance
eatre, 1003), was founded on his novel (1002) of the same year.
is more .recent work includes his anti-clerical Vie de Jeanne
Arc (1008); his pungent satire the lie des penguins (1908);
id a volume of stories, Les Sept Femmes do la Barbt-Bleue (1909).
Lightly as he bears his erudition, it is very real and extensive,
and is notably shown in his utilization of modern archaeological
and historical research in his fiction (as in the stories in Sur una
pierre blanche). As a critic— see the Vie litieraire (1888-1892),
reprinted mainly from Le Temps—he is graceful and appreciative.
Academic in the best sense, he found a place in the French
Academy, taking the seat vacated by Lessens, and was received
into that body on the 24th of December 1896. In the affaire
Dreyfus he sided with M. Zola.
For studies of M. Anatole France's talent see Maurice Barres,
Anatole France (1885); Jules Lemaltre, Les Contemporaine (and
aeries, 1886); and G. Brandes, Anatole France (1908). In 1908
Frederic Chapman began an edition of Tke works of Anatole France
in an English translation (John Lane).
FRANCE, a 'country of western Europe, situated between
5 1° 5' and 42° ac/ N., and 4 41' W. and f 39' E. It is hexagonal
in form, being bounded N.W. by the North Sea, the Strait of
Dover (Pas de Calais) and the English Channel (La Mancke),
W. by the Atlantic Ocean, S.W. by Spain, S.E. by the Mediter-
ranean Sea, E. by Italy, Switzerland and Germany, N.E. by
Germany, Luxemburg and Belgium. From north to south its
length is about 600 m., measured from Dunkirk to the Col do
Falgueres; its breadth from east to west is 528 m., from the
Vosges to Cape Saint Mathieu at the extremity of Brittany.
The total area is estimated 1 at 207,170 sq. m., including the
island of Corsica, which comprises 3367 sq. m. The coast-line
of France extends for 384 m. on the Mediterranean, 700 on the
North Sea, the Strait of Dover and the Channel, and 865 on the
Atlantic. The country has the advantage of being separated
from its neighbours over the greater part of its frontier by
natural barriers of great strength, the Pyrenees forming a
powerful bulwark on the south-west, the Alps on the south-east,
and the Jura and the greater portion of the Vosges Mountains
on the east. The frontier generally follows the crest line of these
ranges. Germany possesses both slopes of the Vosges north
of Mont Donon, from which point the north-east boundary it
conventional and unprotected by nature.
France is geographically remarkable for its possession of great
natural and historical highways between the Mediterranean
and the Atlantic Ocean. The one, following the depression
between the central plateau and the eastern mountains by way
of the valleys of the Rh6ne and Saoae, traverses the Cote d'Or
hills and so gains the valley of the Seine; the other, skirting
the southern base of the Cevennes, reaches the ocean by way of
the Garonne valley. Another natural highway, traversing the
lowlands to the west of the central plateau, unites the Seine
basin with that of the Garonne.
Physiography. — A line drawn from Bayonne through Agent
Poitiers, Troyes, Reims and Valenciennes divides the country
roughly into two dissimilar physical regions— to the west and
north-west a country of plains and low plateaus; in the centre,
east and south-east a country of mountains and high plateaus
with a minimum elevation of 650 ft. To the west of this line the
only highlands of importance are the granitic plateaus of Brittany
and the hills of Normandy and Percne, which, uniting with the
plateau of Beauce, separate the basins of the Seine and Loire. The
highest elevations of these ranges do not exceed 1400 ft. The
configuration of the region east of the dividing tine is widely different.
Its most striking feature is the mountainous and eruptive area
known as the Massif Central, which covers south-central France.
The central point of this huge tract is formed by the mountains
of Auvergne comprising the group of Cantal, where the Plomb du
Cantal attain* 6096 ft., and that of Mont Dore, containing the
Puy de Sancy (6188 ft.), the culminating point of the Massif, and to
the north the lesser elevations of the Monts Dome. On the west
the downward slope is gradual by way of lofty plateaus to the heights
of Limousin and Marche and the table-land of Qucrcy, thence to
the plains of Poitou, Angoumois and Guienae. On the east only
river valleys divide the Auvergne mountains from those of Fores
and Margeridc, western spurs of the Cevennes. On the south the
Aubrac mountains and the barren plateaus known as the Causscs
intervene between them and the Cevennes. The main range of the
Cevennes (highest point Mont Lozere, 5584 ft.) sweeps in a wide
curve from the granitic table-land of Morvan in the north along the
right banks of the Sadne and Rhone to the Montagne Noire in the
south, where it is separated from the Pyrenean system by the river
Aude. On the south-western border of France the Pyrenees include
1 By the Senice gfograpkique de Varmto\
776
FRANCE
[GEOGRAPHY
FRANCE
(Physical Oivi**om)
tn t i *fc U ltd
t,r? r t.t
Lxf fell. i,fl/,»f
Jj^ HfWl"^!
ti.i ,"*fCfti«.ii Q,
several peaks over 10,000 ft- within French territory; the highest
elevation therein, the Vignemale, in the centre of the range, reaches
10,820 ft. On the north their most noteworthy offshoots are, in the
centre, the plateau of Lannemezan from which rivers radiate fanwise
to join the Adour and Garonne; and in the east the Corbiere.
On the south-eastern frontier the French Alps, which include Mont
Blanc (15.800 ft-), and, more to the south, other summits over
1 1 ,000 ft. in height, cover Savoy and most of Dauphin6 and Provence,
that is to say, nearly the whole of France to the south and east of the
Rhone. North of that river the parallel chains of the Jura form an
arc of a circle with its convexity towards the north-west. In the
southern and most elevated portion of the range there are several
summits exceeding 5500 ft. Separated from the Jura by the defile
of Belfort (Trouee de Belfort) the Vosges extend northward parallel
to the course of the Rhine. Their culminating points in French
territory, the Ballon d 'Alsace and the Hdhneck in the southern
portion of the chain, reach 4100 ft. and 4480 ft. The Vosges are
buttressed on the west by the Faucilles, which curve southwards
to meet the plateau of Langrea, and by the plateaus of Haute-
Marne, united to the Ardennes on the north-eastern frontier by tbt
wooded highlands of Argonne.
Seaboard, — The shore of the Mediterranean encircling the Gulf of
the Lion (Golfe du Lion) > from Cape Cerbera to Marttgues is low-
lying and unbroken, and characterized chiefly by lagoons separated
from the sea by sand-dunes. The coast, constantly encroaching 00
the sea by reason of the alluvium washed down by the rivers of the
Pyrenees and Cevennes, is without important harbours saving that
of Ccttc, itself continually invaded by the sand. East of Martigtiea
the coast is rocky and of greater altitude, and is broken by projecting
capes (Couronne, Crotsette. Sictt, the peninsula of Giem and Cape
Antibes), and by deep gulfs forming secure roadsteads such as those
of Marseilles, which has the chief- port in France, Touloa, with its
great naval harbour, and Hyeres, to which may be added the Gulf of
St Tropea.
Along the Atlantic coast from the mouth of the Adour to the
1 The etymology of this name (1
de Lyon) is unknown.
wrongly written GoUt
GEOGRAPHY]
FRANCE
777
estuary of the Gironde there stretches ft monotonous line of sand-
dunes bordered by lagoons on the land side, but towards the sea
harbourless and unbroken save (or the Bay of Arcachon. To the
north as far as the rocky point of St Gildas. sheltering the mouth
of the Loire, the shore, often occupied by salt marshes (marshes of
Poitou and Brittany), is low-lying and hollowed by deep bays
sheltered by large islands, those ofOleron and Re lying opposite
the ports of Rochefort and La Rocbelle, while Noinnoutier closes the
Bay of Bourgneuf.
Beyond the Loire estuary, on the north shore of which is the port
of St Nazaire, the peninsula of Brittany projects into the ocean and
here begins the most rugged, wild and broken portion of the French
seaboard ; the chief of innumerable indentations are, on the south
the Gulf of Morbihan, which opens into a bay protected to the west
by the narrow peninsula of Quiberon, the Bay of Lorient with the
port of Lorient, and the Bay of Concarneau; on the west the
dangerous Bay of Audierne and the Bay of Douarnenez separated
from the spacious roadstead of Brest, with its important naval port,
by the peninsula of Crozon, and forming with it a great indentation
sheltered by Cape St Mathteu on the north and by Cane Raz on the
south; on the north, opening into the English Channel, the Morlaix
roads, the Bay of St Brieuc, the estuary of the Ranee, with the port
of St Malo and the Bay of St Michel. Numerous small archipelagoes
and islands, of which the chief are Belle lie, Grotx and XJshant,
fringe the Breton coast. North of the Bay of St Michel the peninsula
of Cotentin, terminating in the promontories of Hague and Barfleur,
juts north into the English Channel and closes the bay of the Seine
on the west. Cherbourg, its chief harbour, lies on the northern
shore between the two promontories. The great port of Le Havre
stands at the mouth of the Seine estuary, which opens into the bay
of the Seine on the east. North of that point a line of high cliffs,
in which occur the ports of Fecamp and Dieppe, stretches nearly to
the sandy estuary of the Somme. North of that river the coast is
low-lying and bordered by sand-dunes, to which succeed on the
Strait of Dover the cliffs in the neighbourhood of the port of
Boulogne and the marshes and sand-dunes of Flanders, with the
ports of Calais and Dunkirk, the latter the principal French port on
the North Sea.
To the maritime ports mentioned above must be added the river
ports of Bayonne (on the Adour), Bordeaux (on the Garonne), Nantes
fort the Loire), Rouen (on the Seine). On the whole, however,
France is inadequately provided with natural harbours; her long
tract of coast washed by the Atlantic and the Bay of Biscay has
scarcely three or four good seaports, and those on the southern shore
of the Channel form a striking contrast to the spacious maritime
inlets on the English side.
Rmcrs.~-Tht greater part of the surface of France is divided
between four principal and several secondary basins*
The basin of the Rhdne, with an area (in France) of about 45,000
sq. m., covers eastern France from the Mediterranean to the Vosges,
from the Cevennes and the Plateau de Langres to the crests of the
Jura and the Alps. Alone among French rivers, the Rhone, itself
Alpine in character in its upper course, is partly fed by Alpine
rivers (the Arve, the Isere and the Durance) which have their floods in
spring at the melting of the snow, and are maintained by glacier-
water in summer. The Rhone, the source of which is in Mont St
Gothard, in Switzerland, enters France by the narrow defile of
L'Ecluse, and has a somewhat meandering course, first flowing
south, then north-west, and then west as far as Lyons, whence it
runs straight south till it reaches the Mediterranean, into which it
discharges itself by two principal branches, which form the delta
or island of the Camargue. The Am, the Saone (which rises in the
Faucilles and in the lower part of its course skirting the regions of
Bresse and Dombes, receives the, Doubs and joins the Rhone at
Lyons), the Ardeche and the Gard are the affluents on the right;
on the left it is joined by the Arve, the Isere, the DrOme and the
Durance. The small independent river, the Var, drains that portion
of the Alps which fringes the Mediterranean.
The basin of the Garonne occupies south-western France with the
exception of the tracts covered by the secondary basins of the Adour,
the Aude, the Herault, the Orb and other smaller rivers, and the low-
lying plain of the Landes, which is watered by numerous coast rivers,
notably by the Leyre. Its area is nearly 33,000 sq. m., and extends
from the Pyrenees to the uplandsof Saintonge, Perigord and Limousin.
The Garonne rises in the valley of Aran (Spanish Pyrenees), enters
France near Bagneres-de-Luchon, has first a north-west course,
then bends to the north-east, and soon resumes its first direction.
Joining the Atlantic between Royan and the Pointe de Grave,
opposite the tower of Cordouan. In the lower part of its course,
from the Bec-d'Ambez, where it receives the Dordogne, it becomes
considerably wider, and takes the name of Gironde. The principal
affluents are the Ariege, the Tarn with the Aveyron and the Agout.
the Lot and the Dordogne, which descends from Mont Dore-les-
Bains, and joins the Garonne at Bec-d'Ambez, to form the Gironde.
All these affluents are on the right, and with the exception of the
Ariege, which descends from the eastern Pyrenees, rise in the moun-
tains of Auvergne and the southern Cevennes. their sources often
lying close to those of the rivers of the Loire and Rhone basins.
The Neste. a Pyrenean torrent, and the Save, the Gers and the Baise.
rising on the plateau of Lannemezan, are the principal left-hand
&
tributaries of the Garonne. North of the basin of the Garonne an
area of over 4800 sq. m. is watered by the secondary system of the
Charente, which descends from Cheronnac (Haute- Vienne), traverses
Angouleme and falls into the Atlantic near Rochefort. Farther to
the north a number of small rivers, the chief of which is the Sevre
Niortaise, drain the coast region to the south of the plateau of
Gatine.
The basin of the Loire, with an area of about 47,000 sq. m.,
includes a great part of central and western France or nearly a
Quarter of the whole country. The Loire rises in Mont Gerbier de
one, in the range of the Vivarais mountains, flows due north to
levers, then turns to the north-west as far as Orleans, in the neigh-
bourhood of .which it "separates the marshy region of the Sologne
r.s.) on the south from the wheat-growing region of Beauce and the
atinais on the north. Below Orleans it takes its course towards
the south-west, and lastly from Saumur runs west, till it reaches
the Atlantic between Paimbceuf and St Nazaire. On the right the
Loire receives the waters of the Furens, the Arroux, the Nievre, the
Maine (formed by the Mayenne and the Sarthe with its affluent the
Loir), and the Erdrc, which joins the Loire at Nantes; on the left,
the Allier (which receives the Dore and the Sioute), the Lot ret, the
Cher, the Indre. the Vienne with its affluent the Creuse, the Thouet,
and the Sevre-Nantaise. The peninsula of Brittany and the coasts
of Normandy on both sides of the Seine estuary are watered by
numerous independent streams. Amongst these the Vilaine, which
passes Rennes and Redon, waters, with its tributaries, an area of
4200 sq. m. The Orne, which rises in the hills of Normandy and
falls into the Channel below Caen, is of considerably less importance.
The basin of the Seine, though its area of a little over 30,000 sq. m.
is smaller than that of any of the other main systems, comprises the
finest network of navigable rivers in the country. It is by far the
most important basin of northern France, those of the Somme and
Scheldt in the north-west together covering less than 5000 sq. m.,
those of the Meuse and the Rhine in the north-east less than 7000
sq. m. The Seine descends from the Langres plateau, flows north-
west down to Mery, turns to the west, resumes its north-westerly
direction at Montereau, passes through Paris and Rouen and dis-
charges itself into the Channel between Le Havre and Honfleur.
Its affluents are, on the right, the Aube; the Marne, which joins the
Seine at Charenton near Paris; the Oise, which has its source in
Belgium and is enlarged by the Aisne; and the Epte; on the left
the Yonne, the Loing, the Essonne, the Eure and the Rille.
Lakes. — France has very few lakes. The Lake of Geneva, which
forms 32 m. of the frontier, belongs to Switzerland. The most
important French lake is that of Grand-Lieu, between Nantes and
Patmtxeuf (Loire-lnferieure), which presents a surface of 17,300
acres. There may also be mentioned -the lakes of Bousget and
Annecy (both in Savoy). St Point (Jura), Paladru (Isere) and
Nantua ( Ain). The marshy districts of Sologne, Breane, Landes
and Dombes still contain large undrained tracts. The coasts present
arnumber of maritime inlets, forming inland bays, which communicate
with the sea, by channels of greater or less width. Some, of these
are on the south-west coast, in the Landes, as Carcans, Lacanau,
Biscarosse, Cazau, Sanguinet ; but more are to be found in the south
and south-east, in Languedoc and Provence, as Leucate, Sigean,
Thau. Vaccares, Berre, &c. Their want of depth prevents thera
from serving as roadsteads for shipping, and they are useful chiefly
for fishing or for the manufacture of bay-salt.
Climate. — The north and north-west of France bear a great resem-
blance, both in temperature and produce, to the south of England,
rain occurring frequently, and the country being ' consequently
suited for pasture. In the interior the rains are less frequent, but
when they occur are far more heavy, so that there is much less
difference in the annual rainfall there as compared with the rest of
the country than in the number of rainy days. The annual rainfall
for the whole of France averages about 3a in. The precipitation is
greatest on the Atlantic seaboard and in the elevated regions of the
interior. It attains over 60 in. in the basin of the Adour (71 in.
at the western extremity of the Pyrenees), and nearly as much in
the Vosges, Morvan, Cevennes and parts of the central plateau.
The zone of level country extending from Reims and Troves to
Angers and Poitiers, with the exception of the Loire valley and the
Brie, receives less than 24 in. of rain annually (Paris about 23 in.).
as also docs the Mediterranean coast west of Marseilles. The pre-
vailing winds, mild and humid, are west winds from the Atlantic;
continental climatic influence makes itself felt in the east wind,
which is frequent in winter and in the east of France, while the
mistral, a violent wind from the north-west, is characteristic of the
Mediterranean region. The local climates of France may be grouped
under the following seven designations: (1) Sequaa climate, char-
acterizing the Seine basin and northern France, with a mean
temperature of 50* P., the winters being cold, the summers mild;
(2) Breton climate, with a mean temperature of 51 -8* F.. the winters
being mild, the summers temperate, it is characterized by west
and south-west winds and frequent fine rains; (3) Girondin climate
(characterizing Bordeaux, Agen, Pau, Ac), having a mean of
j>3-6° F., with mild winters and hot summers, the prevailing wind
is from the north-west, the average rainfall about 28 in.; (4)
Auvergne climate, comprising the Cevennes, central plateau, Cler-
mont, Limoges and Rodez, mean temperature 51 -8* F., with cold
77«
winters and hot smnasegs ; (s) \ -„
Eptnal, Mssierea and Nancy), having a mean of 48*2° F.~, with long
and severe winters and hot and rainy summer*; (6) Rhdne climate
(experienced by Lyons, Chalon, Macon, Grenoble) mean tempera-
ture 51*8* F., with cold and wet winters and hot summers, the
prevailing winds are north and south; (7) Mediterranean climate,
ruling at valence, Ntmes, Nice and Marseilles, mean temperature,
57*5 F., with mild winters and hot and almost rainless summers.
Flora and Fauna.— The Bora of southern France and the Medi-
terranean is distinct from that of the rest of the country, which does
not differ in vegetation from western Europe generally. Evergreens
predominate in the south, where grow subtropical plants such as
the myrtle, arbutus, laurel, holm-oak, olive and fig; varieties of
the same kind are also found on the Atlantic coast (as far north as
the Cotentin), where the humidity and mildness of the climate
favour their growth. The orange, date-palm and eucalyptus have
been acdimataed on the coast of Provence and the Riviera. Other
trees of southern France are the cork-oak and the Aleppo and man-
In north and central France the chief trees are the oak,
FRANCE
texouer
the beech, rare south of the Loire, and the hornbeam; less important
varieties are the birch, poplar, ash, elm and walnut. The chestnut
covers considerable areas in Perigord, Limousin and Beam; resinous
trees (firs, pines, larches, Ac.) form fine forests in the Vosges and
Jura.
The indigenous fauna include the bear, now very care but still
found in the Alps and Pyrenees, the wolf, harbouring chiefly in the
Ccvennes and vosges, but in continually decreasing areas; the fox,
marten, badger, weasel, otter, the beaver in the extreme south of the
Rhdne valley, and in the Alps the marmot; the red deer and roc
deer are pre s erv e d in many of the forests and the wild boar is found
in several districts; the chamois and wild goat survive in the Pyre-
nees and Alps. Hares, rabbits and squirrels are common. Among
birds of prey may be mentioned the eagle and various species of hawk,
and among game-birds the partridge and pheasant. The reptiles
include the nnged-snake, slow-worm, viper and hard. (R. Tr.)
Geology. — Many years ago it was pointed out by EMe de Beaumont
and Dufrenoy that the Jurassic rocks of France form upon the map
an incomplete figure of 8. Within the northern circle of the 8 lie
the Mesoaok and Tertiary beds of the Paris basin, dipping inwards ;
within the southern circle lie the ancient rocks of the Central Plateau,
from which the later beds dip outwards. Outside the northern circle
lie on the west the folded Palaeozoic rocks of Brittany, and on the
north the Palaeozoic massif of the Ardennes. Outside the southern
circle lie on the west the Mesosoic and Tertiary beds of the basin
of the Garonne, with the Pyrenees beyond, and on the east the
Mesosoic and Tertiary beds of the valley of the Rhdne, with the
Alps beyond.
In the ge o logical history of France there have been two great
periods of folding since Archean times. The first of these occurred
towards the close of the Palaeozoic era, when a great mountain
system was raised in the north running approximately from E. to W„
and another chain arose in the south, running from S.W. to N.E.
Of the former the remnants are now seen tn Brittany and the
Ardennes; of the latter the CeVennes and the Montague Noire are
the last traces visible on the surface. The second great folding took
place in Tertiary times, and to it was due the final elevation of the
J ura and the Western' Alps and of the Pyrenees. No great mountain
chain was ever raised by a single effort, and folding went on to some
extent in other periods besides those mentioned. There were,
more o ver, other and broader oscillations which raised or lowered
extensive areas without much crumpling of the strata, and to these
are due some of the most important breaks in the geological series.
The oldest rocks, the gneisses and schists of the Archean period,
form nearly the whole of the Central Plateau, and are also exposed
in the axes of the folds in Brittany. The Central Plateau has
probably been a land mass ever since this period, but the rest of the
country was flooded by the Palaeozoic sea. The earlier deposits
of that sea now rise to the surface in Brittany, the Ardennes, the
Montagne Noire and the Cevennes, and in all these regions they are
intensely folded. Towards the close of the Palaeozoic era France had
become a part of a great continent; in the north the Coal Measures
of the Boulonnais and the Nord were laid down in direct connexion
with those of Belgium and England, while in the Central Plateau
the Coal Measures were deposited in isolated and scattered basins.
The Permian and Triassic deposits were also, for the most part, of
continental origin; but with the formation of the Rhaetic beds the
sea again began to spread, and throughout the greater part of the
Jurassic period it covered nearly the whole of the country except
the Central Plateau, Brittany and the Ardennes. Towards the end
of the period, however, during the deposition of the Portlandian
beds, the sea again retreated, and in the early part of the Cretaceous
period was limited (in France) to the catchment basins of the Sadne
and Rhone— in the Paris basin the contemporaneous deposits were
chiefly estuarine and were confined to the northern and eastern rim.
Beginning with the Aptian and Albian the sea again gradually
spread over the country and attained its maximum in the early part
of the Senonian epoch, when once more the ancient massifs of the
Central Plateau, Brittany and the Ardennes, alone rose above the
waves. There was stilh however, a well-marked difference between
the deposits of the northern and the southern parts of France, the
former consisting or chalk. a& in England, and the latter of
and limestones with HippuriitL During the later rat « a>
Cretan ou 5 period the sea gradually retreated and kit i*t va*
country dry.
During the Tertiary period arm* of the sea spread two f b^s-
in the Paris basin front the north, in the baaing of the Lcii»&il*
Garonne from the west, and in the Khone area it
change*, however, were too numerous and complex to ti
with here.
En France, as in Great Britain, volcanic eruptions occurred
several ol the PaUi-aftac periods, but during the Af
>f*n
country wai free from outbursts, except in the regions oJ t
and Pyrenees, In Tertiary times the Central Plateau was the iho*"*.
of great volcanic activity from the Miocene to the Fle4 I
period*, and many of the volcanoes renaain a* nearly perfect ansa*
to the present day. . The rock* are mainly basalt* and amle***
together with trachytes and! phonolites, and some of the hasfet
flows arc of enormous enu-iit.
On the gL-otocy of France see the cLas&k Etpiicoiw* de k I
gfotfltiqut de la France (Paris, vol* i. 1841, vol. iL 1048), by DuJrta*
id Llie de Beaumont ;
_ a more modern account, with fulJ 1
i± given by A. de Larrpaieut* Trattd de ei^agu (Pari*, j 906 J.
' U A !i
The French nation is formed of many different eJcuezna
Iberian influence in the south-west, Ligurian on the ftborevil
the Mediterranean, Germanic imnijgm lions from tail «f tlrf
Rhine and Scandinavian immigrations in the nor lowest Uil
tended to produce ethnographical diversities which cue 4
intercommunication and other modem conditions nave fiilfd >!
obliterate. The so-called Celtic type, exemplified by ir.l i
of rather less than average height, brown-haired and U *
cephalic, is the fundamental element in the nation and peapH
the region between the Seine and the Garonne; in soutlsrrt
France a different type, dolichocephalic, *hort and will fc
liair and eyc$, predominates. The tail, fair and hi I
individuals who are found to the north-east of the Seine and 4
Normandy appear to be nearer in race to the Scandinavian ai'i
Germanic invaders; a tall and darter type with IoaI" ^^
and aquiline noses occurs in some parts of Franche-Comtt *H
Champagne, the Vosges and the Perche. From the Cdti ^a
been derived the gay. brilliant and ml venturous temper****
easily moved to extremes of enthusiasm and depression, wh**
KMoe .
778 I Loztre
64 Li
I *,*■** | 1.0/0.104 | 1 .01 1.000 \ i<oy 3,001 1
poeits of tbc northern and the »uthern parts of France, the * easily moved to extremes of enthusiasm and depression, which
POPULATION]
FRANCE
779
combined with logical and organising faculties of a high order,
the heritage from the Latin domination, and with the industry,
frugality and love of the soil natural in an agricultural people
go to make up the national character. The Bretons, who most
nearly represent the Celts, and the Basques, who inhabit
parts of the western versant of the Pyrenees, have preserved
their distinctive languages and customs, and are ethnically the
most interesting sections of the nation; the Flemings of French
Flanders where Flemish is. still spoken are also racially distinct.
The immigration of Belgians into the northern departments and
of Italians into those of the south-east exercise a constant
modifying influence on the local populations.
During the xoth century the population of France
increased to a less extent than that of any other
country (except Ireland) for which definite data exist,
and during the last twenty years of that period it
was little' more than stationary. The following table
exhibits the rate of increase as indicated by the
censuses from 1876 to 1906. Population.
1876 . . . . 36,905,788
1881 . , . . 37,672,048
1886 . . 38,218,903
1891 ... . 38.342,948
1896 ... . 38.517,975
1901 . ... 38.961,945
1906 .... 39.252.245
Thus the rate of increase during the decade 1891-
xoox was -16%, whereas during the same period the
population of England increased 108%. The birth-
rate markedly decreased during the 19th century;
despite an increase of population between 1801 and
1 00 1 amounting to 40%, the number of births in
the former was 004,000, as against 857,000 in the
latter year, the diminution being accompanied by
a decrease in the annual number of deaths. 1 In
the following table the decrease in births and deaths
for the decennial periods during the thirty years
ending 1900 are compared.
Births.
. • 935.ooo or 25-4 per 1000
. 5)09,000 „ 239
. • 853,000,, 22-2 „
Deaths.
. 870,900 or 23*7 per 1000
. . 841,700,, 221
. 829,000 „ 215
•About two-thirds of the French departments, com-
prising a large proportion of those- situated in
mountainous districts and in the basin of the Garonne,
where the birth-rate is especially feeble, show a
decrease in population. Those which show an in-
crease usually possess large centres of industry and are
already thickly populated, e.g. Seine and Pas-de-Calais.
In most departments the principal cause of decrease
of population is the attraction of great centres. The
average density of population in France is about 190
to the square mile, the tendency being for the large
towns to increase at the expense of the small towns
as well as the rural communities. In 1 001 37% of the
population lived in centres containing more than 2000
inhabitants, whereas in x 861 the proportion was 28%.
Besides the industrial districts the most thickly
populated regions include the coast of the depart-
ment of Seinerlnfericure and Brittany, the wine-grow-
ing region of the Bordelais and the Rrviera. 1
1 In 1907 deaths were superior in number to births by
nearly 20,00a
• The following list comprises the three most densely-
populated and the three most sparsely populated depart-
ments in France:
In the quinquennial period 1001-1905, out of the total
number of births the number of ^legitimate births to every
1000 inhabitants was 2*0, as compared with 2*1 in the four
preceding periods of like duration.
In 1006 the number of foreigners in France was 1,009,41s
as compared with 1,027,491 in 1896 and 1,115,214 in 1886.
The departments with the largest population of foreigners
were Nord (191,678), in which there is a large proportion
of Belgians; Bouches-du-Rhone (123,497), Alpes-Maritimes
(93,554), Var (47*475). Italians being numerous in these three
departments; Seine (1531647). Meurthe-et-Moselle(44,5p5), Pas-
de-Calais (21,436) and Ardennes (21,401).
The following table gives the area in square miles of* each of the eighty«seven
departments with its population according to the census returns of 1886, 1896
and 1906:
1871-1880
1 881-1890
1891-1900
1871-1880
1881-1890
1891-1900
Inhabitants to the Square Mile.
Seine . . . 20,803 I Basses-Alpes .
Nord . 850 Hautes-Alpes .
Rhone . . 778 I Loxere . . .
ft
Departments.
Area,
Population.
sq. m.
1886.
1896.
1906.
Ain . . . .
Aisne ....
88
364.408
555.925
35I.569
541 .613
424.378
345.856
534495
Allier .
2,849
424.582
238.057
4«7.96i
Alpes-Maritimes
Ir44*
265.155
334.007
Ardeche .
Ardennes .
2,145
2,028
375472
332,759
363.501
318,865
347.MO
317.505
Arttge . . .
1.893
2.326
237.6*9
219,641
205,684
Aube ....
257 .374
251435
243.670
308,327
Aude ....
3S
332,080
310.513
Aveyron .
415.826
389464
377.299
Basses-Alpes .
2,698
129494
118,142
1 13.126
Basses-Pyrenees
Belfort, Territoire dV
2,977
2,026
S.7Sl
*22'572
88,047
426,817
95421
Bouches-du>Rh6ne .
604,837
673.820
765.9*8
Calvados .
Cantal
2,197
2.231
437*2*7
J4I.742
417.176
356\236
403431
228.690
Charente .
2.305
306,408
351.733
Cbarente- 1 nfeneure
2,791
4^ r SOJ
463455
453*793
343484
Cher
2,819
35SM
347.725
Correie
Corse (Corsica)
2,273
3.3&7
3*6494
322.393
290,168
317430
291,160
C6te-dO .
C6tes-du-Nord
3.392
2,786
3«.574
&2&24G
368.168
616,074
464.822
357*959
611,506
Creuse
Deux-Sevres .
2,164
2.337
3.561
294,442
35 J, 7»
274,094
339466
Dordognc .
49Jn?os
298438
Doubs
2,030
310,963
302,046
Drome 1
2.533
3H-&J5
303491
340.652
280460
739.648
297.270
Eure .
Eure-et-Loir
2,330
2.293
35M*9
*Sj<7 J 9
330.140
273.823
Finistere .
2,713
fQJt&lO
79S.103
421,166
Gard . . .
2,270
417^99
416,036
Gers .
2428
?74i39i
250472
231,088
Girondc
4.140
775.^45
809,902
823,925
Haute-Garonne
2458
4H 1 , 169
459.377
442.065
Haute-Loirc
1.931
;>20,"6j
316,699
314.770
Haute-Marne .
2415
2,178
247.781
232,057
221,724
107498
263,890
Hautes-Alpes .
121.1)24
113.229
Haute-Sadne .
2.075
=90.454
J75 f >i8
234.825
272.891
Haute-Savoie .
Hautes- Pyrenees
1.775
1.750
263,872
218,973
260,617
209 .397
Haute- Vienne .
2.144
3*J"B*
375.724
385.732
Herault . .
llle-et-Vilaine .
2,403
439-044
&JMB4
469.684
622,039
482,799
611,80s
290,216
Indre
2,666
2t>6f47
289,206
Indre-et-Loirc .
Isere . . .
2.377
3.179
340.931
581,680
M
337.916
562,315
Jura .
Landes
1.951
2*1,302
266,143
257.725
3.615
^-^
292,884
293.397
276,019
Loir-et-Cher
2479
1.853
2.694
279^14
278,153
625,336
646,172
Loire
Loire- 1 nferieure
M
»
Loiret
2,629
374.875
371.019
364.999
216,611
274.610
128,016
Lot .
Lot-et-Garonne
Loxere
2,017
2.©79
1.999
271^14
307437
141.264
240403
286.377
132.151
Maine-et-Loire
2.706.
527.680
514.870
513490
Manche
2475
520,865
500,052
487443
Marne
3.«67
429494
340.063
439.577
321.187
434.157
Mayenne
2,012
305457
Meurthe-et- Moselle
2,038
431.693
466417
517.508
Meuse
Morbihan .
2409
2.738
291 .97 J
5351256
290.384
552,028
280,220
573.152
Nievre . .
Nord . .
2,659
2.229
347.645
1,670.184
ijSijSS
i&S&i
780
FRANCE
(RELIGION
Area.
sq. m.
Population.
Departments.
1886.
1896.
1906.
Oise .
2,272
2.372
3,606
3.094
1.599
1. 104
3.330
3410
2.3g9
3448
2,389
2,184
2423
2,231
1440
2^25
1.381
2,708
3.719
2.279
2.880
403.146
3>7.248
853.526
570.964
211.187
772,912
635.885
267428
2,961.089
833.386
6l8io89
548,982
358.757
214.046
283.689
241.787
434.808
342.785
413.707
355.364
404.5"
339.162
906,249
555.078
308,387
839.329
621,237
425.077
259.790
3^40.5I4
837.824
*83t
543.279
339.827
200,390
309.191
236.313
441.735
338.114
421412
332.656
410,049
315.993
1,012466
535419
213.171
858.907
613.377
421470
3,848.618
863.879
361.939
749.753
532.567
330.533
188,553
324.638
239.178
442.777
333.621
429.812
315.199
Orne .
Pas-de-Crlais .
Puy-de-Ddme .
Pyrenees-Oricntalcs
Rhone
Sadne-et-Loire :
Sarthe
Savoie
Seine .
Seine-Inferieure
Seine-et-Marne
Seine-et-Oise .
Somme
Tarn .
Tarn-et-Garonne
Var . .
Vauduae .
Vendee . .
Vienne
Vocges
Yonne
> ,
Total
207,076
38,318,903
»3*,5 17,975
39.252,245
Of the population in 1901, 18,916,880 wi
19.533,899 females, an excess of females over males of
617,010, 1*. 1-6% or about 508 females
6i 7l
males.
to every 492
In 1881 the proportion was 501 females to every
499 males, since when the disparity has been slightly
more marked at every census. Below is a list of the
departments in which the number of women to every
thousand men. was (1) greatest and (2) least.
(2)
1131 Bclfort. . . . . 856
1117 Bastes-Alpes . . . 893
1103 Var 894
xioo Meuse . . . . . 905
1098 Hautes-AIpes . . . 90$
1084 Meurthe-et-Moselle . 918
1080 Haute-Savote. . . 947
Creuse . •
C6tes-du-Nord .
Seine . . ,
Calvados. . •
Cantal . . .
Seine-Inferieure.
Basses-Pyrenees .
The French census uses the commune as the basis of its returns,
and employs the following classifications in respect to communal
population: (1) Total communal population. (2) Population
compile a part, which includes soldiers and sailors, inmates of
prisons, asylums, schools, members of religious communities,
and workmen temporarily engaged in public works. (3) Total
municipal population, i.e. communal population minus the
population comptie a part. (4) Population municipal* agglomtrte
au chef-lieu de la commune, which embraces the urban population
as opposed to the rural population. The following tables,
showing the growth of the largest towns in France, are drawn
up on the basis of the fourth classification, which is used through-
out this work in the articles on French towns, except where
otherwise stated.
In 1906 there were in France twelve towns with a population of
over 100,000 inhabitants. Their growth or decrease from 1886 to
1906 is shown in the following table :
Departments from which the adult males emigrate
regularly either to sea or to seek employment in towns
tend to fall under the first head, those in which Large
bodies of troops are stationed under the second.
The annual number of emigrants from France is small.
The Basques- of Basses-Pyrenees go in considerable
numbers to the Argentine Republic, the inhabitants of
Basses Alpes to Mexico and the United States, and
there are important French colonies in Algeria and
Tunisia.
The following table shows thedistribution of the active
population of France according to their occupations in
1901.
1886.
1896.
1906.
Paris . . .
3,394,108
3481,333
2.711,931
430,186
Lyons . . .
Marseilles . .
398,867
332,515
339,806
160,723
421,116
Bordeaux
237,707
Lille . . .
St Etienne
143.135
196,624
103,339
130,300
130,940
Le Havre . .
109,199
117.009
129.403
125.856
Toulouse . .
133,040
89.781
124,187
Roubaix
113.899
119.955
118.244
Nantes . .
110,638
107.137
Rouen . . .
100,043
106.835
1 1 1403
103,800
Reims
91.130
99,001
In the same years the following eighteen towns, now numbering
from 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants, each had :
1886.
1896.
I906.
Nice . . .•
61464
69.140
&3.66S
99.556
98.302
Nancy . .
69.463
Toulon . . .
53.941
68,177
70.843
74.808
87.997
Amiens
78.407
Limoges
56,699
65.152
6*.7t8
75.906
Angers .
69484
73.585
Brest . . .
Ntmes . . .
8:?S
64,144
66,905
71.l6l
7OJO8
Montpellicr
£K
6a,7t7
65.983
65.516
Dijon
58,355
Tourcoing . .
41.183
55-705
62.694
Rennes . .
52,614
57.249
62,024
Tours . .
51.467
52.839
43.260
«A7<*
61.507
Calais
Grenoble
5MI8
50.084
ass
Orleans
51.208
56.915
57.544
Le Mans
46.991
49.665
50.676
54.907
Troyes .
44.864
51.228
Occupation.
Males.
Females.
Total.
Forestry and agricultare
Manufacturing industries
Trade
Domestic service . . .
Transport
Public service . .
Liberal professions . .
Mining, quarries . . .
Fishing
Unclassed . . . r .
-5.Si7.617
3,695,213
1,132,621
223,861
617,849
1.157.835
226.561
261,320
63,372
14.316
2,658,952
2,124,642
689.999
791.176
212,794
139.734
173.278
5.031
4400
4.504
8,176,569
5.819.855
1,822,620
1,015.037
830.643
». 297.569
399.839
266,351
*li 72
18.820
Grand Total .
12,910,565
6,804,510
19.715.075
Religion.
Great alterations were made with regard to religious matters
in France by a law of December 1005, supplemented by a law
of January 1007 (see below, Law and Institutions). Before that
time three religions (culles) were recognized and supported by
the state — the Roman Catholic, the Protestant (subdivided into
the Reformed and Lutheran) and the Hebrew. In Algeria
the Mahommedan religion received similar recognition. By
the law of 1005 all the churches ceased to be recognized or
supported by the state and became entirely separated therefrom,
while the adherents of all creeds were permitted to form associa-
tions for public worship (associations cuUuetles), upon which the
expenses of maintenance were from that time to devolve* The
state, the departments, and the communes were thus relieved
from the payment of salaries and grants to religions bodies,
an item of expenditure which amounted in the last year of .the
old system to £1,101,000 paid by the state and £302,200 contri-
buted by the departments and communes. Before these altera-
tions the relations between the state and the Roman Catholic
communion, by far the largest and most important is France,
were chiefly regulated by the provisions of the Concordat of 1801 ,
concluded between the first consul, Bonaparte, and Pope Pius
VII. and by other measures passed in 1802.
France is divided into provinces and dioceses as follows:
Archbishoprics. Bishoprics.
Paris . . . Chartres, Meaux, Orleans, Blois. Versailles.
Aix . . . Marseilles, Frejus. Ditfne, Gap, Nice, Ajacdo.
Alm . . . Rodes, Cahors, Mende, Perpignan.
Aucb . . . Aire, Tarbes, Bayonne.
Avignon . . Ntmes. Valence, Viviers, Montpellier.
Brsancon. '. Verdun. Bellay, St Die, Nancy.
Bordeaux . Agen. Angouteme, Poitiers, Perigueux, La Rochelk
Lucon.
Bouroes . . Clermont. Limoges, Le Puy, Tulle, St Flour.
Cambrai . . Arras.
Chamber y . Annecy. Tarentaise. St Jean-de-Maurienne.
Lyons . . . Autun. Langres. Dijon, St Claude, Grenoble.
GRICULTURE)
FRANCE
781
OUBN
ENS
OULOUSB
QUIA
Archbishoprics. Bishoprics.
bims Soissons, Chalone-aur-Maxne, Beanvais, Amiens.
Quimper, Vanaes, St Brieuc
Bayeux, Evreux, Sees, Coutancee.
Troyes, Nevers, Moulin*.
Montauban, Pamiere, Carcassonne.
Le Mans, Angers, Nantes, Laval,
be dioceses are divided into parishes each under a parish priest
town as a curt or desservant (incumbent). The bishops and arch-
shops, formerly nominated by the government and canonicajly
uifirmed by the pope, are now chosen by the latter. The appoint-
ent of cures rested with the bishops and had to be confirmed by
ie government, but this confirmation is now dispensed with,
he archbishops used to receive an annual salary of £600 each and
ie bishops £400.
The archbishops and bishops are assisted by vicars-general (at
iaries previously ranging from £100 to £180), and to each cathedral
attached a chapter of canons. A cure, in addition to his regular
lary, received lees for baptisms, marriages, funerals and special
asses, and had the benefit of a free house called a presbytere. The
>tal personnel of state-paid Roman Catholic clergy amounted in
K>3 to 36.169. The Roman priests are drawn from the seminaries,
tablished by the church for the education of young men intending
t join its ranks, and divided into lower and higher seminaries
rands et petits shninaires), the latter giving the same class of
st ruction as the lyclts.
The number of Protestants may be estimated at about 600,000
id the Jews at about 70,000. The greatest number of Jews b to
» found at Paris, Lyons and Bordeaux, while the departments of
ie centre and of the south alonjr the range of the Cevennes, where
alvinism flourishes, are the principal Protestant localities, NImes
ring the most important centre. Considerable sprinklings of
rotestants are also to be found in the two Charentes, in Dauphine.
1 Paris and in Franche-Comte. The two Protestant bodies used
> cost the state about £60,000 a year and the Jewish Church about
$000.
Both Protestant churches have a parochial organization and a
resbyterian form of church government. In the Reformed Church
ar the more numerous of the two bodies) each parish has a
>uncU of presbyters, consisting of the pastor and lay-members
ected by the congregation. Several
Irishes form a conststorial circum-
;ription, which has a consistorial
suncil consisting of the council of
resbyters of the chief town of the
ircumscription, the pastor and one
elegate of the council of presbyters
ora each parish and other elected
lembers. There are 101 circum-
;ri prions (including Algeria), which
re grouped into 21 provincial synods
3roposed of a pastor and lav dele-
ate from each consistory. All the
lore important questions of church ... . .
iscipline and all decisions regulating the doctrine and practice of
tie church are dealt with by the synods. At the bead of the whole
sizes of holdings, but in general terms it may be said that about
3 million persons are proprietors of holdings under 25 acres in
extent amounting to between 15 and 20% of the cultivated
area, the rest being owned by some 750,000 proprietors, of whom
150,000 possess half the area in holdings averaging 400 acres in
extent. About 80% of holdings (amounting to about 60%
of the cultivated area) are cultivated by the proprietor; of the
rest approximately 13% are let on lease and 7% are wotted on
the system known as metayage (q.v.).
The capital value of land, which greatly decreased during
the last twenty years of the 19th century, is estimated at
£3,130,000,000, and that of stock, buildings, implements, &c,
*t £340,000,000. The value per acre of land, which exceeds
£48 in the departments of Seine, Rhone and those fringing the
north-west coast from Nord to Manche inclusive, is on the
average about £tg, though it drops to £16 and less in Morbihan,
Landes, Basses-Pyrenees, and parts of the Alps and the central
While wheat and wine constitute the staples of French agricul-
ture, its distinguishing characteristic is the variety of its products.
Cereals occupy about one-third of the cultivated area. For the
production of wheat, in respect of which France is self-supporting,
French Flanders, the Seine basin, notably the Beauce and the Brie,
and the regions bordering on the lower course of the Loire and the
upper course of the Garonne, are the chief areas. Rye, on the
other hand, one of the least valuable of the cereals, is grown chiefly
in the poor agricultural territories of the central plateau and western
Brittany. Buckwheat is cultivated mainly in Brittany. Oats and
barley are generally cultivated, the former more especially in the
Parisian region, the latter in Mayenne and one or two of the neigh-
bouring departments. Meslin, a mixture of wheat and rye, is
produced in the great majority of French departments, but to a
marked extent in the basin of the Sartbe. Maixe covers considerable
areas in Laodea, Raises Pyrenees and other south-western de-
partments.
Average Acreage
(Thousands of Acres).
Average Production
(Thousands of Bushels).
Average Yield
per Acre (Bushels).
1886-1895.
1 896-1905.
1886-1895-
1 896-1905.
1886- 1 895.
1896-1905.
Wheat . . .
Meslin . . .
Rye . . .
Barley . . .
Oats . . .
Buckwheat
Maize . . .
17.004
3.^88
2.303
9.507
1.484
1.391
16,580
49t
»
9.601
i.39a
1.330
394.564
12,193
64,651
47,197
240,082
26.345
25.7*3
56.61a
41.066
253.799
23,136
24.459
173
t6'9
166
20-4
252
184
191
170
16-4
2I-0
26*4
16-2
18-4
Forage Crops.— The mangold-wurzel. occupying four times the
acreage of swedes and turnips, is by far the chief root-crop in France.
rganixation is a General Synod, sitting at Paris. The organisation | It is grown largely in the departments of Nord and Pas-de-Calais
f the Lutheran Church {Eglise ie la confession d* Augsburg) is > and in those of the Seine basin, the southern limit of its cultivation
roadly similar. Its consistories are grouped into two special being roughly a line drawn from Bordeaux to Lyons. The average
/nods, one at Paris and one at Montbeliard (for the department area occupied by it in the years from 1896 to 1905 was 1,044,000
f Doubs and Haute-Saone and the territory of Belfort, where • acres, the total average production being 262,364,000 cwt. and the
he churches of this denomination are principally situated). It • average production per acre 10* tons. Clover, lucerne and sainfoin
lso has a general synod- co mp o se d of 2 inspectors, 1 5 pastors j make up the bulk of artificial pasturage, while vetches, crimson
lectcd by the synod of Paris, and 6 by that of Montbeliard, clover and cabbage are the other chief forage crops.
2 laymen and a delegate of the theological faculty at Paris— which I Vegetables.— Potatoes are not a special product of any region,
tolas periodical meetings and is re p res en ted in its relations with the though grown in great quantities in the Bresse and the Vosges.
overnment by a permanent executive commission. , I Early potatoes and other vegetables (Primeurs) are largely cultivated
The Jewish parishes, called synagogues, are grouped into depart- in the districts bordering the English Channel. Market-gardening
— . , .__ ,«__•_ o„j m xm jn^ Bayonne, is an important industry in the regions round Paris, Amiens and
oental consistories (Paris, Bordeaux, Nancy. Marseilles, «»,«.».«.,
.ille, Vesoul, Besancon and three in Algeria). Each synagogue is
erved by a rabbi assisted by an officiating minister, and in each
onsistory is a grand rabbi. At Paris is the central consistory,
ontrolled by the government and presided over by the supreme
jand rabbi
Agriculture.
Of the population of France some 17,000,000 depend upon
Lgrlculture for their livelihood, though only about 6,500,000
ire engaged in work on the land. The cultivable land of the
lountry occupies some 195,000 sq. m. or about 94% of the total
irea; of this 171,000 sq. m. are cultivated. There are besides
[2,300 sq. m. of uncultivable area covered by lakes, rivers,
owns, &c Only the roughest estimate is possible as to the
» Inspectors are placed at the head of the synodal drcuroscriptions:
their functions are to consecrate candidates for the ministry, install
the pastors, Ac.
Angers, as it is round Toulouse, Montauban, Avignon and in southern
France generally. The market -gardeners oC Paris and its vicinity
have a high reputation for skill in the forcing of early vegetables
under glass.
Potatoes: Decennial Average*.
Acreage.
Total Yield
(Tons).
Average Yield
per Acre
(Tons).
I 886-1895
1896-1905
3.690,000
3.735.000
11,150.000
11,594,000
302
31
Industrial Plants.*— The manufacture of sugar from beetroot.
owing to the increased use of sugar, became highly important during
1 Cultures industrieUes— Under this head the French group
beetroot, hemp, flax and other plants, the products of which pass
through some process of manufacture before they reach the con-
782
FRANCE
IAGRICULTCH
the latter half of the 19th century, the industry both of cultivation
and manufacture being concentrated in the northern departments
of Aisne, Nord, Pas-de-Cahis, Somme and Oisc. the first named
supplying nearly a quarter of the whole amount produced in France.
Flax and hemp showed a decreasing acreage from 1881 onwards.
Flax is cultivated chiefly in, the northern departments of Nord,
Seine-Infencure, Pas-de-Calais, C6tes-du-Nord, hemp in Sarthe.
Morbihan and Maine-et-Loire.
Colza, grown chiefly in the lower basin of the SfiM (5 me-
Inforieure and Eurc), is the roost important of the oil- producing
plants, all of which show a diminishing acreage. The thnr principal
regions for the production of tobacco are the basin of tliv I »cironnc
fLot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Lot and Gironde), the basin of fhe M-re
(Isere and Savoic) and the department of Pas-de-CalaU Thr &utc
controls its cultivation, which is allowed only in a limited nu inU-r of
departments. Hops cover only about 7000 acres, r> ing almost.
confined to the departments of Nord, CAte d'Or and Mturthc-ct-
Moseile.
Decennial Averages 1896-1905.
Acreage.
Production
(Tons).
Average Yield
per Acre
(Tons).
Sugar beet j* .
Hemp .
Flax ...
Colza .
Tobacco
672,000
64,856
57.893
102,454
4».564
6,868,000
»7.857 l
47.697
22453
IO*2
•28 »
•54
Vineyards (sec Wine). — The vine grows generally in France,
except in the extreme north and in Normandy and Brittany. The
great wine-producinq regions are: . ,
1. The country fnnging the Mediterranean coast and including
H6rauit (240,822,000 gals, in 1905), and Aude (117,483,000 gals, in
1905)1 the most productive departments in France in this respect.
2. The department of Gironde (95.559.000 gals, in 1905), whence
come Modoc and the other wines for which Bordeaux is the market.
3. The tower valley of the Loire, including Touraine and Anjou,
and the district of Saumur.
4. The valley of the Rhone.
. 5. The Burgundian region, including Cote d'Or and the valley of
the Stone (Beaujolais, Maconnais).
6. The Champagne.
7. The Charentc region, the grapes of which furnish brandy, as do
those of Armagnac (department of Gere).
The decennial averages for the years 1896-1903 were as follows:
Acreage of productive vines 4,056,725
Total production' in gallons t . 1,072,622,000.
Average production in gallons per acre 260
Fruit. — Fruit-growing is general all over France, which, apart
from bananas and pineapples, produces in the open air all the
ordinary species of fruit which its inhabitants consume. Some of
these may be specially mentioned. The cider apple, which ranks
first in importance, is produced in those districts where cider is the
habitual drink, that is to say,
chiefly in the region north-west of
a line drawn from Paris to the
mouth of the Loire. The average
annual production of cider dur-
ing the yeare T«fjfi to 1993 «■■
304,884,000 g,i I lona. Dr^c:
and pears aiv crown there and in
the country on both banks of the
lower Loire, the v^Uvy of which
abounds in or . tari- u-hcTcin mjny
varieties of fruit flourish ,-iml in nurwfy-ganfcn*. The hilly regions
of Limousin, \ V rni'-.nj ,i nrj the CeVrnnf* ar<- 1 hr home of the chestnut,
which in some places is still a staple food ; walnuts ^row on the lower
levels of the central ptatmu and tn lower Dauphin and Provence,
figs and alm< /Vqvrnce, oranges and ciiront* on the Mediter-
ranean coast, aprirots In central France, the alive in Provence and
the lower vaL_, . .^ are found under
along the coast of the Mediterranean. Silk-worm rearing, wfert
encouraged by state grants, is carried on in the valleys meuticarf
and on the Mediterranean coast east of Marseilles. The numbers si
growers decreased from 139,000 in 1891 to 124,000 in 1905. 7b*
decrease in the annual average production of cocoons is shown is tie
preceding table.
Snails are reared in some parts of the country aa aa article d
food, those of Burgundy being specially esteemed.
Stock-raising. — From this point of view the soil of France may t*
divided into four categories:
1. The rich pastoral regions where dairy-farming and the fattesaa;
of cattle are carried on with most success, viz. (a) Normandv. Percbe,
Cotentin and maritime Flanders, where horses are brccf in pra:
numbers; (6) the strip of coast between the Gironde and the mowti
of the Loire; (c) the Morvan including the Nivernais and t*
Charolais, from which the famous Chaxolajs breed of oxen takes i ±
name; (d) the central region of the central plateau including tat
districts of Cantal and Aubrac, the home of the famous beef-breeds
of Salcrs and Aubrac 1 The famous prt-saU sheep are also ream;
in the Vendee and Cotentin.
2. The poorer grazing lands on the upper levels of the Alp*.
Pyrenees, jura and Vosges, the Landes, the more outlying: region*
of the central plateau, southern Brittany.Sologne, Berry, Champape-
Pouilleuse, the Crau and the Camargue, these districts being gnes
over for the most part to-shcep-raising.
3. The plain of Toulouse, which with the rest of south-westers
France produces good draught oxen, the Parisian basin, the plais*
of the north to the east of the maritime region, the lower vallc> d
the Rhone and the Bresse. where there is little or no natural pastor-
age, and forage is grown from seed.
4. West, west-central and eastern France outside these areas,
where meadows are predominant and both dairying and fattening
are general. Included- therein are the dairying and horse-rai&ixg
district of northern Brittany and the dairying regions of Jura and
Savoy.
In the industrial regions of northern France cattle arc stall-fed
with the waste products of the beet-sugar factories, oil-works and
distilleries. Svnne, bred all over France, are more numerous ia
Brittany, Anjou (whence comes the well-known breed of Craes).
Poitou, Burgundy, the west and north of the central plateau asd
Beam. Upper Poitou and the zone of south-western Trance to the
north of the Pyrenees are the chief regions for the breeding of muk*.
Asses are reared in Beam, Corsica, Upper Poitou, the Lirnouun.
Berry and other central regions. Goats are kept in the mountain-**
regions (Auvergne, Provence, Corsica). The best, poultry co*oe
from the Bresse, the district of Houdan (Seine-et-Oise), the district
of Le Mans and Crevecceur (Calvados).
The pris nature!* (meadows) and herbage* (unmown pastures) of
France, i.e. the grass-land of superior quality as distinguished from
paturages et pacages, which signifies pasture of poorer quality, in-
creased in area between 1895 and 1005 as is shown below:
1895 (Acres) .1905 (Acres).
Presnaturels . . 10,852,000 11,715,000
Herbages . . . 2,822,000 3,022,000
The following table shows the number of livestock in the country
at intervals of ten years since 1885.
Cattle.
Sheep and
Lambs.
Pigs.
Horses.
Mules.
Asses.
1 Cows.
Other
Kinds.
Total
lfifiS 1 6,414*4*7
i395 6,359,795
1005 j 7.515-564
6,690,483
6,799.988
13,104,970
13.233.828
14.315.552
22,616,547
21,163,767
17,783,209
5,881,088
6,306,019
7.558.779
2,911,393
2.812.447
3,169,224
►j MM
sir
3*7,227
357.77*
365.181
Silk Cocoons.
1891-1895.
1896-1900.
1901-1905.
Annual average pro-")
duction over quin- 1
quennial periods (
Fnlb. J
t9.587.000
17,696,000
16,566,000
the oaks of Perigord, Comtat-Venaissin and tower Dauphind. The
mulberry grows m the valleys of the Rhone and its tributaries, the
Isere, the Drome, the Ardtche. the Card and the Durance, and also
1 Fibre only. In the years 1896-1905, 8130 tons of hemp-seed
and 12,137 tons of flax-seed was the average annual production in
addition to fibre.
Agricultural Organization. — In France the interests of agriculture
are entrusted to a special ministry, comprising the following divi-
sions: (1) forests, (2) breeding-studs (haras); ^3) agriculture, a
department which supervises agricultural instruction and the dis-
tribution of grants and premiums; (4) agricultural improvements,
draining, irrigation, &c; (5) an intelligence department which
prepares statistics, issues information as to prices and markets, &c
The minister is assisted by a superior council of agriculture, the
members of which, numbering a hundred, include senators, deputies
and prominent agriculturists. > The ministry employs inspectors,
whose duty it b to visit the different parts of the country and to
report on their respective position ana wants. The reports which
they furnish help to determine the distribution of the moneys
dispensed by the state in the form of subventions to agricultural
* The chief breeds of horses are the Boulonnais (heavy draught),
the Percheron (light and heavy draught), the Anglo-Norman (fight
draught and heavy cavalry )and the Tarbais of the western Pyrenees
(saddle horses and light cavalry). Of cattle besides the breeds named
the Norman (beef and milk), the Limousin (beef), the Mouibiliard.
the Baaadaix, the Flamana\ the Breton and the Pa rihemmU breeds
may be mentioned.
INDUSTRIES) FRANCE
societies and in many other ways. The chid type of agricultural
society is the co mics agricoU, an association for the diecuesioa of
agricultural problems and the ortanisation of provincial shows.
There are besides several thoussnds of local syndicates, engaged in
the purchase of materials and sals of produce on the most advan-
tageous terms for their members, credit banks and mutual insurance
societies (see Co-orsaATtow). Three societies demand special
mention: the Union centrate des agrieuUeurs de France, to which
the above syndicates are affiliated: the Sociitf national* d agricul-
ture, whose mission is to further agricultural progress and to supply
the government with information on everything appertaining
thereto and the Sociitf des agrieuUeurs de Fr&uce.
Among a variety of premiums awarded by the stats are those for
the best cultivated estates and for irrigation works, and to the
owners of the best stallions and brood-mares. Hams or stallion
stables containing In all over 3000 horses are established in twenty-
two central towns, and annually send stallions, which are at the
disposal of .private individuals in return for a small fee, to various
stations throughout the country. Other institutions belonging to
the state are the national sheep-fold of Rarobouillet (Seine-et-Oise)
and the cow-house of Vieux-Pin (Orne) for the breeding of Durham
cows. Four different grades of institution for agricultural instruction
are under state direction : (1) farm-schools and schools of apprentice-
ship in dairying, Ac., to which the age of admission is from 14 to
16 years; (2) practical school*, to which boys of from 13 to 18
years of age are admitted. These number forty-eight, and are
intended for sons of fanners of good position; (3) national schools,
which are established at Grignon (Seine-et-Oise), Rennes end
Montpelher, candidates for which must be 17 years of age; (4) the
National Agronomic Institute at Paris^which £1 intended for the train-
ing of estate agents, professors, &c. There are also depart*
mental chairsof agriculture, the holders of which give instruc-
tion in training-colleges and elsewhere and advise farmers.
Forests. — In relation to its total extent, Franc? ptrvnts
but a very hmited area of forest land, amounting tu only
36,700 sq. m. or about 18% of the entire surface of the
country. Included under the denomination of " forest "
arc lands— surfaces ssm&s— which are busk nit her than
forest. The most wooded parts of Franc* sit the mount ains
and plateaus of the east and of the north-east, comprising
the pine-forests of the Vosges and Jura (including the beau-
tiful Forest of Chaux), the Forest of Haye, the Forest of
. _ . . * tne
783
whether run by steam, water-power or other motive forces,
has played a great part in the promotion of industry ; the increase
in the amount of steam horse-power employed in industrial
establishments is, to a certain degree, an index to the activity
of the country as regards manufactures.
The appended table shows the progress made since 1850 with
regard to steam power. Railway and marine locomotives are
not included.
Years.
No. of
Establishments.
No. of
Steam- Engines.
Total
Horse- Power.
1852
1861
1871
1881
1891
1 901
1905
6,543
14,153
22,192
58.151
61,112
6,080
15.805
26,146
Si
79.203
76,000
191,000
316,000
576,000
916,000
I.9O7.730
2,232,263
With the exception of Loire, Bouches-du-Rhone and Rhone,
the chief industrial departments of France are to be found in the
north and north-east of the country. In xoox and 1896 those in
which the working inhabitants of both sexes were engaged in
industry as opposed to agriculture to the extent of 50% (approxi-
mately) or over, numbered eleven, viz.:— -
Ardennes, the Forest of Argonne, &c.
replanting with maritime pines has trans formed Urge areas
of marsh into forest; and the departments of vat and
Ariege. The Central Mountains and the M arvan &l*> have
considerable belts of wood. In the farisba region there
are the Forests of Fontainebleau (66 »• m }, cif Compii <ne
(56 sq. m.), of Rambouillet, of Villers-Cottereu, Ac. I be
Forest of Orleans, the largest in France, covers about 145 sq m
The Alps and Pyrenees are in large part deforested, but reafforesta-
tion with a view to minimizing the effects of avalanches and sudden
floods » continually in progress.
Of the forests of the country approximately one-third belongs to
the state, communes and public institutions. The rest belong to
private owners who are. however, subject to certain restrictions.
The Department of Waters 1 and
Forests (Administration des Eaux et
Forets) forms a branch of the min-
istry of agriculture. It is adminis-
tered by a director-general, who has
his headquarters at Paris, assisted by
three sdministrators who are charged
with the working of the forests,
questions of right* and law, finance
and plantation works. The estab-
lishment consists of 33 conservators,
each at the head of a district com-
prising one or more departments, 200
inspectors, 215 sub-inspectors and
about 300 gardes ifniraux. These
officials form the higher grade of the
service (agents) There are besides
several thousand forest-rangers
other employes (pribosis). The
Departments.
Total Working
Population
(1901).
Industrial
Population
(1901).
Percentage engaged
in Industry.
1 90 1.
1896.
Nord
Territoire de Belfort
Loire ....
Seine ....
Bouches-du-Rhone .
Rb6nc
Meurthe-et-MoseUe
Ardennes .
Vosges
Pas-dc-Calais .
Seine-Inferieure
848.306
292i8o8
2,071,344
341.M3
449.121
215.501
I39.270
208,142
404.153
428.591
544.177
24470
167.693
1,143.809
187,801
243.571
115,214
73.250
107.547
200 402
206,612
64-15
60-10
57*27
5522
54-94
54*23
53-46
52*60
51-67
49-5«
48-21
61-45
58-77
54*73
53-54
51*00
54*78
50-19
5242
51-05
46-55
49«5
The department of Seine, comprising Paris and its suburbs,
which has the largest manufacturing population, is largely
occupied with the manufacture df dress, millinery and articles
of luxury (perfumery, &c), but it plays the leading part in
almost every great branch of industry with the exception of
irs and
w _ r he de-
partment is supplied with officials of
the higher class from the National
School of Waters and Forests at
Nancy, founded in 1824.
Industries.
In France, as in other countries,
the development of machinery,
l The department b also entrusted
with surveillance over river-fishing,
pisciculture and the amelioration of
pasture.
Groups.
Basins.
Departments.
Average Production
(Thousands of
Metric Tons)
1 901-1905.
Nord and Pas-de- 1
Calais . . 1
Valenciennes
Le Boulonnais
Nord, Pas-de-Calais
Pas-de-Calais
( 20,965
Loire
St £tienne and Rive-de-Gier
Communay
Ste Foy rArgentiere
Roannais
Loire
Isere
Rh6ne
Loire
\ 3.601
Gard . . . }
Alais
Aubenas
Le Vigan
Gard. Ardeche
Ardeche
Gard
J 1.954
■
Bourgogne and
Nivernais
Decire
La Chapelle-sous-Dun
Bert
Sincey
Nievre
Sa6ne-et-Loire
Allier
Cote-d'Or
[ 1381
Tarn and Aveyron <
Aubin
Carmaux and Albi
Rodez
St Perdoux
Aveyron
Tarn
Aveyron
Lot
r 1.770
Bourbonnais .
1
Commentry and Doyet
StEloi
L'Aumance
La Queune
AlKcr
Puy-de-Dome
Allier
Allier
994
7 8+
FRANCE
spinning and weaving. The typically industrial region of France
is the department of Nord, the seat of the woollen industry,
but also prominently concerned in other textile industries,
in metal working, and in a variety of other manufactures, fuel
for which is supplied by its coal-fields. The following sketch
of the manufacturing industry of France takes account chiefly
of those of its branches which are capable in some degree of
localization. Many of the great industries of the country, e.g.
tanning, brick-making, the manufacture of garments, &c, are
evenly distributed throughout it, and are to be found in or near
all larger centres of population.
Coal.— The principal mines of France are coal and iron mines.
The production of coal and lignite averaging 33,465,000 metric tons l
in the years 1 901-1905 represents about 73 % of the total consump-
tion 01 the country; the surplus is supplied from Great Britain,
Belgium and Germany. The preceding table shows the average out-
put of the chief coal-groups for the years 1901-1905 inclusive. The
Flemish coal-basin, employing over 100,000 hands, produces 60%
of the coal mined in France.
French lignite comes for the most part from the department of
Bouches-du-Kh6ne (near Fuveau).
The development of French coal and lignite mining in the 19th
century, together with records of prices, which rose considerably at
the end of the period, is set forth in the table below:
Years.
Average Yearly
Production
(Thousands of
Metric Tons).
Average Price
per Ton at
Pit Mouth
(Francs).
1 821-1830
1 83 1-1640
1841-1850
1851-1860
1 861-1870
187 1-1880
1881-1890.
1 891-1900
1 901-1905
1 495
2.57«
4.0785
6,857
11.831
16,774
21,542
29.100
33465
10*23
983
969
'"•45
II*OI
1434
(11*96
14*18
Iron.'— The iron-mines of France are more numerous than its coaU
mines, but they do not yield a sufficient quantity of ore for the
needs of the metallurgical industries of the country; as will be seen
in the table below the production of iron in France gradually in-
creased during* the 19th century; on the other hand, a decline in
prices operated against a correspondingly marked increase in it*
annual value.
Years.
Average Annual
Production
(Thousands of
Metric Tons).
Price per
Metric Ton
(Francs).
1841-1850
1851-1860
1 861-1870
1871-1880
1 881-1890
1 891-1900
1901-2905
1247 '
24145
3035
2514
2934
4206
6072
676
5 i l
487
539
399
337
372
The department of Meurthe-et-Moselle (basins of Nancy and
Longwy-Briey) furnished 84% of the total output during the quin-
quennial period 1901-1905, may be reckoned as one of the principal
iron-producing regions of the world. The other chief producers
wereryrenees-GrientaleSjCalvados, Haute-Marne (Vassy) andSadne-
et-Loire (Mazenay and Change).
Other Ores.— The mining of zinc, the chief deposits of which are at
Malines (Gard), Les Bormettes (Var) and Planioles (Lot), and of
lead, produced especially at Chaliac (Ardeche), ranks next in im-
portance to that of iron. Iron-pyrites come almost entirely from
[INDUSTRS*
Sain-Bel (Rhone), manganese chiefly from Ariege and SmA m*-
Loire, antimony from the departments of Mayeone, Haotre-Urt
andCantal. Copper and mispickel are mined only inssnallqu
The table below gives the average production of sine, argei
lead, iron-pyrites and other ores during the quinquennial period
1901-1905.
Production
(Thousands of
Metric Tons).
Value £
Zinc . . .
Lead . . .
Iron-pyrites .
Other ores
60*3
185
297-2
36*0
206.91a
100.424
170.312
6*37*
Salt, fife. — Rock-salt is worked chiefly in the department J
Meurthe-et-Moselle, which produces more than half theavcrage ana jl.
product of salt. For 'the years 1896-1905 this was 1,010,000 tju,
including both rock- and sea-salt. The salt-marshes of the M*?i -
terranean coast, especially the Etang de Berre and those of Loirt-
Iaferieure, are the principal sources of sea-salt. Sulphur is obtained
near Apt (Vaucluse) and in a few other localities of south-easter?
France; bituminous schist near Autun (SaOne-et-Loire) *r*i
Buxiercs (Allicr). The most extensive peat-workings are in tS*.
valleys of the Somme; asphalt comes from Seysscl (Ain) and Pu.-
de-Dome.
The mineral springs of France are numerous, of varied character
and much frequented. Leading resorts are: in the Pvrencaa
region, Amelie-les- Bains, Bagneres-dc-Luchon, Bagneres-de-Bigone.
Bareges, Cautcrcts, Eaux- Bonnes, Eaux-Chaudcs and Dax; ta
the Central Plateau, Mont-Dore, La Bourboule, Bourbon PArchasa-
bault. Vichy, Royat, Chaudes-Aigaes. Vals, Lamalon; in the Alps,
Aix-les- Bains ana Evian; in the vosges and FaudUes, Pk>mbJen-s.
Luxcuil, Contrexeville, Vittcl, Martigny and Bourbonne les Bain*.
Outside these main groups St Amand-ies-Eaux and Fo)-es4es-E*ax
may be mentioned.
Quarry-Products. — Quarries of various descriptions are numerous
all over France. Slate is obtained in large quantities from the
departments of Maine-et-Loire (Angers), Ardennes (Fumav) and
Mayenne (Renaxe). Stone-quarrying is specially active in the
departments round Paris, Seine-et-Oise employing more persons in thi*
occupation than any other department. The environs of Creil (Otsei
and Chateau-Landon (Seine-et-Marne) are noted for their freestone
{pitrre 4* taille), which is also abundant at Euville and LerouvSe
in Meuse ; the production of plaster is particularly important in the
environs of Pans, of kaolin 01 fine quality at Yricix (Haute- Viennc'i.
of hydraulic lime in Ardeche (Le Tcil), of lime phosphates in the
department of Somme, of marble in the departments of Haute-
Garonne (St Beat), Hautes- Pyrenees (Campan, Sarrancolin). Ism
and Pas-de-Calais, and of cement in Pas-de-Calais (vicinity of
Boulogne) and Isere (Grenoble). Paving-stone is supplied in 1a*^e
quantities by Seine-et-Oise, and brick-clay is worked chiefly is
Nord, Seine and Pas-de-Calais. The products of the quarries U
France for the five years 1901-1905 averaged £9.31 1,000 per annas
in value, of which building material brought in over two-thirds.
Metallurgy.— The average production and value of iron and steel
manufactured in France in the last four decades of the 19th century
is shown below:
Yean.
Cast Iron.
Wrought Iron and StecL
Product
(Thousands
of Metric
Tom).
Value
(Thousands
*£).
Product
(Thousand*
of Metric
Tom).
Vafoe
(ThMrands
I 861-1870
I 87I-1880
1881-1890
1891-1900
I903
1191-5
1391
1796
2267
284I
5012
5783
5119
576*
7334
IO585
I896
8.654
11.7/6
11,488
14.540
15.389
Taking the number of hands engaged in the industry as a basis of
comparison, the most important departments as regards iron and
steel working in 190 1 were:
Department.
Chief Centres.
Hands engaged in
Production of
Kg- Iron and Steel.
Hands engaged in
Production of
Engineering
Material and
Manufactured
Goods.
Seine
600
14,000
9.5O0
16,500
800
102,500
45.O0O
17.500
6.500
23.000
Nord
Loire
Meurthe-et-Moselle
Ardennes
Lille, Anrin. penain, Douai, Hautmont, Maubeuge
Rive-de-Gier, Firminy, St Etienne. St Chamond
Pont-a-Mousson, Frouard. Longwy, Nancy
Charleville, Nouxon
1 The metric ton *•*- 1000 kilogrammes or 2204 1
NDU5TRIES1 FRANCE
Rhone (Lyons). Saone-et-Loire (Le Cnrasot, ChaJon-sur-Saone)
nd Loue-inferieure (Basse-Inch*, Indret, Coveron, Trignac) also
lay a considerable part in this industry.
The chid centres lor the manufacture of cutlery are Ch&ttelerault
Vicnne), Langres (Haute-Marne) and Thiers (Puy-de-DGme) :
>r that of arms St Etienne, Tulle and Ch&ttelerault; for that of
ratches and clocks, Besancon (Doubs) and Montbeltard (Doubs) ;
>r that of optical and mathematical instruments Paris, More*
Jura) and St Claude (Jura); for that of locksmiths' ware the region
f Vimcu (Pas-de-Calais).
There are important sine works at Auby and St Amend* (Moid)
nd Viviea (Aveyron) and Noyelles-Godault (Pas-de-Calais); there
re lead works at the latter place, and others of greater importance
t Coudron (Loire-Inferieurej. Copper is smelted in Ardennes and
as-de-Calais. The production of these metals, which are by far
he most important after iron and steel, increased steadily daring
it period 1890-190$, and reached its highest point in 1905, details
>r which year are given below:
Zinc.
Lead.
Copper.
Production (in metric tons)
Value
£1 £83,000
94,100
£386,000
7*00
£526,000
Wool.— In tooi, 161,000 persons were engaged in the spinning
nd other preparatory processes and in the weaving of wool. The
1 industry is earned on most extensively in the department of
oollen i w
ford (Roubaix, Tourcoing, Fourmies).
Of second rank are Reims
nd Sedan in the Champagne group; Elbeuf, Louviers and Rouen
1 Normandy; and Matamet (Tarn).
Cotton— \n loou i660oo persons were employed in the spinning
nd weaving of cotton, French cotton goods being distinguished
tiiefly for the originality of their design. The cotton industry is
istributed in three principal groups. The longest established is that
f Normandy, having its centres at Rouen, Havre. Evreux, Falaise
nd Flers. Another group in the north of France has its centres at
illc, Tourcoing. Roubaix, St Quentin and Amiens. That of the
osges, which has experienced a great extension since the loss of
Jsace-Lorrame, comprises Epinal, St Die, Remiremont and Belfort.
Hher groups of less importance are situated in the Lyonnais (Roanne
nd Tarare) and Mayenne (Laval and Mayenne).
Silk.— The silk industry occupied 134,000 hands in 1901. -The
ilk fabrics of France hold the first place, particularly the more
xpensive kinds. The industry is concentrated in the departments
ordering the river Rhdne, the chief centres being Lyons (Rhdne),
oiron (Isere), St Etienne and -St diamond (Loire) (the two Utter
eing especially noted for their ribbons and trimmings] and Annonay
\rdeche) ana other places in the departments of Ain, Card and
trdme.
Flax, Hemf, Jute, eta— The preparation and spinning of these
tatcnals and the manufacture of nets and rope, together wkh the
caving of linen and other fabrics, give occupation to 112,000
crsons chiefly in the departments of Nord (Lille, Armenticres,
►unkirk), Somme (Amiens) and Maine-et-Loire (Angers, Cholet).
Hosiery, the manufacture of which employs 55,000 hands, has its
dicf centre in Aube (Troyes). The production of lace and guipure.
:cupying 112,000 persons, is carried on mainly in the towns and
iltages of Haute-Loire and in Vosges (Mirecourt), Rhdne (Lyons),
as-de-Calais (Calais) and Paris.
Leather.— Turning and feather-dressing are widely spread in-
ustries. and the same may be said of the manufacture of boots and
iocs, though these trades employ more hands in the department
f Seine than elsewhere; in the manufacture of gloves Isere (Grcn-
blc) and Aveyron (MiHau) ho]d the first place amongst French
epartments.
Sugar. — The manufacture of sugar is carried on in the depart-
icnts of the north, in which the cultivation of beetroot is general—
isne, Nord, Somme, Pas-de-Calais, Oise and Seine-et-Marne, the
iree first being by far the largest producers. The increase in
reduction in the last twenty years of the 19th century is indicated
1 the following table s—
Years.
Annual Average of
Men employed.
Average Annual
Production in
Metric Tons.
1881-1891
1891-1901
1901-1906
42,641
43.061
696!o38
820.553
Alcohol. — The distillation of alcohol is in the hands of three classes
f persons. (1) Professional distillers (bouHUurs el distillalevrs de
rofession); (2) private distillers (bouilleurs de cru) under state
antral; (^) small private distillers, not under state control, but
iving notice to the state that they distil. The two last classes
umber over 400,000 (1903), but the quantity of alcohol distilled
y them is small. Beetroot, molasses and grain are the chief
surccs of spirit. The department of Nord produces by far the
rcatest quantity, its average annual output in the decade 1895-1904
X. 13*
7«:
being 13*117*00- gallons^ <* ftboot 26% of the average annm
production of France during the same period (49,945,ooo gallons
Aisne, Pas-de-Calais and Somme rank next to Nord.
Class is manufactured in the departments of Nord (Anichc, &c.
Seine, Loire (Rive-de-Gier) and Meurthe-et-Moselle, Baccarat i
the latter department being famous for its table-glass. Limoges
the chief centre for the manufacture of porcelain, and the artisti
products of the national porcelain factory of Sevres have a work
wide reputation..
The manufacture of paper and cardboard is largely carried o
in Isere (Voiron), Scine-et-Oise (Essonnes), Vosges (Epinal) and <
the finer sorts of paper in Charente (Angoulenie). That of oi
candles and soap has its chief centre at Marseilles. Brewing an
malting arc localized chiefly in Nord. There are well-known chemio
works at Dombasle (close to Nancy) and Chauny (Aisne) and i
Rhone.
Occupations.— The following table, which shows the approximal
numbers of persons engaged in the various manufacturing Industru
of France, who number in all about 5,820,000, indicates their relativ
importance from the point of view of employment:
Occupation.
Baking . . . . .,
Milling .....
CharcMterie ....
Other alimentary industries .
Alimentary industries: total
Gas* works v *
Tobacco factories .
Oil-works
Other " chemical " • industries
Chemical industries: total
Rubber factories
Paper factories
Typographic and lithographic printing
Other branches of book production
Book production: total
Spinning and weaving .
Clothing, millinery and making up of
fabrics generally ....
Basket work, straw goods, feathers
Leather and skin
Joinery
Builder's carpentering
Wheelwright's work
Cooperage
Wooden shoes k
Other wood industries
Wood industries: total
Metallurgy and metal working .
Goldsmiths' and jewellers' work
Stone-working ,
Construction, building, decorating
Glass manufacture .
Tiles ....
Porcelain and faience
Bricks
Other kiln industries
Kiln industries: total
1 90 1.
163,500
99.40O
39.600
161,500
464,000
26,000
16,000
10,000
58,000
110,000
9,000
61,000
76,000
23,000
99.00O
892,000
1,484,000
. 39.000
338,000
I53.OO0
94.900
82,700
46,600
52400
280,400
710,000
783,000
35,000
56,000
572.000
43,000
29,000
27,000
17,000
45.00O
161.000
308,000
49.000
( 25.o«
38,000
1,072.000
761,000
286,000
671,000
345,000
55.000
443.00O
110,000
Some 9000 individuals were engaged in unclassified industries.
Fisheries. — The fishing population of France is most numerous i
the Breton departments of Finistere, COtcs-du-Nord and Morbiha
and in Pas-de-Calais. Dunkirk, Gravelines, Boulogne and Paimrx
send considerable fleets to the Icelandic cod-fisheries, and St Malt
Fecamp, Granville and Cancale to those of Newfoundland. Th
Dogger Bank is frequented by numbers of French fishing-boati
1 Includes manufactories of glue, tallow, soap, perfumery, fcrti
fixers, soda, &c.
786
FRANCE
[COMMtmiCATKHE
Betides flu above, Boulogne, the bom important fishing port an
the coontrv, Calais, Dieppe, Concarneau, Dpuarnenez, Lea Sables
d'Olonne, La Rochdle, Marcnnes and Arcachon are leading ports
for the herring, sardine, mackerel and other coast-fisheries of the
ocean, while Cette, Agde and other Mediterranean ports are engaged
in the tunny and anchovy fisheries. Sardine preserving is an
important industry at Nantes and other places on the west coast.
Oysters are reared chiefly at Marennes, which is the chief French
market for them, and at Arcachon, Vannes, Oleron, Auray, Cancale
and Courseulles. The total value of the produceof fisheries increased
from £4,537,000 in 1892 to £5,259,000 in 1902. In 1902 the number
of men employed in the home fisheries was 144,000 and the number
of vessels 25,481 (tonnage 127,000); in the deep-sea fisheries 10,500
men and 450 vessels (tonnage 51,000) were employed.
Communication*.
&Wj.— Admirable highways known as routes natuntales and
kept up at the expense of the state radiate from Paris to the
great towns of France. Averaging 52$ ft. in breadth, they
covered in 1005 a distance of nearly 24,000 m. The ficole des
Fonts et Chaussees at Paris is maintained by the government
for the training of the engineers for the construction and upkeep
of roads and bridges. Each department controls and maintains
the routes dtparUmenlaUs, usually good macadamized roads
connecting the chief places within its limits and extending in
1003 over 9700 m. The routes nationales and the routes departe-
mentales come under the category of la grande voirteaad arc
under the supervision of the Ministry of Public Works. The
urban and rural district roads, covering a much greater mileage
and classed as la petite voirie, are maintained chiefly by the
communes under the supervision of the Minister of the Interior.
Waterways. 1 — The waterways of France, 7543 m. in length,
of which canals cover 3031 m., are also classed under la grande
toirie; they are the property of the state, and for the most
part are free of tolls. They are divided into two classes. Those
of the first class, which comprise rather less than half the entire
system, have a minimum depth of 6} ft., with locks 126 ft. long
and 17 ft. wide; those of the second class are of smaller dimen-
sions. Water traffic, which is chiefly in heavy merchandise,
as coal, building materials, and agriculture and food produce,
more than doubled in volume between 1 88 1 and 1 005. The canal
and river system attains its greatest utility in the north, north-
east and north-centre of the country; traffic is thickest along
the Seine below Paris; along the rivers and small canals of the
rich departments of Nord and Pas-dc-Calais and along the Oisc
and the canal of St Quentin whereby they communicate with
Paris; along the canal from the Marne to the Rhine and the
Succession of waterways which unite it with the Oisc; along
the Canal de l'Est . (departments of Meuse and ^rdennes);
and along the waterways uniting Paris with the Sadne at Chalon
(Seine, Canal du Loing, Canal de Briare, Lateral canal of the
Loire anil Canal du Centre) and along the Saone between Chalon
and Lyons.
The chief navigable rivers are:
In point of length the following are the principal canals:
Est (uniting Meuse with Moselle and Sadne) .
From Nantes to Brest .......
Berry (uniting Montlucon with the canalized Cher
and the Loire canal)
Midi (Toulouse to Mediterranean via Bezicrs) ; see
Canal
Burgundy (uniting the Yonne and Sadne) .
Lateral canal of Loire
From Marne to Rhine (on French territory)
Lateral canal of Garonne . ' .
Rhdne to Rhine (on French territory) . .,
Nivernais (uniting Loire and Yonne)
Canal de la Somme
Centre (uniting Sadne and Loire) . ..
Canal de I'Ourcq
Ardennes (uniting Aisne and Canal de l'Est) .
From Rhone to Cette *
Canal de la Haute Marne .......
St Quentin (uniting Scheldt with Somme and Oise)
Miles.
270
22$
163
»75
151
137
131
133
119
lit
&
58
1 See the Guide offieiet de la navigation inUrieure issued by the
ministry of public works (Paris, 1903).
Total
navigated
Length.
First Class
Navigability.
Seine
Aisne ....
Marne ....
Oise
Yonne .
Rhdne ....
Sadne ....
Adour ....
Garonne ....
Dordogne.
Loire
Charcots ....
VUainc -
Escaut (in France) .
Scarpe ....
Ly.
Aa
Miles.
339
37
»4
22
07
309
234
*i
167
«£
106
91
39
4»
Miles.
*93
37
*S
53
30
21
$
3»
39
41
45
16
Railways.— The first important line in France, from Paris t«
Rouen, was constructed through the instrumentality of Sr
Edward Blount (1800-1905), an English banker in Paris, vbo
was afterwards for thirty years chairman of the Ouest rairni.
After the rejection in 1838 of the government's proposals lor t.c
construction of seven trunk lines to be worked by the state, i-
obtained a concession for that piece of line. on the terms thsi
the French treasury would advance one-third of the capital at
3% if he would raise the remaining two-thirds, half in Tnsxx
and half in England. The contract for building the railway tu
put in the hands of Thomas Brassey ; English navvies were larger
employed on the work, and a number of English engine-driven
were employed when traffic was begun in 1843. A law passd
in 1842 laid the foundation of the plan under which the raihrajs
have since been developed, and mapped out nine main lass,
running from. Paris to the frontiers and from the Mediterraneus
to the Rhine and to the Atlantic coast. Under it the cost of tir
necessary land was to be found as to one-third by the state asi
as to the residue locally, but this arrangement proved unworkabk
and was abandoned in 1845, when it was settled that the staie
should provide the land and construct the earthworks and
stations, the various companies which obtained concessions bast
left to make the permanent way, provide rolling stock and work
the lines for certain periods. Construction proceeded under this
law, but not with very satisfactory results, and new arrange-
ments had to be made between 1852 and 1857, when the raflvars
were concentrated in the hands of six great companies, the
Nord, the Est, the Ouest, the Paris-Lyon-MfciUerranee, tfcr
Orleans and the Midi. Each of these companies- was allotted 3
definite sphere of influence, and was granted a concession h.:
ninety-nine years from its date of formation, the conccssksis
thus terminating at various dates between 1950 and i960, la
return for the privileges granted them the companies undertook
the construction out of their -own unaided resources of 1500 el
of subsidiary lines, but the railway expenditure of the country at
this period was so large that in a few yean they foundit ixnpossibk
to raise the capital they required. In these circumstances iK*
state agreed to guarantee the interest on the capital, the sons r.
paid in this way being regarded as advances to be reixnburstc
in the future with interest at 4 %. This measure proved success-
ful and the projected lines were completed. But ^"»«^ kz
more lines were constantly arising, and the existing companies,
in view of their financial position, were disinclined to undertake
their construction. The government therefore found itself
obliged to inaugurate a system of direct subventions, not only to
the old large companies, but also to new small ones, to encourage
the development of branch and local lines, and local authorities
were also empowered to contribute a portion of the required
capital. Tne result came to be that many small lines were begun
by companies that had not the means to complete them, and
again the state had to come to the rescue. In 1878 it agreed to
spend £10,000,000 in purchasing and completing a number ci
COMMERCE)
FRANCE
787
these tines, some of which were handed over to the great
companies, while others were retained in the hands of the govern-
ment, forming the system known as the Chemins de Fer de l'Etat.
Next year a large programme of railway expansion was adopted,
at an estimated cost to the state of £140,000,000, and from 1880
to 1882 nearly £40,000,000 was expended and sdme 1809 m.
of line constructed. Then there was a change in the financial
lituation, and it became difficult to find the money required.
In these circumstances the conventions of 1883 were concluded,
ind the great companies partially relieved the government of
its obligations by agreeing to contribute a certain proportion of
the cost of the new lines and to provide the rolling- stock for
working them. In former cases when the railways had had
recourse to state aid, it was the state whose contributions were
ixed, while the railways were -left to find the residue; but on
.his occasion the position was reversed. The state further
guaranteed a minimum rate of interest on the capital invested,
ind this guarantee, which by the convention of 1859 had applied
10 " new " lines only, was now extended to cover both " old "
ind " new " lines, the receipts and expenditure from both kinds
icing lumped together. As before, the sums paid out in respect
)f guaranteed dividend were to be regarded as advances which
were to be paid back to the state out of the profits made, when
these permitted, and when the advances were wiped out, the
profits, after payment of a certain dividend, were to be divided
tetween the state and the railway, two-thirds going to the former
md one-third to the latter. All the companies, except the Nord,
Exave at one time or another had to take advantage of the
5uarantee,.and the fact that the Ouest had been one of the most
persistent and heavy borrowers in this respect was one of the
reasons that induced the government to take it over as from the
1st of January 1909. By the 1859 conventions the state railway
system obtained an entry into Paris by means of running powers
sver the Ouest from Chartres, and its position was further im-
proved by the exchange of certain lines with the Orleans company.
Thcgreat railway systems of France are as follows:
1. The Nord, which serves the rich mining, industrial and farming
districts of Nord, Pas-de-Calais, Aisne and Somme, connecting with
the Belgian railways at several points. Its main lines run from
Paris to Calais, via Crcii, Amiens and Boulogne, from Paris to Lille,
ria Creil and Arras, and from Paris to Maubeugc via Crcil, Tergnicr
ind St Quenti*.
2. The Onest-fitat, a combination of the West and state systems.
Die former traversed Norjmandy ineverydirectionand connected Paris
vith the towns of Brittany . Its chief lines ran from Paris to Le Havre
ria Mantes and Rouen, to Dieppe via Rouen, to Cherbourg, to Gran-
riHcand to Brest. The state railways served a large portion of western
France, their chief lines being from Nantes via La'Rochelle to Bor-
leaux, and from Bordeaux via Saintes, Niort and Saumur to Chartres.
3. The Est, running from Paris via Chalons and Nancy to Avri-
»urt (for Strassburg), via Troyes and Langres to Bclfort and on via
Basel to the Saint £otthard. and via Reims and Mczieres to Longwy.
4. The Orleans, running from Paris to Orleans, and thence serving
Bordeaux via Tours, Poitiers and Angoulfcme, Nantes via Tours and
Angers, and Montauban and Toulouse via Vierzon and Limoges.
5. The Parifi-Lyon-M£diterran£e, connecting Paris with Marseilles
ria Moret, Laroche. Dijon, Macon and Lyons, and with Ntmes via
Motet, Nevers and Clermont-Ferrand. It establishes communi-
cation between France and Switzerland and Italy via Macon and
Culoz (for the Mt. Cenis Tunnel) and via Dijon and Pontaruer (for
the Simplon), and also has a .direct line alone the Mediterranean coast
rom Marseilles to Genoa via Toulon and Nice.
6. The Midi (Southern) has lines radiating from Toulouse to
Bordeaux via Agea, to Bayonne via Tarbes and Pau, and to Cexte via
Carcassonne, Karbonne and Beziers. From Bordeaux there b also a
iirect line to Bayonne and I run (for Madrid), and at the other end of
the Pyrenees a bnc leads from Narbooneto Pcrpignan and Barcelona.
The following table, referring to- lines " of general interest,*' indi-
cates the development of railways after 1885 :
Year.
1885
1890
'895
1900
1904
18,650
20,800
22,650
23.818
24.755
Receipts bf
d£
42,324
46.I45
60,674
60,589
Expenses io
<*£.
23.508
24.239
3M77
(IMO'I).
21445*
241,119
348,852
453.193
433.915
Goods carried
(1000 Metric
Tons).
75.192
92.506
100,834
126,830
I30.t44
'V^ 24.755 wooy 3»«4// Wi.V'J *Jv.M4
Narrow gauge and normal gauge railways "of local interest
avered 3905 m. in 1904.
Comnerce.
After entering on a regime of free trade in i860 France gradu-
ally reverted towards protection; this system triumphed in the
Customs Law of 1892, which imposed more or less considerable
duties on imports— a law associated with the name of M. Meline.
While raising the taxes both, on agricultural products and manu-
factured goods, this law introduced, between France and all the
powers trading with her, relations different from those in the past.
It left the government, free either to apply to foreign countries
the general tariff or to enter into negotiations with them for the
application, under certain conditions, of a minimum tariff.
The policy of protection was further accentuated by raising the
impost on corn from 5 to 7 francs per hectolitre (2] bushels).
This system, however, which is opposed by a powerful party,
has at various times undergone modifications. On the one hand
it became necessary, in face of an inadequate harvest, to suspend
in 1898 the application of the law on the import of corn. On
the other hand, in order to check the decline of exports and
neutralize the harmful effects of a prolonged customs war, a
commercial treaty was in 1896 concluded with Switzerland,
carrying with it a reduction, in respect of certain articles, of
the imposts which had been fixed by the law of 1892. An accord
was likewise in 1808 effected with Italy, which since 1886 had
been in a state of economic rupture with France, and in July
1899 an accord was concluded with the United States of America.
Almost all other countries, moreover, share in the benefit of the
minimum tariff, and profit by the modifications it may suc-
cessively undergo.
Being in the main a self-supporting country France carries,
on most of her trade within her own borders, and ranks below
Commerce, in Millions of Pounds Sterling.
General
Spedsl
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
Imports.
Exports.
ToUJ.
1876-1880
1881-1885
1886-1890
I 891-1895
I 896-1900
1901-1905
2IO-1
224-1
208-2
2030
237-8
233-3
I75'3
1778
\m
20 to
227.5
3854
460-8
171-7
163-0
I35-I
135-3
137-6
■33-8
150*8
174-7
306-8
3187
!&*
3227
357-5
Great Britain, Germany and the United States in volume of
exterior trade. The latter is subdivided into general commerce,
which includes all goods entering or leaving the country, and
special commerce which includes imports for home use and
exports of home produce* The above table shows the develop- '
ments of French trade during the years from 1876 to 1005 by
means of quinquennial averages. A permanent body (the com-
mission permanent* des taleurs) fixes the average prices of the
Imports.
Exports.
Valuo
(Thousands
Percent
of Total
Value.
Vabt
Cnwwnads
of jQ
Percent
ol Total
Vslue.
Articles of Foodl —
1886-1890
1891-1895
1896-1900
1901-1905
58.856
42488
33.631
34-9
30-9-
30,830
28,287
S7.83*
28,716
23-4
21*1
18-6
I65
Raw Materials*
1886-1890
1891-1895
1896-1990
190 1-1905
85.778
88,211
101,727
If 6480
50$
54 3
59-f
63-8
33.848
32.557
40,060
-47.385
24-6
23
271
Manufactured
Articles »
1886-1890
1891-1895
I 896- 1 900
1901-1905
24.125
24.054
*7.33Q
32.554
1*3
148
15-9
178
72.917
72,906
62,270
98,582
530
1 Includes hones, mules and asses.
* Except certain manufactures which come under the category
of articles of food.
788
FRANCE
[COMMERCE
articles in the customs list; this value is estimated at the end of
the year in accordance with the variations that have taken place
and is applied provisionally to the following year.
Amongst imports raw materiab (wool, cotton and silk, coal, oil-
seeds, timber. etc.) hold the first place, articles of food (cereals, wine,
coffee. Ac.) and manufactured goods (especially machinery) ranking
next. Amongst exports manufactured goods (silk, cotton and
woollen goods, fancy wares, apparel, i&c.) come before raw materiab
and articles of food (wine and dairy products bought chiefly by
England).
Divided into these classes the imports and exports (special trade)
for quinquennial periods from 1886 to 1905 averaged as shown in the
preceding table.
The decline both in imports and in exports of articles of food,
which b the most noteworthy fact exhibited in the preceding table,
was due to the almost prohibitive tax in the Customs Law of 1892,
upon agricultural products.
The average value of the principal articles of import and export
(special trade) over quinquennial periods following 1890 b shown
in the two tables below.
Principal Imports (Thousands of £).
Coal, coke, &c. . . .
Coffee
Cotton, raw ....
Flax
Fruit and seeds(olcaginous)
Hides and skins, raw . .
Machinery
Silk, raw . „ . , .
Timber
Wheat
Wine
Wool, raw
1891-1893. 1896-1900. 1901-1905.
7,oi8
6,106
7.446
3.346
7.175
6,141
2,181
9488
6,054
10,352
9.972
»3.372
9.883
4.553
7.722
2.435
6,207
5.261
3.632
10,391
6,284
5.276
10^54
16.750
10,539
3.717
".987
3.173
8464
6,369
4.614
".765
6.760
1.995
5.»67
16,395
Principal Exports {Thousands of £).
1 891-1895.
1896-1900.
1901-1905.
Apparel. . .
4J26
4.513
5.079
Brandy and other spirits .
.2,402
l '93«
2.783
1.678
Butter
2,789
2.618
Cotton manufactures .
4.233
5.874
6.039
7.965
Haberdashery 1 . . .
5.830
6,599
4.813
Hides, raw ....
2.839
3494
Hides, tanned or curried
4.037
4.331
4.753
Iron and steel, manufac
turesof ....
2.849
3408
4.201
Millinery ....
1.957
4>95>
Motor cars and vehicles
160
2,147
Paper and manufactures
Silk, raw, thrown, wast
f 2,095
e
2.145
2.551
and cocoons •
4.738
4.807
6,090
Silk and waste silk, man
u-
facturesof . . .
Wine
: 1©
10.443
9,050
H463
9.»39
Wool, raw ....
Wool, manufactures of
5.oot
11.998
7.813
10,190
9.159
8.459
The following were the countries sending the largest quantities of
goods (special trade) to France (during the same periods as in previous
table).
Trade with Principal Countries. Imports (Thousands of £).
Trade with Principal Countries. Exports (Thousands of Q.
1891-1895.
1896-1900.
1901-1905.
Germany
Belgium
United Kingdom . .. .
United States ....
Algeria ......
I3.7ia
19357
39J10
9437
16,28s
***M33
45*03
9497
9434
31,021
a4*P
49.156
lO^lI
11,652
The other chief customers of France were Switzerland and Italy,
whose imports from France averaged in 1901-1905 nearly £10,000,000
and over £7,200,000 respectively in value. In the same period Spaia
received exports from France averaging £4,700,000.
The trade of France was divided between foreign countries and
her colonies in the following proportions (imports and exports
combined).
1891-1895.
1896-190Q.
1901-1905.
Germany . . .
Belgium
United Kingdom . . .
Spain
United States . . . ..
Argentine Republic . .
"3.178
I543«
20,697
10.294
15.577
7."9
13*04
13."3
22,152
10,560
18491
10,009
17.363
13.057
».725.
6.525 ■
19.334
10.094
Other countries importing largely into France are Russia, Algeria
and British Jndia, whose imports in each case averaged over £9,000,000
in value in the period 1901-1905'. China (average value £7,000,000) ;
and Italy (average value £6,000,000).
The following are the principal countries receiving the exports of
France (special t cade), with values for the same periods.
1 Includes small fancy wares, toys, also wooden wares and furni-
ture, brushes, Ac.
' Decrease largely due to Spanish-American War (1898).
General Trade.
Special Trade.
Foreign
Countries.:
Colonies.
Foreign
Countries.
Colonies.
I 891-1805
1896-1900
1 901-1 905
92*00
91*18
9041
8-co
882
959
53
8878
9-11
10-14
11*22
The respective shares of the leading customs in the trade of the
country b approximately shown in the following table, which gixs
the value of their exports and imports (general trade) in 1905 m
millions sterling.
Marseilles .
Le Havre .
Paris . .
Dunkirk .
Bordeaux .
88-8
795
V'l
34-8
*7'4
Boulogne . * .
Calais. . . .
Dieppe- . . .
Rouen . . . :
BeUort-Petit-Croix
t
■7*5
141
13-5
"3
10-7
In the same year the other chief customs ia order of importance
were Tourcoing, Jeumont, Cette, St Nazaire and Avricourt.
The chief local bodies concerned with commerce and industry are
the chambrts de commerce and the chambres consutiatioes d'eris d
manufactures, the members of which are elected from their ovna
number by the traders and industrialists of a certain standi n*.
They are established in the chief towns, and their principal f uhcti- -a
is to adviie the government on measures for improving and facilitat-
ing commerce and industry within their circumscription. Sec also
Banks and Banking; Savings Banks; Post and Postal Serwc a.
Shipping. — The following table shows the increase in tonnage of
sailing and steam shipping engaged in foreign trade entered And
cleared at the ports of France over quinquennial periods from i<Jyo.
Entered.
Cleared.
French.
Foreign.
French.
Foreign.
1 891-1895
I 896-1900
1901-1905
4.277,967
4,665.268
4,782,101
9.947.893
12,037,571
14,744.626
4,521,928
5.005.563
5.503463
10.091,000
12.103.358
14*823,217
The increase of the French mercantile marine (which b fifth in
importance in the world) over the same period b traced in the
following table. Vessels of 2 net tons and upwards are enumerated.
Sailing.
StCfUB.
Total.
Nutate
uf
toad*.
Tooasfc.
NfMnte
VnscU.
*—
Nmafatr
of
Vostb.
T-s*
1891-1895
189601900
1901-1905
I4.I83
I4.327
14,867
402*98*
437468
642,562
Il82
I23I
1388
502463
504,674
617.536
15.365
15.558
16.255
90S,34S
942.142
1,260.09*
Atthebej
of these 13,
while 502 (t
The inert
countries te
ment to its
number of 1
trade b ha
scarcity of
paying bou
the French
France and
polios, threi
France b 1
to those of <
are the M
CompatnU
Marseilles)
{inning of
601 (tonn
onnage. 1
Base in tl
ads to do
merchan
(killed sea
mpered t
outward-
ntiesfori
flag, and
Algeria,
e-fourths
vithout s
>thergrea
essateria
GtnfraU
and the <
1908 the
age, 81,8
,014.506)
te tonnag
dine, wai
t sailing
men. Tl
yy the 00
bound ca
ressebeoi
byreserv
Ac, to F
of the sh
sipping c
t maritim
Maritim
TronsaiL
Thartturs
total wai
13) were
were ov
e of sai
due to
Beet wit
aeprosp
•tliness
rgo. Sh
utructet
ngthec
rench vi
ipping ii
ompante
enationi
«f (Ma
intiqm
Reunis
17.193 (t
vesaebd
ereootoi
ling vessx
thebount
h the sir
erityof tl
of shipbt
ipping ha
1 in Franc
casting ti
essebT E
1 French]
s compar
1. TheO
ratHles ai
Le Havr
LeHavn
m
is. a>
es vote*
rof mc
»s Frenc
uldings
is been 1
xaodss
ade.tra!
Respite t
sorts b J
able in
ireechid
ad Bord
e. St IN
0*
1,40* ,647);
in 20 tons,
h ia other
Iby parha-
rensing the
J» shipping
nd by the
catered by
ifittg undir
he betwrtra
sese mooo
preign, and
importance
companies
enux), the
laxaire and
OVERNMENTJ
FRANCB
789
Government and Administration.
Central Government.— The principles upon which the French
mstitution is based are representative government (by two
uunbers), manhood suffrage, responsibility of ministers and
responsibility of the head of the state. Alterations or modifica-
ons of the constitution can only be effected by the National
ssembly, consisting of both chambers sitting together ad hoc.
he legislative power resides in these two chambers— -the Senate
ad the Chamber of Deputies; the executive is vested in the
resident of the republic and the ministers. The members of
oth chambers owe their election to universal suffrage; but the
enate is not elected directly by the people and the Chamber of
deputies is.
The Chamber of Deputies, consisting of 584 members, is
ected by the scrutin d'arrondissement (each elector voting for
ae deputy) for a term of four years, the conditions of election
eing as follows: Each arrondissement sends one deputy if its
opulation does not exceed 100,000, and an additional deputy
>r every additional 100,000 inhabitants or fraction of that
umber. Every citizen of twenty-one years of age, unless subject
) some legal disability, such as actual engagement in military
irvice, bankruptcy or condemnation to certain punishments,
as a vote, provided that he can prove a residence of six months'
uration in any one town or commune. A deputy must be a
rench citizen, not under twenty-five years old. Each candidate
lust make, at leas* five days before the elections, a declaration
suing forth in what constituency he intends to stand. Be may
nly stand for one, and all votes given for him in any other than
bat specifiedin the declaration are void. To secure election a
andidate must at the first voting poll an absolute majority
nd a number of votes equal to one-fourth of the number of
lectors. If a second poll is necessary a relative majority Is
ufficient.
The Senate (see below, Lav and Institutions) is composed of
00 members who must be French citizens at least forty years
•f age. They are elected by the " scrutin de lisle " for a period of
tine years, and one-third of the body retires every three years.
the department which is to elect a senator when a vacancy
iccurs is settled by lot.
Both senators and deputies receive a salary of £600 per annum.
io member of a family that has reigned in France is eligible for
ither chamber.
Bills may be proposed either by ministers (in the name of the
Resident of the republic), or by private members, and may be
oitiated in either chamber, but money-bills must be submitted
the first place to the Chamber of Deputies. Every bill is first
xamined by a committee, a member of which is chosen to
1 report " on it to the chamber, after which it must go through
wo readings {dtiibirations), before it is presented to the other
hamber. Either house may pass a vote of no confidence in the
;overnment, and in practice the government resigns in face of
he passing of such a vote by the deputies, but not if it is passed
>y the Senate only. The chambers usually assemble in January
ach year, and the ordinary session lasts not less than five
nonths ; usually it continues till July. There is an extraordinary
ession from October till Christmas.
The president (see below, Law and Institutions) is elected for
seven years, by a majority of votes, by the Senate and Chamber
of Deputies sitting together as the National Assembly. Any
French citizen may be chosen president, no fixed age being
required. The only exception to this rule is that no member of
a royal family which has once reigned in France can be elected.
The president receives 1,200,000 francs (£48,000) a year, half as
salary, half for travelling expenses and the charges incumbent
upon the official representative of the country. Both the
chambers are summoned by the president, who has the power of
dissolving the Chamber of Deputies with the assent of the Senate.
When a change of Government occurs the president chooses a
prominent parliamentarian as premier and president of the
council. This personage, who himself holds a portfolio, nominates
the other ministers, his choice being subject to the ratification of
the chief of the state. The ministerial council (conieil des
ministres) is presided over by the president of the republic;
less formal meetings {conseUs de cabinet) under the presidency of
the premier, or even of some other minister, are also held.
The ministers, whether members of parliament or not, have
the right to sit in both chambers and can address the house
whenever they choose, though a minister may only vote in the
chamber of which he happens to be a member. There are twelve
ministries 1 comprising those of justice; finance; war; the
interior; marine; colonies; public instruction and fine arts;
foreign affairs; commerce and industry; agriculture; public
works; and labour and public thrift. Individual ministers
are responsible for all acts done in connexion with their own
departments, and the body of ministers collectively is responsible
for the general policy of the government.
The councfl of state {conseil a" Hat) is the principal council
of the bead of the state and his ministers, who consult* it on
various legislative problems, more particularly on questions
of administration. It is divided for despatch of business into
four sections, each of which corresponds to a group of two or three
ministerial departments, and is composed of (1) 33 councillors
" en service ordinaire " (comprising a vice-president and sectional
presidents), and 19. councillors " en service extraordinaire," i.e.
government officials who are deputed to watch the interests of
the ministerial departments to which they belong; and in matters
not concerned with those departments have a merely con-
sultative position; (2) 32 mattres da requites; (3) 40 auditors.
The presidency of the council of state belongs ex officio to the
minister of justice.
The theory of " droit administratif" lays down the principle that
an agent of the government cannot be prosecuted or sued for
acts relating to his. administrative functions before the ordinary
tribunals. Consequently there is a special system of administra*
tive jurisdiction for the trial of " le contentieux administratif "or
disputes m which the administration is concerned. The council
of state is the highest administrative tribunal, and includes a
special " Section du contentieux " to deal with judicial work of
this nature.
Local Government.— Twice is divided into 86 administrative
departments (including Corsica) or 87 if the Territory of Belfort,
a remnant of the Haut Rhin department, be included. These
departments are subdivided into 36a arrondissementa. 39x1
cantons and 36,223 communes.
Departments.
Capital Towns.
Ancient Provinces.*
Am
AlSNB
Bourg ......
Bourgogne (Brcase, Bugey, Valromey, Dombes).
lle-de- France; Picardie.
Bourbonnais.
Languedoe (Vhrarais).
Champagne.
Foix; Gascogne (Couserans).
Champagne ; Bourgogne.
Languedoe.
Guienne (Rouergue).
Allier ......
A l pes- Maritime*
Ardschb. ......
Ardennes » .
Aribcb ......
Aubb
Auos
AVBYRON
Moulin* . . . . .*
Nice
Privas ......
Mezieres
Foix
Troyes
Carcassonne
Rodcz
1 The administration of posts, telegraphs and telephones is assigned to the ministry of commerce and industry or to that of public
■orks.
• The province or provinces named are those out of which the department was chiefly formed.
79°
FRANCE
(GOVERSHBT
Departments.
Capital Towns.
Ancient Province*.
Basses-Alpes .
Basses- Pyrenees
Belfort, Tbrritoire db
BOUCHES-DU-Rh6nE
Calvados .
Cantal
C If A RENTE
C HA RENTE- INFEEIEU RE
CUBR
CORREZE .
C6tb-d'Or
C6tes-du-Nord
C REUSE
Deux-Sevres *
dordognb
Doubs
Dr6hb
EURB •
EuRE-ET-LOIR .
FlNISTEEB
Card •
Gees n
GlRONDB .
Hautb-Garonne
Hautb-Loire .
Hautb-Markb
Hautbs-Al res
Hautb-Saokb .
Hautb-Savoie
Hautes- Pyrenees
Hautb-Vienne
Hbrault
Illb-bt-Vilainb
Indrb
Indre-st-Loire
Issrb . . .
JORA •
Lanobs
LOIRB
Loire-Inferieure
LOIRBT
Loir-et-Chee .
Lot . . .
LOT-ET-GARONNBr
Lozers
Maine-et-Loire
Mamchb .
Marnb . .
Mayekne
Meurthe-et-Moselle
Meuse-
MORBIHAM
Nievrb
NORD .
OlSB .
Orns •
Pas-de-Calais
Puy-db-D6ms .
Pyrbnbes-Oribntales
Rhone
Sa6ne-et-Loirb
Sarthe
Savoie
Seine
Seinb-et-Marnb
Seine-et-Oisb
Ssine-Infxkisubk
Sows
Tarn
Tahn-et-Garonnb
Vak . . .
Vaucluse
Vendee
Vienne
Vosces
Yonnb
Corse (Corsica)
Digne
Pau .
Belfort
Marseilles
Caen .
Aurillac
Angouleme
LaRochelle
Bourses
Tulle
Dijon
St Brieuc
Gueret
Niort
Perigucux
Besancon ,
Valence
Evreux
Chart res
Quimpcr
Nlmes
Auch .
Bordeaux .
Toulouse
LePuy
Chaumont
Gap .
Vesoul
Annecy
Tarbcs
Limoges
Montpelhcr
Rennes
Ch&teauroux
Tours
Grenoble
Lons-le-Saunier
Mont-de-Marsan
St-Eticnne
Nantes
Orleans .
Blois . . .
Cahors .
Agen
Mcnc
ende
Angers
St-Lo . .
Chalons*ur-Marne
Laval.
Nancy
Bar-l&>Duc
Vannes
Nevers
Lille . , .
Bcauvais .
' Aicncon .
Arras
Clermont-Ferrand
Perpignaa
Lyon
Macon
Lie Mans .
Chambery
Paris
Melun
Versailles .
Rouen
Amiens
Albi . . .
Montauban
Dragtrignan
Avignon .
La Koche-sur-Yon
Poitiers .
Eplnal . .
Auxerre
Ajaccio .
Provence.
B*arn; Gascogne (Basse-Navarre, Soule. Laboerij.
Alsace.
Provence.
Normandie (Bessin, Bocage).
Auvcrgne.
Angoumois; Saintonge.
Aunis; Saintonge.
Berry; Bourbonnais.
Limousin.
Bourgogne (Dijonnais, Auxois).
Bretagne.
Marche.
Poitou.
Guienne (Pengord).
Francbe-Comte; MontbelianL
Dauphute.
Normandie; Perche.
Orleanais; Normandie.
Bretagne.
Languedoc
Gascogne (Astarac, Armagnac).
Guienne (Bordelais, Bazadais).
Languedoc; Gascogne (Comminges).
Languedoc (Vclay); Auvergne; Lyonnais,
Champagne (Bassigny, Vallage).
Dauphin*.
Francbe-Comte.
Gascogne.
Limousin; Marche.
Languedoc
Bretagne.
Berry.
Touraine.
Dauphine.
Franche-Comte.
Gascogne (Landes, Chalosse).
Lyonnais.
Bretagne.
Orleanais (Orleanais proper, Gfltinais, Dunois).
Orleanais.
Guuyjne (Qucrcy).
Guienne; Gascogne.
Languedoc (Gcvaudan).
Anjou.
Normandie (Cotcntin).
Champagne.
Maine; Anjou.
Lorraine; Trois-Evfches.
Lorraine (Barrois, Vcrdunois).
Bretagne.
Nivcrnais; Orleanais.
Flandre; Hainaut.
Ilcrde-France.
Normandie; Perche.
Artois; Picardic.
Auvergne.
Roussfllon; Languedoc
Lyonnais; Bcaujolaia*.
Bourgogne.
Maine; Anjou.
Ile-dc-France.
Ic-de-France; Champagne.
le-de-France.
Normandie.
Picardie.
Languedoc (Albigcois).
Guienne; Gascogne; Languedoc
Provence
Comtat; Vcnaisan; Provence; Prindpaute d'Oraajt
Poitou.
Poitou; Touraine.
Lorraine.
Bourgogne; Champagne.
Corse. ^
Before 1790 France was divided into thirty-three great and seven
email military governments, often, called provinces, which are, i
however, to be distinguished from the provinces, formed under the
feudal system. The great governments were: Alsace, Saintonge
1, Beam and Navarre,
iguuuy/, Bretagne (Brittany),
, Franche-Comte, Guienne and
Gascogne (Gascony). Ile-de-France, Languedoc, Limousin, Lorraine,
Lyonnais, Maine, Marche, Nivcrnais, Normandie, Oritenais, Picardie,
Poitou, Provence, Roussillon, Touraine and Corse. Thc-orX «*
governments were: Paris, Boulogne and Boulonnais, Le w ,?l
Sedan, Toulois, Pays Mcssin and Verdunois and Saumurois.
At the head of each department is a prelect, a political e£»
nominated by the minister of the interior and appointed by »
president, who acts as general agent of the govcrnmed **
representative of the central authority. To aid him the p**
OVBRNMENT)
PRANCE
791
is a general secretary aod an advisory body (conseU de pri-
vture), the members of which arc appointed by the president,
•hicb has jurisdiction in certain classes of disputes arising out
I administration and must, in certain cases, be consulted,
tough the prefect is not compelled to follow its advice. The
refect supervises the execution of the laws; has wide authority
t regard to policing, public hygiene and relief of pauper children;
as the nomination of various subordinate officials; and is in
arrespondence with the subordinate functionaries in his depart-
lent, to whom he. transmits the orders and instructions* of the
ovemment. Although the management of local affairs is in the
ands of the prefect his power with regard to these is checked
y a deliberative body known as the general council (conseU
bUraT). This council, which consists for the most part of
usiness and professional men, is elected by universal suffrage,
ich canton in the department contributing one member. The
eneral council controls the departmental administration of
se prefect, and its decisions on points of local government are
sually final. It assigns its quota of taxes (contingent) to each
rrondissement, authorizes the sale, purchase or exchange of
epartmental property, superintends the management thereof,
athorizes the construction of new toads, railways or canals,
ad advises on matters of local interest. Political questions
re rigorously excluded from its deliberations. The general
Duncil, when not sitting, is represented by a permanent delega-
on {commission dipartementale).
As the prefect in the department, so the sub-prefect in the
rrondissement, though with a more limited power, is the
jprescntative of the central authority. He is assisted, and in
>me degree controlled, in his work by the district council
vnscU d'arrendissemenf), to which each canton sends a member,
hosen by universal suffrage. As the arrondissement has neither
roperty nor budget, the principal business of the council is
) allot to each commune its share of the direct taxes imposed
n the arrondissement by the general council.
The canton is purely an administrative division, containing,
ir an average, about twelve communes, though some exceptional
ommunes- are big enough to contain more than one canton,
t is the seat of a justice of the peace, and is the electoral unit for
he general council and the district council.
The communes, varying greatly in area and population, are the
dministrative units in France. The duel magistrate of the
ommune b the mayor (moire), who is (i) the agent of the
entral government and charged as such with the local promulga-
ion and execution of the general laws and decrees of the country;
a) the executive head of the municipality, in which capacity
e supervises the police, the revenue and public works of the
ommune, and acts as the representative of the corporation in
eneral. He also "acts as registrar of births, deaths and marriages,
nd officiates at civil marriages. Mayors are usually assisted
y deputies (adjoints). In a commune of 2500 inhabitants or
ss there is one deputy; in more populous communes there
say be more, but in no case must the number exceed twelve,
xcept at Lyons, wtere as many as seventeen axe allowed. Both
layers and deputy mayors are elected by and from among
lembers of the municipal council for four years. This body
onsists, according to the population of the commune, of from
o to 36 members, elected for four years on therprlnciple of the
trutin de lisle by Frenchmen who have reached the age of
wenty-one years and have a six months' residence qualification.
The local affairs of the commune are decided by the municipal
ouncil, and its decisions become operative after the expiration
f a month, save in matters which involve interests transcending
hose of the commune. In such cases the prefect must approve
hem, and in some cases the sanction of the general council
r even ratification by the president is necessary. The council
Iso chooses communal delegates to elect senators; and draws
ip the list of rtpartitenrs, whose function is to settle how* the
ommune's share of direct taxes shall be allotted among the
axpayers. The sub-prefect then selects from this list ten of
rhom he approves for the post. The meetings of the council
xe open to the public
Justice.
The ordinary judicial system of France comprises two classes
of courts: (1) civil and criminal, (2) special, including courts
dealing only with purely commercial cases; in addition there
are the administrative courts, including bodies, the Conseit
d'Etat and the Conseils de Pr6fecture, which deal, in their
judicial capacity, with cases coming under the droU administratif.
Mention may also be made of the Tribunal des Conflits, a special
court whose function it is to decide which is the competent
tribunal when an administration and a judicial court both
claim or refuse to deal with a given case.
Taking the first class of courts, which have both civil and
criminal jurisdiction, the lowest tribunal in the system is that of
the jugede paix.
In each canton is ijugede patXy who in his capacity as a civil
judge takes cognizance, without appeal, of disputes where the
amount sought to be recovered does not exceed £r a in value.
Where the amount exceeds £ra but not £24 an appeal lies from
his decision to the court of first instanon. In some particular
cases where special promptitude or local knowledge is necessary,
as disputes between hotelkeepers and travellers, and .the like,
he has jurisdiction (subject to appeal to the court of first instance)
up to £60. He has also a criminal jurisdiction in contraventions t
i.e. breaches of law punishable by a fine not exceeding 123*
or by imprisonment not exceeding five days. If the sentence
be one of imprisonment or the fine exceeds 4s., appeal lies to the
court of first instance. It is an important function of the jugs
de paix to endeavour to reconcile disputants who come before
him, and no suit can be brought before the court of .first instance
until he has endeavoured without success to bring the parties to
an agreement.
Tribunaux de premiere instance, also called tribune**
d* arrondissement, of which there is one in every arrondissement
(with few exceptions), besides serving as courts of appeal from
the juges de paix have an original jurisdiction in matters civil
and criminal. The court consists of & president, one or more
vice-presidents and a variable number of judges. A procureur,
or public prosecutor, is also attached to each court. In civil
matters the tribunal takes cognizance of actions relating to
personal property to -the value of £60, and actions relating to
land to the value of 60 fr. (£2: 8s.) per annum. When it deals
with matters involving larger sums an appeal lies to the courts
of appeal In penal cases its jurisdiction extends to all offences
of the class known as dilits — offences punishable by a more
serious penalty than the " contraventions " dealt with by the
juge de paix, but not entailing such heavy penalties as the code
applies to crimes, with which the- assize courts (see below)
deal. When sitting in its capacity as a criminal court it is
known as the tribunal comctionnel. Its judgments are in-
variably subject in these matters to appeal before the court
of appeal.
There are twenty-six courts of appeal (ceurs d'appel), to each
of which are attached from one to five departments.
Cours d'Appel. Departments depending on them.
Paris . . . Seine, Aube, Eurc-et-Loir, Marne, Scine-et-Marne,
Scine-et-Owe, Yonnc,
Ackv . . . Gcrs, Lot, Lot-et-Garonne.
Aix . . . Basses-Alpcs, Alpes-Maritimes, Bouches-du-Hh6ne,
Var.
Amxkhs . . Aisne, Oiae, Somme.
Angers . . Maine-et-Lotre, Mayenne, Sarthe.
Bastia . . Corse.
Besancom . Doubs, Jura, Haute-Saone, Territoire de Belfort.
Bordeaux . Charente, Dordogne, Gironde.
Bourcks . . Cher, Indrc, Nievre.
Caen . . . Calvados, Manche, Orne.
Chamdery . Savoie, Haute-Savoie.
Dijon . . . Cdte-d'Or, Haute-Marne, Saone-et-Loire.
Douai. . . Nord, Pas-de-Calais.
Grbnoblb . Hautes-Alpes, Drome, Ieere.
Limoges . . Correae, (.reuse, Haute- Vienne.
Lyons . . . Ain, Loire, Rh6ne.
MoNTFSLiiKR Aude. Aveyron, Herault, Pyrfnecs-Orientales.
Nancy . . Mcurthe-et-MoscUe. Meusc, Vosges. Ardennes.
NIxbs . . . Ardeche. Gard, Lozere, Vaudose.
n*
FRANCE
tjosna
Cours d'Appel.
OuiAMS . .
Pau . , .
Poitiers .. .
RSKNBS . .
RlOM . „ .
ROUBN. . .
Toulouse. .
Departments depending on them.
;-Loire, Lolr-et-Cher, Loiret.
„ Masses-Pyrenees, Hattte^fyrenees.
Charente-Inferieure, Deux-Sevres, vendee, Vienne.
Cotes-du-Nord. Fini&tece, Ille-ct-Vilaine, Loire-
Inferieure, Morbihan.
Allier, Cantal, Hautc-Loire, Puy-de-Ddme.
Euro, Scine-Infeneure.
Ariege, Haute-Garonne, Tarn, Tarn-et-Garoane.
At the head of' each court, which 2s divided into sections
(ckambres), is s premier president. Each section (chambre) con*
sfets of a president de chambre and four judges (conseittersj.
Procureurs-generaux and aoocatl-geniraux are also attached to
the parquet, or permanent official staff, of the courts of appeal
The principal function of these, courts is the hearing of appeals
both civil and criminal from the courts of first instance; only in
some few cases (eg. discharge, of -bankrupts) do they exercise an
original jurisdiction. One of the sections is termed the chambre
des mists en accusation. Its function is to examine criminal
cases and to decide whether they shall be referred for trial to the
lower courts or the cours d'assises. It may also dismiss a case on
grounds of insufficient evidence.
The cours d? assises are not separate .and permanent tribunals.
Every three months an assue is held in each department, usually
at the chief town, by «. amsculcr,. appointed ad hoc, of the court
of appeal upon which the department depends. The cour
d'assises occupies itself entirely with offences of the most serious
type, classified under the penal code as crimes, in accordance
with the severity of the. penalties attached. The president is
assisted in his duties' by two. Other magistrates, who may be
chosen either from among th^^onstUlers of the court of appeal
or the presidents or judges of the local court of first instance.
In this court and in this court alone there is always a jury of
twelve. They decide, as in England, on facts only, leaving the
application^ the law to the judges. The verdict is- given by a
simple majority.
In all criminal prosecutions, other than those coming before
the jiff e de pais, a secret preliminary investigation is made by
an official called a juge oVinstrucHon. He may either dismiss
the case at once by an order of " non-lieu," or order it to be
tried, when the prosecution is undertaken by the procureur
or procureur-general. This process in some degree corre-
sponds to the manner in which English magistrates dismiss a
case or commit the prisoner to quarter sessions or assizes, but
the powers of the juge cVinstruction are more arbitrary and
absolute.
The highest tribunal in France is the cour de cassation, sitting
at Paris, and consisting of a first president, three sectional
presidents and forty-five couseillcrs, with a ministerial staff
(parquet) consisting of a procureur-general and six advocates*
general It is divided into three sections: the Chambre des
Requites, or court of petitions, the. civil court and the* criminal
court. The cour de cassation can review the decision of any
other tribunal, except administrative courts. Criminal appeals
usually go straight to the criminal section, while civil appeals are
generally taken before the Chambre des Requites, where they
undergo a preliminary examination. If the demand for re-
hearing is refused such refusal is final; but if it is granted the
case is then heard by the dvfl chamber, and after argument
cassation (annulment) is granted or refused. The Court of
Cassation does not £2ve the ultimate decision on a case; it
pronounces, not on the question of fact, but on the legal principle
at issue, or the competence of the court giving the original
decision. Any decision, even one of a cour d'assises, 'may be
brought before it in the last resort, and may be cassi — annulled.
If it pronounces, cassation it remits the case to tfce hearing of a
court of the same order.
Commercial courts (tribunaux de commerce) are established in
all the more important commercial towns to decide as expediti-
ously as possible disputed points arising out of business trans-
actions. They consist of judges, chosen, from among the leading
merchants, and elected by commercards patenUs depuis cinq arts,
i a persons who have held the licence to trade (see Finance) for
five yean and upwards. In the absence of a frtto^ & «» ■■■ i
commercial cases come before the ordinary tribunal d'arremisz
ment.
In important industrial towns tribunals called conscsi i
prud'hommes are instituted to deal with disputes betas-
employers and employees, actions arising out of contrary -
apprenticeship and the like. They are composed of empLvr
and workmen in equal numbers and are established by decrc :
the council of state, advised by the minister of justice. 7.
minister of justice is notified of the necessity for a cesser «-
prud'kommes by the* prefect, acting jm» the advice <c& i.t
municipal council and the Chamber of Commerce or •-
Chamber of Arts and Manufactures. The judges ait eJsr_
by employers and workmen of a certain standing. When u-;
amount claimed exceeds ,£ia- appeal lies -to. the frftau
oVarrondissemenl. .
Po/kz.— Broadly, the 'police- of France may be divided are
two great branches:— administrative police (la Relict edm*s:\
strative) and judicial police (la police judiciaire), the former hariq
for its object the maintenance of order, and the latter cKarftJ
with tracing put offenders, collecting the proofs, and deliver.:-
the presumed offenders to the tribunals charged by law w£j|
their trial and punishment. Subdivisions may be, and often r~.
named according to the particular duties to which they -
assigned, as la police politique, police des maws, police sauiisi? .
&c. The officers of the judicial police comprise the jug? de jej
(equivalent to the English police magistrate), the «dr<, tl*i
commissaire de police, the gendarmerie and, in rural districts, tfe
gardes ckamfttrcs and the gardes fbresticrs. Gordicns de la f^
(sometimes called sergents de vtile, gardes, de xUk or ag*%u is
police) are not to be confounded with the gendarmerie, bckf *
branch of the administrative police and corresponding more v
less nearly with the English equivalent "police constables."
which the gendarmerie do -not, although both perform pcL/
duty* The gendarmerie, however, differ from the agems w
gardes both in uniform and in the fact that they are for :4
most part country patrols, The organization of the Paris pofer
which is typical of that, in other large towns, may be outlet :
briefly. The central administration (administration ceu+v
comprises three classes of functions which together onnstitu:
la police. First there is the office or cabinet of the prefect for tk
general police (la police generate), with bureaus for varies*
objects, such as the safety of the president of the republic, tfe*
regulation and order of public ceremonies, theatres, sunusczecs^
and entertainments, &c; secondly, the judicial police (la pd--:
judiciaire), with numerous bureaus also, in constant cotanMnka-
tion with the courts of judicature; thirdly, the adzninistrathv
police (la police administrative) including bureaus, which kjjxt
intend navigation, public carriages, -animals, public heahh, &-
Concurrently with these divisions there is the municipal police
which comprises all the agents in enforcing police regulations is
the streets or public thoroughfares, acting under the orders « 1
chief (chef de la police municipal) with a central bureau. Tn
municipal police is divided into two principal branches — t.-
service in uniform of the agents de police and the service out a
uniform of inspeckurs de police. In Paris the municipal pbba
are divided among the twenty arrondSssements, which tfcf
uniform police patrol (see further Paris and Police);
Prisons.— The prisons of France, some of them attached to ik
ministry of the interior, are complex in their dassificaiion. h
is only from the middle of the 19th century that close aUcr.tun
has been given to the principle of individual separation. Celur
imprisonment was, however, partially adopted for pcrsoo
awaiting trial. Central prisons, in which prisonera lived ssc
worked in association, had been in existence from the cx«r«me&o>
ment of the 19th century. These prisons received all senteeccc
to short terms of imprisonment, the long-term convicts going u
the bagnes (the great convict prisons at the arsenals of Rochefoi
Brest and Toulon), while in 1851 transportation to penal coie&ks
was adopted. In 1869 and 1871 commissions were appointed t.
inquire into prison discipline, and as a consequence of the repcr.
of the last commission, issued in 1874, the principle of ceihuri
[NANCE]
FRANCE
793
tnfinement was put in operation the following year. There
ere, however, but few prisons in France adapted for the cellular
'stem, and the process of reconstruction has been slow. In
lo8 the old Paris prisons of Grande-Roquette, Saint-Pelagie
id Mazas were demolished, and to replace them a large prison
ith 1500 cells was erected at Fresncs-les-Rungis. There are
) the maison d'arrll, temporary places of durance in every
Tondissement for persons charged with offences, and those
ntenced to more than a year's imprisonment who are awaiting
ansfer to a maison centrale; (2) the maison de justice, often part
id parcel of the former, but only existing in the assize court
iwns for the safe custody of those tried or condemned at the
sizes; (3) departmental prisons, or maisons de correction,' fox
immary convictions, or those sentenced to less than a year, or,
provided with sufficient cells, those amenable to separate con-
tinent; (4) maisons centrales and pinitenciers agricoles, for all
ntenced to imprisonment for more than a year, or to hard
hour, or to those condemned to travoux fords for offences com-
itted in prison. There are eleven maisons centrales, nine for
en (Loos, Clairvaux, Beaulieu, Poissy, Melun, Fontevrault,
bouars, Riom and Nimes); two for women (Rennes and
[ontpellier). The pinitenciers agricoles only differ from the
visons centrales in the matter of regime; there are two — at
astelluccio and at Chiavari (Corsica). There are also re-
•rmatory establishments for juvenile offenders, and diptts de
Ireti for prisoners who are travelling, at places where there are
other prisons. For the penal settlements at a distance from
ranee see Deportation.
Finance.
At the head of the financial organization of France, and
xerrising a general jurisdiction, is the minister of finance,
rho co-ordinates in one general budget the separate budgets
repared by his colleagues and assigns to each ministerial
cpartment the sums necessary for its expenses.
The financial year in France begins on the xst of January,
nd the budget of each financial year must be laid on the tabic
L j f of the Chamber of Deputies in the course of the ordinary
~^" session of the preceding year in time for the discussion
ipon it to begin in October and be concluded before the 31st of
)ecember. It is then submitted to a special commission of the
number of Deputies, elected for one year, who appoint a general
eporter and one or more special reporters for each of the minis-
ries. When the Chamber of Deputies has voted the budget it
1 submitted to a similar course of procedure in the Senate.
Vhen the budget has passed both chambers it is promulgated by
be president under the title of Loi des finances. In the event of
is not being voted before the 31st of December, recourse is had
the system of " provisional twelfths " (douziemes pronsoircs),
rhereby the government is authorized by parliament to incur
xpenses for one, two or three months on the scale of the previous
ear. The expenditure of the government has several times
ieen regulated for as long as six months upon this system.
In each department an official collector (Trisorier payeur gintrat)
eceives the taxes and public revenue collected therein and accounts
»..— — for them to the central authority in Paris. In view of his
responsibilities he has. before appointment, to pay a large
eposit to the treasury. Besides receiving taxes, they pay the
redltors of the state in their departments, conduct all operations
fleeting departmental loans, buy and sell government stock (rentes)
n behalf of individuals, and conduct certain banking operations,
'be trisorier nearly always lives at the chief town of the department,
nd is assisted by a receveur parliculier des finances in each arrondisse-
nent (except that in which the trisorier himself resides). From the
eceveur a demanded a security equal to five times his total income.
The direct taxes are actually collected by percepteurs. In the
ommune an official known as the receveur municipal receives all
noneys due to it, and, subject to the authorization of the mayor,
nakes all payments due from it. In communes with a revenue
i less than £2400 the pereepteur fulfils the functions of receveur
municipal, but a special official may be appointed in communes
mh large incomes.
The direct taxes fall into two classes. (1) ImpSU de repartition
apportionment), the amount to be raised being fixed in advance
innually and then apportioned among the departments. They
indnde the land tax, 1 the personal and habitation tax (contribution
personmetU-mobUiere), and door and window tax. (2) Impdts da
guotiti, which are levied directly on the individual, who pays his
quota according to a fixed tariff. These comprise the tax on
buildings 1 and the trade-licence tax (tmpot des patentes). Besides
these, certain other taxes (taxes assimiUes aux contributions directes)
are included under the heading of direct taxation, e.g. the tax on
property in mortmain, dues for the verification of weights and
measures, the tax on royalties from mines, on horses, mules and
carriages, on cycles, Ac
The land tax falls upon land not built upon in proportion to its net
yearly revenue. It is collected in accordance with a register of
property (cadastre) drawn up for the most part in the first half of the
10th century, dealing with every piece of property in France, and
giving its extent and value and the name of the owner. The re-
sponsibility of keeping this register accurate and up to date is divided
between the state, the departments and the communes, and involves
a special service and staff of experts. The building tax consists of a
levy of 3*20% of the rental value of the property, and is charged
upon the owner.
The personal and habitation tax consists in fact of two different
taxes, one imposing a fixed capitation charge on all citizens alike
of every department, the charge, however, varying according to the
department from 1 fc. 90c (is. 3d.) to 4 f cs> 50 c (3s. od.), the other
levied on every occupier of a furnished house or of apartments in
proportion to its rental value,
The tax on doors and windows is levied in each case according to the
number of apertures, and is fixed with reference to population, the
inhabitants of the more populous paying more than those of the less
populous communes,
The trade4icence tax (impdt des patentes) \% imposed on every person
carrying on any business whatever; it affects professional men,
bankers and manufacturers, as well as wholesale and retail traders,
and consists of (1) a fixed duty levied not on actual profits but with
reference to the extent of a business or calling as indicated by number
of employes, population of the locality and other considerations.
(2) An assessment on the letting value of the premises in which a
business or profession is carried on.
The administrative staff includes, for the purpose of computing the
individual quotas of the direct taxes, a director assisted by controteurs
in each department and subordinate to a central authority in Paris,
the direction genirale des contributions directes.
Thei " ---' *
customs;
taxes."
Registration (enregtstrenwU) duties are charged on the transfer of
property in the way of business (d litre onireux); on changes in
ownership effected in the way of donation or succession (a litre
gratuti), and on a variety of other transactions which must be
registered according to law. The revenue from stamps includes
as its chief items the returns from stamped paper, stamps on
goods traffic securities and share certificates and receipts and
cheques.
The Direction generate de Venregistrement, des domaines et du timbre,
comprising a central department and a director and staff of agents
in each department, combines the administration of state property
(not including forests) with the exaction of registration and sump
duties.
The Ciwtom&(douane), at one time only a branch of the administra-
te n r^f the contributions indirectes, were organized in 1869 as a special
service. The central office at Paris consists of a directeur general
and 1 wo adm inistrateurs, nominated by the president of the republic
Th>-^e oJVici..!* form a council of administration presided over by the
mim-.Lf ...r finance. The service in the departments comprises
brii'idtn. v- Inch are actually engaged in guarding the frontiers, and a
cUtj-.j) <tjff (service de bureau) entrusted with the collection of the
du '. i is. Hi 1 re are twenty-four districts, each under the control of a
diffiitif. ■ isted by inspectors, sub-inspectors and other officials.
Thi- uhk-f K-wns of these districts are Algiers, Bayonne, Besaneon,
B< <\. Boulogne, Brest, Chambfry, Charfeville, Dunkirk,
£iji rul. La R xhelie, Le Havre, Lille, Lyons, Marseilles, Montpellier,
Nfjn.-v . Njmes,Nke,Paris, Perpi^nan.Rouen.St-Malo.Valencicnnes.
Tiutc •■* j1 vi an official performing the functions of a director at
Bastia, in Lorsica.
The group specially described as Indirect taxes includes those on
alcohol, wine. Deer, cider and other alcoholic drinks, on passenger
and goods traffic by railway, on licences to distillers, spirit-sellers,
&c., on salt and on sugar of home manufacture. The collection of
these excise duties as well as the sale of matches, tobacco and gun-
powder to retailers, is assigned to a special service In each department
subordinated to a central administration. To the above taxes
must be added the tax on Stock Exchange transactions and the tax of
4 % on dividends from stocks and shares (other than state loans).
Other main sources of revenue are: the domains and forests
managed by the state; government monopolies, comprising tobacco,
matches, gunpowder; posts, telegraphs, telephones; and state
; indirect taxes comprise the charges on registration: stamps;
ns; and a group of taxes specially described as indirect
1 The tax on land (proprUlcs non bdties) and that on buildings
(propriilis boties) arc included under the head of contribution fonciera*
79+
FRANCE
(ABIT
railways. An administrative tribunal called the cour des c+mpUs
subjects the accounu of the state's financial agents (trisorurt-
payeurs, receveurs of registration fees, of customs, of indirect taxes.
&c.) and of the communes 1 to a close investigation, and a vote of
definitive settlement is finally passed by parliament. The Cour des
Comptes, an ancient tribunal, was abolished in 1791, and reorganized
by Napoleon I. in 1807. It consists of a president and 110 other
officials, assisted by 25 auditors. All these are nominated for life
by the president 01 the republic. Besides the accounts of the state
and of the communes, those of charitable institutions 1 and training
colleges 1 and a great variety of other public establishments arc
scrutinized by the Cour des Comptes.
The following table shows the rapid growth of the state revenue of
France during the period 1875-1905, the figures for the specified years
representing millions of pounds.
1875-
1880.
1885.
I89O.
1895-
Average
1896-1900.
Average
1 901-1905.
108
118
122
129
137
144
147
Of the revenue in 1905 (150} million pounds) the four direct taxes
produced approximately 20 millions. Other principal items of
revenue were: Registration 25 millions, stamps 7 J millions, customs
18 millions, inland revenue on liquors 16 J millions, receipts from the
tobacco monopoly 18 millions, receipts from post office loj millions.
Since 1875 the expenditure of the state has passed through con-
siderable fluctuations. It reached its maximum in 1883, descended
_ _ in 1888 and 1880, and since then has continuously in-
ZjJ; creased. It was formerly the custom to divide the credits
voted for the discharge of the public services into two
heads^— the ordinary and extraordinary budget. The ordinary
budget of expenditure was that met entirely by the produce of the
taxes, while the extraordinary budget of expenditure was that which
had to be incurred either in the way of an immediate loan or in aid
of the funds of the floating debt. The policy adopted after 1890
of incorporating in the ordinary budget the expenditure on war,
marine and public works, each under its own head, rendered the
" extraordinary budget " obsolete, but there are still, besides the
ordinary budget, budgets annexes, comprising the credits voted to
certain establishments under state supervision, e.g. the National
Savings Bank, state railways, &c. The growth of the expenditure
of France is shown in the following summary figures, which represent
millions of pounds.
1875.
1880.
1885.
1890.
1895.
Average
1896-1900.
Average
1901-1905.
117
135
139
13a
137
143
147
The chief item of expenditure (which totalled 148 million pounds
in 1905) is the service of the public debt, which in 1905 cost 48J
million pounds sterling. Of the rest of the sum assigned to the
ministry of finance (59J millions in all) 8 J millions w h<> ex-
pense of collection of revenue. The other ministries w3
outgoings were the ministry of war (the expenditure 1
from 25} millions in 1895 to over 30 millions in 1905)
of marine (io J millions in 1895, ov * r 12} millions in 1905:
,;t *| ,
Ml-.
■l.ir.-est
i li : >se
ry
..... - .„. ■ > , „ .. p ministry
of public works (with an expenditure in 1005 of ovtt 20 K&Bans,
10 millions of which was assigned to posts, telegraphs and 1 d eptlO W cs )
and the ministry of public instruction, fine arts and public worship,
the expenditure on education having risen from 7 J mil! ions in [895
to oj millions in 1905.
Public Debt. — The national debt of France is the heaviest of any
country in the world. Its foundation was bid early in the 15th
century, and the continuous wars of succeeding centuries, combined
with the extravagance of the monarchs, as well as deliberate dis-
regard of financialand economic conditions, increased it at an alarm-
ing rate. The duke of Sully carried out a revision in 1604, and other
attempts were made by Mazarin and Colbert, but the extravagances
of Louis XV. swelled it again heavily. In 176A the national debt
amounted to 2,360.000,000 livros, and theannualcnangcto93.ooo.ooo
livres. A consolidation was effected in 1793. but the lavish issue of
assignats fo.tr.) destroyed whatever advantage might have accrued,
and the debt was again dealt with by a law ofthc 9th of Vendemiaire
year VI. (27th of September 1797), the annual interest paid yearly
to creditors then amounting to 40.216,000 francs (£1,600,000).
During the Directory a sum of £250,000 was added to the interest
charge, and by 18 14 this annual charge had risen to £2,530,000.
This large increase is to be accounted for by the fact that during the
Napoleonic regime the government steadily refused to issue in-
convertible paper currency or to meet war expenditure by borrowing.
The following table shows the increase of the funded debt since
1814.'
1 With revenues of over £1200.
* For a history of the French debt, see C. F. Bastable, Public
Finance (1903)-
Date.
April I,
April 1,
March 1,
January 1,
1814
1830
1848
1852
1871
1876
1887
1895
1905
Nominal Capital
(Millions of £).
50|
220
12!
1038
1037
Interest
(Millions* L
8
3*1
3»
The French debt as constituted in 1905 was made up of fere-,
debt and floating debt as follows:
Funded Debt.
Perpetual 3 % rentes £888.870^%
Terminable 3 % rentes 14fi.490.4fGu
Total of funded debt
Guarantees to railway companies, Ac. (in
capital)
Other debt in capital
Floating Debt.
Exchequer bills
Liabilities on behalf of communes and public
establishments, including departmental
services
Deposit and current accounts of Caisse des
depots, &c, including savings banks
Caution money of Tresoriers payeurs-generaux
Other liabilities
Total of floating debt ....
£t.Q37J6o.^
£69.724^*1:
46^00^
£9^23^0
17^66^20
15^28.840
6,456.20c
£50,506,720
Departmental Finances. — Every department has a budget ef
own, which is prepared and presented by the prefect, voted b. :
departmental council and approved by decree of the president c£ -
republic. The ordinary receipts include the revenues froas v
property of the department, the produce of additional centu*
which are levied in conjunction with the direct taxes for the ss--
tcnance of both departmental and communal finances, state in-
ventions and contributions of the communes towards certain branch
of poor relief and to maintenance of roads. The chief expetMcs of tf*
departments are the care of pauper children and lunatics, v
maintenance of high-roads and the service of the departmental <> -
Communal Finances. — The budget of the commune is prepsa-.
by the mayor, voted by the municipal council and a p pro v ed by \
prefect. But in communes the revenues of which exceed £1203.
the budget is always submitted to the president of the re?c>-
The ordinary revenues include the produce of " additional centm^
allocated to communal purposes, the rents and profits of cotnrr .-_
property, sums produced by municipal taxes and dues, concw^ -
to gas, water and other companies, and by the octroi (qj>.) or <&-•
on a variety of articles imported into the commune for local c *
sumption. The repairing of highways, the upkeep of public b<_ '
ings, the support ol public education, the remuneration of nu& <-
officials connected with the collection of state taxes, the kerr '
of the cadastre, Ac, constitute the principal objects of coohsw^
expenditure.
Both the departments and the communes have considerr
public debts. The departmental debt in 1904 stood at 24 ra' ? -
pounds, and the communal debt at 153 million pounds. (R. Tfi.
Army.
Recruiting and Strength. — Universal compulsory service **c
adopted after the disasters of 1 870-1 871, though in prince
it had been established by Marshal Niel's reforms a few ytsz
before that date. The most important of the recruiting lav-
passed since 1870 are those of 1872, 1889 and 1005, the L»
the " loi de deux ans " which embodies the last efforts of l~-
French war department to keep pace with the ever-gro* .-;
numbers of the German empire. Compulsory service with *
colours is in Germany no longer universal, as there are ts*.
as many able-bodied men presented by the recruiting or
missions as the active army can absorb. France, with a grtr: ; -
inferior population, now trains every man who is phys'.iT
capable. This law naturally made a deep impression on miliu*
Europe, not merely because the period of colour service «~-
reduced— Germany *had taken this step years before— t
because of the almost entire absence of the usual cxemptk.u-
» In 1894 the rentes then standing at 4i% were reduced to ji v
and in 1902 to 3%.
*my) FRANCE
ton bread-winners are required to serve, the state pensioning
hcii dependants (75 centimes per diem, up to 10% of the
Lrength) during their period o! service. Dispensations, and also
be one-year voluntariat, which bad become a short cut (or the
xalled " intellectual class " to employment in the civil service
ither than a means of training reserve officers, were abolished.
.very Frenchman therefore is a member of the army practically
r potentially from the age of twenty to the age of forty.five.
iach year there is drawn up in every commune a list of the
oung men who attained the age of twenty during the previous
ear. These young men are then examined by a revising body
Corueil de revision canUnal) composed of dvil and military
mcials. Men physically unfit are wholly exempted, and men
tho have not, at the time of the examination, attained the
equixed physical standard are put back for re-examination
fter an interval Men who, otherwise suitable, have some
light infirmity are drafted into the non-combatant branches.
The minimum height for the infantry soldier is 1-54 m n or
i ft. i in., but men of special physique are taken below this
leight. In 1904, under the old system of three-years' service
nth numerous total and partial exemptions, 324*353 men
wcame liable to incorporation, of whom 35432 were rejected
is unfit, 55,265 were admitted as one-year volunteers, 62,160
rere put back, 27,825 had already enlisted with a view to making
he army a career, 5257 were taken for the navy, and thus, with
1 few extra details and casualties, the contingent for full service
lwindled to 147.549 recruits. In 1906, 326,703 men had to
>resent themselves, 35,348 had already enlisted, 4923 went to
he navy, 68,526 were put back, 33,777 found unfit, which,
ieducting 3128 details, gives an actual incorporated contingent
A 191 ,091 young men of twenty-one to serve for two full years (in
ach case, for the sake of comparison, men put back from former
fears who were enrolled are omitted). In theory a two-years'
:ontingent of course should be half -as large again as a three-years'
one, but in practice, France has not men enough for so great
an increase. Still the law of 1905 provides a system whereby
there is room with the colours for every available man, and
moreover ensures his services. The net gain in the 1906 class
is not far short of 50,000, and the proportion of the new contingent
to the old is practically 5 : 4. The Id des cadres of 1 907 introduced
many important changes of detail supplementary to the lot de
dtux ans. Important changes were also made in the provisions
and administration of military law. The active army, then,
at a given moment, say November x, 1908, is composed of all
the young men, not legally exempted, who have reached the age
of twenty in the years 1906 and 1907. It is at the disposal
of the minister of war, who can decree the recall of all men dis-
charged to the reserve the previous year and all those whose
time of service has for any reason been shortened. The reserves
of the active army are composed of those who have served
the legal period in the active army. These are recalled twice,
in the eleven years during which they are members of the reserve,
for refresher courses. The active army and its reserve are not
localized, but drawn from and distributed over the whole of
France. The advantages of a purely territorial system have
tempted various War Ministers to apply it, but the results were
not good, owing to the want of uniformity in the military
qualities and the political subordination of the different districts.
One result of this is that mobilization and concentration are
much slower processes than they are in Germany.
The Territorial Army and its reserve (members of which
undergo two short periods of training) are, however, allocated
to local service. The soldier spends six years in the Territorial
Army, and six in the reserve of the Territorial Army. The
reserves of the active army and the Territorial Army and its
reserve can only be recalled to active service in case of emergency
and by decree of the bead of the state.
The total service rendered by the individual soldier is thus
twenty-five years. He is registered at the age of twenty, is
called to the colours on the 1st of October of the nest year,
discharged to the active army reserve on the 30th of September
of the second year thereafter, to the Territorial Army at the
•793
date thirteen complete years after his nxosporatioa, and
finally discharged from the reserve of the Territorial Army
on the twenty-fifth anniversary of his entry into the active army.
On November 1, 1008, then the active army was composed of
the classes registered 1906 and 1907, the reserve of the classes
1895-1905, the Territorial Army of those of 1889-1894 and the
Territorial Army reserve of those of 1883-1888.
1b 1906 the peace strength of the army in France was estimated
at 532,593 officers and men; in Algeria $4,S&o; in Tunis 20,320;
total 607.403. Deducting vacancies, sick and absent, the
effective strength of the active army in 1906 was 540,563; of
the gendarmerie and Garde Republicaine 24,512; of colonial
troops in the colonies 58,568. The full number of persons liable
to be called upon for military service and engaged in such service
is calculated (1908) as 4,800,000, of whom 1 ,350,000 of the active
army and the younger classes of army reserve would constitute
the field armies set on foot at the outbreak ol war. 150,000
horses and mules arc maintained on a peace footing and 600,000
on a war footing.
Organhaihn. — The general organization of the French army
at home is based on the system of permanent army corps, the
headquarters of which are as follows: L Lille, II. Amiens,
III. Rouen, IV. Le Mans, V. Orleans, VI. ChAlons-sur-Maroe,
VJX Besancon, VIII. Bourges, IX. Tours, X. Rennes, XI.
Nantes, XII. Limoges, XIII. Clermont-Ferrand, XIV. Lyons,
XV. Marseilles, XVI. MontpeUier, XVII. Toulouse, XVIIL
Bordeaux, XIX, Algiers and XX. Nancy. Each army corps
consists in principle of two infantry divisions, one cavalry
brigade, one brigade of horse and field artillery, one engineer
battalion and one squadron of train. But certain army corps
have a special organisation. The VI. corps (Chalons) and the
VII. (Besancon) consist of three divisions each, and the XIX.
(Algiers) has three divisions of its own as well as the division
occupying Tunis. In addition to these corps there are eight
permanent cavalry divisions with headquarters at Paris, Lune-
ville, Meaux, Sedan, Reims, Lyons, Melun and Dole. The
military government of Paris is independent of the army corps
system and comprises, besides a division of the colonial army
corps (see below), 3 J others detached from the II., III., IV. and
V. corps, as well as the xst and 3rd cavalry divisions and many
smaller bodies of troops. The military government of Lyons
is another independent and special command; it comprises
practically the XIV. army corps and the 6th cavalry division.
The infantry division consists of 2 brigades, each of a regiment*
of 3 or 4 battalions (the 4 battalion regiments have recently
been reduced for the most part to 3), with x squadron cavalry
and 12 batteries, attached from the corps troops,. in war a pro-
portion of the artillery would, however, be taken back to form
the corps artillery (see AnnusaY and Tactics). The cavalry
division consists of 2 or 3 brigades, each of 2 regiments or 8
squadrons, with 2 horse artillery batteries attached. The army
corps consists of headquarters, 2 (or 3) infantry divisions, 1
cavalry brigade, 1 artillery brigade (2 regiments, comprising el
field and a horse batteries), x engineer battalion, &c. In war
a group of " Rimailbo " heavy howitzers (see Ordnance:
Heavy Field and Light Siege Units) would be attached. It is
proposed, and accepted in principle, to increase the number of
guns in the army corps by converting the horse batteries in 18
army corps to field batteries, which, with other measures, enables
the number of the latter to be increased to 36 (144 guns)
The organization of the " metropolitan troops " by regiments
is (0) 163 regiments of line infantry, some of which are affected
to " regional " duties and do not enter into the composition of
their army corps for war, 31 battalions of chasseurs d pied t
mostly stationed in the Alps and the Vosges, 4 regiments of
Zouaves, 4 regiment* of Algerian tirailleurs (natives, often
called Turcos 1 ), 2 foreign legion regiments, 5 battalions of
African light infantry (disciplinary regiments), &c; (0) 12
' Algerian native troops are recruited by voluntary enlistment.
But in T9o8 r owing to the prevailing want of trained soldiers in
France, it was proposed to set free the white troops in Algeria by
applying the principles of universal service to the natives, aa in Tunis.
796
regiments of cuirassiers, 3s of dragoons, at of chasseur t a ckeval,
14 of hussars, 6 of chasseurs d'Afrique and 4 of Spahis (Algerian
natives); (c) 40 regiments of artillery, comprising 445 field
batteries, 14 mountain batteries and 52 horse batteries (see,
however, above), 18 battalions of garrison artillery, with in
addition 13 companies of artificers, &c; (d) 6 regiments of
engineers forming 22 battalions, and x railway regiment; (e)
20 squadrons of train, 27 legions of gendarmerie and the Paris
Garde Republicaine, administrative and medical units.
Colonial Troops. — These form an expeditionary army corps
in France to which are attached the actual corps of occupation
to the various colonies, part white, part natives. The colonial
army corps, headquarters at Paris, has three divisions, at Paris,
Toulon and Brest.
The French colonial (formerly marine) infantry, recruited by
voluntary enlistment, comprises 18 regiments and 5 independent
battalions (of which 1a regiments are at home), 74 batteries of
field, fortress and mountain artillery (of which 32 arc at home),
with a few cavalry and engineers, &c, and other service's in
proportion. The native troops include 13 regiments and 8
independent battalions. The strength of this army corps is
28,700 in France and 61,300 in the colonies.
Command. — Toe commander-in-chief of all the armed forces
is the president of the Republic, but the practical direction of
affairs lies in the hand of the minister of war, who is assisted
by the Conuil superieur de la guerre, a body of senior generals
who have been selected to be appointed to the higher commands
in war. The vice-president is the destined commander-in-chief
of the field armies and is styled the generalissimo. The chief of
staff of the army is also a member of the council. In war
the latter would probably remain at the ministry of war in Paris,
and the generalissimo would have his own chief of staff. The
ministry of war is divided into branches for infantry, cavalry,
&c— and services for special subjects such as military law,
explosives, health, kc The general staff {ilat major de VarmU)
has its functions classed as follows: personnel; material and
finance; xst bureau (organization and mobilization), 2nd
(intelligence), 3rd (military operations and training) and 4th
(communications and transport); and the famous historical
section. The president of the Republic has a military household,
and the minister a cabinet, both of which are occupied chiefly
with questions of promotion, patronage and decorations.
The general staff and also the staff of the corps and divisions
are composed of certificated (brevetis) officers who have passed
all through the £cole de Guerre. In time of peace an officer is
attached to the staff for not more than four years. He must
then return to regimental duty for at least two years.
The officers of the army are obtained partly from the old-
established military schools, partly from the ranks of the non-
commissioned officers, the proportion of the latter being about
one-third of the total number of officers. Artillery and engineer
officers come from the £cole Polytechnique, infantry and cavalry
from the £cole speciale militaire de St-Cyr. Other important
training institutions are the staff college (£cole supeneure de
Guerre) which trains annually 70 to 00 selected captains and
lieutenants; the musketry school of Chalons, the gymnastic
school at Join ville-le- Pont and the schools of St Maixent, Saumur
and Versailles for the preparation of non-commissioned officers
for commissions in the infantry, cavalry, artillery and en-
gineers respectively. The non-commissioned officers are, as
usual in universal service armies, drawn partly from men who
voluntarily enlist at a relatively early age, and partly from men
who at the end of their compulsory period of service are re-engaged.
Voluntary enlistments in the French army are permissible,
within certain limits, at the age of eighteen, and the engagis
serve for at least three years. The law further provides for the
re-engagement of men of all ranks, under conditions varying
according to their rank. Such re-engagements are for one to three
years' effective service but may be extended to fifteen. They
date from the time of the legal expiry of each, man's com-
pulsory active service. Rtngagts receive a bounty, a higher
rate of pay and a pension at the conclusion of their service.
FRANCE im»
The total number of men who had le-cansted stood in 190? n
8594
Armament.— The field artillery is armed with the 75 mm. r_?
a shielded quick-firer (see Obdnaxce: Field Equip***.
for illustration and details); this weapon was tlie foren.r: -
of all modern models of field gun, and is handled 011 tar -J
principles specially adapted for it, which gives the French r>k
artillery a unique position amongst the military nations- Tx
infantry, which was the first in Europe to be armed with ih
magazine rifle, still carries this, the Lebel, rifle which dates frsc
1886. It is believed, however, that a satisfactory type of aa;>
matic rifle (see Rifle) has been evolved and is now (10c* i
process of manufacture. Details are kept strictly secret. Th*
cavalry weapons are a straight sword (that of the heavy cavaJn
Is illustrated in the article Sword), a bamboo lance and tk
Lebel carbine.
It is convenient to mention in this place certain institution
attached to the war department and completing the Freed
military organization. The Hotel des Invalides founded bj
Louis XIV. and Louvois is a house of refuge for old and infiris
soldiers of all grades. The number of the inmates is decrease?
but the institution is an expensive one. In 1875 tnc " InvahVks *~
numbered 642, and the hotel cost the state 1,1*3,053 francs.
The order of the Legion of Honour is treated under Knightbood
and Chivalry. The mtdaiih militaire is awarded to private
soldiers and non-commissioned officers who have distinguished
themselves or rendered long and meritorious services. Ttii
was introduced in 1S52, carries a yearly pension of 100 Irs. and
has been granted occasionally to officers.
Fortifications.— Aher 1870 France embarked upon a policy
of elaborate frontier and inner defences, with the object of
ensuring, as against an unexpected German invasion, the time
necessary for the effective development of her military forces,
which were then in process of reorganization. Some informal fca
as to the types of fortification adopted in 1870-X875 wiD be
found in Fortification and Siegecrajt. The general lines
of the scheme adopted were as follows: On the Meuse, which
forms the principal natural barrier on the side of Lorraine
Verdun (q.v.) was fortified as a large entrenched camp, and
along the river above this were constructed a series of forts
d'arrU (see Meuse Line) ending in another entrenched camp
at Toul (?.».). From this point a gap (the troutt 4 l £phsa r ) was
left, so as " in some sort to canalize the flow of invasion " (General
Bonnal), until the upper Moselle was reached at £pinal (?.;.).
Here another entrenched camp was made and from it the "Moselle
line " (g.t.) of forts 4'arrtt continues the barrier to Belfort (q.t),
another large entrenched camp, beyond which a series of fortifica-
tions at Monib£Hard and the Lomont range carries the line of
defence to the Swiss border, which in turn is protected by
works at Pontarlicr and elsewhere. In rear of these lines Verdun-
Toul and Spinal- Belfort, respectively, lie two large defended
areas in which under certain circumstances the main armies
would assemble preparatory to offensive movements. One of
these areas is defined by the three fortresses, La Fere, Laon
and Reims, theother by the triangle, Langres— Dijon — Besancon.
On the side of Belgium the danger of irruption through neutral
territory, which has for many years been foreseen, is provided
against by the fortresses of Lille, Valenciennes and Maubeuge,
but (with a view to tempting the Germans to attack through
Luxemburg, as is stated by German authorities) the frontier
between Maubeuge and Verdun is left practically undefended.
The real defence of this region lies in the field army which would,
if the case arose, assemble in the area La Fere-Reims-La on
On the Italian frontier the numerous/orfr d'arrtt in the mountains
are strongly supported by the entrenched camps of Besarjcon.
Grenoble and Nice. Behind all this huge development of fixed
defences lie the central fortresses of Paris and Lyons. The
defences of the Spanish frontier consist of the entrenched camps
of Bayonne and Perpignan and the various small forts d'arrt
of the Pyrenees. Of the coast defences the principal are Toulon.
Antibes, Rochefort, Lorlent, Brest, Oleron, La RocheOe, Befle-
Isle, Cherbourg, St-Malo, Havre, Calais, GraveUnes and Dunkirk
IAVY)
FRANCE
797
i number of the older fortresses, dating for the most part from
-ouia XlV.'tf time, are still in existence, but are no longer of
ulitary importance. Such axe Arras, Longwy, Mexieres and
dontmtdy.
Navy,
Central Administration. — The head of the French navy is
he Minister of Marine, who like the other ministers is appointed
>y decree of the head of the state, and is usually a civilian.
rle selects for himself a staff of civilians (the cabinet du ministre),
which is divided into bureaux for the despatch of business.
rhe head of the cabinet prepares for the consideration of the
ninister all the business of the navy, especially questions of
{eneral importance. His chief professional assistant is the
:kcfd y Hal-major general (chief of the general staff), a vice-admiral,
who is responsible for the organization of the naval forces, the
mobilization and movements of the fleet, &&
The central organization also comprises a number of depart-
ments (services) entrusted with the various branches of naval
administration, such as administration of the active fleet, con-
struction of ships, arsenals, recruiting, finance, Ac The minister
has the assistance of the Conseil suptrieur de la Marine, over
which he presides, consisting of three vice-admirals, the chief
of staff and some other members. The Conseil superieur
devotes its attention to all questions touching the fighting
efficiency of the fleet, naval bases and arsenals and coast defence.
Besides the Conseil supirieur the minister is advised on a very
wide range of naval topics (including pay, quarters and recruiting)
by the ComiU cansuUatif de la Marine, Advisory committees are
also appointed to deal with special subjects, e.g. the commissions
da classement which attend to questions of promotion in the
various branches of the navy, the naval works council and others*
The French coast is divided into five naval arrondissements,
which have their headquarters at the five naval ports, of which
Cherbourg, Brest, and Toulon are the most important, Lorient
and Rochefort being of lesser degree. All are building and
fitting-out yards. Each arrondissement is divided into sous-
arrondissements, having their centres in the great commercial
ports, but this arrangement is purely for the embodiment of the
men of the Inscription Maritime, and has nothing to do with
the dockyards as naval arsenals. In each arrondissement
the vice-admiral, who is naval prefect, is the immediate repre-
sentative of the minister of marine, and has full direction and
command of the arsenal, which is his headquarters. He is thus
commander-in-chief, as also governor-designate for time of war,
but his authority does not extend to ships belonging to organized
squadrons or divisions. The naval prefect is assisted by a rear-
admiral as chief of the staff (except at Lorient and Rochefort,
where the office is filled by a captain), and a certain number of
other officers, the special functions of the chief of the staff
having relation principally to the efficiency and personnel^ the
fleet, while the " major-general," who is usually a rear-admiral,
is concerned chiefly with the materiel. There are also directors
of stores, of naval construction, of the medical service, and of the
submarine defences (which are concerned with torpedoes, mines
and torpedo-boats), as well as of naval ordnance and works,
The prefect directs the operations of the arsenal, and is responsible
for its efficiency and for that of the ships which are there in
reserve. In regard to the constitution and maintenance of the
naval forces, the administration of the arsenals is divided into
three principal departments, the first concerned with naval
construction, the second with ordnance, including gun-mountings
and small-arms, and the third with the so-called submarine
defences, dealing with all torpedo materiel.
The French navy is manned partly by voluntary enlistment,
partly hy the transference to the navy of a certain proportion
of each year's recruits for the army, but mainly by a system
known as inscription maritime. This system, devised and
introduced by Colbert in 1681, has continued, with various
modifications, ever since. All French sailors between the ages
of eighteen and fifty must be enrolled as members of the armic
de mer. The term sailor is used in a very wide sense and includes
all persons earning their living by navigation on the sea, or in
the harbours or roadsteads, or on salt lakes or canals within
the maritime domain of the state, or on rivers and canals as far
as the tide goes up or sea-going ships can pass. The inscript
usually begins his service at the age of twenty and passes through
a period of obligatory service lasting seven years, and generally
comprising five years of active service and two years furlough.
Besides the important harbours already referred to, the
French fleet has naval bases at Oran in Algeria, Bizerta in
Tunisia, Saigon in Cochin China and Hongaj inTongking, Diego-
Suarez in Madagascar, Dakar in Senegal, Fort de France in
Martinique, Noumea in New Caledonia.
The ordnance department of the navy is carried on by a large
detachment of artillery officers and artificers provided by the
war office for this special duty.
The fleet is divided into the Mediterranean squadron, the
Northern squadron, the Atlantic division, the Far Eastern
division, the Pacific division, the Indian Ocean division, the
Cochin China division.
The chief naval school is the Acola novate at Brest, which 'is
devoted to the training of officers; the age of admission is from
fifteen to eighteen years, and pupils after completing their course
pass a year on a frigate school. At Paris there is a more advanced
school (£cate supirieurt de la Marine) for the supplementary
training of officers. Other schools are the school of naval
medicine at Bordeaux with annexes at Toulon, Brest and Roche-
fort; schools of torpedoes and mines and of gunnery at Toulon,
&c, &c. The Scales d'hydrograpkie established at various ports
are for theoretical training for the higher grades of the merchant
service. (See also Navy.)
The total personnel of the armie de mer in 1909 is given as
56,800 officers and men. As to the number of vessels, which
fluctuates from month to month, little can be said that is wholly
accurate at any given moment, but, very roughly, the French
navy in 1009 included 25 battleships, 7 coast defence ironclads,
19 armoured cruisers, 36 protected cruisers, 22 sloops, gunboats,
&c, 45 destroyers, 319 torpedo boats, 71 submersibles and
submarines and 8 auxiliary cruisers. It was stated that , according
to proposed arrangements, the principal fighting elements of
the fleet would be, in 1919, 34 battleships, 36 armoured cruisers,
6 smaller cruisers of modern type, 109 destroyers, 170 torpedo
boats and 171 submersibles and submarines. The budgetary
cost of the navy in 1908 was stated as 312,000,000 fr.
(£12,480,000). (C F. A.)
Education,
The burden of public instruction in France is shared by the
communes, departments and state, while side by side with the
public schools of all grades are private schools subjected to
a state supervision and certain restrictions. At the head of the
whole organization is the minister of public instruction. He.
is assisted and advised by the superior council of public instruc-
tion, over which he presides.
France is divided into sixteen academies or educational districts,
having their centres at the seats of the universities. The capitals
of these acadimies t together with the departments included in
them, are tabulated below:
Academies. Departments included in them.
Paris ♦ , f . Seine, Cher, Eure-ct-Loir.Loir-et-Cher.Loiret,
Marne, Owe, Seine-ct-Marne, Seine-et-Oiee.
Aix . • t t • Bouches-du-RhOne, Basses- Alpe»,Alpe»- Mari-
time*, Cone, Var, Vaucluse.
Besancon . , . Doubs, Jura,- Haute-Sadne, Territoire de
Belfort.
Bordeaux . „ . Glronde, Dordogne, Landes, Lot-et-Garonne,
Basses- Pyrenees.
Caen , , , , Calvados, Eure, Manche, Orne, Sarthe, Scioa-
Inferieure.
Chambery . . . Savoie, Haute-Savoie.
Clermont-Ferrand Puy-de-Ddme, AUier, Cantal, Correse, Creute,
Haute- Loire.
Dijon Cote-d'Or.Aube.Haute-Marne.Nievre.Yonne.
Grenoble . . . Isere. Hautes-AIpes, Ardeche, Drome.
Lille .... Nord.Aianc, Ardennes, Pas-de-Calais, 5
Lyons . ■ K , . Rhone, Ain, Loire, SaOne-et-Lotre.
79»
FRANCE
[EDUCATES
montpellibr
Nancy . .
Poitibbs
Rennes
Toulouse
Departments included in them.
Herault, Aude, Card, Lozcre, Pyrenecs-
Orientates.
Meurthe-et-Moselle, Meuse, Vosges.
Vienne, Charente, Charente-Infeneure, Indre,
Indre-et-Loire, Deux-Sevres, Vendee, Haute-
Vienne.
Ilte-et- Vilainc, C6tcs-du-Nord, Finistere.Loire-
Inferieure, Maine-et-Loire, Mayenne, Mor-
bihan.
Haute-Garonne, Aridge, Aveyron, Gers, Lot,
Hautes-Pyrenees, Tarn, Tarn-et-Caronne.
There is also an acadbnie comprising Algeria.
For the administrative organization of education in Fiance
see Education.
Any person fulfilling certain legal requirements with regard
to capacity, age and character may set up privately an educational
establishment of any grade, but by the law of xooa all religious
congregations are prohibited from keeping schools of any kind
whatever.
Primary Instruction. — All primary public instruction b free and
compulsory for children of both sexes between the ages of six and
thirteen, but if a child can gain a certificate of primary studies at the
age of eleven or after, he may be excused the rest of the period
demanded by law. A child may receive instruction in a public or
private school or at home. But if the parents wish htm to be
taught in a private school they must give notice to the mayor of
the commune of their intention and the school chosen. .If educated
at home, the child (after two years of the compulsory period has
expired) must undergo a yearly examination, and if it is unsatis-
factory the parents will be compelled to send him to a public or
private school.
Each commune is in theory obliged to maintain at least one
public primary school, but with the approval of the minister, the
departmental council may authorize a commune to combine with
other communes in the upkeep of a school. If the number of in-
habitants exceed 500, the commune must also provide a special
school for girls, unless the Departmental Council authorizes it to
substitute a mixed school. Each department is bound to maintain
two primary training colleges, one for masters, theotherfor mistresses
of primary schools. There are two higher training colleges of
primary instruction at Fontenay-aux Roses and St Cloud for the
training of mistresses and masters of training colleges and higher
primary schools.
The Laws of 1882 and 1886 " laicized " the schools of this class,
the former suppressing religious instruction, the latter providing
that only laymen should be eligible for masterships. There were*
also a great many schools in the control of various religious congre-
gations, but a law of 1904 required that they should all be suppressed
within ten years from the date of its enactment.
Public primary schools include (l) icoles malerneUes — infant
schools for children from two to six years old; (a) elementary
primary schools — these are the ordinary schools for children from
six to thirteen; (3) higher primary schools (icoles primaires
supirieures) and "supplementary courses"; these admit pupils
who have gained the certificate of primary elementary studies
(certificat ditudes primaires), offer a more advanced course and
Spare for technical instruction; (4) primary technical schools
ties manueiks d'apprentissoge, icoles primaires supirieures pro-
ionnelles) kept by the communes or departments. Primary
courses for adults are instituted by the prefect on the recommenda-
tion of the municipal council and academy inspector.
Persons keeping private primary schools are free with regard to
their methods, programmes and books employed, except that they
may not use books expressly prohibited by the superior council of
public instruction. Before opening a pnvate school the person
proposing to do so must give notice to the mayor, prefect and academy
inspector, and forward his diplomas and other particulars to the
latter official.
Secondary Education. — Secondary education is given by the state
in lycies, by the communes in colleges and by private individuals
and associations in private secondary schools. It is not compulsory,
nor U it entirely gratuitous, but the fees are small and the state
offers a great many scholarships, by means of which a clever child
can pay for its own instruction. Cost of tuition (simply) ranges
from /a to £16 a year. The lycees also take boarders — trie cost of
boarding ranging from £22 to £52 a year. A lycee is founded in a
town by decree of the president of the republic, with the advice of
the superior council of public instruction. The municipality has to
pay the cost of building, furnishing and upkeep. At the head of
the lycee is the principal (proviseur), an official nominated by the
minister, and assisted by a teaching staff of professors and charges
de cows or teachers of somewhat lower standing. To become pro-
fessor in a lycee it is necessary to pass an examination known as the
" agrigation," candidates for which must be licentiates of a faculty
(or nave passed through the Ecole normale supirieure).
The system of studies— reorganized in 1902— embraces a fufl
curriculum of seven years, which is divided into two periods. TW
first lasts four years, and at the end of this the pupil may ofctaa
(after examination) the " certificate of secondary studies." Deng
the second period the pupil has a choice of four o
and Greek; (2) Latin and sciences; (3) Latin and 11
(4) sciences and modern languages. At the end of this .
presents himself for a degree called the Baccalaureat de reuseiememmi
secondaire. This is granted (after two examinations) by the facshzs
of letters and sciences jointly (see below), and in moat cases k a
necessary for a student to hold this general degree before lie may be
enrolled in a particular faculty of a university and p ro c ee d 10 s
Baccalaureat in a particular subject, such as law. theology «
medicine.
The colleges, though of a lower grade, are in most r e sp e c ts stsfer
to the lycees, but they are financed by the communes: the ptoses***
may have certain less important Qualifications in lieu of the ** op*
gatton." Private secondary schools are subjected to state snspectioc.
The teachers must not belong to any congregation, and must have t
diploma of aptitude for teaching and the degree of " tieencH." lie
establishment of lycies for girls was first attempted in 1880. The?
give an education similar to that offered in the lycees foe boys—
with certain modifications — in a curriculum of five or six yean.
There is a training-college for teachers in secondary schools for gvAe
at Sevres.
Higher education is given by the state in the universities, and is
special higher schools; and, since the law of 1875 established tse
freedom of higher education, by private individuals and bodies is
private schools and " faculties (facultis litres). The law of iSSo
reserved to the state " faculties 'the right to confer degrees, aed
the law of 1896 established various universities each containing one
or more faculties. There are five kinds of faculties; medtciat.
letters, science, law and Protestant theology. The faculties cf
letters and sciences, besides granting the Baccalaureat de renscigxt*
menl secondaire, confer the degrees of licentiate and doctor <Js
Licence, le Doctoral). The faculties of medicine confer the degree
of doctor of medicine. The faculties of theology confer the decrees
of bachelor, licentiate and doctor of theology. The faculties oT taw
confer the same degrees in law and also grant " certificates of
capacity," which enable the holder to* practise as an apomi: a
licence is necessary for the profession of barrister. Students of the
private faculties have to be examined by and take their degrees
from the state faculties. There are 2 faculties of Protestant theatofy
Siris and Montauban); 12 faculties of law (Paris, Aix, Bordeaux,
en, Grenoble, Lille, Lyons, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers. Rennes,
Toulouse}; 3 faculties of medicine (Paris, Montpellier and Nancy).
and 4 joint faculties of medicine and pharmacy (Bordeaux, Lille,
Lyons, Toulouse); 15 faculties of sciences (Paris, Besancoa. Bar.
deaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyons, AlarseUks.
Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse) ; is faculties d
letters (at the same towns, substituting Aix for Marseilles). The
private faculties are at Paris (the Catholic institute with a faculty
of law) ; Angers (law, science and letters) ; Lille (law, medicine
and pharmacy, science, letters); Lyons (law, science, letter*).
Marseilles (law); Toulouse (Catholic Institute with faculties of
theology and letters). The work of the faculties of medicine and
pharmacy is in some measure shared by the iceies supirieures de
pharmacte (Paris, Montpellier, Nancy), which grant the highest
degrees in pharmacy, and by the icoles de plein exercice de midecvu
el de pharmacie (Marseilles, Rennes and Nantes) and the more
numerous icoles hriparatoires de midecine et de pharmacie; there
are also icoles priparatoires a I'enseignement tupiritur des sciemces et
des lettres at Chambery, Rouen and Nantes.
Besides the faculties there are a number of institutions, both
state-supported and private, giving higher instruction of various
special kinds. In the first class must be mentioned the College de
France, founded 1530, giving courses of highest study of all sorts,
the Museum of Natural History, the Ecole des Charles (palaeography
and archives), the School of Modern Oriental Languages, the Ecote
Pratique des Hautcs Etudes (scientific research), &c. All the*
institutions are in Paris. The most important free institution in
this class is the Ecole des Sciences Politiques, which prepares pupils
for the civil services and teaches a great number of political subjects,
connected with France and foreign countries, not included in the
state programmes.
Commercial and technical instruction is given in- various in-
stitutions comprising national establishments such as the iceies
natiouales professionnelles of Armentieres, Vicrzon, Voiron and
Nantes for the education of working men; the more advanced holes
d'arts et metiers of Chalons, Angers, Aix, Lille and Cluny; and the
Central School of Arts and Manufactures at Paris; schools depending
on the communes and state in combination, e.g. the icoles praHouts
de commerce et d'industrie for the training of clerks and workmen:
private schools controlled by the state, such as the icoles superieum
de commerce^, certain municipal schools, such as the Industrial
Institute of Lille; and private establishments, e.g. the school of
watch-making at Paris. At Paris the Ecole Superieure des Mines
and the Ecole des Pontset Chaussees are controlled by the minister
of public works, the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, the Ecole des Arts
Decora tifs and the Conservatoire National de Musique et de De-
clamation by the under-secretary for fine arts, and other schools
COLONIES]
mentioned elsewhere are attached to several of the ministries, In
the provinces there are national schools of fine art and of music and
other establishments and free subventioned schools.
In addition to the educational work done by the state, communes
and private individuals, there exist in France a good many societies
which disseminate instruction by giving courses of lectures and
holding classes both for children and adults. Examples of such
bodies are the Society for Elementary Instruction, the Polytechnic
Association, the Philotechnic Association and the French Union of
the Young at Paris; the Philomathic Society of Bordeaux; the
Popular Education Society at Havre; the Rhone Society of Pro-
fessional Instruction at Lyons; the Industrial Society of Amiens
un d others.
The highest institution of learning is the Institut de France,
founded and kept up by the French govern-
ment on behalf of science and literature,
FRANCE
799
In the extent and importance of her colonial dominion Franc*
is second only to Great Britain. The following table gives
the name, area and population of each colony and protectorate
as well as the date of acquisition or establishment of a pro*
tectorate. It should be noted that the figures for area and
population are, as a rule, only estimates, but in most instances
they probably approximate closely to accuracy. Detailed
notices of the separate countries will be found under their
several heads:
and composed of five academies: the
Acadbnie franchise, the Acadimie des In-
scriptions el BeUes-LeUres, the Acadimie des
Sciences, the Acadimie des Beaux- Arts
and the Acadimie des Sciences Morales
et Politique* (see Academies). The
Acadbnie de Midccinc is a separate body.
Poor Relief (Assistance puUique).— In
France the pauper, as suck, has no legal
daim to help from the community, which
however, is bound to providefordestitute
children (see Foundling Hospitals)
and pauper lunatics (both these being
under the care of the department), aged
and infirm people without resources and
victims of incurable illness, and to furnish
medical assistance gratuitously to those
without resources who are afflicted with
curable illness. The funds for these
purposes are provided by the department,
the commune and the central authority.
Colony.
In Asia —
Establishments in India,
in Indo-China—
Annam .
Cambodia
Cochtn-China.
Tongking
Laos.
Kwang-Chow-)
Wan
There are four main types of public
benevolent institutions, all of which are
communal in character: (i) The Mpital,
for maternity cases and cases of curable
illness; (2) the hospice, where the aged
poor, cases of incurable malady, orphans,
foundlings and other children without
means of support, and in some cases
lunatics, are received; (3) the bureau de
bienfaisance. charged with the provision,, of
out-door relief (secours d domicile) in money
or in kind, to the aged poor or those who,
though capable of working, are prevented
from doing so by illness or strikes; (4)
the bureau d'asststance, which dispenses
free medical treatment to the destitute.
These institutions are under the super*
vision of a branch of the ministry of the
interior. The hospices and bopitaux and
the bureaux de bienfaisance, the founda-
tion of which is optional for the commune,
are managed by committees consisting of
the mayor of the municipality and six
members, two elected by the municipal
council and four nominated by the prefect.
The members of these committees are un-
paid, and have no concern with ways and
means which are in the hands of a paid
treasurer (jeceveur). The bureaux de bien*
faisance in the larger centres are aided by
unpaid workers {commissaires or dames
de charitf). and in the big towns by paid
inquiry officers. Bureaux a" assistance exist in every commune, and
are managed by the combined committees of the hospices and the
bureaux de bienfaisance or by one of these in municipalities, where
Funds for hopctals, hospices
Total in Asia «• , • *
In Africa and the Indian Ocean-
Algeria • ♦
Algerian Sahara
Tunisia
West Africa—
Senegal
Upper Senegal and Niger (including parr of
Sahara)
Guinea
Ivory Coast
Dahomey
Congo (French Equatorial Africa) —
Gabun
Mid. Congo .......
Ubangi-Chad
Madagascar
Nossi-be Island
Ste Marie Island .-.,.,.
Comoro Islands ..,,/.
Somali Coast ...«»..
Reunion ...•««..
St Paul I «
Amsterdam) «••••••
Kerguelen 1
Total in Africa and Indian Ocean.
In America —
Guiana ,
Guadeloupe «
Martinique ,
St Pierre and Miquclon •
Total in America , ,
In Oceania —
New Caledonia and Dependencies »
Establishments in Oceania ,
Total in Oceania
Grand Total
Date of
Acquisition.
1683-1750
1883
1863
1862
1883
1 830-1 847
187^-1890
1881
1626
1880
1848
184a
1863-1894
!§ll j
1 885-1800 !
1750 ;
1843-1886
186J-1884
1643
1893
1893
1626
«634
1635
1635
1854-1887
J 841 -188 x
Area m sq. m.
60,000
65,000
22,000
46,000
100,000
323
393.525
185,000
760,000
51,000
74.00©
1,580,000
107,000
120,000
40.000
700,000
928,000
700
12,000
965,
41
1.400)
3*69,147
51,000
619
380
93
Population.
373.000
6,000,000
1 ,500,000
3,000,000
6,000,000
600,000
189,000
17,562,000
S«».8so
2,000,000
1,800,000
4,000,000
2,500,000
2,000,000
IfiQOflOO
376,000
259,000
3,013,000
2,664,000
82,000
50.00©
173.31 5
uninhabited
25.151.t65
53.092
7.50O
1.641
9.I4I
4^33,905
30,000
182,113
182,024
6,500
400.636
73.000
34.300
106,300
43.330,101
only one of those institutions exists.
No poor-rate is levied in France,
and bureaux de bienfaisance comprise
I. A 10% surtax on ike fees of admission to places of public
amusement.
3. A proportion of the rams payable in return for concessions of
land in municipal cemeteries.
3. Profits of the communal Moots de Piete fpawn-shops).
4. Donations, bequests and the product of collections in
(R-Tb.)
5» The product of certain lines.
6, Sobveoticms from the departments and c
7. Income fn
ft will be seen that nearly all the colonies and protectorates lie
within the tropics. The only countries in which there is a con-
siderable white population are Algeria, Tunisia and New Caledonia.
The " year of acquisition " in the table, when one date only is given,
indicates the period when the country or some part of it first fell under
French influence, and does not imply continuous possession since.
Government.— The principle underlying the administration
of the French possessions overseas, from the earliest days until
the close of the 19th century, was that of " domination " and
" assimilation," notwithstanding that after the loss of Canada
and the sale of Louisiana France ceased to hold any considerable
colony in which Europeans could settle in large numbers. With
■Keft^esentiesinthe Great Southern Ows^ but is ksdoded hen
for the sake of convenience.
8oo
FRANCE
rCOUOTES
the vast extension of the colonial empire in tropical countries
in the last quarter of the 19th century the evils of the system
of assimilation, involving also intense centralization, became
obvious. This, coupled with the realization of the fact that
the value to France of her colonies was mainly commercial,
led at length to the abandonment of the attempt to impose
on a great number of diverse peoples, some possessing (as in
Indo-China and parts of West Africa) ancient and highly complex
civilizations, French laws, habits of mind, tastes and manners.
For the policy of assimilation there was substituted the policy
of " association," which had for aim the development of the
colonics and protectorates upon natural, i.t. national, lines.
Existing civilizations were respected, a considerable degree of
autonomy was granted, and every effort made to raise the moral
and- economic status of the natives. The first step taken in
this direction was in 1000 when a law was passed which laid
down that the colonies were to provide for their own civil ex-
penditure. This law was followed by further measures tending
to decentralization and the protection of the native races.
The system of administration bears nevertheless many marks
of the "assimilation" era. None of the French possessions
is self-governing in the manner of the chief British colonies.
Several colonies, however, elect members of the French legisla-
ture, in which body is the power of fixing the form of govern-
ment and the laws of each colony or protectorate. In default
of legislation the necessary measures are taken by decree of the
head of the state; these decrees having the force of law. A
partial exception to this rule is found in Algeria, where all laws
in force in France before the conquest of the country are also
(in theory, not in practice) in force in Algeria. In all colonies
Europeans preserve the political rights they held in France,
and these rights have been extended, in whole or in part, to
various classes of natives. Where these rights have not been
conferred, native races are subjects and not citizens. To this
rule Tunisia presents an exception, Tunisians retaining their
nationality and laws.
In addition to Algeria, which sends three senators and six
deputies to Paris and is treated in many respects not as a colony
but as part of France, the colonies represented in the legislature
are: Martinique, Guadeloupe and Reunion (each electing one
senator and two deputies), French India (one senator and one
deputy), Guiana, Senegal and Cochin-China (one deputy each).
The franchise in the three first-named colonies is enjoyed by all
classes of inhabitants, white, negro and mulatto, who are all
French citizens. In India the franchise is exercised without
distinction of colour or nationality; in Senegal the electors
are the inhabitants (black and white) of the communes which
have been given full powers. In Guiana and Cochin-China
the franchise is restricted to citizens, in which category the
natives (in those colonies) are not included. 1 The inhabitants
of Tahiti though accorded French citizenship have not been
allotted a representative in parliament. The colonial repre-
sentatives enjoy equal rights with those elected for constituencies
in France.
The oversight of all the colonies and protectorates save
Algeria and Tunisia is confided to a minister of the colonies
(law of March 20, 1804)' whose powers correspond to those
exercised in France by the minister of the interior. The colonial
army is nevertheless attached (law of 1000) to the ministry of war.
The colonial minister is assisted by a number of organizations
of which the most important is the superior council of the colonies
(created by decree in 1883), an advisory body which includes
the senators and deputies elected by the colonies, and delegates
elected by the universal suffrage of all citizens in the colonies
and protectorates which do not return members to parliament.
To the ministry appertains the duty of fixing the duties on foreign
produce in those colonies which have not been, by law, subjected
to the same tariff as in France. (Nearly all the colonies save those
1 In 1906 the number of registered electors in these cotonies was
199.055. of whom 106,695 exercised their suffrage.
1 In the case of Madagascar by decree of the nth of December
1895.
of West Africa and the Congo have been, with certain 1
tions, placed under the French tariff.) The budget of ell cokao
not possessing a council general (see below) must also be apparri
by the minister. Each colony and protectorate, indsdat
Algeria, has a separate budget. As provided by the law of 19s
all local charges are borne by the colonics— supplemented c
need by grants in aid— but the military expenses are boras b?
the state. In all the colonies the judicature has been render
independent of the executive.
The colonies are divisible into two classes, (1) those possesss
considerable powers of local self-government, (2) those in *brs
the local government is autocratic To this second class ar?
be added the protectorates (and some colonies) where the mm
form of government is maintained under the supervise a
French officials.
Class (x) includes the American colonies, Reunion, Frees
India, Senegal. Cochin-China and New Caledonia. In tbssv
colonies the system of assimilation was carried to great leng*is
At the head of the administration is a governor under when: *
a secretary-general, who replaces him at need. The govenwr s
aided by a privy council, an advisory body to which the governr
nominates a minority of unofficial members, and a council ge&cnl
to which is confided the control of local affairs, including tk
voting of the budget. The councils general are elected b
universal suffrage of all citizens and those who, though as
citizens, have been granted the political franchise. In Cods
China, in place of a council general, there is a colonial couad
which fulfils the functions of a council general.
In the second class of colonies the governor, sanctise
assisted by a privy council, on which non-official members iai
seats, sometimes simply by a council' of administration, is re-
sponsible only to the minister of the colonies. In Indo-Cbst
West Africa, French Congo and Madagascar, the colonies ad|
protectorates are grouped under governors-general, and to tbesri
high officials extensive powers have been granted by president
decree. The colonies under the governor-general of West
Africa are ruled by lieutenant-governors with restricted poww.
the budget of each colony being fixed by the governor-gnxnl
who is assisted by an advisory government council compnaag
representatives of all the colonies under his control. In bis-
China the governor-general has under his authority thelieuteciE.'-
governor of the colony of Cochin-China, and the reskteas
superior at the courts of the kings of Cambodia and Anas
and in Tongking (nominally a viceroyalty of Annaxn). The?
is a superior council for the whole of Indo-China on which the
natives and the European commercial community are repre-
sented, while in Cochin-China a privy council, and in the p>
tectorates a council of the protectorate, assists in the work e
administration. In each of the governments general there s
a financial controller with extensive powers who corrcspoci
directly with the metropolitan authorities (decree of Marca 2:,
1007). Details and local differences in form of government w3
be found under the headings of the various colonies and p?>
tectorates.
Colonial F inane*. — The cost of the extra-European possesm
other than Algeria and Tunisia, to the state is shown in the expens*
of the colonial ministry. In the budget of 1883 these expnc*
were put at £1,380,000; in 1895 they had increased to &,XAff*
and in 1900 to £5,100,000. In 1905 they were placed at £4^431^
Fully three-fourths of the state contributions is expenditure <*
military necessities; in addition there are subventions to vario*
colonies and to colonial railways and cables, and the expenditure c*
the penitentiary establish menu; an item not properly cbarftatk
to the colonies. In return the state receives the produce of cosvrf
labour in Guiana and New Caledonia. Save for the small itrm *
military expenditure Tunisia is no charge to the French excbepjff
The similar expenses of Algeria borne by the state are not separate!)
shown, but are estimated at £2,000,000.
£960,000; all other colonies combined £1,440,000.
* The Indo-China budget is reckoned in piastres, a silver coin d
fluctuating value (is. 10J. to as.). The budget of 1907 balanced H
50,000,000 piastres.
[ST0RY1
FRANCE
801
The authorised colonial loans, omitting Algeria and Tunisia,
ring the period 1 884-1904 amounted to £19,200,000, the sums
id lor Interest and sinking funds on loans varying from £600,000
£800,000 a year. The amount of French capital invested in
each colonies and* protectorates, including Algeria and Tunisia,
is estimated in 1905 at £120,000,000, French capital invested in
-eign countries at the same date being estimated at ten times that
lount (sec Que*. Dip. et Col., February 16, 1905).
Commerce.— The value of the external trade of the French posses-
ins, exclusive of Algeria and Tunisia, increased in the ten years
96-1 905 from £18.784,060 to £34.957.479- In the last-named
ar the commerce of Algeria amounted to £24,506,020 and that of
inisia to £5,969,248, making a grand total for French colonial
ide in 1905 of £65,432,746. The figures were made up as follows :
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
Algeria . .
Tunisia ...
lndo-China .
West Africa . .
Madagascar . .
Ail other colonies .
£»5.355.500
3.638,185
10,182,411
3,874,698
M47.936
4.*5*.i34
£9.150,520
2,331.063
6,750,306
2,248^17
914,024
5.481.652
£24,506,020
5,969,248
16,932,717
6,123,015
2,1,61,960
9.739.786
Total
£38,556.864
£26,875.882
£65432,746
Over three-fourths of the trade of Algeria and Tunisia is with
ance and other French possessions. In the other colonies and
electorates more than half the trade is with foreign countries,
ae foreign countries trading most largely with the French colonics
c, in the order named, British colonies and Great Britain, China
A Japan, the United States and Germany. The value of the
ide with British colonies and Great Britain in 1905 was over
',200,000. (F. R. C.)
Bibliography. — P. Joanne, Dutivnnah-c gfographipv rf dminis-
lixsc de la France [A vol a., Paris, 1890-1905); C Brassard, La
tmu et us colonies (6 fpta*. Pari*, 1900- tooo): O. Keclu Le Plus
eau Royaume sous u ciet (Paris. 1*^9); VkJ.il He La Uiache, La
nact. Tableau gitrgtaphique (Pans, tqc&)\ V. E* rdouin-
umattt, Voyage en trance (Paris. 1H94) \ H, Ihvard, l*a France
listique et monumental* (6 vols., Paris, 1892-1895); A. I. x>n and
. Pelet, France as it ii, br. Mrs W. Arnold (London, |88t articles
s " Local Government in France " in fcbfl $ h^r,\r Official
diligence Annuals (London, iyt>o **d. 19
, Dxction-
Jj're de P administration franQaise, the articles in which contain full
ibliographies (2 vols., Paris, 1905); E. Levasseur, La France et us
icmies (3 vols., Paris, 1890); M. Fallex and A. Maircy, La France
ses colonies aw debut dn XX* siecle, which has numerous biblio-
raphies (Paris, 1909); J. du Plcssts de Grcnedan, Ciographie
incoU de la France et du monde (Paris, 1903); F. de St Genis, La
ropriiti rurale en France (Paris, 1002); H. Baudrillart, Les Popu-
\tions agricoles de la France (3 vols., Paris, 1885-1893); J. E. C.
odlcy, France (London, 1899) ; A. Girault, Princtpes de colonisation
' de legislation coloniaU (3 vols., Paris, IQ07-1908) ; Les Colonies
ancaises, an encyclopaedia edited by M. Petit (2 vols., Paris,
902). Official statistical works: Annuaire statistique de la France
1 summary of the statistical publications of the government),
iaiistique agricote annuelle, Slatutique de Vindustrie minirale et des
pparetls de vapeur. Tableau general du commerce etdela navigation,
Reports on the various colonies issued annually by the British Foreign
Mace, &c. Guide Books: Karl Baedeker, Northern France,
'ovthern France; P. Joanne, Nord, Champagne et Ardenne; Nor-
umdie; and other volumes dealing with every region of the country.
History
The identity of the earliest inhabitants of Gaul is veiled in
bscurity , though philologists, anthropologists and archaeologists
are using the glimmer of traditions collected by ancient
£?. historians to shed a faint twilight upon that remote
i W l past. The subjugation of those primitive tribes did
not mean their annihilation: their blood still flows in
he veins of Frenchmen; and they survive also on those megalithic
nonuments (see Stone Monuments) with which the soil cf
r rancc is dotted, in the drawings and sculptures of caves hollowed
»ut along the sides of the valleys, and in the arms and ornaments
fielded by sepulchral tumuli, while the names of the rivers and
nountains of France probably perpetuate the first utterances of
hose nameless generations.
The first peoples of whom we have actual knowledge are the
Iberians and Ligurians. The Basques who now inhabit both
sides of the Pyrenean range are probably the last representatives
»f the Iberians, who came from Spain to settle between the
Mediterranean and the Bay of Biscay The Ligurians, who
exhibited the hard cunning characteristic of the Genoese Riviera,
must have been descendants of that Indo-European vanguard
who occupied all northern Italy and the centre and south-east
of France, who in the 7th century B.C. received the
Phocaean immigrants at Marseilles, and who at a much
later period were encountered by Hannibal during his
march to Rome, on the banks of the Rh6ne, the
frontier of the Iberian and Ligurian territories. Upon these
peoples it was that the conquering minority of Celts or Gauls
imposed themselves, to be succeeded at a later date by the
Roman aristocracy.
When Gaul first enters the field of history, Rome has already
laid the foundation of her freedom, Athens dazzles the eastern
Mediterranean with her literature and her art, while
in the west Carthage and Marseilles are lining opposite t^/ceiu!.
shores with their great houses of commerce. Coming
from the valley of the Danube in the 6th century, the Celts or
Gauls had little by little occupied central and southern Europe
long before they penetrated into the plains of the Sadne, the
Seine, and the Loire as far as the Spanish border, driving out
the former inhabitants of the country. A century later their
political hegemony, extending from the Black Sea to the Strait of
Gibraltar, began to disintegrate, and the Gauls then embarked
on more distant migrations, from the Columns of Hercules to
the plateaux of Asia Minor, taking Rome on their way. Their
empire in Gaul, encroached upon in the north by the Bclgae,
a kindred race, and in the south by the Iberians, gradually
contracted in area and eventually crumbled to pieces. This
process served the turn of the Romans, who little by little had
subjugated first the Cisalpine Gauls and afterwards those in-
habiting the south-east of France, which was turned
into a Roman province in the 2nd century. Up to
this time Hellenism and the mercantile spirit of the
Jews had almost exclusively dominated the Mediter-
ranean littoral, and at first the Latin spirit only won foothold
for itself in various spots on the western coast — as at Aix in
Provence (123 B.C.) and at Narbonne (118 B.C.). A refuge of
Italian pauperism in the time of the Gracchi, after the triumph
of the oligarchy the Narbonnaise became a field for shameless
exploitation, besides providing, under the proconsulate of
Caesar, an excellent point of observation whence to watch the
intestine quarrels between the different nations of Gaul.
These are divided by Caesar in his Commentaries into three
groups: the Aquitanians to the south of the Garonne; the Celts,
properly so called, from the Garonne to the Seine
and the Marne; and the Belgae, from the Seine to the
Rhine. But these ethnological names cover a very
great variety of half-savage tribes, differing in speech
and in institutions, each surrounded by frontiers of dense forests
abounding in game. On the edges of these forests stood isolated
dwellings like sentinel outposts; while the inhabitants of the
scattered hamlets, caves hollowed in the ground, rude circular
huts or lake-dwellings, were less occupied with domestic life
than with war and the chase. On the heights, as at Bibracte,
or on islands in the rivers, as at Lutetia, or protected by marshes,
as at Avaricum, oppida — at once fortresses and places of refuge,
like the Greek Acropolis— kept watch and ward over the beaten
tracks and the rivers of GauL
These primitive societies of tall, fair-skinned warriors, blue-
eyed and red-haired, were gradually organized into political
bodies of various kinds— kingdoms, republics and
federations — and divided into districts or pagi (pays)'
to which divisions the minds of the country folk have
remained faithfully attached ever since The victorious
aristocracy of the kingdom dominated the other
strengthened by the prestige of birth, the ownership of the soil
and the practice of arms. Side by side with this martial nobility
the Druids constituted a priesthood unique in ancient times;
neither hereditary as in India, nor composed of isolated priests
as in Greece, nor of independent colleges as at Rome, it was a
true corporation, which at first possessed great moral authority,
though by Caesar's time it had lost both strength and prestige.
Beneath these were the common, people attached to the soil,
classes,
8o2
FRANCE
pUSKV
who did not count for much, but who reacted against the in-
sufficient protection of the regular institutions by a voluntary
subordination to certain powerful chiefs.
This impotence of the state was a permanent cause of those
discords and revolts, • which in the xst century B.C. were so
singularly favourable to Caesar's ambition. Thus
o^ after eight years of incoherent struggles, of scattered
revolts, and then of more and more energetic efforts,
Gaul, at last aroused by Verdngetorix, for once concentrated
her strength, only to perish at Alesia, vanquished by Roman
discipline and struck at from the rear by the conquest of Britain
(58-50 B.C.).
This defeat completely altered the destiny of Gaul, and she
became one of the principal centres of Roman civilization.
Of the vast Celtic empire which had dominated
Europe nothing now remained but scattered remnants
in the farthest corners of the land, refuges for all
the vanquished Gaels, Picts or Gauls; and of its civilization
there lingered only idioms and dialects — Gaelic, Pict and Gallic
— which gradually dropped out of use. During five centuries
Gaul was unfalteringly loyal to her conquerors; for to conquer
is nothing if the conquered be not assimilated by the conqueror,
and Rome was a past-mistress of this art. The personal charm
of Caesar and the prestige of Rome are not of themselves sufficient
to explain this double conquest. The generous and enlightened
policy of the imperial administration asked nothing of the people
of Gaul but military service and the payment of the tax; in
return it freed individuals from patronal domination, the people
from oligarchic greed or Druidic excommunicat ion, and every one
in general from material anxiety. Petty tyrannies gave place
to the great Pax Romano, The Julio-Claudian dynasty did
much to attach the Gauls to the empire; they always occupied
the first place in the mind of Augustus, and the revolt of the
Aeduan Julius Sacrovir, provoked by the census of a.d. 21, was
easily repressed by Tiberius. Caligula visited Gaul and founded
literary comoetitions at Lyons, which had become the political
and intellectual capital of the country. Claudius, who was
a native of Lyons, extended the right of Roman citizenship
to many of his fellow-townsmen, gave them access to the magis-
tracy and to the senate, and supplemented the annexation of
Gaul by that of Britain. The speech which he pronounced
on this occasion was engraved on tables of bronze at Lyons,
and is the first authentic record of Gaul's admission to the
citizenship of Rome. Though the crimes of Nero and the
catastrophes which resulted from. his downfall, provoked the
troubles of the year a.d. 70, the revolt of Sabinus was in the
main an attempt by the Germans to pillage Gaul and the prelude
to military insurrections. The government of the Flavians
and the Antonines completed a definite reconciliation. After
the extinction of the family of Augustus in the 1st century
Gaul had made many emperors— Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Ves-
pasian and Domitian; and in the 2nd century she provided
Gauls to rule the empire — Antoninus (138- 161) came from
Nlmes and Claudius from Lyons, as did also Caracalla later on
(211-9x7).
The romanization of the Gauls, like that of the other subject
nations, was effected by slow stages and by very diverse means,
furnishing an example of the constant adaptability
of Roman policy. It was begun by establishing a
network of roads with Lyons as the central point,
and by the development of a prosperous urban life
in the increasingly wealthy Roman colonies; and it
was continued by the disintegration into independent
cities of nearly all the Gaulish states of the Narbonnaisc, together
with the substitution of the Roman collegial magistracy for the
isolated magistracy of the Gauls. This alteration came about
more quickly in the north-east in the Rhine-land than in the
west and the centre, owing to the near neighbourhood of the
legions on the frontiers. Rome was too tolerant to impose
her own institutions by force; it was the conquered peoples
who collectively and individually solicited as a favour the right
of adopting the municipal system, the magistracy, the sacerdotal
and aristocratic social system of their conquerors. The ttz
of Caracalla, at the beginning of the 3rd century, by coder ^
the right of citizenship on all the inhabitants of thecsf.-t,
completed an assimilation for which commercial rdzua,
schools, a taste for officialism, and the adaptability and qiud>
telligence of the race had already made preparation. The G~~
now called themselves Romans and their language Ronuii
There was neither oppression on the one hand nor scnri&ri ;.i
the other to explain this abandonment of their tndaer
Thanks to the political and religious unity which a ccse*
worship of the emperor and of Rome gave them, ih&cl
administrative centralization tempered by a certain anr-
of municipal autonomy, Gaul prospered throughout tks
centuries.
But this stability of the Roman peace had barely been ra^-.
when events began to threaten it both from within and vuk-
The Pax Roman* having rendered any armed force p f
unnecessary amid a formerly very bellicose people, only «#*
eight legions mounted guard over the Rhine to protect ^pn
it from the barbarians who surrounded the empire. *jj
The raids made by the Germanson the eastern frontiers,
the incessant competitions for the imperial power, and
repeated revolts of the Pretorian guard, gradually underci
the internal cohesion of Gaul; while the insurrections of -
Bagaudae aggravated the destruction wrought by a gra*; -
treasury and by barbarian incursions; so that the anarci;
the 3rd century soon aroused separatist ideas. Under Post -?-
Gaul had already attempted to restore an independent ti .
short-lived empire (258-267); and twenty-eight yean <*.
the tetrarchy of Diocletian proved that the blood now circuit
with difficulty from the heart to the extremities of an ecrp
on the eve of disintegration. Rome was to see her usher.
dominion gradually menaced from all sides. It u-as in G-
that the decisive revolutions of the time were first prepatt.
Constantine's crusades to overthrow the altars of paga^' ".
and Julian's campaigns to set them up again. After Consur :
the emperors of the East in the 4th century merely put ir r
occasional appearance at Rome; they resided at Milan « -.
the prcfectorial capitals of Gaul— at Aries, at Treves (Trr
at Reims or in Paris. The ancient territorial diviaoa -
Belgium, Gallia Lugdunensis (Lyonnaise), Gallia Naxbene-
(Narbonnaisc) — were split up into seventeen little pr©\ic
which in their turn were divided into two dioceses. Thus -
great historic division was made between southern and nor *»■.-
France. Roman nationality persisted, but the avdniinistrat.
system was tottering.
Upon ground that had been so well levelled by Roman fer-
lation aristocratic institutions naturally flourished. From v
4th century onward the balance of classes was dis- ^s^ ,..
turbed by the development of a landed aristocracy „ JM> i
that grew more powerful day by day, and by the s*m*
corresponding ruin of the small proprietors and in- °" —>
dustrial and commercial corporations. The members of t ;
curia who assisted the magistrates in the cities, crushed by 1
burden of taxes, now evaded as far as possible public office '
senatorial honours. The vacancies left in this middle da?s :
this .continual desertion were not compensated for by the rr.
gressive advance of a lower class destitute of personal proper
and constantly unsettled in their work. The peasants, bo \
than the industrial labourers, suffered from the absence of r
capital laid by, which alone could have enabled them to imprv
their land or to face a time of bad harvests. Having no en.
they found themselves at the mercy of their neighbours, ■-
great landholders, and by degrees fell into the position of teoir
or into servitude. The curia was thus emptied both from abc
and from below. It was in vain that the emperors tried
rivet the chains of the curia in this hereditary bondage, I
attaching the small proprietor to his glebe, like the wh
to his gild and the soldier to his legion. To such a miscr^
pretence of freedom they all preferred servitude, which at It-
ensured them a livelihood; and the middle class of freer
thus became gradually extinct.
IISTORYJ
FRANCE
803
The aristocracy, on the contrary, went on increasing in power,
nd eventually became masters of the situation. It was through
them that the emperor, theoretically absolute, practi-
Jj ^ cally carried on his administration; but he was no
ad mad 'longer either strong or a divinity, and possessed
twrtir nothing but the semblance of omnipotence. His
"*r^" official despotism was opposed by the passive but
JJJ^ invincible competition of an aristocracy, more powerful
than himself because it derived its support from the
•vived relation of patron and dependants. But though the
ristocracy administered, yet they did not govern. They
iffered, as did the Empire, from a general state of lassitude,
ike their private life, their public life, no longer stimulated
Y struggles and difficulties, had become sluggish; their power
f initiative was enfeebled. Feeling their incapacity they no
inger embarked on great political schemes, and the army, the
isirumcnt by which such schemes were carried on, was only
eld together by the force of habit. In this society, where there
as no traffic in anything but wealth and ideas, the soldier was
rthing more than an agitator or a parasite. The egoism of the
pper classes held military duty in contempt, while their avarice
.-populated the countryside, whence the legions had drawn their
:cruits. And now come the barbarians! A prey to perpetual
iarm, the people entrenched themselves behind those high walls
[ the opfrida which Roman security had rased to the ground,
tit imperial impotence had restored, and where life in the
jddle ages was destined to vegetate in unrestiul isolation.
Amidst this general apathy, intellectual activity alone persisted.
1 the 4th century there was a veritable renaissance in Gaul, the
Mm last outburst of a dying 6ame, which yet bore witness
ctecr also to the general decadence. The agreeable versi-
***** fication of an amateur like Ausonius, the refined
' amL panegyrics of a Eumenius, disguising nullity of thought
eneatb elegance of form, already foretold the perilous sterility
f scholasticism. Art, so- widespread in the wealthy villas -of
aid, contented itself with imitation, produced nothing original
nd remained mediocre. Human curiosity, no longer concerned
ith philosophy and science, seemed as though stifled, religious 1
olemics alone continuing to hold public attention. Disinclina-
on for the self-sacrifice of active life and weariness of the things
I the earth lead naturally to absorption in the things of heaven,
iter bringing about the success of the Asiatic cults of Mittira
nd Cybele, these same factors now assured the triumph over
(hausted paganism of yet another oriental religion — Christianity
-after a duel which had lasted two centuries.
This new faith had appeared to Constantine likely to infuse
aung and healthy blood into the Empire. In reality Christianity,
which had contributed not a little to stimulate the
r aT** " political unity of continental Caul, now tended to
n£ dissolve k by destroying that religious unity which
had heretofore been its complement. Before this
icre had been complete harmony between Church and State;
at afterwards came indifference and then disagreement between
alitical and religious institutions, between the City of God and
tat of Caesar. Christianity, introduced into Gaul during the
it century of the Christian era by those foreign merchants who
aded along the coasts of the Mediterranean, had by the middle
the 2nd century founded communities at Vienne, at Autun
id at Lyons. Their propagandising seal soon exposed them to
ie wrath of an ignorant populace and the contempt of the
lucated, and thus it was that in a.p 177, under Marcus
urelius, the Church of Lyons, founded by St Pothinus, suffered
lose persecutions which were the effective cause of her ultimate
ctory. These Christian communities, disguised under the
gaily authorised name of burial societies, gradually formed a
1st secret cosmopolitan association, superimposed upon Roman
•ciety but incompatible with the Empire. Christianity had
' be either destroyed or absorbed. The persecutions under
urclian and Diocletian almost succeeded in accomplishing the
rmer; the Christian churches were saved by the instability of
te existing authorities, by military anarchy and by the incursions
the barbarians. Despite tortures and martyrdoms. and thanks
to the seven apostles sent from Rome in 250, during the 3rd
century their branches extended all over GauL
The emperors had now to make terms with these churches,
which served to group together all sorts of malcontents,
and this was the object of the edict of Milan (313), nfc,^
by which the Church, at the outset simply a Jewish otcbrtf
institution, was naturalized as Roman; while in 32$ ttoattr la
the Council of Nicaea endowed her with unity. But QmL
for the security and the power thus attained she had to pay with
her independence. On the other hand, pagan and Christian
elements in society existed side by side without intermingling,
and even openly antagonistic to each other— one aristocratic
and the other democratic. In order to induce the masses of the
people once more to become loyal to the imperial form of govern-
ment the emperor Julian tried by founding a new religion to
give its functionaries a religious prestige which should impress
the popular mind. His plan failed ; and the emperor Theodosius,
aided by Ambrose, bishop of Milan, preferred to make the
Christian clergy into a body of imperial and conservative officials;
while in return for their adhesion he abolished the Arian heresy
and paganism itself, which could not survive without his support.
Thenceforward it was in the name of Christ that persecutions
took place in an Empire now entirely won over to Christianity.
In Gaul the most famous leader of this first merciless, if still
perilous crusade* was a soldier-monk, Saint Martin of Tours.
Thanks to him and bis disciples in the middle of the
4th century and the beginning of the 5th many of the JJK/Si
towns possessed well-established churches; but the cmunm,
militant ardour of monks and centuries of labour
were needed to conquer the country districts, and in the mean-
time both dogma and internal organization were subjected to
important modifications. As regards the former the Church
adopted a course midway between metaphysical explanations
and historical traditions, and reconciled the more extreme
theories; while with the admission of pagans a great deal of
paganism itself was introduced. On the other hand, the need for
political and social order involved the necessity for a disciplined
and homogeneous* religious body; the exercise of power, more-
over, soon transformed the democratic Christianity of the earlier
churches into a federation of little conservative monarchies.
The increasing number of her adherents, and her inexperience of
government on such a vast and complicated scale, obliged her to
comply with political necessity and to adopt the system of the
state and its social customs. The Church was no longer a
fraternity, on a footing of equality, with freedom of belief and
tentative as to dogma, but an authoritative aristocratic hier-
archy. The episcopate was now recruited from the great f am ilics
in the same way as the imperial and the municipal public services.
The Church called on the emperor to convoke and preside over
her councils and to combat heresy; and in order more effectually
to crush the latter she replaced primitive independence and local
diversity by uniformity of doctrine and worship, and by the
hierarchy of dioceses and ecclesiastical provinces. The heads of
the Church, her bishops, her metropolitans, took the titles
of their pagan predecessors as well as their places, and their
jurisdiction was enforced by the laws of the state. Rich and
powerful chiefs, they were administrators as much .as priests:
Germanus (Germain), bishop of Auxerre (d. 448), St Eucherius
of Lyons (d. 450), Apollinaris Sidonius of Clermont (d. c. 490)
assumed the leadership of society, fed the poor, levied tithes,
administered justice, and in the towns where they resided,
surrounded by priests and deacons, ruled both in temporal and
spiritual matters.
But the humiliation of Theodosius before St Ambrose proved
that the emperor could never claim to be a pontiff, and that the
dogma of the Church remained independent of the ya#
sovereign as well as of the people; if she sacrificed chmrd>'*
her liberty it was but to claim it again and maintain /«**•«*•
it more effectively amid the general languor. The SJJJJ^**
Church thus escaped the unpopularity of this decadent
empire, and during the 5th century she provided a refuge for
all those who, wishing to preserve the Roman unity, were terrified
8o+
by the blackness of the horizon. In fact, whilst in the Eastern
Church the metaphysical ardour of the Greeks was spending
itself in terrible combats in the oecumenical councils over the
interpretation of the Nicene Creed, the clergy of Gaul, more
simple and strict in their faith, abjured these theological logo-
machies; from the first they had preferred action to criticism
and bad taken no part in the great controversy on free-will
raised by Pelagius. Another kind of warfare was about to absorb
their whole attention; the barbarians were attacking the frontiers
of the Empire on every side, and their advent once again modified
Gallo-Roman civilization.
For centuries they had been silently massing themselves
around ancient Europe, whether Iberian, Celtic or Roman.
Many times already during that evening of a decadent
**•*■■* civilization, their threatening presence had seemed
iaYMMha. like a dark cloud veiling the radiant sky of the peoples
established on the Mediterranean seaboard. The cruel
lightning of the sword of Brennus had illumined the night,
setting Rome or Delphi on fire. Sometimes the storm had burst
over Gaul, and there had been need of a Marius to stem the torrent
of Cimbri and Teutons, or of a Caesar to drive back the Helvetians
into their mountains. On the morrow the western horizon would
clear again, until some such disaster as that which befell Varus
would come to mortify cruelly the pride of an Augustus. The
Romans had soon abandoned hope of conquering Germany,
with its fluctuating frontiers and nomadic inhabitants. For
more than two centuries they had remained prudently entrenched
behind the earthworks that extended from Cologne to Ratisbon
(Regensburg); but the intestine feuds which prevailed among
the barbarians and were fostered by Rome, the organization
under bold and turbulent chiefs of the bands greedy for booty,
the pressing forward on populations already settled of tribes in
their rear; all this caused the Germanic invasion to filter by
degrees across the frontier. It was the work of several genera-
tions and took various forms, by turns and simultaneously
colonization and aggression; but from this time forward the
pax rotnana was at an end. The emperors Probus, Constantine,
Julian and Valentinian, themselves foreigners, were worn out
with repulsing these repeated assaults, and the general enervation
of society did the rest. The barbarians gradually became part
of the Roman population; they permeated the army, until after
Theodosius they recruited it exclusively; they permeated
civilian society as colonists and agriculturists, till the command
of the army and of important public duties was given over to a
Stilicho or a Crocus. Thus Rome allowed the wolves to mingle
with the dogs in watching over the flock, just at a time when the
civil wars of the 4th century had denuded the Rhenish frontier
of troops, whose numbers had already been diminished by Con-
stantine. Then at the beginning of the 5th century, during a
furious irruption of Germans fleeing before Huns, the limes was
carried away (406-407); and for more than a hundred years the
torrent of fugitives swept through the Empire, which retreated
behind the Alps, there to breathe its last.
Whilst for ten years Alaric's Goths and Stilicho's Vandals
were drenching Italy with blood, the Vandals and the Alani from
the steppes of the Black Sea, dragging in their wake the
reluctant German tribes who bad been allies of Rome
and who had already settled down to the cultivation of
their lands, invaded the now abandoned Gaul, and
having come as far as the Pyrenees, crossed over them. After the
passing of this torrent the Visigoths, under their kings Ataulphus,
Wallia and Theodoric, still dazzled by the splendours of this
immense empire, established themselves like submissive vassals
in Aquitaine, with Toulouse as their capital. About the same
time the Burgundians settled even more peaceably in Rhenish
Gaul, and, after 456, to the west of the Jura in the valleys of
Tb0 the Saone and the Rhone. The original Franks of
Frank* Germany, already established in the Empire, and
*jj"* pressed upon by the same H uns who had already forced
CtovJfc the Goths across the Danube, passed beyond the
Rhine and occupied north-eastern Gaul; Ripuarians of the Rhine
establishing themselves on the Sambre and the Meuse, and
Tbm
FRANCE ihebh
Saltans in Belgium, as far as the great fortifiea Ughnss tz
Bavai to Cologne. Accepted as allies, and supported by Rx^
prestige and by the active authority of the general Aetiai. J
these barbarians rallied round him and the Romans el Ga£ isi
in 451 defeated the hordes of Attila, who had advanced a* i 1
as Orleans, at the great battle of the Calais unisn plains. |
Thus at the end of the 5th century the Roman empire n
nothing but a heap of ruins, and fidelity to the e m p ire wa in
only maintained by the Catholic Church; she alone n»*r
survived, as rich, as much honoured as ever, and more «rf*t
powerful, owing to the disappearance of the imperial ***•■
officials for whom she had found substitutes, and the ***"
decadence of the municipal bodies into whose inheriuact ■-
had entered. Owwgtoherthe City of God graduaUy replaced i ; .
Roman imperial polity and preserved its civilization; wife ■?
Church allied herself more closely with the new kingdocs '-
she had ever done with the Empire. In the Gothic or Burglar
states of the period the bishops, after having for a time oppov
the barbarian invaders, sought and obtained from their tin
the support formerly received from the emperor. Apdbt.-:
Sidonius paid court to Euric, since 476 the independent ba-
the Visigoths, against whom he had defended Auvergne; iz
A vitus, bishop of Vicnne, was graciously received by Gund&L
king of the Burgundians. But these princes were Areas, l
foreigners among the Catholic population; the alliance sec-
tor by the Church could not reach her from that source, aai
was from the rude and pagan Franks that she gained the nuts:-
support which she still lacked. The conversion of Clovis *r
master-stroke; it was fortunate both for himself and tor is
Franks. Unity in faith brought about unity in law.
Clovis was king of the Sicambrfans, one of the tribes d v
Salian Franks. Having established themselves in the pbi
of Northern Gaul, but driven by the necessity of finding
new land to cultivate, in the days of their king Childeric SSI?
they had descended into the fertile valleys of the — ^
Sommc and the Oise. Clovis's victory at SoJasons
over the last troops left in the service of Rome. (486) exte&'H
their settlements as far as the Loire. By his conversion, «t 01
was due to his wife Clotilda and to Remigius, bishop of Rots
more than to the victory of Tolbiac over the Alaisi"
Clovis made definitely sure of the Roman inhabitants and gri
the Church an army (496). Thenceforward he devoted bins J
to the foundation of the Frankish monarchy by driving tfc* a
Jhausted and demoralized heretics out of Gaul, and by port --1
himself in the place of the now enfeebled emperor. In ccc
conquered Gundibald, king of the Burgundians, reduced r'n
to a kind of vassalage, and forced him into reiterated pree ^
of conversion to orthodoxy. In 507 be conquered and k - I
Alaric II., king of the Arian Visigoths, and drove the la tier s. i
Spain. Legend adorned his campaign in Aquitaine with miradi. *
the bishops were the declared allies of both him and bis «i
Theuderich (Thierry) after his conquest of Auvergne. At T -. 1
he received from the distant emperor at Constantinopk : i
diploma and insignia of pairicius and Roman consul. w- I
legalized his military conquests by putting him in possess
of civil powers. From this time forward, a great historic trr-J
formation was effected in the eyes of the bishops and
of the Gailo-Roraans; the Frankish chief took the C ^T**
place of the ancient emperors. Instead of blaming Z£*
him for the murder of the lesser kings of the Franks,
his relatives, by which he had accomplished the union of ti
Frankish tribes, they saw in this the hand of God rewardies
faithful soldier and a converted pagan. He became their fci
their new David, as the Christian emperors had formerly brti
he built churches, endowed monasteries, protected St VaJ
(Vedastus, d. 540), first bishop of Arras and Cambrai. *'j
restored Christianity in northern Gaul. Like the emprrt
before him Clovis, too, reigned over the Church. Of his :•
authority he called together a council at Orleans in 51 r, tb< vt*
of his death He was already the grand distributor of eccH
astical benefices, pending the time when his successors w*rr
confirm the episcopal elections, and his power began to u*
btoryi FRANCE
i a more and more absolute diameter. But though he felt the
cendant influence of Christian teaching, he was not really
•netrated by its spirit; a professing Christian, and a friend to
le episcopate, Clovis remained a barbarian, crafty and ruthless,
he bloody tragedies which disfigured the end of his reign bear
id witness to this; they were a fit prelude to that period during
ic course of which, as Gregory of Tours said, " barbarism was
t loose."
The conquest of Gaul, begun by Clovis, was finished by bis
>ns: Theuderich, Chlodoroer, Childebert and Clotaire. In
three successive campaigns, from 523 to 53 *, they
»£J°U annihilated the Burgundian kingdom, which had
maintained its independence, and had endured for
»arly a century. Favoured by the war between Justinian,
ie East Roman emperor, and Theodoric's Ostrogoths, the
rankisb kings divided Provence among them as they had done
1 the case of Burgundy. Thus the whole of Gaul was subjected
> the sons of Clovis, except Septimanta in the south-cast, where
ic Visigot hs still maintained their power. The Frankish armies
ten overflowed into the neighbouring countries and began to
illage them. Their disorderly cohorts made an attack upon
aly, which was repulsed by the Lombards, and another on
pain with the same want of success; but beyond the Rhine
ley embarked upon the conquest of Germany, where Clovis
id already reduced to submission the country on the banks of
>e Maine, later known as Franconia. In 531 the Thuringians in
ie centre of Germany were brought into subjection by his eldest
in, King Theuderich, and about the same time the Bavarians
ere united to the Franks, though preserving a certain autonomy,
he Merovingian monarchy thus attained the utmost limits of
s territorial expansion, bounded as it was by the Pyrenees,
ie Alps and the Rhine; it exercised influence over the whole of
iermany, which it threw open to the Christian missionaries, and
3 conquests formed the first beginnings of German history.
But to these wars of aggrandisement and pillage succeeded
lose fratricidal struggles which disgraced the whole of the sixth
century and arrested the expansion of the Merovingian
JJ^ power. When Clotaire, the last surviving son of
Clovis, died in 561, the kingdom was divided between
is four sons like some piece of private property, as in 511, and
ccording to the German method. The capitals of these four
ings— Charibert, who died in 567, Cuntram, Sigebert and
hilperic— • were Paris, Orleans, Reims and Sorssons— all near one
trother and north of the Loire, where the Germanic inhabitants
redorainated; but their respective boundaries were so confused
lat disputes were inevitable. There was no trace of a political
lea in, these disputes; the mutual hatred of two women aggra-
ited jealousy to the point of causing terrible civil wars from
5 1 to 613, and these finally created a national conflict which
•suited In the dismemberment of the Frankish empire. Recog-
ized, in fact, already as separate provinces were Austrasia, or
ic eastern kingdom, Neustria, or north-west Gaul and Burgundy;
quitaine alone was as yet undifferentiated.
Sigebert bad married Brunhilda, the daughter of a Visigoth
ing; she was beautiful and well educated, having been brought
up in Spain, where Roman civilization still flourished.
Chilperic had married Galswiatha, one of Brunhilda's
sisters, for the sake of her wealth; but despite this
marriage he had continued his amours with a waiting*
oman named Fredegond, who pushed ambition to the point of
ime, and she induced him to get rid of Galswintha. In order to
renge her sister, Brunhilda incited Sigebert to begin a war
hich terminated in 575 with the assassination of Sigebert by
redegond at the very moment when, thanks to the help of the
ermans, he had gained the victory, and with the imprisonment
Brunhilda at Rouen. Fredegond subsequently caused the
^ath of Merovech (Merovee), the son of Chilperic, who had been
crctly married to Brunhilda, and that of Bishop Praetextatus,
ho had solemnized their union. After this, Fredegond en-
savoured to restore imperial finance to a state of solvency, and
> set up a more regular form of government in her Neustria,
hich was less romanized and less wealthy than Burgundy,
805
where Guntram was reigning, and less turbulent than the eastern
kingdom, where most of the great warlike chiefs with their large
landed estates were somewhat impatient of royal authority.
But the accidental death of two of her children, the assassination
of her husband in 584, and the advice of the Church, induced
her to make overtures to her brother-in-law Guntram. A lovei
of peace through sheer cowardice, and as depraved in his morals
as Chilperic, Guntram had played a vacillating and purely
self-interested part in the family tragedy. He declared himself
the protector of Fredegond, but his death in 593 delivered up
Burgundy and Neustria to Brunhilda's son Childebert, king of
Austrasia, in consequence of the treaty of Andclot, made in 587.
An ephemeral triumph, however; for Childebert died in 506,
followed a year later by Fredegond.
The whole of Gaul was now handed over to three children:
Childebert'* two sons, Theudebert and Theuderich (Thierry),
and the son of Fredegond, Clotaire IL The latter, -^^-^
having vanquished the two former at Latofao in qmSmJ
596, was in turn beaten by them at Donnelles In
600, and a year later a fresh fratricidal struggle broke out
between the two grandsons of the aged Brunhilda. Theuderich
joined with Clotaire against Theodobert, and invaded his brother's
kingdom, conquering first an army of Australians and then one
composed of Saxons and Thuringians. Strife began again in 613
in consequence of Theuderich's desire to join Austrasia to
Neustria, but his death delivered the kingdoms into the bands
of Clotaire II. This weak king leant for support upon the nobles
of Burgundy and Austrasia, impatient as they were of obedience
to a woman and the representative of Rome. The ecclesiastical
party also abindoned Brunhilda because of her persecution of
their saints, after which Clotaire, having now got the upper hand,
thanks to the defection of the Australian nobles, of .Arnulf,
bishop of Mctx, with his brother Pippin, and of Wamachaire,
mayor of the palace, made a terrible end of Brunhilda In 613.
Her long reign had not lacked intelligence and even greatness;
she alone, amid all these princes, warped by self-indulgence or
weakened by discord, had behaved like a statesman, and she
alone understood the obligations of the government she had
inherited. She wished to abolish the fatal tradition of dividing
up the kingdom, which so constantly prevented any possible
unity; in opposition to the nobles she used her royal authority
to maintain the Roman principles of order and regular administra-
tion. Towards the Church she held a courteous but firm policy,
renewing relations between the Frankish kingdom and the
pope; and she so far maintained the greatness of the Empire
that tradition associated her name with the Roman roads in
the north of France, entitling them " les chaussees de Brunebaut."
Like his grandfather, Clotaire IL reigned over a once more
united Gaul of Franks and Gallo-Romans, and like Clovis he
was not too weD obeyed by .the nobles; moreover,
his had been a victory more for the aristocracy than
for the crown, since it limited the power of the latter.
Not that the permanent constitution of the x8th of October 614
was of the nature of an anti-monarchic revolution, for the
royal power still remained very great, decking itself with the
pompous titles of the Empire, and continuing to be the dominant
institution; but the reservations which Clotaire II. had to make
in conceding the demands of the bishops and great laymen show
the extent and importance of the concessions these latter were
already aiming at. The bishops, the real inheritors of the
imperial idea of government, had become great landowners
through enormous donations made to the Church, and allied as
they were to the aristocracy, whence their ranks were continually
recruited, they had gradually identified themselves with the
interests of their class and had adopted its customs; while thanks
to long minorities and civil wars the aristocracy of the high
officials had taken an equally important social position. The
treaty of Andeiot in 587 had already decided that the benefices
or lands granted to them by the kings should be held for life.
In the 7tb century the Merovingian kings adopted the custom
of summoning them all, and not merely the officials of their
Pelotium, to discuss political affairs; they began, moreover.
8o6
FRANCE
IHCTT 1
to choose their counts or administrators from among the great
landholders. This necessity for approval and support points
to yet another alteration in the nature of the royal power,
absolute as it was in theory.
The Mayoralty of the Palace aimed a third and more serious
blow at the royal authority. By degrees, the high officials
of the Palaiium, whether secular or ecclesiastical,
Tb0 and also the provincial counts, had rallied round
UJ^2*». tne m& y° n °' li,e palace as their real leaders. As
under the Empire, the Palatium was both royal court
and centre of government, with the same bureaucratic hierarchy
and the same forms of administration; and the mayor of the
palace was premier official of this itinerant court and ambulatory
government. Moreover, since the palace controlled the whole
of each kingdom, the mayors gradually extended their official
authority so as to include functionaries and agents of every
kind, instead of merely those attached immediately to the
king's person. They suggested candidates for office for the
royal selection, often appointed office-holders, and, by royal
warrant, supported or condemned them. Mere subordinates
while the royal power was strong, they had become, owing
to the frequent minorities, and to civil wars which broke the
tradition of obedience, the all-powerful ministers of kings
nominally absolute but without any real authority. Before long
they ceased to daim an even greater degree of independence
than that of Warnachaire, who forced Clotaire II. to swear
that he should never be deprived of his mayoralty of Burgundy;
they wished to take the first place in the kingdoms they governed,
and to be able to attack neighbouring kingdoms on their own
account- A struggle, motived by self-interest, no doubt; but
a struggle, too, of opposing principles. Since the Frankish
monarchy was now in their power some of them tried to re-
establish the unity of that monarchy in all its integrity, together
with the superiority of the State over the Church; others,
faithless to the idea of unity, saw in the disintegration of the
state and the supremacy of the nobles a warrant for their own
independence. These two tendencies were destined to strive
against one another during an entire century (6x3-714), and to
occasion two periods of violent conflict, which, divided by a kind of
renascence of royalty,'were to end at last in the triumphant substi-
tution of the Austrasian mayors for royalty and aristocracy alike.
Tho first struggle began on the accession of Clotaire II.,
when Austrasia, having had a king of her own ever since 561,
demanded one now. In 623 Clotaire was obliged
Btmsxh t0 ^nd hcr his son Dagobcrt and evcn to extend his
t»tw—m territory. But in Dagobert's name two men ruled,
mooTdv representing the union of the official aristocracy and
^f yontt y t the Church. One, Pippin of Landen, derived his
a ^ yonay ' power from his position as mayor of the palace, from
great estates in Aquitaine and between the Meuse and the Rhine,
and from the immense number of his supporters; the other,
Arnulf, bishop of Metz, sprang from a great family, probably
of Roman descent, and was besides immensely wealthy in
worldly possessions. By the union of their forces Pippin and
Arnulf were destined to shape the future. They had already,
in 613. treated with Clotaire and betrayed the hopes of Brunhilda,
being consequently rewarded with the guardianship of young
Dagobert Burgundy followed the example of Austrasia,
demanded the abolition of the mayoralty, and in 627 succeeded
in obtaining her independence of Neustria and Austrasia and
direct relations with the king.
The death of Clotaire (629) was the signal for a revival of
the royal power. Dagobert deprived Pippin of Landen of
his authority and forced him to fly to Aquitaine;
mSafof Dut 8 tiM ne h ad to give the Austrasians his son Sigebert
mo0«f«ar HI. for their king (634). He made administrative
an*r progresses through Neustria and Burgundy to recall
the nobles to their allegiance, but again he was forced
to designate his second son Clovis as king of Neustria.
He did subdue Aquitaine completely, thanks to bis brother
Charibert, with whom he had avoided dividing the kingdom,
and he tried to restore his own demesne, which had been despoiled
U9-6J9.
by the granting of benefices or by the pious frauds of the C-. »
In short, this reign was one of great conquests, inysz
except under a strong government. Dagobert's victoria w
Samo, king of the Slavs along the Elbe, and his v&'.-z )
of the Bretons and the Basques, maintained the prestig ni
Frankish empire; while the luiury of his court, his txa 1
the fine arts (ministered to'by his treasurer Ekri *), his bet-?)
achievements in architecture — especially the abbey of Si 1 1
burial-place of the kings of France — the brilliance and tb< >j
of the churchmen who surrounded him and his rcvisk* .» I
Salic law, ensured for his reign, in spite of the failure ©t as'j
for unity, a fame celebrated in folksong and ballad.
But for barbarous nations old-age comes early, a«! :J
Dagobert's death (639), the monarchy went swiftly to Us ski
The mayors of the palace again became supreme. m .,
and the kings not only ceased to appoint them, but m^b
might not even remove them from office. Such mayors (*>
were Aega and Erchinoald, in Neustria, Pippin and *"•*
Otto in Austrasia, and Flaochat in Burgundy. One
of them, Grimoald, son of Pippin, actually dared to J
the title of king in Austrasia (640). This was a prd
attempt and barren of result, yet it was significant; en
less so is the fact that the palace in which these r:
bore rule was a huge association of great personages, V
and ecclesiastics who seem to have had much more indepemi
than in the 6th century. We find the dukes actually ru
troops without the royal sanction, and even against the kj
In 641 the mayor Flaochat was forced to swear that tbey&
hold their offices for life; and though these offices were s?
hereditary, official dynasties, as it were, began to be esufe-J
permanently within the palace. The crown lands, the go^
ships, the different offices, were looked upon as common p*T
to be shared between themselves. Organized into a ror.i
body they surrounded the king and were far more powerid J
he. In the general assembly of its members this body of <*£ i
decided the selection of the mayor; it presented FtoJ
to the choice of Queen Nanthilda, Dagobert's widow; ii
long discussion it appointed Ebroln as mayor; it subr.J
requests that were in reality commands to the Assembly « -I
ncuil in 6 16 and later to Childeric in 670. Moreover, the cct£i
formerly subdued by the Franks availed themselves el 1
opportunity to loosen the yoke; Thuringia was lost by 5*fl
in 641, and the revolt of Alamannia in 643 set back the fr^J
of the kingdom from the Elbe to Austrasia. Aquitaine, bito
the common prey of all the Frankish kings, having in vain ''
to profit by the struggles, between Fredegond and Brvr 1 -
and set up an independent king, Gondibald, now finaDy b-
her bonds in 67a Then came a time when the kings wtft a
children, honoured with but the semblance of respect, okH
tutelage of a single mayor, Erbrom of Neustria.
This representative of royalty, chief minister for focr-a
twenty years (656-681), attempted the impossible, endear
to re-establish unity in the midst of general dissolution ^^t
and to maintain intact a royal authority usurped **»*
everywhere by the hereditary power of the great £*""
palatine families. He soon stirred up against himself Ltrn
all the dissatisfied nobles, led by Leger (Leodegarius), bisk"!
Autun and his brother Gerinus. Clotaire III.'s deaib P
the signal for war. Ebroln's enemies set up Childeric II
opposition to Theuderich, the king whom he had chosen witb
summoning the great provincial officials. Despite, a trap* 1
triumph, when Childeric was forced to recognize the pri*1
of hereditary succession in public offices, and when the nwsy
alties of Neustria and Burgundy were alternated to the profit
both, Leger soon fell into disgrace and was exiled to that »1
monastery of Luxeuil to which Ebroln had been rekga- 1
Childeric having regained the mastery restored the n»a)«
office, which was immediately disputed by the two n"
Ebroln was successful and established himself as mayor of "•
palace in the room of Leudcsius, a partisan of Leger (*'
» St Eligius, bishop of Noyon, apostle of the Belgians and Fri*
(d.6S9?>-
ttifof
rur-
stor\] FRANCE
owing this up by a distribution of offices tad dignities right
i left among his adherents. Leger was put to death in 678,
1 the Australians, commanded by the Caroiingian Pippin II.,
ii whom many of the chief Neustrians had taken refuge,
re dispersed near Laon (680). But Ebroln was assassinated
ct year in the midst of his triumph, having like Fredegond
sn unable to do more than postpone for a quarter of a century
1 victory of the nobles and of Australia; for his successor,
rthar, was unfitted to carry on his work, having neither
i gifts and energy nor the powerful personality of Pippin,
rthar met his death at the battle of Tertry (687), which
gave the king into the hands of Pippin, as also the
royal treasure and the mayoralty, and by thus enabling
him to reward his followers made him supreme over
e Merovingian dynasty. Thenceforward the degenerate
scendants of Clovis offered no further resistance to his
lims, though it was not until 752 that their line became
tinct.
In that year the Merovingian dynasty gave place to the rule
Pippin II. of Heristal, who founded a Caroiingian empire
ted to be as ephemeral as that of the Merovingians. This
tlitical victory of the aristocracy was merely the consummation
a slow subterranean revolution which by innumerable reiterated
ows had sapped the structure of the body politic, and was about
transfer the people of Gaul from the Roman monarchical
id administrative government to the sway of the feudal
stem.
The Merovingian kings, mere war-chiefs before the advent of
Iovis, had after the conquest of Gaul become absolute hereditary
mmm it monarchs, thanks to the disappearance of the popular
mtmUot assemblies and to the perpetual state of warfare.
<*Mcn>- xhey concentrated in their own hands all the powers
******* of the empire, judicial, fiscal and military; and even
ic so-called " rois faineants " enjoyed this unlimited power,
1 spite of the general disorder and the civil wars. To
lake their authority felt in the provinces they had an army of
facials at their disposal— a legacy, this, from imperial Rome —
ho represented them in the eyes of their various peoples. They
ad therefore only to keep up this established goverament,«feut
hey could not manage even this much; they allowed the idea
f the common interests of kjngs and their subjects gradually to
ic out, and forgetting that national taxes are a necessary impost,
. charge for service rendered by the state, they had treated these
s though they were illicit and unjustifiable spoils. The tax-
payers, with the clergy at their head, adopted the same idea, and
very day contrived fresh methods of evasion. Merovingian
ustice was on the same footing as Merovingian finance: it
?as arbitrary, violent and self-seeking. The Church, too, never
ailed to oppose it— at first not so much on account of her own
ixnbitions as in a more Christian spirit-— and proceeded to weaken
he royal jurisdiction by repeated interventions on behalf of those
inder sentence, afterwards depriving it of authority over the
:lergy, and then setting up ecclesiastical tribunals in opposition
o those held by the dukes and counts. At last, just as the
u'ngdom had become the personal property of the king, so the
>fficials— dukes, counts, royal vicars, tribunes, cenletwii— who
lad for the most part bought their unpaid offices by means of
presents to the monarch, came to look upon the public service
rather as a mine of official wealth than as an administrative
organization for furthering the interests, material or moral, of
he whole nation. They became petty local tyrants, all the more
despotic because they had nothing to fear save the distant
luthority of the king's missi, and the more rapacious because
they had no salary save the fines they inflicted and the fees that
they contrived to multiply. Gregory of Tours tells us that they
were robbers, not protectors of the people, and that justice and
the whole administrative apparatus were merely engines of in-
satiable greed. It was the abuses thus committed by the kings
and their agents, who did not understand the art of gloving the
iron hand, aided by the absolutely unfettered licence of conduct
and the absence of any popular liberty, that occasioned the
gradual increase of charters of immunity.
807
Immunity was the direct and personal privilege which forbade
any royal official or his agents to decide cases, to levy taxes, or
to exercise any administrative control on the domains
of a bishop, an abbot, or one of the great secular '
nobles. On thousands of estates the royal government
gradually allowed the law of the land to be superseded by local
law, and public taxation to change into special contributions;
so that the duties of the lower classes towards the state, ware
transferred to the great landlords, who thus became loyal
adherents of the king but absolute masters on their own territory.
The Merovingians had no idea that they were abdicating the
least part of their authority, nevertheless the deprivations
acquiesced in by the feebler kings led of necessity to the diminu-
tion of their authority and their judicial powers, and to the
abandonment of public taxation. They thought that by granting
immunity they would strengthen their direct control; in reality
they established the local independence of the great landowners,
by allowing royal rights to pass into their hands. Then came
confusion between the rights of the sovereign and the rights of
property. The administrative machinery of the state still existed,
but it worked in empty air: its taxpayers disappeared, those
who were amenable to its legal jurisdiction slipped from its grasp,
and the number of those whose affairs it should have directed
dwindled away. Thus the Merovingians had shown themselves
incapable of rising above the barbarous notion that royalty is
a personal asset to the idea that royalty is of the state, a power
belonging to the nation and instituted for the benefit of alL
They represented in society nothing more than a force which
grew feebler and feebler as other forces grew strong; they never
stood for a national magistracy.
Society no less than the state was falling asunder by a gradual
process of decay. Under the Merovingians it was a hierarchy
wherein grades were marked by the varied scale of the n^n^^
wergild, a man being worth anything from thirty to six «/«*#
hundred gold pieces. The different degrees were those —***
of slave, frecdman, tenant-farmer and great landowner. *****
As in every social scheme where the government is
without real power, the weakest sought protection of the
strongest; and the system of patron, client and journeyman,
which had existed among the Romans, the Gauls and the
Germans, spread rapidly in the 6th and 7 th centuries, owing to
public disorder and the inadequate protection afforded by the
government. The Church's patronage provided some with a
refuge from violence; others ingratiated themselves with the
rich for the sake of shelter and security; others again sought
place and honour from men of power; while women, churchmen
and warriors alike claimed the king's direct and personal pro-
tection.
This hierarchy of persons, these private relations of man to
man, were recognized by custom in default of the law, and were
soon strengthened by another and territorial hierarchy.
The large estate, especially if it belonged to the Church, %%■■"
very soon absorbed the few fields of the freeman.
In order to farm these, the Church and the rich landowners
granted back the holdings on the temporary and conditional
terms of tenancy-at-will or of the bencficium, thus multiplying
endlessly the land subject to their ovcrlordship and the men who
were dependent upon them as tenants. The kings, like private
individuals and ecclesiastical establishments, made use of the
bencficium to reward their servants; till finally their demesne
was so reduced by these perpetual grants that they took to dis-
tributing among their champions land owning the ovcrlordship
of the Church, or granted their own lands for single lives only.
These various " benefactions " were, as a rule, merely the indirect
methods which the great landowners employed in order to absorb
the small proprietor. And so well did they succeed, that in the
6th and 7th centuries the provincial hierarchy consisted of the
cultivator, the holder of the beneficium and the owner; while
this dependence of one man upon another affected the personal
liberty of a large section of the community, as well as the con-
dition of the land. The great landowner tended to become not
only lord over his tenants, but also himself a vassal of the king.
8o8
FRANCE
Thus by means of immunities, of the beneficium and of
patronage, society gradually organised itself independently
of the state, since it required further security. Such
ZhuJl cxtra security was first provided by the conqueror of
Tertry; for Pippin II. represented the two great
families of Pippin and of Araulf, and consequently the two
interests then paramount, i.e. land and religion, while he
had at his back a great company of followers and vast landed
estates. For forty years (615-65$) the office of mayor of Aus-
tralia had gone down in his family almost continuously in direct
descent from father to son. The death of Grimoald had caused
the loss of this post, yet Ansegisus (Ansegisel), Arnulfs son and
Pippin's son-in-law, had continued to hold high office in the
Austrasian palace; and about 680 his son, Pippin II., became
master of Austrasia, although he had held no previous office in
the palace. His dynasty was destined to supplant that of the
Merovingian house.
Pippin of Heristal was a pioneer; he it was who began all
that his descendants were afterwards to carry through. Thus he
gathered the nobles about him not by virtue of his position, but
because of his own persona] prowess, and because he could assure
them of justice and protection, instead of being merely the head
of the royal palace he was the absolute lord of his own followers.
Moreover, be no longer bore the title of mayor, but that of duke
or prince of the Franks; and the mayoralty, like the royal power
now reduced to a shadow, became an hereditary possession which
Pippin could bestow upon his sons. The reigns of Theuderich III.,
Clovis IIL or Childcbert III. are of no significance except as
serving to date charters and diplomas. Pippin it was who
administered justice in Austrasia, appointed officials and dis-
tributed dukedoms; and it was Pippin, the military leader,
who defended the frontiers threatened by Frisians, Alamanni
and Bavarians. Descended as he was from Arnulf, bishop of
Metz, he was before all things a churchman, and behind his
armies marched the missionaries to whom theCarolingian dynasty,
of which he was the founder, were to subject all Christendom.
Pippin it was, in short, who governed, who set in order
the social confusions of Neuslria, who, after long wars, put
a stop to the malpractices of the dukes and counts, and
summoned councils of bishops to make good regulations.
But at his death in 714 the child-king Dagobert HI. found
himself subordinated to Pippin's two grandsons, who, being
minors, were under the ..wardship of their grandmother
Plectrude.
Pippin's work was almost undone — a party among the
Neustrians under Raginfrid, mayor of the palace, revolted
against Pippin II. 's adherents, and Radbod, duke of
jjjjjjjf the Frisians, joined them. But the Austrasians
(7IS-74I). ftPPt*]"! to *** illegitimate son of Pippin, Charles
Mart el, who had escaped from the prison to which
Plectrude, alarmed at his prowess, had consigned him, and took
him'for their leader. With Charles Martcl begins the great period
of Austrasian history. Faithful to the traditions of t he Austrasian
mayors, he chose kings for himself— Clotaire IV. .then Chilperic II
and lastly Theuderich IV. After Theuderich 's death (7J7) he
left the throne vacant until 742, but he himself was king in all
but name; he presided over the royal tribunals, appointed the
royal officers, issued edicts, disposed of the funds of the treasury
and the churches, conferred immunities upon adherents, who were
no longer the king's nobles but his own, and even appointed the
bishops, though there was nothing of the ecclesiastic about him-
self. He decided questions of war and peace, and re-established
unity in Gaul by defeating the Neustrians and the Aquitanian
followers of Duke Odo (Eudes) at Vincy in 717. When Odo,
brought to bay, appealed for help to the Arab troops of Abd-ar-
Rahman, who after conquering Spain had crossed the Pyrenees,
Charles, like a second Clovis, saved Catholic Christendom in its
peril by crushing the Arabs at Tours (732). The retreat of the
Arabs, who were further weakened by religious disputes, enabled
him to restore Frankish rule in Aquitaine in spite of Hunald,
son of Odo. But Charles's longest expeditions were made into
Germany, and in these he sought the support of the Church, then
the greatest of all powers since it was the deposiur, :
Roman imperial tradition.
No less unconscious of his mission than Clovis had btt: Ox
Martel also was a soldier of Christ. He protected the o£*s
who paved the way for his militant invasions. Without ^
him theapostleof Germany, the English monk Boniface, n
would never have succeeded in preserving the purity «
of the faith and keeping the bishops submissive to tt
the Holy See. The help given by Charles had tvoir
reaching results. Boniface was the instrument of is* -jr.
Rome and Germany, of which union the Holy Romas Ear
Germany was in the 10th century to become the most ?:
expression, continuing up to the time of Luther. AndEu
also helped on the alliance between the papacy and the Circ
dynasty, which, more momentous even than that betiwe-
and the bishops of Gaul, was to sanctify might by rif&L
This union was imperative for the bishops of Roc* : :
wished to establish their supremacy, and their care for or*
by no means excluded all desire of domination. Mere Ctai
religious authority did not secure to them theobedience **
of cither the faithful or the dergy; moreover, they <**
had to consider the great secular powers, and in tab ■
respect their temporal position in Italy was groviEt r:
able. Their relations with the East Roman empcrc
lord of the world after the Roman Senate had sent tit m
insignia to Constantinople in 476) were confined to n*
insults from him or suspecting him of heresy. Even in r*i
Italy there was no longer any opposition to the progns:
Lombards, the last great nation to be established io*-*2
end of the 6th century within the ancient Romanxrrpr^:
king Liudprand dearly intended to seize Italy and crcl
itself. Meanwhile from the south attacks were beuu; :-*
the rebel dukes of Spoleto and Beneventum . Pope Onr" <
cherished dreams of an alliance with the powerful dtls I
Franks, as St Remigius before him had thought of aJ
with Clovis against the Goths. Charles Martel had ?•' "
Boniface on his German missions: he 'would perh>i
Gregory the support of his armies. But the warrior, bit J
aforetime, hesitated to put himself at the disposal of ihH
When it was a question of winning followers or keep- '
he had not scrupled to lay hands on ecdcsiaslkal p-
nor to fill the Church with his friends and kinsfolk, t
alliance might embarrass him. So if he loaded Uk H
ambassadors with gifts in 739, he none the less rcmembr?:!
the Lombards had just helped him to drive the Saracc
Provence. However, he died soon after this, on ibe : 1
October 741, and Gregory III. followed him almost intrri.!
Feeling his end near, Charles, before an assembly rH
had divided his power between his two sons, Carkc^
Pippin III. The royal line seemed to have beta
forgotten for six years, but in 742 Pippin brought a Jjj
son of Chilperic II. out of a monastery and made him ^
king. This Childeric III. was but a shadow— and J
knew it. He made a phantom appearance once even '
at the opening of the great annual national convent ice Li*
the Campus Martius (Champ de Mars) : a dumb idol, b*
drawn in leisurely fashion by oxen, he disappeared a-
his palace or monastery. An unexpected event re-cs-^
unity in the Carolingian family. Pippin's brother, &J
Carlo man, became a monk in 747, and Pippin, not **i
of the kingdom, ordered Childeric also to cut off his reva*
after which, being king in all but name, he adopted U*
in 752. Thus ended the revolution which had been JM
for two centuries. The disappearance of Grippo, ft
illegitimate brother, who, with the help of all the
enemies of the Franks — Alamanni, Aquilanians and j
Bavarians— had disputed his power, now completed the j
work of centralization, and Pippin had only to maintain
it. For this the support of the Church was indisptniJ^
Pippin understood the advantages of such an aliiir.tl
than Charles Martel. A son of the Church, a protector ' 'A
a president of councils, a collector of relics, devoted to M
II
roRvj FRANCE
>m he invited, as papal legate, to reform the clergy of
irasia), he astutely accepted the new claims of the vicar
L Peter to the headship of the Church, perceiving the value
i alliance with this rising power.
rudent enough to fear resistance if he usurped theMerovingian
m 9 Pippin the Short made careful preparations for his
accession, and discussed the question of the dynasty
with Pope Zacharias. Receiving a favourable opinion,
he had himself anointed and crowned by Boniface
in the name of the bishops, and was then proclaimed
an assembly of nobles, counts and bishops at
sons in November 751. Still, certain disturbances made
see that aristocratic approval of his kingship might be
ngthened if it could claim a divine sanction which no Mero-
nan had ever received. Two years later, therefore, he de-
leted a consecration of his usurpation from the pope, and in
Denis on the 38th of July 754 Stephen II. crowned and
inted not only Pippin, but his wife and his two sons as well.
he political results of this custom of coronation were all-
tortant for the Carolingians, and later for the first of the
Capets. Pippin was hereby invested with new dignity,
■JJ^ and when Boniface's anointing had been confirmed
a^. by that of the pope, he became the head of the Frankish
Church, the equal of the pope. Moreover, he astutely
trived to extend his priestly prestige to his whole family;
royalty was no longer merely a military command or a civil
ce, but became a Christian priesthood. This sacred character
1 not, however, conferred gratuitously. On the very day
his coronation Pippin allowed himself to be proclaimed
rician of the Romans by the pope, just as Govis had been
de consul. This title of theimperial court waspurely honorary,
it attached him still more closely to Rome, though without
.ening his independence. He had besides given a written
mise to defend the Church of Rome, and that not against the
nbards only. Qualified by letters of the papal chancery as
berator and defender of the Church," his armies twice (754-
•) crossed the Alps, despite the opposition of the Frankish
itocracy, and forced Aistulf, king, of the Lombards, to cede
him the exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis. Pippin
'e them back to Pope Stephen II., and by this famousdonation
nded that temporal power of the popes which was to endure
il 1870. He also dragged the Western clergy into the pope's
vrrcl with the emperor at Constantinople, by summoning
council of Gentilly, at which the iconoclastic heresy was
demned (767). Matters bang thus settled with Rome,
♦pin again took up his wars against the Saxons, against the
ibs (whom he drove from Narbonne in 758), and above all
.inst Walfcr, duke of Aquitaine, and his ally, duke Tassilo
Bavaria. This last war was carried on systematically from
> to 768, and ended in the death of Walfer and the deSnite
ablishment of the Frankish hold on Aquitaine. When
>pin died, aged fifty-four, on the 24th of September 768, the
ole of Gaul had submitted to his authority.
Pippin left two sons, and before he died he had, with the
isent of the dignitaries of the realm, divided his kingdom
betweenthem,makingthcelder r Charles(Charlemagne),
JJJJ^ king of Austrasia, and giving the younger, Carloman,
Burgundy, Provence, Septimania, Alsace and
unannia, and half of Aquitaine to each. On the 9th of October
t Charles was enthroned at Noyon in solemn assembly, and
rloman at Soissons. The Carolingian sovereignty was thus
ther hereditary nor elective, but was handed down by the will
the reigning king, and by a solemn acceptance of the future
>g on the part of the nobles. In 771 Carloman, with whom
arles had had disputes, died, leaving sons; but bishops, abbots
i counts all declared for Charles, save a few who took refuge
Italy with Desiderius, king of the Lombards. Desiderius,
ose daughter Bertha or Desiderata Charles, despite the pope,
i married at the instance of his mother Bcrtrade, supported
: rights of Carloman's sons, and threatened Pope Adrian in
me itself after he had despoiled him of Pippin's territorial
t. At the pope's appeal Charles crossed the Alps, took
809
Verona and Pavia after a long siege, assuraejj the iron crown of
the Lombard kings (June 774)1 and made a triumphal entry
into Rome, which had not formed part of the pope's desires.
Pippin's donation was restored, but the protectorate was no
longer so distant, respectful and intermittent as the pope liked.
After the departure of the imperious conqueror, a fresh revolt
of the Lombards of Beneventum under Arichis, Desiderius's
son-in-law, supported by a Greek fleet, obliged Pope Adrian to
write fresh entreaties to Charlemagne; and in two campaigns
(776-777) the latter conquered the whole Lombard kingdom.
But another of Desiderius's daughters, married to the powerful
duke Tassilo of Bavaria, urged her husband to avenge her
father, now imprisoned in the monastery of Corbie. After
endless intrigues, however, the duke, hemmed in by three
different armies, had in his turn to submit (788), and all Italy
was now subject to Charlemagne. These wars in Italy, even the
fall of the Lombard kingdom and the recapture of the duchy of
Bavaria, were merely episodes: Charlemagne's great war was
against the Saxons and lasted thirty years (772-804) .
The work of organizing the three great Carolingian conquests—
Aquitaine, Italy and Saxony—had yet to be done. Charlemagne
approached it with a moderation equal to the vigour
which he had shown in the war. But by multiplying JJJJjJJJ
its advance-posts, the Frankish kingdom came into umiimfi
contact with new peoples, and each new neighbour,
meant a new enemy. Aquitaine bordered upon Mussulman
Spain; the Avars of Hungary threatened Bavaria with their
tireless horsemen; beyond the Elbe and the Saal the Slavs
were perpetually at war with the Saxons, and to the north of
the Eider were the Danes. All were pagans; all enemies of
Charlemagne, defender of Christ's Church, and hence the
appointed conqueror of the world.
Various causes— the weakening of the Arabs by the. struggle
between the Omayyads and the Abbasids just after the battle
of Tours; the alliance of the petty Christian kings of wmnwUh
the Spanish peninsula; an appeal from the northern a* Armba,
amirs who had revolted against the new caliphate of Siara ma4
Cordova (755) — made Charlemagne resolve to cross Dam * t
the Pyrenees. He penetrated as far as the Ebro, but was
defeated before Saragossa; and In their retreat the Franks
were attacked by Vascons, losing many men as they came
through the passes. This defeat of the rear-guard, famous
for the death of the great Roland and the treachery of Gandd,
induced the Arabs to take the offensive once more and to conquer
Septimania. Charlemagne had created the kingdom of Aquitaine
especially to defend Septimania, and William, duke of Toulouse,
from 700 to 806, succeeded in restoring Frankish authority
down to the Ebro, thus founding the Spanish March with Barce-
lona as its capital. For two centuries and a half the Avars,
a remnantof the Huns entrenched in the Hungarian Mesopotamia,
had made descents alternately upon the Germans and upon the
Greeks of the Eastern empire. They had overrun Bavaria in
the very year of its subjugation by Charlemagne (788), and it
took an eight-years' struggle to destroy the robber stronghold.
The empire thus pushed its frontier-line on from the Elbe to
the Oder, ever as it grew menaced by increasing dangers. The
sea came to the help of the depopulated land, and Danish pirates,
Widukind's old allies, came in their leathern boats to harry
the coasts of the North Sea and the Channel. Permanent armies
and walls across isthmuses were alike useless; Charlemagne had
to build fleets to repulse his elusive foes (808-810), and even
after forty years of war the danger was only postponed.
Meanwhile Pippin's Frankish kingdom, vast and powerful
as it had been, was doubled. All nations from the Oder to the
Elbe and from the Danube to the Atlantic were subject
or tributary, and Charlemagne's power even crossed
these frontiers. At his summons Christian princes
and Mussulman amirs flocked to his palaces. The
kings of Northumbria and Sussex, the kings of the Basques
and of Galicia, Arab amirs of Spain and Fez, and even the caliph
of Bagdad came to visit him in person or sent gifts by the hands
of ambassadors. A great warrior and an upright ruler, his
8io
FRANCE
[RF7
VQ9U
conquests recalleduhose of the great Christian emperors, and
the Church completed the parallel by training him in her lore.
This still barely civilized German literally went to school to the
English Alculn and to Peter of Pisa, who, between two campaigns,
taught Sum history, writing, grammar and astronomy, satisfying
also his interest in sacred music, literature (religious literature
especially), and the traditions of Rome and Constantinople. Why
should he not be the heir of their Caesars? And so, little by
little, this man of insatiable energy was possessed by the ambition
of restoring the Empire of the West in his own favour.
There were, however, two serious obstacles in the way: first,
the supremacy of the emperor of the East, which though nominal
rather than real was upheld by peoples, princes, and
even by popes; secondly, the rivalry of the bishops
of Rome, who since the early years of Adrian's
pontificate had claimed the famous "Donation of
Constantine " (q.v.) . According to that apocryphal document, the
emperor after his baptism had ceded to the sovereign pontiff
his imperial power and honours, the purple chlamys, the golden
crown, " the town of Rome, the districts and cities of Italy and
of all the West." But in 797 the empress of Constantinople
had just deposed her son Constantine VI. after putting out his
eyes, and the throne might be considered vacant, while on the
other hand, Pope Leo III., who had been driven from Rome
by a revolt in 799, and had only been restored by a Frankish
army, counted for little beside the Frankish monarch, and
could not but submit to the wishes of the Carolingian court.
So when next year the king of the Franks went to Rome in
person, on Christmas Eve of the year 800 and in the basilica
of St Peter the pope placed on his head the imperial crown and
did him reverence " after the established custom of the time
of the ancient emperors." The Roman ideal, handed down
in tradition through the centuries, was here first revived.
This event, of capital importance for the middle ages, was
fertile in results both beneficial and the reverse. It brought
about the rupture between the West and Constantinople. Then
Charlemagne raised the papacy on the ruins of Lombardy to
the position of first political power in Italy; and the universal
Church, headed by the pope, made common cause with the
Empire, which all the thinkers of that day regarded as the ideal
state. Confusion between these powers was inevitable, but at
this time neither Charles, the pope, nor the people had a suspicion
of the troubles latent in the ceremony that seemed so simple.
Thirdly, Charlemagne's title of emperor strengthened his other
title of king of the Franks, as is proved by the fact that at the
great assembly of Aix-la-Chapelle in 602 he demanded from all,
whether lay or spiritual, a new oath of allegiance to himself
as Caesar. His increased power came rather from moral value,
from the prestige attaching to one who had given proof of it,
than from actual authority over mentor centralization; this
is shown by the division between the Empire and feudalism.
Universal sovereignty claimed as a heritage from Rome had a
profound influence upon popular imagination, but in no way
modified that tendency to separation of the various nations
which was already manifest. Charles himself in his government
preferred to restore the ancient Empire by vigorous personal
action, rather than to follow old imperial traditions, he intro-
duced cohesion into his "palace," and perfect centralization
into his official administration, inspiring his followers and
servants, clerical and lay, with a common and determined zeal.
The system was kept in full vigour by the missi dominici, who
regularly reported or reformed any abuses of administration,
and by the courts, military, judicial or political, which brought
to Charlemagne the strength of the wealth of his subjects, carry-
ing his commands and his ideas to the farthest limits of the
Empire. Under him there was in fact a kind of early renaissance
after centuries of barbarism and ignorance.
Tb*Cw This emperor, who assumed so high a tone with his
Bagiaa subjects, his bishops and his counts, who undertook
ff*iMi*» to uphold public order in civil life, held himself no
***** less responsible for the eternal salvation of men's souls
In the other world. Thanks to Charlemagne, and through the
restoration of order and of the schools, a common dfe 1
was prepared for the varied elements of the Er,pr. '.\
his means the Church was able to concentrate in the p_~i
academy all the intellectual culture of the middle agei,iii
preserved some of the ancient traditions of . organiza'i-e a
administration and guarded the imperial ideal Quds^
apparently wished, like Theodoric, to use German btaq
Christian unity to bring back life to the great body of tkLci
Not the equal of Caesar or Augustus in genius or in the bairn
of his work, he yet recalls them in his capitularies, his jerJ
courts, his official hierarchy, his royal emissaries, his i&zsi
his sole right of coinage, his great public works, his ccsj
against barbarism and heathenry, his zeal for kardasi
literature, and his divinity as emperor. Once more there sj
a great public entity such as had not been seen for mas; ya
but its duration was not to be a long one.
Charlemagne had for the moment succeeded in unitiag v^
Europe under his sway, but he had not been able to an&!
evolution towards feudal dismemberment. He had, a»,
doubtless conscientiously, laboured for the rceon- ttm*
stitution of the Empire; but it often happens that **jj
individual wills produce results other than those at
which they aimed, sometimes results even coa-jr
their wishes, and this was what happened in Charfcs.Ti
case. He had restored the superstructure of the tot
monarchy, but he had likewise strengthened and k^
methods and institutions till then private and insecure, v£'M
passing from custom into law, undermined the foundatea
the structure he had thought himself to be repairing. A qs^
of a century after his death his Empire was in ruins.
The practice of giving land as a bencficium to a grant* «
swore personal allegiance to the grantor had persisted c:
his capitularies Charlemagne had made these personal ec^
ments, these contracts of immunity — hitherto not transfer
nor even for life, but quite conditional — regular, legal. rt
obligatory and almost indissoluble. The bencficium »a* «
as practically Irrevocable as the oath of fidelity. He subc-t
to the yoke of the social system and feudal insiituiiocsiH
very moment when he was attempting to revive royal audwri
he was ruler of the state, but ruler of vassals also. The v#t
chical principle no longer sufficed to ensure social discipkv i
fear of forfeiting the grant became the only powerful guanil
of obedience, and as this only applied to his personal w^
Charlemagne gave up his claim to direct obedience Ires'
rest of the people, accepting the mediation of the counts to
and bishops, who levied taxes, adjudicated and admiral
in virtue of the privileges of patronage, not of the right i
state. The very multiplication of offices, so noticeable a' :!
time, furthered this triumph of feudalism by multiply*? i
links of personal dependence, and neutralizing more and r<
the direct action of the central authority. The frequer.t a
vocations of military assemblies, far from testifying 10 pa'" 1
liberty, was simply a means of communicating the cm;**
commands to the various feudal groups.
Thus Charlemagne, far from opposing, systematized fetrf- 1 - -1
in order that obedience and discipline might pass from ok oj
to another down to the lowest grades of society, and he succtcJ
for his own lifetime. No authority was more weighty or rl
respected than that of this feudal lord of Gaul, Italy *i
Germany; none was more transient, because it was » F*
personal.
When the great emperor was buried at Aix-la-Chaj*fc
814, his work was entombed with him. The fact was that I
successors were incapable of maintaining it. Twenty- cx*>
nine years after his death the Carolingian Empire had m*
been divided into three kingdoms; forty years later •***"
one alone of these kingdoms had split into seven; gy*
while when a century had passed France was a litter 0/
tiny states each practically independent. This disinter^
was caused neither by racial hate nor by linguistic patrftsi
It was the weakness of princes, the discouragement of to&
and landholders confronted by an inexorable system of fiat* 1
.TORY)
FRANCE
8it
military tyranny, and the incompntlbility of * vast empire
i a, too primitive governmental system, that wrecked the
k of Charlemagne.
'he JSmpire fell to Louis the Pious, sole survivor of his three
>. At the Aix assembly in 8x3 his father had crowned him
with his own hand, thus avoiding the papal sanction
sc*i4* t ^ uA ***** bcen almost fo^cd upon himself in 800.
k Louis was a gentle and well-trained prince, but weak
and prone to excessive devotion to the Church. He
i only reigned a few years when dissensions broke out on all
•s, as under the Merovingians. Charlemagne had assigned
Ir portions to his three sons in 781 and again in 806; like
urles Martel and Pippin the Short before him, however,
it he had divided was not the imperial authority, nor yet
ntries, but the whole system of fiefs, offices and .adherents
ich had been his own patrimony. The division that Louis the
us made at Aix in 8x7 among his three sons, Lothair, Pippin
1 Louis, was of like character, since he reserved the supreme
hority for himself, only associating Lothair, the eldest, with
3 in the government of the empire. Following the advice
his ministers Walla and Agobard, supporters of the policy
unity, Louis the Pious put Bernard of Italy, Charlemagne's
ndson, to death for refusing to acknowledge Lothair as cc~
peror; crushed ft revolt in Brittany; and carried on among
5 Danes the work of evangelization begun among the Slavs,
ourth son, Charles, was born to him by his second wife, Judith
Bavaria. Jealousy arose between the children of the two
irriages. Louis tried in vain to satisfy his sons and their
lowers by repeated divisions—at Worms (839) and at Aix
$1) — in which there was no longer question of either unity or
bordination. Yet his elder sons revolted against him in 831
d 832, and were supported by Walla and Agobard and by
eir followers, weary of all the contradictory oaths demanded
them. Louis was deposed at the assembly of Compiegne
33), the bishops forcing him to assume the garb of a penitent;
it he was re-established on his throne in St Etienne at McU,
e 28th of February 835, from which time until his death in
[O he fell more and more under the influence of his ambitious
If e, and thought only of securing an inheritance for Charles,
s favourite son.
Hardly was Louis buried in the basilica of MeU before his sons
;w to arms. The first dynastic war broke out between Lothair,
who by the settlement of 8x7 claimed the whole
5J* ** monarchy with the imperial title, and his brothers
vm!„ Louis and Charles. Lothair wanted, with the Empire,
the sole right of patronage over the adherents of his
ouse, but each of these latter chose his own lord according to
^dividual interests, obeying his fears or his preferences. The
iree brothers finished their discussion by fighting for a whole
ay (June 25th, 841) on the plain of Fontanel by Auxerre, but
tie battle decided nothing, so Charles and Louis, in order to get
be better of Lothair, allied themselves and their vassals by an
oath taken in the plain of Strassburg (Feb. 14th, 842).
J^_ This, the first document in the vulgar tongue in the
mni, history of France and Germany, was merely a mutual
contract of protection for the two armies, which never-
hcless did not risk another battle. An amicable division of the
mperial succession was arranged, and after an assessment of
he empire which took almost a year, an agreement was signed
it Verdun in August 843.
This was one of the important events in history Each
irother received an equal share of the dismembered empire
^^ Louis had the territory on the right bank of the Rhine,
?3» with Spires, Worms and Mains " because of the abund-
lupin* ance of wine." Lothair took Italy, the valleys of the
JjS" - Rhone, the Saone and the Meuse, with the two capitals
of the empire, Aix-la-Chapelle and Rome, and the
iltle of emperor Charles had aU the country watered by the
Scheldt, the Seine, the Loire and the Garonne, as far as the
Atlantic and the Ebro The partition of Verdun separated once
more, and definitively, the lands of the eastern and western
Franks. The former became modern Germany, the latter
France, and 'each from this time forward bad its own national
existence. However, as the boundary between the possessions
of Charles the Bald and those of Louis was not strictly defined,
and as Lothair's kingdom, having no national basis, soon dis-
integrated into the kingdoms of Italy, Burgundy and Aries, in
Lotharingia, this great undefined territory was to serve as a
tilting-ground for France and Germany on the very morrow of
the treaty of Verdun and for ten centuries after.
Charles the Bald was the first king of western France. Anxious
as he was to preserve Charlemagne's traditions of government,
he was not always strong enough to do so, and warfare M
within his own dominions was often forced on him. g**^"
The Norse pirates who had troubled Charlemagne imj-ot).
showed a preference for western France, justified by
the easy access afforded by river estuaries with rich monasteries
on their shores. They began in 841 with the sack of Rouen;
and from then until 9x2, when they made a settlement in one
part of the country, though few in numbers they never ceased
attacking Charles's kingdom, coming in their ships Up the Loire
as far as Auvergne, up the Garonne to Toulouse, and up the
Seine and the Scheldt to Paris, where they made four descents
in forty years, burning towns, pillaging treasure, destroying
harvests and slaughtering the peasants or carrying them off into
slavery. Charles the Bald thus spent his life sword in hand,
fighting unsuccessfully against the Bretons, Whose two kings,
Nomenoe" and Erispoe, he bad to recognize in turn; and against
the people of Aquitaine, who, in full revolt, appealed for help to
his brother, Louis the German. He was beaten everywhere
and always: by the Bretons at Ballon (845) and Juvardeil
(851); by the people of Aquitaine near Angouleme (845); and
by the Northmen, who several times extorted heavy ransoms
from him. Before long, too, Louis the German actually allied
himself with the people of Brittany and Aquitaine, and invaded
France at the summons of Charles the Bald's own vassals.
Though the treaty of Coblenz (860) seemed to reconcile the two
kings for the moment, no peace was ever possible in Charles
the Bald's kingdom. His own son Charles, king of Aquitaine,
revolted, and Salomon proclaimed himself king of Brittany in
succession to Erispoe, who had been assassinated. To check
the Bretons and the Normans, who were attacking from the
Atlantic and the Mediterranean, Charles the Bald found himself
obliged to entrust the defence of the country to Robert the Strong,
ancestor of the house of Capet and duke of the lands between
Loire and Seine. Robert the Strong, however, though many
times victorious over the incorrigible pirates, was killed by them
in a fight at Brissarthe (866).
Despite all this, Charles spoke authoritatively in his capitularies,
and though incapable of defending western France, coveted
other crowns and looked obstinately eastwards. QMaha
He managed to become king of Lorraine on the death »/<*»
of his nephew Lothair II., and emperor and king of Hmdoa
Germany on that of his other nephew Louis II. (875); JS. 11 **
though only by breaking the compact of the year 800.
In 876, the year before his death, he took a third crown, that of
Italy, though not without a fresh defeat at Andernach by Louis
the German's troops. His titles increased, indeed, but not his
power; for while his kingdom was thus growing in area it was
falling to pieces. The duchy with which he rewarded Robert
the Strong was only a military command, but became a powerful
fief. Baldwin'I (d. 879), count of Flanders, turned the country
between the Scheldt, the Somme and the sea into another feudal
principality. Aquitaine and Brittany were almost independent.
Burgundy was in full revolt, and within thirty years Rollo,
a Norman leader, was to be master of the whole of the lower
Seine from the Cotentin to the Somme. The fact was that
between the king's inability to defend the kingdom, and the
powerlessness of nobles and peasants to protect themselves from
pillage, every man made it his business to seek new protectors,
and the country, in spite of Charles the Bald's efforts, began to be
covered with strongholds, the peasant learning to live beneath
the shelter of the donjon keeps. Such vassals gave themselves
utterly to the lord who guarded them, working for him sword
8l2
FRANCE
PSTi 1
or pickaxe in hartd. The king was far away, the lord close
at hand. Hence the sixty years of terror and confusion
which came between Charlemagne and the death of Charles
the Bald suppressed the direct authority of the king in
favour of the nobles, and prepared the way for a second de-
struction of the monarchy at the hands of a stronger power
(see Feudalism).
Before long Charles the Bald's followers were dictating to
him; and in the disaffection caused by his feebleness and
cowardice prelates and nobles allied themselves
^J**** against him. If they acknowledged the king'sauthority
«~~i.m— . at the assemblies of Yutx (near Thionville) in 844,
they forced from him a promise that they should keep
their fiefs and their dignities; and while establishing a right of
control over all his actions they deprived him of his right of
jurisdiction over them. Despite Charles's resistance his royal
power dwindled steadily: an appeal to Hincmar, archbishop of
Reims, entailed concessions to the Church. In 856 some of his
vassals deserted him and went "over to Louis the German. To
Win them back Charles had to sign a new charter, by the terms
of which loyalty was no longer a one-sided engagement but
a reciprocal contract between king and vassal He gave up his
personal right of distributing the fiefs and honours which were
the price of adherence, and thus lost for the Carolingians the free
disposal of the immense territories they had gradually usurped;
they retained the over-lordship, it is true, but this over-lordship,
without usufruct and without choice of tenant, was but a
barren possession.
Like their territories public authority little by little slipped
from the grasp of the Carolingians, largely because of their
D^tyot abuse of their too great power. They had concentrated
tk* Can- the entire administration in their own hands. Like
Charlemagne, Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald
were omnipotent. There were no provincial assemblies,
no municipal bodies, no merchant-gilds, no autonomous churches;
the people had no means of making themselves heard; they
had no place in an administration which was completely in the
hands of a central hierarchy of officials of all ranks, from dukes
to seabini, with counts, viscounts and unUnarii in between.
However, these dukes and counts were not merely officials: they
too had become lords oifideles, of their own odvocaii, cenlenarii
and seabini, whom they nominated, and of all the free men of
the county, who since Charlemagne's time had been first allowed
and then commanded to "commend" themselves to a lord,
receiving feudal benefices in return. Any deprivation or super-
session of the count might impoverish, dispossess or ruin the
vassals of the entire county; so that all, vassals or officials,
small and great, feeling their danger, united their efforts, and
lent each other mutual assistance against the permanent menace
of an overweening monarchy. Hence, at the end of the 9th
century, the heredity of offices as well as of fiefs. In the dis-
ordered state of society official stability was a valuable warrant
of peace, and the administrative hierarchy, lay or spiritual,
thus formed a mould for the hierarchy of feudalism. There
was no struggle with the king, simply a cessation of obedience;
for without strength or support in the kingdom he was powerless
to resist. In vain Charles the Bald affirmed his royal authority
in the capitularies of Quierzy-sur-Oise (857), Reims (860), Pistes
(864), Gondreville (872) and Quierzy-sur-Oise (877); each time
in exchange for assent to die royal will and renewal of oaths
he had to acquiesce in new safeguards against himself and by
so much to diminish that power of protection against violence
and injustice for which the weak had always looked to the throne.
Far from forbidding the relation of lord and vassal, Charles the
Bald imposed it upon every man in his kingdom, himself proclaim-
ing the real incapacity and failure of that theoretic royal power
to which he laid claim. Henceforward royalty had no servants,
since it performed no service. There was no longer the least
hesitation over the choice between liberty with danger and
subjection with safety; men sought and found in vassalage
the right to live, and willingly bartered away their liberty
for it.
The degeneration of the monarchy was clearly apparr. -
the death of Charles the Bald, when his son, Louis the Sfeszr-
was only assured of the throne, which had passed by Lmk9
right of birth under the Merovingians and been st»
hereditary under the earlier Carolingians, through his "J*
election by nobles and bishops under the direction (
of Hugh the Abbot, successor of Robert the Strong, each »
having been won over by gift of abbeys, counties or iu-
Whcn Louis died two years later (879), the same nobis ?
some at Creil, the rest at Meaux, and the first party cho*L
of Germany, who preferred Lorraine to the crown; me-
rest anointed Louis III. and Carloman, sons of the L ^ *
late king, themselves deciding how the kingdom was mtsm
fo be divided between the two princes. Thus the ■" **
king no longer chose his own vassals; but vassals ****
and fief-holders actually elected their king according --<* J
material advantages they expected from Mm. Louis IH ri
Carloman justified their election by their brilliant v-r :i
Over the Normans at Saucourt (881) and near Eperaay ■'•• I
but at their deaths (882-884), the nobles, instead of *z±\
Louis's boy-son, Charles the Simple, as king, chose Chais .1
Fat, king of Germany, because he was emperor and saoi
powerful. He united once more the dominions of
Charlemagne; but he disgraced the imperial throne 2«
by his feebleness, and was incapable of using his (j*«
immense army to defend Paris when it was besieged
by the Normans. Expelled from Italy, he only came to Fail
to buy a shameful peace. When he died in January SS3 b U
not a single faithful vassal, and the feudal lords resolved &M
again to place the sceptre in a hand that could not wish! a
sword.
The death-struggle of the Carolingians lasted for a cesJ
of uncertainty and anarchy, during which time the b&;i
counts and lords might well have suppressed the _. ^
monarchy had they been hostile to it. Such, however, u,^,
was not their policy; on the contrary, they needed a «*rCr»
king to act as agent for their private interests, since ^fc
he alone could invest their rank and dignities with
an official and legitimate character. They did not at -
agree on Charles's successor; for some of them chose E-
(Odo), son of Robert the Strong, for his brilliant defence of ?-
against the Normans in 885; others Guy, duke of Spok-
Italy, who had himself crowned at Langres; while many *-
for Arnulf, illegitimate son of Carloman, king of German? « 1
emperor. Eudes was victor in the struggle, and was ctcvxj
and anointed at Compiegne on the 29th of February Sii ••
five years later, meeting with defeat after defeat at the hisL 1
the Normans, his followers deserted from him to Charte 2
Simple, grandson of Charles the Bald, who was also supper-
by Fulk, archbishop of Reims.
This first Carolingian restoration took place on the s& 1
January 893, and thenceforward throughout this warlike pc-J
from 888 to 936 the crown passed from one dynasty
to the other according to the interests of the nobles. JjJ*
After desperate strife, an agreeement between the two (weti
rivals, Arnulf's support, and the death of Odo,
secured it for Charles III., surnamed the Simple. His sub;:
remained faithful to him for a good while, as he put an end 15 il
Norman invasions which had desolated the kingdom for n
centuries, and cowed those barbarians, much to the bcnc£: 1
France. By the treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte (911) their ka •
Rolf (Rollo) obtained one of Charles's daughters in m&rr~l
and the district of the Lower Seine which the Normans had ? '
occupied, on condition that he and his men ceased their attd
and accepted Christianity. Having thus tranquillized the v*
Charles took advantage of Louis the Child's death, and
conquered Lorraine, in spiteof opposition from Conrad, Jjf/SJ,
king of Germany (921). But his preference for his new cmM.fi
conquest, and for a Lorrainer of low birth named
Hagano, aroused the jealousy and discontent of his nohfa
They first elected Robert, count of Paris (923), and then t
his death in a successful battle near Soissons against Charle* J
STORY]
FRANCE
*i3
mple, Rudolph of Burgundy, his son-in-law. But Herbert of
_. Vermandois, one of the successful combatants at
^rSo<y Soissons, coveted the countship of Laon, which
M-9M\. Rudolph refused him; and he thereupon proclaimed
Charles the Simple, who bad confided his cause to him,
king once more. Seeing his danger Rudolph ceded the count*
ip to Herbert, and Charles was relegated to his prison until
» death in 929. After unsuccessful wars against the nobles
the South, against the Normans, who asserted that they were
>und to no one except Charles the Simple, and against the
ungarians (who, now the Normans were pacified, were acting
eir part in the East), Rudolph had a return of good fortune
the years between 930 and 936, despite the intrigues of Herbert
Vermandois: Upon his death the nobles assembled to elect
king; and Hugh the Great, Rudolph's brother-in-law, moved
r irresolution as much as by prudence, instead of taking the
own, preferred to restore the Carolingians once more in the
rrson of Charles the Simple's son, Louis d'Outremer, himself
liming numerous privileges and enjoying the exercise of power
lencumbered by a title which carried with it the jealousy of
ie nobles.
This restoration was no more peaceful than its predecessor,
he Carolingians had as it were a fresh access of energy, and the
futf fv struggle against the Robertinians went on relentlessly.
• Both sides employed similar methods: one was sup-
vvfrwr ported by Normandy, the other by Germany; the
J6-9S4.) arc hbishop of Reims was for the Carolingians, the
obcrtinians had to be content with the less influential bishop
f Sens. Louis soon proved to Hugh the Great, who was trying
) play the part of a mayor of the palace, that he was by no
leans a roi faineant; and the powerful duke of the Franks,
rowing uneaey, allied himself with Herbert of Vermandots,
/illiam of Normandy, and his brother-in-law Otto L king of
Germany, who resented the loss of Lorraine. Louis defended
imself with energy, aided chiefly by the nobles of the South,
y his relative Edmund, king of the English, and then by Otto
imself, whose brother-in-law he also had become. A peace
dvantageous to him was made in 942, and on the deaths of his
wo opponents, Herbert of Vermandois and William of Nor-
landy, all seemed to be going well for him; but his guardian-
hip of Richard, son of the duke of Normandy, aroused fresh
trife, and on the 13th of July 945 he fell into an ambush and
offered a captivity similar to his father's of twenty-two years
ef ore. No one had befriended Charles the Simple, but Louis had
is wife Gerberga, who won over to his cause the kings of England
nd Germany and even Hugh. Hugh set him free, insisting, as
ayment for his aid, on the cession of Laon, the capital of the
ingdom and the last fortified town-remaining to the Carolingians
946). Louis was hardly free before be took vengeance, harried
he lands of his rival, restored to the archiepiscopal throne of
teims Artald, his faithful adviser, in place of the son of Herbert
f Vermandois, and managed to get Hugh excommunicated
iy the council of Ingeiheim (948) and by the pope. A two years'
truggle wearied the rivals, and they made peace in 950. Louis
nee more held Laon, and in the following year further
trengthened his position- by a successful expedition into Bur-
;undy. Still his last years were not peaceful; for besides civil
rars there were two Hungarian invasions of France (951
-nd 954).
Louis's sudden death in 954 once more placed the Carolingian
ine in peril, since he had not had time to have his son Lothair
crowned. For a third time Hugh had the disposal of
as*3m>. tnc crown » *nd °* was no m0K tempted to take it him-
self in 954 than in 933 or 936: it was too profitless a
KMsession. Thanks to Hugh's support and to the good office*
>f Otto and his brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne and duke
if Lorraine, Lothair was chosen king and crowned at Reims.
Hugh exacted, as payment for his disinterestedness and fidelity,
1 renewal of his sovereignty over Burgundy with that of Aquitaine
is well; he was in fact the viceroy of the kingdom, and others
mitated him by demanding indemnities, privileges and con-
irmation of rights, as was customary at the beginning of a reign.
Hugtr strengthened his position in Burgundy, Lorrajne and
Normandy by means of marriages; but just as his power was
at its height he died (956). His death and the minority of his
sons, Hugh Capet and Eudes, gave the Carolingian dynasty thirty
years more of life.
For nine years (956-965) Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, was
regent of France, and thanks to him there was a kind of entente
cordial* between the Carolingians and the Robertinians and Otto.
Bruno made Lothair recognise Hugh as duke of France and
Eudes as duke of Burgundy; but the sons preserved the father's
enmity towards king Louis, despite the archbishop's repeated
efforts- His death deprived Lothair of a wise and devoted
guardian, even if it did set him free from German influence;
and the death of Odalric, archbishop of Reims, in 969, was
another fatal loss for the Carolingians, succeeded as he was by
Adalbert), who, though learned, pious and highly intelligent,
was none the less ambitious. On the death of Otto I. (973)
Lothair wished to regain Lorraine; but his success was small,
owing to his limited resources and the uncertain support of his
vassals. In 980, regretting his fruitless quarrel with Otto II.,
who had ravaged the whole country as far as Paris, and fearing
that even with the support of the house of Vermandois he would
be crushed like his father Louis IV. between the duke of France
and the emperor, who could count on the archbishop of Reims,
Lothair made peace with Otto— a great mistake, which cost him
the prestige he had gained among his nobles by his fairly success-
ful struggle with the emperor, drawing down upon him, moreover,
the swift wrath of Hugh, who thought himself tricked. Otto,
meanwhile, whom he was unwise enough to trust, made peace
secretly with Hugh, as it was his interest to play off his two old
enemies one against the other. However, Otto died first (983),
leaving a three-year-old son, Otto III., and Lothair, hoping for
Lorraine, upheld the claims of Henry of Bavaria, who wished to
oust Otto. This was a war-signal for Archbishop Adalbero
and his adviser Gcrbert, devoted to the idea of the Roman
empire, and determined that it should still be vested in the race
of Otto, which had always been beneficent to the Church.
They dedp*ed to set the Robertinians against the Carolingians,
and on their advice Hugh Capet dispersed the assembly of
Compiegnc which Lothair had commissioned to ex-
amine Adalbero's behaviour. On Lot hair's death in JgSW).
986, Hugh surrounded his son and successor, Louis V.,
with intrigues. Louis was a weak-minded and violent young man
with neither authority nor prestige, and Hugh tried to have him
placed under tutelage. After Louis V.'s sudden death, aged
twenty, in 987, Adalbero and Gerbert, with the support of the
reformed Cluniac clergy, at the Assembly of Senlis eliminated
from the succession the rightful heir, Charles of Lorraine, who,
without influence or wealth, had become a stranger in his own
country, and elected Hugh Capet, who, though rich and powerful,
was superior neither in intellect nor character. Thus the triple
alliance of Adalbero's bold and adroit imperialism with the
cautious and vacillating ambition of the duke of the Franks,
and the impolitic hostility towards Germany of the ruined
Carolingians, resulted in the unlooked-for advent of the new
Capetian dynasty.
This event completed the evolution of the forces that had
produced feudalism, the basis of the medieval social system.
The idea of public authority bad been replaced by one Dlsaumm
that was simpler and therefore better fitted for a half- bermeat at
civilized society — that of .dependence of the weak on ttoktig*
the strong, voluntarily entered on by means of mutual tfMb
contract. Feudalism had gained ground .in the 8th century;
feudalism it was which had raised the first Carolingian to the
throne as being the richest and most powerful person in Austrasta;
and Charlemagne with all bis power had been as utterly unable
as the Merovingians to revive the idea of an abstract and im-
personal state. Charlemagne's vassals; however, had needed
him; while from Charles the Bald onward it was the king who
needed the vassals — a change more marked with each successive
prince. The feudal system had in fact turned against the throne,
the vassab using it to secure a permanent hold upon offices and
8i 4
FRANCE
(ET!
fiefs, and to get possession of estates and of power. After Charles
the Bald's death royalty had only, so to speak, a shell — administra-
tive officialdom. No longer firmly rooted in the soil, the monarchy
was helpless before local powers which confronted it, seized upon
the land, and cut off connexion between throne and people.
The king, the supreme lord, was the only lord without lands, a
nomad in his own realms, merely lingering there until starved out.
Feudalism claimed its new rights in the capitulary of Quierzy-sur-
Oise in 857; the rights of the monarchy began to dwindle in
877.
But vassalage could only be a cause of disintegration, not of
unity, and that this disintegration did not at once spread in-
definitely was due to the dozen or so great military commands
—Flanders, Burgundy, Aquitaine, &c. — which Charles the Bald
had been obliged to establish on a strong territorial basis. One
of these great vassals, the duke of France, was amply provided
with estates and offices, in contrast to the landless Carolingian,
and his power, like that of the future kings of Prussia and
Austria, was based on military authority, for he had a frontier—
that of Anjou. Then the inevitable crisis had come. For a
hundred years the great feudal lords had disposed of the crown
as they pleased, handing it back and forward from one dynasty
to another. At the same time the contrast between the vast
proportions of the Carolingian empire and its feeble administra-
tive control over a still uncivilized community became more
and more accentuated. The Empire .crumbled away by degrees.
Each country began to lead its own separate existence, stammer-
ing its own tongue; the different nations no longer understood
one another, and no longer had any general ideas in common.
The kingdoms of France and Germany, still too large, owed their
existence to a series of dispossessions imposed on sovereigns
too feeble to hold their own, and consisted of a great number
of small states united by a very slight bond. At the end of the
xoth century the duchy of France was the only central part of
the kingdom which was still free and without organization. The
end was bound to come, and the final struggle was between Laon,
the royal capital, and Reims, the ecclesiastical capital, the
former carrying with it the soil of France, and the latter the
crown. The Capets captured the first in 085 and the other in
087. Thenceforth all was over for the CaroKngtans, who were
left with no heritage save their great name.
Was the day won for the House of Capet? In the 1 ith century
the kings of that line possessed meagre domains scattered about
Mnamm in the lie de France among the seigniorial possessions
JJJ^JJJ"* of Brie, Beauce, Beauvaisis and Valois. They were
hemmed in by the powerful duchy of Normandy, the
counties of Blois, Flanders and Champagne, and the duchy
of Burgundy. Beyond these again stretched provinces prac-
tically impenetrable to royal influence: Brittany, Gascony,
Toulouse, Septimania and the Spanish March. The monarchy
lay stifling in the midst of a luxuriant feudal forest which sur-
rounded its only two towns of any importance: Paris, the city
of the future, and Orleans, the city of learning. Its power,
exercised with an energy tempered by prudence, ran to waste
like its wealth in a suzerainty over turbulent vassals devoid of
common government or administration, and was undermined
by the same lack of social discipline among its vassals which had
sapped the power of the Carolingians. The new dynasty was
thus the poorest and weakest of the great civil and ecclesiastical
lordships which occupied the country from the estuary of the
Scheldt to that of the Llobregat,. and bounded approximately
by the Meuse, the Saone and the ridge of the Cevennes; yet it
cherished a great ambition which it revealed at times during its
first century (987-1108) — a determination not to repeat the
Carolingian failure. It had to wait two centuries after the revolu-
tion of 087 before it was strong enough to take up the dormant
tradition of an authority like that of Rome; and until then it
cunningly avoided unequal strife in which, victory being im-
possible, reverses might have weakened those titles, higher than
any due to feudal rights, conferred by the heritage of the Caesars
and the coronation at Reims, and held in reserve for the
future
The new dynasty thus at first gave the imprest rvi
decrepitude than of youth, seeming more a coalis-i-i i
Carolingian monarchy than a new departure. Hi-rk
Capet's reign was one of disturbance and danger, **
behind his dim personality may be perceived tte *
struggle of greater forces — royalty and feudalism, the
French clergy and the papacy, the kingdom of FraactS
Empire. Hugh Capet needed more than three yean n * i
trayal of his enemy into his hands before he could pan} l-.;
of a quite second-rate adversary, Charles of Lorrains '.-
last descendant of Charlemagne. The instrbordinatkf v. 4
great vassals — the count of Vermandois, the duke of be,
the count of Flanders — who treated him as he had ew
Carolingian king; the treachery of Arnulf, archbishop a!
who let himself be won over by the empress Thtcpfca
papal hostility inflamed by the emperor against tk u
feudal France to independence,— all made it seem f?j
as though the unity of the Roman empire of the U«s
be secured at Hugh's expense and in Otto's favcer !
a matter of fact this papal and imperial hostility erl
making the Capet dynasty a national one. When Ej
in 096, he bad succeeded in maintaining bis. liberty ea
is true, by diplomacy, not force, despite opposing p^
bis own weakness. Above all, he had secured thr .j:
associating his son Robert with him on the throne; and il
the nobles and the archbishop of Reims were distorts 1
suspension of the feudal right of election, and tried to ra
they were unsuccessful.
Robert the Pious, a crowned monk, resembled hs f -3
eschewing great schemes, whether from timidity or pn
yet from 096 to 103 1 he preserved intact the authority ,
he had inherited from Hugh, despite many domestic da- 4
turbances. He maintained a defiant attitude, towarci -
Germany; increased his heritage; strengthened ha '
royal title by the addition of that of duke of BuifTo:
fourteen years of pillage; and augmented the royal cza
adding several countships on the south-east and aH
Limited in capacity, he yet understood the art of ac^usi
Henry I., his son, had to struggle with a p oa t sJ
Eudes, count of Chartres and Troyes, and was obbged k*
to abandon bis father's anti-German policy. Eudes,
who was rash and adventurous, in alliance with the .
queen-mother, supported the second son, Robert, i
and captured the royal town of Sens. In order to
retake it Henry ceded the beautiful valley of the Sate* 2
Rh6ne to the German emperor Conrad, and heBtc:r
kingdom of Burgundy was, like Lorraine, to follow the a
of Germany, Henry had besides to invest his brother *
duchy of Burgundy—a grave error which hampers
politics during three centuries. Like his father, be r-y* :
managed to retrieve some of the crown lands from V, :_
Bastard, the too-powerful duke of Normandy, aci 1-
a praiseworthy though fruitless attempt to regaic pa
of Lorraine for the French crown. Finally, by the or.
of his son Philip (1059) he confirmed the hereditary npi
Capets, soon to be superior to the elective rights of tbc
and great barons of the kingdom. The chkf men:
early Capets, indeed, was that they had sons, so :ta
dynasty lasted on without disastrous minorities or .
over the division of inheritance.
Philip I. achieved nothing during his long reign of fr-.
years except the necessary son. Louts the Fat. Un-
even in small undertakings be was utterly incapable
of great ones; and the two important events of his
reign took place, the one against his will, the other
without his help. The first,, which lessened Nonius
aggression in his kingdom, was William the Kasiari': <•
of England (1066); the second was the First Cru&ai* •'■'
by the French pope Urban II. (1095). A few t*_
campaigns against recalcitrant vassals and a long art
quarrel with the papacy over his adulterous union »r v -
de Montfort, countess of Anjou, repre s ented the tou.
roRYi
FRANCE
815
tulip's reign; he wis gieedy and venal, by no means dfedain-
Llae petty profits of brigandage, and be never left bis own
a ins.
iter a century's lethargy the house of Capet awoke once more
k l>ouis VI. and began the destruction of the feudal polity.
i V3L For thirty-four years of increasing warfare this active
'mt and energetic king, this brave and persevering soldier,
never spared himself, energetically noticing the royal
demesne against such pillagers as Hngh of Le Puiset
"homas of Marie. There was, however, but little difference
between a count of Flanders or of Chartres and Louis VI.,
possessor of a bat small and perpetually disturbed realm,
was praised by his minister, the monk Suger, for making
jowcr felt as far as distant Berri! This was clearly shown
1 he attempted to force the great feudal lords to recognise
tuthority. His bold endeavour to establish William Clito
landers ended in failure; and his want of strength was
\crulaxly humiliating in his unfortunate struggle with Henry
• ng of the English and duke of Normandy, who was powerful
well served, the real master of a comparatively weak baron-
Ixmis only escaped being crushed because he remembered,
d his successors for long after him, that his house owed its
;r to the Church.
le Church has never loved weakness; she has always had a
t sympathy for power, whatever its source, when she could
to capture it and make it serve her ends. Louis VL de-
ad her against feudal robbers; and she supported him in his
-%les against the nobles, making him, moreover, by his son's
iage with the heiresst>f Aquitalne, the greatest and richest
~ holder of the kingdom. But Louis was not the obedient
she wished for. With equal firmness and success he vindi-
1 bis rights, whether against the indirect attacks of the
: cy on his independence, or the claims of the ecclesiastical
a which, in principle, he made subordinate to the Jurisdic-
of the crown; whether in episcopal elections, or in ecclesi-
al reforms which might possibly imperil his power or his
< lues. The prestige of this energetic king, protector of the
. xh, of the infant communes in the towns, and of the peasants
gainst the constant oppressions of feudalism, became still
er at the end of his reign, when an invasion of the German
. rror Henry V. in alliance with Henry Beauderk of Normandy
. : ry I. of England), rallied his subjects round the orinammeol
. ., snis, awakening throughout northern France the unanimous
'•_ lovel sentiment of national danger.
(fortunately his successor, Louis VII., almost destroyed
work by a colossal blunder, although circumstances
ed much in his favour. Germany and England, the two
, to. powers espedally to be dreaded, were busy with
mmg internal troubles and quarrels of succession. On the
\'. other hand, thanks to his marriage with Eleanor
of Aquitaine, Louis's own domains had been increased
-., ie greater part of the country between the Loire and the
nees; while his father's minister, the monk Soger, continued
isist him with his moderation and prudence. His first
-sees against Theobald of Champagne, who for thirty years
been the most dangerous of the great French barons and
-efused a vassal's services to Louis VI., as well as the adroit
'* - macy with which he wrested from Geoffrey the Fair, count
' 1 jbu, a part of the Norman Vexin long claimed by the French
~ *, in exchange for permitting him to conquer Normandy,
>-' ; * red well for his boldness and activity, had he but confined
to serving his own interests. The second crusade, undcr-
"•' 1 to expiate his burning of the church of Vitry, inaugurated
' -" ies of magnificent but fruitless exploits; while his wife
'- be cause of domestic quarrels still more disastrous. Piety
- 1 thirst for glory impelled Louis to take the lead in this
fresh expedition to the Holy Land, despite the
' opposition of Suger, and the hesitation of the pope,
' t. Bernard of Clairv&ux and the barons. The alliance
with the German king Conrad III. only enhanced the
\\ - ulties of an enterprise already made hazardous by the
~- QdenundiagS between Greeks and Latins. The Crusade
ended In Che double disaster of military defeat and martial
dishonour (1147-1140); and Suger's death in 1151 deprived
Louis of a counsellor who had exercised the regency skilfully
and with success, just at the very moment when his divorce
from Eleanor was to jeopardize the fortunes of the Capets.
For the proud and passionate Eleanor married, two months
later (May 115s), the young Henry, count of Anjou and duke
of Normandy, who held, besides these great fiefs,
the whole of the south-west of France, and in two JJ^Jf •*,.
years' time the crown of England as well. Henry and aj£Jwo!l
Louis at once engaged in the first Capet-Angevin duel,
destined to last a hundred years (1152-1242). When France
and England thus entered European history, their conditions
were far from being equal In England royal power was strong;
the size of the Angevin empire was vast, and the succession
.assured. It was only abuse of their too-great powers that ruined
the early Angevin kings. France in the 1 3th century was merely
a federation of separate states, jealously independent, which
the king had to negotiate- with rather than rule; while his own
possessions, shorn of the rich heritage of Aquitaine, were, so to
speak, swamped by those of the English king. For some time
it was feared that the French kingdom would be entirely sb*
sorbed in consequence of the marriage between Louis's daughter
and Henry II. 'a eldest son. The two rivals were typical of their
states, Henry IL being markedly superior to Louis in political
resource, military talent and energy. He failed, however, to
realize his ambition of shutting in the Capet king and isolating
him from the rest of Europe by crafty alliances, notably that
with the emperor Frederick Barbarossa — while watching an
opportunity to supplant him upon the French throne. It is
extraordinary that Louis should have escaped final destruction,
considering that Henry had subdued Scotland,- retaken Anjou
from his brother Geoffrey, won a hold over Brittany, and schemed
successfully for Languedoc But the Church once more came
to the rescue of her devoted son. The retreat to France of Pope
Alexander III., after he had been driven from Rome by the
emperor Frederick in favour of the anti-pope Victor, revived
Louis's moral prestige. Henry H. 's quarrel with Thomas Beckct,
archbishop of Canterbury, which ran its course in France (1164-
1 1 71) as a struggle for the independence and reform of the Church,
both threatened by the Constitutions of Clarendon, and ended
with the murder of Becket in 1x72, gave Louis yet another
advantage over his rival. Finally the birth of Philip Augustus
(1 165), after thirty years of childless wedlock, saved the kingdom
from a war of succession just at the time when the powerful
Angevin sway, based entirely upon force, was jeopardized by
the rebellion of Henry H.'s sons against their father. Louis
naturally joined the coalition of 1173, but showed no. more
vigour in this than in his other wars; and his fate would have been
sealed had not the pope checked Henry by the threat of an
interdict, and reconciled the combatants (ri77). Louis had still
time left to effect the coronation of his son Philip Augustus
(1170), and to associate him with himself in the exercise of the
royal power for which he had grown too old and infirm.
Philip Augustus, who was to be the bitterest enemy of Henry
II. and the Angevins, was barely twenty before be revealed the
full measure of his cold energy and unscrupulous MJ ^
ambition. In five years (1180-1186) he rid himself Aaxnttn
of the overshadowing power of Philip of Alsace, count WJfj£
of Flanders, and his own uncles, the counts of a ^ m
Champagne; while the treaty of May 20th, 1186, was his first
rough lesson to the feudal leagues, which he had reduced to
powerlessness, and to the subjugated duke of Burgundy and
count of Flanders. Northern and eastern France recognized the
suzerainty of the Capet, and Philip Augustus was now bold
enough to attack Henry H., the master of the west, whose
friendly neutrality (assured by the treaty of Gisors) had made
possible the successive defeats of the great French bafons.
Like his father, Philip understood how to make capital out of the
quarrels of the aged and ailing Henry II. with his sons, especially
with Richard, who claimed his French heritage in his father's
lifetime, and raised up enemies for the disunited Angevins even
1**
8i6
FRANCE
(HISTORY
in Germany. After two yean of constant defeat, Henry's
capitulation at Axai proved once more that fortune is never
with the old. The English king had to submit himself to M the
advice and desire of the king of France/' doing him homage for
all continental fiefs (1x87-1189).
The defection of his favourite son John gave Henry his death-
blow, and Philip Augustus found himself confronted by a new
«*!._ king of England, Richard Cceur de Lion, as powerful,
besides being younger and more energetic Philip's
ambition could not rest satisfied with the petty
principalities of Amiens, Vermandois and Valois,
which he had added to the royal demesne. The third
crusade, undertaken, sorely against Philip's will, in
alliance with Richard, only increased the latent hostility between
the two kings; and in 1191 Philip abandoned the enterprise
in order to return to France and try to plunder his absent rival.
Despite his solemn oath no scruples troubled him: witness the
large sums of money he offered to the emperor Henry VI. if he
would detain Richard, who had been made prisoner by the duke
of Austria on his return from the crusade; and his negotiations
with his brother John Lackland, whom he acknowledged king of
England in exchange for the cession of Normandy. But Henry
VI. suddenly liberated Richard, and in five years that " devil
set free " took from Philip all the profit of his trickery, and shut
him off from Normandy by the strong fortress of Chateau-
Gaillard (1104-1190).
Happily an accident which caused Richard's death at the
siege of Chalus, and the evil imbecility of his brother and suc-
PHgj cessor, John Lackland, brilliantly restored the fortunes
Aagmtat of the Capets. The quarrel between John and his
madJoha nephew Arthur of Brittany gave Philip Augustus
LacUuA one of those opportunities of profiting by family
discord which, coinciding with discontent among the various
peoples subject to the house of Anjou, had stood him in such
good stead against Henry II. and Richard. He demanded
renunciation on John's part, not of Anjou only, but of Poitou
and Normandy— of all his French-speaking possessions, in fact —
in favour of Arthur, who was supported by William des Roches,
the most powerful lord of the region of the Loire. Philip'*
divorce from Ingeborg of Denmark, who appealed successfully
to Pope Innocent III., merely delayed the inevitable conflict.
John of England, moreover, was a past-master in the art of
making enemies of his friends, and his conduct, towards his vassals
of Aquitaine furnished a judicial pretext for conquest. The
royal judges at Paris condemned John, as a felon, to death and
the forfeiture of his fiefs (1203), and the murder of Arthur com-
pleted his ruin. Philip Augustus made a vigorous onslaught on
Normandy in right of justice and of superior force, took the
formidable fortress of Chateau-Gaillard on the Seine after several
months' siege, and invested Rouen, which John abandoned,
fleeing to England. In Anjou, Touraine, Maine and Poitou,
lords, towns and abbeys made their submission, won over by
Philip's bribes despite Pope Innocent IIL*s attempts at inter-
vention.. In 1208 John was obliged to own the Plantagenet
continental power as lost. There were no longer two rival
monarchies in France; the feudal equilibrium was destroyed,
to the advantage of the duchy of France.
But Philip in his turn nearly allowed himself to be led into .an
attempt at annexing England, and so reversing for his own
benefit the work of the Angevins (1213); but, happily for the
future of the dynasty, Pope Innocent III. prevented this.
Thanks to the ecclesiastical sanction of his royalty, Philip had
successfully braved the pope for twenty years, in the matter of
Ingeborg and again in that of the German schism, when he had
supported Philip of. Swabia against Otto of Brunswick, the
pope's candidate. In 1213, John Lackland, having been in con-
flict with Innocent regarding the archicpiscopal see of Canterbury,
bad made submission and done homage for bis kingdom, and
Philip wished to take vengeance for this at the expense of the
rebellious vassals of the north-west, and of Renaud and Ferrand,
counts of Boulogne and Flanders, thus combating English
influence in those quarters.
tftut.
This was a return to the old Capet policy; but it was also
menacing to many interests, and sure to arouse energetic re-
sistance. John seized the opportunity to consolidate
against Philip a European coalition, which included
most of the feudal lords in Flanders, Belgium and
Lorraine, and the emperor Otto IV. So dangerous did
the French monarchy already seem I John began
operations with an attack from Anjou, supported by the notably
capricious nobles of Aquitaine, and was routed by Philip's soa
at La Roche aux Moines, near Angers, on the and of July
1 214. Twenty-five days later the northern allies, intending to
surprise the smaller French army on its passage over the bridge
at Bouvines, themselves sustained a complete defeat. This first
national victory had not only a profound effect on the whok
kingdom, but produced consequences of far-reaching importance;
in Germany it brought about Otto's fall before Frederick II.;
in England it introduced the great drama of 12*5, the first act
of which closed with Magna Carta— John Lackland being forced
to acknowledge the control of his barons, and to share with than
the power he had abused and disgraced. In France, on the con-
trary, the throne was exalted beyond rivalry, raised Car above a
feudalism which never again ventured on acts of independence
or rebellion. Bouvines gave France the supremacy of the West.
The feudalism of languedoc was all that now remained to
conquer.
The whole world, in fact, was unconsciously working for
Philip Augustus. Anxious not to risk his gains, but to consolidate
them by organisation, Philip henceforth until his death in 1223
operated through diplomacy alone, leaving to others the tod
and trouble of conquests, the advantages of which were not for
them. When his son Louis wished to wrest the English crown
from John, now crushed by his barons, Philip intervened without
seeming to do so, first with the barons, then with Innocent 11L,
supporting and disowning his son by turns; until the latter,
held in check by Rome, was forced Co sign the treaty of Lambeth
(1217). When the Church and the needy and fanatical nobles
of northern and central France destroyed the feudal dynasty
of Toulouse and the rich civilisation of the south in the
Albigensian crusade, it was for Philip Augustus that tbur
leader, Simon de Montfort, all unknowing, conquered Languedoc
At last, instead of the two Frances of the hngtn d'oc and the
longue <Toil, there was but one royal France Comprising the whok
kingdom*
Philip Augustus was not satisfied with the destruction of a
turbulent feudalism; he wished to substitute for it such unity
and peace as had obtained in the Roman Empire; tfl , h> -
and just as he had established his supremacy over the hmiiib nf
feudal lords, so now he managed to extend it over the P *m*
clergy, and to bend them to his wilL He took ad- *■*■■*"
vantage of their weakness in the midst 6f an age of violence.
By contracts of " pariage " the clergy claimed and obtained
the king's protection even in places beyond the king's jurisdiction,
to their common advantage. Philip thus set the feudal lords
one against the other; and against them all, first the Church,
then the communes. He exploited also the townspeople's need
for security and the instinct of independence which made them
claim a definite place in the feudal hierarchy. He was the actus!
creator of the com m u n es, although an interested creator, since
they made a breach in the fortress of feudalism and extended
the royal authority far beyond the king's demesne. He did
even more: he gave monarchy the instruments of which it
still stood in need, gathering round him in Paris a council
of men humble in origin, but wise and loyal; while in 1100
he instituted baillis and seneschals throughout his enlarged
dominions, all-powerful over the nobles and subservient to
himself. He filled his treasury with spoils harshly wrung from
all classes; thus inaugurating the monarchy's long and patient
labours at enlarging the crown lands bit by bit through taxes
on private property. Finally he created an army, no longd
the temporary feudal osi, but a more or less permanent royal
force. By virtue of all these organs of government the throne
guaranteed, peace, justice and a secure future, having routed
HISTORY)
FRANCE
817
Frvocft
feudalism with swccd sjmI diplomacy. FhuV» ion was the first
of (be Capets who was not crowned during his father's lifetime;
a fact clearly showing that the principle of heredity had now
been established beyond discussion.
Louis VUL's short reign was but a prolongation of Philip's
in its realisation of his two great designs: the recovery from
vul Henry ILL of England of Poitou as far as the Garonne;
(£JL and the crusade against the Albigenses, which with
n2t). small pains procured him the succession of Amaury
de Montfort, and the Languedoc of the counts of
Toulouse, if not the whole of Gascony. .Louis VIII. died on
his return from this short campaign without having proved his
full worth.
But the history of France during the nth and 1 ath centuries
does not entirely consist of these painful straggles of the Capet
dynasty £0 shake off the fetters of feudalism. France,
no longer split up into separate fragments, now began
to exercise both intellectual and military influence
over Europe. Everywhere her sons gave proof of
rejuvenated activity. The Christian missions which others
were reviving in Prussia and beginning in Hungary were under-
taken on a vaster scale by the Capets. These " elder sons of
the Church " made themselves responsible for carrying out the
" work of God/' and French pilgrims in the Holy Land pre-
pared the great movement of die Crusades against the infidels.
Religious faith, love of adventure, the hope of making ad-
vantageous conquests, anticipations of a promised paradise —
all combined to force this advance upon the Orient, which
though failing to rescue the sepulchre of Christ, the ephemeral
kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus, the dukedom of Athens,
or the Latin empire of Constantinople, yet gained for France
that prestige for military glory and religious piety which for
centuries constituted her strength in the Levant (see Crusades).
At the call of the pope other members of the French chivalry
also made victorious expeditions against the Mussulmans, and
founded the Christian kingdom of Portugal Obeying that
enterprising spirit which was to take them to England half a
century later, Normans descended upon southern Italy and
wrested rich lands from Greeks and Saracens.
In the domain of intellect the advance of the French showed
a no less dealing and a no less universal activity; they sang
imd- ** well as they fought, and their epics were worthy
ffccfenf of their swordsmanship, while their cathedrals were
***£*• hymns in stone as ardent as their soaring flights of
*"* devotion. In this period of intense religious life
France was always in the vanguard. It was the ideas of Cluniac
monks that freed the Church (com feudal supremacy, and in
the nth century produced a Pope Gregory VII.; the spirit
of free investigation shown by the heretics of Orleans inspired
the rude Breton, Abelard, in the rath century; and with
Gerbert and Fulbert of Chaxtres the schools first kindled that
brilliant light which the university of Paris, organized by Philip
Augustus, was to shed over the world, from the heights of
Sainte-Genevieve. In the quarrels of the priesthood under
the Empire it was St Bernard, the great abbot of Clairvaux,
who tried to arrest the papacy on the slippery downward path
of theocracy; finally, it was in Soger's church of St Denis
that French art began that struggle between light against
darkness which, culminating in Notre-Dame and the Sainte-
Chapelle, was to teach the architects of the world the delight
of building with airiness of effect. The old basiHca which
contains the history of the monarchy sums up the whole of Gothic
art to this day, and it was Suger who in the domain of art and
politics brought forward once more the conception of unity.
The courteous ideal of French chivalry, with its " delectable "
language, was adopted by all seigniorial Europe, which thus
became animated, as it were, by the life-blood of France. Simi-
' larly, in the universal movement of those forces which made for
freedom, France began the age-long struggle to maintain the
rights of civil society and continually to enlarge the social
categories. The townsman enriched by commerce and the
emancipated peasant tried more or less valiantly to shake off
x 14
the yoke of the feudal system, which had been greatly weakened,
if not entirely broken down, by the crusades. Grouped around
their belfry-towers and organised within their gilds, they made
merry in their free jocular language over their own hardships,
and still more over the vices of their lords. They insinuated
themselves into the counsels of their ignorant masters, and
though still sitting humbly at the feet of the barons, these
upright and well-educated servitors were already dreaming
of the great deeds they would do when their tyrants should have
vacated their high position, and when royalty should have
summoned them to power.
By the beginning of the 13th century the Capet monarchy
was so strong that the crisis occasioned by the sudden death
of Louis VIII. was easily surmounted by the foreign
woman and the child whom he left behind him. It {551
is true that that woman was Blanche of Castile, and m»),
that child the future Louis IX. A virtuous and very
devout Spanish princess, Blanche assumed the regency of the
kingdom and the tutelage of her child, and carried them on for
nine years with so much force of character and capacity BJmac . -
for rule that she soon impressed the clamorous and cuta*
disorderly leaders of the opposition (xaad-xajs). By
the treaty of Meaux (xsao), her diplomacy combined with the
influence of the Church to prepare effectually for the annexation
of Languedoc to the kingdom, supplementing this again by a
portion of Champagne; and the marriage of her son to Margaret
of Provence definitely broke the ties which held the country
within theorbit of the German empire. She managed also to keep
out of the great quarrel between Frederick IL and the papacy
which was convulsing Germany. But her finest achievement
was the education of her son; she taught him that lofty religious
morality which in his case was not merely a rule for private
conduct, but also a political programme to which he remained
faithful even to the detriment of his apparent interests. With
Louis IX. morality for the first time permeated and dominated
politics; he had but one end: to do justice to every one and to
reconcile all Christendom in view of a general crusade.
The oak of Vincennes, under which the king would sit to
mete out justice, cast its shade over the whole political action
of Louis IX. He was the arbiter of townspeople, of feudal
lords and of kings. The interdiction of the judicial Ltthtx.'a
duel, the " quarantaine le roi," i*. " the king's truce p*kyi
of forty days" during which no vengeance might JJ^**"
be taken for private wrongs, and the ossurenunt^
went far to diminish the abuses of warfare by allowing his
mediation to make for a spirit of reconciliation throughout bis
kingdom. When Thibaud (Theobald), count of Champagne,
attempted to marry the daughter of Pierre Mauckrc, duke of
Brittany, without the king's consent, Louis DC., who held the
county of Champagne at his mercy, contented himself with
exacting guarantees of peace. Beyond the borders of France,
at the time of the emperor Frederick IL's conflict with a papacy
threatened in its temporal powers, though he made no response
to Frederick's appeal to die civil authorities urging them to
present a solid front against the pretensions of the Church, and
though he energetically supported the latter, yet he would not
admit her right to place kingdoms under interdict, and refused the
imperial crown which Gregory IX. offered him for one of his
brothers. He always hoped to bring about an honourable
agreement between the two adversaries, and in his estimation
1 The ossunrnent (osseeurolio, osstcuramentum) differed from the
truce, which was a suspension of hostilities by mutual consent,
in so far as it was a peace forced by judicial authority on one of the
parties at the request of the other. The party desiring protection
applied for the assuremsxt, either before or during hostilities, to any
royal, seigniorial or communal judge, who thereupon cited the other
party to appear and take an oath that he would assure the person,
property and dependents of his adversary (oa'd I'assurtra, tlkelU*
twits). This custom, which became common in the 13th century,
of course depended for its effectiveness on the degree of respect
inspired in the feudal nobles by the courts. It was difficult, %*•-
Instance, to refuse or to violate an ossuremsnt imposed by a r
baiili or by the parlement itself. See A. Luchaire, Jfotfnr
msMutwnsjnutow* (Paris, iftoa), p. 23*— (W. A. P.)
2a
8i6
FRANCE
{HISTORY
in Germany. After two years of constant defeat, Henry's
capitulation at Axai proved once more that fortune is never
with the old. The English king had to submit himself to M the
advice and desire of the king of France," doing him homage for
all continental fiefs (1187-1189).
The defection of his favourite son John gave Henry his death-
blow, and Philip Augustus found himself confronted by a new
pkJJ . king of England, Richard Coeur de Lion, as powerful,
/jqynrtrt besides being younger and more energetic Philip's
mad ambition could not rest satisfied with the petty
4**"* principalities of Amiens, Vermandois and Valois,
J%jJ[ which he had added to the royal demesne. The third
crusade, undertaken, sorely against Philip's will, in
alliance with Richard, only increased the latent hostility between
the two kings; and in 1101 Philip abandoned the enterprise
in order to return to France and try to plunder his absent rival.
Despite his solemn oath no scruples troubled him: witness the
large sums of money be offered to the emperor Henry VI. if he
would detain Richard, who had been made prisoner by the duke
of Austria on his return from the crusade; and his negotiations
with his brother John Lackland, whom he acknowledged king of
England in exchange for the cession of Normandy. But Henry
VI. suddenly liberated Richard, and in five years that " devil
set free " took from Philip all the profit of his trickery, and shut
him off from Normandy by the strong fortress of Chateau-
Gaillard (1104-1x09).
Happily an accident which caused Richard's death at the
siege of Chalus, and the evil imbecility of bis brother and sue-
ptSp cessor, John Lackland, brilliantly restored the fortunes
Aagmtat of the Capets. The quarrel between John and his
madJoba nephew Arthur of Brittany gave Philip Augustus
LmcUuA one of those opportunities of profiting by family
discord which, coinciding with discontent among the various
peoples subject to the house of Anjou, had stood him in such
good stead against Henry II. and Richard. He demanded
renunciation on John's part, not of Anjou only, but of Poitou
and Normandy— of all bis French-speaking possessions, in fact —
in favour of Arthur, who was supported by William des Roches,
the most powerful lord of the region of the Loire. Philip's
divorce from Ingeborg of Denmark, who appealed successfully
to Pope Innocent III., merely delayed the inevitable conflict.
John of England, moreover, was a past-master in the art of
making enemies of his friends, and his conduct. towards his vassals
of Aquitaine furnished a judicial pretext for conquest. The
royal judges at Paris condemned John, as a felon, to death and
the forfeiture of his fiefs (1203), and the murder of Arthur com-
pleted his ruin. Philip Augustus made a vigorous onslaught on
Normandy in right of justice and x>f superior force, took the
formidable fortress of Chateau-Gaillard on the Seine after several
months' siege, and invested Rouen, which John abandoned,
fleeing to England. In Anjou, Touraine, Maine and Poitou,
lords, towns and abbeys made their submission, won over by
Philip's bribes despite Pope Innocent HL's attempts at inter-
vention.. In 1 208 John was obliged to own the Plantagenet
continental power as lost. There were no longer two rival
monarchies in France; the feudal equilibrium was destroyed,
to the advantage of the duchy of France.
But Philip in his turn nearly allowed himself to be led into an
attempt at annexing England, and so reversing for his own
benefit the work of the Angevins (12x3); but, happily for the
future of the dynasty, Pope Innocent III. prevented this.
Thanks to the ecclesiastical sanction of his royalty, Philip bad
successfully braved the pope for twenty years, in the matter of
Ingeborg and again in that of the German schism, when he had
supported Philip of. Swabia against Otto of Brunswick, the
pope's candidate. In 1213, John Lackland, having been in con-
flict with Innocent regarding thearchicpiscopal see of Canterbury,
had made submission and done homage for his kingdom, and
Philip wished to take vengeance for this at the expense of the
rebellious vassals of the north-west, and of Renaud and Ferrand,
counts of Boulogne and Flanders, thus combating English
influence in those quarters.
(Of*
This was a return to the old Capet policy; bat it was aba
menacing to many interests, and sure to arouse energetic re-
sistance. John seized the opportunity to consolidate
against Philip a European coalition, which included
most of the feudal lords in Flanders, Belgium and
Lorraine, and the emperor Otto IV. So dangerous did
the French monarchy already seem I John began
operations with an attack from Anjou, supported by the notably
capricious nobles of Aquitaine, and was routed by Philip's sea
at La Roche aux Moines, near Angers, on the and of July
1214. Twenty-five days later the northern allies, intending to
surprise the smaller French army on its passage over the brieve
at Bouvines, themselves sustained a complete defeat. This first
national victory had not only a profound effect on the who*
kingdom, but produced consequences of far-reaching importance;
in Germany it brought about Otto's fall before Frederick II.,
in England it introduced the great drama of xars, the first act
of which closed with Magna Carta— John Lackland being forced
to acknowledge the control of his barons, and to share with thus
the power he had abused and disgraced. In France, on the con-
trary, the throne was exalted beyond rivalry, raised far above a
feudalism which never again ventured on acts of independence
or rebellion. Bouvines gave France the supremacy of the We&L
The feudalism of Languedoc was all that now remained to
conquer.
The whole world, in fact, was unconsciously working fdf
Philip Augustus. Anxious not to risk his gains, but to consolidate
them by organization, Philip henceforth until his death in 1223
operated through diplomacy alone, leaving to others the toil
and trouble of conquests, the advantages of which were not for
them. When his son Louis wished to wrest the English crown
from John, now crushed by his barons, Philip intervened without
seeming to do so, first with the barons, then with Innocent UL,
supporting and disowning his son by turns; until the latter,
held in check by Rome, was forced to sign the treaty of Lambeth
(in 7). When the Church and the needy and fanatical nobles
of northern and central France destroyed the feudal dynasty
of Toulouse and the rich civilization of the south in the
Albigensian crusade, it was for Philip Augustus that their
leader, Simon de Montfort, all unknowing, conquered Languedoc
At last, instead of the two Frances of the tongue d'oc and the
tongue foil, there was but one royal France Comprising the whole
kingdom.
Philip Augustus was not satisfied with the destruction of s
turbulent feudalism; he wished to substitute for it such unity
and peace as had obtained in the Roman Empire; A*m*ma*
and just as he had established his supremacy over the ******
feudal lords, so now he managed to extend it over the * »•»
clergy, and to bend them to his will. He took ad- A, <*"" fc »
vantage of their weakness in the midst of an age of violence.
By contracts of " pariage " the clergy claimed and obtained
the king's protection even in places beyond the king's jurisdiction,
to their common advantage. Philip thus set the feudal lores
one against the other; and against them all, first the Church,
then the communes. He exploited also the townspeople's need
for security and the instinct of independence which made then
claim a definite place in the feudal hierarchy. He was the act u*l
creator of the communes, although an interested creator, since
they made a breach in the fortress of feudalism sad extended
the royal authority far beyond the king's demesne. He d>J
even more: he gave monarchy the instruments of which ii
still stood in need, gathering round him in Paris a council
of men humble in origin, but wise and loyal; while in iko
he instituted baiUis and seneschals throughout his enlarged
dominions, all-powerful over the nobles and subservient u
himself. He filled his treasury with spoils harshly wrung f roa
all classes; thus inaugurating the monarchy's long and patient
labours at enlarging the crown lands bit by bit through t*t<*
on private property. Finally he created an army, no Ion?.:
the temporary feudal osi, but a more or less permanent ro>iI
force. By virtue of all these organs of government the throoe
guaranteed^ peace, justice and a secure future, having route*
HISTORY]
FRANCE
817
l eudaKsm with sword and diplomacy. Philip's ton was the first
of the Capets who waa not crowned during his father's lifetime;
a fact dearly showing that the principle of heredity had now
been established beyond discussion.
Louis VUL's abort reign was but a prolongation of Philip's
in its realization of his two great designs: the recovery from
Henry III. of England of Poitou as far as the Garonne;
<b5* **! the crusade against the Albigenses, which with
B2£). small pains procured him the succession of Amaary
de Montfort, and the Languedoc of the counts of
Toulouse, if not the whole of Gascony. Lows VIII. died on
his return from this snort campaign without having proved his
full worth.
But the history of France during the nth. and rath centuries
does not entirely consist of these painful struggles of the Capet
.. ^^^ dynasty to shake off the fetters of feudalism. France,
j££db no tonge* *P U * U P mto separate fragments, now began
m*Mty. to exercise both intellectual and military influence
over Europe. Everywhere her sons gave proof of
rejuvenated activity. The Christian missions which others
were reviving in Prussia and beginning in Hungary were under-
taken on a vaster scale by the Capets. These " elder sons of
the Church " made themselves responsible for carrying out the
" work of God/' and French pilgrims in the Holy Land pre-
pared the great movement of die Crusades against the infidels.
Religious faith, love of adventure, the hope of making ad-
vantageous conquests, anticipations of a promised paradise-
all combined to force this advance upon the Orient, which
though failing to rescue the sepulchre of Christ, the ephemeral
kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus, the dukedom of Athens,
or the Latin empire of Constantinople, yet gained for France
that prestige for mffitary glory and religious piety which for
centuries constituted her strength in the Levant (see Crusades).
At the call of the pope other members of the French chivalry
also made victorious expeditions against the Mussulmans, and
founded the Christian kingdom of Portugal Obeying that
enterprising spirit which was to take them to England half a
century later, Normans descended upon southern Italy and
wrested rich lands from Greeks and Saracens.
In the domain of intellect the advance of the French showed
a no less dazzling and a no less universal activity; they sang
loteh a* well as they fought, and their epics were worthy
itctmi of their swordsmanship, while their cathedrals were
dintop* hymn, i n none as ardent as their soaring flights of
am0aL devotion. In this period of intense religious life
France was always in the vanguard. It was the ideas of Clumac
monks that freed the Church from feudal supremacy, and in
the ntb century produced a Pope Gregory VII.; the spirit
of free investigation shown by the heretics of Orleans inspired
the rude Breton, Abelard, in the rath century; and with
Gerbert and Fulbert of Cfaartres the schools first kindled that
brilliant light which the university of Paris, organized by Philip
Augustus, was to shed over the world from the heights of
Sainte-Genevieve. In the quarrels of the priesthood under
the Empire it was St Bernard, the great abbot of Cladrvaux,
who tried to arrest the papacy on the slippery downward path
of theocracy; finally, it was in Soger's church of St Denis
that French art began that struggle between light against
darkness which, culminating in Notre-Dame and the Sainte-
Chapelle, was to teach the architects of the world the delight
of building with airiness of effect. The old basilica which
contains the history of .the monarchy sums up the whole of Gothic
art to this day, and it was Suget who in the domain of art and
politics brought forward once more the conception of unity.
The courteous ideal of French chivalry, with its " delectable "
language, was adopted by all seigniorial Europe, which thus
became animated, as it were, by the life-blood of France. Simi-
larly, in the universal movement of those forces which made for
freedom, France began the age-long struggle to maintain the
rights of civil society and continually to enlarge the social
categories. The townsman enriched by commerce and the
emancipated peasant tried mow or less valiantly to shake off
Xi4
the yoke of the feudal system, which had been greatly weakened,
if not entirely broken down, by the crusades. Grouped around
their belfry-towers and organised within their gilds, they made
merry in their free jocular language over their own hardships,
and still more over the vices of their lords. They insinuated
themselves into the counsels of their ignorant masters, and
though still sitting humbly at the feet of the barons, these
upright and well-educated servitors were already dreaming
of the great deeds they would do when their tyrants should have
vacated their high position, and when royalty should have
summoned them to power.
By the beginning of the 13th century the Capet monarchy
was so strong that the crisis occasioned by the sudden death
of Louis VUI. was easily surmounted by the foreign
woman and the child whom he left behind him. It f££.
is true that that woman was Blanche of Castile, and 117*}.
that child the future Louis IX. A virtuous and very
devout Spanish princess, Blanche assumed the regency of the
kingdom and the tutelage of her child, and carried them on for
nine years with so much force of character and capacity BJancbe .
for rule that she soon impressed the clamorous and cmah>
disorderly leaders of the opposition (1226-1 23 s). By
the treaty of Meauz (isao), her diplomacy combined with the
influence of the Church to prepare effectually for the annexation
of Languedoc to the kingdom, supplementing this again by a
portion of Champagne; and the marriage of her son to Margaret
of Provence definitely broke the ties which held the country
within theorbit of the German empire. She managed also to keep
out of the great quarrel between Frederick II. and the papacy
which was convulsing Germany. But her finest achievement
was the education of her son; she taught him that lofty religious
morality which in his case was not merely a rule for private
conduct, but also a political programme to which he remained
faithful even to the detriment of his apparent interests. With
Louis IX. morality for the first time permeated and dominated
politics; he had but one end: to do justice to every one and 10
reconcile all Christendom in view of a general crusade.
The oak of Vincennes, under which the king would sit to
mete out justice, cast its shade over the whole political action
of Louis IX. He was the arbiter of townspeople, of feudal
lords and of kings. The interdiction of the judicial Lmhix.'a
duel, the " quarantaine le roi," It. " the king's truce p*kyi
of forty days" during which no vengeance might JJJjJ'*"
be taken for private wrongs, and the assortment, 1
went far to diminish the abuses of warfare by allowing his
mediation to make for a spirit of reconciliation throughout bis
kingdom. When Thibaud (Theobald), count of Champagne,
attempted to marry the daughter of Pierre Mauckrc, duke of
Brittany, without the king's consent, Louis IX., who held the
county of Champagne at his mercy, contented himself with
exacting guarantees of peace. Beyond the borders of France,
at the time of the emperor Frederick IL's conflict with a papacy
threatened in its temporal powers, though he made no response
to Frederick's appeal to the civil authorities urging them to
present a solid front against the pretensions of the Church, and
though he energetically supported the latter, yet he would not
admit her right to place kingdoms under interdict, and refused the
imperial crown which Gregory IX. offered him for one of his
brothers. He always hoped to bring about an honourable
agreement between the two adversaries, and in his estimation
1 The assuremaU (assecuratio, axstcuramentum) differed from the
truce, which was a suspension of hostilities by mutual consent 1 ,
in so far as it was a peace forced by judicial authority oa one of the
parties at the request of the other. The party desiring protection
applied for the atsuremenl, either before or during hostilities, to any
royal, seigniorial or communal judge, who thereupon cited the other
party to appear and take an oath that he would assure the person,
property and dependent* of his adversary {qu'il I'assurtra, eUe et Us
stent). This custom, which became common in the 13th century,
of course depended for its effectiveness on the degree of respect
inspired in the feudal nobles by the courts. It was difficult, foe
Instance, to refuse or to violate an assuremeni imposed by a royal
bailli or by the parlement itself. Sec A. Luchaire. Manutl 4t$
JntHiutwnsJranjatw (Paris, 1*9?), p. 233.— (W. A. P.)
2a
6i6
FRANCE
fjusiuur
in Germany. After two years of constant defeat, Henry's
capitulation at Axai proved once more that fortune is never
with the old. The English king had to submit himself to M the
advice and desire of the king of France," doing him homage for
all continental fiefs (1187-1 189).
The defection of his favourite son John gave Henry his death-
blow, and Philip Augustus found himself confronted by a new
king of England, Richard Cceur de lion, as powerful,
besides being younger and more energetic Philip's
ambition could not rest satisfied with the petty
___ principalities of Amiens, Vermandois and Valois,
YSmT which he had added to the royal demesne. The third
crusade, undertaken, sorely against Philip's will, in
alliance with Richard, only increased the latent hostility between
the two kings; and in nox Philip abandoned the enterprise
in order to return to France and try to plunder his absent rival.
Despite his solemn oath no scruples troubled him: witness the
large sums of money he offered to the emperor Henry VI. if he
would detain Richard, who had been made prisoner by the duke
of Austria on his return from the crusade; and his negotiations
with his brother John Lackland, whom he acknowledged king of
England in exchange for the cession of Normandy. But Henry
VI. suddenly liberated Richard, and in five years that " devil
set free " took from Philip all the profit of his trickery, and shut
him off from Normandy by the strong fortress of Chateau-
Gaillard (1104-1x09).
Happily an accident which caused Richard's death at the
siege of Chalus, and the evil imbecility of bis brother and sue-
nmp cessor, John Lackland, brilliantly restored the fortunes
Aagmtut of the Capets. The quarrel between John and his
jw^Jj** nephew Arthur of Brittany gave Philip Augustus
" cUm * one of those opportunities -of profiting by family
discord which, coinciding with discontent among the various
peoples subject to the house of Anjou, had stood him in such
good stead against Henry II. and Richard. He demanded
renunciation on John's part, not of Anjou only, but of Poitou
and Normandy— of all his French-speaking possessions, in fact —
in favour of Arthur, who was supported by William des Roches,
the most powerful lord of the region of the Loire. Philip's
divorce from Ingeborg of Denmark, who appealed successfully
to Pope Innocent HI., merely delayed the inevitable conflict.
John of England, moreover, was a past-master in the art of
making enemies of his friends, and his conduct towards bis vassals
of Aquitaine furnished a judicial pretext for conquest The
royal judges at Paris condemned John, as a felon, to death and
the forfeiture of his fiefs (1203), and the murder of Arthur com-
pleted his ruin. Philip Augustus made a vigorous onslaught on
Normandy in right of justice and nf superior force, took the
formidable fortress of Chateau-Gaillard on the Seine after several
months' siege, and invested Rouen, which John abandoned,
fleeing to England. In Anjou, Touraine, Maine and Poitou,
lords, towns and abbeys made their submission, won over by
Philip's bribes despite Pope Innocent IIL"s attempts at inter-
vention. In 1208 John was obliged to own the Plantagenet
continental power as lost. There were no longer two rival
monarchies in France; the feudal equilibrium was destroyed,
to the advantage of the duchy of France.
But Philip in his turn nearly allowed himself to be led into an
attempt at annexing England, and so reversing for his own
benefit the work of the Angcvins (1213); but, happily for the
future of the dynasty, Pope Innocent III. prevented this.
Thanks to the ecclesiastical sanction of his royalty, Philip bad
successfully braved the pope for twenty years, in the matter of
Ingeborg and again in that of the German schism, when he had
supported Philip of. Swabia against Otto of Brunswick, the
pope's candidate. In 1 213, John Lackland, having been in con-
flict with Innocent regarding the archicpiscopal see of Canterbury,
had made submission and done homage for his kingdom, and
Philip wished to take vengeance for this at the expense of the
rebellious vassals of the north-west, and of Renaud and Ferrand,
counts of Boulogne and Flanders, thu* combating English
influence in those quarters.
This was a return to the old Capet policy; but it wa» a£s
menacing to many interests, and sure to arouse
sistance. John seized the opportunity to consolidate
against Philip a European coalition, which incnidrd
most of the feudal lords in Flanders, Belgium and
Lorraine, and the emperor Otto IV. So dangerous dad
the French monarchy already seem I John began
operations with an attack from Anjou, supported by the notsih
capricious nobles of Aquitaine, and was routed by Philip's s '
at La Roche aux Moines, near Angers, on the 2nd of ]-
1 214. Twenty-five days later the northern allies, intending u
surprise the smaller French army on its passage over the htkjt
at Bouvines, themselves sustained a complete defeat. This L-v
national victory had not only a profound effect on the whs*,
kingdom, but produced consequences of far-reaching importaea.
in Germany it brought about Otto's fall before Frederick II.
in England it introduced the great drama of 121-5, the first 22
of which closed with Magna Carta— John Lackland being f«ws
to acknowledge the control of his barons, and to share with thes
the power he had abused and disgraced. In France, on the cse»
trary, the throne was exalted beyond rivalry, raised far abort i
feudalism which never again ventured on acts of independent*
or rebellion. Bouvines gave France the supremacy of the Wjsl
The feudalism of Languedoc was all that now remained ^
conquer.
The whole world, in fact, was unconsciously working far
Philip Augustus. Anxious not to risk his gains, but to consohdas
them by organization, Philip henceforth until his death in ikj
operated through diplomacy alone, leaving to others the ioj
and trouble of conquests, the advantages of which were not for
them. When his son Louis wished to wrest the English am
from John, now crushed by his barons, Philip intervened whitest
seeming to do so, first with the barons, then with Innocent UL,
supporting and disowning his son by turns; until the inter,
held in check by Rome, was forced to sign the treaty of LambeU
(1217). When the Church and the needy and fanatical nocUs
of northern and central France destroyed the feudal dynasty
of Toulouse and the rich civilization of the south in tfee
Albigensian crusade, it was for Philip Augustus that ibetr
leader, Simon de Montfort, all unknowing, conquered Languedoc
At last, instead of the two Frances of the langue d'oc and <tt
tongue d'oll, there was but one royal France comprising the whok
kingdom.
Philip Augustus was not satisfied with the destruction of a
turbulent feudalism; he wished to substitute for it such unity
and peace as had obtained in the Roman Empire; 1fWi r .
and just as he had established his supremacy over the trwa—*
feudal lords, so now he managed to extend it over the ****»
clergy, and to bend them to his will. He took ad- Al ««*»
vantage of their weakness in the midst of an age of violence
By contracts of " pariage " the clergy claimed and obtained
the king's protection even in places beyond the king's jurisdiction,
to their common advantage. Philip thus set the feudal lords
one against the other; and against them all, first the Church,
then the co mm u nes . He exploited also the townspeople's need
for security and the instinct of independence which made than
claim a definite place in the feudal hierarchy. He was the actual
creator of the communes, although an interested creator, sictt
they made a breach in the fortress of feudalism and extended
the royal authority far beyond the king's demesne. He did
even more; he gave monarchy the instruments of which it
still stood in need, gathering round him in Paris a council
of men humble in origin, but wise and loyal; while in uoa
he instituted baillis and seneschals throughout his enlarged
dominions, all-powerful over the nobles and subservient to
himself. He filled his treasury with spoils harshly wrung from
all classes; thus inaugurating the monarchy's long and patient
labours at enlarging the crown lands bit by bit through taxet
on private property. Finally he created an army, no longs
the temporary feudal ost, but a more or less permanent royal
force. By virtue of all these organs of government the throne
guaranteed^ peace, justice and a secure future, having routed
resroRYi
FRANCE
8x7
tVBL ,
e»).
rudalism with sword and dtptanacy. Pump's ion vu the first
f the Capets who irai not downed daring bis father's lifetime;
fact clearly showing that the principle of heredity had now
cen established beyond discussion.
Louis VIIL's short reign was but a prolongation of PhiKp's
1 its realisation of his two great designs: the recovery from
Henry 1IL of England of Poitou as far as theGasoime;
and the crusade against the Albigenses, which with
small pains procured him the succession of Amaury
de Montfort, and the Languedoc of the counts of
Toulouse, if not the whole of Gasceny. Louis VIII. died on
is return from this short campaign without having proved his
nil worth.
But the history of France during the xxth and isth centuries
toes not entirely consist of these painful struggles of the Capet
dynasty to shake off the fetters of feudalism. France,
t^wBcb no longer split up into separate fragments, now began
fctiwuy. to exercise both intellectual and military influence
over Europe. Everywhere her tons gave proof of
ejuvenated activity. The Christian missions which* others
vere reviving in Prussia and beginning in Hungary were under*
*ken on a vaster scale by the Capets. These " elder sons of
he Church " made themselves responsible for carrying out the
* work of God," and French pilgrims in the Holy Land pre-
pared the great movement of the Crusades against the infidels.
Religious faith, love of adventure, the hope of making ad-
/antageous conquests, anticipations of a promised paradise —
ill combined to force this advance upon the Orient, which
though failing to rescue the sepulchre of Christ, the ephemeral
kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus, the dukedom of Athens,
or the Latin empire of Constantinople, yet gained for France
that prestige for military glory and religious piety which for
centuries constituted her strength in the Levant (see Crusades).
At the call of the pope other members of the French chivalry
also made victorious expeditions against the Mussulmans, and
founded the Christian kingdom of Portugal Obeying that
enterprising spirit which was to take them to England half a
century later, Normans descended apon southern Italy and
wrested rich lands from Greeks and Saracens.
In the domain of intellect the advance of the French showed
a no less dazzling and a no less universal activity; they sang
Intel- as well as they fought, and their epics were worthy
iccftuf of their swordsmanship, while their cathedrals were
dtvvfqs* hymns in stone as ardent as their soaring flights of
mtnU devotion. In this period of intense religious life
France was always in the vanguard. It was the ideas of Cluniac
monks that freed the Church from feudal supremacy, and in
the nth century produced a Pope Gregory VII.; the spirit
of free investigation shown by the heretics of Orleans inspired
the rude Breton, Abelard, in the 12th century; and with
Gerbert and Fulbert of Chcrtres the schools first kindled that
brilliant light which the university of Paris, organized by Philip
Augustus, was to shed over the world from the heights of
Sainte-Genevieve, In the quarrels of the priesthood under
the Empire it was St Bernard, the great abbot of Clairvaux,
who tried to arrest the papacy on the slippery downward path
of theocracy; finally, it was in Suger's church of St Denis
that French art began that struggle between light against
darkness which, culminating in Notre-Dame and the Sainte-
Chapelle, was to teach the architects of the world the delight
of building with airiness of effect. The old basilica which
contains the history of .the monarchy sums up the whole of Gothic
art to this day, and it was Suger who in the domain of art and
politics brought forward once more the conception of unity.
The courteous ideal of French chivalry, with its " delectable "
language, was adopted by all seigniorial Europe, which thus
became animated, as it were, by the life-blood of France. Simi-
larly, in the universal movement of those forces which made for
freedom, France began the age-long struggle to maintain the
rights of civil society and continually to enlarge the social
categories. The townsman enriched by commerce and the
emancipated peasant tried move or less valiantly to shake off
the yoke of the feudal system, which had been greatly weakened,
if not entirely broken down, by the crusades. Grouped around
their belfry-towers and organized within their gilds, they made
merry in their free jocular language over their own hardships,
and still more over the vices of their lords. They insinuated
themselves into the counsels of their ignorant masters, and
though still sitting humbly at the feet of the barons, these
upright and well-educated servitors were already dreaming
of the great deeds they would do when their tyrants should have
vacated their high position, and when royalty should have
summoned them to power.
By the beginning of the 13th century the Capet monarchy
was so strong that the crisis occasioned by the sudden death
of Louis VIII. was easily surmounted by the foreign
woman and the child whom he left behind him. It {5*
is true that that woman was Blanche of Castile, and um.
that child the future Louis IX. A virtuous and very
devout Spanish princess, Blanche assumed the regency of the
kingdom and the tutelage of her child, and carried them on for
nine years with so much force of character and capacity BtMBctHt ^
for rule that she soon impressed the clamorous and casta*
disorderly leaders of the opposition (1226-1135). By
the treaty of Meaux (xaao), her diplomacy combined with the
influence of the Church to prepare effectually for the annexation
of Languedoc to the kingdom, supplementing this again by a
portion of Champagne; and the marriage of her son to Margaret
of Provence definitely broke the ties which held the country
within theorbit of the German empire. She managed also to keep
out of the great quarrel between Frederick II. and the papacy
which was convulsing Germany. But her finest achievement
was the education of her son; she taught him that lofty religious
morality which in his case was not merely a rule for private
conduct, but also a political programme to which he remained
faithful even to the detriment of his apparent interests. With
Louis IX. morality for the first time permeated and dominated
politics; he had but one end: to do justice to every one and to
reconcile all Christendom in view of a general crusade.
The oak of Vincennes, under which the king would sit to
mete out justice, cast its shade over the whole political action
of Louis IX. He was the arbiter of townspeople, of feudal
lords and of kings. The interdiction of the judicial Lwthix.'a
duel, the " quarantine le roi," ».«. " the king's truce Aoiftyo/
of forty days" during which no vengeance might JJ^J"*"
be taken for private wrongs, and the assvremenl} **
went far to diminish the abuses of warfare by allowing his
mediation to make for a spirit of reconciliation throughout his
kingdom. When Thibaud (Theobald), count of Champagne,
attempted to marry the daughter of Pierre Mauclerc, duke of
Brittany, without the king's consent, Louis IX., who held the
county of Champagne at his mercy, contented himself with
exacting guarantees of peace. Beyond the borders of France,
at the time of the emperor Frederick IL's conflict with a papacy
threatened in its temporal powers, though he made no response
to Frederick's appeal to the civil authorities urging them to
present a solid front against the pretensions of the Church, and
though he energetically supported the latter, yet he would not
admit her right to place kingdoms under interdict, and refused the
imperial crown which Gregory IX. offered him for one of his
brothers. He always hoped to bring about an honourable
agreement between the two adversaries, and in his estimation
1 The assortment (asseeurolio, asstevramentum) differed from the
truce, which was a suspension of hostilities by mutual consent^
in so far as it was a peace forced by judicial authority on one of the
parties at the request of the other. The party desiring protection
applied for the ouurement, either before or during hostilities, to any
royal, seigniorial or communal judge, who thereupon cited the other
party to appear and take an oath that he would assure the person,
property and dependents of his adversary {qu'il i'assurtra, ille etU*
stent). This custom, which became common in the 13th century,
of course depended for its effectiveness on the degree of respect
inspired in the feudal nobles by the courts. It was difficult, for
instance, to refuse or to violate an assurement imposed by a royal
baiili or by the parlement itself. See A. Luchaire, Mound det
uukluUsnsjfntauei (Paris, 1893). p. 233.— (W. A. P.)
2a
8i8
FRANCE
(HSKKj
the advantages of peace outweighed personal interest. In
matters concerning the succession in Flanders, Hainaut and
Navarre; in the quarrels of the princes regarding the Empire,
and in those of Henry III. of England with his barons; it was
because of his justice and his disinterestedness that he was
appealed to as a trusted mediator. His conduct towards Henry
III. was certainly a most characteristic example of his behaviour.
The king of England had entered into the coalition formed
by the nobility of Poitou and the count of Toulouse to prevent
the execution of the treaty of 1229 and the enfeoffment
iSf"*' oi Poitou t0 the king's brother Alphonse. Louis IX.
UnryltL defeated Henry III. twice within two days, at Taillc-
bourg and at Saintes,and obliged him to demand a truce
(1242). It was forbidden that any lord should be a vassal both
of the king of France and of the king of England. After this
Louis IX. had set off upon his first crusade in Egypt (1248-54),
and on his return he wanted to make this truce into a definite
treaty and to " set love " between his children and those of the
English king. By a treaty signed at Paris (1259), Henry IIL
renounced all the conquests of Philip Augustus, and Louis IX.
those of his father Louis VIII. — an example unique in history of a
victorious king spontaneously giving up his spoil solely for the
sake of peace and justice, yet proving by his act that honesty is
the best policy; for monarchy gained much by that moral
authority which made Louis IX. the universal arbitrator.
But his love of peace and concord was not always " sans grands
despens " to the kingdom. In x 258, by renouncing his rights over
Roussillon and the countship of Barcelona, conquered
*** f by Charlemagne, he made an advantageous bargain
fjifc because he kept Montpellier; but he committed a
grave fault in consenting to accept the offers regarding
Sicily made by Pope Urban IV. to his brother the count of Anjou
and Provence. That was the origin of the expeditions into Italy
on which the house of Valois was two centuries later to squander
the resources of France unavailingly, compromising beyond the
Alps its interests in the Low Countries and upon the Rhine.
But Louis IX. 's worst error waa his obsession with regard to the
crusades, to which he sacrificed everything. Despite the signal
failure of the first crusade, when he had been taken prisoner;
despite the protests of his mother, of his counsellors, and of the
pope himself, he flung himself into the mad adventure of Turns.
Nowhere was his blind faith more plainly shown, combined as
it was with total ignorance of the formidable migrations that were
convulsing Asia, and of the complicated game of politics just then
proceeding between the Christian nations and the Moslems of the
Mediterranean. At Tunis he found his death, on the 25th of
August 1270.
The death of Louis IX. and that of his brother Alphonse
of Poitiers, heir of the count of Toulouse, made Philip III., the
PbiUpm.. Bold, legitimate master of northern France and undis-
riWBoM ' puted sovereign of southern France. From the latter
U179- he detached the comiat Venaissin in 1 274 and gave it to
ass> * the papacy, which held it until 1 791. But he had not
his father's great soul nor disinterested spirit. Urged by Pope
Martin IV. he began the fatal era of great international wars by
his unlucky crusade against the king of Aragon, who, thanks to the
massacre of the Sicilian Vespers, substituted his own predomin-
ance in Sicily for that of Charles of Anjou. Philip returned from
Spain only to die at Perpignan, ending bis insignificant reign as he
had begun it, amid the sorrows of a disastrous retreat (x 270-1 285).
His reign was but a halting-place of history between those of
Louis IX. and Philip the Fair, just when the transition was
taking place from the last days of the middle ages to the modern
epoch.
The middle ages had been dominated by four great problems.
The first of these had been to determine whether there should
Ptmpir. be a universal empire exercising tutelage over the
the Pah- nations; and if so, to whom this empire should
</***■ belong, to pope or emperor. The second had been
the extension to the East of that Catholic unity which
1314).
reigned in the West. Again, for more than a century, the
question had also been debated whether the English kings were
to preserve and Increase their power over the soil of France.
And, finally, two principles had been confronting one another
in the internal life of all the European states: the feudal and lie
monarchical principles. France bad not escaped any of tbese
conflicts; but Philip the Fair was the initiator or the instruzaezi
(it is difficult to say which) who was to put an end to bath imperial
and theocratic dreams, and to the international crusades; srfea
was to remove the political axis from the centre of Europe, nraca
to the benefit of the western monarchies, now definitely emanci-
pated from the feudal yoke and firmly organised against both ib*
Church and the barons. The hour had come for Dante, the greii
Florentine poet, to curse the man who was to dismember the
empire, precipitate the fall of the papacy and discipline feudalism
Modern in his practical schemes and in his calculated purpose
Philip the Fair was still more so in his method, that of legoi
procedure, and in his agents, the lawyers. With him f M . [
the French monarchy defined its ambitions, and little ^j-^-
by little forsook its feudal and ecclesiastical character «***«%>
in order to clothe itself in juridical forms. His aggres- Ti ****'
sive and litigious policy and his ruthless financial *****
method were due to those lawyers of the south and of Normandy
who had been nurtured on Roman law in the universities ci
Bologna or Montpellier, had practised chicanery in the provincui
courts, had gradually thrust the ms elve s into the great arena of
politics, and were now leading the king and filling his parlexaesi.
It was no longer upon religion or morality, it was upon imperial
and Roman rights that these duvelitrs Is Ms based Use prince's
omnipotence; and nothing more clearly marks the new tradition
which was being elaborated than the fact that all the great events
of Philip the Fair's reign were lawsuits.
The first of these was with the papacy. The famous quarrel
between the priesthood and the Empire, which had culminated
at Canossa under Gregory VII., in the apotheosis of
the Lateran council under Innocent IIL, and again
in the fall of the house of Hohenstaufen under Innocent
IV., was reopened with the king of France by Boniface
VIIL The quarrel began in 1204 about a question of money.
In his bull Clericis laicos the pope protested against the taxes
levied upon the French clergy by the king, whose expenses were
increasing with his conquests. But he had not insisted; because
Philip, between feudal vassals ruined by the crusades and
lower classes fleeced by everybody, had threatened to forbid
the exportation from France of any ecclesiastical gold and
silver. In ijoi and 1302 the arrest of Bernard Saisaet, bishop
of Pamiers, by the officers of the long, and the citation of this
cleric before the king's tribunal for the crime of Us*-m*}esU %
revived the conflict and led Boniface to send an order to free
Saisset, and to put forward a claim to reform the kingdom
under the threat of excommunication. In view of the gravity
of the occasion Philip made an unusually extended appeal to
public opinion by convoking the states-general at Notre-Dame
in Paris (1302). Whatever were their views as to the relations
between ecclesiastical and secular jurisdiction, the French
clergy, ruined by the dues levied by the papal court, ranged
themselves on the national side with the nobility and the
bourgeoisie] whereupon the king, with a bold stroke far ahead
of his time, gave tit for tat. His chancellor, Nogaret, went 10
Anagni to seize the pope and drag him before a council; but
Boniface died without confessing himself vanquished. As a
matter of fact the king and his lawyers triumphed, where the
house of Swabia had failed. After the death of Boniface the
splendid fabric of the medieval theocracy gave place to the
rights of civil society, the humiliation of Avignon, the disruption
of the great schism, the vain efforts of the councils for reform,
and the radical and heretical solutions of Wydiffe and Huss.
The affair of the Templars was another legal process carried
out by the same Nogaret. Of course this military religious
order had lost utility and justification when the Holy
Land had been evacuated and the crusades were over.
Their great mistake had lain in becoming rich, and
rich to excess, through serving as bankers to princes,
kings and popes; for great financial powers soon
Tcmfiitrs.
became
FmJram*
HISTORY] PRANCE
unpopular. PuDjs look advantage off this lotted of the lower
classes and the cowardice of' his creature, Pope Clement V.,
to satisfy his desire for money. The trial of the order (1507*
1313) was a remarkable example of the use of the religious
tribunal of the Inquisition as a political instrument* There was
a dramatic completeaess about this unexpected result of the
crusades. A general arbitrary arrest of the Templars, the
sequestration of their property, examination under torture,
the falsifying of procedure, extortion of money from the pope,
the awkhdo-f* of innocent victims, the dishonest pillaging of
their goods- by the joint action of the king and the pope: such
was the outcome of this vast process of secularisation, which
foreshadowed the events of the 16th and iSth centuries.
External policy had the sane litigious character. Philfp
the Fair instituted suits against his natural enemies, the king
of England and the count of Flanders, foreign princes
25* 'Jf holding possessions within his kingdom; and against
Edwmrtt ^ e eB0 P cror » whose ancient province of Lorraine and
kingdom of Aries constantly changed hands between
Germany and France. Philip began by interfering in the
affairs of Sicily and Aragon, bis father's inheritance; after
which, on the pretext of a quarrel between French and English
sailors, he set up his customary procedure: a citation of the king
of »ifrn* before the paxlement of Paris, and in case of default
a decree of forfeiture; the whole followed by execution— that
is to say by the unimportant war of t*os* A truce arranged
by Boniface VIII. restored Guienue to Edward L, gave him
the hand of Philip's sister for himself and that of the king's
daughter for his son (1208).
A still more lengthy and unfortunate suit was the attempt
of Philip the Fair and his successors to incorporate the Flemish
fief like tho English one (1300-13*6), thus coming
into conflict with proud and turbulent republics
composed of wool and doth merchants, weavers,
fullers and powerful counts. Guy de Dampierre,
count of Namur, who had become count df Flanders on the
death of bis mother Margaret II. in 1270— an ambitious, greedy
and avaricious man— was arrested at the Louvre on account
of his attempt to marry bis daughter to Edward I/s eldest son
without the consent of his suserain Philip. Released after two
years, he sided definitely with the king of England when the latter
was in arms against Philip; and being only weakly supported
by Edward, he was betrayed by the nobles who favoured France,
and forced to yield up not only his personal liberty but the whole
of Flanders (1300). The Flemings, however, soon wearying of
the oppressive administration of the French governor, Jacques
de Cbatillon, and the recrudescence of patrician domination,
rose and overwhelmed the French chivalry at Courtrai (1302) —
a prelude to the coming disasters of the Hundred Years' War.
Philip's double revenge, on sea at Zierikxee and on land at
Moos-en-Pevele (1304), led to the signing of a treaty at Athis-sur-
Orge(x3<>5).
The efforts of Philip the Fair to expand the limits of his
kingdom on the eastern border were more fortunate. His
Em$t*n marriage had gained him Champagne; and he after*
pottcy 9t wards extended his influence over Franche Comte,
ptuptb* Bar* and the bishoprics of Lorraine, acquiring also
Fski Viviers and the important town of Lyons— all this
less by force of arms than by the expenditure of money. Disdain-
ing the illusory dream of the imperial crown, still cherished
by his legal advisers, he pushed forward towards that fluctuating
eastern frontier, the line of least resistance, which would have
yielded to him had it not been for the unfortunate interruption
of the Hundred Yean' War.
His three sons, Louis X, Philip V. the Tall, and Charles IV.,
continued his work. They increased the power of the monarchy
politically by destroying the feudal reaction excited
in 1314 by the tyrannical conduct of the jurists, like
Enguerrand de Marigny.and by the increasingfinancial
extortions of their father; and they also— notably
Philip V., one of the most hard-working of the Capets —
increased it on the administrative side bysperializmg the services
819
ThtMom*
•t Philip
thtFmtr
{UI4-
U38U
of justice and of finance, which were separated from the king's
council. Under these mute self-effacing kings the progress of
royal power was only the more striking. With them the senior
male line of the house of Capet became extinct.
During three centuries and a half they had effected great
things: they had founded a kingdom, a royal family and civil
institutions. The land subject to Hugh Capet in
987, barely representing twoof themodern departments ffjjff?? 1
of France, in 13 »S covered a space equal to fifty-nine cvu
of them. The political unity of the kingdom was only
fettered by the existence of four large isolated fiefs: Flanders
on the north, Brittany on the west, Burgundy on the east and
Guienne on the south. The capital, which for long had been
movable, was now established in the Louvre at Paris, fortified
by Philip Augustus. Like the fiefs, feudal institutions at large
had been shattered. The Roman tradition which made the
will of the sovereign law, gradually propagated by the teaching
of Roman law— the law of servitude, not of liberty— and already
proclaimed by the jurist Philippe de Beaumanoir as superior
to the customs, had been of immense support to the interest of
the state and the views of the monarchs; and finally the Capets,
so humble of origin, had created organs of general administration
common to all in order to effect an administrative centralization.
In their grand council and their domains they would have none
but silent, servile and well-disciplined agents. The royal
exchequer, which was being painfully elaborated in the chambre
its c&mptes, and the treasury of the crown lands at the Louvre,
together barely sufficed to meet the expenses of this more compli'
cated and costly machinery. The uniform justice exercised by
the parlement spread gradually over the whole kingdom by
means of cos royaux (royal suits), and at the same time the royal
coinage became obligatory. Against this exaltation of their
power two adversaries might have been formidable; but one,
the Church, was a captive in Babylon, and the second, the
people, was deprived of the communal liberties which it had
abused, or humbly effaced itself in the states-general behind the
declared will of the king. This well-established authority was
also supported by the revered memory of " Monseigneur Saint
Louis "; and it is this prestige, the strength of this ideal superior
to all other, that explains how the royal prerogative came to
survive the mistakes and misfortunes of the Hundred Years'
War.
On the extinction of the direct line of the Capets the crown
passed to a younger branch, that of the Valois. Its seven
representatives (132&-1408) were on the whole very
inferior to the Capets, and, with the exception of f£* •*
Charles V. and Louis XL, possessed, neither their vsJots. •
political sense nor even then* good common sense;
they cost France the loss of her great advantage over all other
countries. During this century and a half France passed through
two very severe crises; under, the first five Valois the Hundred
Years' War imperilled the kingdom's independence; and under
Louis XI. the struggle against the house of Burgundy endangered
the territorial unity of the monarchy that had been established
with such pains upon the ruins of feudalism.
Charles the Fair having died and left only a daughter, the
nation's rights, so long in abeyance, were once more regained.
An assembly of peers and barons, relying on two
precedents under Philip V. and Charles IV., declared JJJjJ **
that "no woman, nor therefore her son, could in /uqjJ
accordance with custom succeed to the monarchy of
France." This definite decision, to which the name of the Salic
taw was given much later, set aside Edward III., king of England,
grandson of Philip the Fair, nephew of the late kings and son of
their sister Isabel. Instead it gave the crown to the feudal
chief, the hard and coarse Philip VI. of Valois, nephew of Phiiip
the Fair. This at once provoked war between the two monarchies,
English and French, which, including periods of truce, lasted
for a hundred and sixteen years. Of active warfare there were
two periods, both disastrous to begin with, but ending favourably:
one lasted from 1337 to 1378 and the other from 1413 to 145&
thirty-three years of distress and folly coming in between.
Ho
However, the Hundred .Years' War was not mainly caused
by the pretensions of Edward IIL to the throne of the Capets;
Tko sinos after having long hesitated to do homage to
Huntrtd Philip VI. for his possessions in Guienne, Edward at
J£"** last brought himself to it— though certainly only after
War ' lengthy negotiations, and even threats of war in 1331.
It is true that six years later he renounced his homage and again
claimed the French inheritance; but this was on the ground
of personal grievances, and for economic and political reasons.
There was a natural rivalry between Edward IIL and Philip VI.,
both of them young, fond of the life of chivalry, festal magnifi-
cence, and the " belles apertises d'armes." This rivalry was
aggravated by the enmity between Philip VI. and Robert of
Artois, his brother-in-law, who, after having warmly supported
the disinheriting of Edward III., had been convicted of deceit
in a question of succession, had revenged himself on Philip by
burning his waxen effigy, and had been welcomed with open
arms at Edward's court. Philip VI. had taken reprisals against
him in 1336 by making his parlement declare the forfeiture of
Edward's lands and castles in Guienne; but the Hundred Years'
War, at first simply a feudal quarrel between vassal and suzerain,
soon became a great national conflict, in consequence of what
was occurring in Flanders.
The communes of Flanders, rich, hard-working, jealous of
their liberties, had always been restive under the authority of
their counts and the influence of their suzerain, the king of
France. The affair at Cassel, where Philip VL had avenged
the injuries done by the people of Bruges in 1325 to their
count, Louis of Nevers, bad also compromised English
interests. To attack the English through their colonies, Guienne
and Flanders, was to injure them in their most vital interests
—cloth and claret; for England sold her wool to Bruges in
order to pay Bordeaux for her wine. Edward IIL bad replied
by forbidding the exportation of English wool, and by threaten-
ing the great industrial cities of Flanders with the transference
to England of the cloth manufacture— an excellent means of
stirring them up against the French, as without wool they could
do nothing, WorkJess, and in desperation, they threw themselves
on Edward's mercy, by the advice of a rich citizen of Ghent,
Jacob van Artevelde (q.v.); and their last scruples of loyalty
gave way when Edward decided to follow the counsels of Robert
of Artois and of Artevelde, and to claim the crown of France.
The war began, like every feudal war of that day, with a
solemn defiance, and it was soon characterized by terrible
disasters. The destruction of the finest French
"J* fleet that had yet been seen, surprised in the port of
JJJ Sluys, closed the sea to the king of France; the
struggle was continued on land, but with little result.
Flanders tired of it, but fortunately for Edward IIL Brittany
now took fire, through a quarrel of succession, analogous to that
in France, between Charles of Blois (who had married the
daughter of the late duke and was a nephew of Philip VI., by
whom he was supported) and John of Montfort, brother of the
old duke, who naturally asked assistance from the king of
England. But here, too, nothing important was accomplished:
the capture of John of Montfort at Nantes deprived Edward of
Brittany at the very moment when he finally lost Flanders
by the death of Artevelde, who was killed by the people of Ghent
in 1345. Under the influence of Godefroi d'Harcourt, whom
Philip VI. had wished to destroy on account of his ambitions
with regard to the duchy of Normandy, Edward IIL now
invaded central France, ravaged Normandy, getting as near
to Paris as Saint-Germain; and profiting by Philip VI. 's hesita-
tion and delay, he reached the north with his spoils by dint of
forced marches. Having been pursued and encountered at
j^i Crecy, Edward gained a complete victory there on the
**«#«* 26th of April 1346. The seizure of Calais in 1347,
Crtcyma« despite heroic resistance, gave the English a port
•scL'/jit* wncrc l ^ cv cou ld always find entry into France, just
when the queen of England had beaten David of
Scotland, the ally of France, at Neville's Cross, and when
Charles of Blois, made prisoner in his turn* was held captive
FRANCE cHBTotY
in London. The Black Death .pot the fi»t«M»ig touch to tie
military disasters and financial upheavals of this unlet!*
reign; though before his death in 1350 Philip VL was fortua- .*
enough to augment his territorial acquisitions by the purdu.-*
of the rich port of Montpeltier, as well as by that of Dauphkf.
which extended to the Alpine frontier, and was to become the
appanage of the eldest son of the king of France (see Dacthss
and Dauphin).
Philip VL's successor was his son John the Good— or rather,
the stupid and the spendthrift. This noble monarch was un-
speakably brutal (as witness the murders, simply on
suspicion, of the constable Raoul dc Brierme, count f^Z**
of Eu, and of the count of Harcourt) and incredibly <jj5*.
extravagant. His need of money led him to debase
the currency eighty-one times between 1350 and 1355. And
this money, so necessary for the prosecution of the war vrti
England, which had been interrupted for a year, thanks to thr
pope's intervention, was lavished by him upon his favourite,
Charles of La Cerda. The latter was murdered in 1354 bv
order of Charles of Navarre, the king's aon-in-lsw, who aise
prevented the levying of the taxes voted by the states in 1355
with the object of replenishing the treasury. The Black Prince
took this opportunity to ravage the southern provinces, ana
then marched to join the duke of Lancaster and Charles of
Navarre in Normandy. John the Good managed
to bring the English army to bay at Maupertuis, SH£n!
not far from Poitiers; but the battle was conducted
with such a want of intelligence on his part that the French
army was overwhelmed, though very superior in numbers, and
King John was made prisoner, after a determined resistance,
on the 19th of September 1356.
The disaster at Poitiers almost led to the establishment ia
France of institutions analogous to those which England owed
to Bouvines. The king a prisoner, the dauphin dis-
credited and deserted, and the nobility decimated, T *^, ^ te *
the people— that is to say, the states-general— could Iss*.
raise their voice. Philip the Fair had never regarded
the states-general as a financial institution, but merely as a
moral support. Now, however, in order to obtain substantial
help from taxes instead of mere driblets, the Valois needed s
stronger lever than cunning or force. War against the English
assured them the support of the nation. Exactions, debasement
of the currency andextortionate taxation were ruinous palliatives,
and insufficient to supply a treasury which the revenue from
crown lands and various rights taken from the nobles could
not fill even in times of peace. By the 14th century the motto
" N' impose qui nc vcut " (U. no taxation without consent) was
as firmly established in France as in England. After Crecy
Philip VL called the states together regularly, that be might
obtain subsidies from them, as an assistance, an "aid" which
subjects could not refuse their suzerain. In return for this
favour, which the king could not claim as a right, the states,
feeling their power, began to bargain, and at the session of
November 1355 demanded the participation of all classes in the
tax voted, and obtained guarantees both for its levy and the use
to be made of it. A similar situation in England had given
birth to political liberty; but in France the great crisis of the
early 15th century stifled it. It was with this money that John
the Good got himself beaten and taken prisoner at Poitiers.
Once more the states-general had to be convoked. Confronted
by a pale weakly boy like the dauphin Charles and the remnants
of the discredited council, the situation of the states was stronger
than ever. Predominant in influence were the deputies ^^ttm *
from the towns, and above all the citizens of the Coqmm*
capital, led by Robert le Coq, bishop of Laon, and 2*U
Etiennc Marcel, provost of the merchants of Paris. MMnA
Having no cause for confidence in the royal administration,
the slates refused to treat with the dauphin's councillors, and
proposed to take him under their own tutelage, He himsdf
hesitated whether to sacrifice the royal authority, or else,
Without resources or support, to resist an assembly backed by
public opinion. He decided for resistance. Under pretext of
nsrowi
BRANCH
8sk
rave 4 news received from his father, and of an Interview at
leu with his uncle, the emperor Charles IV., he begged the
.ates to adjourn till the 3rd of November 1356. This was a
olitical couf d'itat, and when the time had expired healtempted
financial ctmp 4'tiat by debasing the currency. An uprising
bilged him to call the states-general together again in February
357, when they transformed themselves into a, deliberative,
1 dependent and permanent assembly by means of the Grands
'rdonnanc*.
In order to make this great French charter realy effective
ssistance to the royal authority should have been collective,
iiationai and even popular, msmthe case of the chaffers
of mis and 1258 in England. But the lay and ecclesi-
astical feudal lords continued to show themselves
"rant*
of Dover, a cause of division and oppression. More-
ver, the states were never really general; those of the Langue
t'oc and the Langue d*oil sometimes acted together; but there
iras never a common understanding between' them and always
wo Frances within the kingdom. Besides, they only represented
he three cl ass es who alone had any social standing at that
leriod: the nobles, the clergy, and the burgesses of important
.owns. £tienne Marcel himself protested against councillors
'oV pilil ttal." Again, the states, intermittently convoked
iccording to the king's good pleasure, exercised neither periodical
•ights nor effective control, but fulfilled a duty which was soon
elt as onerous. Indifference and satiety spread speedily; the
bourgeoisie forsook the reformers directly they had recourse
o violence (February 1358), and the Parisians became hostile
vhen £tieane Marcel complicated his revolutionary work by
ntrigues with Navarre, releasing from prison the grandson of
Louis X., the Headstrong, an ambitious, fine-spoken courier of
popularity,' covetous of the royal crown. The dauphin's flight
from Paris excited a wild outburst of monarchist loyalty and
mger against the capital among the nobility and in the states-
general of Compiegne. Marcel, like the dauphin, was not a man
10 turn back. But neither the support of the peasant insurgents
—the " Jacques "—who were annihilated in the market of
Meaux, nor a last but unheeded appeal to the large towns, not
vet the uncertain support of Charles the Bad, to whom Marcel
in despair proposed to deliver up Paris, saved him from being
put to death by the royalist party of Paris on the 31st of July
1358.
Isolated as he was, Etienne Marcel had been unable either to
seize the government or to create a fresh one. In the reaction
which followed his downfall royalty inherited the financial
administration which the states had set up to check extravagance.
The " Uus " and the superintendents, instead of being delegates
of the states, became royal functionaries like the baiUis and the
provosts; imposts, hearth-money (/eaagt), salt-tax (gobelle),
>alc-dues (droits de ventc), voted for the war, were levied during
the whole of Charles V.'s reign and added to his personal revenue.
The opportunity of founding political liberty upon the vote and
the control of taxation, and of organizing the administration
of the kingdom so as to ensure that the entire military and
financial resources should be always available, was gone beyond
recall.
Re-establishing the royal authority in Paris was not enough;
an end had to be put to the war with England and Navarre, and
this was effected by the treaty of Brftigny (1360).
JJ* ^ King John ceded Poitou, Saint onge, Agenais, Perigord
BriUtny, and* Limousin to Edward III., and was offered his
liberty for a ransom of three million gold crowns;
but, unable to pay that enormous sura, he returned to his
agreeable captivity in London, where he died in 1364.
Yet through the obstinacy and selfishness of John the Good,
France, in stress of suffering, was gradually realizing herself.
More strongly than her king she felt the shame of
S5£?* K defeat. Local or municipal patriotism waxed among
uso). peasants and townsfolk, and combined with hatred
of the English to develop national sentiment. Many
of the conquered repeated that proud, sad answer of the men
of RocheHe to the;£agJisfc: "We will ac knowle dg e you with
our lips; but with our hearts, never I"
The peace of Bretigny brought no repose to the kingdom.
War having become a congenial and yery lucrative industry,
its mention caused want of work, with all the evils n»
that entails. For ten y«ar» the remnants of the armies -amm4m
of England, Navarre and Brittany— the " Graades Com '. „
Coenpagaies,"' " they went called— tavaged the W"**
country; although' Charts* V*, • " dunmtnt subtil * saga,"
succeeded in getting rid of them, thank* to du Gueactin, one of
their chiefs, who led them to any place where fighting was going
on-'-to Brittany, Alsace, Spain. Charles also had all towns
and largo villages fortified; and being a man of affairs he sea
about undoing the effect of the treaty of Brttigny by alliances
with Flanders, whose heiress he married to his brother Philip,
duke of Burgundy; with Henry, king of Castile, and Ferdinand
of Portugal, who poss es s ed fine navies; and, finally, with the
emperor Chades IV. Financial and military preparations
were made no less seriously when the harsh administration
of she Black Prince, to whom Edward III. had given Guienne
in fief, provoked the nobles of Gascony to complain to Charles V;
Cited before the court of Paris, the Black Prince refused to
attend, and war broke out in Gascony, Poitou and Normandy,
but with fresh tactics (1360). Whilst the English adhered to
the system of wide circuits, under Chandos or Robert KnoUes,
Charles V. limited himself to defending the towns and exhausting
the enemy without taking dangerous risks. Thanks to the
prudent constable du Guesclin, sitting quietly at home he re-
conquered bit by bit what bis predecessors had lost upon, the
battlefield, helm on head and sword in hand; and when he
died in 1380, after the decease of both Edward III. and the
Black Prince, the only possessions of England in a liberated
but ruined France were Bayonne, Bordeaux, Brest, Cherbourg
and Calais.
The death of Charles V. and dynastic revolutions In England
stopped the war for thirty-five years. Then began an era of
internal disorder and misery. Hie men of that
period, coarse, violent and simple-minded, with few. ££*?£!-.
political Ideas, loved brutal and noisy pleasures— hjj"
witness the incredible festivities at the marriage of
Charles VI., and the assassinations of the constable de Clisson,
the duke of Orleans and John the Fearless. It would have
needed an energetic hand to hold these passions in check; and
Charles VI. was a gentle-natured child, twelve years of age,
who attained his majority only to fall into a second childhood.
Thence arose a question which remained without reply during
the whole df his reign. Who should have possession of the
royal person, and, consequently, of the royal power? n*Ua?»
Should it be -the undes of the king, or his followers ««*««**
Clisson and Bureau de la Riviere, whom the nobles **/Jf£
called in mockery the MarmousOs ? His uncles first -""**•
seized the government, each with a view to his own particular
interests, which were by no means those of the kingdom at
large. The duke of Anjou emptied the treasury in conquering
the kingdom of Naples, at the call of Queen Joanna of Sidly.
The duke of Berry seized upon Languedoc and the wine-tax.
The duke of Burgundy, heir through his wife to the countship
of Flanders, wanted to crush the democratic risings among the
Flemings. Each of them needed money, but Charles V., pricked
by conscience on his death-bed, forbade the levying of the
hearth-tax (1380). His brother's attempt to re-establish it set
Paris in revolt. The Moittoiins of Paris found imitators
in other great towns; and In Auvergne and Vrvarais JfU^J*"**
the Tuckins renewed the Jacquerie. Revolutionary jf«MMtet.
attempts between 1380 and 138s to abolish all taxes
were echoed in England, Florence and Flanders. These isolated
rebellions, however, were crushed by the ever-ready coalition
of royal and feudal forces at Roosebeke (138s). Taxes and
subsidies were maintained and the hearth-money re-established.
The death of the duke of Anjou at Bari (1384) gave pre-
ponderant influence to Phffip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who
increased the large and fruitless expenses of his Burgnndian
822
FRANCE
|H6TQKf
policy to such a point that on the return of a last unfortunate
expedition into Gclderland Charles VI., who had been made
by him to marry Isabel of Bavaria, took the govern-
JJ^jJJJJ, mcnt * rora &** uncles on the 3rd of May 1389, and
vk recalled ihe Marmousets. But this young king, aged
only twenty, very much in love with his young wife
and excessively fond of pleasure, soon wrecked the delicate
poise of his mental faculties in the festivities of the Hotel Saint-
Paul; and a violent attack of Pierre de Craon on the constable
de Clisson having led to an expedition against his accomplice,
the duke of Brittany, Charles was seized by insanity on the
road. The Marmousets were deposed, the king's brother, the
duke of Orleans, set aside, and the old condition of affairs.began
again (1392).
The struggle was now between the two branches of the royal
family, the Orieanist and the Burgundian, between the aristo-
cratic south and the democratic north; while the
deposition of Richard IL of England in favour of
Henry of Lancaster permitted them to vary civil war
by war against the foreigner. .Philip the Bold, duke
of Burgundy, the king's uncle, had certain advantages
over his rival Louis of (Means, Charles VL's brother:
superiority in age, relations with "the Lancastrians
and with Germany, and territorial wealth and power. The two
adversaries had each the same scheme of government: each
wanted to take charge of Charles VI., who was intermittently
insane, and to exclude- his rival from the pillage of the royal
exchequer; but this rivalry of desires brought them into opposi-
tion on all the great questions of the day— the war with England,
the Great Schism and the imperial election. The struggle
became acute when John the Fearless of Burgundy succeeded
his father in 1404. Up to this time the queen, Isabel of Bavaria,
had been held in a kind of dependency upon Philip of Burgundy,
who had brought about her marriage; but less eager for influence
than for money, since political questions were unintelligible to
her and her situation was a precarious one, she suddenly became
favourable to the duke of Orleans. Whether due to passion
or caprice this cost the duke his life, for John the Fearless
had him ssmrinslfd in 1407, and thus let loose against one
another the Burgundians and the Armagnac*, so-called because
the son of the murdered duke was the son-in-law of the count of
Anaagnae (see Armagnac). Despite all attempts at reconciliation
the country was divided into two parties. Paris, with her
tradesmen— the butchers in particular—and her university,
played an important part in this quarrel; for to be master of
Paris was to be master of the king. In 1413 the duke of Bur-
gundy gained the upper hand there, partly owing to the rising
of the Caboehiens, •'.«. the butchers led by the skinner Simon
Caboche, partly to the hostility of the university to the Avignon
pope and partly to the Parisian bourgeoisie.
Amid this reign of terror and of revolt the university, the only
moral and intellectual force, taking the place of the impotent
states-general and of a parlement carefully restricted to
the judiciary sphere, vainly tried to re-establish a una
monarchical system by means of the Ordonnance Cabo-
?*£"** cMiennt; but this had no effect, the government being
now at the mercy of the mob, themselves at the mercy
of incapable hot-headed leaders. The struggle ended in becoming
one between factions of the townsmen, led respectively by the
k&ckier Grasse and by Jean Caboche. The former overwhelmed
John the Fearless, who fled from Paris; and the Armagnacs,
re-entering on his exit, substituted white terror for red terror,
from the uth of December 14x3 to the 28th of July 1414* The
butchers' organisation was suppressed and all hope of reform
lost. Such disorders allowed Henry V, of England to take the
offensive again.
The Armagnacs were In pos ses sion of Paris and the king
when Henry V. crushed them at Agincourt on the 25th of
AgimcomtL October 14M. It was as at Crecy and Poitiers;
the French chivalry, accustomed to mere playing at
battle in the tourneys* no longer knew how to fight. Charles
of Orleans beinE a.caotive and his father-in-law, the count of
7ft* c*»
Armagnac, highly unpopular, John the Feadeaa, ttthcas
prudently neutral, re-entered Paris, amid scenes of carnage, ca
the invitation of the citiaen Perrinet le Ckrc
Secure from interference, Henry V. had occupied the *boie
of Normandy and destroyed in two years the work of H£?
Augustus. The duke of Burgundy, feeling as incapable
of coming to an understanding with the masterful Jf^T
Englishman as of resisting him unaided, tried to mm,
effect a reconciliation with the Armagnacs, who havd
with them the heir to the throne, the dauphin Charles; bat ks
assassination at Montereau in 1410 nearly caused the destructka
of the kingdom, the whole Burgundian party going over to tic
side of the English. By the treaty of Troyes (14*0) the sea
of John the Fearless, Philip the Good, in order to avenge ka
father recognised Henry V. (now married to Catherine, Chads
VL's daughter) as heir to the crown of France, to the detrimest
of the dauphin Charles, who was disavowed by his mother aag
called in derision " the soi-disant dauphin of Viennois," Woes
Henry V. and Charles VI. died in 14*0, Henry VI.— sea ei
Henry V. and Catherine— was proclaimed at Paris king of France
and of England, with the concurrence of Philip the Good, dost
of Burgundy. Thus in 142ft the English occupied all eastea
and northern France, as far as the Loire; while the two soot:
important civil powers of the time, the parlement and tbe
university of Paris, had acknowledged the English king.
But the cause of greatest weakness to the French party to
still Charles VII. himself, tbe king of Bourges. Thin youth at
nineteen, the ill-omened son of a madman and of a
Bavarian of loose morals, was a symbol of France, ^JT^.
timorous and mistrustful. The chateaux of the m/>.
Loire, where he led a restless and enervating exist e n ce ,
held an atmosphere little favourable to enthusiasm and energy.
After his victories at Cravant (1423) and Verneuil (1414), the
duke of Bedford, appointed regent of the kingdom, had gives
Charles VII, four years' respite, and these had been occupied
in violent intrigues between the constable de Richcmont* and
the sire de la Trlmoille, the young king's favourites, and solely
desirous of enriching themselves at bis expense. Tbe king,
melancholy spectacle as he was, seemed indeed to suit that tragic
hour when Orleans, the last bulwark of the south, was besieged
by the earl of Salisbury, now roused from inactivity (142&
He had neither taste nor capacity like Philip VL or John the
Good for undertaking "belles apertises d'armes"; but then
a lack of chivalry combined with a temporising policy had
not been particularly unsuccessful in the case of his grandfather
Charles V.
Powerful aid now came from an unexpected quarter. The
war had been long and cruel, and each successive year naturally
increased feeling against the English. The damage . ^
done to Burgundian interests by the harsh yet impotent jJJT
government of Bedford, disgust at the iniquitous
treaty of Troyes, the monarchist loyalty of many of the warriors,
the still deeper sentiment felt by men like Alain Chattier towards
" Dame France," and the " great misery that there was in the
kingdom of France "; all these suddenly became incarnate in
the person of Joan of Arc, a young peasant of Domremy in
Lorraine. Determined in her faith and proud in her meekness,
in opposition to the timid counsels of the military leaders, to
the interested delays of the courtiers, to the scruples of the
experts and the quarrelling of the doctors, she quoted her
" voices," who had, she said, commis&ioned her to raise the
siege of Orleans and to conduct the gentle dauphin to Reims,
there to be crowned. Her sublime folly turned out to be wiser
than their wisdom; in two months, from May to July 1420,
she had freed Orleans, destroyed the prestige of the English
army at Patay, and dragged the doubting and passive king
against his will to be crowned at Reims. All this produced a
marvellous revulsion of political feeling throughout France,
Charles VII. now becoming incontestably " him to whom the
kingdom of France ought to belong." After Reims Joan's
first thought was for Paris, and to achieve the final overthrow
* Earl of Richmond; afterwards Arthur, duke of Brittany (*.*).
HISTORY) FRANCE
of the English; while Charles VII. was already sighing for the
easy life of Touraine, and recurring to that policy of trace which
was so strongly urged by Ms counsellors, and so keenly irritating
to the clear-sighted Joan of Arc. A check before Paris allowed
the jealousy of La Tttmoflk to waste the heroine for eight months
on operations of secondary importance, until the day when she
was captured by the Burgundians under the walls of Compttgne,
and sold by them to the English. The latter incontinently
prosecuted her as a heretic; they had, indeed, a great interest
in seeing her condemned by the Church, which would render
her conquests sacrilegious. After a scandalous four months'
duel between this simple innocent girl and a tribunal of crafty
malevolent ecclesiastics and doctors of the university of Paris,
Joan was burned alive in the old market-place of Rouen, on the
30th of May 1431 (see Jojut or Axe).
On Charles VII.'s part this meant oblivion and silence until
the day when in 1450, more for his own sake than for hers, he
caused her memory to be rehabilitated; but Joan had given the
country new life and heart. From 143 x to 1454 the struggle
against the English went on energetically; and the king,
relieved in 1433 of his evil genius, La Tremoille, then became
a man once more, playing a kingly part under the guidance of
Dunois, Richemont, La Hire and Saintrailles, leaders of worth
on the field of battle. Moreover, the English territory, a great
triangle, with the Channel for base and Paris for apex, was not
a really solid position. Yet the war seemed interminable;
until at last Philip of Burgundy, for long embarrassed by his
English alliance, decided in 1435 to become reconciled with
Charles VII. This was in consequence of the death of his sister,
who had been married to Bedford, and the return of his brother-
in-law Richemont into the French king's favour. The treaty
of Arras, which made him a sovereign prince for life, though
harsh, at all events gave a united France the opportunity of
expelling the English from the east, and allowed the king to
re-enter Paris in 1436. From 1436 to 1430 tbere^was a terrible
repetition of what happened after the Peace* of Bretigny;
famine, pestilence, extortions and, later, the aristocratic revolt
of the Praguerie, completed the ruin of the country. But thanks
to the permanent tax of the taHle during this time of truce
Charles VII. was able to effect the great military reform of the
Compagnies d'Ordonnance, of the Francs-Archers, and of the
artillery of the brothers Bureau. From this time forward the
English, ruined, demoralised and weakened both by the death
of the duke of Bedford and the beginnings of the Wars of the
Roses, continued to lose territory on every recurrence of conflict.
Normandy was lost to them at Formigny (1450), and Guienne,
English since the 12th century, at CastiUon (1453). They kept
only Calais; and now it was their turn to have a madman,
Henry VI., for king.
France issued from the Hundred Years' War victorious,
but terribly ruined and depopulated. It is true she had de-
finitely freed her territory from the stranger, and
J££» J# / through the sorrows of defeat and the menace of
fSvfToa- disruption had fortified her national solidarity, and
dnd defined her patriotism, still involved in and not yet
£££"* dissociated from loyalty to the monarchy. A happy
awakening, although it went too far in establishing
royal absolutism ; and a victory too complete, in that it enervated
all the forces of resistance. The nation, worn out by the long
disorders consequent on the captivity of King John and the
insanity of Charles VI., abandoned itself to the joys of peace.
Preferring the solid advantage of orderly life to an unstable
liberty, it acquiesced in the abdication of 1430, when the States
consented to taxation for the support of a permanent army
without any periodical renewal of their authorization. No
doubt by the prohibition to levy the smallest tailit the feudal
lords escaped direct taxation; but from the day when the
privileged classes selfishly allowed the taxing of the third estate;
provided that they themselves were exempt, tbey opened the
door to monarchic absolutism. The principle of autocracy
triumphed everywhere over the remnants of local or provincial
authority, in the sphere of industry as in that of administration;
823
trans the gad system D ec line much move rigid. A loyal bureau*
cracy, far more powerful than the phantom administration of
Bourges or of Poitiers, gradually took the place of the court
nobHity; and thanks to this the Institutions of control which
the war had called into power~*the provincial states-general—
were nipped in the bud, withered by the people's poverty of
political idea and by the blind worship of royalty. Without the
nation's concurrence the king's creatures were now to endow
royalty with all the organs necessary for the exertion of authority;
by which imprudent compliance, and above all thanks to Jacques
Cceur (q.v.), the financial independence of the provinces dis-
appeared little by little, and aH the public revenues were left
at the discretion of the king alone (1436-1440)- By this means,
too, and chiefly owing to the constable de Bichemont and the
brothers Bureau, the first permanent royal army was established
(I44S).
Henceforward royalty, strengthened by victory and organized
for the struggle, was able to reduce the centrifugal social forces
to impotence. The parlement of Paris saw its monopoly AfMwvA*
encroached upon by the court of Toulouse in 1443, awfota*
and by the parlement of Grenoble in 1453. The ******
university of Paris, compromised with the English,
like the parlement, witnessed the institution and growth of
privileged provincial universities. The Church of France was
isolated from the papacy by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges
(1438) only to be exploited and enslaved by royalty. Monarchic
centralization, interrupted for the moment by the war, took
up with fresh vigour its attacks upon urban liberties, especially
In the always more independent south. It caused a slackening
of that spirit of communal initiative which had awakened in the
midst of unprecedented disasters. The decimated and im-
poverished nobility proved their impotence in the coalitions
they attempted between 1437 and 144 *> of which the most
important, the Praguerie, fell to pieces almost directly, despite
the support of the dauphin himself.
The life of sodety, now alarmingly unstable and ruthlessly
cruel, was symbolized by the danse macabre painted oa the
waHs of the cemeteries; the sombre and tragic art
of the 15th century, having lost the fine balance
shown by that of the 13th, gave expression in its
mournful realism to the general state of exhaustion. The
favourite subject of the mysteries and of other artistic manifesta-
tions was no longer the triumphant Christ of the middle ages,
nor the smiling and teaching Christ of the 13th century, but the
Man of sorrows and of death, the naked bleeding Jesus, lying
on the knees of bis mother or crowned with thorns. France,
like the Christ r had known all the bitterness and weakness of a
Passion.
The war of independence over, after a century of fatigue,
regrets and doubts, royalty and the nation, now more united
and more certain of each other, resumed the methodic and-
utilitarian war of widening boundaries. Leaving dreams about
crusades to the poets, and to a papacy delivered from schism,
Charles VII; turned his attention to the ancient appanage of
Lothair, Alsace and Lorraine, those lands of the north and the
east whose frontiers were constantly changing, and which
seemed to invite aggression. But the chance of annexing them
without great trouble was lost; by the fatal custom of appanages
the Valois had set up again those feudal institutions which the
Capets had found such difficulty in destroying, and Louis XI.
was to make sad experience of this.
To the north and east of the kingdom extended a wide territory
of uncertain limits; countries without a chief like Alsace;
principalities like Lorraine, ecclesiastical lordships
like the bishopric of Ltfge; and, most important of IflEST*
all, a royal appanage, that of the duchy of Burgundy, gmm4y,
which dated back to the time of John the Good.
Through marriages, conquests and inheritance, the dukes of
Burgundy had enormously increased their influence; while
during the Hundred Years' War they had benefited alternately
by their criminal alliance with the English and by their self-
interested reconciliation with their sovereign. They soqq
824
FRANCE
pnsToty
appeared the moat formidable among the new feudal chiefs
so imprudently called into being by Louis XL'* -predecessors.
Fleeing from the paternal wrath which he had drawn down upon
himself by his ambition and by his unauthorized marriage
with Charlotte of Savoy, the future Louis XI. had passed five
years of voluntary exile at the court of the chief of the House
of Burgundy, Philip the Good; and he was able to appreciate
the territorial power of a duchy which extended from the Zuyder
Zee to the Somme, with all the country between the Saone
and the Loire in addition, and its geographical position as 1 a
commercial intermediary between Germany, England and
France. He had traversed the fertile country of Flanders;
he had visited the rich commercial and industrial republics of
Bruges and Ghent, which had escaped the disasters of the
Hundred Years' War; and, finally, he had enjoyed a hospitality
as princely as it was self-interested at Brussels and at Dijon,
the two capitals; where he had seen the brilliancy of a court
unique in Europe for the ideal of chivalric life it offered.
But the dauphin Louis, although a bad son and impatient for
the crown, was not dazzled by all this. With very simple
tastes, an inquiring mind, and an imagination always
{J3J** al work, *** comDme< * * certain easy good-nature
$&3u which inspired confidence, and though stingy in
spending money on himself, he could be lavish in
buying men either dangerous or likely to be usefuL More inclined
to the subtleties of diplomacy than to the risks of battle, he had
recognized and speedily grasped the disadvantages of warfare.
The duke of Burgundy, however rich and powerful, was still the
king's vassal; his wide but insecure authority, of too rapid
growth and unpopular, Jacked sovereign rights. Hardly, there-
fore, had Louis XI. heard of his father's death than he made his
host aware of his perfectly independent spirit, and his very
definite intention to be master in his own house.
But by a kind of poetic justice, Louis XI. had for seven years,
from 1465 to 1472, to struggle against fresh Pragueries, called
fhB -Leagues of the Public Weal (presumably from their
Uagan disregard of it), composed of -the most powerful
•ttbe French nobles, to whom he had set the example of
*£** revolt. His first proceedings had indeed given no
promise of the moderation and prudence afterwards
to. characterize him; he had succeeded in exasperating all
parties; the officials of his father, " the well-served," whom he
dismissed in favour of inferiors like Jean Balue, Oliver le Daam
and Tristan Lermite; the clergy, by abrogating the Pragmatic
Sanction; the university of Paris, by his ill-treatment of it;
and the nobles, whom he deprived of their hunting rights, among
them being those whom Charles VII. had been most careful
to conciliate in view of the inevitable conflict with the duke of
Burgundy— in particular, Francis II., duke of Brittany. The
repurchase in 1463 of the towns of the Somme (to which Philip
the Good, now grown old and engaged in a quarrel with his son,
the count of Charolais, had felt obliged to consent on considera-
tion of receiving four hundred thousand gold crowns), and the
intriguesof Louis XI. during the periodical revolts of the Liegcris
against their prince-bishop, set the powder alight. On three
different occasions (in 1465, 1467 and 1472). Louis XL's own
brother, the duke of Berry, urged by the duke of Brittany, the
count of Charolais, the duke of Bourbon, and the other feudal
lords, attempted to set up six kingdoms in France instead of one,
and to impose upon Louis XL a regency which should give them
enormous pensions. This was their idea of Public WeaL
Louis XI. won by his favourite method, diplomacy
rather than arms. At the time of the first league, the battle
of Montlhery (16th of July 1465) having remained
STbUl undecided between the two equally badly organized
. . armies, Louis XI. conceded everything in the treaties
of Conflans and Saint-Maur— promises costing him little, since
he had no intention of keeping them. But during the course of
the second league, provoked by the recapture of Normandy,
which he had promised to his brother in exchange for Berry,
he was nearly caught in his own trap. On the 15th of June
1467 Philip the Good died, and the accession of the- count of
Tbeb
Charolais was received with popular risings. In order t#
embarrass him Louis XI. had secretly encouraged the pecc*
of liege to revolt; but preoccupied with the marriage of Charla
the Bold with Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV. of Engbad
he wished to negotiate personally with him at Peronne, as:
hardly had he reached that place when news arrived Uiere of tie
revolt of Liege amid cries of "Vive France." Charles the BoU
proud, violent, pugnacious, as treacherous as his rival, a har&e;
soldier, though without his political sagacity, im-
prisoned Louis in the tower where Charles the Simple
bad died as a prisoner of -the count of Vermandois. rtti—
He only let him depart when he had sworn in the
treaty of Peronne to fulfil the engagements made at rvmfen-.
and Saint-Maur to assist in person at the subjugation of rebels
Liege, and to give Champagne as an appanage to his ally the dai*
of Berry.
Louis XI., supported by the assembly of notables at Tosn
(1470), had no intention of keeping this last promise, since lis
duchy of Champagne would have made a bridge
between Burgundy and Flanders— the two isolated ffa*af
branches of the house of Burgundy. He gave the duke — «--
of Berry distant Guienne. But death eventually rid
him of the duke in 147a, just when a third league was beet
organized, the object of which was to make the duke of Berrj
king with the help of Edward IV., king of England. The duke d
Brittany, Francis IL, was defeated; Charles the Bold, having
failed at Beauvais in his attempt to recapture the towns of the
Somme which had been promised him by the treaty of Conflaas,
was obliged to sign the peace of Senlis (147 »)• This was the ead
of the great feudal coalitions, for royal vengeance soon settkd
the account of the lesser vassals; the duke of Alencon vis
condemned to prison for life; the count of Armagnac was
killed; and " the Germans " were soon to disembarrass Loos
of Charles the Bold.
Charles had jndeed only signed the peace so promptly because
he was looking'eastward towards that royal crown and territorial
cohesion of which his father had also dreamed. The
king, he said of Louis XI., is always ready. He wanted
to provide his future sovereigntywith organs analogous
to those of France; a permanent army, and a judiciary
and financial administration modelled on the French parkmea?
and exchequer. Since he could not dismember the kingdoa
of France, his only course was to reconstitute the ancient kingdoa
of Lotharingia; while the conquest of the principality of Liege
and of the duchy of Gelderland, and the temporary occupatica
of Alsace, pledged to him by Sigismund of Austria, made hio
greedy for Germany. To get himself elected king of the Romans
he offered his daughter Mary, his eternal candidate for marriage,
to the emperor Frederick III. for bis son. Thus either he or
pis son-in-law Maximilian would have been emperor.
But the Tarpeian rock was a near neighbour of the CapitoL
Frederick— distrustful, and in the pay of Louis XI. — evaded 1
meeting arranged at Trier, and Burgundian influence
in Alsace was suddenly brought to a violent end by the 5JjL
putting to death of its tyrannical agent, Peter von tbeB*.
Hagenbach. Charles thought to repair the rebuff
of Trier at Cologne, and wasted his resources in an attempt to
win over its elector by besieging the insignificant town of News,
But the "universal spider"— as he called Louis XI.— was
weaving his web in the darkness, and was eventually to entangle
him in it. First came the reconciliation, in his despite, of those
irreconcilable*, the Swiss and Sigismund of Austria; and then
the union of both with the duke of Lorraine, who was also
disturbed at the duke of Burgundy's ambition. In vain Charles
tried to kindle anew the embers of former feudal intrigues;
the execution of the duke of Nemours and the count of Saint
Pol cooled all enthusiasm. In vain did he get his dilatory
friends, the English Yorkists, to cross the Channel; on the »oth
of August X475> *t Picquigny, Louis XI. bribed them with s
sum of seventy-five thousand crowns to forsake him, Edward
further undertaking to guarantee the loyalty of the duke of
Brittany. Exasperated, • Charles attacked and took Nancy,
HI5TORY]
FRANCE
825
wishing, as he said, " to skin the Bernese bear and weat its fur."
To the hanging of the brave garrison of .Gransoa the Swiss re-
sponded by terrible reprisals at Granson and at Mora* (March
to Jane 1476); while the people of Lorraine finally routed
Charles at Nancy on the 5th of January 1477, the duke himself
falling in the battle.
The central administration of. Burgundy soon disappeared,
swamped by the resurgence of ancient local liberties; the army
***«*/ fell to pieces; and all hope of joining the two Mmbs
«*• *mst of the great eastern duchy was definitely lost. As for
9 '*d7 lnc rtfnn * nts tnat wcre l e ft» French provinces and
*"* imperial territory, Louis XL claimed the whole.
He seised everything, alleging different rights in each place;
but he displayed such violent haste and such trickery that he
threw the heiress of Burgundy, in despair, into the arms of
Maximilian of Austria. At the treaty of Arras (December 148s)
Louis XL received only Pkardy, the Bouloanais and Burgundy,
by the marriage of Charles the BokTs daughter the rest was
annexed to the Empire, and later to Spain. Thus by Louis XL's
short-sighted error the bouse of Austria established itself in the
Low Countries. An age-long rivalry between the houses of
France and Austria was the result of this disastrous marriage)
and as the son who was its issue espoused the heiress of a now
unified Spain, France, hemmed in by the Spaniards and by the
Empire, was thenceforward to encounter them everywhere in
her course. The historical progress of France was once more
endangered.
The reasons of state which governed all Louis XL's external
poliey also inspired his internal administrat ion. If t hey justified
lb9 him in employing lies and deception in international
mamtimfw affairs, in his relations with his subjects they led him
L^'kfxL *° re * mr< * ■* kwful everything which favoured his
°" authority; no question of right could weigh against it.
The army and taxation, as the two chief means of domina*
lion within and without the kingdom, constituted the main
bulwarks of his policy. As for the nobility, his. only thought
was to diminish their power by multiplying their number,
as his predecessors had done; while he reduced the rebels to
submission by his iron cages or the axe of his gossip Tristan
Lermite. The Church was treated with the same unconcerned
cynicism; he held her in strict tutelage, accentuating her moral
decadence still further by the manner in which he set aside
or re-established the Pragmatic Sanction, according to the
fluctuations of his financial necessities or his Italian ambitions.
It has been said that on the other hand he was a king of the
common people, and certainly he was one of them in his simple
habits, in his taste for rough pleasantries, and above all in his
religion, which was limited to superstitious practices and small
devoulnesses. But in the states of Tours in 1468 he evinced
the same mistrust for fiscal control by the people as for the
privileges of the nobility. He inaugurated that autocratic rule
which was to continue gaining strength until Louis XV. 's time.
Louis XL was the king of the bourgeoisie; he exacted much
from them, but paid them back with interest by allowing them
to reduce the power of all who wcre above them and to lord It
over all who were below. As a matter of fact Louis XL's most
faithful ally was death. Saint- Pol, Nemours, Charles the Bold,
his brother the duke of Berry, old Rene of Anjou and his nephew
the count of Maine, heir to the riches of Provence and to rights
over Naples — the skeleton hand mowed down all his adversaries
as though it too were in his pay; until the day when at Plcssrs-
les-Tours it struck a final blow, claimed its just dues from Louis
XL, and carried him off despite all his relics on the 30th of
August 1483.
There was nothing noble about Louis XI. but his aims, and
nothing great but the results he attained; yet however different
ChaHn nc roisht nave Deen ne could not have done better,
vui. mad for what he achieved was the making of France.
Brktaoy This was soon seen after his death in the reaction
jJJJ?" which menaced his work and those who had served
him; but thanks to himself and to his true successor,
his eldest daughter Anne, married to the sire de Beaujeu, a
younger member of. the house of Bourbon, the set-back was
only partial. Strife began immediately, between the numerous
malcontents and the Beaujeu party, who had charge of the little
Charles VIII. These latter prudently made conces-
afcns t seducing the Jastts, sacrificing some of Louis XL te \^ r
creatures to the rancour of the parlement, and restoring uts!
a certain number of offices or tandstethehostne princes
(chief of whom was the duke of Orleans), and even consenting
to a convocation of > the states-general at Tours ( 1 484). But the
elections having been favourable to royally, the Beaujeu family
made the states reject the regericy desired by the duke of Orleans,
and organise the king's council after their own views. When
they subsequently eluded the conditions imposed by the states,
the deputies— nobles, clergy and burgesses— -showed their
incapacity to oppose the progress of despotism. In vain did
the malcontent princes attempt to set up a new League of
Public Weal, the Guerre folk (Mad War), in which the duke of
Brittany, Francis It., played the part of Charles the Bold,
dragging in the people of Lorraine and the king of Navaroa.
In vain did Charles VIII., his majority attained) at once abandon
hi the treaty of Sable the benefits gained by the victory of
Saint-Aubin du Cormier (1488). In vain did Henry VII. of
England; Ferdinand the Catholic, and Maximilian of Austria
try to prevent the annexation of Brittany by France; its heiress
Anne, deserted by every one, made peace and married Charles
VIII. in 1401. There was no longer a single great fief in France
to which the malcontents could fly for refuge.
' It now remained to consolidate the later successes attained
by the policy of the Valois— the acquisition of the duchies of
Burgundy and Brittany; but instead there was a A ^
sudden change and that policy seemed about to be ijjjlj^
lost in dreams of recapturing the rlghtsof the Angevins tktoc*"
over Naples, snd conquering Constantinople. Charles
VIII. , a prince with neither intelligence nor resolution, his
head stuffed with chivalric romance, was scarcely freed from
his sister's control when he sought in Italy a fatal distraction
from the struggle with the house of Austria. By this " war of
magnificence" he caused an interruption of half a century
m the growth of national sentiment, which was only revived by
Henry II.; and he was not alone in thus leaving the bone for
the shadow: his contemporaries, Ferdinand the Catholic
when delivered from the Moors, and Henry VII. from the power
of the English nobles, followed the same superficial policy, not
taking the trouble to work for that real strength which cornel
from the adhesion of willing subjects to their sovereign. They
only cared to aggrandise themselves, without thought of national
feeling or geographical conditions. The great theorist of- these
" conquistadores " was Machiavelli. The regent, Anne of
Beaujeu, worked in her daughter's interest to the detriment of
the kingdom, by means of a special treaty destined to prevent
the property of the Bourbons from reverting to the crown;
while Anne of Brittsny did the like for her daughter Claude.
Louis XII., the next king of France, thought only of Che Milanese;
Ferdinand the Catholic all but destroyed the Spanish unity at
the end of his life by his marriage with Gcrmaine de Foix; while
the house of Austria was for centuries to remain involved in this
petty course of policy. Ministers followed the example of their
self-seeking masters, thinking it no shame to accept pensions
from foreign sovereigns. The preponderating consideration
everywhere was direct material advantage; there 1 was dis-
proportion everywhere between the means employed and the
poverty of the results, a contradiction between the interests
of the sovereigns and those of their subjects, which were associ-
ated by force and not naturally blended. For the sake of a
morsel of Italian territory every oric forgot the permanent
necessity of opposing the advance of the Turkish crescent, the
two horns of which wcre impinging upon Europe on the Danube
and on the Mediterranean.
Italy and Germany were two great tracts of land at the mercy
of the highest bidder, rich and easy to dominate, where these
coarse and alien kings, still reared on medieval traditions, were
for fifty years to gratify their love of conquest. Italy was their
826
FRANCE
[HISTORY
first battlefield; Charles VIIL was surarooned thither by
Lodovico II Moro, tyrant of Milan, involved in a quarrel with
his rival, Ferdinand II. of Aragon. The Aragonese
JmtittyT had snatched the kingdom of Naples from the
French house of Anjou, whose claims Louis XI. had
inherited in 1480. To safeguard himself in the rear Charles VIIL
handed over Roussillon and Ccrdagne (Cerdana) to Ferdinand
the Catholic (that is to say, all the profits of Louis XL's policy);
gave enormous sums of money to Henry VII. of England, and
finally, by the treaty of Senlis ceded Artois and Franche-Comte
to Maximilian of Austria. After these fool's bargains the paladin
set out for Naples in 1494. His journey was long and triumphant,
and his return precipitate; indeed it very nearly ended in a
disaster at Fornovo, owing to the first of those Italian holy
leagues which at the least sign of friction were ready to turn
against France. At the age of twenty-eight, however, Charles
VIIL died without issue (1408).
The accession of his cousin, Louis of Orleans, under the title
of Louis XII. , only involved the kingdom still further in this
Italian imbroglio. Louis did indeed add the fief of
iU98' Xtl * ^ r * cans to lnc r °y*^ domain and hastened to divorce
UiSh Jeanne of France in order to marry Anne, the widow
of his predecessor, so that he might keep Brittany*
But he complicated the Naples affair by claiming Milan in con-
sideration of the marriage of his grandfather, Louis of Orleans,
to Valenlina, daughter of Gian Galeazzo Visconli, duke of Milan.
In I4QQ, appealed to by Venice, and encouraged by his favourite,
Cardinal d'Amboise (who was hoping to succeed Pope Alexander
VI.), and also by Ccsarc Borgia, who had lofty ambitions in
Italy, Louis XII. conquered Milan in seven months and held
it for fourteen years; while Lodovico Sforza, betrayed by his
Swiss mercenaries, died a prisoner in France. The kingdom
of Naples was still left to recapture; and fearing to be thwarted
by Ferdinand of Aragon, Louis XII. proposed to this masur
of roguery that they should divide the kingdom according to
the treaty of Granada (1500). But no sooner had Louis XII.
assumed the title of king of Naples than Ferdinand set about
despoiling him of it, and despite the bravery of a Bayard and a
Louis d'Ars, Louis XII., being also betrayed by the pope, lost
Naples for good in 1504. The treaties of Blois occasioned a
vast amount of diplomacy, and projects of marriage between
Claude of France and Charles of Austria, which came to nothing
but served as a prelude to the later quarrels between Bourbons
and Habsburgs.
It was Pope Julius II. who opened the gates of Italy to the
horrors of war. Profiling by Louis XII. 's weakness and the
emperor Maximilian's strange capricious character, this martial
pope sacrificed Italian and religious interests alike in order to
re-establish the temporal power of the papacy. Jealous of
Venice, at that time the Italian state best provided with powers
of expansion, and unable to subjugate it single-handed, Julius
succeeded in obtaining help from France, Spain and the Empire.
The league of Cambrai (1508) was his finest diplomatic achieve-
ment. But he wanted to be sole master of Italy; so in order to
expel the French " barbarians " whom he had brought in, he
appealed to other barbarians who were far more dangerous —
Spaniards, Germans and Swiss— to help him against Louis XII.,
and stabbed him from behind with the Holy League of 151 1.
Weakened by the death of Cardinal d'Amboise, his best
counsellor, Louis XII. tried vainly in the assembly of Tours
and in the unsuccessful council of Pisa to alienate the
aSf Xtt ' French clergy from a papacy which was now so little
Julio* il worthy of respect. But even the splendid victories
of Gaston de Foix could not shake that formidable
coalition; and despite the efforts of Bayard, La Pal ice and
La Trcmoille, it was the Church that triumphed. Julius II.
died in the hour of victory; but Louis XIL was obliged to
evacuate Milan, to which he had sacrificed everything, even
France itself, with that political stupidity characteristic of the
first Valois. He died almost immediately after this, on the
1st of January 1515, and his subjects, recognizing his thrift,
his justice and the secure prosperity of the kingdom, forgot the
seventeen years of war in which they had not been consahci
and rewarded him with the fine title of Father of his People.
As Louis XII. left no son, the crown devolved upon his cocsis
and son-in-law the count of Angoulcme, Francis I. No sooacr
king, Francis, in alliance with Venice, renewed the
chimerical attempts to conquer Milan and Naples; f£us?* L
also cherishing dreams of his own election as emperor tsuy,
and of a partition of Europe. The heroic episode of
Marignano, when he defeated Cardinal Scanner's Swiss troops
(13-iSof September 151 5), made him master of the duchy o* Milaa
and obliged his adversaries to make peace. Leo X., Julius II s
successor, by an astute volte-face exchanged Parma and tbc
Concordat fox a guarantee of all the Church's possessions, which
meant the defeat of French plans (1515). The Swiss signed
the permanent peace which they were to maintain omit tbc
Revolution of 1789; while the emperor and the king of Spain
recognized Francis II. 's very precarious hold upon Milan. Once
more the French monarchy was pulled up short by the indiges-
tion of all Italy (1518).
The question now was how to occupy the military activity
of a young, handsome, chivalric and gallant prince, •* ondoyaat
et divers," intoxicated by his first victory and his
tardy accession to fortune. This had been hailed with ^ mxm
joy by all who had been his comrades in his days of frM(i L
difficulty; by his mother, Louise of Savoy, and his
sister Marguerite; by all the rough young soldiery; by the
nobles, tired of the bourgeois ways of Louis XI. and the patri-
archal simplicity of Louis XIL; and finally by all the aristocracy
who expected now to have the government in their own ha»ds
So instead of heading the crusade against the Turks, Frmis
threw himself into the electoral contest at Frankfort, which
resulted in the election of Charles V., heir of Ferdinand the
Catholic, Spain and Germany thus becoming united. Pope
Leo X., moreover, handed over three-quarters of Italy to the
new emperor in exchange for Luther's condemnation, thereby
kindling that rivalry between Charles V. and the king of France
which was to embroil the whole of Europe throughout hall a
century (1510-1559), from Pavia to St Quentin.
The territorial power of Charles V., heir to the bouses of
Burgundy, Austria, Castile and Aragon, which not only arrested
the traditional* policy of France but hemmed her jrfraAy«/
in on every side; his pretensions to be the head of /Vmc*i
Christendom; his ambition to restore the house of *■•*.
Burgundy and the Holy Roman Empire; his grave Chm§n¥ *
and forceful intellect all rendered rivalry both inevitable and
formidable. But the scattered heterogeneity of his possessions,
the frequent crippling of his authority by national privileges
or by political discords and religious quarrels, his perpetual
straits for money, and his cautious calculating character, almost
outweighed the advantages which he possessed in the terrible
Spanish infantry, the wealthy commerce of the Netherlands,
and the inexhaustible mines of the New World. Moreover,
Francis I. stirred up enmity everywhere against Charles Y-,
and after each defeat he found fresh support in the patriotism
of his subjects. Immediately after the treaty of Madrid (1526),
which Francis I. was obliged to sign after the disaster at Pavia
and a period of captivity, he did not hesitate between Deft* mt
his honour as a gentleman and the interests of his fwv&iaarf
kingdom. Having been unable to win over Henry *n*tr*t
VII I. of England at their interview on the Field of *****
the Cloth of Gold, he joined hands with Suleiman the Magnificent,
the conqueror of Mohacs; and the Turkish cavalry, crossing
the Hungarian Puszta, made their way as far as Vienna, while
the mercenaries of Charles V., under the constable de Bourbon,
were reviving the saturnalia of Alaric in the sack of Rome (1 527).
In Germany, Francis I. assisted the Catholic princes to maintain
their political independence, though he did not make the capital
he might have made of the reform movement. Italy remained
faithful to the vanquished in spile of all, while even Henry VIIL
of England, who only needed bribing, and Wolsey, accessible to
flattery, took part in the temporary coalition. Thus did France,
menaced with disruption, embark upon a course of action imposed
HISTOKST)
TRANCE
827
uporl Iter by the harsh conditions of the treaty of Madrid—
otherwise little respected— and later by those of Cambrai (1599);
but it was not till later, too late indeed, that it was denned and
became a national policy.
After having, despite so many reverses and mistakes, saved
Burgundy, though not Artois nor Flanders, and. joined to the
crown lands the domains of the constable de Bourbon
who had gone over to Charles V., Francis L should
have had enough of defending other people's independ-
ence as well as his own, and should have thought more
of his interests in the north and east than of Milan.
Yet between 1531 and 1547 he manifested the same
regrets and the same invincible ambition for that land of Italy
which Charles V., on his side, regarded as the basis of his strength.
Their antagonism, therefore, remained unabated, as also the
contradiction of an official agrccmeat with Charles V., combined
with secret intrigues with his enemies. Anne de Montmorency,
now head of the government in place of the headstrong chancellor
Duprat, for four years upheld a policy of reconciliation and of
almost friendly agreement between the I wo monarch* (1531-
x 535)- T«e death of Francis 1. 's mother, Louise of Savoy < who
had been partly instrumental in arranging the peace of Cambrai),
the replacement of Montmorency by the bellicose Chabot, and
the advent to power of a Burgundinn, Granvclla, as Charles V.'s
prime minister, put an end to this double-faced poKcy, which
attacked the Calvinists of France while supporting the Lutherans
of Germany; made advances to Clement \ 11. while pretending
to maintain the alliance with Henry VIJ1. (just then consummat-
ing the Anglican schism), and sought an alliance with Charles
V. without renouncing the possession of Italy. The death of
the duke of Milan provoked a third general war (1536-1538);
but after the conquest of Savoy and Piedmont and a
HtNtoO* fruitless invasion of Provence by Charles V., it resulted
in another truce, concluded at Nke, in the interview
at Aigues-mortes, and in the old contradictory policy of the
treaty of Cambrai. This was confirmed by Charles V.'s triumphal
journey through France (1530).
Rivalry between Madame d'Elampes, the imperious mistress
of the aged Francis I., and Diane de Poitiers, whose ascendancy
over the dauphin was complete, now brought court
intrigues and constant changes in those who held
•/vw. office, to complicate still further this wearisome
policy of ephemeral " combinaztoni " with English,
Germans, Italians and Turks, which urgent need of money always
brought to naught. The disillusionment of Francis I., who
bad hitherto hoped that Charles V. would be generous enough
to give Milan back to him, and then the assassination of Rincon,
his ambassador at Constantinople, led to a fourth war (1544-
1546), in the course of which the king of England vent over to
the side of Charles V.
Unable in the days of his youth to make Italy French, when
age began to come upon him, Francis tried to make France
Ihymimtf Italian- In his chateau at Blois he drank greedily
mMm of the cup of Renaissance art; but he found the
■?** exciting draughts of diplomary which he imbibed
FnadaL from Machiaveili's Prince even more intoxicating,
and he headed the ship of st at e si raight f or t he rock of absolu tism
He had been the first king 4< du bon plaisir " (" of his own good
pleasure ") — a " Caesar," as his mother Louise of Savoy proudly
hailed him in j 51 5— and to a man of his gallant and hot-headed
temperament love and war were schools little calculated to
teach moderation in government Italy not only gave him a
taste for art and letters, but furnished him with an arsenal of
despotic maxims. Yet his true masters were the jurists of the
southern universities, passionately addicted -to centralization
and autocracy, men like Duprat and Poyel, who revived the
persistent tradition of Philip the Fair's legists. Grouped together
on the council of affairs, they managed to control the policy
of the common council, with its too mixed and too independent
membership. They successfully strove to separate " the grandeur
and superexcellence of the king " from the rest of the nation;
to isolate the nobility amid the seductions of a court lavish in
Fomrth
promises of flavour and high office; and to win over the
bourgeoisie by the buying and selling and afterwards by the
hereditary transmission of offices. Thanks to their action,
feudalism was attacked in Us landed interest in the person of
the constable de Bourbon; feudalism in its financial aspect
by the execution of superintendent Semblancay and the special
privileges of towns and provinces by administrative centraliza-
tion. The bureaucracy became a refuge for the nobles, and above
ail for the bourgeois, whose fixed incomes were lowered by the
influx of precious metals from the New World, while the wages
of artisans rose. All those time-worn medieval institutions
which no longer allowed free scope to private or public life were
demolished by the legists in favour of the monarchy.
Their masterstroke was the Concordat of 1516, which meant
an immense stride in the path towards absolutism. While
Germany and England, where ultramontane doctrines
had been allowed to creep in, were seeking a remedy !££"*
against the economic exactions of the papacy in a tsit* °
reform of dogma or in schism, France had supposed
herself to have found this in the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges.
But to the royal jurists the right of the churches and abbeys
to make appointments to all vacant benefices was a guarantee
of liberties valuable to the clergy, but detestable to themselves
because the clergy thus retained the great part of public wealth
and authority. By giving the king the ecclesiastical patronage
they not only made a docile instrument of him, but endowed
him with a mine of wealth, even more productive than the sale
of offices, and a power of favouring and rewarding that trans*
formed a needy and ill-obeyed king into an absolute monarch.
To the pope they offered a mess of pottage in the shape oi annates
and the right of canonical institution, in order to induce him
to sell the Church of France to the king. By this royal reform
they completely isolated the monarchy, in the presumptuous
pride of omnipotence, upon the ruins of the Church and the
aristocracy, despite both the university and the parlement
of Paris.
Thus is explained Francis I.'s preoccupation with Italian
adventures in the latter part of his reign, and also the inordinate
squandering of money, the autos-da-ft in the provinces and in
Paris, the harsh repression of reform and free thought, and the
sale of justice; while the nation became impoverished and the
state was at the mercy of the caprices of royal mistresses— all
of which was to become more and more pronounced during
the twelve years of Henry I I.'s government.
Henry II. shone but with a reflected light—in his private
life reflected from his old mistress, Diane de Poitiers, and in his
political action reflected from the views of Mont-
morency or the Guises. He only showed his own ffJJ/T*
personality in an egoism more narrow-minded, in tsst')
hatred yet bitterer than his father's; or in a haughty
and jealous insistence upon an absolute authority which he never
had the wit to maintain.
The struggle with Charles V. was at first delayed by differences
with England. The treaty of Ardres had left two bones of
contention the cession of Boulogne to England
and the exclusion of the Scotch from the terms of f£f rlL
peace. At last the regent, the duke of Somerset, ctoffccv.
endeavoured to arrange a marriage between Edward
VI., then a minor, and Mary Stuart, who had been offered in
marriage to the dauphin Francis by her mother, Marie of
Lorraine, a Guise who had married the king of Scotland. The
transference of Mary Stuart to France, and the treaty of 1550
which restored Boulogne to France for a sum of 400,000 crowns,
suspended the state of war; and then Henry I I.'s opposition
to the imperial policy of Charles V. showed itself everywhere?
in Savoy and Piedmont, occupied by the French and claimed by
Philibert Emmanuel, Charles V.'s ally; in Navarre, unlawfully
conquered by Ferdinand the Catholic and claimed by the family
of Albret; in Italy, where, aided and abetted by Pope Paul III.,
Henry II. was Irving to regain support; and, finally, in Germany,
where after the victory of Charles V. at Muhlberg (1547) the
Protestant princes called Henry II. to their aid, offering to
828
FRANCE
(HISTORY
ofMets.
subsidize him and cede to htm the towns of Mcts, Tool and
Verdun. The Protestant alliance was substituted for the
Turkish alliance, and Henry II. hastened to accept the offers
made to htm (1552); but this was rather late in the day, for
the reform movement had produced civil war and evoked
fresh forces. The Germans, in whom national feeling got the
better of imperialistic ardour, as soon as they saw the French
at Strassburg, made terms with the emperor at Passau and
permitted Charles to use all his forces against Henry II. The
defence of Mcu by Francis of Guise was admirable
and successful; but in Picardy operations continued
their course without much result, owing to the in-
capacity of the constable de Montmorency. Fortunately,
despite the marriage of Charles V.'s son Philip to Mary Tudor,
which gave him the support of England (1554), and despite
the religious pacification of Germany through the peace of
Augsburg (1555), Charles V., exhausted by illness
and by thirty years of intense activity, in the truce
of Vauccllcs abandoned Henry II.'s conquests-
Piedmont and the Three Bishoprics. He then abdicated the
government of his kingdoms, which he divided between his son
Philip II. and his brother Ferdinand (1556). A double victory,
this, for France.
Henry II.'s resumption of war, without provocation and
without allies, was a grave error; but more characterless than
ever, the king was urged to it by the Guises, whose
Htary #/• influence since the defence of Mcu had been supreme
Phutpll. at court and who were perhaps hoping to obtain
Naples for themselves. On the other hand, Pope Paul
IV. and his nephew Carlo Caraffa embarked upon the struggle,
because as Neapolitans they detested the Spaniards, whom they
p»me* of considered as " barbarous " as the Germans or the
Ci/*«th French. The constable dc Montmorency's disaster
JjJjjT at Saint Quentin (August 1557)1 by which Philip II.
had not the wit to profit, was successfully avenged
by Guise, who was appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom.
He took Calais by assault in January 1558, after the English
had held it for two centuries, and occupied Luxemburg. The
treaty of Caleau-Cambresis (August 1559) finally put an end to
the Italian follies, Naples, Milan and Piedmont; but it also
lost Savoy, making a gap in the frontier for a century. The
question of Burgundy was definitely settled, too; but the
Netherlands had still to be conquered. By the possession of
the three bishoprics and the recapture oi Calais an effort towards
a natural line of frontier and towards a national policy seemed
indicated; but while the old soldiers could not forget Marignano,
Ceresolc, nor Italy perishing with the name of France on her
lips, the secret alliance between the cardinal of Lorraine and
Granvella against the Protestant heresy foretold the approaching
subordination of national questions to religious differences, and
a decisive attempt to purge the kingdom of the new doctrines.
The origin and general history of the religious reformation
in the ioih century are dealt with elsewhere (see Church
History and Reformation). In France it had
twmatioa. originally no revolutionary character whatever; it
proceeded from traditional Gallican theories and from
the innovating principle of humanism, and it began as a protest
against Roman decadence and medieval scholasticism. It
found its first adherents and its first defenders among the clerics
and learned men grouped around Faber (Lefevre) of Staples
at Meaux; while Marguerite of Navarre, " des Roynes la non
pareille," was the indefatigable Maecenas of these innovators,
and the incarnation of the Protestant spirit at its purest. The
reformers shook off the yoke of systems in order boldly to renovate
both knowledge and faith, and, instead of resting on the abstract
a priori principles within which man and nature had been
imprisoned, they returned to the ancient methods of observation
and analysis. In so doing, they separated intellectual from
popular life; and acting in this spirit, through the need of a
moral renaissance, they reverted to primitive Christianity,
substituting the inner and individual authority of conscience
kv the general and external authority of the Church. Their
efforts would not, however, have sufficed if they had not ben
seconded by events; pure doctrine would not have green bin*
to a church, nor that church to a party; in France, as b
Germany , the religious revolution was conditioned by an w m nirir
and social revolution.
The economic renaissance due to the great maritime discoveries
had the consequence of concentrating wealth in the hands of the
bourgeoisie. Owing to their mental qualities, their tendencies azd
their resources, the bourgeoisie had been, if not alone, at feast
most apt in profiting by the development of industry, by tfc?
extension of commerce, and by the formation of a new and zncbA-
mcans of enriching themselves. But though the bourgeois r_: .
acquired through capitalism certain sources of influence. ari
gradually monopolized municipal and public functions, Use Li?.?
and the peasants had also benefited by this revolution. After a
hundred and fifty years of foreign war and civil discord, at a
period when order and unity were ardently desired, an absohrt?
monarchy had appeared the only power capable of realtor.;;
such aspirations. The peasants, moreover, had profited by the
reduction of the idle landed aristocracy; serfdom had decreased
or had been modified; and the free peasants were more prosper-
ous, had reconquered the soil, and were selling their produce
at a higher rate while they everywhere paid less exorbitant
rents. The victims of this process were the urban proletariat,
whose treatment by their employers in trade became less and
less protective and beneficent, and the nobility, straitened
in their financial resources, uprooted from their ancient strong-
holds, and gradually despoiled of their power by a monarchy
based on popular support. The unlimited sovereignty of the
prince was established upon the ruins of the feudal system;
and the capitalism of the merchants and bankers upon the
closing of the trade-gilds to workmen, upon severe economic
pressure and upon the exploitation of the artisans' labour.
Though reform originated among the educated classes H
speedily found an echo among the industrial classes of the
1 6th century, further assisted by the influence of
German and Flemish journeymen. The popular J^m*.
reform-movement was essentially an urban movement; 9frmSg*m
although under Francis I. and Henry II. it had already "*«<•
begun to spread into the country. The artisans, JU^
labourers and small shop-keepers who formed the
first nucleus of the reformed church were numerous enough
to provide an army of martyrs, though too few to form a party.
Revering the monarchy and established institutions, they
endured forty years of persecution before they took up arms.
It was only during the second half of Henry II.'s reign that
Protestantism, having achieved its religious evolution, became
a political party. Weary of being trodden under foot, it now
demanded much more radical reform, quitting the ranks of
peaceable citizens to pass into the only militant dass of the time
and adopt its customs. Men like Cohgny, d'Andelot and Comi*
took the place of the timid Lefevre of Etaplcs and the harsh and
bitter Calvin; and the reform party, in contradiction to in
doctrines and its doctors, became a political and religious party
of opposition, with all the compromises that presupposes. The
struggle against it was no longer maintained by the university
and the parlcment alone, but also by the king, whose authority
it menaced.
With his intrepid spirit, his disdain for ecclesiastical authority
and his strongly personal religious feeling, Francis I. had for
a moment seemed ready to be a reformer himself; R mJ
but deprived by the Concordat of all interest in the «2rficJ^
confiscation of church property, aspiring to political «m*r
alliance with the pope, and as mistrustful of popular ****** L
forces as desirous of absolute power and devoted natrtt
to Italy, he paused and then drew back. Hence came
the revocation in 1540 of the edict of tolerance of Coucy
(iS3S), and the massacre of the Vaudois (1545). Henry 11.,
a fanatic, went still further in his edict of Chateaubriant (155 1),
a code of veritable persecution, and in the coup d'ilat carried out
in the parlement against Antoinc du Bourg and his colleagues
US5*)- At the same time the pastors of the reformed religion.
HBTOKYJ
FRANCE
829
met In synod at Paris, wen selling down tnefr confession, of
faith founded upon the Scriptures, and their ecclesiastical
discipline founded upon the independence of the churches.
Thenceforward Protestantism adopted a new attitude, and
refused obedience to the orders of a persecuting monarchy when
contrary to its faith and its interests. After the saints came
men. Hence those wars of religion which were to hold the
monarchy in check for forty years and even force it to come to
terms.
In slaying Henry II. Montgomery's knee saved the Protestants
for the time being. His son and successor, Francis II., was but
a nervous sickly boy, bandied between two women:
oaS? 1 * kis mothcr » Catherine de' Medici, hitherto kept in the
ts&{ background, and his wife, Mary Stuart, queen of
Scotland, who being & niece of the Guises brought her
uncles, the constable Francis and the cardinal of Lorraine, into
power. These ambitions and violent men took the government
out of the hands of the constable de Montmorency and the
princes of the blood: Antoine de Bourbon, king of Navarre,
weak, credulous, always playing a double game on account of his
preoccupation with Navarre; Conde, light-hearted and brave,
but not fitted to direct a party; and the cardinal de Bourbon,
a mere nonentity. The only plan which these princes could
adopt in the struggle, once they had lost the king, was to make
a following for themselves tfmong the Calvinist malcontents
and the gentlemen disbanded after the Italian wars. The
Gnises, strengthened by the failure of the conspiracy of Amboise,
which had been aimed at them, abused the advantage due to
their victory. Despite the edict of Romorantin, which by
giving the bishops the right of cognizance of heresy prevented
the introduction of the Inquisition on the Spanish model into
France; despite the assembly of Fontainebleau, where an
attempt was made at a compromise acceptable to both Catholics
and moderate Caivinists; the reform party and its Bourbon
leaders, arrested at the states-general of Orleans, were in danger
of their Uvea. The death of Francis II. in December 1560
compromised the influence of the Guises and again saved
Protestantism.
Charles IX. also was a minor, and the regent should legally
have been the first prince of the blood, Antoine de Bourbon;
but cleverly flattered by the queen-mother, Catherine
fjTSwu de' Medici, he let her take the reins of government.
1474). Hitherto Catherine had been merely the resigned
and neglected wife of Henry IL, and though eloquent,
insinuating and ambitious, she had been inactive. She had
attained the age of forty-one when she at last came into power
amidst the hopes and anxieties aroused by the fall of the Guises
and the return of the Bourbons to fortune. Indifferent in
religious matters, she had a passion for authority, a character-
istically Italian adroitness in intrigue, a fine political sense,
and the feeling that the royal authority might be endangered
both by Calvinistic passions and Catholic violence. She decided
for a system of tolerance; and Michel de l'Hopital, the new
chancellor, was her spokesman at the states of Orleans (1560).
He was a good and honest man, moderate, conciliatory and
temporizing, anxious to lift the monarchy above the strife of
parties and to reconcile them; but he was so little practical
that he could believe in a reformation of the laws in the midst
of all the violent passions which were now to be let loose. These
two, Catherine and her chancellor, attempted, like Charles V.
at Augsburg, to bring about religious pacification as a necessary
condition for the maintenance of order; but they were soon
overwhelmed by the different factions.
On one side was the Catholic triumvirate of the constable
de Montmorency, the duke of Guise, and the marshal de St
Andre; and on the other the Huguenot party of
puUn. Conde and Coligny, who, having obtained liberty
of conscience in January 1561, now demanded liberty
of worship. The colloquy at Poissy between the cardinal of
Lorraine and Theodore Beza (September 1561), did not end
in the agreement hoped for, and the duke of Guise so far abused
its spirit as to embtoil the French Caivinists with the German
Lutherans. The rupture seemed irremediable when the assembly
of Poissy recognized the order of the Jesuits, which the French
church had held in suspicion since its foundation. However,
yielding to the current which was carrying the greater part of the
nation towards reform, and despite the threats of Philip II.
who dreaded Calvinistic propaganda in his Netherlands, Michel
de l'Hopital promulgated the edict of January 17, ^ ^
1 $62— a true charter of enfranchisement for the fSSmmt,
Protestants. But the pressure of events and of parties
was too strong; the policy of toleration which had mis*
carried at the council of Trent had no chance of success in
France.
The triumvirate's relations with Spain and Rome were very
dose; they had complete ascendancy over the long and over
Catherine; and now the massacre of two hundred cbtrmcter
Protestants at Vassy on the xst of March 1561 made «ra»
the cup overflow. The duke of Guise had either «***«■
ordered this, or allowed it to take place, on his return wan *
from an interview with the duke of Wflrttemberg at Zabets,
where he had once more demanded the help of his Lutheran
neighbours against the Caivinists; and the Catholics having
celebrated this as a victory the signal was given for the commence-
ment of religious wars. When these eight fratricidal wars first
began, Protestants and Catholics rivalled one another in respect
for royal authority; only they wished to become its masters
so as to get the upper hand themselves. But in course of time,
as the struggle became embittered, Catholicism itself grew
revolutionary; and this twofold fanaticism, Catholic and
Protestant, even more than the ambition of the leaders, made
the war a ferocious one from the very first Beginning with
surprise attacks, if these failed, the struggle was continued by
means of sieges and by terrible exploits like those of the Catholic
Montluc and the Protestant des Adrcts in the south of France.
Neither of these two parties was strong enough to crush the
other, owing to the apathy and continual desertions of the gentle-
men^cavaliers who formed the elite of the Protestant army
and the insufficient numbers of the Catholic forces. Allies from
outside were therefore called in, and this it was that gave a
European character to these wars of religion; the two parties
were parties of foreigners, the Protestants being supported by
German Landskneckts and Elizabeth of England's cavalry, and
the royal army by Italian, Swiss or Spanish auxiliaries. It was
no longer patriotism but religion that distinguished the two
camps. There were three principal theatres of war: in the
north Normandy and the valley of the Loire, where Orleans,
the general centre of reform, ensured communications between
the south and Germany; in the south-west Gascony and
Guicnne; in the south-east Lyonnais and Vivarais.
In the first war, which lasted for a year (1562-1563), the
triumvirs wished to secure Orleans, previously isolated. The
threat of an English landing decided them to lay
siege to Rouen, and it was taken by assault; but this JjSLg,
cost the life of the versatile Antoine de Bourbon. On wJv^
the 19th of December S562 the duke of Guise barred
the way to Dreux against the German reinforcements of
d'Andebt, who after having threatened Paris were marching
to Join forces with the English troops for whom Coligny and
Conde had paid by the cession of Havre. The death of marshal
de St Andre, and the capture of the constable de Montmorency
and of Conde, which marked this indecisive battle, left Coligny
and Guise face to face. The latter's success was of brief duration;
for on the 18th of February 1563 Polirot de Mere assassinated
him before Orleans, which he was trying to take once and for
alL Catherine, relieved by the loss of an inconvenient preceptor,
and by the disappearance of the other leaders, became mistress
of the Catholic party, of whose strength and popularity she had
now had proof, and her idea was to make peace at once on the
best terms possible. The egoism of Conde, who got himself
made lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and bargained for
freedom of worship for the Protestant nobility only, compromised
the future of both bis church and his party, though rendering
possible the peace of Amboise, concluded the 19th of March
»3©
FRANCE
iHblUKT
(IMS).
1563. All now set off together to recapture Havre from the
English.
The peace, however, satisfied no one; neither Catholics
(because of the rupture of religious unity) nor the parlements;
the pope, the emperor and king of Spain alike protested
**"* °* against it. Nor yet did it satisfy the Protestant*,
who considered its concessions insufficient, above all
for the people. It was, however, the maximum of
tolerance possible just then, and had to be reverted to; Catherine
and Charles IX. soon saw that the times were not ripe for a
third party, and that to enforce real toleration would require
an absolute power which they did not possess. After three
years the Guises reopened hostilities against Coligny, whom they
accused of having plotted the murder of their chief; white
the Catholics, egged on by the Spaniards! rose against the
Protestants, who had been made uneasy by an interview between
Catherine and her daughter Elisabeth, wife of Philip II. of
Spain, at Bayoime, and by the duke of Alva's persecutions of
the reformed church of the Netherlands— a daughter-church of
Geneva, like their own. The second civil war began like the
first with a frustrated attempt to kidnap the king, at
the castle of Montceaux, near Meaux, in September
war. 1567; and with a siege of Paris, the general centre
of Catholicism, in the course of which the constable
de Montmorency was killed at Saint-Denis. Condi, with the
men-at-arms of John Casimir, son of the Count Palatine, tried
to starve out the capital; but once more the defection
JjJ* •* of the nobles obliged him to sign a treaty of peace at
ffifl. Longjumeau on the 23rd of March 1568, by which
the conditions of Amboise were re-established. After
the attempt at Montceaux the Protestants had to be contented
with Charles IX.'s word.
This peace was not of long duration. The fall of Michel
de I'Hopital, who had so often guaranteed the loyalty of the
Huguenots, ruined the moderate party (May 1568).
JJJ^ Catholic propaganda, revived by the monks and the
Jesuits, and backed by the armed confraternities and
by Catherine's favourite son, the duke of Anjou, now entrusted
with a prominent part by the cardinal of Lorraine; Catherine's
complicity in the duke of Alva's terrible persecution in the
Netherlands; and her attempt to capture Coligny and Conde
at Noyers all combined to cause a fresh outbreak of hostilities
in the west. Thanks to Tavannes, the duke of Anjou gained
easy victories at Jarnac over the prince of Conde, who was killed,
and at Moncontour over Coligny, who was wounded (March-
October 1569); but these successes were rendered fruitless by
the jealousy of Charles IX. Allowing the queen of Navarre to
shut herself up in La Rochclle, the citadel of the reformers, and
the king to loiter over the siege of Saint Jean d'Angtiy, Coligny
pushed boldly forward towards Paris and, having reached
Burgundy, defeated the royal army at Arnay-le-duc* Catherine
had exhausted . all her resources; and having failed in her
project of remarrying Philip II. to one of her daughters, and of
betrothing Charles IX.to the eldest of the Austrian archduchesses,
exasperated also by the presumption of the Lorraine family, who
aspired to the marriage of their nephew with Charles IX.'s
p^^ ^ sister, she signed the peace of St Germain on the 8th
si of August 1570. This was the culminating point of
Omuls Protestant liberty; for Coligny exacted and obtained,
UP*) j^ liberty of conscience and of worship, and then,
as a guarantee of the kirijg's word, four fortified places: La
Rochelle, a key to the sea; La Charitl, in the centre; Cognac
and Montauban in the south.
The Guises sot aside, Coligny, supported as he was by Jeanne
d'Albret, queen of Navarre, now received all Charles IX.'s
Crt-gy favour. Catherine de' Medici, an inveterate match-
avon* maker, and also uneasy at Philip II. 's increasing
totMf power, made advances to Jeanne, proposing to marry
* a4u her own daughter, Marguerite deVatois,to Jeanne's son,
Henry of Navarre, now chief of the Huguenot party. Coligny
was a Protestant, but he was a Frenchman before all; and
wishing to reconcile all parties in a national struggle, he
" trumpeted wax " (eanoii U punt) against Spun ia the
Netherlands— despite the lukewarmness of Elisabeth of England
and the Germans, and despite the counter-intrigues of the pope
and of Venice. He succeeded in getting French troops sent
to the Netherlands, but they suffered defeat. None the less
Charles IX. still seemed to see only through the eyes of Cougar;
till Catherine, fearing to be supplanted by the latter, dreading
the results of the threatened war with Spain, and egged on by a
crowd of Italian adventurers in the pay of Spain — men like
Gondi and Birague* reared like herself in the political theories
and customs of their native land— saw no hope but in the assassi-
nation of this rival in her son's esteem. A murderous attack
upon Coligny, who had opposed the candidature of Catherine's
favourite son, the duke of Anjou, for the throne of Poland, having
only succeeded in wounding htm and in exciting the CaJvinist
leaders, who were congregated in Paris for the occasion of
Marguerite de Valok'marriage with the king of Navarre, Catherine
and the Guises resolved together to put them all to death. There
followed the wholesale massacre of St Bartholomew's 5,^^,
Eve, in Paris and in the provinces; a natural con- thaimmww,
sequence of public and private hatreds which had •*»■■»
poisoned the entire social organism. This massacre jjjj^
had the effect of preventing the expedition into
Flanders, and destroying Francis I.'s policy of alliance with the
Protestants against the house of Austria.
Catherine de' Medici soon perceived that the nwnarrr of St
Bartholomew had settled nothing. It had, it is true, desk
a blow to Calvinism just when, owing to the reforms
of the council of Trent, the religious ground had been VfiJ?**
crumbling beneath it. Moreover, within the party ^tut^mt
itself a gulf had been widening between the pastors,
supported by the Protestant democracy and the political nobles.
The reformers had now no leaders, and their situation seemed
as perilous as that of their co-religionists in the Netherlands;
while the sieges of La Rochelle and Leiden, the enforced exile
of the prince of Orange, and the conversion under pain of death
of Henry of Navarre and the prince of Condt, made the common
danger more obvious. Salvation came from the very excess of
the repressive measures. A third party was once more formed,
composed of moderates from the two camps, and it was recruited
quite as much by jealousy of the Guises and by ambition as by
horror at the massacres. There were the friends of the Mont-
morency party — Damville at their head; Coligny's relations;
the king of Navarre; Condt; and a prince of the blood, Catherine
de' Medici's third son, the duke of Alencon, tired of being kept
in the background. This party took shape at the
end of the fourth war, followed by the edict of
Boulogne (1573), forced from Charles IX. when the
Catholics were deprived of their leader by the election
of his brother, the duke of Anjou, as king of Poland.
A year later the latter succeeded his brother on the throne of
France as Henry III. This meant a new lease of power for the
queen-mother.
The polUiqueS) as the supporters of religious tolerance and
an energetic repression of faction were called, offered their
alliance to the Huguenots, but these, having formed
themselves, by means of the Protestant Union, into
a sort of republic within the kingdom, hesitated to
accept. It is, however, easy to bring about an understanding
between people in whom religious fury has been extinguished
either by patriotism or by ambition, like that of the duke of
Alencon, who had now escaped from the Louvre where he had
been confined on account of his intrigues. The compact was
concluded at Millau; Conde" becoming a Protestant once more
in order to treat with Damville, Montmorency's brother. Henry
of Navarre escaped from Paris. The new king, Henry III.,
vacillating and vicious, and Catherine herself, eager
for war as she was, had no means of separating the JSj BL
Protestants and the politique*. Despite the victory jJJJJJ
of Guise at Dormans, the agreement between the
duke of Alencon and John Casimir's German army obliged the
royal party to grant all that the allied forces demanded of them
War.
(«WL)
Fittk
War.
HISTOMJ
in tn»"pence of Monsieur," signed at BeauUeu on tbeotbof May
1576, tie duke of Alencon receiving the appanage of Anjou,
Touraine and Berry, the king of Navarre Guienne,
yZZJZr and Cond6 Picardy, while the Protestants were granted
iiSTQ. freedom of worship in all parts of the kingdom
except Paris, the rehabilitation of Coligny and the
other victims of St Bartholomew, their fortified towns, and an
equal number of seats in the courts of the parlements.
This was going loo fast; and in consequence of a reaction
against this too liberal edict a fourth party made its appearance,
that of the Catholic League, under the Guises— Henry
le Balafre, duke of Guise, and his two brothers, Charles,
duke of Mayenne, and Louis, archbishop of Reims
and cardinal. With the object of destroying Calvinism
by effective opposition, they imitated the ) Protestant organization
of provincial associations, drawing their chief supporters from
the upper middle class and the lesser nobility It was not at
first a demagogy maddened by the preaching of the irreconcilable
clergy of Paris, but a union of the more honest and prudent
classes of the nation in order to combat heresy Despite the
immorality and impotence of Henry HI. and the Protestantism
of Henry of Navarre, this party talked of republishing the
authority of the king; but in reality it inclined more to the
Guises, martyrs in the good cause, who were supported by Philip
II. of Spain and Pope Gregory 'XIII. A sort of popular govern-
ment was thus established to counteract the incapacity of
royalty, and it was in the name of the imperilled rights of the
people that, from the States of Blois onward, this Holy League
demanded the re-establishment of Catholic unity, and set the
religious right of the nation in opposition to the divine right of
incapable or evil-doing kings (1576}.
In order to oust his rival Henry of Guise, Henry III. made
a desperate effort to outbid him in the eyes of the more extreme
«. 9f*~ Catholics, and by declaring himself head of the League
degraded himself into a party leader. The League,
furious at this stroke of policy, tried to impose a council
of thirty-six advisers upon the king. But the deputies
of the. third estate did not support the other two orders, and
the latter in their turn refused the king money for making war
, on the heretics, desiring, they said, not war but the
destruction of heresy. This would have reduced
Henry III. to impotence; fortunately for him, how-
ever, the break of the Huguenots with the ' Mal-
contents," and the divisions in the court of Navarre
and in the various parties at La Rochelle, allowed
Henry HI., after two little wars in the south west,
during which fighting gradually degenerated into
brigandage, to sign terms of peace at Bergerac (1577)*
which much diminished the concessions made in the edict of
'Beaulieu. This peace was confirmed three years after by that
of Flcix. The suppression of both the leagues was stipulated
for (1 580). It remained, however, a question whether the Holy
League would submit to this.
The death of the duke of Anjou after his mad endeavour
to establish himself in the Netherlands (1584), and the accession
Veto* °f Henry of Navarre, heir to the effeminate Henry III.,
ttwna reversed the situations of the two parties: the Pro-
tf OuiBt$ testants again became supporters of the principle of
JjJtojx heredity and divine right; the Catholics appealed
to right of election and the sovereignty of the people.
Could the crown of the eldest daughter of the Church be allowed
to. devolve upon a relapsed heretic? Such was the doctrine
officially preached in pulpit and pamphlet* But between
Philip II. on the one hand — now master of Portugal and delivered
from William of Orange, involved in strife with the English
Protestants, and desirous of avenging the injuries inflicted upon
him by the Valois in the Netherlands— and the Guises on the
other hand, whose cousin Mary Stuart was a prisoner of Queen
Elizabeth, there was a common interest in supporting one
another and pressing things forward. A definite agreement
was made between them at Joinville (December 31, 1584), the
religious and popular pretext being the danger of leaving the
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«3*
aero.
kingdom to the king of Navarro, and the ostensible end tosecure
the succession to a Catholic prince, the old Cardinal de Bourbon,
an ambitious and violent man of mean intelligence; while the
secret aim was to secure the crown for the Guises, who had
already attempted to fabricate for themselves a genealogy
tracing their descent from Charlemagne. In the meantime
Philip II., being rid of Don John of Austria, whose ambition he
dreaded, was to crush the Protestants of England and the
Netherlands ; and the double result of the compact at Joinville
was to allow French politics to be controlled by Spain, and
to transform the wars of religion into a purely political
quarrel.
The pretensions of the Guises were, in fact, soon manifested
in the declaration of Peronne (March 30, 2585) against the foul
court of the Valois; they were again manifested in a r*#com*
furious agitation, fomented by the secret council mist—ot
of the League at Paris, which favoured the Guises, ***•**»
and which now worked on the people through their ""**
terror of Protestant retaliations and I he Church's peril. Inched
by Philip II., who wished to see him earning his pension of
000.000 golden crowns, Henry of Guise began the war in the end
of April, and in a few days the whole kingdom was on fire. The
situation was awkward for Henry HI., who had not Bibth
the courage to ask Queen Elisabeth for the soldiers wmrofttt
and money that he lacked. The crafty king of Navarre JJJ]JJ^ fc
being unwilling to alienate the Protestants save by an *° *
apostasy profitable to himself, Henry ill., by the treaty of
Nemours (July 7, 1585), granted everything to the head of
the League in order to save his crown. By a stroke of the pen
he suppressed Protestantism, while Pope Sixtus V., who had
at first been unfavourable to the treaty of Joinville as a purely
political act, though he eventually yielded to the solicitations
of the League, excommunicated the two Bourbons, Henry and
Condc. But the duke of Guise's audacity did not make Henry III.
forget his desire for vengeance. He hoped to ruin him by
attaching him to his cause. His favourite Joyeuse was to defeat <
the king of Navarre, whose forces were very weak, while Guise
was to deal with the strong reinforcement of Germans that
Elizabeth was sending to Henry of Navarre. Exactly the
contrary happened By the defeat of Joyeuse at Coutras
Henry in. found himself wounded on his strongest side; and
by Henry of Guise's successes at Vimory and Auneau theGcrmans,
who should have been his best auxiliaries against the League,
were crushed (October-November 1587)-
The League now thought they had no longer anything to fear.
Despite the king's hostility the duke of Guise came to Paris,
urged thereto by Philip II. , who wanted to occupy
Paris and be master of the Channel coasts whilst he ?£bLh.
launched his invincible Armada to avenge the death of
Mary Stuart in 1587. On the Day of the Barricades
(May 12, 1588) Henry HI. was besieged in the Louvre by the
populace in revolt ; but his rival dared not go so far as to depose
the king, and appeased the tumult. The king, having succeeded
in taking refuge at Chartres, ended, however, by granting him
in the Act of Union all that he had refused in face of the barricades
—the post of lieutenant-general of the kingdom and the pro-
scription of Protestantism. At the second assembly of the states
of Blois, called together on account of the need for money (158S),
all of Henry IU.'s enemies who were elected showed .
themselves even bolder than in 1576 in claiming the,j£*" /fA ,
control of the financial administration of the kingdom; Quite* «<
but the destruction of the Armada gave Henry IU., <*•*•«»«*
already exasperated by the insults he had received, JJJ^f
new vigour. He had the old Cardinal de Bourbon otfsws,
imprisoned, and Henry of Guise and his brother the
cardinal assassinated (December S3, 1588). On the 5th of
January, 1589, died his mother, Catherine de'Mcdici, the astute
Florentine,
"Now I am kingl" cried Henry IIL But Paris being
dominated by the duke of Mayenne, who had escaped assassina-
tion, and by the council of "Sixteen," the chiefs of the League,
most of the provinces replied by open revolt, and Henry IIL
832
had do alternative but an alliance with Henry of Navarre.
Thanks to this be was on the point of seizing Paris,
AtsMtUw wne i| m his turn he was assassinated on the xst of
Uwyiu. August 1589 by a Jacobin monk, Jacques Clement;
with his dying breath he designated the king of
Navarre as his successor.
Between the popular League and the menace of the Protestants
it was a question whether the new monarch was to be powerless
in his turn. Henry IV*. had almost the whole of his
kingdom to conquer. The Cardinal de Bourbon, king
according to the League and proclaimed under the title
of Charles X., could count upon the Holy League itself, upon the
Spaniards of the Netherlands, and upon the pope. Henry IV.
was only supported by a certain number of the Calvinlstsand
by the Catholic minority of the Politique*, who, however,
gradually induced the rest of the nation to rally round the only
legitimate prince. The nation wished for the establishment
of internal unity through religious tolerance and the extinction
of private organizations; it looked for the extension of France's
external power through the abasement of the house of Spain,
protection of the Protestants in the Netherlands and Germany,
and independence of Rome. Henry IV., moreover, was forced
to take an oath at the camp of Saint Cloud to associate the nation
in the affairs of the kingdom by means of the states-general.
These three conditions were interdependent; and Henry IV.,
with his persuasive manners, his frank and charming character,
and his personal valour, seemed capable of keeping them all
three.
The first thing for this soldier-king to do was to conquer his
kingdom and maintain its unity. He did not waste time by
withdrawing towards the south; he kept in the neigh*
2*2 ^ b° urno °d °* Par »! <> n the banks of the Seine, within
Mm. reach of help from Elizabeth; and twice— at Arques
and at Ivry (1 580-1 500)— he vanquished the duke
of Mayenr e, lieutenant-general of the League. But after having
tried to seize Paris (as later Rouen) by a coup-de-main, he was
obliged to raise the siege in view of reinforcements sent to
Mayenne by the duke of Parma. Pope Gregory XIV., an
enthusiastic supporter of the League and a strong adherent
of Spain, having succeeded Sixtus V., who had been very luke-
warm towards the League, made Henry IV. 's position still
more serious just at the moment when, the old Cardinal de
Bourbon having died, Philip II. wanted to be declared the pro-
tector of the kingdom in order that he might dismember it, and
when Charles Emmanuel of Savoy, a grandson of Francis I., and
Charles III., duke of Lorraine, a son-in-law of Henry II., were
both of them claiming the crown. Fortunately, however, the
Sixteen had disgusted the upper bourgeoisie by their demagogic
airs; while their open alliance with Philip II., and their accept-
ance of a Spanish garrison in Paris had offended the patriotism
of the Potiiiques or moderate members of the League. Mayenne,
who oscillated between Philip II. and Henry IV., was. himself
obliged to break up and subdue this party of fanatics and
theologians (December 1591). This game of see-saw between
the PotUiques and the League furthered his secret ambition, but
also the dissolution of the kingdom; and the pressure of public
opinion, which desired an effective monarchy, put an end to this
temporizing policy and caused the convocation of the states-
general in Paris (December 1592). Philip II., through
the duke of Feria's instrumentality, demanded the
throne for his daughter Isabella, grand-daughter of
Henry II. through her mother.. But who was to be her
husband? The archduke Ernest of Austria, Guise or Mayenne?
The parlement cut short these bargainings by condemning all
ultramontane pretensions and Spanish intrigues. The unpopu-
larity of Spain, patriotism, the greater predominance of national
questions in public opinion, and weariness of both religious
disputation and indecisive warfare, all these sentiments were
expressed in the wise and clever pamphlet entitled the Satire
Minippie. What had been a slow movement between 158s
and 1 599 was quickened by Henry IV.'s abjuration of Protestant-
ism at Saint-Denis on the sjrd of July 1593.
FRANCE ihisiw
The coronation of the king at Cbartres In February 1594
completed the rout of the League. The parlement 0/ Paris
declared against Mayenne, who was simply the mouth-
piece of Spain, and Brissac, the governor, surrendered '
the capital to the king. The example of Paris and' **•»<**
Henry IV.'s clemency rallied round him all prudent 2 ** un '
Catholics, like Villeroy and Jcannin, anxious for national unity;
but he had to buy over the adherents of the League, who sold
him his own kingdom for sixty million francs. The pontifical
absolution of September 17, 1595, finally stultified the League,
which had been again betrayed by the unsuccessful plot of Jean
Chastel, the Jesuit's pupiL
Nothing was now left but to expel the Spaniards, who under
cover of religion had worked for their own interests alone.
Despite the brilliant charge of Fontarae-Francaise
in Burgundy (June 5, 1595)1 and the submission of the
heads of the League, Guise, Mayenne, Joyeuse, and
Mercosur, the years 1595*1597 were not fortunate for Henry IV.'s
armies. Indignant at his conversion, Elizabeth, the Germans,
and the Swiss Protestants deserted him; while the taking of
Amiens by the Spaniards compromised for the moment the
future both of the king and the country. But exhaustion of
each other, by which only England and Holland profited, brought
about the Peace of Vervios. This confirmed the results of the
treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (May a, 1598), that is to say, the
decadence of Spanish power, and its inability either to conquer
or to dismember France.
The League, having now no reason for existence, was dissolved;
but the Protestant party remained very strong, with its
political organization and the fortified places which
the assemblies of Millau, Nlmes and La Rochcfle
( J 573-1574) had established in the south and the west.
It was a republican state within the kingdom, and,
being unwilling to break with it, Henry IV. came to terms by
the edict of Nantes, on the 13th of April 1598. This was a
compromise between the royal government and the Huguenot
government, the latter giving up the question of public worship,
which was only authorized where it had existed before 1507
and in two towns of each bailiiage, with the exception of Paris;
but it secured liberty of conscience throughout the kingdom,
state payment for its ministers, admission to 'all employments,
and courts composed equally of Catholics and Protestants in the
parlement*. An authorization to bold synods and political
assemblies, to open schools, and to occupy a hundred strong
places for eight years at the expense of the king, assured to the
Protestants not only rights but privileges. In no other country
did they enjoy so many guarantees against a return of persecu-
tion. This explains why the edict of Nantes was not registered
without some difficulty.
Thus the blood-stained 16th century dosed with a promise
of religious toleration and a dream of international arbitration.
This was the end of the long tragedy of dvil strife
and of wars of conquest, mingled with the sound of
madrigals and psalms and pavanes. It had been the
golden age of the arquebus and the viol, of sculptors
and musicians, of poets and humanists, of fratricidal conflicts
and of love-songs, of miguons and martyrs. At the close of this
troubled century peace descends upon exhausted passions;
and amidst the choir of young and ardent voices celebrating
the national reconciliation, the tocsin no longer sounds its
sinister and persistent bass. Despite the leagues of dther faith,
religious liberty was now confirmed by the more free and generous
spirit of Henry IV.
Why was this king at once so easygoing and so capricious?
Why, again, had the effort and authority of feudal and popular
resistance been squandered in the follies of the League and to
further the ambitions of the rebellious Guises? Why had the
monarchy been forced to purchase the obedience of the upper
classes and the provinces with immunities which enfeebled it
without limiting it? At all events, when the kingdom had been
reconquered from the Spaniards and religious strife ended, in
order to fulfil his engagements, Henry IV. need only have
HISTORY] PRAttCfi
associated the nation with himself in the wort of reconstructing
the shattered monarchy. But during the atrocious holocausts
formidable states had grown up around France, observing her
and threatening her; and on the other hand, as on the morrow
of the Hundred Years' War, the lassitude of the -country, the
lack of political feeling on the part of the upper dasses and their
selfishness, led to a fresh abdication of the nation's rights. The
need of living caused the neglect of that necessity for control
which had been maintained by the states-general from 1560
to x 593. And this time, moderation on the part of the monarchy
no longer made for success. Of the two contrary currents which
have continually mingled and conflicted throughout the course
of French history, that of monarchic absolutism and that of
aristocratic and democratic liberty, the former was now to
carry all before it.
The kingdom was now issuing from thirty-eight years of
dvil war. Its inhabitants had grown unaccustomed to work,
Th9 its finances were ruined by dishonesty, disorder, and
Hovrfrofl*. a very heavy foreign debt. The most characteristic
Fnamia symptom of this distress was the brigandage carried
****• on incessantly from 1508 to 16 to. Side by side with
this temporary disorder there was a more serious administrative
disorganization, a habit of no longer obeying the king. The
harassed population, the municipalities which under cover of
dvil war had resumed the right Of self-government, and the
parlements elated with their social importance and their security
of position, were not alone in abandoning duty and obedience-
Two powers faced each other threateningly: the organized and
malcontent Protestants; and the provincial governors, all great
personages possessing an armed following, theoretically agents
of the king, but practically independent. The Montmorencys,
the DTipernens, the Birons, the Guises, were accustomed to
consider their offices as hereditary property. Not that these
two powers entered into open revolt against the king; but they
had adopted the custom of recriminating, of threatening, of
coining to understandings with the foreign powers, which with
some of them, like Marshal Birbn, the D'Entragucs and the due
de Bouillon, amounted to conspiracy (1602*1606).
As to the qualifications of the king: he had had the good
fortune not to he educated for the throne. Without much
teaming and sceptical in religions matters, he had the
C ?J* J *' Mvely mtelK 8«nce of the Gascon, more subtle than
of/fMQr pgofogQ^ more brilliant than steady. Married to a
woman of loose mocals, and afterwards to a devout
Italian, he was gross and vulgar in his appetites and pleasures.
He bad retained all the habits of a country gentleman of his
native Beam, careless, familiar, boastful, thrifty, cunning,
combined since bis sojourn at the court of the Valois with a
taint of corruption. He worked little but rapidly, with none
of the bureaucratic pedantry of a Philip II. cloistered in the dark
towers of the EscuriaL Essentially a man of action and a soldier,
he preserved his tone of command after he had reached the
throne, the inflexibility of the military chief, the conviction of
his absolute right to be master. Power quickly intoxicated
him, and his monarchy wasthereforeanythingbut parliamentary.
His personality was everything, institutions nothing. If, at
the gathering of the notables at Rouen in 1596, Henry IV.
spoke of putting himself in tutelage, that was but preliminary
to a demand for money. The states-general, called together ten
times in the 16th century, and at the death of Henry 111. under
promise of convocation, were never assembled. To put his
absolute right beyond all control he based it upon religion, and
to this sceptic disobedience became a heresy. He tried to
make the clergy Into an instrument of government by recalling the
Jesuits, who had been driven away in 1504, partly from fear of
their regicides, partly because they have always been the beat
teachers of servitude ; and he gave the youth of the nation into
the hands of this cosmopolitan and ultramontane clerical order.
His government was personal, not through departments; he
retained the old council though reducing its members; and his
ministers, taken irom every party, were never— not even Sully—
anything more than mere clerks, without independent position,
»33
mere instruments of Ms good pleasure. Fortunately tins wis
not always capricious.
Henry IV soon realised that his most urgent duty was to
resuscitate the corpse of France. Pilfering was suppressed*
and the revolts of the malcontents— the Gautkiers of 7^
Normandy, the Croquants and Tard-arisfs of Perigord «***».
and Liinousm— were quelled, adroitly at first, and ■«■<■•'
later with a sterner hand. He then provided for the u * at >^
security of the country districts, and reduced the taxes on the
peasants, the most efficacious means of making them productive
and able to pay Inspired by Barthelemy de Laffemas (1545-
r6t2>, eontroller-geneml of commerce, and by Olivier de Serres
(> S30-1619) , & Henry IV. encouraged the culture of silk, though
without much result, had orchards planted and marshes drained;
while though he permitted the free circulation of wine and com,
this depended on the harvests. But the twofold effect of dvil
war— the ruin of the farmers and the scarcity and high price of
rural labour— was only seduced arbitrarily and by fits and
starts.
Despite the influence of Sully, a convinced agrarian because
of his horror of luxury and love of economy, Henry IV. likewise
attempted amelioration in the towns, where the state m _ m
of affairs-was even worse than in the country. But the Jj£? r ?'
edict of 1507, far from inaugurating Individual liberty, ISSriK
was but a fresh edition of that of 1581, a second
preface to the legislation of Colbert, and in other ways no better
respected than the first. As for the new features, the syndical
courts proposed by Laffemas, they were not even put into-
practice. Various industries, nevertheless, concurrent with
those of England, Spain and Italy, were created or reorganized:
silk-weaving, printing, tapestry, &c. Sully at least provided
renascent manufacture with the roads necessary for communica-
tion and planted them with trees; In external commerce
Laffemas and Henry IV. were equally the precursors of Colbert,
freeing raw material and prohibiting the import of products
similar to those manufactured within the kingdom. Without
regaining that preponderance in the Levant which had been
secured after the victory of Lepaato and before the civil wars,
Marseilles' still took- an honourable place there, confirmed by
the renewal in 1604 of the capitulations of Francis I. with the
sultan. Finally, the system of commercial companies, anti-
pathetic to the French bourgeoisie, was for the first time practised
on a grand scale; but Sully never understood that movement
of colonial expansion, begun by Henry II. in Brazil and continued
in Canada by Champlain, which had so marvellously enlarged
the European horizon. His point of view was altogether more
limited than that of Henry IV.; and he did not foresee, like
Elisabeth, that the future would belong to the peoples whose 1
national energy took that line of action.
His sphere was essentially the superintendence of finance,
to which he brought the same enthusiasm that he had shown
in fighting the League. Vain and imaginative,
his reputation was enormously enhanced by his J/ sJJJr
" Economics royales "; he was no innovator, and
being a true representative of the nation at that period, like it
he was but lukewarm towards reform, accepting it always against
the grain. He was not a financier of genius; but he administered
the public moneys with the same probity and exactitude which
he used in managing his own, retrieving alienated property,
straightening accounts, balancing expenditure and receipts,
and amassing a reserve in the Bastille. He did not reform the
system of aides and taiiUs established by Louis XI. in 1482;
but by charging much upon indirect taxation, and slightly
lessening the burden of direct taxation, be avoided an appeal
to the states-general and gave an illusion of reUef.
Nevertheless, economic disasters, political circumstances and
the personal government of Henry IV. (precursor in this also
1 Olivier de Serres, steur de Pradd, spent most of his We on his
model farm at Pradd. In 1599 he dedicated a pamphlet on the
cultivation of silk to Henry IV., and in 1600 published his TfU&tre
<T agriculture el mfnagt dts champs, which passed through nineteen
editions up to 1675.
834
FRANCE
pusitnor
of Louis XIV.) rendered his task impossible or fatal The
nobility remained in debt and disaffected; and the clergy, more
Crludtm remarkable for wealth and breeding than for virtues,
aitttmy were won over to the ultramontane ideas of the
iv.'m triumphant Jesuits. The rich bourgeoisie began more
jjjjy* and more to monopolize the magistracy; and though
the country-people were somewhat relieved from the
burden which had been crushing them, the working-classes
remained impoverished, owing to the increase of prices which
followed at a distance the rise of wages. Moreover, under
insinuating and crafty pretexts, Henry IV. undermined as
far as he could the right of control by the states-general, the
right of remonstrance by the parlements, and the communal
franchises, while ensuring the impoverishment of the munici-
palities by his fiscal methods. Arbitrary taxation, scandalous
intervention in elections, forced candidatures, confusion in their
financial administration, bankruptcy and revolt on the part of
the tenants.: all formed an anticipation of the personal rule
of Richelieu and Louis XIV.
Thus Henry IV. evinced very great activity in restoring order
and very great poverty of invention in his methods. His sole
original creation, the edict of La Paulette in 1604,
J5JSIJ. was disastrous. In consideration of an annual payment
,**, of one-sixtieth of the salary, it made hereditary
offices which had hitherto been held only for life;
and the millions which it daily poured into the royal exchequer
removed the necessity for seeking more regular and better
distributed resources. Political liberty and social justice, were
equally the losers by this extreme financial measure, which
paved the way for a catastrophe.
In foreign affairs the abasement of the house of Austria
remained for Henry IV., as it had been for Francis I. and Henry
IL, a political necessity, while under his successors
22*2, it was to become a mechanical obsession. The peace
fotriv. of Vervins had concluded nothing. The difference
concerning the marquisate of Saluzzo, which the duke
of Savoy had seized upon in 1583, profiting by Henry IIL's
embarrassments, is only worth mentioning because the treaty
of Lyons (1601) finally dissipated the Italian mirage, and
because, in exchange for the last of France's possessions beyond
the Alps, it added to the royal domain the really French territory
of La Bresse, Bugey, Valromey and the district of Gex. The
great external affair of the reign was the projected war upon
which Henry IV was about to embark when he was assassinated.
The " grand design " of Sully, the organization of a " Christian
Republic" of the European nations for the preservation of
peace, was but the invention of an irresponsible minister, soured
by defeat and wishing to impress posterity. Henry IV., the
least visionary of kings, was between 1598 and 1610 really
hesitating between two great contradictory political schemes:
the war clamoured' for by the Protestants, politicians like Sully,
and the nobifity; and the Spanish alliance, to be cemented by
marriages, and preached by the ultramontane Spanish camarilla
formed by the queen, Ferc Colon, the king's confessor, the
minister Villeroy, and Ubaldini, the papal nuncio. Selfish and
suspicious, Henry IV. consistently played this double game of
policy in conjunction with president Jeannin. By his alliance
with the Grisons (1603) he guaranteed the integrity of the
Valtellina, the natural approach to Lombardy for the imperial
forces; and by his intimate union with Geneva he controlled
the routes by which the Spaniards could reach their hereditary
possessions in Fxanche-Comte and the Low Countries from
Italy. But having defeated the duke of Savoy he had no hesita-
tion in making sure of him by a marriage; though the Swiss
might have misunderstood the treaty of Brusol (1610) by which
he gave one of his daughters to the grandson of Philip II. On
the other hand be astonished the Protestant world by the
imprudence of his mediation between Spain and the rebellious
United Provinces (1609). When the succession of Cleves and of
Jillich, so long expected and already discounted by the treaty
of Halle (1610), was opened up in Germany, the great war was
largely due to an access of senile passion for the charms of the
princesse de Conde, The stroke of Ravafllac's knife caused •
timely descent of the curtain upon this new and txagi-comk
Trojan War. Thus, here as elsewhere, we see a vacillating
band-to-mouth policy, at the mercy of a passion for power or
for sensual gratification. The Cortulle blanche of Arques, the
Potde au p&tolthc peasant, successes as a lover and a dashing
spirit, have combined to surround Henry IV. with a halo of
romance not justified by fact.
The extreme instability of monarchical government showed
itself afresh after Henry IV.'s death. The reign of Louis XIIL,
a perpetual regency by women, priests, and favourites, y^
was indeed a curious prelude to the grand age of the nstmqr of
French monarchy. The eldest son of Henry IV. ******
being a minor, Marie de' Medici induced the pariement me ** L
to invest her with the regency, thanks to Villeroy and contrary
to the last will of Henry IV. This second Florentine, at once
jealous of power and incapable of exercising it, bore little resem-
blance to her predecessor. Light-minded, haughty, apathetic
and cold-hearted, ahe took a sort of passionate delight in changing
Henry IV.'s whole system of government. Who would support
her in this ? On one side were the former ministers, SOIery
and president Jeannin, ex-leaguers but loyalists, no lovers of
Spain and still less-of Germany; on the other the princes of the
blood and the great nobles, Conde, Guise, Mayenne and Nevers,
apparently still much more faithful to French ideas, but in
reality convinced that the days of kings were over and that
their own bad arrived. Instead of weakening this aristocratic
agitation by the see-saw policy of Catherine de' Medici, Marie
could invent no other device than to despoil the royal treasure
by distributing places and money to the chiefs of both parties.
The savings all expended and Sully fallen into disgrace, she
lost her influence and became the almost unconscious instrument
of an ambitious man of low birth, the Florentine Contini, who
was to drag her down with him in his fall; petty shifts became
thenceforward the order of the day.
Thus Villeroy thought fit to add still farther to the price
' already paid to triumphant Madrid and Vienna by disbanding
the army, breaking the treaty of Brusol, and abandon-
ing the Protestant princes beyond the Rhine and the JgJ xnL
trans-Pyrenean Moriscos. France joined hands with jf**).
Spain in the marriages of Louis XIIL with Anne
of Austria and Princess Elizabeth with the son of Philip III.,
and the Spanish ambassador was admitted to the secret council
of the queen. To soothe the irritation of England the due de
Bouillon was sent to London to offer the hand of the king's
sister to the prince of Wales. Meanwhile, however, still more
was ceded to the princes than to the kings; and after a pretence
of drawing the sword against the prince of Conde, rebellious
through jealousy of the Italian surroundings of the quecn-motbei.
recourse was had to the purse. The peace of Sainte Meaehould,
four years after the death of Henry IV., was a virtual abdication
of the monarchy (May 1614); it was time for a move in the other
direction. Villeroy inspired the regent with the idea of an
armed expedition, accompanied by the little king, into the West.
The convocation of the states-general was about to take place,
wrung, as in all minorities, from the royal weakness— this time
by Conde; so the elections were influenced in the monarchist
interest. The king's majority, solemnly proclaimed on the a8th
of October 1614, further strengthened the throne; while owing
to the bungling of the third estate, who did not contrite to gain
the support of the clergy and the nobility by some sect of con-
cessions, the states-general, the last until t7«o> proved like the
others a mere historic episode, an impotent and inorganic
expedient. In vain Conde tried to play with the pariement of
Paris the same game as with the states-general, in a sort of
anticipation of the Fronde. Villeroy demurred; and the
pariement, having Okgally assumed a political role, broke with
Condi and effected a reconciliation with the court. After this
double victory Marie de' Medid could at last undertake the
famous journey to Bordeaux and consummate the Spanish
marriages. In order not U> countenance by his presence an
act which had been the pecuxt tor his opposition, Conde.rebeikd
HIST0KY1
FRAMCE
*35
once more in August 1615; but be wis again padfied by the
governorships and pensions of the peace of Loudun (May 161$).
But ViHeroy and the other ministers knew not how to reap
the full advantage of their victory. They had but one desire,
to put themselves on a good footing again with Condi,
instead of applying themselves honestly to the service
*A»a%. of the king. The " marshals," Contini and his wife
Leonora Galigai, more influential with the queen and
more exacting than ever, by dint of dever Intrigues forced the
ministers to retire one after another; and with the last of Henry
I V7v "greybeards " vanished also aH the pecuniary reserves left.
Condni surrounded himself with new men, insignificant persons ,
ready to do his bidding, such as Bafbin or Mangot, while in'
the background was Richelieu, bishop of Luoan. Conde now
began intrigues with the princes whom- he- had previously
betrayed? but Us pride dissolved in piteous entreaties when
Thymines, captain of the guard, arrested him in September
1616. *Suc months later Contini had not even time to protest
when another captain, Vitry, slew him at the Louvre, under
orders from. Louis XIII., on the 24th of April 1617.
Richelieu had appeared behind Marie de' Medici; Albert
de Luynes rose behind Louis XIU.,the neglected child whom
he had contrived to amuse. " The tavern remained the same,
having changed nothing but the bush." De Luynes was made
a duke and marshal in Concioi's place, with no better title,
while the due d'Epemon, supported by the queen-mother
(now m disgrace at Blok), took Condi's place at the head of
the opposition. The treaties of Angouleme and Angers (1610-
1620), negotiated by Richelieu, recalled the " unwholesome "
treaties of Sainte-Menehould and Loudun. Toe revolt of the
Protestants was more serious. Goaded by the vigorous revival
of militant Catholicism which marked the opening of the 17 th
century, de Luynes tried to put a finishing touch to the triumph
of Catholicism in France, which he had assisted, by abandoning
in the treaty of Ulm the defence of the small German states
against the ambition of the ruling house of Austria, and by
sacrificing the Protestant Grisons to Spain. The re-establish-
ment of Catholic worship in Bearn was the pretext for a rising
among the Protestants, who had remained loyal during these
troublous years; and although the military organization
of .French Protestantism, arranged by the assembly of La
Rochclle, had been checked in xoax, by the defection of most
of the reformed nobles, like Bouillon and Lesdiguieres, de Luynes
had to raise the disastrous siege of MontaubaxC Death alone
Saved him from the disgrace suffered by his predecessors
(December 15, 1631).
From 1621 to 2624 Marie de' Medici, re-established in credit,
prosecuted her intrigues; and in three years there were three
m different ministries: de Luynes was succeeded by the
***l»LJf prince de Conde, whose Montauban was found at
. Montpellier; the Brularts succeeded Conde, and
having, like de Luynes, neglected France's foreign
interests, they had to give place to La Vieuville; while this
latter was arrested in his turn for having sacrificed the interests
of the English Catholics in the negotiations regarding the
marriage of Henrietta of France with the prince of Wales. All
these personages were undistinguished figures beyond whom
might be discerned the cold clear-cut profile of Marie de* Medici's
secretary! now a cardinal, who was to take the helm and act
as viceroy during eighteen years.
Richelieu came into power at a lucky moment. Every one
was sick of government by deputy; they desired a strong hand
Cmrdtrnml and h* energetic foreign poficy, after the defeat of
0k*«4M the Czechs at the White Mountain by the house of
J2£ Austria, the Spanish intrigues m the Valtellina, and
t ^ the resumption of war between Spain and Holland.
Richelieu contrived to raise hope in the minds of all. As
president of the clergy at the states-general of 1614 he had
figured as an adherent of Spain and the ultramontane interest;
he appeared to be a representative of that religious party which
was identical with the Spanish party. But he had also been
put into the ministry by the party of the PoUtiqms, who had
terminated tie civil wars, acclaimed Henry IV., applauded the
Protestant affiance/ and by the mouth of Miron, president of the
third estate, had in tor* proclaimed its intention to take up
the national tradition once more. Despite the concessions
necessary at the outset to the partisans of a Catholic alliance,
it was the programme of the Polffiqius that Richelieu adopted
and mid down with a master's hand hi his Political Testament.
TO realise it he had to maintain his position. This was very
difficult with a king who*" wished to bo governed and yet was
impatient at being governed. 11 Incapable of applying
UmasM to great affairs, but of sane and even acute £■* ***
Judgment, Louis XII|. excelled only in a passion for j
detail and for manual pastimes.' He realised the
superior quaEtica of his minister, though with a lively sense of
Us own dignity he often wished him more discreet and less
imperious; he had confidence in him but did not love him.
Cold-hearted and formal by nature, he had not even self-love,
detntffft, his wife Anne of Austria— too good a Spaniard— sad
only attached himself fitfully to his favourites, male or female,
who were, naturally jealously suspected by the cardinal. He
was accustomed to listen to bis mother, who detested Richelieu
as her. ungrateful protegfi, Neither did he love his brother,
Gaston of Orleans* and the feeling was mutual; for the latter,
remaining for twenty yean heir-presumptive to a crown which
he could neither defend nor seize, posed as the beloved prince
in all the conspiracies against Richelieu, and issued from them
each time as a Judas. Add to this that Louis XIII., like
Richelieu himself ,. had wretched health, aggravated by the
extravagant medicines of the day; and it is easy to understand
how this pliable disposition which offered itself to the yoke
caused Richelieu always to fear that his king might change
his master, and to declare that " the four square feet of the king's
cabinet had been more difficult for him to. conquer than all the
battlefields of Europe."
Richelieu, therefore, passed his time in safeguarding himself
from his rivals and in spying upon them; his suspicious nature,
rendered still more irritable by his painful practice of a dissimula-
tion repugnant to his headstrong character, making hhn fancy
hi msclf threatened more than was actually the case. He brutally
suppressed six great plots, several of which were scandalous,
and had more than fifty persons executed; and he identified
himself with the king, sincerely believing that be was maintaining
the royal authority and not merely his own. He had a preference
for irregular measures rather than legal prosecutions, and a
jealousy of all opinions save his own. He maintained his power
through the fear of torture and of special commissions. It
was Louis XIH. whose cold decree ordained most of the rigorous
sentences, but the stain of blood rested on the cardinal's robe
and made his reasons of state pass for private vengeance. Cbalais
was beheaded at Nantes in 1626 for having upheld Gaston of
Orleans in his refusal to wed Mademoiselle de Montpensier,
and Marshal d'Ornano died at Vincenncs for having given him
bad advice in this matter; while the duellist de Boutteville
was put to the torture for having braved the edict against duels.
The royal family itself was not free from his attacks; after the
Day of Dupes (1630) he allowed the queen-mother to die in exile,
and publicly dishonoured the king's brother Gaston of Orleans
by the publication of his confessions; Marshal de Marillac
was put to the torture for his ingratitude, and the constable
de Montmorency for rebellion (1632). The birth of Louis XIV.
in 1638 "confirmed Richelieu in power. However, at the point
of death he roused himself to order the execution of the king's
favourite, Cinq-Mars, and his friend de Thou, guilty of treason
with Spain (1642).
Absolute authority was not in Itself sufficient; much money
was also needed. In his state-papers Richelieu has shown that
at the outset he desired that the Huguenots should ^ _ m
share uo'fonger in public affairs, that the nobles should jjjSffiy
cease to behave as rebcQfeus subjects, arid the powerful SSta
provincial governors as suzerains over the lands
committed to their charge. With his passion for the uniform
and the useful «n a grand scale, he hoped by means of the Code
836
FRANCE
pnszoK?
Midland to put tn end to the sale of offices, to lighten imposts,
CO suppress brigandage, to reduce the monasteries* &c To do
this it would have been necessary to make peace, for it was
soon evident that war was incompatible with these reforms. He
chose war, as did bis Spanish rival and contemporary Olivares.
War is expensive sport; but Richelieu maintained a lofty
attitude towards finance, disdained figures, and abandoned ail
petty details to subordinate officials like D'Effiat or Bullion.
He therefore soon reverted to the old and woae measures,
including the debasement of coinage, and put an extreme
tension on all the springs of the financial System. The land-tax
was doubled and trebled by war, by the pensions of the nobles,
by an extortion the profits of which Richelieu disdained neither
for himself nor for his family; and just when the richer and
more powerful classes had been freed from taxes; causing the
wholesale oppression of the poorer, these few remaining were
jointly and severally answerable. Perquisites, offices, forced
loans were multiplied to such a point that a critic of the times,
Guy Patin, facetiously declared that duties were to be exacted
from the beggars basking in the sun. Richelieu went so far as to
make poverty systematic and use famine as a means of govern- '
ment. This was the price paid for the national victories.
Thus he procured money at all costs, with an extremely
crude fiscal judgment which ended by exasperating the people;
hence numerous insurrections of the poverty-stricken; Dijon
rose in revolt against the aides in 1630, Provence* against the
tax-officers (tins) in 1631, Paris and Lyons in 1632, and Bordeaux
against the increase of customs in 1635. In 1636 the Croquanls
ravaged Limousin, Poitou, Angoumois, Gascony and Pengord;
m 1639 it needed an army to subdue the Va-ntt-pieds (bare-feet)
in Normandy. Even the rentiers of the Hdtel-de-Villc, big and
little, usually very peaceable folk, were excited by the curtail-
ment of their incomes, and in 1639 and 1642 were roused to fury.
Every one had to bend before this harsh genius, who insisted
on uniformity in obedience. After the feudal vassals, decimated
Strug** Dv tnc wars °f rel'gion *nd the executioner's hand,
with th0 and after the recalcitrant taxpayers, the Protestants,
Arww*. in their turn, and by their own fault, experienced this.
aat * m While Richelieu was opposing the designs of the pope
and of the Spaniards in the Valtellina, while he was arming
the duke of Savoy and subsidizing Mansfeld in Germany,
Henri, due de Rohan, and his brother Benjamin de Rohan, due
de Soubise, the Protestant chiefs, took the initiative in a fresh
revolt despite the majority of their party (1625). This Huguenot
rising, in stirring up which Spanish diplomacy had Its share,
was a revolt of discontented and ambitious individuals who
trusted for success to their compact organization and the ultimate
assistance of England. Under pressure of this new danger and
Urged on by the Catholic dMts, supported by the influence of
Pope Urban VIII., Richelieu concluded with Spain the treaty
of Monzon (March 5, 1626), by which the interests of his allies
Venice, Savoy and the Grisons were sacrificed without their
being consulted. The Catholic Valtellina, freed from the claims
of the Protestant Grisons, became an independent state under
the joint protection of France and Spain; the question of the
right of passage was left open, to trouble France during the
campaigns that followed; but the immediate gain, so far as
Richelieu was concerned, was that his hands were freed to deal
with the Huguenots.
, Soubise had begun the revolt (January 1625) by seizing
Port Blavet in Brittany, with the royal squadron that lay there,
and in command of the ships thus acquired, combined with
those of La Rochelle, he ranged the western coast, intercepting
commerce. In September, however, Montmorency succeeded,
with a fleet of English and Dutch ships manned by English
seamen, in defeating Soubise, who took refuge in England.
La Rochelle was now invested, the Huguenots were hard pressed
also on land, and, but for the reluctance of the Dutch to allow
their ships to be used for such a purpose, an end -might have been
made of the Protestant opposition in France; as it was, Richelieu
was forced to accept the mediation of England and conclude a
treaty with the Huguenots (February 1626), I
He was fax, however, from forgiving them for their attitude
or being reconciled to their power. So long as they retained
their compact organization in France he could undertake no
successful action abroad, and the treaty was in effect no more
than a truce that was badly observed. The oppression of the
French Protestants was but one of the pretexts for the Enghsb
expedition under James L's favourite, the duke of Buckingham,
to La Rochelle in 1627; and, in the end, this intervention of a
foreign power compromised their cause. When at last the citizens
of the great Huguenot stronghold, caught between two dangers,
chose what seemed to them the least and threw in their lot
with the English, they definitely proclaimed their Attitude as
anti-national; and when, on the toth of October 16*8, after
a heroic resistance* the city surrendered to the French king,
this was hailed not as a victory for Catholicism only, .
but for France. The taking of La Rochelle was a ^J*?* «*
crushing blow to the Huguenots, and the desperate £££*
alliance which Rohan, entrenched in the Cevenaes,
entered into with Philip IV. of Spain, could not prolong their
resistance. The amnesty of Alais, prudent and moderate in
religious matters, gave back to the Protestants their common
rights within the body politic. Unfortunately what was an end
for Richelieu was but a first step for the Catholic party.
The little Protestant group eliminated, Richelieu next wished
to establish Catholic religious uniformity; for though in France
the Catholic Church was the state church, unity did _ _
not exist in it. There were no fixed principles In the ****
relations between king and church, hence incessant Jjjj
conflicts between GaUicans and Ultramontane*, in
which Richelieu claimed to hold an even balance. Moreover,
a Catholic movement for religious reform In the Church of
France began during the 17th century, marked by the creation
of seminaries, the foundation of new orthodox religious orders,
and the organization of public relief by Saint Vincent de PauL
Jansenism was the most vigorous contemporary effort to renovate
not only morals but Church doctrine (see Jansenism). But
Richelieu had no love for innovators, and showed this very
plainly to du Vefgier de Hauranne, abbot of Saint Cyran, who
was imprisoned at Vlncennes for the good of Church and State.
In affairs of intellect dragooning was equally the policy; and,
as Corneille learnt to his cost, the French Academy was created
in 1635 simply to secure in the republic of letters the same unity
and conformity to rules that was enforced in the state.
Before Richelieu, there had been no effective monarchy and
no institutions for controlling affairs; merely advisory institu-
tions which collaborated somewhat vaguely in the omatrw>
administration of the kingdom. Had the king been tioa 0/
willing these might have developed further; but potae
Richelieu ruthlessly suppressed all such growth, and ******
they remained embryonic According to him, the king must
decide in secret, and the king's will must be law. No one might
meddle in political affairs, neither parlements nor states-general;
still less had the public any right to judge, the actions of the
government. Between 1631 and the edict of February 1641
Richelieu strove against the continually renewed opposition
of the parlements to his system of special commissions and
judgments; in 1641 he refused them any right of interference
in state affairs; at most would he consent occasionally to take
counsel with assemblies of notables. Provincial and municipal
liberties were no better treated when through them the king's
subjects attempted to break loose from the iron ring of the royal
commissaries and intendants. In Burgundy, Dijon saw her
municipal liberties restricted in 1631; the provincial assembly
of Dauphin£ was suppressed from 1628 onward, and that of
Languedoc in 1629; that of Provence was in 1639 replaced by
communal assemblies, and that of Normandy was prorogued
from 1639 to 164a. Not that Richelieu was hostile to them
in principle; but he was obliged at all hazards to find money
for the upkeep of the army, and the provincial states were a
slow and heavy machine to put in motion. Through an excessive
reaction against the disintegration that had menaced the kingdom
after the dissolution of the League, he fell into the abuse of
HISTORY]
PRANCE
837
over-centralisation; and depriving the people of the habit
of criticising governmental action, he taught them a fata)
acquiescence in uncontrolled and undisputed authority. Like
one of those physical forces which tend to reduce everything
to a dead level, he battered down alike characters and fortresses;
and in his endeavours to abolish faction, he killed that public
spirit which, formed in the 16th century, had already produced the
Rtpubliqutol Bodin, de 7ho*k\ History of his Timts, La Beetle's
Conlre v*, the Satire Minippic, and Sully's Economies royales.
In order to establish this absolute despotism Richelieu created
no new instruments, but made use of a revolutionary institution
jH«M4» °f Lh* < otn century, namely " intendants " (?<».),
*mpK>y«4 agents who were forerunners of the commissaries of
by Rtcbv lnc Convention, gentlemen of the long robe of inferior
condition, hated by every one, and for that reason the
more trustworthy. He also drew most of the members of his
special commissions from the grand council, a supreme adminis-
trative tribunal which owed all its influence to him.
However, having accomplished all these great things, the
treasury was left empty and the reforms were hut ill-established;
for Richelieu's policy increased poverty, neglected
the toiling and suffering peasants, deserted the cause
of the workers in order to favour the privileged classes,
and left idle and useless that bourgeoisie whose intellectual
activity, spirit of discipline, and civil and political culture would
have yielded solid support to a monarchy all the stronger for
being limited. Richelieu completed the work of Francis I.,
he endowed France with the fatal tradition of autocracy. This
priest by education and by turn of mind was indifferent to
material interests, which were secondary in his eyes, he could
organize neither finance, nor justice, nor an army, nor the
colonies, but at the most a system of police. His method was
not to reform, but to crush. He was great chiefly in negotiation,
the art par excellence of ecclesiastics. His work was entirely
abroad; there it had more continuity, more future, perhaps
because only in his foreign policy was he unhampered ii. his
designs. He sacrificed everything to it; but he ennobled it by
the genius and audacity of his conceptions, by the energetic
tension of all the muscles of the body politic.
The Thirty Years* War in fact dominated all Richelieu's
foreign policy; by it he made France and unmade Germany.
It was the support of Germany which Philip II. had
^ncy of lacked in order to realize his Catholic empire, and the
Xk&cJka. election of the archduke Ferdinand II. of Styria as
emperor gave that support to his Spanish cousins
(1619). Thenceforward all the forces of the Habsburg monarchy
would be united, provided that communication could be main-
tained in the north with the Netherlands and in the south with
the duchy of Milan, so that there should be no flaw in the iron
vice which locked France in on either side. It was therefore of
the highest importance to France that she should dominate the
valleys of the Alps and Rhine. As soon as Richelieu became
minister in 1624 there was an end to cordial relations with Spain,.
He resumed the policy of Henry IV., confining his military
operations to the region of the Alps, and contenting himself
at first with opposing the coalition of the Habsburgs with a
coalition of Venice, the Turks, Bcthlcn Gabor, king of Hungary,
and the Protestants of Germany and Denmark. But the revolts
of the French Protestants, the resentment of the nobles at his
dictatorial power, and the perpetual ferment of intrigues and
treason in the court, obliged him almost immediately to draw
back. During these eight years, however, Richelieu had pressed
on matters as fast as possible.
While James I. of England was trying to get a general on the
cheap in Denmark to defend his son-in-law, the elector palatine,
TimoeH*. ^* CDC '' eu *&* bargaining with the Spaniards in the
a^JJSJJ* treaty of Monzon (March 1626); but as the strained
**c9ptta relations between France and England forced him
it*fr to conciliate Spain still further by the treaty of April
n£ * 02 7» tnc Spaniards profited by this to carry on an
intrigue with Rohan, and in concert with the duke
of Savoy, to occupy Montferrat when the death of Viccnzo II.
(December *6, 1647) left the succession of Mantua, under the
will of the late duke, to Charles Gonzaga, duke of Nevers, a
Frenchman by education and sympathy. But the taking of
La RocheUe allowed Louis to force the pass of Susa, to induce
the duke of Savoy to treat with him, and to isolate the Spaniards
in Italy by a great Italian league between Genoa, Venice and
the dukes of Savoy and Mantua (April 1629). Unlike the Valoift,
Richelieu only desired to free. Italy from Spain in order to
restore her independence.
The fact that the French Protestants in the Cevennes were
again in arms enabled the Habsburgs and the Spaniards to make
a fresh attack upon the Alpine passes; but after the peace of
Alais Richelieu placed himself at the head of forty thousand
men, and stirred up enemies everywhere against the emperor,
victorious now over the king of Denmark as in 1621 over the
elector palatine. He united Sweden, now reconciled with Poland,
and the Catholic and Protestant electors, disquieted by the edict
of Restitution and the omnipotence of Wallcnstcin; and he
aroused the United Provinces. But the disaffection of the
court and the more extreme Catholics made it impossible foe
him as yet to enter upon a struggle .against both Austria and
Spain; he was only able to regulate the affairs of Italy with
much prudence. The intervention of Mazarin, despatched by
the pope, who saw no other means of detaching Italy from Spain
than by introducing France into the affair, brought about the
signature of the armistice of Rivalte on the 4th of September
1630, soon developed into the peace of Cherasco, which re-
established the agreement with the still fugitive duke of Savoy
(June 1631). Under the harsh tyranny of Spain, Italy was now
nothing but a lifeless corpse; young vigorous Germany was
better worth saving. So Richelieu's envoys, Brulart de Leon
and Father Joseph, disarmed 1 the emperor at the diet of Regens-
burg, while at the same time Louis XIII. kept Casale and
Pinerolo, the gates of the Alps. Lastly, by the treaty of Fontaine-
blcau (May 30th, 1631), Maximilian of Bavaria, the head of
the Catholic League, engaged to defend the king of France against
all his enemies, even Spain, with the exception of the emperor.
Thus by the ha*nd of Richelieu a union against Austrian imperial-
ism was effected between the Bavarian Catholics and the
Protestants who dominated in central and northern Germany.
Twice had Richelieu, by means of the purse and not by force
of arms, succeeded in reopening the passes of the Alps and of
the Rhine. The kingdom at peace and the Huguenot Rkbtiha
party mined, he was now able to engage upon his mnd
policy of prudent acquisitions and apparently dis- OusiavuM
interested alliances. But Gustavus Adolphus, king Ad °Wa*.
of Sweden, called in by Richelieu and Venice to take the place
of the played-out king of Denmark, brought danger to all parties.
He would not be content merely to serve French interests in
Germany, according to the terms of the secret treaty of Barwalde
(June 1631); but, once master of Germany and the rich valley
of the Rhine, considered chiefly the interests of Protestantism
and Sweden. Neither the prayers nor the threats of Richelieu,
who wished indeed to destroy Spain but not Catholicism, nor
the death of Gustavus Adolphus at Liitzen (1632), could repair
the evils caused by this immoderate ambition. A violent
Catholic reaction against the Protestants ensued; and the
union of Spain and the Empire was consolidated just when that,
of the Protestants was dissolved at Nordlingen, despite the
efforts of Oxcnstierna (September 1634). Moreover, Wallenstein,
who had been urged by Richelieu to set up an independent
kingdom in Bohemia, had been killed on the 23rd of February
1634. In the course of a year WUrttcmberg and Franconia
were reconquered from the Swedes; and the duke of Lorraine,
who had taken the side of the Empire, called in the Spanish and
the imperial forces to open the road to the Netherlands through
Franche-Comte.
His allies no longer able to stand alone, Richelieu was obliged
to intervene directly (May 10th, 1635). By the treaty of Saint-
Germain-en-Laye he purchased the army of Bernard of Saxe-
1 Ferdinand is reported to have said: " Le capudn m*a deaarme
avec son scapulaire at a mis daascapuchpn six bonnets elcctoraux."
M
FRANCE
(HISTORY
Weimar, by that of Rivoli he united against Spain the dukes
of Modcna, Parma and Mantua; he signed an open alliance with
the league of Hcilbronn, the "United Provinces and
Frtaeh Sweden; and after these alliances military operations
Thirty began, Marshal dc la Force occupying the duchy of Lor-
JJ -rf * rainc. Richelieu attempted to operate simultaneously
* r * in the Netherlands by joining bands with the Dutch,
and on the Rhine by uniting with the Swedes; but the bad
organization of the French armies, the double invasion of the
Spaniards as far as Corbie and the imperial forces as far as the
gates of Saint-Jean-de-Losne (1636), and the death of his allies,
the dukes of Hcsse-Casscl, Savoy and Mantua at first frustrated
his efforts. A decided success was, however, achieved between
1638 and 1640, thanks to Bernard of Saxe- Weimar and after-
wards to Gu6briant, and to the parallel Action of the Swedish
generals, Baner, Wrangel and Torstensson. Richelieu obtained
Alsace, Breisach and the forest-towns on the Rhine; while
in the north, thanks to the Dutch and owing to the conquest of "
Artois, marshals dc la Mcilfcraye, de Chatillbn and de Breze
forced the barrier of the Netherlands. Turin, the capital of
Piedmont, was taken by Henri de Lorraine, comtc d'Harcourt;
the alliance with rebellious Portugal facilitated the occupation
of Roussillon and almost the whole of Catalonia, and Spain was
reduced to defending herself; while the embarrassments of the
Habsburgs at Madrid made those of Vienna more tractable.
The diet of Rcgcnsburg, under the mediation of Maximilian of
Bavaria, decided in favour of peace with France, and on the 25th
of December 1641 the preliminary settlement at Hamburg
fixed the opening of negotiations to take place at Mtinstcr and
Osnabrtick. Richelieu's death (December 4, 1642) prevented
him from seeing the triumph of his policy, but it can be judged
by its results; in 1624 the kingdom had in the east only the
frontier of the Meuse to defend it from invasion; in 1642 the
whole of Alsace, except Strassburg, was occupied and the Rhine
guarded by the army of Cu6briant. Six months later, on the
14th of May 1643, Louis XIII. rejoined his minister in his true
kingdom, the land of shades.
But thanks to Mazarin, who completed his work, France
gathered in the harvest sown by Richelieu. At the outset no
one believed that the new cardinal would have any
*J*J -rf * success. Every one expected from Anne of Austria
'liS* * cnan £e m tnc government which appeared to be
justified by the persecutions of Richelieu and the
disdainful unscrupulousncss of Louis XIII. On the 16th of
May the queen took the little four-year-old Louis XIV. to the
parlement of Paris which, proud of playing a part in politics,
hastened, contrary to Louis XHI.'s last will; to acknowledge
the command of the little king, and to give his mother " free,
absolute and entire authority." The great nobles were already
looking upon themselves as established in power, when they
learnt with amazement that the regent had appointed as her
chief adviser, not Gaston of Orleans, but Mazarin. The political
revenge which in. their eyes was owing to them as a body, the
queen claimed for herself alone, and she made it a romantic one.
This Spaniard of waning charms, who had been neglected by her
husband and insulted by Richelieu, now gave her indolent and
full-blown person, together with absolute power, into the hands
of the Sicilian. Whilst others were triumphing openly, Mazarin,
in the shadow and silence of the interregnum, had kept watch
upon the heart of the queen; and when the old party of Marie
dc' Medici and Anne of Austria wished to come back into power,
to impose a general peace, and to substitute for the Protestant
alliances an understanding with Spain, the arrest of Francois
dc Vendome, duke of Beaufort, and the exile of other important
nobles proved to the great families that their hour had gone
by (September 1643).
Mazarin justified Richelieu's confidence and the favour of
Anne of Austria. It was upon his foreign policy that he relied
to maintain his authority within the kingdom. Thanks to him,
the duke of Enghien (Louis de Bourbon, afterwards prince of
Conde), appointed commander-in-chief at the age of twenty-
two, caused the downfall of the renowned Spanish infantry at
Rocroi; and he discovered Turcnne, whose prudence tempered
Conde's overbold ideas. 1 1 was he loo who by renewing the tradi-
tional alliances and resuming against Bavaria, Fer-
dinand III.'s most powerful ally, the plan of common 2"5J*"
action with Sweden which Richelieu had sketched out. Jiatof"
pursued it year after year: in 1644 at Freiburg
im Brcisgau, despite the death of Cuebriant at Rottwefl; in
1645 at Nordlingcn, despite the defeat of Marienthal; and in
1646 in Bavaria, despite the rebellion of the Weimar cavalry;
to sec it finally triumph at Zusmarshauscn in May 1648. With
Turcnne dominating the Eiser and the Inn, Conde" victorious
at Lens, and the Swedes before the gates of Prague, the emperor,
left without a single ally, finally authorized hfs plenipotentiaries
to sign on the 24th of October 1648 the peace about which
negotiations had been going on for seven years. Mazarin had
stood his ground notwithstanding the treachery of the duke of
Bavaria, the defection of the United Provinces, the resistance of
the Germans, and the general confusion which was already
pervading the internal affairs of the kingdom.
The dream of the Habsburgs was shattered. They had
wished to set up a centralized empire, Catholic and German;
but the treaties of Westphalia kept Germany in its passive
and fragmentary condition; while the Catholic and Protestant
princes obtained formal recognition of their territorial inde-
pendence and their religious equality. Thus disappeared the
two principles which justified the Empire's existence; the
universal sovereignty to which it laid claim was limited simply
to a German monarchy much crippled in its powers; and the
enfranchisement of the Lutherans and Calvtnists from papal
jurisdiction cut the last tie which bound the Empire to Rome.
The victors' material benefits were no less substantial: the con-
gress of Mttnster ratified the final cession of the Three Bishoprics
and the conquest of Alsace, and Breisach and Philippsbarg
completed these acquisitions. The Spaniards had no longer
any hope of adding Luxemburg to their Franehe-Comtt; while
the Holy Roman Empire in Germany, taken in the rear by
Sweden (now mistress of the Baltic and the North Sea), cut off
for good from the United Provinces and the Swiss cantons, and
enfeebled by the recognized right of intervention in German
affairs on the part of Sweden and France, was now nothing but
a meaningless name:
Mazarin had not been so fortunate in Italy, where in 1642
the Spanish remained masters. Venice, the duchy of Milan and
the duke of Modena were on his side; the pope and the grand-
duke of Tuscany were trembling, but the romantic expedition
of the duke of Guise to Naples, and the outbreak of the Fronde,
saved Spain, who had refused to take part in the treaties of
Westphalia and whose ruin Mazarin wished to compass.
It was, however, easier for Mazarin to remodel the map of
Europe than to govern France. There he found himself face to
face with all the difficulties that Richelieu had neglected
to solve, and that were now once more giving trouble. &atm
The Lit de Justice of the i8th of May 1643 had proved Mmjimm
authority to remain still so personal an affair that the
person of the king, insignificant though that was, continued to
be regarded as its absolute depositary. Thus regular obedience
to an abstract principle was under Mazarin as incomprehensible
to the idle and selfish nobility as it had been under Richelieu.
The parlement still kept up the same extra-judicial pretensions;
but beyond its judicial functions it acted merely as a kind of town-
crier to the monarchy, charged with making known the king's
edicts. Yet through its right of remonstrance it was the only
body that could legally and publicly intervene in politics; a large
and independent body, moreover, which had its own demands
to make upon the monarchy and its ministers. Richelieu, by
setting his special agents above the legal but complicated
machinery of financial administration, had so corrupted it as
to necessitate radical reform; all the more so because financial
charges had been increased to a point far beyond what the nation
could bear. With four armies to keep up, the insurrection in
Portugal to maintain, and pensions to serve the needs of the
allies, the burden had become a crashing one.
hwtorvj FRANCE
Richelieu had been able to surmount these difficulties .because
he governed in the name of a king of full age, and against isolated
adversaries; while Mazarin had the latter against
JJj***"' him in a coalition which had lasted ten years, with
MsMMria. the further disadvantages of his foreign origin and a
royal minority at a time when every one was sick of
government by ministers. He was the very opposite of Richelieu,
as wheedling in his ways as the other had been haughty and
scornful, as devoid of vanity and rancour as Richelieu had been
full of jealous care for his authority; he was gentle where the
other had been passionate and irritable, with an intelligence as
great and more supple, and a far more grasping nature.
It was the fiscal question that arrayed against Mazarin a
coalition of all petty interests and frustrated ambitions; this
was always the Achilles' heel of the French monarchy,
which in 1648 was at the last extremity for money.
All imposts were forestalled, and every expedient for
obtaining either direct or indirect taxes had been
exhausted by the methods of the financiers. As the country
districts could yield nothing more, it became necessary to
demand money from the Parisians and from the citizens of the
various towns, and to search out and furbish up old disused
edicts— edicts as to measures and scales of prices—at the very
moment when the luxury and corruption of the parvenus was
insulting the poverty and suffering of the people, and exasperating
all those officials who took their functions seriously.
A storm burst forth in the parlement against Mazarin as the
patron of these expedients, the occasion for this being the edict
of redemption by which the government renewed for
nine years the " Paulette " which had now expired,
by withholding four years' salary from all officers of
the Great Council, of the Chambres des comptes, and of
the C our da aides. The parlement, although expressly exempted,
associated itself with their protest by the decree of union of
May 13, 1648, and deliberations in a body upon the reform of
the state. Despite the queen's express prohibition, the in-
surrectionary assembly of the Chambre Saint Louis criticized
the whole financial system, founded as it was upon usury, claimed
the right of voting taxes, respect for individual liberty, and the
suppression of the intendants, who were a menace to the new
bureaucratic feudalism, The queen, haughty and exasperated
though she was, yielded for the time being, because the invasion
of the Spaniards in the north, the arrest of Charles I. of England,
and the insurrection of Masaniello at Naples made the moment
a critical one for monarchies; but immediately after the victory
at Lens she attempted a ctup d'&al, arresting the leaders, and
among them Broussei, a popular member of the parlement
(August a6, 1648). Paris at once rose in revolt— a Paris of
swarming and unpoticed streets, that had been making French
history ever since the reign of Henry IV., and that had not
forgotten the barricades of the League. Once more a pretence
of yielding had to be. made, until Condi's arrival enabled the
court to take refuge at Saint-Germain (January 15, 1649)*
Civil war now began against the rebellious coalition of great
nobles, lawyers of the parlement, populace, and mercenaries
Tb9 just set free from the Thirty Years' War. It. lasted
Fr?a*9 four years, for motives often as futile as the Grande
<""- Mademoiselle's ambition to wed Httle Louis XIV.,
***** Cardinal de Rett's red hat, or Madame de Longueville's
stool at the queen's side; it was, as its name of Fronde indicates,
a hateful farce, played by grown-up children, in several acts.
Its first and shortest phase was the Fronde of the Parlement.
At a period when all the world was a little mad, the parlement
rhm had imagined a loyalist revolt, and, though it raised
an armed protest, this was not against the king but
against Mazarin and the persons to whom he had
delegated power. But the parlement soon became
disgusted with its allies— the princes and nobles, who had only
drawn their swords in order to beg more effectively with arms
in their hands; and the Parisian mob, whose fanaticism had
been aroused by Paul de Condi, a warlike ecclesiastic, a Catiline
in a cassock, who preached the gospel at the dagger's point.
839
When a suggestion was made to the pfcrkment to receive an
envoy from Spain, the members had no hesitation in making
terms with the court by the peace of Rueil (March xx, 1649),
which ended the first Fronde.
As an entr'acte, from April 1640 to January 1650, came the
affair of the Pettis Matlres: Conde, proud and violent; Gaston
of Orleans, pliable and contemptible; Conti, the j^
simpleton; and Longueville, the betrayed husband. Frond*
The victor of Lens and Charenton imagined that every •*/*•
one was under an obligation to him, and laid claim to a Prtac **-
dictatorship so insupportable that Anne of Austria and Mazarin
— assured by Gondi of the concurrence of the parlement and
people— had him arrested. To defend Cande the great con-
spiracy of women was formed: Madame de Chevreuse, the
subtle and impassioned princess palatine, and the princess of
Cond6 vainly attempted to arouse Normandy, Burgundy and
the mob of Bordeaux; while Turenne, bewitched by Madame
de Longueville, allowed himself to become involved with Spain
and was defeated at Rcthel (December 15, 1650). Unfortunately,
after his custom when victor, Mazarin forgot his promises —
above all, Gondi's cardinal's hat. A union was effected between
the two Frondes, that of the Petiu Maitres and that of the
parlements, and Mazarin was obliged to flee for safety to the
electorate of Cologne (February 1651), whence he continued
to govern the queen and the kingdom by means of secret letters.
But the heads of the two Frondes— Condi, now set free from
prison at Havre, and Gondi who detested him— were not long in
quarrelling fatally Owing to Mazarin's exile and to the king's
attainment of his majority (September 5, 1651) quiet was being
restored, when the return of Mazarin, jealous of Anne of Austria,
nearly brought about another reconciliation of all his opponents
(January 1652). Cond6 resumed civil war with the support of
Spain, because he was not given Mazarin's place; but though
he defeated the royal army at Bleneau, he was surprised at
£tampes, and nearly crushed by Turenne at the gate of Saint-
Antoine. Saved, however, by the Grande Mademoiselle, daughter
of Gaston of Orleans, he lost Paris by the disaster of the H6tel de
Ville July 4, 1652), where he had installed an insurrectionary
government. A general weariness of civil war gave plenty of
opportunity after this to the agents of Mazarin, who in order to
facilitate peace made a pretence of exiling himself for a second
time to Bouillon. Then came the final collapse: Conde having
taken refuge in Spain for seven years, Gaston of Orleans being
in exile, Retz in prison, and the parlement reduced to its judiciary
functions only, the field was left open for Mazarin, who, four
months after the king, re-entered in triumph that Paris which
had driven him forth with jeers and mockery (February 1653).
The task was now to repair these four years of madness and
folly. The nobles who had hoped to set up the League again,
half counting upon the king of Spain, were held in Tb9
check by Mazarin with the golden dowries of his adrntmh-
numerous nieces, and were now employed by him in "•**>■ •*
warfare and in decorative court functions; while Maxvbt \
others, De Retz and La Rochefoucauld, sought consolation in
their Memoirs or their Maxims, one for his mortifications and the
other for his rancour as a statesman out of employment. The
parlement, which had confused political power with judiciary
administration, was given to understand, in the session of April
13, 1655, at Vincennes, that the era of political manifestations
was over; and the money expended by Gourvillc, Mazarin's
agent, restored the members of the parlement to docility. The
power of the state was confided to middle-class men, faithful
servants during the evil days: Abel Servien, Michel le Tellicr,
Hugues de Lionne. Like Henry IV. after the League, Mazarin,
after having conquered the Fronde, had to buy back bit by bit
the kingdom he had lost, and, like Richelieu, he spread out a
network of agents, thenceforward regular and permanent, who
assured him of that security without which he could never
have carried on his vast plundering* in peace and quiet. His
imitator and superintendent, Fouquet, the Maecenas of the
future Augustus, concealed this gambling policy beneath the
lustre of the arts and the glamour of a literature remarkable for
840
FRANCE
(HISTORY
PtMCO
Of(h0
elevation of thought and vigour of style, and further characterized
by the proud though somewhat restricted freedom conceded to
men like Corneille, Descartes and Pascal, but soon to disappear.
It was also necessary to win back from Spain the territory
which the Frondeurs had delivered up to her. Both countries,
exhausted by twenty years of war, were incapable
sff£ of bringing it to a successful termination, yet neither
would be first to give in; Mazarin, therefore, dis-
quieted by Condi's victory at Valenciennes (1656), reknit the
bond of Protestant alliances, and, having nothing to expect
from Holland, he deprived Spain of her alliance with Oliver
Cromwell (March 23, 1657). A victory in the Dunes by Turenne,
now reinstalled in honour, and above all the conquest of the
Flemish seaboard, were the results (June 1658); but when, in
order to prevent the emperor's intervention in the Netherlands,
Mazarin attempted, on the death of Ferdinand III., to wrest
the Empire from the Habsburgs, he was foiled by the gold of
the Spanish envoy Penaranda(i657). When the abdication of
Christina of Sweden caused a quarrel between Charles Gustavus
of Sweden and John Casimir of Poland, by which the emperor
and the elector of Brandenburg hoped to profit, Mazarin (August
15, 1658) leagued the Rhine princes against them; while at
the same time the substitution of Pope Alexander VII. for
Innocent X., and the marriage of Mazarin's two nieces with
the duke of Modena and a prince of the house of Savoy, made
Spain anxious about her Italian possessions. The suggestion
of a marriage between Louis XIV. and a princess of Savoy
decided Spain, now brought to bay, to accord him the
hand of Maria Theresa as a chief condition of the peace
of the Pyrenees (November 1650). Roussillon and
Artois, with a line of strongholds constituting a
formidable northern frontier, were ceded to France; and the
acquisition of Alsace and Lorraine under certain conditions was
ratified. Thus from this long duel between the two countries
Spain issued much enfeebled, while France obtained the pre-
ponderance in Italy, Germany, and throughout northern Europe,
as is proved by Mazarin's successful arbitration at Copenhagen
and at Oliva (May- June 1660). That dream of Henry IV. and
Richelieu, the ruin of Philip II.'s Catholic empire, was made a
realized fact by Mazarin; but the dever engineer, dazzled by
success, took the wrong road in national policy when he hoped
to crown his work by the Spanish marriage.
The development of events had gradually enlarged the royal
prerogative, and it now came to its full flower in the administra-
tive monarchy of the 17th century. Of this system
Jjjj£* ,v * Louis XIV. was to be the chief exponent. His
I7IS)' reign roa y he divided into two very distinct periods.
The death of Colbert and the revocation of the edict
of Nantes brought the first to a close (1661-1683-1685); coin-
ciding with the date when the Revolution in England definitely
reversed the traditional system of alliances, and when the
administration began to disorganize. In the second period
(1685-171 5) all the germs of decadence were developed until the
moment of final dissolution.
In a monarchy so essentially personal the preparation of
the heir to tho throne for his position should have been the chief
^ task. Anne of Austria, a devoted but unintelligent
Sxollto" mother, knew no method of dealing with her son,
Xiy. save devotion combined with the rod. His first
preceptors were nothing but courtiers; and the most
intelligent, his valet Laporte, developed in the royal child's
mind his natural instinct of command, a very lively sense of his
rank, and that nobly majestic air of master of the world which
he preserved even in the commonest actions of his life. The
continual agitations of the Fronde prevented him from persever-
ing in any consistent application during those years which are
the most valuable for study, and only instilled in him a horror
of revolution, parliamentary remonstrance, and disorder of
all kinds; so that this recollection determined the direction
of his government. Mazarin, in his later years, at last taught
him his trade as king by admitting him to* the council, and by
instructing him in the details of politics and of administration;
In itfi Louis XIV. was a handsome youth of twenty-two,
of splendid health and gentle serious mien; eager for pleasure,
but discreet and even dissimulating; his rather mediocre
intellectual qualities relieved by solid common sense; fully
alive to his rights and his duties.
The duties he conscientiously fulfilled, but he considered he
need render no account of them to any one but his Maker, the
last humiliation for God's vicegerent being " to take
the law from his people." In the solemn language of £!L*ri
the " Memoirs for the Instruction of the Dauphin " Mr mf
he did but affirm the arbitrary and capricious character
of his predecessors' action. As for his rights, Louis XIV. looked
upon these as plenary and unlimited. Representative of God
upon earth, heir to the sovereignty of the Roman emperors,
a universal suzerain and master over the goods and the lives
of his vassals, he could conceive no other bounds to his authority
than his own interests or his obligations towards God, and in this
he was a willing believer of Bossuet. He therefore had but two
aims: to increase his power at home and to enlarge his kingdom
abroad. The army and taxation were the chief instruments
of his policy. Had not Bodin, Hobbes and Bossuet taught
that the force which gives birth to kingdoms serves best also to
feed and sustain them? His theory of the state, despite Grotius
and Jurieu, rejected as odious and even impious the notion
of any popular rights, anterior and superior to his own. A
realist in principle, Louis XIV. was terribly utilitarian and
egotistical in practice; and he exacted from his subjects an
absolute, continual and obligatory self-abnegation before his
public authority, even when improperly exercised.
This deified monarch needed a new temple, and Versailles,
where everything was his creation, both men and things, adored
its maker. The highest nobility of France, beginning rtm feriBM
with the princes of the blood, competed for posts of Loots
in the royal household, where an army of ten thousand ***•"* h
soldiers, four thousand servants, and five thousand B " M, " re **
horses played its costly and luxurious part in the ordered and
almost religious pageant of the king's existence. The " aaciemnn
cohues dt France*' gay, famifiar and military, gave place to a
stilted court life, a perpetual adoration, a very ceremonious and
very complicated ritual, in which the demigod " pontificated °
even " in his dressing-gown." To pay court to himself was the
first and only duty in the eyes of a proud and haughty prince
who saw and noted everything, especially any one's absence.
Versailles, where the delicate refinements of Italy and the grave
politeness of Spain were fused and mingled with French vivacity,
became the centre of national life and a model for foreign royalties;
hence if Versailles has played a considerable part in the history
of civilization, it also seriously modified the life of France.
Etiquette and self-seeking became the chief rules of a courtier's
life, and this explains the division of the nobility Into two
sections: the provincial squires, embittered by neglect; and
the courtiers, who were ruined materially and intellectually
by their way of living. Versailles sterilized all the idle upper
classes, exploited the Industrious classes by its extravagance,
and more and more broke relations between king and
kingdom.
But however divine, the king could not wield his power
unaided. Louis XIV. called to his assistance a hierarchy of
humbly submissive functionaries, and councils over
which he regularly presided. Holding the very name JjJI^
of roi fuiniant in abhorrence, he abolished the office miattttn.
of mayor of the palace— that is to say, the prime
minister— thus imposing upon himself work which he always
regularly performed. In choosing his collaborators his principle
was never to select nobles or ecclesiastics, but persons of inferior
birth. Neither the immense fortunes amassed by these men,
nor the venality and robust vitality which made their families
veritable races of ministers, altered the fact that De Lionne, Le
Tellfcr, Louvois and Colbert were in themselves of no account,
even though the parts they played were much more important
than Louis XIV. imagined. This was the age of plebeians, to
the great indignation of the duke and peer Saint Simon. Mere
hbtokti FRANCE
reflected lights, tlMte satellites pro fes sed to share thefr nsuter'i
honor of all individual and collective right* of Mich a
nature at toimpose any check upon hispublkauthority.
Louis XIV. detested the states-general aad never
convoked them, and the parlements were definitely reduced
to silence in 1673; he completed the destruction of municipal
liberties, under pretext of bad financial administration; suffered
no public, still less private criticism; was ruthless when his
exasperated subjects had recourse to force; and made the police
the chief bulwark of his government. Prayers and resignation
were the only solace left for the hardshtpsendured by his subjects.
All the ties of caste, class, corporation and family were severed;
the jealous despotism of Louis XIV. destroyed every opportunity
of taking common action; he isolated every man in private life,
in individual interests, just as he isolated himself more and more
from the body social. Freedom he tolerated for himself alone.
His passion for absolutism made him consider himself master
of soul* as well as bodies, and Bossuet did nothing to contravene
an opinion which was, indeed, common to every
%di£ »«mign «' his day. Louis XIV., like Philip JJ„
CMtmtb. pretending to not only political but religious authority,
would not allow the pope to share it, still less would
be abide any religious dissent; and this gave rise to many
conflicts, especially with the pope, at that time a temporal
sovereign both at Rome and at Avignon, and as the head of
Christendom bound to interfere in the affairs of France. Louis
XIV.'s pride caused the first struggle, which turned exclusively
upon questions of form, as in the affair of the Corsican Guard
in 166?. The question of the right of regale (right of the Crown
to. the revenues of vacant abbeys and bishoprics), which touched
the essential rights of sovereignty, further inflamed the hostility
between Innocent XI. and Louis XIV. Conformably with the
traditions of the administrative monarchy in 1673, the long
wanted to extend to the new additions to the kingdom his
rights of receiving the revenues of vacant bishoprics and making
appointments to their benefices, including taking oaths of fidelity
from the new incumbents. A protest raised by the bishops of
Pamiers and Aleth, followed by the seizure of their revenues,
provoked the intervention of Innocent XI. in 167$; but the
king was supported by the general assembly of the clergy, which
declared that, with certain exceptions, the regale extended over
the whole kingdom (1681), The pope ignored the decisions of
the assembly; so, dropping the regale, the king demanded that,
to obviate further conflict, the assembly should define the limits
of the authority due respectively to the king, the Church and the
pope. This was the object of the Declaration of the Four
tfrrftr*- Articles: the pope has no power in temporal matters;
Uom or general councils are superior to the pope in spiritual
Jf**"^ affairs ; the rules of the Church of France arc inviolable ;
****** decisions of the pope in matters of faith are only irre-
vocable by consent of the Church. The French laity transferred
to the king this quasi-divine authority, which became the political
theory of the ancien regime; and since the pope refused to submit,
or to institute the new bishops, the Sorbonne was obliged to
interfere. The affair of the " diplomatic prerogatives," when
Louis XIV. was decidedly in the wrong, made relations even
more strained (1687), and the idea of a schism was mooted with
greater insistence than in 168 1. The death of Innocent XI. in
1689 allowed Louis XIV. to engage upon negotiations rendered
imperative by his check in the affair of the Cologne bishopric,
where his candidate was ousted by the pope's. In 1693, under
the pontificate of Innocent XII., be went, like so many others,
to Canossa.
Recipient now of immense ecclesiastical revenues, which,
owing to the number of vacant benefices, constituted a powerful
engine of government, Louis XIV. had immense power over the
French Church. Religion began to be identified with the state;
and the king combated heresy and dissent, not only as a religious
duty, but as a matter of political expediency, unity of faith
being obviously conducive to unity of law.
Richelieu having deprived the Protestants of all political
guarantees for their liberty of conscience, aa anti-Protestant
8+1
mtmmot
Ufdkt
•/Mulct
party (directed by a cabal of religious devotees, the Compagnie
du SainJ Sacremeni) determined to suppress it completely by
conversions and by a Jesuitical interpretation of the /rfmft
terms of the edict of Nantes. Louis XIV. made xiv. sad
this impolitic policy his own. His passion for absolu- '*• pr »*
tism, a religious seal that was the more active because u * UatM '
it had to compensate for many affronts to public and private
morals, the financial necessity of augmenting the free donations
of the clergy, and the political necessity of relying upon that body
in his conflicts with the pope, led the king between 1661 and
1685 to embark upon a double campaign of arbitrary proceedings
with the object of nullifying the edict, conversions being procured
cither by force or by bribery. The promulgation and application
of systematic measures from above had a response from below,
from the corporation, the urban workshop, and the village street,
which supported ecclesiastical and royal authority in its suppres-
sion of heresy, and frequently even went further: individual
and local fanaticism co-operating with the head of the state,
the intendanls, and the military and judiciary authorities.
' Protestants were successively removed from the states-general,
the consulates, the town councils, and even from the humblest
municipal offices; they were deprived of the charge of their
hospitals, their academies, their colleges and their schools, and
were left to ignorance and poverty; while the intolerance
of the clergy united with chicanery of procedure to invade
their places of worship, insult their adherents, and put a stop
to the pract ice of their rituaL Pcllisson's methods of conversion,
considered too slow, were accelerated by the violent
persecution of Louvois and by the king's galleys,
until the day came when Louis XIV., deceived by the
clergy, crowned his record of complaisant legal methods
by revoking the edict of Nantes. This was the signal
for a Huguenot renaissance, and the Camisards of the Cevennes
held the royal armies in check from 1 703 to 1 7 1 x . Not wit hstand-
ing this, however, Louis XIV. succeeded only too well, since
Protestantism was reduced both numerically and intellectually.
He never perceived how its loss threw France back a full
century, to the great profit of foreign nations; while neither
did the Church perceive that she had been firing on her own
troops.
The same order of ideas produced the persecution of the
Jansenists, as much a political as a religious sect. Founded
by a bishop of Ypres,on the doctrine of predestination,
and growing by persecution, it had speedily recruited
adherents among the disillusioned followers of the
Fronde, the Galilean clergy, the higher nobility, even
at court, and more important still, among learned men and
thinkers, such as the great Arnauld, Pascal and Racine. Pure
and austere, it enjoined the strictest morals in the midst of
corruption, and the roost dignified self -respect in face of idolatrous
servility. Amid general silence it was a formidable and much
dreaded body of opinion; and in order to stifle it Louis XIV.,
the tool of his confessor, the Jesuit Le Tellier, made use of his
usual means. The nuns of Port Royal were in their turn sub-
jected to persecution, which, after a truce between 1666 and
1679, became aggravated by the affair of the regale, the bishops
of Aleth and Pamiers being Jansenists. Port Royal was de-
stroyed, the nuns dispersed, and the ashes of the dead scattered
to the four winds. The bull Unigenitus launched by Pope
Clement XI. in 1713 against a Jansenist book by Father Quesnel
rekindled a quarrel, the end of which Louis XIV. did not live to
see, and which raged throughout the 18th century.
Bossuct, Louis XIV.'s mouthpiece, triumphed in bis turn over
the quietism of Madame Guyon, a mystic who recognized
neither definite dogmas nor formal prayers, but
abandoned herself " to the torrent of the forces of *•■**••£
God." Fenelon, who in his Maxima des Saints had
given bis adherence to her doctrine, was obliged to
submit in 1699; but Bossuet could not make the spirit of
authority prevail against the religious criticism of a Richard
Simon or the philosophical polemics of a Bayle. He might
exile thek persons; but their doctrines, supported by the
842
FRANCE
(HISTORY
scientific and philosophic work of Newton and Leibnitz, were
to triumph over Church and religion in the 18U1 century.
The chaos of the administrative system caused difficulties
no less great than those produced by opinions and creeds.
Traditional rights, differences of language, provincial autonomy,
ecclesiastical assemblies, pari em en ts, governors, intendants —
vestiges of the past, or promises for the future — all jostled
against and thwarted each other. The central authority had not
yet acquired a vigorous constitution, nor destroyed all the
intermediary authorities. Colbert now offered his aid in making
Louis XIV. the sole pivot of public life, as he had already become
the source of religious authority, thanks to the Jesuits and to
Bossuet.
Colbert, an agent of Le Tellier, the honest steward of
Mazarin's dishonest fortunes, had a future opened to him by
- - the fall of Fouquet (x$6x). Harsh and rough, he
* owu,m compelled admiration for his delight in work, his
aptitude in disentangling affairs, his desire of continually aug-
menting the wealth of the state, and his regard for the
public welfare without forgetting his own. Born in a draper's
shop, this great administrator always preserved its narrow
horizon, its short-sighted imagination, its taste for detail, and the
Conceit of the parvenu; while with has insinuating ways, and
knowing better than Fouquet how to keep his distance, he
made himself indispensable by his savoir-faire and his readiness
for every emergency. He gradually got everything into his
control: finance, industry, commerce, the fine arts, the navy
and colonics, the administration, even the fortifications, and —
through his uncle Pussort— the law, with all the profits attaching
to its offices.
His first care was to restore the exhausted resources of the
country and to re-establish order in finance. He began by
measures of liquidation: the Chambre ardent* of
c- *"* 1661 to 1665 to deal with the fanners of the revenue,
* * rr ^ the condemnation of Fouquet, and a revision of the
funds. Next, like a good man of business, Colbert
determined that the state accounts should be kept as accurately
as those of a shop; but though in this respect a great minister,
he was less so in his manner of levying contributions. He
kept to the old system of revenues from the demesne and from
imposts that were reactionary in their effect, such as the laille,
aids, salt-tax (gabelle) and customs; only he managed them
better. His forest laws have remained a model. He demanded
less of the taUU, a direct impost, and more from indirect aids,
of which he created the code— not, however, out of sympathy
for the common people, towards whom he was very harsh, but
because these aids covered a greater area and brought in larger
returns. He tried to import more method into the very unequal
distribution of taxation, less brutality in collection, less confusion
in the fiscal machine, and more uniformity in the matter of rights;
while he diminished the debts of the much-involved towns
by putting them through the bankruptcy court. With revolu-
tionary intentions as to reform, this only ended, after several
years of normal budgets, in ultimate frustration. He could
never make the rights over the drink traffic uniform and equal,
nor restrict privileges in the matter of the taillc; while he
was soon much embarrassed, not only by the coalition of
particular interests an<l local immunities, which made despotism
acceptable by tempering it, but also by Louis XIV. 's two master-
passions for conquest and for building. To his great chagrin
he was obliged to begin borrowing again in 1672, and to have
recourse to " affaires exiraordinaires "; and this brought him at
last to his grave.
Order was for Colbert the prime condition of work. He
desired all France to set to work as he did " with a contented
air and rubbing his hands for joy"; but neither
general theories nor individual happiness preoccupied
his attention. He made economy truly political:
that is to say, the prosperity of industry and commerce
afforded him no other interest than that of making the country
wealthy and the state powerful. Louis XIV.'s aspirations
towards glory chimed in very well with the extremely positive
views of his minister; but here too Colbert was an innovator
and an unsuccessful one. He wanted to give 1 7th-cen tury France
the modern and industrial character which the New World
had imprinted on the maritime states; and he created industry
on a grand scale with an energy of labour, a prodigious genius
for initiative and for organization; while, in order to attract a
foreign clientele, he imposed upon it the habits of meticulous
probity common to a middle-class draper. But he maintained
the legislation of the Valois, who placed industry in a state of
strict dependency on finance, and he instituted a servitude of
labour harder even than that of individuals, his great factories
of soap, glass, lace, carpets and doth had the same artificial
life as that of contemporary Russian industry, created and
nourished by the state. It was therefore necessary, in order to
compensate for the fatal influence of servitude, that administra-
tive protection should be lavished without end upon the royal
manufactures; moreover, in the course of its development,
industry on a grand scale encroached in many ways upon the
resources of smaller industries. After Colbert's day, when the
crutches lent by privilege were removed, his achievements lost
vigour; industries that ministered to luxury alone escaped
decay; the others became exhausted in struggling against the
persistent and teasing opposition of the municipal bodies and
the bourgeoisie— conceited, ignorant and terrified at any innova-
tion—and against the blind and intolerant policy of Louis XIV.
. Colbert, in common with all his century, believed that the
true secret of commerce and the indisputable proof of a country's
prosperity was to sell as many of the products of
national industry to the foreigner as possible, while Jjjj"*
purchasing as little as possible. In order to do this, mmmMUl
he sometimes figured as a free-trader and sometimes
as a protectionist, but always in a practical sense; if he imposed
prohibitive tariffs, in 1664 and 1667, he also opened the free
ports of Marseilles and Dunkirk, and engineered the Canal dm
midi. But commerce, like industry, was made to rely only on
the instigation of the state, by the intervention of officials;
here, as throughout the national life, private initiative was
kept in subjection and under suspicion. Once more Colbert
failed; with regard to internal affairs, he was unable to unify
weights and measures, or to suppress the many custom-bouses
which made France into a miniature-Europe; nor could he in
external affairs reform the consulates of the Levant. He did
not understand that, in order to purge the body of the nation
from its traditions of routine, it would be necessary to reawaken
individual energy in France. He believed that the state, or
rather the bureaucracy, might be the motive power of national
activity.
His colonial and maritime polky was the newest and most
fruitful part of his work. He wished to turn the eyes of con-
temporary adventurous France towards her distant
interests, the wars of religion having diverted her ^■•J*
attention from them to the great profit of English nfwfn
and Dutch merchants. Here too he had no pre-
conceived ideas; the royal and monopolist companies were
never for him an end but a means; and after much experimenting
he at length attained success. In the course of twenty years
he created many dependencies of France beyond sea. To her
colonial empire in America he added the greater part of Santo
Domingo, Tobago and Dominica; he restored Guiana; prepared
for the acquisition of Louisiana by supporting Cavelier de la
Salle; extended the suzerainty of the king on the coast of Africa
from the Bay of Arguin to the shores of Sierra Leone, and
instituted the first commercial relations with India. The
population of the Antilles doubled; that of Canada quintupled;
while if in 1672 at the time of the war with Holland Louis XIV.
had listened to him, Colbert would have sacrificed his pride to
the acquisition of the rich colonie&of the Netherlands. In order
to attach and defend these colonies Colbert created a navy which
became his passion; he took convicts to man the galleys in the
Mediterranean, and for the fleet in the Atlantic he established
the system of naval reserve which still obtains. But, in the zSth
century, the monarchy, hypnotised by the classical battle-fields
HISTORY) FRANCE
of Flanders and Italy, madly squandered the traits of Cc&ert's
work as so much material for barter and exchange.
In the administration, the police and the law, Colbert preserved
all the old machinery, including the inheritance of office. In
cute* the great codification of laws, made under the direction
madtht f his uncle Pussort, he set aside the parlement of
Paris, and justice continued to be ill-administered
and crucL The police, instituted in 1667 by La
Reym'e, became a public force independent of magistrates and
under the direct orders of the ministers, making the arbitrary
royal and ministerial authority absolute by means of leitres de
cachet (?.».), which were very convenient for the government
and very terrible for the individuals concerned.
Provincial administration was no longer modified; it was
regularized. The intendant became the king's factotum, not
purchasing his office but liable to dismissal, the government's
confidential agent and the real repository of royal. authority,
the governor being only for show (see Intendant).
Colbert's system went on working regularly up to the year
1675; from that time forward he was cruelly embarrassed
for money, and, seeking new sources of revenue,
begged for subsidies from the assembly of the clergy.
He did not succeed either in stemming the tide of
expense, nor in his administration, being in no way
in advance of his age, and not perceiving that decisive reform
could not be achieved by a government dealing with the nation
as though it were inert and passive material, made to obey and to
pay. Like a good Cartesiin he conceived of the state as an
immense machine, every portion of which should receive its
impulse from outside— that is from him, Colbert. Leibnitz had
not yet taught that external movement is nothing, and inward
spirit everything. As the minister of an ambitious and magnifi-
cent king, Colbert was under the hard necessity of sacrificing
everything to the wars in Flanders and the pomp of Versailles—
a gulf which swallowed up all the country's wealth;— and,
amid a society which might be supposed submissively docile
to the wishes of Louis XIV., be had to retain the most absurd
financial laws, making the burden of taxation weigh heaviest
on those who bad no other resources than their labour, whilst
landed property escaped free of charge. Habitual privation
during one year in every three drove the peasants to revolt: in
Boulonnais; the Pyrenees, Vivarais, in Guyenne from 1670
onwards and in Brittany in 1675. Cruel means of repression
assisted natural hardships and the carelessness of the administra-
tion in depopulating and laying waste the countryside; while
Louis XIV.'s martial and ostentatious policy was even more
disastrous than pestilence and famine, when Louvois' advice
prevailed in council over that of Colbert, now embittered and
desperate. The revocation of the edict of Nantes vitiated
through a fatal contradiction all the efforts of the latter to
create new manufactures; the country was impoverished for
the benefit of the foreigner to such a point that economic condi-
tions began to alarm those private persons most noted for their
talents, their character, or their regard for the public welfare;
such as La Bruyere and Fenelon in 1692, Bois-Guillebert in
1697 and Vauban in 1707. The movement attracted even
the ministers, Boulainviliiers at their head, who caused the
intendants to make inquiry into the causes of this general
ruin. There was a volume of attack upon Colbert; but as the
fundamental system remained unchanged, because reform would
have necessitated an attack upon privilege and even upon the
constitution of the monarchy, the evil only went on increasing.
The sodal condition of the time recalls that of present-day
Morocco, in the high price of necessaries and the extortions of
the financial authorities; every man was either soldier, beggar
or smuggler.
Under Pont chart rain, Chamillard and Desmarets, the expenses
of the two wars of 16SS and 1701 attained to nearly five milliards.
In order to cover this recourse was had as usual, not to remedies,
but to palliatives worse than the evil: heavy usurious loans,
debasement of the coinage, creation of stocks that were per-
petually being converted, and ridiculous charges which the
8+3
bourgeois, sickened with officialdom, would endure no longer.
Richelieu himself had hesitated to tax labour; Louis XIV. trod
the trade organizations under foot. It was necessary ttrnmrntm
to have recourse to revolutionary measures, to direct tonvokr
taxation, ignoring all class distinction. In 1695 the <fo*«y
graduated poll-tax was a veritable coup d'ttal against ——**•
privileged persons, who were equally brought under the tax;
in 17x0 was added the tithe (dixttmc), a tax upon income from
all landed property. Money scarce, men too were lacking;
the institution of the militia, the first germ of obligatory enlist-
ment, was a no less important innovation. But these were only
provisionary and desperate expedients, superposed upon the
old routine, a further charge in addition to those already existing;
and this entirely mechanical system, destructive of private
initiative and the very sources of public life, worked with diffi-
culty even in time of peace. As Louis XIV. made war continually
the result was the same as in Spain under Philip II.: depopula-
tion and bankruptcy within the kingdom and the coalitions
of Europe without*
In 1660 France was predominant in Europe; but she aroused
no jealousy except in the house of Habsburg, enfeebled and
divided against itself. It was sufficient to remain
faithful to the practical policy of Henry IV., of J
Richelieu and of Mazarin: that of moderation in !*■*? jr/K
strength. This Louis XIV. very soon altered, while
yet claiming to continue it; he superseded it by one principle:
that of replacing the proud tyranny of the Habsburgs of Spain by
another. He claimed to lay down the law everywhere, in the
preliminary negotiations between his ambassador and the
Spanish ambassador in London, in the affair of the salute exacted
from French vessels by the English, and in that of the Corsican
guard in Rome; while he proposed to become the head of the
crusade against the Turks in the Mediterranean as in Hungary.
The eclipse of the great idea of the balance of power in Europe
was no sudden affair; the most flourishing years of the reign
were still enlightened by it: witness the repurchase of Dunkirk
from Charles II. in 1662, the cession of the duchies of Bar and
of Lorraine and the war against Portugal. But soon the partial
or total conquest of the Spanish inheritance proved " the grandeur
of his beginnings and the meanness of bis end." Like Philip
the Fair and like Richelieu, Louis XIV. sought support for his
external policy in that public opinion which in internal matters
he held so cheap; and he found equally devoted auxiliaries
in the jurists of his pariements.
It was thus that the first of his wars for the extension of
frontiers began, the War of Devolution. On the death of his
father-in-law, Philip IV. of Spain, he transferred w
into the realm of politics a civil custom of inheritance £*£!*,
prevailing in Brabant, and laid claim to Flanders in <tos>JMJ.
the name of his wife Maria Theresa. The Anglo-Dutch
War (1665-1667), in which he was by way of supporting the
United Provinces without engaging his fleet, retarded this
enterprise by a year. But after his mediation in the treaty of
Breda Only 1667), when Hugues de Lionne, secretary of stale
for foreign affairs, had isolated Spain, he substituted soldiers
for the jurists and cannon for diplomacy in the matter of the
queen's rights.
The secretary of state for war, Michel le Tellier, had organized
his army; and thanks to his great activity in reform, especially
after the Fronde, Louis XIV. found himself in possession of an
army that was well equipped, well clothed, well provisioned,
and very different from the rabble of the Thirty Years' War,
fitted out by dishonest jobbing contractors. Severe discipline,
suppression of fraudulent interference, furnishing of clothes
and equipment by the king, regulation of rank among the
officers, systematic revictualling of the army, settled means of
manufacturing and furnishing arms and ammunition, placing
of the army under the direct authority of the king, abolition of
great military charges, subordination of the governors of strong-
holds, control by the civil authority over the soldiers effected
by means of paymasters and commissaries of stores; all this
organization of the royal army was the work of lc Tellier.
84+
FRANCE
His son, Francois Michel le Tellier, marquis de Louvois, bad
one sole merit, that of being his father's pupil. A parvenu of
the middle classes, he was brutal in his treatment of the lower
orders and a sycophant in his behaviour towards the powerful;
prodigiously active, ill-obeyed — as was the custom — but much
dreaded. From 1677 onwards he did but finish perfecting Louis
XIV.'s army in accordance with the suggestions left by his
father, and made no fundamental changes: neither the definite
abandonment of the feudal arriere-ban and of recruiting — sources
of disorder and insubordination — nor the creation of the militia,
which allowed the nation to penetrate into all the ranks of the
army, nor the adoption of the gun with the bayonet,— which
was to become the ultima ratio of peoples as the cannon was that
of sovereigns, — nor yet the uniform, intended to strengthen
esprit de cor pi, were due to him. He maintained the institutions
of the day, though seeking to diminish their abuse, and he
perfected material details; but misfortune would have it that
instead of remaining a great military administrator he flattered
Louis XIV.'s megalomania, and thus caused his perdition.
Under his orders Turenne conquered Flanders (June-August
1667); and as the queen-mother of Spain would not give in,
Conde occupied Franche Comt6 in fourteen days
2jfy* f (February 1668). But Europe rose up in wrath; the
tSnlZ!!. United Provinces and England, jealous and disquieted
by this near neighbourhood, formed with Sweden
the triple alliance of the Hague (January x668), ostensibly
to offer their mediation, though in reality to prevent the
occupation of the Netherlands. Following the advice of Colbert
and de Lionne, Louis XIV. appeared to accede, and by the
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle he preserved his conquests in Flanders
(May 1668).
This peace was neither sufficient nor definite enough for Louis
XIV.; and during four years he employed all his diplomacy
to isolate the republic of the United Provinces in
J5J3J,; Europe, as he had done for Spain. He wanted to ruin
CtMf»ii: this nation both in a military and an economic sense,
in order to annex to French Flanders the rest of the
Catholic Netherlands allotted to him by a secret treaty for parti-
tioning the Spanish possessions, signed with his brother-in-law the
emperor Leopold on the 19th of January "1668. Colbert— very
envious of Holland's wealth— prepared the finances, le Tellier
the army and de Lionne the alliances. In vain did the grand-
pensionary of the province of Holland, Jan de Witt,
UoUaaS. offcr concessions of all kinds; both England, bound
by the secret treaty of Dover (January 1670), and
France had need of this war. Avoiding the Spanish Nether-
lands, Louis XIV. effected the passage of the Rhine in
June 1672; and the disarmed United Provinces, which had on
their side only Brandenburg and Spain, were occupied in a few
days. The brothers de Witt, in consequence of their fresh offer
to treat at any price, were assassinated; the broken dykes of
Muiden arrested the victorious march of Condi and Turenne;
while the popular and military party, directed by the stadtbolder
William of Orange, took the upper hand and preached resistance
to the death. " The war is over," said the new secretary of
state for foreign affairs, Arnauld de Pomponne; but Louvois
and Louis XIV. said no. The latter wished not only to take
possession of the Netherlands, which were to be given up to him
with half of the United Provinces and their colonial empire;
he wanted "to play the Charlemagne," to re-establish Catholicism
in that country as Philip II. had formerly attempted to do,
to occupy all the territory as far as the Lech, and to exact an
annual oath of fealty. But the patriotism and the religious
fanaticism of the Dutch revolted against this insupportable
tyranny. Power had passed from the hands of the burghers
of Amsterdam into those of William of Orange, who on the 30th
P**m oi °* August 1673, profiting by the arrest of the army
NQm. brought about by the inundation and by the fears of
*•*»•» Europe, joined in a coalition with the emperor, the
tU9m king of Spain, the duke of Lorraine, many of the
princes of the Empire, and with England, now at last enlightened
aa to the projects of Catholic restoration which Louis XIV. was
planning with Charles II. It was Decenary to evacuate tod
then to settle with the United Provinces, and to turn agatsst
Spain. After fighting for five years against the whole of Europe
by land and by sea, the efforts of Turenne, Condi and Duqueex
culminated at Nijmwegen in fresh acquisitions (1678). Spaia
had to cede to Louis XIV., Franche Comtt, Dunkirk and half
of Flanders. This was another natural and glorious result
of the treaty of the P y r e n ees . The Spanish monarchy was
disarmed.
But Louis XIV. had already manifested that unmeasured
and restless passion for glory, that claim to be the exdusiTt
arbiter of western Europe, that blind and narrow
insistence, which were to bear out his motto " Snd ffgrtrfrf
centre Urns** Whilst all Europe was disarming he
kept his troops, and used peace as a means of conquest
Under orders from Colbert de Croissy the jurists came upon the
scene once more, and their unjust decrees were sustained by
force of arms. The Ckambres de Rtunwn sought for and joined
to the kingdom those lands which were not actually dependent
upon his new conquests, but which had formerly been so: such
as Saarbrficken, Deux Ponts (Zweibrucken) and Montbttiard in
1680, Strassburg and Casale in 1681. The power of the bouse
of Habsburg was paralysed by an invasion of the Turks, and
Louis XIV. sent 35,000 men into Belgium; while Luxemburg
was occupied by Crequi and Vauban. The truce of Ratisboa
(Rcgensburg) imposed upon Spain completed the work of the
peace of Nijmwegen (1684); and thenceforward Louis XIV.'s
terrified allies avoided his clutches while making ready to fight
him.
This was the moment chosen by Louis XIV.'s implacable
enemy, William of Orange, to resume the war. His surprise
of Marshal Luxembourg near Mons, after the signature
of the peace of Nijmwegen, had proved that in his eyes
war was the basis of his authority in Holland and
in Europe. His sole arm of support amidst all his allies was not
the English monarchy, sold to Louis XIV., but Protestant
England, jealous of France and uneasy about her independence.
Being the husband of the duke of York's daughter, he had an
understanding in this country with Sunderland, Codolphin and
Temple — a party whose success was retarded for several yean
by the intrigues of Shaftesbury. But Louis XIV. added mistake
to mistake; and the revocation of the edict of Nantes added
religious hatreds to political jealousies. At the same time the
Catholic powers responded by the league of Augsburg
(July r686) to his policy of unlimited aggrandisement.
The unsuccessful attempts of Louis XIV. to force
his partisan Cardinal Wilhelm Egon von Fiirstcnberg (sec
FtfRSTENBERc: House) into the electoral see of Cologne; the
bombardment of Genoa; the humiliation of the pope in Rome
itself by the marquis de Lavardin; the seizure of the Huguenot
emigrants at Mannheim, and their imprisonment at Vinccnnes
under pretext of a plot, precipitated the conflict. The question
of the succession in the Palatinate, where Louis XIV. supported
the claims of bis sister-in-law the duchess of Orleans, gave the
signal for a general war. The French armies devastated the
Palatinate instead of attacking William of Orange in the Nether-
lands, leaving him free to disembark at Torbay, usurp the throne
of England, and construct the Grand Alliance of 1689.
Far from reserving all his forces for an important struggle
elsewhere, foreshadowed by the approaching death of Charles IL
of Spain, Louis XIV., isolated in his turn, committed
the error of wasting it for a space of ten years in a 23H2 f ***
war of conquest, by which he alienated all that remained AiSmcm.
to him of European sympathy. The French armies,
notwithstanding the disappearance of Conde" and Turenne, had
still glorious days before them with Luxembourg at Fleurus, at
Stcenkirk and at Neerwinden (1600-1693), and with Catinat
in Piedmont, at Staffarda, and at Marsaglia; but these successes
alternated with reverses. TourvibVs fleet, victorious at Beachy
Head, came to grief at La Hogue (169a); and though the ex
peditions to Ireland in favour of James II. were unsuccessful,
thanks to the Huguenot Schomberg, Jean Bart and Duguay-
HTST0RY1
FRANCS
8+5
Tropin ruined Anglo-Dutch maritime commerce. Louis XIV.
assisted in person at the sieges of Mons and Namur, operations
for which he had a liking, because, like Louvois, who died in
169 1, he thought little of the French soldiery m the open field.
After three years of strife, ruinous to both sides, he made the first
overtures of peace, thus marking an epoch in his foreign policy;
though William took no unfair advantage of this, remaining
content with the restitution of places taken by the Ckambres de
Reunion, except Strassburg, with a frontier-line of fortified
places for the Dutch, and with the official deposition
of the Stuarts. But the treaty of Ryswick (1697)
marked the condemnation of the policy pursued
since that of Nijmwegen. While signing this peace Louis XIV.
was only thinking of the succession in Spain. By partitioning
her in. advance with the other strong powers, England and
Holland, by means of the treaties of the Hague and of London
(1698-1690), — as he had formerly done with the emperor in
1668,— he seemed at first to wisfo fora pacific solution of the eternal
conflict between the Habsburgs and the Bourbons, and to restrict
himself to the perfecting of his natural frontiers*, but on the
death of Charles II. of Spain (1700) he claimed everything in
favour of his grandson, the duke of Anjou, now appointed
universal heir, though risking the loss of all by once more letting
himself fall into imprudent and provocative action in the dynastic
interest.
English public opinion, desirous of peace, had forced William
III. to recognize Philip V. of Spain; but Louis XlV.'s mainten-
Waroftbt ancc of tne eventual right of his grandson to the crown
Spsahb of France, and the expulsion of the Dutch, who had
smcaf n ot recognized Philip V., from the Barrier towns,
**•* brought about the Grand Alliance of 1701 between
the maritime Powers and the court of Vienna, desirous of parti-
tioning the inheritance of Charles II. The recognition of the Old
Pretender as James III., king of England, was only a response
to the Grand Alliance, but it drew the English Tories into an
inevitable war. Despite the death of William III. (March ia,
1702) his policy triumphed, and in this war, the longest in the
reign, it was the names of the enemy's generals, Prince Eugdnc
of Savoy, Mazarin's grand-nephew, and the duke of Marlborough,
which sounded in the car, instead of Condi, Turenne and
Luxembourg. Although during the first campaigns ( 1 701-1 703)
in Italy, in Germany and in the Netherlands success was equally
balanced, the successors of Villars— thanks to the treason of the
duke of Savoy— were defeated at Hdchstadt and Landau, and
were reduced to the defensive (1704). In 1706 the defeats at
Ramillics and Turin led to the evacuation of the Netherlands
and Italy, and endangered the safety of Dauphin*. In 1708
Louis XIV. by a supreme effort was still able to maintain his
armies; but the rout at Oudenarde, due to the misunderstanding
t>etween the duke of Burgundy and Vend6mc, left the northern
frontier exposed, and the cannons of the Dutch were heard at
Marly. Louis XIV. had to humble himself to the extent of asking
the Dutch for peace; but they forgot the lesson of 1673, and
revolted by their demands at the Hague, he made a last appeal
to arms and to the patriotism of his subjects at Malplaquet
(September 1709). After this came invasion. Nature herself
conspired with the enemy in the disastrous winter of 1709.
What saved Louis XIV. was not merely his noble constancy of
resolve, the firmness of the marquis de Torcy, secretary of state
for foreign affairs, the victory of Vend6me at Villavidosa, nor
the loyalty of his people. The interruption of the conferences
at Gertruydenberg having obliged the Whigs and Marlborough to
resign their power into the hands of the Tories, now sick of war,
the death of the emperor Joseph I. (April 171 1), which risked
the reconstruction of Charles V.'s colossal and unwieldy monarchy
upon the shoulders of the archduke Charles, and Marshal Villars'
famous victory of Denain (July 1712) combined to render possible
the treaties of Utrecht, Rastatt and Baden (17 13-17 14).
These gave Italy and the Netherlands to the Habsburgs,
ITU* Spain and her colonies to the Bourbons, the places on
the coast and the colonial commerce to England (who
had the lion's share), and a royal crown to the duke of Savoy
and Che elector of Brindtmburg. The peace of Utrecht was to
France what the peace of Westphalia had been to Austria, and
curtailed the former acquisitions of Louis XIV.
The ageing of the great king was betrayed not only by the
fortune of war in the hands of Villeroy, la FeuiHade, or Margin;
disgrace and misery at home were worse than defeat. Eadmi
By the strange and successive deaths of the Grand *.«**
Dauphin (1711), the duke and duchess of Burgundy X*K' »
(171 *) — who had been the only joy of the old monarch "**
— arid of his two grandsons (1 7 1 2*1714), it seemed as though his
whole family were involved under the same curse. The court,
whose sentimental history has been related by Madame de la
. Fayette, its official splendours by Loret, and its intrigues by the
due de Saint-Simon, now resembled an infirmary of morose
invaHds, presided over by Louis XIV.'s elderly wife, Madame
de Maintenon, under the domination of the Jesuit le Tellier.
Neither was it merely the clamours of the people that arose against
the monarch. All the more remarkable spirits of the time, like
prophets in Israel, denounced a tyranny which put Chamillart
at the head of the finances because he played billiards well, and
Viflcroy in command of the armies although he was utterly
untrustworthy; which sent the " patriot " Vauban into disgrace,
banished from the court Catinat/the Pcre la Pens**, "exiled"
to Cambral the too clear sighted Fenelon, and suspected Ratine-
of Jansenism and La Fontaine of independence.
Disease and famine; crushing imposts and extortions;
official debasement of the currency; bankruptcy; state prisons;
religious and political inquisition; suppression of all institutions
for the safe-guarding of rights; tyranny by the intendants;
royal, feudal and clerical oppression burdening every faculty
and every necessary of life; " monstrous and incurable luxury ";
the horrible drama of poison; the twofold adultery of Madame de
Montespan; and the narrow bigotry of Madame de Maintenon—*
all concurred to make the end of the reign a sad contrast with the
splendour of its beginning. When reading Moliere and Racine,
Bossuet and Fenelon, the campaigns of Turenne, or Colbert's
ordinances; when enumerating the countless literary and
scientific institutions of the great century; when considering the
port of Brest, the Canal du Midi, Perrault's colonnade of the
Louvre, Mansart's Invalides and the palace of Versailles, and
Vauban's fine fortifications — admiration is kindled for the
radiant splendour of Louis XIV.'s period. But the art arid
literature expressed by the genius of the masters, reflected in the
tastes of society, and to be taken by Europe as a model throughout
a whole century, are no criterion of the social and political order
of the day. They were but a magnificent drapery of pomp and
glory thrown across a background of poverty, ignorance, super-
stition, hypocrisy and cruelty; remove it, and reality appears in
all its brutal and sinister nudity. The corpse of Louis XIV.,
left to servants for disposal, and saluted all along the road to
Saint Denis by the curses of a noisy crowd sitting in the cabarets.
celebrating his death by drinking more than their fill as a com-
pensation for having suffered too much from hunger during his
lifetime— such was the coarse but sincere epitaph which popular
opinion placed on the tomb of the " Grand Monarque.*' The
nation, restive under his now broken yoke, received with a
joyous anticipation, which the future was to discount, the royal
infant whom they called Louis the Well-beloved, and whose
funeral sixty years later was to be greeted with the same proofs
of disillusionment.
The death of Louis XIV. closed a great era of French history;
the 18th century opens upon a crisis for the monarchy. From
1715 to 1723 came the reaction of the Regency, with its chsnat
marvellous effrontery, innovating spirit and frivolous of a*
immorality. From 1723 to 1743 came the mealy- •***•«**
mouthed despotism of Cardinal Fleury, and his "**
apathetic policy within and without the kingdom. From 1743
to 1 774 came the personal rule of Louis XV., when all the different
powers were in conflict— the bishops and parlement quarrelling,
the government fighting against the clergy and the magistracy,
and public opinion in declared opposition to the state. Till at
last, from 1774 to 1789, came Louis XVL with his honest fflusions.
846
FRANCS
IHJSTOfc?
his moral pusillanimity and his intellectual impotence, to
aggravate slili further the accumulated errors of ages and to
prepare for the inevitable Revolution
The iflth century, like the 17th, opened with a political
coup d'itat Lotus XV. was five years old, and the duke of
Tto Orleans held the agency. But Louis XIV. had in his
jr«MKr will delegated all the power of the government to a
council on which the duke of Maine, his legitimated
son, had the first, but Madame de Maintenon and the
Jesuits the predominant place. This collective administration,,
designed to cripple the action of the regent, encountered a two-
fold opposition from the nobles and the parlement; but on the
and of September 171s the emancipated parlement set, aside
the wiU in favour of the duke of Orleans, who thus together
with the title of regent had all the real power. He therefore
reinstituted the parlement in its ancient right of remonstrance
(suspended since the declarations of 1667 and 1673), and handed
over ministerial power to the nobility, replacing the secretaries
of state by six councils composed in part of great nobles, on the
advice of the famous due de Saint-Simon. The due dc Noailles,
president of the council of finance, had the direction of this
" Polysynodie."
The duke o{ Orleans, son of the princess palatine and Louis
XIV. 's brother, possessed many gifts— courage, intelligence
and agility of mind— but he lacked the one gift of
QgSSat, using these to good advantage. The political crisis
that had placed him in power had not put an end to
the financial crisis, and this, it was hoped, might be effected by
substituting partial and petty bankruptcies for the general
bankruptcy cynically advocated by Saint-Simon. The reduction
of the royal revenues did not suffice to fill the treasury; while
the' establishment of a chamber of justice (March 1716) had no
other result than that of demoralizing the great lords and ladies
already mad for pleasure, by bringing them into contact with
the farmers of the revenue who purchased impunity from them.
A very clever Scotch adventurer named John Law (q.v.) now
offered bis assistance in dealing with the enormous debt of more
than three milliards, and in providing the treasury. Being well
acquainted with the mechanism of banking, he had adopted
views as to cash, credit and the circulation of values which
contained an admixture of truth and falsehood. Authorized
after many difficulties to organize a private bank of deposit and
account, which being well conceived prospered and revived
commerce, Law proposed to lighten the treasury by the profits
accruing to a great maritime and colonial company. Payment
for the shares in this new Company of the West, with a capital
of a hundred millions, was to be made in credit notes upon the
government, converted Into 4% stock. These aggregated
funds, needed to supply the immense and fertile valley of the
Mississippi, and the annuities of the treasury destined to pay
for the shares, were non- transferable. Law's idea was to ask the
bank for the floating capital necessary, so that the bank and the
Company of the West were to be supplementary to each other;
this is what was called Law's system. After the chancellor
D'Aguesscau and the due do Noailles had been replaced by
D'Argenson alone, and after the lit de justice of the 26th of
August 1718 had deprived the parlement, hostile to Law, of the
authority left to it, the bank became royal and the Company
of the West universal. But the royal bank, as a state establish-
ment, asked for compulsory privilege to increase the emission
of its credit notes, and that they should receive a premium upon
all metallic specie. The Company of the Indies became the
grantee for the farming of tobacco, the coinage of metals, and
fanning in general*, and in order to procure funds it multiplied
the output o( shares, which were adroitly launched and became
more and more sought for on the exchange in the rue Quin-
campouc. This soon caused a frenzy of stock-jobbing, which
disturbed tho stability of private fortunes and social positions,
and depraved customs and manners with the seductive notion
of easily obtained riches. The nomination of Law to the con-
troller-generalship, re-established for his benefit on the resignation
of D'Argenson (January 5, 1 720), let loose still wilder speculation;
till the day came when he could no longer face the terror
difficulty of meeting both private irredeemable shares »»tt 1
variable return, and the credit notes redeemable at sight i=j
guaranteed by the state. Gold and silver were proscribed
the bank and the company were joined in one, the credit zjcg
and the shares were assimilated. But credit cannot be ccr.
manded either by violence or by expedients; between )c\j
and September 1720 came the suspension of payments, the
flight of Law, and the disastrous liquidation which proved cro>
again that respect for the state's obligations had not yet enterrj
into the law of public finance.
Reaction on a no less extensive scale characterized forriea
policy during the Regency. A close alliance between Franc:
and her ancient enemies, England and Holland, was
concluded and maintained from 1717 to 17JO. France,
after thirty years of fighting, between two periods of
bankruptcy; Holland reinstalled in her commercial
position; and England, seeing before her the beginning of hrr
empire over the seas— all three had an interest in peace. On the
other hand, peace was imperilled by Philip V. of Spain and b>
the emperor (who had accepted the portion assigned to them
by the treaty of Utrecht, while claiming the whole), by Savoy
and Brandenburg (who had profited too much by Europcsc
conflicts not to desire their perpetuation), by the crisis frca
which the maritime powers of the Baltic were suffering, and ty
the Turks on the Danube. The dream of Cardinal AlberorL
Philip V.'s minister, was to set fire to all this inflammable
material in order to snatch therefrom a crown of some sort tc
satisfy the maternal greed of Elizabeth Faruese; and this fee
might have attained by the occupation of Sardinia and the
expedition to Sicily (17x7-1718), if Dubois, a priest without a
religion, a greedy parvenu and a diplomatist of second rank,
though tenacious and full of resources as a minister, had not
placed his common sense at the disposal of the regent's interests
and those of European peace. He signed the triple alliance at
the Hague, succeeding with the assistance of Stanhope, the
English minister, in engaging the emperor therein, after attempt-
ing this for a year and a naif. Whilst the Spanish fleet wis
destroyed before Syracuse by Admiral Byng, the intrigue of
the Spanish ambassador Cellamare with the duke of Maine to
exclude the family of Orleans from the succession on Louis XY.'s
death was discovered and repressed; and Marshal Berwick
burned the dockyards at Pasajes in Spain. Alberoni's dream
was shattered by the treaty of London in 1720.
Seized in his turn with a longing for the cardinal's hat, Dubois
paid for it by the registering of the bull Unigotilus and by tbr
persecution of the Janscnists which the regent had stopped.
After the majority of Louis XV. had been proclaimed on the 161b
of February 1723, Dubois was the first to depart; and four
months after his disappearance the duke of Orleans, exhausted
by his excesses, carried with him into the grave that spirit of
reform which he had compromised by his frivolous voluptuous-
ness (December 2, 1723).
The Regency had been the making of the house of Orleans;
thenceforward the question was how to humble it, and the due
de Bourbon, now prime minister — a great-grandson jmahny
of the great Condi, but a narrow-minded man of o/<Ae
limited intelligence, led by a worthless woman— j^j^_
set himself to do so. The marquise de Prie was the *""*—'
first of a series of publicly recognized mistresses; from 1723
to 1726 she directed foreign policy and internal affairs despite
the king's majority, moved always more by a spirit of vengeance
than by ambition. This sad pair were dominated by the self-
interested and continual fear of becoming subject to the son of
the Regent,' whom they detested; but danger came upon them
from elsewhere. They found standing in their way the very
man who had been the author of their fortunes, Louis XV. '$
tutor, uneasy in the exercise of a veiled authority; for the
churchman Flcury knew how to wait, on condition of ultimately
attaining his end. Neither the festivities given at Chant illy
in honour of the king, nor the dismissal (despite the most sokmn
promises) of the Spanish infanta, who had been betrothed
HISTORY]
FRANCE
847
to Louis XV., nor yet the young king's marriage to Maria
Leszczynska (1725)— a marriage negotiated by the marquise
de Prie in order to bar the throne from the Orleans family—
could alienate the sovereign from his old master. The irritation
kept up by the agents of Philip V., incensed by this affront,
auid the discontent aroused by the institutions of the cinquanlUme
and the militia, by the re-establishment of the feudal tax on
Louis XV.'s joyful accession, and by the resumption of a persecu-
tion of the Protestants and the Jansenists which had apparently
died out, were cleverly exploited by Fleury; and a last ill-timed
attempt by the queen to separate the king from him brought
•about the fall of the due de Bourbon, very opportunely for
France, in June 1726.
From the hands of his unthinking pupil Fleury eventually
received the supreme direction of affairs, which he retained for
Cmtiiuul ttventeen years. He was aged seventy-two when
Pimm ne tous obtained the power which had been his un-
"2*- measured though not ill-calculated ambition. Soft-
* 743 ' spoken and polite, crafty and suspicious, he was
pacific by temperament and therefore allowed politics to slumber.
His turn for economics made Orry, 1 the controller-general of
finance, for long his essential partner. The latter laboured at
re-establishing order in fiscal affairs; and various measures
like the impost of the dixQme upon all property save that of the
clergy, together with the end of the corn famine, sufficed to
restore a certain amount of well-being. Religious peace was
more difficult to secure; in fact politico-religious quarrels
dominated all the internal policy of the kingdom during forty
years, and gradually compromised the royal authority. The
Jesuits, returned to power in 1723 with the due de Bourbon
and in 1726 with Fleury, rekindled the old Strife regarding the
bull Unigcnitm in opposition to the Gallicans and the Jansenists.
The retractation imposed upon Cardinal de Noallles, and his
replacement in the archbishopric of Paris by Vintimille, an
unequivocal Molinist, excited among the populace a very
violent agitation against the court of Rome and the Jesuits,
the prelude to a united Fronde of the Sorbonne and the parlement.
Fleury found no other remedy for this agitation— in which
appeal was made even to miracles— than lits de justice and Utircs
de cachet; Jansenism remained a potent source of trouble
within the heart of Catholicism.
This worn-out septuagenarian, who prized rest above every-
thing, imported into foreign policy the same mania for economy
and the same sloth in action. He naturally adopted
the idea of reconciling Louis XIV.'s descendants,
who had all been embroiled ever since the Polish
marriage. He succeeded in this by playing very
adroitly on the ambition of Elizabeth Farnese and her husband
Philip V., who was to reign in France notwithstanding
any renunciation that might have taken place. Despite
the birth of a dauphin (September 1729), which cut short the
Spanish intrigues, the reconciliation was a lasting one (treaty of
Seville); it led to common action in Italy, and to the installation
of Spanish- royalties at Parma, Piacenza, and soon after at
Naples. Fleury, supported by the English Hanoverian alliance,
to which he sacrificed the French navy, obliged the emperor
Charles VI. to sacrifice the trade of the Austrian Netherlands to
the maritime powers and Central Italy to the Bourbons, in
order to gain recognition for his Pragmatic Sanction. The
question of the succession in France lay dormant until the end
of the century, and Fleury thought he had definitely obtained
peace in. the treaty of Vienna (1731).
The war of the Polish succession proved him to have been
deceived. On the death of Augustus II. of Saxony, king of
Poland, Louis XV.'s father-in-law had been proclaimed king by
the Polish diet. This was an ephemeral success, ill-prepared
and obtained by taking a sudden advantage of national senti-
ment; it was soon followed by a check, owing to a Russian and
Mean Orry Louis Orry de Fulvy (1703-1751), counsel to the
parlement in I723,intcndant of finances in 1737, founded at Vincennes
the manufactory of porcelain which was bought in 1750 by the
farmers general and transferred to Sevres.
German coalition and the baseness of Cardinal Fleury, who, in
order to avoid intervening, pretended to tremble before an
imaginary threat of reprisals on the part of England. Watmft ^
But Chauvelin, the keeper of the seals, supported by pauJt
public opinion, avenged on the Rhine and the Po the smom-
unlucky heroism of the comte de PI6I0 at Danzig, 1 the JjjJJj?**'*
vanished dream of the queen, the broken word of Louis
XV., and the treacherous abandonment of Poland. Fleury never
forgave him for this: Chauvelin had checkmated him with war;
he checkmated Chauvelin with peace, and hastened to replace
Marshals Berwick and Villars by diplomatists. The third
treaty of Vienna (1738), the reward of so much effort, would only
have claimed for France the little duchy of Bar, had not Chauvelin
forced Louis XV. to obtain Lorraine for his father-in-law— still
hoping for the reversion of the crown; but Fleury thus rendered
impossible any influence of the queen, and held Stanislaus at
his mercy. In order to avenge himself upon Chauvelin he
sacrificed him to the cabinets of Vienna and London, alarmed
at seeing him revive the national tradition in Italy.
Fleury hardly had time to breathe before a new conflagration
broke out in the east. The Russian empress Anne and the
emperor Charles VI. had planned to begin dismember-
ing the Turkish empire. More fortunate than Plelo, 2j terw
Villeneuve, the French ambassador at Constantinople, qmstioo.
endeavoured to postpone this event, and was well
supported; he revived the courage of the Turks and provided
them with arms, thanks to the comte de Bonneval (?.».), one
of those adventurers of high renown whose influence in Europe
during the first half of the eighteenth century is one of the
most piquant features of that period. The peace of Belgrade
(September 1739) w *s> by its renewal of the capitulations, a
great material success for France, and a great moral victory by
the rebuff to Austria and Russia.
France had become once more the arbiter of Europe, when
the death of the emperor Charles VI. in 1740 opened up a new
period of wars and misfortunes for Europe and for watottbt
the pacific Fleury. Every one had signed Charles VI.'s AustrUa
Pragmatic Sanction, proclaiming the succession-rights Sue**
of his daughter, the archduchess Maria Theresa; but ****•
on his death there was a general renunciation of signatures
and an attempt to divide the heritage. The safety of the
house of Austria depended on the attitude of France; for
Austria could no longer harm her. Fleury 's inclination was
not to misuse France's traditional policy by exaggerating it,
but to respect his sworn word; he dared not press his opinion,
however, and yielded to the fiery impatience of young hot-heads
like the two Belle-Isles, and of all those who, infatuated by
Frederick II., felt sick of doing nothing at Versailles and were
backed up by Louis XV.'s bellicose mistresses. He had to
experience the repeated defections of Frederick II. in his own
interests, and the precipitate retreat from Bohemia. He had to
humble himself before Austria and the whole of Europe; and it
was high time for Fleury, now fallen into second childhood, to
vanish from the scene (January 1743).
Louis XV. was at last to become his own prime minister
and to reign alone; but in reality he was more embarrassed
than pleased by the responsibility incumbent upon him.
He therefore retained the persons who had composed
Fleury's staff; though instead of being led by a single
one of them, he fell into the hands of several, who
disputed among themselves for the ascendancy: Maurepas,
incomparable in little things, but neglectful of political affairs;
D'Argenson, bold, and strongty attached to his work as minister
1 Louis Robert Hippolyte de Brehan, comte de Plelo (1699-1734).
a Breton by birth, originally a soldier, was fit jthe time of the siege
of Danzig French ambassador to Denmark. Enraged at the return
to Copenhagen, without having done anything, of the French force
sent to help Stanislaus, he himself led it back to Danzig and fell in ah
attack on the Russians on the 27th of May I7£4- Plelo was a poet
of considerable charm, and well-read both in science and literature.
Sec Marquis de Brehan, he Comte de. Plelo (Nantes. 1874); R-
Rathery, he Comte de Plito (Paris, 1876); and P. Boye, Stanislaus
Ltsxaynski tt It troisicme Iraki de Vienne (Paris, 1898).
848
FRANC?
IH1STDKI
of war; and the cardinal de Tencin, a frivolous and worldly
priest. Old Marshal de Noailles tried to incite Louis XV. to
take his kingship in earnest, thinking to cure him by war of his
effeminate passions; and, in the spring of 1744, the king's
grave illness aWMetz gave a momentary hope of reconciliation
between him and the deserted queen. But the due dc Richelieu,
a roue" who had joined hands with the sisters of the house of
Nesle and was jealous of Marshal dc Noailles, soon regained
his lost ground; and, under the influence of this pandcrer to
his pleasures, Louis XV. settled down into a life of vice. Holding
aloof from active affairs, he tried to relieve the incurable boredom
of satiety in the violent exercise of hunting, in supper-parties
with his intimates, and in spicy indiscretions. Brought up
religiously and to shun the society of women, his first experiences
in adultery had been made with many scruples and intermittently.
Little by little, however, jealous of power, yet incapable of
exercising it to any purpose, he sank into a sensuality which
became utterly shameless under the influence of his chief mistress
the duchesse de Chatcauroux.
Hardly had a catastrophe snatched her away in the zenith
of her power when complete corruption and the flagrant triumph
of egoism supervened with the accession to power of
the marquise de Pompadour, and for nearly twenty
years (1745-1764) the whims and caprices of this
little bourgeoise ruled the realm. A prime minister
in petticoats, she had her political system: reversed the time-
honoured alliances of France, appointed or disgraced ministers,
directed fleets and armies, concluded treaties, and failed in all
her enterprises! She was the queen of fashion in a society
where corruption blossomed luxuriantly and exquisitely, and
in a century of wit hers was second to none. Amidst this
extraordinary instability, when everything was at the mercy
of a secret thought of the master, the mistress alone held lasting
sway; in a reign of all-pervading satiety and tedium, she
managed to remain indispensable and bewitching to the day
of her death.
Meanwhile the War of the Austrian Succession broke out
again, and never had secretary of slate more intricate questions
to solve than had D'Argcnson. In the attempt
AtxJa^ f i0 ma ^ e a stagc-c m Pcror f Charles Albert of Bavaria,
fbaaaJla. defeat was incurred at Dettingen, and the French
were driven back on the Rhine ( 1 743)- The Bavarian
dream dissipated, victories gained in Flanders by Marshal Saxe,
another adventurer of genius, at Fontenoy, Raucoux and
Lawfcld (1745-1747), were hailed with joy as continuing those
of Louis XIV.; even though they resulted in the loss of Germany
and the doubling of English armaments. The " disinterested "
peace of Aix-la-Chapclle (October 1748) had no effectual result
other than that of destroying in Germany, and for the benefit
of Prussia, a balance of power that had yet to be secured in
Italy, despite the establishment of the Spanish prince Philip at
Parma. France, meanwhile, was beaten at sea by England,
Maria Theresa's sole ally. While founding her colonial empire
England had come into collision with France; and the rivalry
of the Hundred Years' War had immediately sprung up again
between the two countries. Engaged already in both Canada
and in India (where Dupleix was founding an empire with a
mere handful of men), it was to France's interest not to become
involved in war upon the Rhine, thus falling into England's
continental trap. She did fall into it, however: for the sake of
conquering Silesia for the king of Prussia, Canada was left exposed
by the capture of Cape Breton; while in order to restore this
Same Silesia to Maria Theresa, Canada was lost and with it India.
France had worked for the king of Prussia from 1740 to
1748; now it was' Maria Theresa's game that was played in
r*«Sfvv« tne Seven Years' War. In 1755, the English having
Ytan' made a sudden attack upon the French at sea, and
War, Frederick II. having by a fresh voile-fact passed into
17«? alliance with Great Britain, Louis XV.'s government
accepted an alliance with Maria Theresa in the treaty
of the 1st of May 1 756. Instead of remaining upon the defensive
in this continental war— merely accessory as »t was— he made
it his chief affair, and placed himself under the petticoat govern-
ment of three women, Maria Theresa, Elizabeth of Russia arul .be
marquise de Pompadour. This error — the worst of all — laid iU
foundations of the Prussian and British empires. By thin
battles, victories for the enemies of France — Ro&sbach la
Germany, 1757, Piassey in India, 1757, and Quebec in Cacali.
1759 (owing to the recall of Dupleix, who was not bringing ,2
large enough dividends to the Company of the Indies, and t:
the abandonment of Montcalm, who could not interest any ere
in " a few acres of snow "), the expansion of Prussia was assure*!
and the British relieved of French rivalry in the expansion a
their empire in India and on the North American continent.
Owing to the blindness of Louis XV. and the vanity of tU
favourite, the treaties of Paris and Hubert usburg (176^) c*kc
more proved the French splendid in their conceptions, TnMtirs si
but deficient in action. Moreover, Choiscul, secret a ry Paris ***
of state for foreign affairs since 1758, made out of this ?**** m *
deceptive Austrian alliance a system which put the * anr *
finishing touch to disaster; and after having thrown a«a>
everything to satisfy Maria Theresa's hatred of Frederick II.,
the reconciliation between these two irreconcilable Germans £i
Ncisse and at Neusladt (1769- 17 70) was witnessed by France.
to the prejudice of Poland, one of her most ancient adherents.
The expedient .of the Family Compact, concluded with Sp-^
in 1761 — with a view to taking vengeance upon England, who*
fleets were a continual thorn in the side to Frances — served orly
to involve Spain hcrseir in misfortune. Choiscul, who at leust
had a policy that was sometimes in the right, and who was very
anxious to carry it out, then realized that the real quarrel hid
to be settled with England. Amid the anguish of defeat and of
approaching ruin, he had an acute sense of the actualities of
the case, and from 1763 to 1766 devoted himself passionately
to the reconstruction of the navy. To compensate for the Icsa
of the colonics he annexed Lorraine (1766), and by the acquisitk n
of Corsica in 1768 he gave France an intermediary position is
the Mediterranean, between friendly Spain and Italy, looking
forward to the time when it should become a stepping-stone to
Africa.
But Louis XV. had two policies. The incoherent efforts
which he made to repair by the secret diplomacy of the comte
de Broglie the evils caused by his official policy only ^_ _
aggravated his shortcomings and betrayed his weak-
ness. The contradictory intrigues of the king's
secret proceedings in the candidature of Prince Xavier,
the dauphine's brother, and the patriotic efforts of the confedera-
tion of Bar, contributed to bring about the Polish crisis which
the partition of 1772 resolved in favour of Frederick II.; and
the Turks were in their turn dragged into the same disastrous
affair. Of the old allies of France, Choiscul preserved at least
Sweden by the coup d'Ual of Gustavus HI.; but instead of being
as formerly the centre of great affairs, the cabinet of Versailles
lost all its credit, and only exhibited before the eyes of con-
temptuous Europe France's extreme stale of decay.
The nation felt this humiliation, and showed all the greater
irritation as the want of cohesion in the government and the
anarchy in the central authority became more and
more intolerable in home affairs. Though the adminis- JjJS^J
t rat ion still possessed a fund of tradition and a Lamia xv.
personnel which, including many men of note, protected
it from the enfeebling influence of the court, it looked as though
chance regulated everything so far as the government was
concerned. These fluctuations were owing partly to the character
of Louis XV., and partly also to the fact that society in the iSth
century was too advanced In its ideas to sub mil without resistance
to the caprice of such a man. His mistresses were not the only
cause of this; for ever since Fleury's advent political parties
had come to the fore. From 1740 to 1757 the party of religious
devotees grouped round the queen and the king's daughters,
wiih the dauphin as chief and the comic D'Argcnson and
Machault d'Arnouville, keeper of the seals, as lieutenants, had
worked against Madame dc Pompadour (who leant for support
upon the parlemcnts, the Jansenists and the philosophers)
msroBM FRANCE
mMid bad gained the upper band.. Thenceforward poverty,
disorders, and consequently murmurs increased. The financial
reform attempted by Machault d'Arnouville between 1745
and 1740— a reduction of the debt through the impost of the
twentieth and the edict of 1749 against the extensive pro-
perty held in mortmain by the Church— after his disgrace only
resulted. in failure. The army, which D'Argenson (likewise
dismissed by Madame de Pompadour) had been from 1743 to
a 747 trying to restore by useful reforms, was riddled by cabals.
Half the people in the kingdom were dying of hunger, while
the court was insulting poverty by its luxury and waste; and
from 1750 onwards political ferment was everywhere manifest.
It found all the more favourable foothold in that the Church,
the State's best ally, had made herself more and more unpopular.
Her refusal of the sacraments to those who would not accept
the bull Unigcnitus (1746) was exploited in the eyes of the
masses, as in those of more enlightened people was her selfish
and short-sighted resistance to the financial plans of Machault.
The general discontent was expressed by the parlcments in their
attempt to establish a political supremacy amid universal
confusion, and by the popular voice in pamphlets recalling by
their violence those of the League. Every one expected and
desired a speedy revolution that should put an end to a policy
which alternated between overheated effervescence, abnormal
activity and lethargy. Nothing can better show the point to
which things had descended than the attempted assassination
of Louis the Well-beloved by Damicns in 1757.
Choiseul was the means of accelerating this revolution, not
only by his abandonment of diplomatic traditions, but still
_^_«_^» more by his improvidence and violence. • He reversed
the policy of his predecessors in regard to the parlemcnt.
Supported by public opinion, which clamoured for guarantees
against abitrary power, the parlcments had dared not only to
insist on being consulted as to the budget of the state in 1763,
but to enter upon a confederation throughout the whole of
France, and on repeated occasions to ordain a general strike
of the judicial authorities. Choiscul did not hesitate to attack
through liis de justice or by exile a judiciary oligarchy which
doubtless rested its pretensions merely on wealth, high birth,
or that encroaching spirit that was the only counteracting
agency to the monarchy. Louis XV., wearied with their clamour,
called them to order. Choiseul's religious policy was no less
venturesome ; after the condemnation in 1759 of the Jesuits
who were involved in the bankruptcy of Father de la Valcttc,
their general, in the Antilles, he had the order dissolved for
refusing to modify its constitution (1761-1764). Thus, not
content with encouraging writers with innovating ideas to the
prejudice of traditional institutions, he attacked, in the order
of the Jesuits, the strongest defender of these latter, and delivered
over the new generation to revolutionary doctrines.
A woman had elevated him into power; a woman brought
him to the ground. He succumbed to a coalition of the chancellor
n#1ML Maupeou, the due d'Aiguillon and the Abbe" Terray,
mmrkmt* which depended on the favour of the king's latest
mo- mistress, Madame du Barry (December 1770); and
17749 the Jesuits were avenged by a stroke of authority
similar to that by which they themselves had suffered. Following
on an edict registered by the lit de justice, which forbade any
remonstrance in political matters, the parlement had resigned,
and had been imitated by the provincial parlements; whereupon
Maupeou, an energetic chancellor, suppressed the parlements
and substituted superior councils of magistrates appointed by
the king (1771). This reform was justified by the religious
intolerance of the parlements; by their scandalous trials of
Calas, Pierre Paul Sirven (1700-1777), the chevalier de la Barre
and the comte de Lally; by the retrograde spirit that had made
them suppress the Encyclopaedia in 1759 and condemn £mile
in 1762; and by their selfishness in perpetuating abuses by
which they profited. But this reform, being made by the minister
of a hated sovereign, only aided in exasperating public opinion,
which was grateful to the parlements in that their remonstrances
bad not always been fruitless.
x 1**
8+9
Thus all the buttresses of the monarchical institution began
to fall to pieces: the Church, undermined by the heresy of
Jansenism, weakened by the inroads of philosophy, Aa< j 0ai
discredited by evil-livers among the priesthood, and iaOoeac**
divided against itself, like all losing parties; the «nrf/«*i#-
nobility of the court, still brave at heart, though tMontt
incapable of exertion and reduced to beggary, having lost all
respect for discipline and authority, not only in the camp, but in
civilian society; and the upper-class officials, narrow-minded
and egotistical, unsettling by their opposition the royal authority
which they pretended to safeguard. Even the " liberties,"
among the few representative institutions which the ancicn
ri&ime had left intact in some provinces, turned against the
people. The estates opposed most of the intelligent and humane
measures proposed by such intendants as Toumy and Turgot
to relieve the peasants, whose distress was very great; they did
their utmost to render the selfishness of the privileged classes
more oppressive and vexatious.
Thus the terrible prevalence of poverty and want; the
successive famines; the mistakes of the government; the
scandals of the Pare aux Cerfs; and the parlements T .
playing the Roman senate: all these causes, added &£"
together and multiplied, assisted in setting a general
fermentation to work. The philosophers only helped to pre-
cipitate a movement which they had not created; with-
out pointing to absolute power as the cause of the trouble,
and without pretending to upset the traditional system, they
attempted to instil into princes the feeling of new and more
prcdseobligations towards their subjects. Voltaire, Montesquieu,
the Encyclopaedists and the Physiocrats (recurring to the
tradition of Bayle and Fontenelle), by dissolving in their analyti-
cal crucible all consecrated beliefs and all fixed institutions,
brought back into the human society of the iSth century that
humanity which bad been so rudely eliminated. They demanded
freedom of thought and belief with passionate insistence; they
ardently discussed institutions and conduct; and they imported
into polemics the idea of natural rights superior to all political
arrangements. Whilst some, like Voltaire and the Physiocrats,
representatives of the privileged classes and careless of political
rights, wished to make use of the omnipotence of the prince
to accomplish desirable reforms, or, like Montesquieu, adversely
criticized despotism and extolled moderate governments,
other, plebeians like Rousseau, proclaimed the theory of the
social contract and the sovereignty of the people. So that during
this reign of frivolity and passion, so bold in conception and so
poor in execution, the thinkers contributed still further to mark
the contrast between grandeur of plan and mediocrity of result.
The preaching of all this generous philosophy, not only in
France, but throughout the whole of Europe, would have been in
vain had there not existed at the time a social class interested
in these great changes, and capable of compassing them. Neither
the witty and lucid form in which the philosophers clothed
their ideas in their satires, romances, stage-plays and treatises,
nor the salons of Madame du Deffand, Madame Geoffrin and
Mademoiselle de Lespinasse, could possibly have been sufficiently
far-reaching or active centres of political propaganda. The
former touched only the more highly educated classes; while
to the latter, where privileged individuals alone had entry,
novelties were but an undiluted stimulant for the jaded appetites
of persons whose ideas of good-breeding, moreover, would have
drawn the line at martyrdom.
The class which gave the Revolution its chiefs, its outward
and visible forms, and the irresistible energy of its hopes, was
the bourgeoisie, intelligent, ambitious and rich; in Tk0bome ,
the forefront the capitalists and financiers of the haute g*olste-
bourgeoisic, farmers-general and army contractors, the/near*
who had supplanted or swamped the old landed and ^JjTLiL
military aristocracy, had insensibly reconstructed the
interior of the ancient social edifice with the gilded and incon-
gruous materials of wealth, and in order to consolidate
or increase their monopolies, needed to secure themselves
against the arbitrary action of royalty and the bureaucracy.
850
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pusraf
Next came the crowd of stockholders and creditors of the state,
who, in face of the government's " extravagant anarchy," no
longer felt safe from partial or total bankruptcy. More powerful
still, and more masterful, was the commercial, industrial and
colonial bourgeoisie; because under the Regency and under
Louis XV. they had been more productive and more creative:
Having gradually revolutionized the whole economic system,
in Paris, in Lyons, in Nantes, in Bordeaux, in Marseilles, they
could not tamely put up with being excluded from public affairs,
which had so much bearing upon their private or collective
enterprises. Finally, behind this bourgeoisie, and afar off, came
the crowd of serfs, rustics whom the acquisition of land had
gradually enfranchised, and who were the more eager to enjoy
their definitive liberation because it was close at hand.
The habits and sentiments of French society showed similar
changes. From having been almost exclusively national during
Traa*- L *"* XIV/s reign, owing to the perpetual state
forwa'iha of war and to a sort of proud isolation, it had gradually
oleum' become cosmopolitan. After the peace of Aix-la-
a*r% sad ChapeUe, France had been flooded from all quarters
custom* of ihe ^y^^j wor id t but especially from England,
by a concourse of refined and cultured men well acquainted
with her usages and her universal language, whom she had
received sympathetically. Paris became the brain of Europe.
This revolution in manners and customs, coinciding with the
revolution in ideas, led in its turn to a transformation in feeling,
and to new aesthetic needs. Gradually people became sick of
openly avowed gallantry, of shameless libertinism, of moral
obliquity and of the flattering artifices of vice; a long shudder
ran through the selfish torpor of the social body. ' After reading
the Nouvellc-Hiloise, Clarissa and Sir Charles Crandison,
fatigued and wearied society revived as though beneath the
fresh breezes of dawn. The principle of examination, the
reasoned analysis of human conditions and the discussion of
causes, far from culminating in disillusioned nihilism, every-
where aroused the democratic spirit, the life of sentiment and
of human feeling: in the drama, with Marivaux, Diderot and
La Chaussee; in art, with Chardin and Greuze; and in the
salons, in view of the suppression of privilege. So that to
Louis XV. 's cynical and hopeless declaration: "Aprcs moi
le deluge," the setting 18th century responded by a belief in
progress and an appeal to the future. A long-drawn echo from
all classes hailed a revolution that was possible because it was
necessary.
If this revolution did not burst forth sooner, in the actual
lifetime of Louis XV., if in Louis XVI.'s reign there was a
renewal of loyalty to the king, before the appeal to liberty was
made, that is to be explained by this hope of recovery. But
Louis XVI.'s reign (1774-1702) was only to be a temporary
halting-place, an artifice of history for passing through the
transition period whilst elaborating the transformation which
was to revolutionize, together with France, the whole world.
Louis XVI. was twenty years of age. * Physically he was
stout, and a slave to the Bourbon fondness for good living;
LoutaXVL intellectually a poor creature and but ill-educated,
he loved nothing so much as hunting and lock-
smith's work. .He had a taste for puerile amusements, a
mania for useless little domestic economies in a court where
millions vanished like smoke, and a natural idleness which
achieved as its masterpiece the keeping a diary from 1766 to
1792 of a life so tragic, which was yet but a foolish chronicle
of trifles. Add to this that he was a virtuous husband, a kind
father, a fervent Christian and a good-natured man full of
excellent intentions, yet a spectacle of moral pu sil la n i mi ty and
ineptitude.
From 1770 onwards lived side by side with this king, rather
than at his side, the archduchess Marie Antoinette of Austria —
one of the very graceful and very frivolous women
who were to be found at Versailles, opening to life
like the flowers she so much loved, enamoured of
pleasure and luxury, delighting to free herself from
the formalities of court life, and mingling in the amusements
of society; lovable and loving, without ceasing to be vtrtaaa
Flattered and adored at the outset, she very soon furshH 1
sinister illustration to Beaumarchais' Basile; for evil teapa
began to calumniate the queen: those of her brothen-is-hv
the due d'Aiguillon (protector of Madame du Barry and dwip^ri
from the ministry), and the Cardinal de Rohan, recalled ire
his embassy in Vienna. She was blamed for her friend^
with the comtesse de Polignac, who loved her only as the dispra?
of titles and positions; and when weary of this persist-
begging for rewards, she was taxed with her preference .'.-
foreigners who asked nothing. People brought up against ie
the debts and expenditure due to her belief in the inexhaciM:.
resources of France; and hatred became definite whea •,>•
was suspected of trying to imitate her mother Maria Theresa ml
play the part of ruler, since her husband neglected his duty. T?l~
then became persuaded that it was she who caused the weight cJ
taxation; in the most infamous libels comparison was esa
between her freedom of behaviour and that of Louis XV >.
former mistresses. Private envy and public mlsconcepuss
very soon summed up her excessive unpopularity in the mrnarr;
nickname, " L'Autrichicnne." * (See Majqe Antoinette.)
All this shows that- Louis XVI. was not a monarch capttfe
of directing or suppressing the inevitable revolution. Hs
reign was but a tissue of contradictions. External pm-
affairs seemed in even a more dangerous position than gm*? ti
those at home. Louis XVI. confided to Vergennea *-—*
the charge of reverting to the traditions of the crown -* 1 *
and raising France from the humiliation suffered by the iztvj
of Paris and the partition of Poland. His first act was to rtkax
French policy from the Austrian alliance of 1756; in this k
was aided both by public opinion and by the confidence of tte
king — the latter managing to set aside the desires of the quen.
whom the ambition of Maria Theresa and Joseph II. hoped to
use as an auxiliary. Vergennes' object was a double one: to
free the kingdom from English supremacy and to shake off the
yoke of Austria. Opportunities offered themselves smd-
taneously. In 1 7 75 the English colonies in America rebelled. asd
Louis XVL, after giving them secret aid and encouragemest
almost from the first, finally in February 1778, despite Man*
Antoinette, formed an open alliance with them; while when
Joseph II., after having partitioned Poland, wanted in addition to
balance the loss of Silesia with that of Bavaria, Vergennes pre-
vented him from doing so. In vain was he offered a share in the
partition of the Netherlands by way of an inducement, France's
disinterested action in the peace of Teschen (17 79) restored to ber
the lost adherence of the secondary states. Europe began to
respect her again when she signed a Franco-Dutch-Spasish
alliance (1770-1780), and when, after the capitulation of tfcs
English at Yorktown, the peace of Versailles (1783) crowned
her efforts . w : th at least formal success. Thenceforward,
partly from prudence and partly from penury, Vcrgenaes
cared only for the maintenance of peace— a not too easy task,
in opposition to the greed of Catherine II. and Joseph II., who
now wished to divide the Ottoman empire. Joseph II., recognix-
ing that Louis XVI. would not sacrifice the " sick man " to hua,
raised the question of the opening of the Scheldt, against the
Dutch. Vainly did Joseph II. accuse his sister of ingratitude
and complain of her resistance; the treaty of Fontainebleau is
1785 maintained the rights of Holland. Later on, Joseph II.,
sticking to his point, wanted to settle the house of Bavaria
in the Netherlands; but Louis XVI. supported the confederation
of princes (Fttrstenbund) which Frederick II. called together
in order to keep his turbulent neighbour within bounds. Ver-
gennes completed his work by signing a commercial treaty
in 1786 with England, whose commerce and industry were
favoured above others, and a second in 1787 with Russia. He
died in 1787, at an opportune moment for himself; though
he had temporarily raised France's position in Europe, his
work was soon ruined by the very means taken to secure its
successes: warfare and armaments had hastened the " hideous
bankruptcy."
From the very beginning of his. reign Louis XVI. fell into
MSTORY)
FRANCE
«5i
sntxadictiow and hesitation in internal affairs, which coold
not but bring him to grief. He tried first of all to
oOoro/ govern in accordance with public opinion, and was
T -rr xvi induced to flatter it beyond measure; in an extreme
of inconsistency he re-established the paricments,
he wont enemies of reform, at the very moment when he was
ailing in the reformers to his councils.
Turgot, the most notable of these latter, was well fitted to
•lay bis great part as an enlightened minister, as much from
the principle of hard work and domestic economy
traditional in his family, as from a maturity of mind
developed by extensive study at the Sorbonne and
by frequenting the salons 0! the Encyclopaedists.
le had proved this by his capable administration in the' pay r
master's office at Limoges, from 1761 to 17 74. A disciple of
}uesnay and of Gournay, he tried to repeat in great affairs the
xperience of liberty which he had found successful in small,
nd to fortify the unity of the .nation and the government
>y social, political and economic reforms. He ordained the
ree circulation of grain within the kingdom, and was supported
>y Louis XVI. in the course of the flour-war (guarc da farina)
April-May 1775); he substituted a territorial subsidy for the
oyal corott—ta burdensome upon the peasants— and thus
.ended to abolish privilege in the matter of imposts; and he
established the freedom of industry by the dissolution of
privileged trade corporations (1776). Finance was in a deplorable
Hate, and as controller-general he formulated a new fiscal policy,
consisting of neither fresh taxation nor loans, but of retrenchment.
At one fell stroke the two auxiliaries on which he had a right
to count failed him: public opinion, clamouring for reform on
condition ol not paying the cost; and the king, too timid to
dominate public opinion, and not knowing bow to refuse the
demands of privilege. Economy in the matter of public finance
implies a grain of severity in the collection of taxes as well as in
expenditure. By the former Turgot hampered the great interests;
by the second he thwarted the desires of courtiers not only of
the second rank but of the first. Therefore, after he had aroused
the complaints of the commercial world and the bourgeoisie,
the court, headed by Marie Antoinette, profited by the general
excitement to overthrow hint. The Choiseul party, which had
gradually been reconstituted, under the influence of the queen,
the princes, parlement, the prebendaries, and the trade corpora-
tions, worked adroitly to eliminate this reformer of lucrative
abuses. The old courtier Maurepas, jealous of Turgot and
desirous of remaining a minister himself, refrained from defending
his colleague; and when Turgot, who never knew bow to give
in, spoke of establishing assemblies of freeholders in the communes
and the provinces, in order to relax the tension of over-centraliza-
tion, Louis XVI., who never dared to pass from sentiment to
action, sacrificed his minister to the rancour of the queen, as
he had already sacrificed Maleshcrbes (1776). Thus the first
governmental act of the queen was an error, and dissipated
the hope of replacing special privileges by a general guarantee
given to the nation, which alone could have postponed a revolu-
tion. It was still too early for a Fourth of August; but the
queen's victory was none the less vain, since Turgot's ideas
wer* taken up by his successors.
The first of these was Necker, a Cenevcse financier. More
able than Turgot, though a man of smaller ideas, he abrogated
the edicts registered by the lils de justice; and unable
or not daring to attack the evil at its root, he thought
he could suppress its symptoms by a curative process
of borrowing and economy. Like Turgot h* failed,
and for the same reasons. The American war had finally
exhausted the exchequer, and, in order to replenish ft, he would
have needed to inspire confidence in the minds of capitalists;
but the resumption in 1778 of the plan of provincial assemblies
charged with remodelling the various imposts, and his tomptc-
rendu in which he exhibited the monarchy paying its pensioners
for their inactivity & it had never paid its agents for their seal,
aroused a fresh outburst of anger. Nccker was carried away in
bis turn by the reaction he bad helped to bring about (1781).
1774-
1761.
Having fought the oligarchy of privilege, the monarchy next
tried to rally it to its side, and all the springs of the old regime
were strained to the breaking-point. The military Ttuntura
rule of the marquis de Segur eliminated the plebeians o/AmteA
from the army; while the great lords, drones in the ****'**
hive, worked with a kind of fever at the enforcement •*■****
of their seigniorial rights; the feudal system was making
a last struggle before dying. The Church claimed her right
of ordering the civil estate of all Frenchmen as an absolute
mistress more strictly than ever. Joly de Fleury and D'Ormesson,
Keeker's successors, pushed their narrow spirit of reaction and
thcr temerity of their inexperience to the furthest limit; but
the reaction which reinforced the privileged classes was not
sufficient to fill the coffers of the treasury, and Marie Antoinette,
who seemed gifted with a fatal perversity of instinct, confided
the finances of the kingdom to Calonne, an upper-class official
and a veritable Cagliostro of finance.
From 1783 to 1787, this man organized his astounding system
of falsification all along the line. His unbridled prodigality,
by spreading a belief in unlimited resources, augmented
the confidence necessary for the success of perpetual {JJJJf"*
loans; until the day came when, having exhausted the 1/37'
system, he tried to suppress privilege and fall back upon
the social reforms of Turgot, and the financial schemes of, Necker,
by suggesting once more to the assembly of notables a territorial
subsidy from all landed property. He failed, owing to the same
reaction that was causing the feudal system to make inroads
upon the army, the magistracy and industry; but in his fall he
put on the guise of a reformer, and by a last wild plunge he left
the monarchy, already compromised by the affair of the Diamond
Necklace (?.v.), hopelessly exposed (April 1787).
The volatile and brilliant archbishop Lomenie de Brienne was
charged with the task of laying the affairs of the ancUn rtgime
before the assembly of notables, and with asking the
nation for resources, since the monarchy could no *£■
longer provide for itself; but the notables refused, and
referred the minister to the states-general, the repre-
sentative of the nation. Before resorting to this extremity,
Brienne. preferred to lay before the parlement his two edicts
regarding a stamp duly and the territorial subsidy; to be met
by the same refusal, and the same reference to the states-
general. The exile of the parlement to Troyes, the arrest of
various members, and the curt declaration of the king's absolute
authority (November 9, 1787) were unsuccessful in breaking
down its resistance. The threat of Chretien Francois de Lamoig-
non, keeper of the seals, to imitate Maupeou, aroused public
opinion and caused a fresh confederation of the parlements of
the kingdom. The royal government was too much exhausted
to overthrow even a decaying power like that of the parlements,
and being still more afraid of the future representatives of the
French people than of the supreme courts, capitulated to the
insurgent parlements. The recalled parlement seemed at the
pinnacle of power.
Its next action ruined its ephemeral popularity, by claiming
the convocation of the states-general " according to the formula
observed in 1614," as already demanded by the amt!mn
estates of Dauphin* at Vizille on the 21st of July 1788. 5££.*'
The exchequer was empty; it was necessary to comply.
The royal declaration of the jjrd of September 1788 convoked
the states-general for the tst of May 1789, and the fall of Brienne
and Lamoignon followed the recall of Necker. Thenceforward
public opinion, which was looking for something quite different
from the superannuated formula of 1614, abandoned the parle-
ments, which in their turn disappeared from view; for the
struggle beginning between the privileged classes and the govern-
ment, now at bay, hadgiven the public, through the states-general,
that means of expression which they had always lacked.
The conflict immediately changed ground, and an engagement
began between privilege and the people over the twofold question
of the number of deputies and the mode of voting. Voting by
head, and the double representation of the third estate (tiers
Hat); this was the great revolution: voting by order meant the
85*
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(HISTORY
continued domination of privilege, and the leaser revolution. The
monarchy, standing apart, held the balance, but needed a decisive
policy. Necker, with little backing at court, could not
Mttjtfate*. * ct cncr g el » ca ll>'i a °d Louis XVI., wavering between
gtaanL Necker and the queen, chose the attitude most
convenient to his indolence and least to his interest:
he remained neutral, and his timidity showed clearly in the council
of the 27th of December 1788. Separating the two questions
which were so closely connected, and despite the sensational
brochure of the abb* Sieyes, " What is the Third Estate? "
he pronounced for the doubling of the third estate without
deciding as to the vote by head, yet leaving it to be divined that
he preferred the vote by order. As to the programme there was
no more decisive resolution; but the edict of convocation gave
it to be understood that a reform was under consideration: " the
establishment of lasting and permanent order in all branches
of the administration." The point as to the place of convoca-
tion gave rise to a compromise between the too-distant centre
of France and too-tumultuous Paris. - Versailles was chosen
" because of the huntingl " In the procedure of the elections
the traditional system of the states-general of 1614
was preserved, and the suffrage was almost universal,
but in two kinds: for the third estate nearly all citizens
over twenty-five years of age, paying a direct contribu-
tion, voted — peasants as well as bourgeois; the country clergy
were included among the ecclesiastics; the smaller nobility
among the nobles; and finally, Protestants were electors and
eligible.
According to custom, documents (cohiers) were drawn up,
containing a list of grievances and proposals for reform. All the
orders were agreed in demanding prudently modified
mddntMtu "form: the vote on the budget, order in finance,
regular convocation of the states-general, and a written"
constitution in order to get rid of arbitrary rule. The address
of the clergy, inspired by the great prelates, sought to make
inaccurate lamentations over the progress of impiety a means
of safeguarding their enormous spiritual and temporal powers,
their privileges and exemptions, and their vast wealth. The
nobility demanded voting by order, the maintenance of their
privileges, and, above all, laws to protect them against the
arbitrary proceedings of royalty. The third estate insisted on the
vote by head, the graduated abolition of privilege in all govern-
mental affairs, a written constitution and union. ' The programme
went on broadening as it descended in the social scale.
The elections sufficed finally to show that the antien rtgime,
characterized from the social point of view by inequality, from
the political point of view by arbitrariness, and from
the religious point of view by intolerance, was com-
pleted from the administrative point of view by in-
extricable disorder. As even the extent of the jurisdiction
of the bailiiages was unknown, convocations were made at
haphazard, according to the good pleasure of influential persons,
and in these assemblies decisions were arrived at by a process
that confused every variety of rights and powers, and was
governed by no logical principle; and in this extreme confusion
terms and affairs were alike involved.
Whilst the bureaucracy of the antic* rtgime sought for
desperate expedients to prolong its domination, the whole social
Th ^ body gave signs of a yet distant but ever ncaring dis-
integration. The revolution was already complete
before it was declared to the world. Two distinct
currents of disaffection, one economic, the other
philosophic, had for long been pervading the nation.
There had been much suffering throughout the 17th
and 1 8th centuries; but no one had hitherto thought of a
politico-social rising. But the other, the philosophic current,
had been set going in the 18th century; and the policy of
despotism tempered by privilege had been criticized in the name
of liberty as no longer justifying itself by its services to the
state. The ultramontane and oppressively burdensome church
bad been taunted with its lack of Christian charity, apostolic
poverty and primitive virtue. All vitality had been sapped
Tb»
from the old order of nobles, reduced in prestige by the immmmttk
A tilcins (office purchased to ennoble the holder), enervated
by court life, and so robbed of its roots in the soB, from which
it had once drawn its strength, that it could no longer live save
as a ruinous parasite on the central monarchy. Lastly, to cone
to the bottom of the social scale, there were the common people,
taxable at will, subject to the arbitrary and burdensome forced
labour of the conic, cut off by an impassable Barrier from the
privileged classes whom they hated. For them the right to work
had been asserted, among others by Turgot, as a natural right
opposed to the caprices of the arbitrary and selfish aristocracy
of the corporations, and a breach had been made in the tyranny
of the masters which had endeavoured to set a barrier to the
astonishing outburst of industrial force which was destined to
characterize the coming age.
The outward and visible progre ss of the Revolution, due
primarily to profound economic disturbance, was thus accelerated
and rendered irresistible. Economic reformers found a moral
justification for their dissatisfaction in philosophical theories;
the chance conjunction of a philosopho-politica! idea with a
national deficit led to the preponderance of the third estate at
the elections, and to the predominance of the democratic spirit
in the slates-general. The third estate wanted civil liberty above
all; political liberty came second only, as a means and guarantee
for the former. ' They wanted the abolition of the feudal system,
the establishment of equality and a share in power. Neither the
family nor property was violently attacked; the church and the
monarchy still appeared to most people two respectable and
respected institutions. * The king and the privileged classes had
but so to desire it, and the revolution would be easy and peaceful.
Louis XVI. was reluctant to abandon a tittle of his absolute
power, nor would the privileged classes sacrifice their time-
honoured traditions; they were inexorable. - The king,
more ponderous and irresolute every day, vacillated g ^
between Necker the liberal on one side and Marie jaactat
Antoinette, whose feminine pride was opposed to any
concessions; wfth the comte d'Artois, a mischievous nobody who
could neither choose a side nor stick to one, on the other.. When
the states-general opened on the 5th of May 1 789 Louis XVI. had
decided nothing. The conflict between him and the Assembly
immediately broke out, and became acute over the verification
of the mandates; the third estate desiring this to be made in
common by the deputies of the three orders, which would involve
voting by head, the suppression of classes and the preponderance
of the third estate. ' On the refusal of the privileged classes and
after an interval of six weeks* the third estate, considering that
they represented 96% of the nation, and in accordance with ike
proposal of Sieyes, declared that they represented the nation
and therefore were authorized to take resolutions unaided, the
first being that in future no arrangement for taxation could take
place without their consent.
The king, urged by the privileged classes, responded to this
first revolutionary act, as in 1614, by closing the Salle des Menus
Plaisirs where the third estate were sitting; where- ^m** rf
upon, gathered in one of the tennis-courts under the ca»
presidency of Bailly. they swore on the aoth of June *■■ »
not to separate before having established the con- *" ,t '
stitution of the kingdom.
Louis XVI. then decided, on the 23rd, to make known his
policy in a royal lit de justice. He declared for the lesser reform,
the fiscal, not the social; were this rejected, he declared rw lm *
that " he alone would arrange for the welfare of bis kmthmmt
people." Meanwhile he annulled the sitting of the Jgf **
17th,. and demanded the immediate dispersal of the tmK
Assembly. • The third estate refused to obey, and by the
mouth of Bailly and Mirabeau asserted the legitimacy of the
Revolution. The refusal of the soldiers to coerce the Assembly
showed that the monarchy could no longer rely on the army; and
a few days later, when the lesser nobility and the lower ranks
of the clergy had united with the third estate whose cause was
their own the king yielded, and on the 27th of June commanded
both orders to join in the National Assembly, which was thereby
HISTORY!
PRANCE
*53
TmUmg
mftm»
recognised and the political revolution sanctioned. Bat at the
same time, urged by the " infernal cabal " of the queen and the
comte d'Artois, Louts XVI. called in the foreign regiments —
the only ones of which he could be certain — and dismissed
Necker. The Assembly, dreading a sudden attack, demanded
the withdrawal of the troops. Meeting with a refusal, Paris
opposed the king's army with her citizen-soldiers; and
by the taking of the Bastille, that mysterious dark
fortress which personified the ancien rigime, secured
the triumph of the Revolution (July 14). The king
was obliged to recall Necker, to mount the tricolor cockade
at the Hdtel de Ville, and to recognize Bailly as mayor of Paris
and L* Fayette as commander of the National Guard, which
remained in arms after the victory. The National Assembly
had right on its side after the 20th of June and might after the
14th of July. Thus was accomplished the" Revolution which
was to throw into the melting-pot all that had for centuries
appeared fixed and stable.
As Paris had taken her Bastille, it remained for the towns
and country districts to take theirs— -all the Bastilles of feudalism.
Want, terror and the contagion of examplesprecipitated
^** • the disruption of governmental authority and of the
mntrr^y, old political status; and sudden anarchy dislocated
all the organs of authority. Upon the ruins of the
central administration temporary authorities were founded in
various isolated localities, limited in area but none the less
defiant of the government. The provincial assemblies of
Dauphine and elsewhere gave the signal; and numerous towns,
following the example oiParis,instituted municipalities which sub-
stituted their authority for that of the intendants and their sub-
ordinates. Clubs were openly organized, pamphlets and journals
appeared, regardless of administrative orders; workmen's unions
multiplied in Paris, Bordeaux and Lyons, in face of drastic pro-
hibition; and anarchy finally set in with the defection of the
army in Paris on the 33rd of June, at Nancy, at Metz and at Brest.
The crying abuses of the old regime, an insignificant factor at the
outset, soon combined with the widespread agrarian distress,
due to the unjust distribution of land, the disastrous exploitation
of the soil, the actions of the government, and the severe winter
of 1 788. Discontent showed itself in pillage and incendiarism on
country estates; between March and July 1789 more than three
hundred agrarian riots took place, uprooting the feudal idea of
property, already compromised by its own excesses. Not only
did pillaging take place; the boundaries or property were also
ignored, and people no longer held themselves bound to pay
taxes. These jacqueries hastened the movement of the regular
revolution.
The decrees of the 4th of August, proposed by those noble
" patriots " the due d'Aiguillon and the vicomte de Noailles,
who had already on the 23rd of June made armed
ml&tof resfct ancc to the evacuation of the Hall of Assembly,
August 4, put the final touch to the revolution begun by the
provincial assemblies, by liberating land and labour,
and proclaiming equality among all Frenchmen. Instead of
exasperating the demands of the peasants and workmen by
repression and raising civil war between the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat, they drew a distinction between personal servitude,
which was suppressed, and the rights of contract, which were
to -be redeemed— a laudable but impossible distinction. The
whole feudal system crumbled before the revolutionary in-
sistence of the peasants; for their masters, bourgeois or nobles,
terrified by prolonged riots, capitulated and gradually had to
consent to make the resolutions of the 4th of August a
reality.
Overjoyed by this social liberation, the Assembly awarded
Louh XVI. the title of "rencwer of French liberty"; but
Babonm remaining faithful to his hesitating policy of the
rfovoffte 23rd of June, he ratified the decrees of the 4th of
contour August, only with a very ill grace. On the other hand,
*** the privileged classes, and notably the clergy, who saw
the whole traditional structure of their power threatened, now
rallied to him, and when after the 18th of August the Assembly
set to work on the new constitution, they combined m the effort
to recover some of the position they had lost. But whatever
their theoretical agreement on social questions, politically they
were hopelessly at odds. The bourgeoisie, conscious of their
opportunity, decided for a single chamber against the will of the
noblesse; against that of the king they declared it permanent,
and, if they accorded him a suspensory veto, this was only in
order to guard them against the extreme assertion of popular
rights. Thus the progress of the Revolution, so far, had left the
mass of the people still excluded from any constitutional influence
on the government, which was in the hands of the well-to-do
classes, which also controlled the National Guard and the munici-
palities. The irritation of the disfranchised proletariat was more-
over increased by the appalling dearness of bread and food
generally, which the suspicious temper of the times— fomented by
the tirades of. Marat in the Ami du peuph — ascribed to English
intrigues in revenge for the aid given by France to the American
colonics, and to the treachery in high places that made these
intrigues successful. The climax came with the rumour that the
court was preparing a new military coup tTAot, a rumour that
seemed to be confirmed by indiscreet toasts proposed at a banquet
by the officers of the guard at Versailles; and on the night of
the 5th to the 6th of October a Parisian mob forced the king
and royal family to return with them to Paris amid cries of
"We are bringing the baker, the baker's wife and the Kttlc
baker's boy!" The Assembly followed; and henceforth king
and Assembly were more or less under the influence of the
whims and passions of a populace maddened by want and
suspicion, by the fanatical or unscrupulous incitements of
an unfettered press, and by the unrestrained oratory of
obscure demagogues in the streets, the cafes and the political
clubs.
Convened for the purpose of elaborating a system that should
conciliate all interests, the Assembly thus found itself forced
into a conflict between the views of the people, who feared
betrayal, and the court, which dreaded being overwhelmed.'
This schism was reflected in the parties of the Assembly; the
absolutists of the extreme Right; the moderate monarchists
of the Right and Centre; the constitutionalists of the Left
Centre and Left; and, finally, on the extreme Left the democratic
revolutionists, among whom Robespierre sat as yet all but
unnoticed. Of talent there was enough and to spare in the
Assembly; what was conspicuously lacking was common sense
and a practical knowledge of affairs. Of all the orators who
declaimed from the tribune, Mirabeau alone realized the perils
of the situation and possessed the power of mind and will to
have mastered them. Unfortunately, however, he was dis-
credited by a disreputable past, and yet more by the equivocal
attitude he had to assume in order to maintain his authority
in the Assembly while working in what he believed to be the true
interests of the court. His political ideal for France was that
of the monarchy, rescued from all association with the abuses
of the old regime and " broad-based upon the people's will ";
Ms practical counsel was that the king should frankly proclaim
this ideal to the people as bis 'own, should compete with the
Assembly for popular favour, while at the same time using
every means to win over those by whom his authority was
flouted. For a time Mirabeau influenced the counsels of the
court through the comte de Montmorin; but the king neither
trusted him nor could be brought to see his point of view, and
Marie Antoinette, though she resigned herself to negotiating
with him, was very far from sympathizing with his ideals.
Finally, all hope of the conduct of affairs being entrusted to him
was shattered when the Assembly passed a law forbidding its
members to become ministers.
The attempted reconciliation with the king having failed, the
Assembly ended by working alone, and made the control that
it should have exerted an instrument, not of co- p t ^ mmm
operation but of strife. It inaugurated its legislative o—oldm
labours by a metaphysical declaration of the Rights right* oi
of Man and of the Citizen (October 2, 2789) This ■"*
enunciation of universal verities, the bulk of which have, sooner
854
FRANCE
(HISTORY
or later, been accepted by all civilized nations as " the gospel
of modem times," was inspired by all the philosophy of the i$th
century in France and by the Control Social. It comprised
various rational and humane ideas, no longer theological, but
profoundly and deliberately thought out: ideas as lo the
sovereign-right of the nation, law by general consent man
superior to, the pretensions of caste and the fetters of dogma,
the vindication of the ideal and of human dignity. Unable
to rest on historic precedent like England, the Constituent
Assembly took as the basis for its labours the tradition of the
thinkers.
Upon the principles proclaimed in this Declaration the con-
stitution of 1 791 was founded. Its provisions are discussed else-
where (see the section below on Law and Institutions);
here it will suffice to say that it established under the
sovereign people, for the king was to survive merely
as the supreme executive official, & wholly new model
of government in France, both in Church and State. The
historic divisions of the realm were wiped out; for the old
provinces were substituted eighty-three departments; and
with the provinces vanished the whole organization, territorial,
administrative and ecclesiastical, of the ancien rigitne. In one
respect, indeed, the system of the old monarchy remained intact;
the tradition of centralization established by Louis XIV. was
too strong to be overthrown, and the destruction of the historic
privileges and immunities with which this had been ever in
conflict only served to strengthen this tendency. In 1791
France was pulverized into innumerable administrative atoms
incapable of cohesion; and the result was that Paris became
more than ever the brain and nerve-centre of France. This fact
was soon to be fatal to the new constitution, though the admini-
strative system established by it still survives. Paris was in
effect dominated by the armed and organized proletariat, and
this proletariat could never be satisfied with a settlement which,
while proclaiming the sovereignty of the people, had, by means
of the property qualification for the franchise, established the
political ascendancy of the middle classes. The settlement had,
in fact, settled nothing; it had, indeed, merely intensified the
profound cleavage between the opposing tendencies; for if the
democrats were alienated by the narrow franchise, the Civil
Constitution of the Clergy, which cut at the very roots of
the Catholic system, drove into opposition to the Revolution
not only the clergy themselves but a vast number of their
flocks.
The policy of the Assembly, moreover, hopelessly aggravated
its misunderstanding with the king. Louis, indeed, accepted
the constitution and attended the great Feast of Federation
(July 14, 1700), when representatives from all the new depart-
ments assembled in the Champ dc Mars to ratify the work of the
Assembly; but the king either could not or would not say the
expected word that would have dissipated mistrust. The Civil
Constitution of the Clergy, too, seemed to him not only to
violate his rights as a king, but his faith as a Christian also;
and when the emigration of the nobility and the death of Mirabeau
(April 2, 1791) had deprived him of his natural supporters and
his only adviser, resuming the old plan of withdrawing to the
army of the marquis de Bouillfi at Metz, he made his ill-fated
attempt to escape from Paris (June 20, 1791). The flight to
Varennes was an irreparable error; for during the king's absence
and until his return the insignificance of the royal power became
apparent. La Fayette's fusillade of the republicans, who
demanded the deposition of the king (July 17, 1791), led to a
definite split between the democratic party and the bourgeois
party. Vainly did Louis, brought back a captive to Paris, swear
on the 14th of September 1791 solemnly mere lip-service to the
constitution; the mistrustful party of revolution abandoned
the constitution they had only just obtained, and to guard
against the sovereign's mental reservations and the selfish policy
of the middle classes, appealed to the main force of the people.
The conflict between the ancien rigime and the National Assembly
ended in the defeat of the royalists.
Through lassitude or disinterestedness the men of 1791, on
Robespierre's suggestion, had committed one last mistake, by
leaving the task of putting the constitution into
practice to new men. even more inexperienced than 2j^***"
themselves. Thus the new Assembly's time was ammA*
occupied in a conflict between the Legislative Assembly iOcu 1.
and the king, who plotted against it; and, as a result, ***£
the monarchy, insulted by the proceedings of the 20th /JJjL
of June, was eliminated altogether by those of the xoth
of August 1792.
The new Assembly which had met on the 1st of October 1791
had a majority favourable to the constitutional monarchy and
to the bourgeois franchise. But, among these bourgeois
those who were called Feuillants, from the name of ^mmt
their dub (see Feuillants, Club of the), desired the
strict and loyal application of the constitution without encroach-
ing upon the authority of the king; the triumvirate, Duport,
Barnave and Lameth, were at the head of this party. The
Jacobins, on the contrary, considered that the king should
merely be hereditary president of the Republic, to be deposed
if he attempted to violate the constitution, and that universal
suffrage should be established. The dominant group among
these was that of the Girondins or Girondists, so called because
its most brilliant members had been elected in the Gironde
(see Girondists). But the republican party was more powerful
without than within. Their chief was not so much Robespierre,
president of the parliamentary and bourgeois club of the Jacobins
\q.v.), which had acquired by means of its two thousand affiliated
branches great power in the provinces, as the advocate Danton.
president of the popular and Parisian club of the Cordeliers ($.;] .
Between the Feuillants and the Jacobins, the independents,
incapable of keeping to any fixed programme, vacillated some-
times to the right, sometimes to the left.
But the best allies of the republicans against the FeuillAnti
were the royalists pure and simple, who cared nothing about
the constitution, and claimed to " extract good from
the excess of evil." The election of a Jacobin, Pltion, - v -
instead of Bailly, the resigning mayor, And La Fayette,
the candidate for office, was their first achievement. The court,
on its side, showed little sign of a conciliatory spirit, though,
realizing its danger, it attempted to restrain the foolish violence
of the imigris, i.e. the nobles who after the sup- __
pression of titles of nobility in 1790 and the arrest fm&ta.
of the king at Varennes, had fled in a body to Coblenz
and joined Louis XVI.'s brothers, the counts of Provence and
Artois. They it was who set in motion the national and European
conflict, Under the prince of Condi they had collected a little
army round Trier ; and in concert with the " Austrian Committee "
of Paris they solicited the armed intervention of monarchical
Europe. The declaration of Pilnits, which was but an excuse
for non-interference on the part of the emperor and the
king of Prussia, interested in the prolongation of these fl^ 1 "
internal troubles, was put forward by them as an pmoMs.
assurance of forthcoming support (August 27, 1791).
At the same time the application of the Civil Constitution of
the Clergy roused the whole of western La Vendee; and in face
of the danger threatened by the refractory clergy and by the
army of the imigris, the Girondins set about confounding the
court with the Feuillants in the minds of the public, and com-
promising Louis XVL by a national agitation, denouncing him
as an accomplice of the foreigner. Owing to the decrees against
the comte de Provence, the emigrants, and the _.
refractory priests, voted by the Legislative Assembly
in November X791, they forced Louis XVI. to show
his hand by using his veto, so that his complicity should be
plainly declared, to replace his Feuillant ministry~-disparate
in birth, opinions and ambitions— by the Girondin ministry of
Dumouriez-Roland (March 10), no more united than the other,
but believers in a republican crusade for the overthrow j^ wm ,
of thrones, that of Louis XVI. first of all; and Anally
to declare war against the king of Bohemia and Hungary, a step
also desired by the court in the hope of ridding itself of the
Assembly at the first note of victory (April 20, 1792).
HISTORY]
FRANCE
*55
4ms of
But when, owing to the disorganization of the army through
emigration and desertion, the ill-prepared Belgian war was
followed by invasion and the trouble in La Vendee
increased, all France suspected a betrayal. The
Assembly, in order to reduce the number of hostile
forces, voted for the exile of all priests who had refused
to swear to the Civil Constitution and the substitution of a body
of twenty thousand volunteer national guards, under theauthority
of Paris, for the king's constitutional guard (May 27 -June 8,
1792). Louis XVI. 's veto and the dismissal of the Girondin
ministry — thanks to an intrigue of Dumouriez, analogous to
that of Mirabeau and as ineffectual — dismayed the Feuillants and
maddened the Girondins; the latter, to avert popular fury,
turned it upon the king. The imeute of the 20th of June, a
burlesque which, but for the persistent good-humour of Louis
XVI., might have become a tragedy, alarmed but did not
overthrow the monarchy.
The bourgeoisie, the Assembly, the country and La Fayette,
one of the leaders of the army, now embarked upon a royalist
reaction, which would perhaps have been efficacious,
o/fltaM? k*^ ft not ^ cen f° r tne €ntrv » nt0 tnc ^air of the
,,**, Prussians as allies of the Austrian*, and for the insolent
manifesto of the duke of Brunswick. The Assembly's
cry of u the country in. danger " (July 1 1) proved to the nation
that the king was incapable of defending France against the
foreigner; and the appeal of the federal volunteers in Paris
gave to the opposition, together with the war-song of the Mar-
seillaise, the army which had been refused by Louis XVI., now
disarmed. The vain attempts of the Gironde to reconcile the
king and the Revolution, the ill-advised decree of the Assembly
on the 8th of August, freeing La Fayette from his guilt in for-
saking his army; his refusal to vote for the deposition of the
king, and the suspected treachery of the court, led to the success
of the republican forces when, on the 10th of August, the mob
of Paris organized by the revolutionary Commune rose against
the monarchy.
The suspension and imprisonment of the king left the supreme
authority nominally in the hands of the Assembly, but actually
Tiniatur- m tnosc °* tAe Commune, consisting of delegates
nctioBMl from the administrative sections of Paris. Installed
comma** at tne H6tel de Ville this attempted to influence the
oiPmrig. dfccfedjted government, entered into conflict with
the Legislative Assembly, which considered its mission at
an end, and paralyzed the action of the executive council,
particularly during the bloody days of September, provoked
by the discovery of the court's intrigues with the foreigner,
j^ by the treachery of La Fayette, the capture of Longwy,
Septtmber the investiture of Verdun by the Prussians (August
«*■• 19-30) , and finally by the incendiary placards of Marat.
*■"** Danton, a master of diplomatic and military operations,
had to avoid any rupture with the Commune. Fortunately,
on the very day of the dispersal of the Legislative Assembly,
Dumouriez saved France from a Prussian invasion by the
victory of Valmy, and by unauthorized negotiations " which
prefigured those of Bonaparte at Leoben (September 22,
1702).
l'he popular insurrection against Louis XVI. determined
the simultaneous fall of the bourgeois regime and the establish-
ment of the democracy in power. The Legislative Assembly,
without a mandate for modifying a constitution that had
become inapplicable with the suspension of the monarch, had
before disappearing convoked a National Convention, and as
the reward of the struggle for liberty had replaced the limited
franchise by universal suffrage. Public opinion became re-
publican from an excess of patriotism, and owing to the propa-
ganda of the Jacobin club; while the decree of the 25th of
August 1792, which marked the destruction of feudalism, now
abolished in principle, caused the peasants to rally definitely
to the Republic.
This had hardly been established before it became' distracted
by the fratricidal strife of its adherents, from September 22,
1792, to the 1 8th Fructidor (September 4. 1797). The electoral
assemblies,, in very great majority, had desired this Republic to
be democratic and equalizing in spirit, but on the face _^ f .
of it, liberal, uniform and propagandist; in conse- yatloa,
quence, the 782 deputies of the Convention were not s* P t. 11,
divided on principles, but only by personal rivalries 2**"
and ambition. TTiey all wished for a unanimity and {JJ^
harmony impossible to obtain; and being unable to
convince they destroyed one another.
The Girondins in the Convention played the part of the
Feuillants in the Legislative Assembly. Their party was not
well disciplined, they purposely refrained from making
it so, and hence their ruin. Oratorically they repre- pvtiu.
sentcd the spirit of the South; politically, the ideas
of the bourgeoisie in opposition to the democracy— which they
despised although making use of it— and the federalist system,
from an objection to the preponderance of Paris. Paris, on the
other hand, had elected only deputies of the Mountain, as the
more advanced of the Jacobins were called, that party being
no more settled and united than the others. They drew support
from the Parisian democracy, and considered the decentralization
of the Girondins as endangering France's unity, circumstances
demanding a strong and highly concentrated government;
they opposed a republic on the model of that of Rome to the
Polish republic of the Gironde. Between the two came the
Plaint, the Marais, the troop of trembling bourgeois, sincerely
attached to - the Revolution, but very moderate in the defence
of their ideas; some seeking a refuge from their timidity in
hard-working committees, others partaking in the violence oi
the Jacobins out of weakness or for reasons of state.
The Girondins were the first to take the lead; In order to
retain it they should have turned the Revolution into a govern-
ment. They remained an exclusive party, relying on
the mob but with no influence over it. Without a g^^/gg,
leader or popular power, they might have found both
in Danton; for, occupied chiefly with the external danger, he
made advances towards them, which they repulsed, partly in
horror at the proceedings of September, but chiefly because they
saw in him the most formidable rival in the path of the govern-
ment. They waged war against him as relentlessly as did the
Constitutionalists against Mirabeau, whom he resembled in his
extreme ugliness and his volcanic eloquence. They drove him
into the arms of Robespierre, Marat and the Commune of Pari*
On the other hand, after the 23rd of September they declared
Paris dangerous for the Convention, and wanted to reduce
it to "eighty-three influential members." Danton and the
Mountain responded by decreeing the unity and indivisibility
of the Republic, in order to emphasize the suspicions of federalism
which weighed upon the Girondins.
The trial of Louis XVI. still further enhanced the contrasts
of ideas and characters. The discovery of fresh proofs of treachery
In the iron chest (November 20, 1792) gave the Moun- TrUmad
tain a pretext for forcing on the clash of parties and death of
raising the question not of legality but of public safety. Lc ***
By the execution of the king (January 21, 1793) they *
" cast down a king's head as a challenge to the kings of Europe."
In order to preserve popular favour and their direction of the
Republic, the Girondins had not dared to pronounce against
the sentence of death, but had demanded an appeal to the people
which was rejected; morally weakened by this equivocal attitude
they were still more so by foreign events.
The king's death did not result in the unanimity so much
desired by all parties; it only caused the reaction on themselves
of the hatred which had been hitherto concentrated „
upon the king, and also an augmentation in the armies
of the foreigner, which obliged the revolutionists to
face all Europe. There was a coalition of monarchs,
and the people of La Vendee rose in defence of their faith.
Dumouriez, the conqueror of Jemappcs (November 6, 1792),
who invaded Holland, was beaten by the Austrians (March 1 793).
A levy of 300,000 men was ordered; a Committee of General
Security was charged with the search for suspects; and thence-
forward military occurrences called forth parliamentary crises
$5*
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fHJS£!£'
and popular upheavals. Girondins and Jacobins unjustly
accused one another of leaving the traitors, the conspirators,
the " stipendiaries of Coblenz" unpunished. To avert the
danger threatened by popular dissatisfaction, the Gironde was
persuaded to vote for the creation of a revolutionary tribunal
to judge suspects, while out of spite against Danton who de-
manded it, they refused the strong government which might have
made a stand against the enemy (March 10, 1 793). This was the
first of the exceptional measures which were to call down ruin
upon them. Whilst the insurrection in La Vendee was spreading,
and Dumouriez falling back upon Nccrwinden, sentence of death
was laid upon hnigrls and refractory priests; the treachery of
Dumouriez, disappointed in his Belgian projects, gave grounds
F,^ mm _ for all kinds of suspicion, as that of Mirabeau had
mftfMof formerly done, and led the Gironde to propose the
public new government which they bad refused to Danton.
***** The transformation of the provisional executive council
into the Committee of Public Safety — omnipotent save in financial
matters— was voted because the Girondins meant to control it;
but Danton got the upper hand (April 6).
The Girondins, discredited in Paris, multiplied their attacks
upon Danton, now the master: they attributed the civil war
and the disasters of the foreign campaign to the
despotism of the Paris Commune and the clubs; they
accused Marat of instigating the September massacres;
and they began the supreme struggle by demanding the
election of a committee of twelve deputies, charged with
breaking up the anarchic authorities in Paris (May 18).
The complete success of the Girondin proposals; the arrest of
Hebert— the violent editor of the Phre Duchbie; the insurrection
of the Girondins of Lyons against the Montagnard Commune;
the bad news from La Vendee — the military reverses; and the
economic situation which had compelled the fixing of a maximum
price of corn (May 4) excited the " moral insurrections " of
May 31 and June 2. Marat himself sounded the tocsin, and
Hanriot, at the head of the Parisian army, surrounded the
Convention. Despite the efforts of Danton and the Committee
of Public Safety, the arrest of the Girondins sealed the victory
of the Mountain.
The threat of the Girondin Isnard was fulfilled.. The federalist
insurrection, to avenge the violation of national representation,
responded to the Parisian insurrection^ Sixty-nine
Jj**' departmental governments protested against the
OfrtHnfa violence done to the Convention; but the ultra-
democratic constitution of 1 793 deprived the Girondins,
who were arming in the west, the south and the centre, of all legal
force. To the departments that were hostile to the dictatorship
of Paris, and the tyranny of Danton or Robespierre, it promised
the referendum, an executive of twenty-four citizens, universal
suffrage, and the free exercise of religion. The populace, who
could not understand this parliamentary quarrel, and were in a
hurry to set up a national defence, abandoned the Girondins, and
the latter excited the enthusiasm of only one person, Charlotte
Corday, who by the murder of Marat ruined them irretrievably.
The battle of Brtcourt was a defeat without a fight for their
party without stamina and their general without troops (July
13); while on the 31st of October their leaders perished on the
guillotine, where they had been preceded by the queen, Marie
Antoinette. The Girondins and their adversaries were differen-
tiated by neither religious dissensions nor political divergency,
but merely by a question of time. The Girondins, when in power,
had had scruples which had not troubled them while scaling the
ladder; idols of Paris, they had flattered her in turn, and when
Paris scorned them they sought support in the provinces. A
great responsibility for this defeat of the liberal and republican
bourgeoisie, whom they represented, is to be laid upon Madame
Roland, the Egeria of the party. An ardent patriot and re-
publican, her relations with Danton resembled those of Marie
Antoinette with Mirabeau, in each case a woman spoilt by
flattery, enraged at indifference. She was the ruin of the Gironde,
but taught it how to die.
The fall of the Gironde left the country disturbed by civil war,
and the frontiers more seriously threatened than be/ore Vic
Bouchotte, a totally inefficient minister for war, the Coal-
man of straw, left the army without food or ammunition, »•
the suspected officers remained inactive. In the Ase-
Vendee the incapable leaders let themselves be beaten at Ai -
Beaupreau and Thouars, at a time when Cathelineau was ui
possession of Saumur and threatening Nantes, the capur.-
which would have permitted the insurgents in La Vendee is : .
those of Brittany and receive provisions from England- &.-
while, the remnants of the Girondin federalists were overt r
by the disguised royalists, who had aroused the whek d -1
Rhone valley from Lyons to Marseilles, had called is. j
Sardinians, and handed over the fleet and the arsenal at Ttr>-
to the English, whilst Paoli left Corsica at their disposal 7
scarcity of money due to the discrediting of the assignors,
cessation of commerce, abroad and on the sea, and the -
harvest of 1793, were added to all these dangers, and forac:
serious menace to France and the Convention.
This meant a hard task for the first Committee of Public S; v
and its chief Danton. He was the only one to understand -
conditions necessary to a firm government; he caused
the adjournment of the decentralizing constitution '
of 1 793, and set up a revolutionary government. The
Committee of Public Safety, now a permanency,
annulled the Convention and was itself the central
authority, its organization in Paris being the twelve
committees substituted for the provisional executive
committee and the six ministers, the Committee of Gee
Security for the maintenance of the police, and the arb.-
Revolutionary Tribunal The execution of its orders is -
departments was carried out by omnipotent represenUL
" on mission " in the armies, by popular societies — vcriii
missionaries of the Revolution— and by the revoluiksar
committees which were its backbone.
Despite this Reign of Terror Danton failed; he could nzi'l:
dominate foes within nor divide those without. RepresesL-,
the sane and vigorous democracy, and like Jefferson ^
a friend to liberty and self-government, he had been cSr
obliged to set up the most despotic of governments
in face of internal anarchy and foreign invasion. Being *? -
temperament that expressed itself only in action, and nc::~
a theorist nor a cabinet-minister, he held the views of a states-. -
without having a following sufficient to realize them. Morervc
the proceedings of the and of June, when the Commune of II
had triumphed, had dealt him a mortal blow. He is his re-
tried to stem the tumultuous current which had borne br
along, and to prevent discord; but the check to his polk;,
an understanding with Prussia and with Sardinia, to «Kr
like Richelieu and D'Argcnson, he offered the realization oi i.
transalpine ambition in exchange for Nice and Savoy, *
added to the failure of his temporizing methods in regard tc
federalist insurgents, and of his military operations aga.*
La Vendee. A man of action and not of cunning shifts. .
succumbed on the 10th of July to the blows of his own govtr
ment, which had passed from his hands into those of Robcspicr
his ambitious and crafty rival.
The second Committee of Public Safety lasted until *■
27th of July 1794. Composed of twelve members, re-eiic-
every month, and dominated by the triumvirate, scamd
Robespierre, Saint- Just and Couthon, it was stronger «•»*•*=
than ever, since it obtained the right of appointing •****'-
leaders, disposed of money, and muzzled the press. *****
Many of its members were sons of the bourgeoisie, men 1'--
having been educated at college, thanks to some chari :
agency, in the pride of learning, and raised above their oric
station, were ready for anything but had achieved nch- .
They had plenty of talent at command, were full of ck^
tirades against tyranny, and, though sensitive enough in iK
private life, were bloodthirsty butchers in their public relator-
Such were Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couthon, Billaud-Varco. .,
Cambon, Thuriot, Collot d'Herbois, Barrere and Pricur k
la Marne. Working hand in hand with these politicians, i.<
iXSXORY]
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857
[ways in accordance with them, but preserving a solid front,
rere the specialists, Carnot, Robert Lindct, Jean Bon Saint-
u&cir^ and Prieur de la Cote d'Or, honourable men, anxious
bovc all to safeguard their country. At the head of the former
yX*^ Robespierre, without special knowledge or exceptional
alent, devoured by jealous ambition and gifted with cold grave
Jcxqiuence, enjoyed a great moral ascendancy, due to his in-
:ozTTipcible purity of life and the invariably correct behaviour
liax had been wanting in Mirabeau, and by the persevering will
wlaida Danton had lacked. His marching orders were: no more
:era porizing with the federalists or with generate who are afraid of
conquering; war to the death with all Europe in the name of re-
iroiuttonary propaganda and the monarchical tradition of natural
frontiers; and fear, as a means of government. The specialists
answered foreign foes by their organization of victory; as for foes
ait. home, the triumvirate crushed them beneath the Terror.
France was saved by them and by that admirable outburst
or patriotism which provided 750,000 patriots for the army
m through the general levy of the x6th of August 1793,
JJj^** - * ' aided, moreover, by the mistakes of her enemies.
comntio*. Instead of profiting by Dumouries's treachery and
the successes in La Vendee, the Coalition, divided
over the resuscitated Polish question, lost time on the frontiers
of this new Poland of the west which was sacrificing itself for
the sake of a Universal Republic. Thus in January 1794 the
territory of France was cleared of the Prussians and Austrian*
by the victories at Hondschoote, Wattignies and Wissembourg;
the army of La Vendee was repulsed from Granville, over-
whelmed by Hoche's army at Le Mans and Savenay, and
its leaders shot; royalist sedition was suppressed at Lyons,
Bordeaux,' Marseilles and Toulon; federalist insurrections
were wiped out by the terrible massacres of Carrier at Nantes,
the atrocities of Lebon at Arras, and the wholesale executions
■ of Fouche and -Collot d'Herbois at Lyons; Louis XVI. and
Marie Antoinette guillotined, the imigris dispersed, denied or
forsaken by all Europe.
But the triumphant Mountain was not as united as it boasted.
The second Committee of Public Safety had now to struggle
against two oppositions: one of the left, represented
' pmrtZT by Hubert, the Commune of Paris and the Cordeliers;
another of the right, Danton and his followers. The
former would not admit that the Terror was only a temporary
method of defence; for them it was a permanent system which
' was even to be strengthened in order to crush all who were
*" hostile to the Revolution. Their sanguinary violence was com-
■ bined with an anti-religious policy, not atheistical, but inspired
. by mistrust of the clergy, and by a civic and deistic creed that
was a direct outcome of the federations. To these latter were
- due the substitution of the Republican for the Gregorian calendar,
- and the secular Feasts of Reason (November 19, 1793). The
followers of Heoert wanted to push forward the movement of
May 31, 1793, m* order to become masters in their turn; while
those of Danton were by way of arresting it. They considered it
time to re-establish the reign of ordinary laws and
r**oto? r 3° 9tfcc i siclt °* bloodshed, with Camitie Desmoulins
. mm they demanded a "Committee of Clemency." A
deist and therefore hostile to " anti-religious masque-
rades," while uneasy at the absolute authority of the Paris
Commune, which aimed at suppressing the State, and at Its
. armed propaganda abroad, Robespierre resumed the struggle
r against its illegal power, so fatal to the Girondc. His boldness
: succeeded (March 24, 1794), and then, jealous of Danton's
* activity and statesmanship, and exasperated by the jeers of his
friends, he rid himself of the party of tolerance by a parody
- : of justice (April 5).
Robespierre now stood alone. During five months, while
affecting to be the representative of "a reign of justice and
RoUa* virtue," he laboured at strengthening his politico-
: phot's religious dictatorship — already so formidably armed —
dtctMtor- vjth new powers. "The incorruptible wanted to
***" become the invulnerable" and the scaffold of the
'..' guillotine was crowded, fiy his dogma of the supreme state
Robespierre founded a theocratic -government with the police
as an Inquisition. The festival of the new doctrine, which
turned the head of the new pontiff (June 8), the lot de Prairial,
or " code of legal murder " (June 10), which gave the deputies
themselves into his hand; and the multiplication of executions
at a time when the victory of Fleurus (June 25) showed the
uselessness and barbarity of this aggravation of the Reign of
Terror provoked against him the victorious coalition of revenge,
lassitude and fear. Vanquished and imprisoned, he
refused to take part in the illegal action proposed 22JJJ**
by the Commune against the Convention. Robespierre
was no man of action. On the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794)
he fell Into the gulf that had opened on the 31st of May, and
through which the x8th Brumaire was visible.-
Although brought about by the Terrorists, the tragic fall of
Robespierre put an end to the Reign of Terror; for their chiefs
having disappeared, the subordinates were too much Tbird
divided to keep up the dictatorship of the third rirrWif
Committee of Public Safety, and reaction soon set in. ofpuhlt
After a change in personnel in favour of the surviving ***<*■
Dantonists; came a limitation to the powers of the Committee
of Public Safety, now placed in dependence upon the Convention;
and next followed the destruction of the revolutionary system,
the Girondin decentralization and the resuscitation of depart-
mental governments; the reform of the Revolutionary Tribunal
on the 10th of August; the suppression of the Commune of
Paris on the xst of September, and of the salary of forty sous
given to members of the sections; the abolition of the maximum,
the suppression of the Guillotine, the opening of the prisons,
the closing of the Jacobin club (November n), and the hence-
forward insignificant existence of the popular societies.
Power reverted to the Girondins and Dantonists, who re-
entered the Convention on the 18th of December; but with
them re-entered likewise the royalists of Lyons, ^ nrffffg _
Marseilles and Toulon, and further, after the peace of uoa oftbt
Basel, many young men set free from the army, hostile *>y*u*t
to the Jacobins and defenders of the now moderate ****
and peace-making Convention. These muscadins and in*
croyaNes, led by Freron, Tallien and Barras— former revolu-
tionists who had become aristocrats— profited by the restored
liberty of the press to prepare for days of battle in the salons
of the tnerveiUeuses Madame Tallien, Madame de Stati and
Madame R6eamier, as the sons-culottes had formerly done in
the clubs. The remnants of Robespierre's faction became
alarmed at this Thermidor reaction, in which they scented
royalism. Aided by famine, by the suppression of the maximum,
and by the imminent bankruptcy of the assignats, they en-
deavoured to arouse the working classes and the former Hanriot
companies against a government which was trying to destroy the
republic, and had broken the busts of Marat and guillotined
Carrier and Fouquicr-Tinville, the former public prosecutor.
Thus the risings of the X2th Germinal (April 1, 1795) PoputMr
and of the 1st Prairial (May 20) were economic revolts Hsiojs 0/
rather than insurrections excited by the deputies of the Otrmtaat
Mountain; in order to suppress them the reactionaries JJ^^,
called in the army. Owing to this first intervention
of the troops in politics, the Committee of Public Safety, which
aimed not so much at a moderate policy as at steering a middle
course between the Thcrmidorians of the Right and of the Left,
was able to dispense with the latter.
The royalists now supposed that their hour had come. In
the south, the companions of Jehu and of the Sun inaugurated
a " White Terror," which had not even the apparent
excuse of the public safety or of exasperated patriotism. J*J #
At the same time they prepared for a twofold in- tvror.
surrection against the republic — in the west with the
help of England, and in the east with that of Austria— by an
attempt to bribe General Pichegru. But though the heads of
the government wanted to put an end to the Revolution they had
no thought of restoring the monarchy in favour of the Comte de
Provence, who had taken the title of Louis XVIII. on hearing
of the death of the dauphin in the Temple, and still less of bringing
8 5 8
FRANCE
(HxSTOB?
back the ancien repmc Hoche crushed the insurrection of the
Chouans and the Bretons at Quiberon on the 2nd of July 1795,
and Pichegru, scared, refused to entangle himself any further.
To cut off all danger from royalists or terrorists the Conventiou
now voted the Constitution of the year III.; suppressing that
nk#co0a of 1793, in order to counteract the terrorists, and
HHutioa re-establishing the bourgeois limited franchise with
of the election in two degrees— a less liberal arrangement than
' rM^ " , • that granted from 1 789 to 1 792. The chambers of the
Five Hundred and of the Ancients were elected by the moneyed
and intellectual aristocracy, and were to be re-elected by thirds
annually. The executive authority, entrusted to five Directors,
was no more than a definite and very strong Committee of Public
Safety; but Sieyes, the author of the new constitution, in opposi-
tion to the royalists, had secured places of refuge for his party
by reserving posts as directors for the regicides, and two-thirds
of the deputies' seats for members of the Convention. In self-
defence against this continuance of the policy and the
J**j*J* personnel of the Convention— a modern " Long Parlia-
Jtafrv. ment" — the royalists, persistent street-fighters and
masters in the "sections" after the suppression. of
the daily indemnification of forty sous, attempted the insurrection
of the 13th Vendemiaire (October 5, 1795), which was easily
put down by General Bonaparte.
Thus the bourgeois republic reaped the fruits of its predecessor's
external policy. After the freeing of the land in January 1794
Mttkaty an irapuk* hadbeengiventothespiritof conquest which
odUfci*. had gradually succeeded to the disinterested fever of
meats of propaganda and overheated patriotism. This it was
vmfioa. w °i cn kid sustained Robespierre's dictatorship; and,
owing to the " amalgam " and the re-establishment of
discipline, Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine had been con-
quered and Holland occupied, simultaneously with Kosciusko's
rising in Poland, Prussia's necessity of keeping and extending
her Polish acquisitions, Robespierre's death, the prevalent
desires of the majority, and the continued victories of Pichegru,
Jourdan and Moreau, enfeebled the coalition. At Basel (April-
Tnmirof J u * y X795 ^ republican France, having rejoined the
g££jT concert of Europe, signed the long-awaited peace with
Prussia, Spain, Holland and the grand-duke of Tuscany.
But thanks to the past influence of the Girondin party, who
had caused the war, and of the regicides of the Mountain, this
peace not only ratified the conquest of Belgium, the left bank
of the Rhine and Santo Domingo, but paved the way for fresh
conquests; for the old spirit of domination and persistent
hostility to Austria attracted the destinies of the Revolution
definitely towards war.
The work of internal construction amidst this continued battle
against the whole world had been no less remarkable. The
Constituent Assembly had been more destructive than
lateral constructive; but the Convention preserved intact
those fundamental principles of civil liberty which
had been the main results of the Revolution: the
equality so dear to the French, and the sovereignty of the
people — the foundation of democracy. It also managed to
engage private interests in state reform by creating the Grand
Livre de la Dette Publique (September 13-26, 1793), an ^ enlisted
peasant and bourgeois savings in social reforms by the distribu-
tion and sale of national property. But with views reaching
beyond equality of rights to a certain equality of property, the
committees, as regards legislation, poor relief and instruction,
laid down principles which have never been realized, save in
the matter of the metric system; so that the Convention which
was dispersed on the 16th of October 1795 made a greater
impression on political history and social ideas than on institu-
tions. Its disappearance left a great blank.
During four years the Directory attempted to fill this blank.
Being the outcome of the Constitution of the year HI., it should
_ have been the organizing and pacifying government
of the Republic; in reality it sought not to create, but
to preserve its own existence. Its internal weakness,
between the danger of anarchy and the opposition of the monar-
chists, was extreme; sod it loon became discredited by its o*»
coups d'etat and by financial impotence in the eyes of a nitkn
sick of revolution, aspiring towards peace and the resumpriaa
of economic undertakings. As to foreign affairs, its aggressive
policy imperilled the conquests that had been the glory of the
Convention, and caused the frontiers of France, the defence of
which had been a point of honour with the Republic, to be caftec
in question. Finally, there was no real government on the part
of the five directors: La RevelUere-Lepeaux, an honest man
but weak; Reubell, the negotiator of the Hague; Letouraeur.
an officer of talent; Barras, a man of intrigue, corrupt and
without real convictions; and Carnot, the only really worthy
member. They never understood one another, and never con-
sulted together in hours of danger, save to embroil mat ten in
politics as in war. Leaning on the bourgeois, conservative^
liberal and anti-clerical republicans, they were no more able
than was the Thermidar party to re-establish the freedom that
had been suspended by revolutionary despotism; they created
a ministry of police, interdicted the dubs and popular societies,
distracted the press, and with partiality undertook the separation
of Church and State voted on the x8th of September 1704-
Their real defence against counter revolution was the army;
but, by a further contradiction, they reinforced the army attached
to the Revolution while seeking an alliance with the peace-
making bourgeoisie. Their party had therefore no more homo-
geneity than had their policy.
Moreover the Directory could not govern alone; it had to
rely upon two other parties, according to circumstances: the
republican-democrats and the disguised royalists. _
The former, purely anti-royalist, thought only of
remedying the sufferings of the people. Roused by
the collapse of the assignats, following upon the ruin of industry
and the arrest of commerce, they were still further exasperated
by the speculations of the financiers, by the jobbery which
prevailed throughout the administration, and by the sale of
national property which had profited hardly any but the
bourgeoisie. After the 13th Vendemiaire the royalists too,
deceived in their hopes, were expecting to return gradually to
the councils, thanks to the high property qualification for the
franchise. Under the name of " moderates " they demanded
an end to this war which England continued and Austria
threatened to recommence, and that the Directory from sdf-
interested motives refused to conclude; they desired the
abandonment of revolutionary proceedings, order in fin*nre
and religious peace.
The Directory, then, was in a minority in the country, and
had to be ever on the alert against faction; all possible methods
seemed legitimate, and during two years appeared
successful. Order was maintained in France, even the
royalist west being pacified, thanks to Hoche, who «*•
finished his victorious campaign of 1796 against
Stofilet, ChareUe and Cadoudal, by using mild and just measures
to complete the subjection of the country. The greatest danger
lay in the republican-democrats and their socialist ally, Francois
Noel (" Gracchus ") Babeuf (9.9.). The former had united the
Jacobins and the more violent members of the Conven- ^_
tion in their club, the Socttte du Pantheon; and 222?
their fusion, after the dosing of the club, with the <*#*«.
secret society of the Babouvists lent formidable
strength to this party, with which Barras was secretly JJJJ
in league. The terrorist party, deprived of its head, — ^-«^.
had found a new leader, who, by developing the
consequences of the Revolution's acts to their logical con-
clusion, gave first expression to the levelling principle of com-
munism. He proclaimed the right of property as appertain-
ing to the state, that is, to the whole community; ff ^ |rf
the doctrine of equality as absolutely opposed to social
inequality of any kind— that of property as well as that of rank;
and finally the inadequacy of the solution of the agrarian question,
which had profited scarcely any one, save a new class of privileged
individuals. But these socialist demands were premature;
the attack of the camp of Grenelle upon constitutional order
HISTORY)
France
8 59
ended merely in the arrest and guillotining of Babeuf (September
9, 1706-May 25, 1797).
The liquidation of the financial inheritance of the Convention
was no less difficult. The successive issues of assign?* s, and the
Fimmmjai multiplication of counterfeits made abroad, had so
poBcy depreciated this paper money that an assignat of 100
nfcwtnn f rancs was * n February 1796 worth only 30 centimes;
AirwrfiM?, w j 1 g e t jj C government, obliged to accept them at their
nominal value, no longer collected any taxes and could not pay
salaries. The destruction of the plate for printing assignats,
on the 1 8th of February 1796, did not prevent the drop in the
forty milliards still in circulation. Territorial mandates were
now tried, which inspired no greater confidence, but served to
liquidate two-thirds of the debt, the remaining' third being con-
solidated by its dependence on the Grand Livrc (September 30,
1797). This widespread bankruptcy, falling chiefly on the
bourgeoisie, inaugurated a reaction which lasted until 1830
against the chief principle of the Constituent Assembly, which
had favoured indirect taxation as producing a large sum without
imposing any very obvious burden. The bureaucrats of the old
system— having returned to their offices and being used to these
indirect taxes— lent their assistance, and thus the Directory was
enabled to maintain its struggle against the Coalition.
All system in finance having disappeared, war provided the
Directory, now in extremis, with a treasury, and was its only
source for supplying constitutional needs; whik it
opened a path to the military commanders who were
to be the support and the glory of the slate. England
remaining invulnerable in her insular position despite Hoche's
attempt to land in Ireland in 1796, the Directory resumed the
traditional policy against Austria of conquering the natural
frontiers, Carnot furnishing the plans; hence the war in southern
Germany, in which Jourdan and Moreau were repulsed by an
inferior force under the archduke Charles, and Bonaparte's
triumphant Italian campaign. Chief of an army that he had
made irresistible, not by honour but by glory, and master of
wealth by rapine, Bonaparte imposed his will upon the Directory,
which he provided with funds. After having separated the Pied-
montese from the Austrians, whom he drove back into Tyrol, and
repulsed offensive reprisals of Wurmser and Alvinzi on four occa-
sions, he stopped short at the preliminary negotiations of Leoben
just at the moment when the Directory, discouraged by the
problem of Italian reconstitution, was preparing the army of the
Rhine to re-enter the field under the command of Hoche. Bona-
parte thus gained the good opinion of peace-loving Frenchmen;
he partitioned Venetian territory with Austria, contrary to French
interests but conformably with his own in Italy, and henceforward
was the decisive factor in French and European policy, like
Caesar or Pompey of old. England, in consternation, offered
in her turn to negotiate at Lille.
These military successes did not prevent the Directory, like
the Tbermidorians, from losing ground in the country. Every
stt^gh strategic truce since 1 79s had been marked by a political
MgMiont crisis; peace reawakened opposition. The constitu-
*** tional party, royalist in reality, had made alarming
* v— ■*■ progress, chiefly owing to the Babouvist conspiracy;
they now tried to corrupt the republican generals, and Cond6
procured the treachery of Ptchegru, Kellermann and General
Ferrand at Besancon. Moreover, their Clichy club, directed
by the abbt Brottier, manipulated Parisian opinion; while
many of the refractory priests, having returned after the liberal
Public Worship Act of September 1795, made active propaganda
against' the principles of the Revolution, and plotted the fall
of the Directory as maintaining the State's independence of the
Church. Thus the partial elections of the year V. (May 20,
1797) had brought back into the two councils a counter-revolu-
tionary majority of royalists, constitutionalists of 1791, Catholics
and moderates. The Director Letourneur had been replaced
by Barthelcmy, who had negotiated the treaty of Basel and was
a constitutional monarchist. So that the executive not only
found it impossible to govern, owing to the opposition of the
councils and a vehement press-campaign, but was distracted
by ceaseless internal conflict. Carnot and Barthelemy wished
to meet ecclesiastical opposition by legal measures only, and
demanded peace; while Barras, La Revellitre and Reubell
saw no other remedy save military force: The attempt of the
counter-revolutionaries to make an army for themselves out of
the guard of the Legislative Assembly, and the success of the
Catholics, who had managed at the end of August 1797 to repeal
the laws against refractory priests, determined the Directory
to appeal from the rebellious parliament to the ready swords of
Augereau and Bernadotte. On the x8th Fructidor (September
4, 1797) Bonaparte's lieutenants, backed up by the
whole army, stopped the elections in forty-nine }^ fttor
departments, and deported to Guiana many deputies
of both councils, journalists and non-juring priests, as
well as the director Barthelemy, though Carnot escaped into
Switzerland. The royalist party was once more overthrown,
but with it the republican constitution itself. Thus every act
o! violence still further confirmed the new empire of the army
and the defeat of principles, preparing the way for military
despotism.
Political and financial coups Mat were not enough for the
directors. In order to win back public opinion, tired of inter-
necine quarrels and sickened by the scandalous Aarwt™
immorality of the generals and of those in power, poiky
and to remove from Paris an army which after having •'**»
given them a fresh lease of life was now a menace to DtntS * t ^-
them, war appeared their only hopeful course. They attempted
to renew the designs of Louis XIV. and anticipate those of
Napoleon. But Bonaparte saw what they were planning; and
to the rupture of the negotiations at Lille and an order for the
resumption of hostilities he responded by a fresh act of dis-
obedience and the infliction on the Directory of the peace of
Campo-Formio, on October 17, 2797. The directors were con-
soled for this enforced peace by acquiring the left bank of the
Rhine and Belgium, and for the forfeiture of republican principles
by attaining what had for so long been the ambition of the
monarchy. But the army continued a menace. To avoid
disbanding it, which might, as after the peace of Basel, have
given the counter-revolution further auxiliaries, the Directory
appointed Bonaparte chief of the Army of England, and employed
Jourdan to revise the conscription laws so as to make military
service a permanent duty of the citizen, since war was now to be
the permanent object of policy. The Directory finally conceived
the gigantic project of bolstering up the French Republic — the
triumph of which was celebrated by the peace of Campo-Formio
— by forming the neighbouring weak states into tributary
vassal republics. This system had already been applied to the
Batavian republic in 179s, totheLigurian and Cisalpine republics
in June 1797; it was extended to that of Mtilhauscn on the 28th
of January 1798, to the Roman republic in February, to the
Helvetian in April, while the Parthenopaean republic (Naples)
was to be established in 1 799. This was an international coup de
force, which presupposed that all these nations in whose eyes
independence was flaunted would make no claim to enjoy it;
that though they had been beaten and pillaged they would not
learn to conquer in their turn; and that the king of Sardinia,
dispossessed of Milan, the grand-duke of Tuscany who had
given refuge to the pope when driven from Rome, and the-
king of Naples, who had opened his ports to Nelson's fleet,
would not find allies to make a stand against this hypocritical
system.
What happened was exactly the contrary. Meanwhile, the
armies were kept in perpetual motion, procuring money for the
impecunious Directory, making a diversion for internal coop
discontent, and also permitting of a "reversed eiutot
Fructidor," against the' anarchists, who had got the {Jf i 2j d
upper hand in the partial elections of May 1798. '*'***•
The social danger was averted in its turn after the clerical
danger had been dissipated. The next task was to relieve
Paris of Bonaparte, who bad already refused to repeat
Hoche's unhappy expedition to Ireland and to attack England
at home without either money or a navy. The pecuniary
86o
FRANCE
(HISTORY
resources of Berne and the wealth of Rome fortunately tided
over the financial difficulty and provided for the expedi-
tion to Egypt, which permitted Bonaparte to wait
"for the fruit to ripen"— i.e. till the Directory
should be ruined in the eyes of France and of all
Europe. The disaster of Aboukir (August i, 1798) speedily
decided the coalition pending between England, Austria, the
Empire, Portugal, Naples, Russia and Turkey. The Directory
had to make a stand or perish, and with it the Republic. The
directors had thought France might retain a monopoly
n * in numbers- and in initiative. They soon perceived
that enthusiasm is not as great for a war of policy
and conquest as for a war of national defence; and
the army dwindled, since a country cannot bleed itself to death.
The law of conscription was voted on the 5th of September 1798;
and the tragedy of Rastadt, where the French commissioners
were assassinated, was the opening of a war, desired but ill-
prepared for, in which the Directory showed hesitation in
strategy and incoherence in tactics, over a disproportionate
area in Germany, Switzerland and Italy. Military reverses
were inevitable, and responsibility for them could not be shirked.
As though shattered by a reverberant echo from the cannon of
the Trebbia, the Directory crumbled to pieces, succumbing
on the x8th of June 1799 beneath the reprobation showered on
TreUnard, Merlin de Douai, and La Revelliere-Lepeaux. A
few more military disasters, royalist insurrections in the south,
Chouan disturbances in Normandy, Orlcanist intrigues and the
end came. To soothe the populace and protect the frontier
more was required than the resumption, as in all grave crises of
the Revolution, of terrorist measures such as forced taxation
or the law of hostages; the new Directory, Sieves presiding,
saw that for the indispensable revision of the constitution
"a head and a sword " were needed. Moreau being unattainable,
Joubcrt was to be the sword of Sieves; but, when he was
killed at the battle of Novi, the sword of the Revolution fell
into the hands of Bonaparte.
Although Brunc and Massena retrieved the fight at Bergen
and Zurich, and although the Allies lingered on the frontier as
Comp they had done after Valmy, still the fortunes of the
fiiMtot Directory were not restored. Success was reserved
ttt0i&(b for Bonaparte, suddenly landing at Frejus with the
BramMtn, p^stige f his victories in the East, and now, after
Hoche's death, appearing as sole master of the armies.
He manoeuvred among the parties as on the 13th Vende"-
miaire. .On the 18th Brumaire of the year VIII. France and
the army fell together at his feet. By a twofold coup d'ttat,
parliamentary and military, he culled the fruits of the Directory's
systematic aggression and unpopularity, and realized the
universal desires of the rich bourgeoisie, tired of warfare; of
the wretched populace; of landholders, afraid of a return to the
old order of things; of royalists, who looked upon Bonaparte
as a future Monk; of priests and their people, who hoped for an
indulgent treatment of Catholicism; and finally of the immense
majority of the French, who love to be ruled and for long had
had no efficient government. There was hardly any one to defend
a liberty which they had never known. France had, indeed,
remained monarchist at heart for all her revolutionary appear-
ance; and Bonaparte added but a name, though an illustrious
one, to the scries of national or local dictatorships, which, after
Ihc departure of the weak Louis XVI., had maintained a sort
of informal republican royalty.
On the night of the 19th Brumaire a mere ghost of an
Assembly abolished the constitution of the year III., ordained
Tht Co m l ^ e P rov ki° nar y Consulate, and legalized the coup
suM*» d'tlal in favour of Bonaparte. A striking and singular
Sept.n, event; for the history of France and a gTeat part
JJ^j2? r of Europe was now for fifteen years to be summed
up in the person of a single man (see Napoleon).
This night of Brumaire, however, seemed to be a victory for
Siey6s rather than for Bonaparte. He it was who originated
the project which the legislative commissions, charged with
elaborating the new constitution, bad to discuss. Bonaparte's
cleverness lay in opposing Daunou's plan to that of Sieves, and
in retaining only those portions of both which could serve his
ambition. Parliamentary institutions annulled by the j^m^
complication of three assemblies— the Council of State mtarnim
which drafted bills, the Tribunate which discussed *****
them without voting them, and the Legislative J»" r,m
Assembly which voted them without discussing them; popular
suffrage, mutilated by the lists of notables (on which the memhrw
of the Assemblies were to be chosen by the conservative senate);
and the triple executive authority of the consuls, elected for tea
years: all these semblances of constitutional authority were
adopted by Bonaparte. But he abolished the post of Grand
Elector, which Sieves had reserved for himself, in order to
reinforce the real authority of the First Consul himself — by
leaving the two other consuls, Cambaceres and Lebrun, as well as
the Assemblies, equally weak. Thus the aristocratic constitution
of Sieves was transformed into an unavowed dictatorship, a
public ratification of which the First Consul obtained by a third
coup d'tlal from the intimidated and yet reassured electors-
reassured by his dazzling but unconvincing offers of peace to the
victorious Coalition (which repulsed them), by the rapid dis-
armament of La Vendee, and by the proclamations in which
he filled the ears of the infatuated people with the new talk of
stability of government, order, justice and moderation. He gave
every one a feeling that France was governed once more by a
real statesman, that a pilot was at the helm.
Bonaparte had now to rid himself of Sieve's and those re-
publicans who had no desire to hand over the republic to one
man, particularly of Moreau and Masslna, his military rivals.
The victory of Marengo (June 14, 1800) momentarily in the
balance, but secured by Desaix and Kellermann, offered a further
opportunity to his jealous ambition by increasing his popularity.
The royalist plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaisc (December 24, 1800)
allowed him to make a clean sweep of the democratic republicans,
who despite their innocence were deported to Guiana, and to
annul Assemblies that were a mere show by making the senate
omnipotent in constitutional matters; but it was necessary
for him to transform this deceptive trace into the general
pacification so ardently desired for the last eight years. The
treaty of Lun6ville, signed in February x8oi with Austria who
had been disarmed by Moreau's victory at Hohenlinden, restored
peace to the continent, gave nearly the whole of Italy to France,
and permitted Bonaparte to eliminate from the Assemblies
all the leaders of the opposition in the discussion of the Civil
Code. The Concordat (July 1801), drawn up not in the Church's
interest but in that of his own poEcy, by giving satisfaction
to the religious feeling of the country, allowed him to put down
the constitutional democratic Church, to rally round him the
consciences of the peasants, and above all to deprive the royalists
of their best weapon. The "Articles Organiques" hid from
the eyes of his companions in arms and councillors a reaction
which, in fact if not in law, restored to a submissive Church,
despoiled of her revenues, her position as the religion of the state,
The peace of Amiens with England (March i8oj), T%mCmmm
of which France's allies, Spain and Holland, paid all ijjj^^*'
the costs, finally gave the peacemaker a pretext for
endowing himself with a Consulate, not for ten years but for life,
as a recompense from the nation. The Rubicon was crossed
on that day: Bonaparte's march to empire began with the
constitution of the year X. (August 2802).
Before all things it was now necessary to reorganize France,
ravaged as she was by the Revolution, and with her institutions
in a state of utter corruption. The touch of the master
was at once revealed to all the foreigners who rushed
to gaze at the man about whom, after so many cata-
strophesandstrangeadvcnturcs,Paris,"laviTlelumiere,"
and all Europe were talking. First of all, Louis XVSi system
of roads was improved and that of Louis XVI.'s canals developed;
then industry put its shoulder to the wheel; order and discipline
were re-established everywhere, from the frontiers to the capital,
and brigandage suppressed: and finally there was Paris, the
city of cities! Everything was in process of transformation:
USTORY]
FRANCE
861
second Rome was arising, with its forum, its triumphal arches,
ts shows and parades; and in this new Rome of a new Caesar
ancy, elegance and luxury, a radiance of art and learning
rom the age of Pericles, and masterpieces rifled from the Nether-
anda, Italy and Egypt illustrated the consular peace. The
vian of Destiny renewed the course of time. He borrowed from
be ancien rigim* its plenipotentiaries; its over-centralized,
.trictly utilitarian administrative and bureaucratic methods;
ind afterwards, in order to bring them into line, the subservient
pedantic scholasticism of its university. On the basis laid down
ay the Constituent Assembly and the Convention he constructed
>r consolidated the funds necessary for national institutions,
local governments, a judiciary system, organs of finance, banking,
codes, traditions of conscientious well-disciplined labour, and
in short all the organization which for three-quarters of a century
was to maintain and regulate the concentrated activity of the
French nation (see the section Law and Institutions). Peace and
order helped to raise the standard of comfort. Provisions, in
this Paris which had so often suffered from hunger and thirst, ,
and lacked fire and light, had become cheap and abundant;
while trade prospered and wages ran high. The pomp and
luxury of the nottvecux riches were displayed in the salons of the
good Josephine, the beautiful Madame Tallien, and the "divine "
Juliette Recamier.
But the republicans, and above all the military, saw in au this
little but the fetters of system; the wily despotism, the bullying
m f»» police, the prostration before authority, the sympathy
lavished on royalists, the recall of the imigrts, the
contempt for the Assemblies, the purification of the
Tribunate, the platitudes of the servile Senate, the
silence of the press. In the formidable machinery of state, above
all in the creation of the Legion of Honour, the Concordat, and
the restoration of indirect taxes, they saw the rout of the Revolu-
tion. But the expulsion of persons like Benjamin Constant
and Madame de Stael sufficed to quell this Fronde of the salons.
The expedition to San Domingo reduced the republican army
to a nullity; war demoralized or scattered the leaders, who were
jealous of their " comrade " Bonaparte; and Moreau, the last
of his rivals, cleverly compromised in a royalist plot, as Danton
had formerly been by Robespierre, disappeared into exile. In
contradistinction to this opposition of senators and republican
generals, the immense mass of the people received the ineffaceable
impression of Bonaparte's superiority. No suggestion of the
possibility of his death was tolerated, of a crime which might
cut short hts career. The conspiracy of Cadoudal and Picbegru,
after Bonaparte's refusal to give place to Louis XVIII., and the
political execution of the due d'Enghien, provoked an outburst
of adulation, of which Bonaparte took advantage to put the
crowning touch to his ambitious dream.
The decision of the senate on the 18th of May 1804, giving
him the title of emperor, was the counterblast to the dread
jVfNfcM ** e na( * excited. Thenceforward "the brow of the
•mptnr emperor broke through the thin mask of the First
Mmyis, Consul." Never did a harder master ordain more
**J* imperiously, nor understand better how to command
mJX* obedience. "This was because," as Goethe said,
" under his orders men were sure of accomplishing
their ends. That is why they rallied round him, as one to inspire
them with that kind of certainty." Indeed no man ever con-
centrated authority to such a point, nor showed mental abilities
at all comparable to his: an extraordinary power of work,
prodigious memory for details and fine judgment in their selec-
tion; together with a luminous decision and a simple and rapid
conception* all placed at the disposal of a sovereign will. No
head of the state gave expression more imperiously than this
Italian to the popular passions of the French of that day:
abhorrence for the emigrant nobility, fear of the ancien rigime,
dislike of foreigners, hatred of England, an appetite for conquest
evoked by revolutionary propaganda, and the love of glory.
In this Napoleon was a soldier of the people: because of this he
judged and ruled his contemporaries. Having seen their actions
in the stormy hours of the Revolution! he despised them and
looked upon them as incapable of disinterested conduct, con-
ceited, and obsessed by the notion of equality Hence his
colossal egoism, his habitual disregard of others, his jealous
passion for power, bis impatience of all contradiction, his vain
untruthful boasting, his unbridled self-sufficiency and lack of
moderation— passions which were gradually to cloud his clear
faculty of reasoning. His genius, assisted by the impoverish-
ment of two generations, was like the oak which admits beneath
its shade none but the smallest of saplings. With the exception
of Talleyrand, after 1808 he would have about him only mediocre
people, without initiative, prostrate at the' feet of the giant:
his tribe of paltry, rapacious and embarrassing Corsicans; his
admirably subservient generals; his selfish ministers, docile
agents, apprehensive of the future, who for fourteen long years
felt a prognostication of defeat and discounted the inevitable
catastrophe.
So Fiance had no internal history outside the plans and
transformations to which Napoleon subjected the institutions
of the Consulate, and the after-effects of his wars. Well knowing
that his fortunes rested on the delighted acquiescence of France,
Napoleon expected to continue indefinitely fashioning public
opinion according to his pleasure. To his contempt for men
he added that of all Ideas which might put a bridle on his am-
bition; and to guard against them, he inaugurated the Golden
Age of the police that he might tame every moral force to his
hand. Being essentially a man of order, he loathed, as he said,
all demagogic action, Jacobinism and visions of liberty, which
he desired only for himself. To make his will predominant, he
stifled or did violence to that of others, through his bishops, his
gendarmes, his university, his press, his catechism. Nourished
like Frederick II. andCatbcrine the Great in 18th-century maxims,
neither he nor they would allow any of that ideology to filter
through into their rough but regular ordering of mankind. Thus
the whole political system, being summed up in the emperor,
was bound to share his fall.
Although an enemy of idealogues,in his foreign policy Napoleon
was haunted by grandiose visions. A condotticre of the Renais-
sance living in the 19th century, he used France, apd
all those nations annexed or attracted by the Revolu- /
tion, to resuscitate the Roman conception of the/
Empire for his own benefit. On the other hand, he was
enslaved by the history and aggressive idealism of the Conven-
tion, and of the republican propaganda under the Directory;
he was guided by them quite as much as he guided them. Hence
the immoderate extension given to French activity by his classical
Latin spirit; hence also his conquests, leading on from one to
another, and instead of being mutually helpful interfering with
each other; hence, finally, his not entirely coherent policy,
interrupted by hesitation and counter-attractions. This explains
the retention of Italy, imposed on the Directory from 1796 on-
ward, followed by his criminal treatment of Venice, the founda-
tion of the Cisalpine republic— a foretaste of future annexations —
the restoration of that republic after his return from Egypt, and
in view of his as yet inchoate designs, the postponed solution
of the Italian problem which the treaty of Lunlville had raised.
Marengo inaugurated the political idea which was to continue
its development until his Moscow campaign. Napoleon dreamed,
as yet only of keeping the duchy of Milan, setting aside Austria,
and preparing some new enterprise in the East or in Egypt.
The peace of Amiens, which cost him Egypt, could only seem to
him a temporary truce; whilst he was gradually extending his
authority in Italy, the cradle of his race, by the union of Pied-
mont, and by his tentative plans regarding Genoa, Parma,
Tuscany and Naples. He wanted to make this his Cisalpine
Gaul, laying siege to the Roman state on every hand, and pre-
paring in the Concordat for the moral and material servitude of
the pope. When he recognized his error in having raised the
papacy from decadence by restoring its power over all the
churches, he tried in vain to correct it by the Articles Organiques
— wanting, like Charlemagne, to be the legal protector of the
pope, and eventually master of the Church. To conceal his plan
he aroused French colonial aspirations against England, and also
862
FRANCE
[HI5TQIY
Tnstyof
the memory of the spoliations of 1763, exasperating English
jealousy of France, whose borders now extended to the Rhine,
and laying hands on Hanover, Hamburg and Cuxhaven. By the
" Recess " of 1803, which brought to his side Bavaria, Wtlrttem-
berg and Baden, he followed up the overwhelming tide of revolu-
tionary ideas in Germany, to stem which Pitt, back in power,
appealed once more to an Anglo-Austro-Russian coalition against
this new Charlemagne, who was trying to renew the old Empire,
who was mastering France, Italy and Germany; who finally on
the 2nd of December 1804 placed the imperial crown upon his
head, after receiving the iron crown of the Lombard kings, and
made Pius VII. consecrate him in Notre-Damc.
After this, in four campaigns from 1805 to 1809, Napoleon
transformed his Carolingian feudal and federal empire into one
modelled on the Roman empire. The memories of imperial
Rome were for a third time, after Caesar and Charlemagne, to
modify the historical evolution of France. Though the vague
plan for an invasion of England fell to the ground Ulm and
Austerlitz obliterated Trafalgar, and the camp at Boulogne put
the best military resources he had ever commanded at Napoleon's
disposal.
In the first of these campaigns he swept away the remnants
of the old Roman-Germanic empire, and out of its shattered
fragments created in southern Germany the vassal
states of Bavaria, Baden, WUrltemberg, Hesse-
Darmstadt and Saxony, which he attached to France
under the name of the Confederation of the Rhine;
but the treaty of Prcsburg gave France nothing but the
danger of a more centralized and less docile Germany. On
the other hand, Napoleon's creation of the kingdom of Italy,
his annexation of Venctia and her ancient Adriatic empire —
wiping out the humiliation of 1797— and the occupation of
Ancona, marked a new stage in his progress towards his Roman
Empire. His good fortune soon led him from conquest to
spoliation, and he complicated his master-idea of the grand
empire by his Family Compact; the clan of the Bonapartes
invaded European monarchies, wedding with princesses of blood-
royal, and adding kingdom to kingdom. Joseph replaced the
dispossessed Bourbons at Naples; Louis was installed on the
throne of Holland; Murat became grand-duke of Berg, Jerome
son-in-law to the king of Wurttemberg, and Eugene de Beau-
harnais to the king of Bavaria; while Stephanie de Beauharnais
married the son of the grand-duke of Baden.
Meeting with less and less resistance,NapoIeon went still further
and would tolerate no neutral power. On the 6th of August 1806
j^^ he forced the Habsburgs, left with only the crown of
Austria, to abdicate their Roman-Germanic title of
emperor. Prussia alone remained outside the Confederation of
the Rhine, of which Napoleon was Protector, and to further her
decision he offered her English Hanover. In a second campaign
he destroyed at Jena both the army and the state of Frederick
William III., who could not make up his mind between the
Napoleonic treaty of SchOnbrunn and Russia's counter-proposal
at Potsdam (October 14, 1806). The butchery at Eylau and the
vengeance taken at Friedland finally ruined Frederick
L— l the Great's work, and obliged Russia, the ally of
England and Prussia, to allow the latter to be despoiled,
and to join Napoleon against the maritime tyranny of the former.
After Tilsit, however (July 1807), instead of trying to reconcile
Ami 0/ Europe to his grandeur, Napoleon had but one thought :
TttsU, to make use of his success to destroy England and
•Jjj£*» complete his Italian dominion. It was from Berlin,
on the 21st of November 1806, that he had dated the
first decree of a continental blockade, a monstrous conception
intended to paralyze his inveterate rival, but which on the con-
trary caused his own fall by its immoderate extension
of the empire. To the coalition of the northern powers
he added the league of the Baltic and Mediterranean
ports, and to the bombardment of Copenhagen by an
English fleet he responded by a second decree of blockade, dated
from Milan on the 17th of December 1807.
But the application of the Concordat and the taking of Naples
led to the first of those struggles with tne pope, in which »r-
fonnulated two antagonistic doctrines: Napoleon dedar-:
himself Roman emperor, and Pius VII. renewing the theocrs
affirmations of Gregory VII. The former's Roman ambitioa *■-.
made more and more plainly visible by the occupation d tic
kingdom of Naples and of the Marches.and the entry .of Miofiis s't
Rome; while Junot invaded Portugal, Radet laid hands cs 'jz
pope himself, and Mural took possession of formerly RonianSpii
whither Joseph was afterwards to be transferred. But Napfac
little knew the flame he was kindling. No more far-seeing tisi
the Directory or the men of the year lit., he thought that. * i
energy and execution, he might succeed in the Peninsula as tt
had succeeded in Italy in 1796 and 1797, in Egypt, and in Hnc
and that he might cut into Spanish granite as into Italian tcu^i:
or " that big cake, Germany." He stumbled unawares upon :<.
revolt of a proud national spirit, evolved through ten Ins&c.
centuries; and the trap of Bayonne, together with the entLv:
ing of Joseph Bonaparte, made the contemptible prince of 'Jx
Asturias the elect of popular sentiment, the representative 1
religion and country.
Napoleon thought he had Spain within his grasp, and act
suddenly everything was slipping from him. The Penkbii
became the grave of whole armies and a battlefield na>|
for England. Dupont capitulated at Bailen into the
hands of Castanos, and Junot at Cintra to WeHesley; wfc:*
Europe trembled at this first check to the hitherto inviscrir
imperial armies. To reduce Spanish resistance Napoleon had :
his turn to come to terms with the tsar Alexander at Erfcr:
so that abandoning his designs in the East, he could make ik
Grand Army evacuate Prussia and return in force to Madrid.
Thus Spain swallowed up the soldiers who were wanted fcr
Napoleon's other fields of battle, and they had to be repUces
by forced levies. Europe had only to wait, and he w^m.
would eventually be found disarmed in face of a last
coalition; but Spanish heroism infected Austria, and shenrri
the force of national resistance. The provocations of TaBcv-
rand and England strengthened the illusion: Why should re:
the Austrians emulate the Spaniards? The campaign of iSc^
however, was but a pale copy of the Spanish insurrection. Af tr
a short and decisive action in Bavaria, Napoleon opened up tic
road to Vienna for a second time; and after the two days' batik
at Essling, the stubborn fight at Wagram, the failure of a patriotic
insurrection in northern Germany and of the English ezpeditioe
against Antwerp, the treaty of Vienna (December 14, 1809), witi
the annexation of the Illyrian provinces, completed
the colossal empire. Napoleon profiled, in fact, by this
campaign which had been planned for his overthrow.
The pope was deported to Savona beneath the eyes of indifferent
Europe, and his domains were incorporated in the Empire; the
senate's decision on the 17th of February i8ro created the ti:k
of king of Rome, and made Rome the capital of Italy. The pope
banished, it was now desirable to send away those to whom Italy
had been more or less promised. Eugene de Beauhamaiss
Napoleon's stepson, was transferred to Frankfort, and Murat
carefully watched until the time should come to take him to
Russia and instal him as king of Poland. Between 18 10 and
181 2 Napoleon's divorce of Josephine, and his marriage with
Marie Louise of Austria, followed by the birth of the king of
Rome, shed a brilliant light upon his future policy. He renounced
a federation in which his brothers were not sufficiently docile; be
gradually withdrew power from them; he concentrated all hs
affection and ambition on the son who was the guarantee of the
continuance of his dynasty. This was the apogee of his reign.
But undermining forces were already at work: the faults in-
herent in his unwieldy achievement. England, his chief enemy,
was persistently active; and rebellion both of the BtgiMM ^ t
governing and the governed broke out everywhere. e/tb**ad.
Napoleon felt his impotence in coping with the Spanish W»*y
insurrection, which he underrated, while yet unable ^[,"'[ rt "
to suppress it altogether. Men like Stein, Harden-
berg and Scharnhorst were secretly preparing Prussia's
retaliation. Napoleon's material omnipotence could not stand
HISTORY)
FRANCE
863
a^Sarinst the moral force of the pope, a prisoner at Fonsainebleau;
«tmad this he did not realize. The alliance arranged at Tilsit was
seriously shaken by the Austrian marriage, the threat of a
polish restoration, and the unfriendly policy of Napoleon at Con-
stantinople. The very persons whom he had placed in power were
counteracting his plans; after four years' experience Napoleon
foun4 himself obliged to treat his Corsican dynasties like those
off the ancim rigime, and all his relations were betraying him.
Caroline conspired against her brother and against her husband;
the hypochondriacal Louis, now Dutch in his sympathies, found
the supervision of the blockade taken from him, and also the
defence of the Scheldt, which he had refused to ensure; Jerome,
idling in his harem, lost that of the North Sea shores; and Joseph,
who was attempting the moral conquest of Spain, was continually
insulted at Madrid. The very nature of things was against the
new dynasties, as it had been against the old.
After national insurrections and family recriminations came
treachery from Napoleon's ministers. Talleyrand betrayed his
^ rtrMCh€tr designs to Metternich, and had to be dismissed;
****** Fouche corresponded with Austria in 1809 and 18 10,
entered into an understanding with Louis, and also with England;
while Bourrienne was convicted of peculation. By a natural con-
sequence of the spirit of conquest he had aroused, all these par-
venus, having tasted victory, dreamed of sovereign power:
Bernadotte, who had helped him to the Consulate, played
Napoleon false to win the crown of Sweden; Soult, like Murat,
coveted the Spanish throne after that of Portugal, thus anticipat-
ing the treason of 1A13 and the defection of 18x4; many persons
hoped for " an accident " which might resemble the tragic end of
Alexander and of Caesar. The country itself, besides, though
flattered by conquests, was tired of self -sacrifice. It had become
satiated; "the cry of the mothers rose threateningly" against
" the Ogre " and his intolerable imposition of wholesale conscrip-
tion. The soldiers themselves, discontented after Austerliu,
cried out for peace after Eylau. Finally, amidst profound silence
from the press and the Assemblies, a protest was raised against
imperial despotism by the literary world, against the excom-
municated sovereign by Catholicism, and against the author
of the continental blockade by the discontented bourgeoisie,
ruined by the crisis of 18x1.
Napoleon himself was no longer the General Bonaparte of his
campaign In Italy. He was already showing signs of physical
decay; the Roman medallion profile had coarsened,
the obese body was of ten lymphatic. Mental degenera-
tion, too, betrayed itself in an unwonted irresolution.
At Eylau, at Wagram,and later at Waterloo, his method
of acting by enormous masses of infantry and cavalry, in a mad
passion for conquest, and his misuse of his military resources,
were all signs of his moral and technical decadence; and this
at the precise moment when, instead of the armies and govern-
ments of the old system, which had hitherto reigned supreme,
the nations themselves were rising against France, and the events
of 1792 were being avenged upon her. The three campaigns of
two years brought the final catastrophe.
Napoleon had hardly succeeded in putting down the revolt
in Germany when the tsar himself headed a European insurrec-
tion against the ruinous tyranny of the continental
blockade. To put a stop to this, to ensure his own
access to the Mediterranean and exclude his chief
rival, Napoleon made a desperate effort in 181 2 against a country
as invincible as Spain. Despite his victorious advance, the
taking of Smolensk, the victory on the Moskwa, and the entry
into Moscow, he was vanquished by Russian patriotism and
religious fervour, by the country and the climate, and by
Alexander's refusal to make terms. After this came the lament-
able retreat, while all Europe was concentrating against him.
Pushed back, as he had been in Spain, from bastion to bastion,
after the action on the Beresina, Napoleon had to fall back
upon the frontiers of 1809, and then— having refused the peace
offered him by Austria at the congress of Prague, from a dread of
losing Italy, where each of his victories had marked a stage in
the accomplishment of his dream— on those of 180& despite
Ratstaa
Dowatatt
oftb*
Ltttzen and Bautsen, and on those el 180a after his defeat at
Leipzig, where Bernadotte turned upon him, Moreau figured
among the Allies, and the Saxons and Bavarians
forsook him, Following his retreat from Russia came ^JJK .
his retreat from Germany. After the loss of Spain, SaE/<.
reconquered by Wellington, the rising in Holland pre-
liminary to the invasion and the manifesto of Frankfort which
proclaimed it, he had to fall back upon the frontiers of 1705;
and then later was driven yet farther back upon those of 1792,
despite the wonderful campaign of 1814 against the invaders, in
which the old Bonaparte of 1796 seemed to have returned.
Paris capitulated on the 30th of March, and the " Dclenda
Carthago," pronounced against England, was spoken of Napoleon.
The great empire of East and West fell in ruins with the emperor's
abdication at Fontainebleau.
The military struggle ended, the political struggle began.
How was France to be governed? The Allies had decided on
the eviction of Napoleon at the Congress of Chatillon;
and the precarious nature of the Bonapartist monarchy
in France itself was made manifest by the exploit of
General Malet, which had almost succeeded during the
Russian campaign, and by Laine's demand for free exercise of
political rights, when Napoleon made a last appeal to the Legis-
lative Assembly for support. The defection of the military and
civil aristocracy, which brought about Napoleon's abdication,
the refusal of a regency, and the failure of Bernadotte, who
wished to resuscitate the Consulate, enabled Talleyrand, vice-
president of the senate and desirous of power, to persuade the
Allies to accept the Bourbon solution of the difficulty. The
declaration of St Ouen (May 2, 1814) indicated that the new
monarchy was only accepted upon conditions. After Napoleon's
abdication, and exile to the island of Elba, came the Revolution's
abdication of her conquests: the first treaty of Paris (May 30th)
confirmed France's renunciation of Belgium and the left bank of
the Rhine, and her return within her pre-revolutionary frontiers,
save for some slight rectifications.
After the scourge of war, the honors of conscription, and the
despotism which had discounted glory, every one seemed to
rejoice in the return of the Bourbons, which atoned ior
humiliations by restoring liberty. But questions of JjJJjJ
form, which aroused questions of sentiment, speedily Bonrtom*.
led to grave dissensions. The hurried armistice of
the 93rd of April, by which the comte d'Artois delivered over
disarmed France to her conquerors; Louis XVIIL's excessive
gratitude to the prince regent of England; the return of the
tmigrts; the declaration of St Ouen, dated from the nineteenth
year of the new reign; she charter of June 4th, " conOdSe el
octroy**" maintaining the effete doctrine of legitimacy in a
country permeated with the idea of national sovereignty; the
slights put upon the army; the obligatory processions ordered
by Comte Beugnot, prefect of police; all this provoked a
conflict not only between two theories of government but
between two groups of men and of interests. An avowedly
imperialist party was soon again formed, a centre of heated
opposition to the royalist party; and neither Baron Louis'
excellent finance, nor the peace, nor the charter of June 4th —
which despite the irritation of the hnigris preserved the civil
gains of the Revolution — prevented the man who was its incar-
nation from seizing an opportunity to bring about another
military coup 4'Slat. Having landed in the Bay of Jouan on
the 1st of March, on the 20th Napoleon re-entered the Tuileries
in triumph, while Louis XVIII. fled to Ghent. By the AtU
addtiionncl of the 22nd of April he induced Carnot and Fouche—
the last of the Jacobins— and the heads of the Liberal
opposition, Benjamin Constant and La Fayette, to side
with him against the hostile Power- of Europe, occupied
in dividing the spoils at Vienna. He proclaimed his
intention of founding a new democratic empire; and
French policy was thus given another illusion, which
was to be exploited with fatal success by Napoleon's namesake.
But the cannon of Waterloo ended this adventure (June 18, 18x5),
and, thanks to Fouche'3 treachery, the triumphal progress of
IBIS.
864
FRANCE
IHJSRCT
Milan, Rome, Naples, Vienna, Berlin, and even of Moscow, was
to end at St Helena.
The consequences of the Hundred Days were very serious;
France was embroiled with all Europe, though Talleyrand's
.. clever diplomacy had succeeded in causing division
$JJJ over Saxony and Poland by the secret Austro-Anglo-
French alliance of the 3rd of January 1815, and the
Coalition destroyed both France's political independence and
national integrity by the treaty of peace of November 20th:
she found herself far weaker than before the Revolution, and in
the power of the European Alliance. The Hundred Days
divided the nation itself into two irreconcilable parties: one
ultra-royalist, eager for vengeance and retaliation, refusing to
accept the Charter; the other imperialist, composed of Bona-
partists and Republicans, incensed by their defeat— of whom
Beranger was the Tyrtaeus— both parties equally revolutionary
and equally obstinate. Louis XVIII., urged by his more fervent
supporters towards the ancien rtgime, gave his policy an exactly
contrary direction; he had comr ion-sense enough to maintain
the Empire's legal and administrative tradition, accepting its
institutions of the Legion of Honour, the Bank, the University,
and the imperial nobility— modifying only formally certain
rights and the conscription, since these had aroused the nation
against Napoleon. He even went so far as to accept advice from
the imperial ministers Talleyrand and Fouche. Finally, as the
chief political organization had become thoroughly demoralized,
he imported into France the entire constitutional system of
England, with its three powers, king upper hereditary chamber,
and lower elected chamber; with its plutocratic electorate,
and even with details like the speech from the throne, the
debate on the address, &c. This meant importing also difficulties
such as ministerial responsibility, as well as electoral and press
legislation.
Louis XVIII., taught by time and misfortune, wished not to
reign over two parties exasperated by contrary passions and
desires; but his dynasty was from the outset implicated in the
struggle, which was to be fatal to it, between old France and
revolutionary France. Anti-monarchical, liberal and anti-
clerical France at once recommenced its revolutionary work;
the whole 19th century was to be filled with great spasmodic
upheavals, and Louis XVIII. was soon overwhelmed by the
White Terrorists of 1815.
Vindictive sentences against men like Ney and'Lab6doyere
were followed by violent and unpunished action by the White
Terror, which in the south renewed the horrors of St Bartholomew
and the September massacres. The elections of August 14,
1815, made under the influence of these royalist and religious
passions, sent the " Ckambrc introvoabU " to Paris, an unforeseen
revival of the ancien rigime. Neither the substitution of the
due de Richelieu's ministry for that of Talleyrand and Fouch6,
nor a whole series of repressive laws in violation of the charter,
were successful in satisfying its tyrannical loyalism, and Louis
XVIII. needed something like a coup d'cUat, in September 18x6,
to rid himself of the " ultras."
He succeeded fairly well in quieting the opposition between
the dynasty and the constitution, until a reaction took place
TbtCotf between 1820 and 1822. State departments worked
sotuthaal regularly and well, under the direction of Decazes,
P~ty'* Laine\ De Serre and Pasquier, power alternating
luh * between two great well-disciplined parties almost in
the English fashion, and many useful measures were passed:
the reconstruction of finance stipulated for as a condition of
evacuation of territory occupied by foreign troops; the electoral
law of February 5, 1817, which, by means of direct election
and a qualification of three hundred francs, renewed the pre-
ponderance of the bourgeoisie; the Gouvion St-Cyr law of
1818, which for half a century based the recruiting of the
French army on the national principle of conscription; and in
1819, after Richelieu's dismissal, liberal regulations for the press
under control of a commission. But the advance of the Liberal
movement, and the election of the generals — Foy, Lamarque,
Lafayette and of Manuel, excited the " ultras " and caused the
dismissal of Richelieu; while that of the constitutional te-
Gregoire led to the modification in a reactionary direction c- 1
electoral law of 1817. The assassination of the due de Be-
second son of the comte d'Arlois (attributed to the inducer;
Liberal ideas), caused the downfall of Decazes, and caused .2
king— more weak and selfish than ever— to override the cfcarj
and embark upon a reactionary path. After 1820. "a^H*^ -1
Cayla, a trusted agent of the ultra-royalist party,
gaine£ great influence over the king; and M. de ^
Villele, its leader, supported by the king's brother, 25*
soon eliminated the Right Centre by the dismissal
of the due de Richelieu, who had been recalled to tide over
crisis— just as the fall of M. Decazes had signalized the ir
of the Left Centre (December is, i8ai)— and moderate pet
thus received an irreparable blow.
Thenceforward the government of M. de Villele — * cW_*
statesman, but tied to his party — did nothing for six yeas !•
promulgate a long series of measures against LiberaMsxn aci ■
social work of the Revolution; to retain power it had to ;•:•-
to the impatience of the comte d'Artois and the major-:
The suspension of individual liberty, the re-establishment of £•
censorship; the electoral right of the " double vote," favosa
taxation of the most oppressive kind; and the h»m*m g & _•
of education to the clergy: these were the first achieveaer
of this anti-revolutionary ministry. The Spanish expedition, j
which M. de Villele's hand was forced by Montmorency a:'
Chateaubriand, was the united work of the associatiae c
Catholic zealots known as the Congregation and of the aotocn-
powers of the Grand Alliance; it was responded to — as at Ns?..-
and in Spain— by secret Carbonari societies, and by serct
repressed military conspiracies. Politics now bore the doe.;
imprint of two rival powers: the Congregation and Carbonarisr.
By 1824, nevertheless, the dynasty seemed firm — the Spx^:
War had reconciled the army, by giving back military press?
the Liberal opposition had been decimated; revolutkee.7
conspiracies discouraged; and the increase of public credit at:
materia] prosperity pleased the whole nation, as was proved bj
the " Ckambrc retrouvU " of 1834. The law of septennial electiav
tranquillized public life by suspending any legal or regcb:
manifestation by the nation for seven years.
It was the monarchy which next became revolutionary, c:
the accession of Charles X. (September 16, 1894). This "
sistent prince soon exhausted his popularity, and
remained the fanatical head of those tmigrts who had
learnt nothing and forgotten nothing. While the oppositxe
became conservative as regards the Charter and French liberties
the king and the clerical party surrounding him challenged th
spirit of modern France by a law against sacrilege, by a bill for
re-establishing the right of primogeniture, by an indemnity of s
milliard francs, which looked like compensation given to th-
imigrtj, and finally by the " hi dc libcrti ti d' amour " against th*
press. The challenge was so definite that in 1826 the Chamber
of Peers and the Academy had to give the Villele ministry 1
lesson in Liberalism, for haying lent itself to this ancien rip*
reaction by its weakness and its party-promises. The elecuoas
" dtcoUrcelde vengeance "of January 1827 gave the Left Vkt ^,^
a majority, and the resultant short-lived Juartignac <*c«L
ministry tried to revive the Right Centre which had attach**
supported Richelieu and Decazes (January 1828). **"**>
Martlgnac's accession to power, however, had only S8r "
meant personal concessions from Charles X., not any conces-
sion of principle: he supported his ministry but was no real
stand-by. The Liberals, on the other hand, made bargains for
supporting the moderate royalists, and Charles X. profited by
this to form a fighting ministry in conjunction with the prince de
Polignac, one of the tmigris, an ignorant and visionary person,
and the comte de Bourmont, the traitor of Waterloo. Despilt
all kinds of warnings, the former tried by a coup d'ttot to put into
practice his theories of the supremacy of the royal prerogative:
and the battle of Navarino, the French occupation of the Mora,
and the Algerian expedition could not make the nation forget
this conflict at home. The united opposition of monarchal
vxsTonn
FRANCE
865
r**r
£.«■!»
and imperialist republicans responded by legal resist-
then by a popular coup d'tiat, to the ordinance* oC July
1830, which dissolved the intractable Chamber, eUmi-
nated licensed dealers from the electoral 1st, and
^rxAjot. mussfed the press. Alter fighting for three dayi against
the troops feebly led by the Mannont el 1814, the
worknta, driven to the barricades by the deliberate closing of
liberal workshops, gained the victory, and sent the white flag
:>*; tJie Bourbons on the road to exile.
The rapid success of the " Three Glorious Days " V* Us Twit
CJ/orieuses "), as the July Days were called, put the leaders of the
rtwgmiMt' parUainenUry opposition intoanembarxassing position.
^m^rnod While they had contented themselves with words,
5?r SSf* t* e imaU ^publican-Impenahsi party, aided by the
**""***** almost entire absence of the army and police, and by
. x. t*e convenience which the narrow, winding, paved streets of those
limes offered for fighting, had determined upon the revolution
a-rud brought it to pass. But the Republican party, which desired
to re-establish the Republic of 1793, recruited chiefly from among
t he 'students and workmen, and led by Godefroy Cavaignac,
the son of a Conventionalist, and by the chemist Raspatl, had
no hold on the departments nor on the dominating opinion in
Paris. Consequently this premature- attempt was promptly
seized upon by the Liberal bourgeoisie and turned to the advan*.
taige of the Orkanist party, which had been secretly organised
&ince 1829 under the leadership of Thiers, with the National as its
organ. Before the struggle was yet over, Benjamin Constant,
Oasimir Perier, Lafitte, and Odilon Barrot had gone to fetch
the duke of Orleans from Neuilly, and on receiving his promise
to defend the Charter and the tricolour flag, installed htm at the
Palais Bourbon aslieutenant-general of the realm, while La Fayette
and the Republicans established themselves at the H6tel de VUle.
An armed conflict between the two governments was
imminent, when Lafayette, by giving his support to
Louis Philippe, decided matters in his favour. In
order to avoid a recurrence of the difficulties which had arisen
-with the Bourbons, the following preliminary conditions were
imposed upon the king: the recognition of the supremacy
of the people by the title of " king of the French by the grace of
God and the will of the people," the responsibility of ministers,
the suppression of hereditary succession to the Chamber of Peers,
now reduced to the rank of a council of officials, the suppression of
article 14 of the charter which had enabled Charles X. to super-
sede the laws by means of the ordinances, and the liberty of the
press. The qualification for electors was lowered from 300 to 200
francs, and that for eligibility from 1000 to 500 francs, and the
age to 25 and 30 instead of 30 and 40; finally, Catholicism lost
its privileged position as the state religion. The bourgeois
National Guard was made the guardian of the charter. The
liberal ideas of the son of Philippe £galite, the part he had played
at Valmy and Jemappes, his gracious manner and his domestic
virtues, all united in winning Louis Philippe the good opinion
of the public
He now believed, as did indeed the great majority of the
electors, lha( the revolution of 1830 had changed nothing but
the head of the state. B ut in reality the July monarchy
*** ' fc was affected by a fundamental weakness. It sought
2H2nSJ. to model itself upon the English monarchy, which
* rested upon one long tradition. But the tradition of
France was both twofold and contradictory, i.e. the Catholic-
legitimist and the revolutionary. Louis Philippe had them
both against him. His monarchy had but one element in common
with the English, namely, a parliament elected by a limited
electorate. There was at this time a cause of violent outcry
against the English monarchy, which, on the other band, met
with firm support among the aristocracy and the clergy. The
July monarchy had no such support. The aristocracy of the
ancien rfgime and of the Empire were alike without social
influence; the clergy, which had paid for its too close alliance
with Charles X. by a dangerous unpopularity, and foresaw the
rise of democracy, was turning more and more towards the people,
the future source of all power. Even the monarchical principle
itself had suffered from the shock, having proved by its easy
defeat how far it could be brought to capitulate. Moreover,
the victory of the people, who had shown themselves in the late
struggle to be brave and disinterested, had won for the idea of
national supremacy a power which was bound to increase.
The difficulty of the situation, lay in the doubt as to whether this
expansion would take place gradually and by a progressive
evolution, as in England, or not.
Now Louis Philippe, beneath the genial exterior of a bourgeois
and peace-loving king, was entirely bent upon recovering an
authority which was menaced from the very first on the one
hand by the anger of the royalists at their failures, and on the
other hand by the impatience of the republicans to follow up
their victory. He wanted the insurrection to stop at a change
in the reigning family, whereas it had in fact revived the revolu-
tionary tradition, and restored to France the sympathies of the
nationalities and democratic parties oppressed by Meturnichs
" system." The republican party, which had retired from power
but not from activity, at once faced the new king with the
serious problem of the acquisition of political power by the
people, and continued to remind him of it. He put himself
at the head of the party of progress (" parti du mouvemen* ■')
as opposed to the (" parti de la cour V) court party, and of the
" resistance," which considered that it was now necessary " to
check the revolution in order to make it fruitful, and in order
to save it." But none of .these parties were homogeneous;
in the chamber they split up into a republican or _
radical Extreme Left, led by Gamier-Pages and
Aragot a dynastic Left, led by the honourable and
sincere Odilon Barrot; a constitutional Right Centre and
Left Centre, differing in certain alight respects, and presided
over respectively by Thiers, a wonderful political orator, and
Guisot, whose ideas were those of a strict doctrinaire; not
to mention a small party which dung to the old legitimist creed,
and was dominated by the famous awcat Berryer, whose
eloquence was the chief ornament of the cause of Charles X.<s
grandson, the comte de ChambordL The result was a ministerial
majority which was always uncertain; and the only occasion
on which Gutzot succeeded in consolidating it during seven years
resulted in the overthrow of the monarchy.
Louis Philippe first summoned to power the leaders of the
party of "movement," Pupont de l'Eure, and afterwards
Lafitte,. in order to keep control of the progressive forces for
his own ends. They wished to introduce democratic reforms
and to uphold throughout Europe the revolution, which had
spread from France into Belgium, Germany, Italy and Poland,
while Paris was still in a state of unrest. But Louis Philippe
took fright at the attack on the Chamber of Peers after the
trial of the ministers of Charles X., at the sack of the church
of Saint Germain l'Auxerrois and the archbishop's palace
(February, 1831), and at the terrible strike of the silk weavers
at Lyons. Casimir Perier, who was both a Liberal and a believer
in a strong government, was then charged with the task of
heading the resistance to advanced ideas, and applying the
principle of non-intervention in foreign affairs (March 13, 1831).
After his death by cholera in May 1832, the agitation which he
had succeeded by his energy in checking at Lyons, at Grenoble
and in the Vendee, where it had been stirred up by the romantic*
duchess of Berry, began to gain ground* The struggle against
the republicans was still longer; for having lost all their chance
of attaining power by means of the Chamber, they proceeded
to reorganize themselves into armed secret societies. The press,
which was gaining that influence over public opinion which had
been lost by the parliamentary debates, openly attacked the
government and the king, especially by means of caricature,
Between 1832 and 1836 the Souk ministry, of which
Guizot, Thiers and the due de Broglie were members, n * a0m
had to combat the terrible insurrections in Lyons
and Paris (1834). The measures of repression were
threefold military repression, carried out by the National
Guard and the regulars, both under the command of Bugeaud;
judicial repression, effected by the great, trial of April 1835;
866
TRANCE
{HISTORY
and legislative repression, consisting in the laws of September,
which, when to mere ridicule had succeeded acts of violence,
such as that of Ficschi (July 28th, 1835), aimed at facilitating
the condemnation of political offenders and at intimidating the
press. The party of " movement " was vanquished.
But the July Government, born as it was of a popular move-
ment, had to make concessions to popular demands. Casimir
Pener had carried a law dealing with municipal
l^ /ttcJa organization, which made the municipal councils
pottyT^ elective, as they had been before the year VIII. ; and
in 1833 Guizot had completed it by making the
consols gtniraux also elective. In the same year the law dealing
with primary instruction had also shown the mark of new ideas.
But now that the bourgeoisie was raised to power it did not
prove itself any more liberal than the aristocracy of birth and
fortune in dealing with educational, fiscal and industrial questions.
In spite of the increase of riches, the bourgeois regime maintained
a fiscal and social legislation which, while it assured to the
middle class certainty and permanence of benefits, left the labour-
ing masses poor, ignorant, and in a state of Incessant agitation.
The Orleanists, who had been unanimous in supporting the
king, disagreed, after their victory, as to what powers he was
to be given. The Left Centre, led by Thiers, held"
HOLm* that he should reign but not govern; the Right
P^rty. Centre, led by Guizot, would admit him to an active
part in the government; and the third party (tiers-
parti) wavered between these two. And so between 1836 and
1840, as the straggle against the king's claim to govern passed
from the sphere of outside discussion into parliament, we see
the rise of a bourgeois socialist party, side by side with the
now dwindling republican party. It no longer confined its
demands to universal suffrage, on the principle of the legitimate
representation of all interests,' or in the name of justice. Led
by Saint-Simon, Fourier, P. Leroux and Lamennais, it aimed
at realizing a better social organization for and by means Of the
state. But the question was by what means this was to be
accomplished. The secret societies, under the influence of
Blanqui and Barbes, two revolutionaries who had revived the
traditions of Babeuf, were not willing to wait for the complete
education of the masses, necessarily a long process. Oh the
1 2th of May 1839 the Social des Saisons made an attempt to
overthrow the bourgeoisie by force, but was defeated. Demo-
crats like Louis Blanc, Ledru-RoUin and Lamennais continued to
repeat in support of the wisdom of universal suffrage the old pro-
fession of faith: vox populi, vox Dei. And finally this republican
doctrine, already confused, was still further complicated by a
kind of mysticism which aimed at reconciling the most extreme
differences of belief, the Catholicism of Buchez, the Bonapartism
of Cormenin, and the humanitarianism of the cosmopolitans.
It was in vain that Auguste Comte, Michelet and Quinet de-
nounced this vague humanitarian mysticism and the pseudo-
liberalism of the Church. The movement had now begun.
At first these moderate republicans, radical or communist,
formed only imperceptible groups. Among the peasant classes,
re, and even in the industrial centres, warlike passions
Boa*. were still rife. Louis Philippe tried to find an outlet
***** for them in the Algerian war, and later by the revival
rrv of the Napoleonic legend, which was held to be no
longer dangerous, since the death of the duke of Reichstadt in
1832. It was imprudently recalled by Thiers' History of the
Consulate and Empire, by artists and poets, in spite of the pro-
phecies of Lamartine, and by the solemn translation of Napoleon
I.'s ashes in 1840 to the Invalides at Paris.
All theories require to be based on practice, especially those
which involve force. Now Louis Philippe, though as active as
his predecessors had been slothful, was the least warlike
of men. His only wish was to govern personally, as
George III. and George IV. of England had done,
especially in foreign affairs, while at home was being
waged the great duel between Thiers and Guizot,
with Mol£ as intermediary. Thiers, head of the cabinet
of the stnd of February 1836, an astute man but not pliant
enough to please the king, fell after a few months, in «
of his attempt to stop the Car list civil war in Spain, and to supper
the constitutional government of Queen Isabella. Louis Phkjtpe
hoped that, by calling upon Mote to form a ministry, he weak
be better able to make his personal authority felt. From i?~
to 1839 Mole aroused opposition on all hands; this was emphs-
sized by the refusal of the Chambers to vote one of those eadfiv
merits which the king was continually asking them to grant im
his children, by two dissolutions of the Chambers, and finally k
the Strasburg affair and the stormy trial of Louis Napokaa,
son of the former king of Holland (1836-1837). At the ekokn
of 1830 Mole was defeated by Thiers, Guizot and Barrot, «k
had combined to oppose the tyranny of the " Chateau," sal
after a long ministerial crisis was replaced by Thiers (March 1
1840). But the latter was too much in favour of war to please ta-
king, who was strongly disposed towards peace and an afliisr*
with Great Britain, and consequently fell at the time of tie
Egyptian question, when, in answer to the treaty of Londcs
concluded behind his back by Nicholas I. and Palmerston on i±
15th of Jury 1840, he fortified Paris and proclaimed his inteiitio?
to give armed support to M ehemet All, the ally of France (vt
Mehemet All). But the violence of popular Chauvinism a»)
the renewed attempt of Louts Napoleon at Boulogne proved t*
the holders of the doctrine of peace at any price that in the Iocs-
run then: policy tends to turn a peaceful attitude into a warfikt
one, and to strengthen the absolutist idea.
In spite of all, from 1840 to 1848 Louis Philippe still farther
extended Ins activity in foreign affairs, thus bringing himsdf
into still greater prominence, though he was already * u _.
frequently held responsible for failures in foreign ^j^*
politics and unpopular measures in home affairs. The
catchword of Guizot, who was now his minister, was: Peace
and no reforms. With the exception of the law of 1842 concern-
ing the railways, not a single measure of importance was proposed
by the ministry. France lived under a regime of general corrup-
tion: parliamentary corruption, due to the illegal conduct d
the deputies, consisting of slavish or venal officials; electora!
corruption, effected by the purchase of the 300,000 electors
constituting the " pays ligal" who were bribed by the advantages
of power; and moral corruption, due to the reign of the pluto-
cracy, the bourgeoisie, a hard-working, educated and honourable
class, it is true, but insolent, like all newly enriched parvenss
in the presence of other aristocracies, and with unyiddinj.
selfishness maintaining an attitude of suspicion towards the
people, whose aspirations they did not share and with whoa
they did not feel themselves to have anything in common.
This led to a slackening in political life, a sort of exhaustion of
interest throughout the country, an excessive devotion to material
prosperity. Under a superficial appearance of calm a tempest
was brewing, of which the industrial writings of Balzac, Eugfoe
Sue, Lamartine, H. Heine, Vigny, Montalembert and Tocqueviue
were the premonitions. But it was in vain that they denounced
this supremacy of the bourgeoisie, relying on its two main sup-
ports, the suffrage based on a property qualification and the
National Guard, for its rallying-cry was the " Enrichissez-vous "
of Guizot, and its excessive materialism gained a sinister dis-
tinction from scandals connected with the ministers Teste and
Cubieres, and such mysterious crimes as that of Choiseol-Praslia.*
In vain also did they point out that mere riches are not so much
a protection to the ministry who are in power as a temptation
to the majority excluded from power by this barrier of wealth.
1 Charles LaurcHuguesTh&obald.duc de Chotseul-Praslin (1805-
1847), was deputy in 1830, created a peer of France in 1840. He
had married a daughter of General Sebastiani, with whom he lived
on good terms till 1840, when he entered into open relations with
his children's governess. The duchess threatened a separation;
and the duke consented to send his mistress out of the house, but
did not cease to correspond with and visit her. On the i8tb of
August 1847 the duchess was found stabbed to death, with more
than thirty wounds, in her room. The duke was arrested on the
20th and imprisoned in the Luxembourg:, where he died of poison,
self-administered on the 24th. It was, however, popularly believed
that the government had smuggled him out of the country and that
he was living under a feigned name in England.
HISTORY)
FRANCE
867
It wras fai vain that beneath tbermflftted hfU bemr&o U U which
speculated in railways and solicUy supported the Church, behind
the shopkeeper clique who still remained Voltairian, who
enviously applauded the pamphlets of Cormenin on the luxury
of the court, and who were bitterly satirized by the pencil of
Daumier and Gavarni, did the thinkers give voice to the mutter-
in«s of an immense industrial proletariat, which were re-echoing
throughout the whole of western Europe.
In face of this tragic contrast Girinot remained unmoved,
blinded by the superficial brilliance of apparent success and
prosperity. He adorned by flights of eloquence hb
^o^inf invariable theme: no new laws, no reforms, no foreign
rtoOcy complications, the policy of material interests. He
preserved his yielding attitude toward* Great Britain
in the affair of the right of search in 1841, and in the affair of
t he missionary Pritchard at Tahiti (1843-1845)- And when the
marriage of the due de Montpensier with a Spanish infanta
in 1846 had broken this entente ccrdiaU to which he clung, it was
only to yield in turn to Metternich, when he took possession
ol Cracow, the last remnant of Poland, to protect the Sonderbttnd
in Switzerland, to discourage the Liberal ardour of Pius IX.,
and to hand over the education of France to the Ultramontane
clergy. Still further strengthened by the elections of 1846, he
refused the demands of the Opposition formed by a coalition of
toe Left Centre and the Radical party for parliamentary and
electoral reform, which would have excluded the officials from
the' Chambers, reduced the electoral qualification to too francs,
and added to the number of the electors the tapodtairts
vrhoK competence was guaranteed by their education. For
Guizot the whole country was represented by the u pay* Ugal"
consisting of the king, the ministers, the deputies and the
electors. When the Opposition appealed totbecountry ,
Campaign ^ fl ung ^ <mn a ciis^airxful challenge to what " les
tin^gu brouillons et les badauds appellent le pcuple." The
challenge was taken up by aU the parties of the Opposi-
tion in the campaign of the banquets got up somewhat artificially
in x 84 7 in favour of the extension of the franchise. The monarchy
had arrived at such a state of weakness and corruption that a
determined minority was sufficient to overthrow it. The pro-
hibition of a last banquet in Paris precipitated the catastrophe.
The monarchy which for fifteen years hadovercome its adversaries
collapsed on the 24th of February 1848 to the astonishment of all.
The industrial population of the faubourgs on its way towards
the centre of the town was welcomed by the National Guard,
Tb* «*• ^ong cries of " Vive la rttorme." Barricades were
vofetfea raised after the unfortunate incident of the firing on
of Feb. 24, the crowd in the Boulevard des Capuciaes. On the
18489 33rd Guizot's cabinet resigned, abandoned by the
ptiite bourgtcisit, on whose support they thought they could
depend. The heads of the Left Centre and the dynastic Left,
Mole and Thiers, declined the offered leadership. Odilon
Barrot accepted it, and Bugeaud, commander-in-chief of
the first military division, who had begun to attack the barri-
cades, was recalled. But it was too late. In face of the insurrec-
tion which had now taken possession of the whole capital, Louis
Philippe decided to abdicate in favour of his grandson, the comte
de Paris. But it was too late also to be content with the regency
of the duchess of Orleans. It was now the turn of the Republic,
and it was proclaimed by Lamartine in the name of the pro-
visional government elected by the Chamber under the pressure
of the mob.
This provisional government with Dupont de 1'Eure as its
president, consisted of Lamartine for foreign affairs, Cremieux
r*# Pro* * or justice, Lcdru-Rollin for the interior, Carnot for
viMkutst public instruction, Gondchaux for finance, Arago for
Oovtm* the navy, and Bedeau for war. Gamier-Pages was
"*"' mayor of Paris. But, as in 1830, the republican-
socialist parly had set up a rival government at the H6tcl de
Yille, including L. Blanc. A. M arras t, Flocon, and the workman
Albert, which bid fair to involve discord and civil war. But
this time the Palais Bourbon was not victorious over the H6tel
de Ville. It had to consent to a fusion of the two bodies,
in which, however, thepredominatingelements were the moderate
republtcana. It was doubtful what would eventually be the
policy of the new government One party, seeing that in spite
of the changes in the last sixty years of aH political institutions,
the position of the people had not been improved, demanded a
reform of society itself, the abolition of the privileged position of
property, the only obstacle to equality, and as an emblem hoisted
the red flag. The other party wished to maintain society on the
basis of its ancient institutions, and rallied round the tricolour.
The first collision took place as to the form which the revolu-
tion of 1848 was to take* Were they to remain faithful to their
original principle*, as Lamartine wished, and accept tvrmtt
the decision of the country as supreme, or were they, nttn^
as the revolutionaries under Ledru-RoUin claimed, to
declare the republic of Paris superior to the universal suffrage of
an. insufficiently educated people? On the 5th of March the
government, under the pressure of the Parisian clubs, decided
in favour of an immediate reference to the people, and direct
univecsal suffrage, and adjourned it till the 26th of April. In
this fateful and unexpected decision, which instead of adding
to the electorate the educated classes, refused by Guiaot, admitted
to it the unqualified masses, originated the Constituent Assembly
of the 4th of May 1848. The provisional government having
resigned, the republican and anti-socialist majority on the oth
of May entrusted the supreme power to an executive Tbt
commission consisting of five members: Arago, nwiffw
Marie, Gamier-Pag&s, Lamartine and Ledru-RoUin. Commit
But the spell was already broken. This revolution **"*
which had been peacefully effected with the most generous
aspirations, in the hope of abolishing poverty by organising
industry on other bases than those of competition and capitalism,
and which had at once aroused the fraternal sympathy of the
nations, was doomed to be abortive.
The result of the general election, the return of a constituent
assembly predominantly moderate if not monarchical, dashed
the hopes of those who had looked for the establishment, by a
peaceful revolution, of their ideal socialist state; but they were
not prepared to yield without a struggle, and in Paris itself they
commanded a formidable force. In spite of the preponderance of
the " tricolour " party in the provisional government, so long as
the voice of France had not spoken, the socialists, supported by
the Parisian proletariat, had exercised an influence on policy out
of all proportion to their relative numbers or personal weight.
By the decree of the 24th of February the provisional govern-
ment bad solemnly accepted the principle of the " right to work,"
and decided to establish " national workshops " for the unem-
ployed; . at the same time a sort of industrial parliament was
established at the Luxembourg, under the presidency of Louis
Blanc, with the object of preparing a scheme for the organization
of labour; and, lastly, by the decree of the 8th of March the
property qualification for enrolment in the National Guard had
been abolished and the workmen were supplied with arms.
The socialists thus formed, in some sort, a state within the state,
with a government, an organization and an armed force.
In the circumstance* a conflict was inevitable; and on the
15th of May an armed mob, headed by Raspail, Blanqui and
Barbcs, and assisted by the proletariat Guard, attempted to
overwhelm the Assembly. They were defeated by the bourgeois
battalions of the National Guard; but the situation none the
loss remained highly critical The national workshops were
producing the results that might have been foreseen. It was
impossible to provide remunerative work even for the genuine
unemployed, and of the thousands who applied the greater
number were employed in perfectly useless digging and refilling;
soon even this expedient failed, and those for whom work could
not be invented were given a half wage of 1 franc a day Even
this pitiful dole, with no obligation to work, proved attractive,
and all over France workmen threw up their jobs and streamed
to Paris, where they swelled the ranks of the army under the
red flag. It was soon clear that the continuance of this experi-
ment would mean financial ruin; it had been proved by the
tmeuU of the 15th of May that it constituted a perpetual 1
868
FRANCE
pnsTOT
to the state; and the government derided to end it. The method
chosen was scarcely a happy one. On the 21st of June M. de
Falloux decided in the name of the parliamentary commission
on labour that the workmen should be discharged within three
days and such as were able-bodied should be forced to enlist.
A furious insurrection at once broke out. Throughout
^li" the whole of the *4th, 25th and *6th of June, the
eastern industrial quarter of Paris, led by Pujol,
carried on a furious struggle against the western quarter, led
by Cavaignac, who had been appointed dictator. Vanquished
and decimated, first by fighting and afterwards by deportation,
the socialist party was crushed. But they dragged down the
Republic in their ruin. This had already become unpopular
with the peasants, exasperated by the new land tax of 45 centimes
imposed in order to fill the empty treasury, and with the bourgeois,
in terror of the power of the revolutionary clubs and hard hit
by the stagnation of business. By the " massacres " of the June
Days the working classes were also alienated from it; and abiding
fear of the " Reds " did the rest. " France," wrote the duke of
Wellington at this time,/ 1 needs a Napoleon! 1 cannot yet see
him. . .Where is he? "»
France indeed needed, or thought she needed, a Napoleon;
and the demand was soon to be supplied. The granting of
universal suffrage to a society with Imperialist
smmam" sympathies, and unfitted to reconcile the principles
•ffStt. of order with the consequences of liberty, was indeed
bound, now that the political balance in France was
so radically changed, to prove a formidable instrument of
reaction; and this was proved by the election of the president
of the Republic. On the 4th of November 1 848 was promulgated
the new constitution, obviously the work of inexperienced
hands, proclaiming a democratic republic, direct universal
suffrage and the separation of powers; there was to be a single
permanent assembly of 750 members elected for a term of three
years by the scrutin de lisle, which was to vote on the laws
prepared by a council of state elected by the Assembly for six
years; the executive power was delegated to a president elected
for four years by direct universal suffrage, i.e. on a broader
basis than that of the chamber, and not eligible for re-election; he
was to choose his ministers, who, like him, would be responsible.
Finally, all revision was made impossible since it involved
obtaining three times in succession a majority of three-quarters
of the deputies in a special assembly. It was in vain that
M. GreVy, in the name of those who perceived the obvious and
inevitable risk of creating, under the name of a president, a
monarch and more than a king, proposed that the head of the
state should be no more than a removable president of the
ministerial council. Lamartine, thinking that he was sure to
be the choice of the electors under universal suffrage, won over
the support of the Chamber, which did not even take the pre-
caution of rendering ineligible the members of families which
had reigned over France. It made tne presidency an office
dependent upon popular acclamation.
The election was keenly contested; the socialists adopted
as their candidate Ledru-Rollin, the republicans Cavaignac;
and the recently reorganized Imperialist party Prince
Bonaparte. Louis Napoleon, unknown in 1835, and
forgotten or despised since 1840, had in the last eight
years advanced sufficiently in the public estimation to be
elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1848 by five departments.
He owed this rapid increase of popularity partly to blunders
of the government of July, which had unwisely aroused the
memory of the country, filled as it was with recollections of the
Empire, and partly to Louis Napoleon's campaign carried on
from his prison at Ham by means of pamphlets of socialistic
tendencies. Moreover, the monarchists, led by Thiers and the
committee of the Rue de Poitiers, were no longer content even
with the safe dictatorship of the upright Cavaignac, and joined
forces with the Bonapartists. On the 10th of December the
peasants gave over 5,000,000 votes to a name: Napoleon,
which stood for order at all costs, against 1,400,000 for Cavaignac
*T. T. de Martens, Rental des trtUis, ttc, xiL 048.
For three years there went on an Indecisive struggle fcetvss
the heterogeneous Assembly and the prince who was r£c~ :
awaiting his opportunity. He chose as his ministers
men but little inclined towards republicanism, for 5?*
preference Orleanists, the chief of whom was Odilon *^
Barrot. In order to strengthen his position, he
endeavoured to conciliate the reactionary parties, wfeiec
committing himself to any of them. The chief instance d -
was the expedition to Rome, voted by the Catholics with •
object of restoring the papacy, which had been driven ect .
Garibaldi and Mazzini. The prince-president was also in £a • . -
of it, as beginning the work of European renovation and rcc:-
struction which he already looked upon as his mission. G*v
Oudinot's entry into Rome provoked in Paris a foolish insane
tion in favour of the Roman republic, that of the Chateau dTr.
which was crushed on the 13th of June 1849. On the other H-
when Pius IX., though only just restored, began to yield tc l l -
general movement of reaction, the president demanded that a
should set up a Liberal government. The pope's dilatory rrp
having been accepted by his ministry, the president replac?:
it on the 1st of November by the Fould-Rouher cabinet.
This looked like a declaration of war against the Cathohc ar.
monarchist majority in the Legislative Assembly which bn
been elected on the 28th of May in a moment of panic
But the prince-president again pretended to be ?*»**■*
playing the game of the Orleanists, as he had done
in the case of the Constituent-Assembly. The comple-
mentary elections of March and April 1850 having resulted is a
unexpected victory for the advanced republicans, which strcci
terror into the reactionary leaders, Thiers, Berryer and Mer':-
lembert, the president gave his countenance to a clerical campus
against the republicans at home. The Church, which had f aj«
in its attempts to gain control of the university under Lv^~
XVIII. and Charles X., aimed at setting up a rival establtshmee:
of its own. The Loi Falloux of the 15th of March
1850, under the pretext of establishing the liberty pj ^ t -
of instruction promised by the charter, again placed
the teaching of the university under the direction of the Catrd ;
Church, as a measure of social safety, and, by the facilities which
it granted to the Church for propagating teaching in harmcc*
with its own dogmas, succeeded in obstructing for half a ceniuri
the work of intellectual enfranchisement effected by the mr of
the 1 8th century and of the Revolution. The electoral lit
of the 31st of May was another class law directed
against subversive ideas. It required as a proof of ****"*
three years* domicile the entries in the record of direct JJT^
taxes, thus cutting down universal suffrage by taking
away the vote from the industrial population, which was not as
a rule stationary. The law of the 16th of July aggravated the
severity of the press restrictions by re-establishing the " cautioa
money " (cautionnement) deposited by proprietors and editon
of papers with the government as a guarantee of good behaviour.
Finally, a skilful interpretation of the law on clubs and political
societies suppressed about this time all the Republican societies.
It was now their turn to be crushed like the socialists.
But the president had only joined in Montalembcrt's cry of
"Down with the Republicans!" in the. hope of effecting a
revision of the constitution without having recourse ,.
to a coup <f £tef. His concessions only increased the JJJJJJ
boldness of the monarchists; while they had only tbtPnth
accepted Louis Napoleon as president in opposition **°*
to the Republic and as a step in the direction of the j*^
monarchy. A conflict was now inevitable between
his personal policy and the majority of the Chamber, who were,
moreover, divided into legitimists and Orleanists, in spite of the
death of Louis Philippein August 1 850. Louis Napoleon skilfully
exploited their projects for a restoration of the monarchy, which
he knew to be unpopular in the country, and which gave him
the opportunity of furthering his own personal ambitions.
From the 8th of August to the rath of November 1850 be went
about France stating the case for a revision of the constitution
in speeches which he varied according to each place; be held
HISTORY)
FRANCE
869
reviews, at which cries of * Vim Napdto*" showed that the
army was with him; he superseded General Chaaganrier, on
whose arms the rjarhameut relied lor the protected- monarchical
coup d'Hat-j he replaced his Orieanist ministry by obscare men
devoted to his owa cause, such as Moray, Fleury and Persigny,
and gathered round him officers of the African army* broken
men like General Saint-Arnaud; in fact he practically declared
open war.
His reply to the votes of censure passed by the Assembly, and
their refusal to increase his civil list, was to hint at a vast com-
munistic plot in order to scare the bourgeoisie, and to denounce
Coap the electoral law of the 31st of May in order to gain the
*Et*tai support of the mass of the people. The Assembly re-
**»* taliated by throwing out the proposal lor a partial
,9Sim reform of that article of the constitution which pro-
hibited the re-election of the president and the re-establish*
ment of universal suffrage (July). All hope of a peaceful issue
was at an end. When the questors called upon the Chamber
to have posted up in all barracks the decree of the 6th of May
1 848 concerning the right of the Assembly to demand the support
of the troops if attacked, the Mountain, dreading a restoration of
the monarchy, voted with the Bonapartists against the measure,
thus disarming the legislative power. Louis Napoleon saw bis
opportunity. On the night between the 1st and 2nd of December
1851, the anniversary of Austerlics, he dissolved the Chamber,
re-established universal suffrage, had all the party leaders arrested,
and summoned a new assembly to prolong bis term of office
for ten years. The deputies who had met under Berryer at the
Ma trie of the tenth arrondissement to defend the constitution
and proclaim the deposition of Louis Napoleon were scattered
by the troops at Mazes and Mont Valerian. The resistance
organized by the republicans within Paris under Victor Hugo
was soon subdued by the intoxicated soldiers. The more serious
resistance in the departments was crushed by declaring a state
of siege and by the " mixed commissions." The plebiscite of
the 20th of December ratified by a huge majority ihtctmp a" itai
in favour of the prince-president, who alone reaped the benefit
of the excesses of the Republicans and the reactionary passions
of the monarchists.
The second attempt to revive the principle of X780 only served
as a preface to the restoration of the Empire. The new anti-
^ parliamentary constitution of the 14th of January
**~ 185s was to a large extent merely a repetition of that
of the year VIII. All executive power was entrusted
to the head of the state, who was solely responsible to
the people, now powerless to exercise any of their rights. He
was to nominate-the members of the council of state, whose duty
it was to prepare the laws, and of the senate, a body permanently
established as a constituent part of the empire. One innovation
was made, namely, that the Legislative Body was elected by
universal suffrage, but it had no right of initiative, all laws
being proposed by the executive power. This new and violent
political change was rapidly followed by the same consequence
as had attended that of Brumaire. On the 2nd of December
"1852, France, still under the effect of the Napoleonic virus,
and the fear of anarchy, conferred almost unanimously by a
plebiscite the supreme power, with the title of emperor, upon
Napoleon III.
But though the machinery of government was almost the same
under the Second Empire as it had been under the First, the
principles upon which its founder based it were different. The
function of the Empire, as he loved to repeat, was to guide the
people internally towards justice and externally towards perpetual
peace. Holding his power by universal suffrage, and having
frequently, from his prison or in exile, reproached former oligar-
chical governments with neglecting social questions, he set out
to solve them by organizing a system of government based on the
principles of the " Napoleonic Idea," i.e. of the emperor, the
elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, and
as such supreme; and of himself, the representative of the
great Napoleon, " who had sprung armed from the Revolution
like Minerva from the head of Jove," as the guardian of the
social gstssof the revolutionary epoch. But he soon proved that
social justice did not mean liberty; for he' acted in such a
way that those of the principles of 1848 which he had preserved
became a mere sham. He proceeded to paralyse all those active
national forces which tend to create the public spirit of a people,
such as parliament, universal suffrage, the press, education and
Delations, The Legislative Body was not allowed either to
elect its own president or to regulate its own procedure, or to
propose a la wor an amendment, or to vote on the budget in detail,
or to make Hs deliberations public It was a dumb parliament.
Similarly, universal suffrage was supervised and controlled by
means of official candidature, by forbidding free speech and
action in electoral matters to the Opposition, and by a skilful ad-
justment of the electoral districts in such a way as to overwhelm
the Liberal vote in the mass of the rural population. The press
was subjected to a system of cauKonnements, i.e. " caution
money, 1 ' deposited as a guarantee of good behaviour, and
avertissements, i.e. requests by the authorities to cease publication
of certain articles, under pain of suspension or suppression;
while books were subject to a censorship. France was like a sick-
room, where nobody might speak aloud. In order to counteract
the opposition of individuals, a surveillance of suspects was
instituted. Orsini's attack on the emperor in 1858, though
purely Italian in its motive, served as a pretext for increasing
the severity of this regime by the law of general security (sHrdi
giniraie) which authorised the internment, exih or deportation
of any suspect without triaL In the same way public instruction
was strictly supervised, the teaching of philosophy was sup-
pressed in the Lycits, and the disciplinary powers of the adminis-
tration were increased. In fact for seven years France had no
political life. The Empire was carried on by a series of plebiscites.
Up to 1857 the Opposition did not exist; from then till i860 it
was reduced to five members: Darimon, £mile QUivier, Henon,
J. Favre and E. Picard. The royalists waited inactive after the
new and unsuccessful attempt made at Frobsdorf in 1853, by a
combination of the legitimists and Orieanists, to re-create a
living monarchy out of the ruin of two royal families. Thus the
events of that ominous night in December were closing the future
to the new generations as well as to those who had grown up during
forty years of liberty.
But it was not enough to abolish liberty by conjuring up the
spectre of demagogy. It had to be forgotten, the great silence
had to be covered by the noise of festivities and material M a teri*i
enjoyment, the imagination of the French people had pnsptrttr
to be distracted from public affairs by the taste for «©»■•
work, the love of gain, the passion for good living. ^SUmL,
The success of the imperial despotism, as of any other, 1°"*™-
was bound up with that material prosperity which would make
all interests dread the thought of revolution. Napoleon III.,
therefore, looked for support to the clergy, the great financiers,
industrial magnates and landed proprietors. He revived on
his own account the " Let us grow rich " of 1840. Under the
influence of the Saint-Simonians and men of business great credit
establishments were instituted and vast public works entered
upon: the Credit fonder de France, the Credit mobilfer, the
conversion of the railways into six great companies between 1852
and 1857* The rage for speculation was increased by the inflow
of Californian and Australian gold, and consumption was
facilitated by a general fall in prices between 1856 and i860,
due to an economic revolution which was soon to overthrow the
tariff wall, as it had done already in England. Thus French
activity nourished exceedingly between 1852 and 1857, and was
merely temporarily checked by the crisis of 1857. The universal
Exhibition of 1855 was its culminating point. Art felt the
effects of this increase of comfort and luxury. The great en-
thusiasms of the romantic period were over; philosophy became
sceptical and literature merely amusing. The festivities of the
court at Compiegne set the fashion for the bourgeoisie, satisfied
with this energetic government which kept such good guard over
their bank balances.
If the Empire was strong, the emperor was weak. At once
headstrong and a dreamer, he was full of rash plans, but irresolute;
870
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in carrying them out. A n absolute despot, he remained what his
life had made him, a conspirator through the very mysticism of
his menial habit, and a revolutionary by reason of his demagogic
imperialism and his democratic chauvinism. In his
gP^ 80 " opinion the artificial work of the congress of Vienna,
afcai. involving the downfall of his own family and of
France, ought to be destroyed, and Europe organized
as a collection of great industrial states, united by community
of interests and bound together by commercial treaties, and
expressing this unity by periodical congresses presided over by
himself, and by universal exhibitions. In this way ho would
reconcile the revolutionary principle of the supremacy of the
people with historical tradition, a thing which neither the
Restoration nor the July monarchy nor the Republic of 1848
had been able to achieve. Universal suffrage, the organization
of Rumanian, Italian and German nationality, and commercial
liberty; this was to be the work of the Revolution. But the
creation of great states side by side with France brought with it
the necessity for looking for territorial compensation elsewhere,
and consequently for violating the principle of nationality and
abjuring his system of economic peace. Napoleon III.'s foreign
policy was as contradictory as his policy in home affairs,
" L 'Empire, e'est la paix," was his ay; and he proceeded to
make war.
So long as his power was not yet established, Napoleon III.
made especial efforts to reassure European opinion, which had
been made uneasy by his previous protestations
JJj^ against the treaties of 1815. The Crimean War, in
Wsn which, supported by England and the king of Sardinia,
he upheld against Russia- the policy of the integrity
of the Turkish empire, a policy traditional in France since
Francis I., won him the adherence both of the old parties and
and the Liberals. And this war was the prototype of all the rest.
It was entered upon with no dearly defined military purpose,
and continued in a hesitating way. This was the cause, after
the victory of the allies at the Alma (September 14, 1854), of
the long and costly siege of Sevastopol (September S, 1855).
Napoleon III., whose joy was at its height owing to the signature
of a peace which excluded Russia from the Black Sea, and to the
birth of the prince imperial, which ensured the continuation of
his dynasty, thought that the time bad arrived to make a
beginning in applying his system. Count Walewski, his minister
for foreign affairs, gave a sudden and unexpected extension of
scope to the deliberations of the congress which met at Paris in
1856 by inviting the plenipotentiaries to consider the questions
of Greece, Rome, Naples, &c This motion contained the
principle of all the upheavals which were to effect such changes
in Europe between 1 859 and 1 871 . It was Cavour and Piedmont
who immediately benefited by it, for thanks to Napoleon III.
they were able to lay the Italian question before an assembly
of diplomatic Europe.
It was not Orsini's attack on the 14th of January 1858 which
brought this question before Napoleon. It had never ceased to
Tht War occupy him since he had taken part in the patriotic
ib JtMi ^ conspiracies in Italy in his youth. The triumph of his
armies in the East now gave him the power necessary
to accomplish this mission upon which he had set his heart.
The suppression of public opinion made it impossible for him
to be enlightened as to the conflict between the interests of
the country and his own generous visions. The sympathy of all
Europe was with Italy, torn for centuries past between so many
masters; under Alexander II. Russia, won over since the
interview of Stuttgart by the emperor's generosity rather than
conquered by armed force, offered no opposition to this act of
justice; while England applauded it from the first. The
emperor, divided between the empress Eugenie, who as a Spaniard
and a devout Catholic was hostile to anything which might
threaten the papacy, and Prince Napoleon, who as brother-in-law
of Victor Emmanuel favoured the cause of Piedmont, hoped to
conciliate both sides by setting up an Italian federation, intending
to reserve the presidency of it to Pope Pius IX., as a mark of
respect to the moral authority of the Church. Moreover, the
very difficulty of the undertaking appealed to Use
elated by his recenf success in the Crimea. At the:
between Napoleon and Count Cavour (July so, 1&58) UseeveaUai
armed intervention of France, demanded by Orsim before k
mounted the scaffold, was definitely promised.
The ill-advised Austrian ultimatum demanding the t™ ■ *******
cessation of Piedmont's preparations for war precipitated tk
Italian expedition. On the 3rd of May 1 859 Napoleon ^
declared his intention of making Italy " free from the *"~
Alps to the Adriatic" As he had done four years ago,
he plunged into the war with no settled scheme and
without preparation; he held out great hopes, hut without
reckoning what efforts would be necessary to realize them. T«e
months later, in spite of the victories of Montebello, Magenu
and Solferino, he suddenly broke off, and signed the patched-^:
peace of Villafranca with Francis Joseph (July o) . Austria ceded
Lombardy to Napoleon III., who in turn ceded it to Via*
Emmanuel; Modena and Tuscany were restored to thee
respective dukes, the Romagna to the pope, now president of as
Italian federation. The mountain had brought forth a mouse.
The reasons for this breakdown on the part of the emperor
in the midst of his apparent triumph were many. Neither
Magenta, nor Solferino had been decisive battles.
Further, his idea of a federation was menaced by the
revolutionary movement which seemed likely to drive
out all the princes of central Italy, and to involve him
in an unwelcome dispute with the French clerical party. More-
over, he had forgotten to reckon with the Germanic Confedera-
tion, which was bound to come to the assistance of Austria.
The mobilization of Prussia on the Rhine, combined with mflitu?
difficulties and the risk of a defeat in Venetian territory, ratte
damped his enthusiasm, and decided him to put an end to the
war. The armistice fell upon the Italians as a bolt from the blue,
convincing them that they had been betrayed; on all sates
despair drove them to sacrifice their jealously guarded inde-
pendence to national unity. On the one hand the Cathoha
were agitating throughout all Europe to obtain the Independence
of the papal territory; and the French republicans were pro-
testing, on the other hand, against the abandonment of those
revolutionary traditions, the revival of which they had hailed
so enthusiastically. The emperor, unprepared for the turn wmca
events had taken, attempted to disentangle this confusion by
suggesting a fresh congress of the Powers, which should reconcile
dynastic interests with those of the people. After a while he gave
up the attempt and resigned himself to the position, his actions
having had more wide-reaching results than he had wished.
The treaty of Zurich proclaimed the fallacious principle of non-
intervention (November to, 1850); and then, by the treaty of
Turin of the 24th of May i860, Napoleon threw over his IB-
timed confederation. He conciliated the mistrust of Great
Britain by replacing Walewski, who was hostile to his policy,
by Thouvcnel, an anti-clerical and a supporter of the English
alliance, and he counterbalanced the increase of the new Italian
kingdom by the acquisition of Nice and Savoy. Napoleon, like
all French governments, only succeeded in finding a provisional
solution for the Italian problem.
But this solution would only hold good so long as the emperor
was in a powerful position. Now this Italian war, in which he had
given his support to revolution beyond the Alps, and,
though unintentionally, compromised the temporal
power of the popes, had given great offence to the
Catholics, to whose support the establishment of the
Empire was largely due. A keen Catholic opposition
sprang up, voiced in L. Veuulot's paper the Unhers, and was
not silenced even by the Syrian expedition (i860) in favour of the
Catholic Maronites, who were being persecuted by the Druses.
On the other hand, the commercial treaty with Great Britain
which was signed in January i860, and which ratified the free-
trade policy of Richard Cobden and Michael Chevalier, had
brought upon French industry the sudden shock of foreign
competition. Thus both Catholics and protectionists made the
discovery that absolutism may be an excellent thing when it
HBTORYJ
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Tfe*
serves their ambftkms or interests, but a bad this* when it b
exercised At tbeir expense. But Napoleon, in order to restore
the prestige of the Empire before the newrpawakened hostility
of public opinion, tried to gain from the Left the support which
lie had lost from the Right. After the return from Italy the
general amnesty of the 16th of August 1850 had marked the
evolution of the absolutist empire toward* the liberal, and later
parliamentary empire, which was to last for ten years.
Napoleon began by removing the gag which was keeping the
country in sOence. On the 14th of November i860, " by a t»w#
ePAa* matured during ins solitary meditations,"
like a conspirator in his tovc of hiding his mysterious
thoughts even from his ministers, he granted to the
Chambers the right to vote an address annually in
answer to the speech from the throne, and to the press the sight
of reporting parliamentary debates. Kb counted on the latter
concession to hold in check the growing C*tholk opposition, which
was becoming more and more alarmed by the policy of /esssss-
/ocr* practised by the emperor in Italy. But the government
majority already showed some signs of independence, The right
of voting on the budget by sections, granted by the emperor in
1861, was a new weapon given to bis adversaries. Everything
conspired in their favour : the anxiety of those candid friends
who were calling attention to the defective budget; the com-
mercial crisis, aggravated by the American Civil War; and above
all, the restless spirit of the emperor, who bad annoyed his
opponents in i860 by insisting on an alliance with Great Britain
in order forcibly to open the Chinese pons for trade, in 1865 by
his ill-fated attempt to put down a republic and set up a Latin
empire in Mexico in favour of the archdukeMaximilian of Austria,
and from s86i to 1863 by embarking on coloniring experiments
in Cochin China and Anaam.
The same inconsistencies occurred in the emperor's European
politics. The support which be had given to the Italian cause
Tb0 had aroused the eager hopes of other nations. The
proclamation of the kingdom of Italy on the 1 8th of
February 1861 after the rapid annexation of Tuscany
• and the kingdom of Naples had proved the danger
half-measures. But when a
had been made to the Hberty of one nation, it could hardly
be refused to the no less legitimate aspirations of the rest.
In 1 86 j these " new rights " again clamoured loudly for recogni-
tion, in Poland, in Sducswig and Hoktein, in Italy, now indeed
united, but with neither frontiers nor capital, and in the Danubian
principalities. In order to extricate himself from the Polish
impasse, the emperor again had recourse to his expedient —
always fruitless because always inopportune— of a congress. He
was again unsuccessful : England refused even to admit the
principle of a congress, while Austria, Prussia and Russia gave
tbeir adhesion only on conditions which rendered it futile, ue.
they reserved the vital questions of Venetia and Poland.
Thus Napoleon had yet again to disappoint the hopes of Italy,
let Poland be crushed, and Germany triumph over Denmark in
the Schleswig-Holstein question. These inconsistencies resulted
in a combination of the opposition parties, Catholic, Liberal and
Republican, in the Union liberate. The elections of May- June
1863 gained the Opposition forty seats and a leader, Thiers, who
at once urgently gave voice to its demand for " the necessary
liberties."
It would have been difficult for the emperor to mistake the
importance of this manifestation of French opinion, and in view
j^ of his international failures, impossible to repress iL
WEetaeef The sacrifice of Persigny, minister of the interior,
2*J**" who was responsible for the elections, the substitution
*** tf * for the ministers without portfolio of asort of presidency
of the council filled by Rouher, the " Vice-Emperor," and the
nomination of V. Duruy, an anti-clerical, as minister of public
instruction, in reply to those attacks of the Church which were
to culminate in the Syllabus of 1864, all indicated a distinct
rapprochement between the emperor and the Left. But though
the opposition represented by Thiers was rather constitutional
than dynastic, there was another and irreconcilable opposition,
that of the amnestied or voluntarily exiled republicans, of whom
Victor Hugo was the eloquent mouthpiece. Thus those who bad
formerly constituted the governing classes were again showing
signs of tbeir ambition to govern. There appeared to be some
risk that this movement among the bourgeoisie might spread to
the people. As Antaeus recruited his strength by touching the
earth Napoleon believed that he would consolidate his menaced
power by again turning to the labouring masses, by whom that
power had been established.
This industrial policy be e mb a r ked upon as much from motives
of interest as from sympathy, out of opposition to the bourgeoisie,
which was ambitious of governing or desirous of his fiiisiftisi
overthrow. His course was all the easier, since he had p**r
only to exploit the prejudices of the working classes. •* <*»
They had never forgotten the loiCkapeUe of 1 701, which A"***
by forbidding all combinations among the workmen had placed
them at the mercy of their employers, nor had they forgotten how
the united suffrage had conferred upon capital a political
monopoly which had put it out of reach of the law, nor how each
time they had left their position of rigid isolation in order to save
the Charter or universal suffrage,, the triumphant bourgeoisie had
repaid them at the last with neglect. The silence of public
opinion under the Empire and the prosperous state of business
had completed the separation of the labour party from the
political parties. The visit of an elected and paid labour delega-
tion to the Universal Exhibition of 186a in London gave the
emperor an opportunity for re-establishing relations with that
party, and these relations were to his mind all the more profitable,
since the labour party, by refusing to associate their social and
industrial claims with the political ambitions of the bourgeoisie,
maintained a neutral attitude between the parties, and could, if
necessary, divide them, while by iu keen criticism of society it
aroused the conservative instincts of the bourgeoisie and con-
sequently checked their enthusiasm for liberty, A law of the
sjrd of May 1863 gave the workmen the right, as in England,
to save money by creating co-operative societies. Another law,
of the 25th of May 1864, gave them the right to enforce better
conditions of labour by organizing strikes. Still further, the
emperor permitted the workmen to imitate their employers by
establishing unions for the permanent protection of their interests.
And finally, when the owners, with the characteristic French
tendency to insist on the universal application of a theory, wished
to substitute for the narrow utiUurianism of the English trade-
unions the ideas common to the wage-earning classes of the
whole world, he put no obstacles in the way of their leader
M. Tolain's plan for founding an International Association of
Workers (Social Internationale des TravaiUeurs). At the same
time he encouraged the provision made by employers for thrift
and relief and for improving the condition of the working*
Thus assured of support, the emperor, through the mouth-
piece of M. Rouher, who waaa supporter of the absolutist regime,
was able to refuse all fresh claims on the part of the
Liberals. He was aided by the cessation of the in* fpuy*
dustriaT crisis as the American civil war came to an
end, by the apparent closing of the Roman question by the con-
vention of the 1 5th of September, which guaranteed to the papal
states the protection of Italy, and finally by the treaty of the 30th
of October 1864, which temporarily put an end to the crisis of
the Schleswig-Holstein question. But after 1865 the momentary
agreement which had united Austria and Prussia for the purpose
of administering the conquered duchies gave place to a silent
antipathy which foreboded a rupture. Yet, though the Austro-
Prussian War of 1866 was not unexpected, its rapid termination
and fateful outcome came as a severe and sudden shock to France.
Napoleon had hoped to gain fresh prestige for his throne and new
influence for France by an intervention at the proper moment
between combatants equally matched and mutually exhausted.
His calculations were upset and his hopes dashed by the battle
of Sadowa (Koniggrfttz) on the 4th of July. The treaty of Prague
put an end to the secular rivalry of Habsburg and Hohcn-
zollern for the hegemony of Germany, which had been France's
87a
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opportunity; and Prussia could afford to honour the just claims
of Napoleon by establishing between her North German Coo-
federation and the South German states the illusory frontier of
the Main. The belated efforts of the French emperor to obtain
" compensation " on the left bank of the Rhine, at the expense
©i the South German states, made matters worse. France
realized with an angry surprise that on her eastern frontier had
arisen a military power by which her influence, if not her existence,
was threatened; that in the name of the principle of nationality
unwilling populations had been brought under the sway of a
dynasty by tradition militant and aggressive, by tradition the
enemy of France; that this new and threatening power had
destroyed French influence in Italy, which owed the acquisition
of Venetia to a Prussian alliance and to Prussian arms; and
that all this had been due to Napoleon, outwitted and out-
manoeuvred at every turn, since his first interview with Bis-
marck at Biarriu in October 1865.
All confidence m the excellence of imperial regime vanished
at once. Thiers and Jules Favre as representatives of the
Opposition denounced in the Legislative Body the
blunders of 1866. £mile Ollivier split up the official
■ •/ majority by the amendment of the 45, and gave it to
be understood that a reconciliation with the Empire
"""" would be impossible until the emperor would grant
entire liberty. The recall of the French troops from Rome,
in accordance with the convention of 1864, also led to further
attacks by the Ultramontane party, who were alarmed for the
papacy. Napoleon III. felt the necessity for developing
" the great act of i860 " by the decree of the 19th of
January 1867. In spite of Rouher, by a secret agree-
ment with Ollivier the right of interpellation was
restored to the Chambers. Reforms in press supervision
and the right of holding meetings were promised. It was in
vain that M. Rouher tried to meet the Liberal opposition by
organizing a party for the defence of the Empire, the " Union
dynastique." But the rapid succession of international reverses
prevented him from effecting anything.
The year 1867 was particularly disastrous for the Empire.
In Mexico " the greatest idea of the reign " ended in a humiliating
withdrawal before the ultimatum of the United States,
ist^ 9 ** while Italy, relying on her new alliance with Prussia
and already forgetful of her promises, was mobilizing
the revolutionary forces to complete her unity by conquering
Rome. The chassepots of Mentana were needed to check the
Garibaldians. And when the imperial diplomacy made a
belated attempt to obtain from the victorious Bismarck those
territorial compensations on the Rhine, in Belgium and in
Luxemburg, which it ought to have been possible to exact from
him earlier at Biarritz, Benedetti added to the mistake of
asking at the wrong time the humiliation of obtaining nothing
(see Luxemburg). Napoleon did not dare to take courage and
confess his weakness. And finally was seen the strange contrast
of France, though reduced to such a state of real weakness,
courting the mockery of Europe by a display of the external
magnificence which concealed her decline. In the Paris trans-
formed by Baron Haussmann and now become almost exclusively
a city of pleasure and frivolity, the opening of the Universal
Exhibition was marked by Berezowski's attack on the tsar
Alexander II., and its success was clouded by the tragic fate
of the unhappy emperor Maximilian of Mexico. Well might
Thiers exclaim, " There are no blunders left for us to make."
But the emperor managed to commit still more, of which the
consequences both for his dynasty and for France were irrepar-
able. Old, infirm and embittered, continually keeping
Jj2JJ f * r his ministers in suspense by the uncertainty and
secrecy of his plans, surrounded by a people now bent
almost entirely on pleasure, and urged on by a growing opposition,
there now remained but two courses open to Napoleon ITL:
either to arrange a peace which should last, or to prepare for a
decisive war. He allowed himself to drift in the direction of war,
but without bringing things to a necessary state of preparation.
It was in vain that Count Beust revived on behalf of the Austrian
government the project abandoned by Napoleon since 1866 4
a settlement on the basis of the stains quo with reciprocal dis-
armament. Napoleon refused, on hearing from Colonel StotU
his military attache at Berlin, that Prussia would not agree u
disarmament. But he was more anxious than he mas waliaf
to show. A reconstitution of the military organixati
to him to be necessary. This Marshal Niel was unable to c
either from the Bonapartist Opposi t ion, who feared the electees,
in whom the old patriotism had given place to the commercial
or cosmopolitan spirit, or from the Republican opposition, *b*
were unwilling to strengthen the despotism. Both of tltcc
were blinded by party interest to the danger from outside.
The emperor's good fortune had departed; be was abandoned
by men and disappointed by events. He had vainly hoped t&u,
though by the laws of May- June 1868, granting the Ae0m
freedom of the press and authorizing meetings, he had •/!*»
conceded the right of speech, he would retain the right of ?"*r
action ; but he had played into the hands of his enemies <***"**-
Victor Hugo's CMtiments, the insults of Rochefort's Luda"
the subscription for the monument to Baudin, the deputy tiici
at the barricades in 1851, followed by Gambetta's terrible
speech against the Empire on the occasion of the trial of Ddo-
cluse, soon showed that the republican party was irreconcilable,
and bent on the Republic On theother hand, the Ultrarnontaae
party were becoming more and more discontented, while tbe
industries formerly protected were equally dissatisfied with tbe
free-trade reform. Worse still, the working classes had abandoned
their political neutrality, which had brought them nothing tat
unpopularity, and gone over to the enemy. Despising ProudhoD's
impassioned attacks on the slavery of communism, they had
gradually been won over by the coDectivist theories of Karl
Marx or the revolutionary theories of Bakounine, as set forth
at the congresses of the International At these Labour con-
gresses, the fame of which was only increased by the fact that
they were forbidden, it had been affirmed that the social emanci-
pation of the worker was inseparable from bis political emancipa-
tion. Henceforth the union between the internationalists in4
the republican bourgeois was an accomplished fact. Tbe
Empire, taken by surprise, sought to curb both the middle
classes and the labouring classes, and forced them both into
revolutionary actions. On every side took place strikes, forming
as it were a review of the effective forces of the Revolution.
The elections of May 1669, made during these disturbances,
inflicted upon the Empire a serious moral defeat. In spite of
the revival by the government of the cry of the red Thm
terror, Ollivier. the advocate of conciliation, was »■ a*
rejected by Paris, while 40 irreconcuables and xi6 —**T
members of the Third Party were elected. Concessions *****
had to be made to these, so by the scnotus-comsulU of the 8th of
September i860 a parliamentary monarchy was substituted for
personal government. On the 2nd of January 1870 Ollivier
was placed at the bead of the first homogeneous, united and
responsible ministry. But the republican party, unlike the
country, which hailed this reconciliation of liberty and order,
refused to be content with the liberties they had won; they
refused all compromise, declaring themselves more than ever
decided upon the overthrow of the Empire. The murder of the
journalist Victor Noir by Pierre Bonaparte, a member of the
imperial family, gave the revolutionaries their long desired
opportunity (January ro). But the tmeute ended in a failure,
and the emperor was able to answer the personal threats against
him by the overwhelming victory of the plebiscite of the 8th of
May 187a
But this success, which should have consolidated the Empire,
determined its downfall. It was thought that a diplomatic
success should complete it, and make the country-
forget liberty for glory. It was in vain that after the
parliamentary revolution of the 2nd of January that
prudent statesman Comte Daru revived, through
Lord Clarendon, Count Beust's plan of disarmament after
Sadowa. He met with a refusal from Prussia and from tbe
imperial eutourate. Tbe Empress Eugenie was credited with
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the remark, " If there if no war, my sou will never be emperor."
The desired pretest was offered on the 3rd of Jury 1870 by the
candidature of * Hohensollern prince for the throne
of Spain. To the French people it seemed that Prussia,
barely mistress of Germany, was reviving against
France the traditional policy of the Habsburgs.
France, having rejected for dynastic reasons the
candidature of a Frenchman, the due de Montpensier, saw
berself threatened with a German prince. Never had the
emperor, now both physically and morally ill, greater need of
the counsels of a clear-headed statesman and the support of an
enlightened public opinion if he was to defeat the statecraft of
Bismarck. But he could find neither.
OHivier*a Liberal ministry, wishing to show itself as jealous,
for national interest* as any absolutist ministry, bent upon
Tft, doing something great, and swept away by the force
**ctan- of that opinion which it had itself set free, at once
< * MOi accepted the war as inevitable, and prepared for it
*"* with a light heart. In face of the decided declaration
of the due dc Gramont, the minister for foreign affairs, before
the Legislative Body of tbe 6th of July, Europe, in ahum,
supported the efforts of French diplomacy and obtained the
withdrawal of the HohensoUcrn candidature. This did not
suit the views either of the war party in Faria or of Bismarck,
who wanted the other side to declare war. The ill-advised action
of Gramont in demanding from King William one of those
promises for the future which are humiliating but never binding,
gave Bismarck bis opportunity, and the king's refusal was
transformed by him into an insult by tbe " editing " of the Ems
telegram. The chamber, in spite of the despeoate efforts of
Thiers and Gambetta, now voted by 146 votes to 10 in favour
of the war.
France found herself isolated, as much through the duplicity
of Napoleon as through that of Bismarck, The disclosure to the
diets of Munich and Stuttgart of the written text of
the claims laid by Napoleon on the territories of Heme
and Bavarii had since the a 2nd of August 1866
estranged southern Germany from France, and disposed the
southern states to sign the military convention with Prussia.
Owing to a similar series of blunders, the rest of Europe had
become hostile. Russia, which it had been Bismarck's study
both during and after the Polish insurrection of 1863 to draw
doser to Prussia, learnt with annoyance, by the same
indiscretion, how Napoleon was keeping bis promises made
at Stuttgart. The hope of gaining a revenge in the East for
her defeat of 1856 while France was in difficulties made her
decide on a benevolent neutrality. The disclosure of Bcnedetti'a
designs of 1867 on Belgium and Luxemburg equally ensured an
unfriendly neutrality on the part of Great Britain. The emperor
counted at least on the alliance of Austria and Italy, for which
he had been negotiating since the Salsburg interview (August
1867). But Austria, having suffered at his hands in 1859 and
1866, was not ready and asked foe a delay before joining in the
war; while the hesitating friendships of Italy could only be
won by the evacuation of Rome. The cbassepots of Mentana,
Rouhcr's " Never," and the hostility of the Catholic empress to
any secret article which should open to Italy the gates of the
capital, deprived France of her last friend.
Marshal Leboeuf's armies were no more effective than
Gramont's alliances. The incapacity of the higher officers of
the French army, the lack of preparation for war at
ffjT: ih headquarters, the selfishness aad shirking of responsi-
Bnpb*. bility on the part of the field officers, the absence of any
fixed plan when failure to mobilize bad destroyed all
chance of the stroog offensive which had been counted on, and
the folly of depending on chance, as the emperor had so often
1 In the 14th volume of his L' Empire literal (1909) M. Cnule
Ollivier gives a detailed and illuminating account of the events that
led up to the war. He indignantly denies that he ever said that he
contemplated it " with a light heart," and says that he disapproved
of Gramont's demand for '* guarantees," to which he was not privy.
His object is to prove that France was entrapped by Bismarck into a
position ia which she was bound in honour to declare war. (Ed.)
done successfully, instead of scientific warfare, were all plainly
to be seen as early as the insignificant engagement of SaarbrUcken.
Thus the French army proceeded by diastrous stages from
Weissenburg, Forbach, Froeschweiler, Borny, Gravelottc, Noissc-
ville and Saint-Privat to the siege of Metx and the slaughter at
IUy. By the capitulation of Sedan the Empire lost its only
support, the army, and fell. Paris was left unprotected and
emptied of troops, with only a woman at the Tuileries, a terrified
Assembly at the Palais-Bourbon, a ministry, that of Palikao,
without authority, and leaders of the Opposition who fled as
the catastrophe approached. (P. W.)
The Third Republic 1870-1909
The Third Republic may be said to date from the revolution
of the 4th of September 1870, when the republican deputies of
Paris at the hotel de ville constituted a provisional
government under the presidency of General Trochu,
military governor of the capital The Empire had
fallen, and -the emperor wasa prisoner in Germany. JJJJj*' 1 '
As, however, since the great Revolution regimes in
France have been only passing expedients, not inextricably
associated with the destinies of the people, but bound to disappear
when accounted responsible for national disaster, the surrender
of Louis Napoleon's sword to William of Prussia did not disarm
the country. Hostilities were therefore continued. The pro-
visional government had to assume the part of a Committee of
National Defence, and while insurrection was threatening in
Paris, it had, in the face of the invading Germans, to send a
delegation to Tours to maintain the relations of France with the
outside world. Paris was invested, and for five months endured
siege, bombardment and .famine. Before the end of October
the capitulation of Metx, by the treason of Marshal Bazaine,
deprived France of the last relic of its regular army. With
indomitable courage the garrison of Paris made useless sorties,
while an army of irregular troops vainly essayed to resist the
invader, who had reached the valley of the* Loire. The acting
Government of National Defence, thus driven from Tours, took
refuge at Bordeaux, where it awaited the capitulation of Paris,
which took place on the 29th of January 1871. Tbe same day
the preliminaries of peace were signed at Versailles, which,
confirmed by the treaty of Frankfort of the xoth of May, trans-
ferred from France to Germany the whole of Alsace, excepting
Belfort, and a large portion of Lorraine, including Metx, with
a money indemnity of two. hundred millions sterling.
On the J 3th of February 1871 the National Assembly, elected
after the capitulation of Paris, met at Bordeaux and assumed
the powers hitherto exercised by the Government of p,,,,^
National Defence. Since the meeting of the states- flue/is*
general in 1789 no representative body in France had J**^
ever contained so many men of distinction. Elected iffi/j^*
to conclude a peace, the great majority of its members
were monarchists, Gambetta, the rising hope of the republicans,
having discredited his party in the eyes of the weary population
by his efforts to carry on the war. The Assembly might thus have
there and then restored the monarchy had not the monarchists
been divided among themselves as royalist supporters of the
comte de Chambord, grandson of Charles X., and as Orleanists
favouring the claims of the comte de Paris, grandson of Louis
Philippe. The majority being unable to unite on tbe essential
point of the choice of a sovereign, decided to allow the Republic,
declared on the morrow of Sedan, to liquidate the disastrous
situation. Consequently, on the 17th of February the National
Assembly elected Thiers as " Chief of the Executive Power of
tbe French Republic," the abolition of the Empire being formally
voted a fortnight later. The old minister of Louis Philippe,
who had led the opposition to the Empire, and had been the chief
opponent of the war, was further marked out for the position
conferred on him by his election to the Assembly in twenty-six
departments in recognition of his tour through Europe after the
first defeats, undertaken in the patriotic hope of obtaining the
intervention of the Powers on behalf of France. Thiers composed
a ministry, and announced that the first duty of the government
874
FRANCE
fHfilUO
before examining constitutional questions, would be to reorganize
the forces of the nation in order to provide for the enormous war
indemnity which had to be paid to Germany before the territory
could be liberated from the presence of the invader. The tacit
acceptance of this arrangement by all parties was known as the
" pacte de Bordeaux" Apart from the pressure of patriotic con-
siderations, it pleased the republican minority to have the govern-
ment of France officially proclaimed a Republic, while the
monarchists thought that pending their choice of a monarch it
might popularize their cause not to have it associated with
the imposition of the burden of war taxation. From this for-
tuitous and informal transaction, accepted by a monarchical
Assembly, sprang the Third Republic, the most durable regime
established in France since the ancient monarchy disappeared
in 1702.
The Germans marched down the Champs Elysees on the
1 st of March 187 1, and occupied Paris for forty-eight hours.
The National Assembly then decided to remove its
(tomm* Bittings to Versailles; but two days before its arrival
at the palace, where the king of Prussia had just been
proclaimed German emperor, an insurrection broke out in Paris.
The revolutionary element, which had been foremost in pro-
claiming the Republic on the 4th of September, had shown
signs of disaffection during the siege. On the conclusion of the
peace the triumphal entry of the German troops, the threatened
disbanding of the national guard by an Assembly known to be
anti-republican, and the resumption of orderly civic existence
after the agitated life of a suffering population isolated by
siege, had excited the nerves of the Parisians, always prone to
revolution. The Commune was proclaimed on the iSth of March,
and Paris was declared to be a free town, which recognized no
government but that chosen by the people within its walls,
the communard theory being that the state should consist of a
federation of self-governing communes subject to no central
power. Administrative autonomy was not, however, the real
aim of the insurgent leaders. The name of the Commune had
always been a rallying sign for violent revolutionaries ever
since the Terrorists had found their last support in the munici-
pality of Paris in 1794. In 1871 among the communard chiefs
were revolutionaries of every sect, who, disagreeing on govern-
mental and economic principles, were united in their vague but
perpetual hostility to the existing order of things. The regular
troops of the garrison of Paris followed the National Assembly
to Versailles, where they were joined by the soldiers of the armies
of Sedan and Metz, liberated from captivity in Germany. With
this force the government of the Republic commenced the
second siege of Paris, in order to capture the city from the
Commune, which had established the parody of a government
there, having taken possession of the administrative departments
and set a minister at the head of each office. The second siege
lasted six weeks under the eyes of the victorious Germans
encamped on the heights overlooking the capital. The presence
of the enemy, far from restraining the humiliating spectacle of
Frenchmen waging war on Frenchmen in the hour of national
disaster, seemed to encourage the fury of the combatants. The
communards, who had begun their reign by the murder of two
generals, concluded it, when the Versailles troops were taking the
city, with the massacre of a number of eminent citizens, including
the archbishop of Paris, and with the destruction by fire of many
of the finest historical buildings, including the palace of the
Tuilerics and the hdtel de ville. History has rarely known a
more unpatriotic crime than that of the insurrection of the
Commune; but the punishment inflicted on the insurgents by
the Versailles troops was so ruthless that it seemed to be a counter-
manifestation of French hatred forFrenchmen in civil disturbance
rather than a judicial penalty applied to a heinous offence.
The number of Parisians killed by French soldiers in the last
week of May 1871 was probably 20,000, though the partisans
of the Commune declared that 36,000 men and women were shot
in the streets or after summary court-martial.
It is from this point that the history of the Third Republic
commences. In spite of the doubly tragic ending of the war
the vitality of the country seemed unimpaired. With ease nj
without murmur it supported the new burden of taaalkir, c~_i
for by the war indemnity and by the reorganiralkm 4^
of the shattered forces of France. Thiers was tbua me— am
aided in his task of liberating the territory from Use < ■
presence of the enemy. His proposal at Bordeaux to Jjjj
make the " essci loyal " of the Republic, as the form of **
government which caused the least division among Fiencaur:,
was discouraged by the excesses of the Commune which assoa&H
republicanism with revolutionary disorder. Neverthdesv -•
monarchists of the National Assembly received a note of warsr^
that the country might dispense with their services unless :h
displayed governmental capacity, when in July 1871 the r
publican minority was largely increased at the bye-efccbeL
The next month, within a year of Sedan, a provisional constkuu.t
was voted, the title of president of the French Republic hejr
then conferred on Thiers. The monarchists consented to ti_-
against their will; but they had their own way when tfer
conferred constituent powers on the Assembly in opposiiioa *i
the republicans, who argued that it was a usmrpation of th
sovereignty of the people for a body elected for another purpes
to assume the power of giving a constitution to the land wuhosti
special mandate from the nation. The debate gave Gamber«
his first opportunity of appearing as a serious politician. Tb
" fou furicux " of Tours, whom Thiers had denounced far as
efforts to prolong the hopeless war, was about to become ur
chief support of the aged Orleanist statesman whose suprext
achievement was to be the foundation of the Republic
It was in 1872 that Thiers practically ranged himself will
Gambetta and the republicans. The divisions in the monarckkn
party made an immediate restoration impossible.
This situation induced some of the moderate deputies, f^^ tmt
whose tendencies were Orleanist, to support the n«ninii
organization of a Republic which now no longer
found its chief support in the revolutionary section of the nalke,
and it suited the ideas of Thiers, whose personal ambition ns
not less than his undoubted patriotism. Having becozse
unexpectedly chief of the state at seventy-four he had no wiA
to descend again to the position of a minister of the Orieus
dynasty which he had held at thirty-five. So, while the royal&j
refused to admit the claims of the comte de Paris, the old minister
of Louis Philippe did his best to undermine the popularity el
the Orleans tradition, which had been great among the Liberals
under the Second Empire. He moved the Assembly to restort
to the Orleans princes the value of their property confiscated
under Louis Napoleon. This he did in the well-founded belief
that the family wou'.d discredit itself in the eyes of the nation by
accepting two millions sterling of public money at a moment
when the country was burdened with the war indemnity. The
incident was characteristic of his wary policy, as in the face
of the anti-republican majority in the Assembly he could not
openly break with the Right; and when it was suggested that
he was too favourable to the maintenance of the Republic he
offered his resignation, the refusal of which he took as indicating
the indispensable nature of his services. Meanwhile Gambetta,
by his popular eloquence, had won for himself in the autumn
a triumphal progress, in the course of which he declared at
Grenoble that political power had passed into the hands of
" une coucke social* nouvdle," and he appealed to the new social
strata to pot an end to the '•omedy of a Republic without
republicans. When the Assembly resumed its sittings, order
having been restored in the land disturbed by war and revolution,
the financial system being reconstituted and the reorganization
of the army planned, Thiers read to the house a presidential
message which marked such a distinct movement towards the
Left that Gambetta led the applause. " The Republic exists,"
said the president, " it is the lawful government of the country,
and to devise anything else is to devise the most terrible of
revolutions."
The year 1873 was full of events fateful for the history of France.
It opened with the death of Napoleon III. at Chislehurst; bat
the disasters amid which the Second Empire had ended were too
HISTORY]
FRANCS
«75
recent for the youthful promise of h& hdr to be regarded at
baving any connexion with the future fortunes of France, except
by the small group of Bonapartists. Thiers remained the centre
of interest Much as the monarchists chstiked him, they at first
shrank from upsetting him before they were ready with a scheme
of monarchical restoration, and while Gasobetta's authority was
Crowing in theland. But when the Left Centre took alarm at the
return of radical deputies at numerous by-electrons the reaction-
aries utilised the divisions- in the republican party, and for the
only time in the history of the Third Republic they gave proof of
parliamentary adroitness. The date for the evacuation of France
by the German troops had been advanced,, largely owing to
Thiers' successful efforts to raise the warindemnity. Theraonar-
chfcal majority, therefore, thought the moment had
S '^ S T" * rrrVB<1 when his services might safely he dispensed
TtLn. ****** *"<* the campaign against him was ably con-
ducted by a coalition of Legitimists, Orleamsts and
Bonapartists. The attack on Thiers was led by the due
de Brogue, the son of- another minister of Louis Philippe and
grandson -of Madame de StaeL Operations began with the
removal from the chair of the Assembly of JulesGrevy, a moderate
republican, who was chosen president at Bordeaux, and the
substitution of Buffet, an old minister of the Second Republic
who had raJb'ed to the Empire. A debate on the political ten-
dency of the government brought Thiers himself to the tribune
to defend his policy. He maintained that a conservative
Republic was the only regime possible, seeing that the monarchists
in the Assembly could not make a choice between their three
pretenders to the throne. A resolution* however, was carried
which provoked the old statesman into tendering bis resignation.
This time it was not declined, and the majority with unseemly
haste elected as president of the Republic Marshal
1 MacMahon, due de Magenta, an honest soldier of
loyalist sympathies, who bad won renown and a ducal
title 00 the battlefields of the Second Empire. In the
eves oi Europe the curt dismissal of the aged liberator
of the territory was an act of ingratitude. Its justification
would have been the success of the majority in forming a
stable monarchical government; but the sole result of the 84th
of May 1873 was to provide a definite date to mark the opening
of the era of anti-republican incompetency in France which has
lasted for mora than a generation, and has been perhaps the most
effective guardian of the Third Republic*
The political incompetency of the reactionaries was fated never
to be corrected by the intelligence of its princes or of its chiefs,
and the year which saw Thiers dismissed to make way for a
restoration saw also that restoration indefinitely postponed by
the fatal action of the legitimist pretender. The comte de Paris
went to Frohsdorf to abandon to the comte de Chambord his
claims to the crown as the heir of the July Monarchy, and to
accept the position of dauphin, thus implying that his grand-
father Louis Philippe was a usurper. With the " Government
of Moral Order" in command the restoration of the monarchy
seemed imminent, when the royalists had their hopes dashed
by the announcement that " Henri W would accept the throne
only on the condition that the nation adopted as the standard
of France the white flag— at the very sight of which Marshal
MacMahon said the rifles in the army would go off by themselves*
The comte de Chambord's refusal to accept the tricolour was
probably only the pretext of a childless man who
r ** had no wish to disturb his secluded life for the ultimate
n»mti«c4 benefit of the Orleans family which had usurped his
crown, had sent him as a child into exile, and out*
raged his mother the duchease de Berry. Whatever his motive,
his decision could have no other effect than that of establishing
the Republic, as he was likely to live for years, during which the
comte de Paris' claims had to remain suspended. It was not
possible to leave the land for .ever under the government im-
provised at Bordeaux when the Germans were masters of France;
so the majority in the Assembly decided to organise another
provisional government on more regular lines, which might
possibly hut till the comic de Chambord had taken the white flag
to the grave, leaving the way to the throne dear for the comte
de Paris. On the 19th of November 1873 a Bill was passed
which instituted the Septennate, whereby the executive
power was confided to Marshal MacMahon for seven ![**._
years. It also provided for the nomination of a com- jj*
mission of the National Assembly to take in hand the
enactment of a constitutional law. Before this an important
constitutional innovation had been adopted. Under Thiers
there were no changes of ministry. The president of the Republic
was perpetual' prime minister, constantly dismissing individual
holders of portfolios, but never changing at one moment the
whole council of ministers. Marshal MacMahon, the day after
his appointment, nominated a cabinet with a vice-president
of the council as premier, and thus inaugurated the system
of ministerial instability which has been the most conspicuous
feature of the government of the Third Republic Under the
Septennate the ministers, monarchist or moderate republican,
were socially and perhaps intellectually of a higher class than
those who governed France during the last twenty years of the
19th century. But the duration of the cabinets was just as brief,
thus displaying the fact, already similarly demonstrated under
the Restoration and the Jury Monarchy, that in France parlia-
mentary government is an importation not suited to the national
temperament
The due de Bmglie was the prime minister in MacMahon's
first two cabinets which carried on the government of the country
Up to the first anniversary of Thiers' resignation. The due .de
Brogtie's defeat by a coalition of Legitimists and Bonapartists
with the Republicans displayed the mutual attitude of parties.
The Royalists, chagrined that the fusion of the two branches of
the Bourbons had not brought the comte de Chambord to the
throne, vented their rage on the Orleanists, who had the chief
share in the government without being able to utilise it for their
dynasty. The Bonapartists, now that the memory of the war
was receding, were winning elections in the provinces, and were
further encouraged by the youthful promise of the Prince
Imperial The republicans had so improved their position that
the due d'Audiffret-Pssquier, great-nephew of the chancellor
Pasquier, tried to form a coalition ministry with M. Waddington,
afterwards ambassador of the Republic in London, and other
members of the Left Centre. Out of this uncertain state of
affairs was evolved the constitution which has lasted the longest
of all those that France has tried since the abolition of the old
monarchy in 1792. Its birth was due to chance. Not being
able to restore a monarchy, the National Assembly was unwill-
ing definitively to establish a republic, and as no limit was set by
the law on the duration of its powers,, it might have continued
the provisional state of things had it not been for the Bona-
partists. That party displayed so much activity in agitating for
a plebiscite, that when, the rural voters at by-elections began to
rally to the Napoleonic idea, alarm seised the constitutionalists
of. the Right Centre who had never been persuaded by Thiers'
exhortations to accept the Republic Consequently in January
1875 the Assembly, having voted the general principle that the
legislative power should be exercised by a Senate and
a Chamber of. Deputies, without any mention of the '
executive regime, accepted by a majority of one a *£!£*
momentous resolution proposed by M. WalJon, a
member of the Right Centre. It provided that the president of
the Republic should be elected by the absolute majority of the
Senate and the Chamber united as a National Assembly, that he
should be elected for seven years, and be eligible for re-election.
Thus by one vote the Republic was formally established, " the
Father of the Constitution " being M. Wallon, who began his
political experiences in the Legislative Assembly of 1849, *nd
survived to take an active part in the Senate until the twentieth
century.
The Republic being thus established, General de Cjssey, who
bad become prime minister, made way for M. Buffet, but retained
his portfolio of war in the new coalition cabinet, which contained
some distinguished members of the two central groups, includ-
ing M. Leon Say. A foirtnight previously, at the end of February
876
FRANCS
fRESIOC
1875* vcre puud two statutes defining the legislative and
executive powers in the Republic, and organizing the Senate..
ProvUJoas These joined to a third enactment, voted in July, form
©/<*• cm- the body of laws known as the " Constitution of 1875,"
fjjjjjj" which though twice revised, lasted without essential
alteration to the twentieth century. The legislative
power was conferred on a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies,
which might unite in congress to revise the constitution,
i£ they both agreed that revision was necessary, and which
were bound so to meet for the election of the president of the
Republic when a vacancy occurred, it was enacted that the
president so elected should retain office for seven years, and be
eligible for re-election at the end of his term. He was also held
to be irresponsible, except in the case of high treason. The other
principal prerogatives bestowed on the presidential office by the
constitution of 1875 were the right of initiating laws concurrently
with the members of the two chambers; the promulgation of
the laws; the right of dissolving the Chamber of Deputies before
its legal term on the advice of the Senate, and that of adjourning
the sittings of both houses for a month; the right of pardon;
the disposal of the armed forces of the country; the reception of
diplomatic envoys, and, under certain limitations, the power
to ratify treaties. The constitution relieved the president of
the responsibility of private patronage, by providing that every
act of his should be countersigned by a minister. The con-
stitutional law provided that the Senate should consist of 300
members, 75 being nominated for life by the National Assembly,
and the remaining 22s elected for nine years by the departments
and the colonies. Vacancies among the life members, after the
dissolution of the National Assembly, were filled by the Senate
until 1884, when the nominative system was abolished, though
the survivors of it were not disturbed. The law of 1875 enacted
that the elected senators, who were distributed among the
departments on a rough basis of population, should be elected
for nine years, a third of them retiring triennially. It was pro-
vided that the senatorial electors in each department should be
the deputies, the members of the constU gintrol and of the constils
d'orrondisscmenl, and delegates nominated by the municipal
councils of each commune. As the municipal delegates composed
the majority in each electoral college, Gambetta called the
Senate the Grand Council of the Communes; but in practice
the senators elected have always been the nominees of the local
deputiesand of the departmental councillors (eonseilUrs gtniraux).
The Constitutional Law further provided that the deputies
should be elected to the Chamber for four years by direct man-
hood suffrage, which had been enjoyed in France ever
since 1848. The laws relating to registration, which is
of admirable simplicity in France, were left practically
1 the same as under the Second Empire. From 1875 to
1885 the elections were held on the basis of scrulin
farrondisstmeni, each department being divided into single-
member districts. In 1885 scrulin do lisle was tried, the depart-
ment being the electoral unit, and each elector having as many
votes as there were seats ascribed to the department without
the power to cumulate— like the voting in the city of London
when it returned four members. In 1889 scrulin d'arrondissoment
was resumed. The payment of members continued as under
the Second Empire, the salary now being fixed at 0000 francs
a year in both houses, or about a pound sterling a day. The
Senate and the Chamber were endowed with almost identical
powers. The only important advantage given to the popular
house in the paper constitution was its initiative in matters of
finance, but the right of rejecting or of modifying the financial
proposals of the Chamber was successfully upheld by the Senate.
In reality the Chamber of Deputies has overshadowed the upper
house. The constitution did not prescribe that ministers should
be selected from either house of parliament, but in practice the
deputies have been in cabinets in the proportion of five to one
in excess of the senators. Similarly the very numerous ministerial
crises which have taken place under the Third Republic have
with the rarest exceptions been caused by votes in the lower
chamber. Among minor differences between the two houses
ordained by the constitution was the legal rmnimum age of rhw
members, that of senators being forty and of deputies twc&ty-toe
It was enacted, moreover, that the Senate, by {steaadesLt
decree, could be constituted into a high court for the taxi a
certain offences against the security of the state.
The constitution thus produced, the fourteenth since ta*
Revolution of 1789, was the issue of a monarchical A 111 ma
forced by circumstances to establish a republic. It __
was therefore distinguished from others which preceded SL,
it in that it contained no declaration of principle and pmnm
no. doctrinal theory. The comparative excellence of «*m»i
the work must be recognized, seeing that it has lasted. 2J^T
But it owed its duration, as it owed its origin and its
character, to the weakness of purpose and to the «**■«»« c
the monarchical parties. The first legal act under the tr
constitution was the selection by the expiring National Assesh?
of seventy-five nominated senators, and here the remctioaah±
gave a crowning example of that folly which has ever maifcri
their conduct each time they have had the chance of scoria? a
advantage against the Republic The principle of nonanaar
had been carried in -the National Assembly by the Right art
opposed by the Republicans. But the quarrels of the I^rgrtiffn^
with the due de Broglie and his party were so bitter that tit
former made a present of the nominated element in the Set--
to the Republicans in order to spite the Orleanists; so ©ct =
seventy-five senators nominated by the monarchical Assaszh
fifty-seven Republicans were chosen. Without this saion
act the Republicans would have been in a woeful minority in ti:
Senate when parliament met in 1876 after the first ekenca
under the new system of parliamentary government. Tbt
slight advantage which, in spite of their sett-destruction. &
reactionaries maintained in the upper house was outbaksc*.
by the republican success at the elections to the Chambs
In a house of over 500 members only about 150 rnonarchks
deputies were returned, of whom half were Bonapartists. Th;
first cabinet under the new constitution Was formed by Dufa-n
an old minister of Louis Philippe like Thiers, and like him bora n
the 18th century. The premier now took the title of preside*
of the council, the chief of the state no longer presiding at the
meetings of ministers, though he continued to be present at tke:
deliberations. Although the republican victories at the decboas
were greatly due to the influence of Gambetta.none of hispartisa=j
was included in the ministry, which was composed of rnembrc
of the two central groups. At the end of 1876 Dufanre retard
but nearly all his ministers retained their portfolios under the
presidency of Jules Simon, a pupil of Victor Cousin, who fe*
entered political life in the Constituent Assembly of 1848, xl.
was later a leading member of the opposition in the last seven
years of the Second Empire.
The premiership of Jules Simon came to an end with tk-
abortive coup d'Ual of. 1877, commonly called from its date ite
Sets* Mai. After the election of Marshal MacMahon
to the presidency, the clerical party, irritated at the 25 an?
failure to restore the comte de Chambord, commenced
a campaign in favour of the restitution of the temporal powers
the Pope. It provoked the Italian government to make comxec:
cause with Germany, as Prince Bismarck was likewise attack*:
by the French clericals for his ecclesiastical policy. At ha
Jules Simon, who was a liberal most friendly to Cathohasc
had to accept a resolution of the Chamber, inviting the minis*?
to adopt the same disciplinary policy towards the Church whii.
had been followed by the Second Empire and the Monarchy a
July. It was on this occasion that Gambetta used his fames:
expression, " Lt cUricalisme, voild Vennemi.** Some days later
a letter appeared in the Journal officid, dated 16th May 1S7*
signed by President MacMahon, informing Jules Simon* that tx
had no longer his confidence, as it was dear that he had lost
that influence over the Chamber which a president of the Coosd
ought to exercise. The dismissal of the prime minister and U»
presidential acts which followed did not infringe the letter of
the new constitution; yet the proceeding was regarded as 1
coup d'iUU in favour of the clerical reactionaries. The due *
tSTORTJ
FRANCE
877
rogtle formed an aiiti^sprablican iwsistry, ua Marsha) Mat-
[ahon, ia virtue of the presidential prerogative conferred by the
kw of 187$, adjourned parliament for a month. When the
hamber reanembkd the republican majority el 363 denounced
le coatlition of parties hostile to the Republic The president,
gain vising his constitutional prerogative, obtained the author*
ution of the Senate to dissolve the Chamber. Meanwhile the
trogtie ministry had put in practice the policy, favoured by all
»arties in France, of replacing the functionaries hostile to it
rith its own partisans. But ia spite of the administrative
lectoral machinery being thus in the hands of the reactionaries,
. republican majority was sent back to the Chamber, tbetudden
leatb of Thiers am the eve of his expected return to power, and
he demonstration at his funeral, which was described as a
iletit insurrection, aiding the rout of the monarchists. The
i uc de Brogue resigned, and Marshal MacMahon sent for General
le Rochebouet, who formed a cabinet of unknown reactionaries,
>ut it lasted only a few days, as the Chamber refused to vote
"apply- Dufaure was then called back to office, and bis moderate
-epublican ministry lasted for the remainder of the MacMahon
^residency.
Thus ended the episode of the Seiu Mai, condemned by the
whole of Europe from its inception. Its chief effects were to
prove again to the country the incompetency of the monarchists,
and by associating in the public mind the Church with this
ill-conceived venture, to provoke reprisals from the anti-clericals
when they came into power. After the storm, the year 1878
was one of political repose. The first international exhibition
held at Paris after the war displayed to Europe how the secret
of France's recuperative power lay in the industry and artistic
instinct of the nation. Marshal MacMahon presided with
/jry _ dignity over thelites held in honour of the exhibition,
XJ£ * ad - h&d bc Phased he might have tranquilly fulfilled
Or+ry the term of his Septennate. But in January 1879
he made a difference of opinion on a military question
an excuse for resignation, and Jules Grevy, the president
of the Chamber, was elected to succeed him by the
National Assembly, which thus met for the first time under the
Constitutional Law of 1875.
Henceforth the executive as weU as the legislative power
was in the bands of the republicans. The new president was
* a leader of the bar, who had first become known in the Constituent
Assembly of 1848 as the advocate of the principle that a republic
[■ would do better without a president. M. Waddington was his
first prime minister, and Gambetta was elected president of the
Chamber. The latter, encouraged by his rivals in the idea that
- the time was not ripe for him openly to direct the affairs of the
country, thus put himself, in spite of his occult dictatorship, in
•" a position of official self-effacement from which he did not emerge
until the jealousies of his own party-colleagues had undermined
the prestige he had gained as chief founder of the Republic
< The most active among them was Jules Ferry, minister of
; m . _ Education, who having been a republican deputy for
Paris at the end of the Empire, was one of the members
of the provisional government proclaimed on 4th
*• September 1870. Borrowing Gambetta 's cry that clericalism
' was the enemy, he commenced the work of reprisal for the Seize
*' Mai. His educational projects of 1879 were thus anticlerical
■' in tendency, the most famous being article 7 of his education
. - bill, which prohibited members of any " unauthorized " religious
•'■' orders exercising the profession of teaching in any school in
> France, the disability being applied to all ecclesiastical com*
*" 01 unities, excepting four or five which had been privileged by
t. special legislation. This enactment, aimed chiefly at the Jesuits,
i- was advocated with a sectarian bitterness which will be associated
.* with the name of Jules Ferry long after his more statesmanlike
f qualities are forgotten. The law was rejected by the Senate,
5 Jules Simon being the eloquent champion of the clericals, whose
:' utrigues had ousted him from office. The unauthorised orders
^ were then dissolved by decree; but though the forcible expulsion
>) of aged priests and nuns gave rise to painful scenes, it cannot
J be said that popular feeling was excited in their favour, so
grievously had the Church blundered in identifying itself with
the conspiracy of the Seize Mai.
Meanwhile the death of the Prince Imperial in Zululand had
shattered the hopes of the Bonapartists, and M. de Freydnet,
a former functionary of the Empire, had become prime minister
at the end of 1879. He had retained Jules Ferry at the ministry
oi Education, but unwilling to adopt all his anti-clerical policy,
he resigned the premiership in September 1 8&0. The constitution
of the first Ferry cabinet secured the further exclusion from office
of Gambetta, to which, however, be preferred his " occult dictator-
ship." In August he had, as president of the Chamber, accom-
panied M. Grevy on an official visit to Cherbourg, and the accla-
mations called forth all over France by his speech, which was
a hopeful defiance to Germany, encouraged the wily chief
of the state to aid the republican conspiracy against the hero
of the Republic In i88z the only political question before
the country was the destiny of Gambetta. His influence in. the
Chamber was such that in spite of the opposition of the prime
minister be carried his electoral scheme of sendind* lisle, descend-
ing from the presidential chair to defend it. Its rejection by
the Senate caused no conflict between the houses. The check
was inflicted not on the Chamber, but on Gambetta, who counted
on his popularity to carry the lists of his candidates in all
the republican departments in France as a quesi-plebiscitary
demonstration in his favour. His rivals dared not openly
quarrel with htm. There was the semblance of a reconciliation
between him and Ferry, and his name was the rallying-cry of
the Republic at the general election, which was conducted on
the old system of scrutin d'arrondissement.
The triumph for the Republic was great, the combined force
of reactionary members returned being less than one-fifth of the
new Chamber. M. Grevy could no longer abstain from __ .
asking Gambetta to form a ministry, but he had Jjjjj?**
bided his time till jealousy of the " occult power " jjfrTfrn
of the president of the Chamber had undermined his
position in parliament. Consequently, when on the 14th of
November 1881 Gambetta announced the composition of his
cabinet, ironically called the " grand minisUre," which was to
consolidate the Republic and to be the apotheosis of its chief,
a great feeling of disillusion fell on the country, for his colleagues
were untried politicians. The best known was Paul Bert, a man
of science, who as the " reporter " in the Chamber of the Ferry
Education Bill had distinguished himself as an aggressive free-
thinker, and he inappropriately was named minister of public
worship. All the conspicuous republicans who had held office
refused to serve under Gambetta. His cabinet was condemned
in advance. His enemies having succeeded in ruining its com-
position, declared that the construction of a one-man machine
was ominous of dictatorship, and the " grand ministhe " lived for
only ten weeks.
Gambetta was succeeded in January 1882 by M. de Freydnet,
who having first taken office in the Dufaure cabinet of 1877, and
having continued to hold office at intervals until 1899,
was the most successful specimen of a " ministrabU " — ^ m ^f*^
as recurrent portfolio-holders have been called under
the Third Republic His second ministry lasted only six months.
The failure of Gambetta, though pleasing to his rivals, discouraged
the republican party and disorganized its majority in the Chamber.
M. Duclcrc, an old minister of the Second Republic, then became
president of the council, and before his short term of office was
run Gambetta died on the last day of 1882, without having had
the opportunity of displaying his capacity as a minister or an
administrator. He was only forty-four at his death, and his fame
rests on the unfulfilled promise of a brief career. The men who
had driven him out of public life and had shortened his existence
were the most ostentatious.of the mourners at the great pageant
with which he was buried, and to have been of his party was in
future the popular trade-mark of bis republican enemies.
Gambetu's death was followed by a period of anarchy, during
which Prince Napoleon, the son of Jerome, king of Westphalia,
placarded the walls of Paris with a manifesto. The Chamber
thereupon voted the exile of the members of the families which
878
FRANCE
IHBTCP
had reigned is France. The Senate rejected the meassre, and a
conflict arose between the two houses. M. Duclerc resigned the
nttmm _ premiership in January 1883 to his minister of the
ffiffH Interior, M. Fallieres, a Gascon lawyer, who became
president of the Senate in 1899 and president of the
Republic in 1 006. He held office for three weeks, when Jules Ferry
became president of the council for the second time. Several of
the closest of Gambetta's friends accepted office under the old
enemy of their chief, and the new combination adopted the
epithet "opportunist," which had been invented by Gambetta
in 1875 to justify the expediency of his alliance with Thiers.
The Opportunists thenceforth formed an important group stand-
ing between the Left Centre, which was now excluded from office,
and the Radicals. It claimed the tradition of Gambetta, but the
guiding principle manifested by its members was that of securing
the spoils of place. To this end it often allied itself with the
Radicals, and the Ferry cabinet practised this policy in 1883
when it removed the Orleans princes from the active list in the
army as the illogical result of the demonstration of a Bonaparte.
How needless was this proceeding was shown a few months later
when the comte de Chambord died, as his death,, which finally
fused the Royalists with the Orleanists, caused no commotion
in France.
The year 1884 was unprecedented seeing that it passed
without a change of ministry. Jules Ferry displayed real admini-
fftrbfoa strative ability, and as an era of steady government
o/tb»coo~ seemed to be commencing, the opportunity was taken
Mutation, to revise the Constitution. The two Chambers there-
IM4m fore met in congress, and enacted that the republican
form of government could never be the subject of revision, and
that all members of families which had reigned in France were
ineligible for the presidency of the Republic— a repetition of the
adventure of Louis Bonaparte in the middle of the century being
thus made impossible. It also decided that the clauses of the
law of 1875 relating to the organization of the Senate should no
longer have a constitutional character. This permitted the
reform of the Upper House by ordinary parliamentary procedure.
So an organic law was passed to abolish the system of nominating
senators, and to increase the number of municipal delegates in
the electoral colleges in proportion to the population of the
communes. The French nation, for the first time since it had
enjoyed political life, had revised a constitution by pacific means
without a revolution. Gambetta being out of the way, his
favourite electoral system of scrutin it list* had no longer any
terror for his rivals, so it was voted by the Chamber early in
1885. Before the Senate had passed it into law the Ferry
ministry had fallen at the end of March, after holding office for
twenty-five months, a term rarely exceeded in the annals of the
Third Republic. This long tenure of power had excited the
dissatisfaction of jealous politicians, and the news of a slight
disaster to the French troops in Tongking called forth all the
pent-up rancour which Jules Ferry had inspired in various
groups* By the exaggerated news of defeat Paris was excited
ToarUar. *° tne ^"^ °* a rev °l u tion. The approaches of the
*^* Chamber were invaded by an angry mob, and Jules
Ferry was the object of public hate more bitter than Any man
had called forth in France since Napoleon III. on the days after
Sedan. Within the Chamber he was attacked in all quarters.
The Radicals took the lead, supported by the Monarchists, who
remembered the anti-clerical rigour of the Ferry laws, by the
Left Centre, not sorry for the tribulation of the group which had
supplanted it, and by place-hunting republicans of all shades. The
attack was led by a politician who disdained office. M. Georges
Clemenceau, who had originally come to Paris from the Vendee
as a doctor, had as a radical leader in the Chamber used his
remarkable talent as an overthrower of ministries, and nearly
every one of the eight ministerial crises which had already
occurred during the presidency of Grevy had been hastened by
his mordant eloquence.
The next prime minister was M. Brisson, a radical lawyer and
journalist, who in April 1885 formed a cabinet of " concentration "
— that is to say, it was recruited from various groups with the
idea of concentrating all republican forces in opposition to tie »
actionaries. MM. de Freydnet and Carnot, afterwards prats
of the Republic, represented the moderate dement in tins nuaur
which superintended the general elections under scrwtim 4s e^
That system was recommended by its advocates as a reas;
for the rapid decadence in the composition of the Qasas
Manhood suffrage, which had returned to the National Aao.
a distinguished body of men to conclude peace with Gemot*
had chosen a very different type of representative to sit ia --
Chamber created by the constitution of 1875. At each sboce.
ing election the standard of deputies returned grew lover. _
Gambetta described them contemptuously as " so** wd tffrm r
indicating that they were chiefly chosen from the petty r
fessional class, which represented neither the real demon
nor the material interests of the country. His view was tu
the election of members by departmental lists would eaten l.
candidature of the best men in each region, who under the sjss
of single-member districts were apt to be neglected in faveen
local politicians representing narrow interests. When his dec
had removed die fear of his using scrutin de lisU as a plrtwrirr
organization, parliament sanctioned its trial. The reset 1.
not what its promoters anticipated. The composition „_„__
of the Chamber was indeed transformed, but only by JjJsT
the substitution of reactionary deputies for republicans.
Of the votes polled, 45% were given to the Monarchists. £
if they had obtained one-half of the abstentions the Reps^
would have come to 'an end. At the same time the chantr-
of the republican deputies returned was not improved; so the sr.
effect of scruHn de liste was to show that the electorate, wearr-
repoblican dissensions, was ready to make a trial of numirrj---
government,tf only the reactionary party proved that it confix
statesmen capable of leading the nation. So "«""^ was l
situation that the republicans thought it wise not further :
expose their divisions in the presidential election which k.
due to take place at the end of the year. Consequently. s*
the 28th of December 1885, M. Grevy, in spite of his gsi*^
Unpopularity, was elected president of the Republic for a sec-
term of seven years.
The Brisson cabinet at once resigned, and on the 7th of JaBsr-
1886 its most important member, M. de Freycinet, formed L
third ministry, which had momentous influence on the
history of the Republic. The new minister of war \
was General Boulanger,a smart soldier of no remarkable
military record; but being the nomineeof M.Oemeneeeu,heberi
his official career by taking radical measures against couueik
ing officers of reactionary tendencies. He thus aided the gover
ment in its campaign against the families which had reigned .'
France, whose situation had been improved by the result of ih
elections. The fetes given by the comte de Paris to celebn'i
his daughter's marriage with the heir-apparent of FortepJ
moved the republican majority in the Chambers to expel tea
France the heads of the houses of Orleans and of Bonapar*
with their eldest sons. The names of all the princes on the arc.
list were erased from it, the decree being executed with c
seemly ostentation by General Boulanger, who had owed ear
promotion to the protection of the due d'Aumsie, and on the
orincc protesting he was exiled too. Meanwhile General Bet-
langer took advantage of Grevy's unpopularity to make himsr
a popular hero, and at the review, held yearly on the 14th .-:
July, the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille, his aedamatka
by the Parisian mob showed that he was taking an unexpect* '
place in the imagination of the people. He continued to ver;
with the Radicals, so when they turned out M. de Freydnet >
December 1886, one of their group, M. Goblet, a lawyer frc
Amiens, formed a ministry, and retained Boulanger as minister ..
war. M. Clemenceau, however, withdrew his support from \ht
general, who was nevertheless loudly patronised by the vidr
radical press. His bold attitude towards Germany in Conner-- •
with the arrest on the German frontier of a French official naier
Schnaebele so roused the enthusiasm of the public, that M.Gc v --
was not sorry to resign in May 1887 in order to get rid of his 1*
popular colleague.
ItSTtMtV)
FRANCE
879
To form the twelfth of his ministries, Grevy caned upon M.
Lova vier, an Opportunist from Marseilles, who had first held office
in GambetU'f short-lived cabinet General Boulanger
"was sent to command a c&rps d'ormte at Clermont-
Ferrand; bnt the popular press and the people
lainoured lor the hero who was said to have terrorised Prince
iisroarck, and they encouraged him to play the part of a
plebiscitary candidate. There were grave reasons for public dis-
»ntenL Parliament in 1887 was more than usually sterile in
e^islation, and in the autumn session it had to at tend to a scandal
which had long been rumoured. The son-in-law of Grcvy,
Oandel Wilson, a prominent deputy who had been an under
secretary of state, was accused of trafficking the decoration of the
L^jgion of Honour, and of using the Elysee, the president's official
residence, where he lived, as an agency for his corrupt practices.
The evidence against him was so clear that his colleagues in the
Chamber put the government into a minority in order to pre-
cipitate a presidential crisis, and on Grevy refusing to accept this
hint, a long array of politicians, representing all the republican
groups, declined his invitation to aid him in forming a new
ministry, all being bent on forcing his resignation. Had General
^Boulanger been a man of resolute courage he might at this crisis
have made a coup d'ttol, for his popularity in the street and in the
army increased as the Republic sank deeper into scandal and
anarchy. At last, when Paris was on the brink of revolution,
Grcvy was prevailed on to resign. The candidates for bis succes-
sion to the presidency were two ex-prime ministers, MM. Ferry
and de Freycinet, and Floquet, a barrister, who bad been con-
spicuous in the National Assembly for hissympathy with the Com-
mune. The Monarchists had no candidate ready, and resolved
to vote for Ferry, because they believed that if he were elected
- his unpopularity with the democracy would cause an insurrection
- in Paris and the downfall of the Republic. MM. de Freycinet
and Floquet each looked for the support of the Radicals, and each
- had made a secret compact, in the event of his election, to restore
- General Boulanger to the war office. But M.Clemcnceau, fearing
the election of Jules Ferry, advised his followers to vote for an
. *• outsider/' and after some manoeuvring the congress elected by a
large majority Sadi Camot.
The new president, though the nominee of chance, was an
. excellent choice. Thegrandsonof LuareCarnot, the "organiser
of victory " of the Convention, he was also a man of
unsullied probity. The tradition of his family name,
, 0/ tb« only less glorious than that of Bonaparte in the annals
'■" aSr* * °* ^ c Jtaroiut* 00 * wa * welcome to France, almost
■ : * ready to throw herself into the arms of a soidier o|
fortune, while his blameless repute reconciled some of those
". whose opposition to the Republic had been quickened by the
• mean vices of Grevy. But the name and character of. Carnot
- would have been powerless to check the Boulangist movement
! without the incompetency of its leader, who was getting the
.' democracy at his back without knowing how to utilize it. . The
new president's first prime minister was M. Tirard, a senator who
\ had held office in six of Grevy's ministries, and he formed s
cabinet of politicians as colourless as himself. The early months
; of 1888 were occupied with the trial of Wilson, who was sentenced
". to two years' imprisonment for fraud, and with the conflicts
, of the government with General Boulanger, who was deprived
'. of his command for coming to Paris without leave. Wilson
\\ appealed against his sentence, and General Boulanger was
' elected deputy for the department of the Aisne by an enormous
/ majority. It so happened that the day after his election a
I. presidential decree was signed on the advice of the minister of
'• war removing General Boulanger from the army, and the court
of appeal quashed Wilson's conviction. Public feeling was
'. profoundly moved by the coincidence of the release of the
"', relative of the ex-president by the judges of the Republic on
the same day that its ministers expelled from the army the
~. popular hero of universal suffrage.
"\ As General Boulanger had been invented by the Radicals
' [ It was thought that a Radical cabinet might be a remedy to
' cope with him, so M. Floquet became president of the council
in April 1888, M. de Ffeytfoet taking the portfolio of war,
which he retained through many ministries. M. Floquet 'a chief
achievement was a duel with General Boulanger, Boataagbm.
in which, though an elderly civilian, he wounded him.
Nothing, however, checked the popularity of the military politi-
cian, and though he was a failure as a speaker in the Chamber,
several departments returned him as their deputy by great
majorities. The Bonapartjsts had joined him, and while in hi*:
manifestos he described himself as the defender of the Republic,
themassof the Monarchists, with the consent of the comte dcParis,
entered the Boulangist camp, to the dismay both of old-fashioned
Royalists and of many Orkanlsts, who resented his recent
treatment of the due d'Auxnale. The centenary of the taking
of the Bastille was to be celebrated in Paris by an international
exhibition, and it appeared likely that it would be inaugurated
by General Boulanger, so irresistible seemed his popularity.
In January 2889 he was elected member for the metropolitan
department of the Seine with a quarter of a million votes, and
by a majority of eighty thousand over the candidate of the
government. Had he marched on the Elysee the night of his
election, nothing could have saved the parliamentary Republic;
but again he let his chance go by. The government in alarm
proposed the restoration of scrutin d'cmmdissemetU as the
electoral system for scrutin de list*. The change was rapidly
enacted by the two Chambers, and was a significant commentary
on the respective advantages of the two systems. M. Tirard was
again called to form a ministry, and he selected as minister of
the interior M. Con&tans, originally a professor at Toulouse, who
bad already proved himself a skilful manipulator of elections when
he held the same office in 1881. He was therefore given the
supervision of the machinery of centralization with which it
was supposed that General Boulanger would have to be fought
at the general election. That incomplete hero, how- Boiilaamt0t
ever, saved all further trouble by flying the country SJSt
when be heard that his arrest was imminent. The
government, in-order to prevent any plebiscitary manifestation
in his favour, passed a law forbidding a candidate to present
himself for a parliamentary election in more than one con-
stituency; it also arraigned the general on the charge of treason
before the Senate sitting as a high court, and he was sentenced
in his absence to perpetual imprisonment. Such measures
were needless. The flight of General Boulanger was the death
of BouUngism. He alone had saved the Republic which had
done nothing to save itself. Its government had, on the contrary,
displayed throughout the crisis an anarchic feebleness and
mcobereacy which would have speeded its end; had the leader
of the plebiscitary movement possessed sagacity or even common
courage.
The elections of 1689 showed how completely the reactionaries
had compromised their cause in the Boulangist failure. Instead
of 45% of the votes polled as in 1885, they obtained only ex%,
and thecomtede Paris, the pretender of constitutional monarchy,
was irretrievably prejudiced by hi* alliance with the military
adventurer who had outraged the princes of his house. A
period of calm succeeded the storm of Boulangism,andforthe
first time under the Third Republic parliament set to work to
produce legislation useful for the state, without rousing party
passion, as in its other period of activity when the Ferry educa-
tion laws were passed. Before the elections of 1880 the reform
of the army was undertaken, the general term of active com-
pulsory service was made three years, while certain classes
hitherto dispensed from serving, including ecclesiastical semin-
arists and lay professors, had henceforth to undergo a year's
military training. The new parliament turned its attention to
social and labour questions, as the only clouds on the political
horizon were the serious strikes in the manufacturing districts,
whkh displayed the growing political organisation of the socialist
party. Otherwise nothing disturbed the calm of the country.
The young due d'Orlcans vainly tried to ruffle it by breaking
his exile in order to claim his crtuen's right to perform his
military service. The cabinet was rearranged in March 1800, M.
de Freycinet becoming prime minister for the fourth time, and
886
FRANCE
fHISIUM
retaining the portfoflb of war. AS seemed to point to the con-
solidation of the Republic, and even the Church made signals
of reconciliation. Cardinal Lavigcrie, a patriotic missionary
and statesman, entertained the officers of the fleet at Algiers,
and proposed the toast of the Republic to the tune of the
" Marseillaise " played by his pens Uancs. The royalist Catholics
protested, but it was soon intimated that the archbishop of
Algiers' demonstration was approved at Rome. The year 1891
was one of the few in the annals of the Republic which passed
without a change of ministry, but the agitations of 189s were to
counterbalance the repose of the two preceding years.
The first crisis arose out of the peacemaking policy of the
Pope. Following up his intimation to the archbishop of Algiers,
Leo XIII. published in February 1892 an encyclical,
f^ SS f bidding French Catholics accept the Republic as the
ISfuT*^ firmly established form of government. The papal
injunction produced a new political group called the
" Rallies," the majority of its members being Monarchists who
rallied to the Republic in obedience to the Vatican, The most
conspicuous among them was Comte Albert de Mun, an eloquent
exponent in the Chamber of legitimism and Christian socialism.
The extreme Left mistrusted the adhesion of the new converts to
the Republic, and ecclesiastical questions were the constant
subjects of acrimonious debates in parliament. In the course
of one of them M. de Freydnet found himself in a minority. He
ceased to be prime minister, being succeeded by M. Loubet, a
lawyer from Montelimar, who had previously held office for
three months in the first Urard cabinet; but M. de Freydnet
continued .to hold his portfolio of war. The confusion of the
republican groups kept pace with the disarray of the reactionaries,
and outside parliament the frequency of anarchist outrages did
not increase public confidence. The only figure in the Republic
which grew in prestige was that of M. Carnot, who in his frequent
presidential tours dignified hie office, though his modesty made
him unduly efface his own personality.
When the autumn session of 1802 began all other questions
were overwhelmed by the bursting of the Panama scandal.
The company assodated for the piercing of the Isthmus
of Panama, undertaken by M. de Lesseps, the maker
of the Suez Canal, bad become insolvent some years
before. Fifty millions sterling subscribed by the
thrift of France had disappeared, but the rumours involving
political personages in the disaster were so confidently asserted
to be. reactionary libels, that a minister of the Republic, after-
wards sent to penal servitude for corruption, obtained damages
for the publication of one of them. It was known that M. de
Lesseps was to be tried for misappropriating the money sub-
scribed; but considering the vast sums lost by the public, little
Interest was taken in the matter till k was suddenly stirred by
the dramatic suidde of a well-known Jewish financier closely
connected with republican politicians, driven to death, it was
said, by menaces of blackmail. Then succeeded a period of
terror in political circles. Every one who had a grudge against
an enemy found vent for it in the press, and the people of Paris
lived in an atmosphere of delation. Unhappily it was true
that ministers and members of parliament had been subsidized
by the Panama company. Floquet, the president of the Chamber,
avowed that when prime minister he had laid hands on £12,000
of the company's funds for party purposes, and his justification
of the act threw a light on the code of public morality of the
parliamentary Republic. Other politicians were more seriously
implicated on the charge of having accepted subsidies for their
private purposes, and emotion reached its height when the cabinet
ordered the prosecution of two of its members for corrupt traffic
of their offices. These two ministers were afterwards discharged,
and they seem to have been accused with recklessness; but their
prosecution by their own colleagues proved that the statesmen
of the* Republic believed that their high political circles were
sapped with corruption. Finally, only twelve senators and
deputies were, committed for trial, and the only one convicted
was a minister of M. de Freycinet's third cabinet, who pleaded
guilty to receiving large bribes from the Panama company. The
public regarded the convicted pofirJdan as a scapegoat, befir^
that there were numerous delinquents in parliament, more gw|
than he, who had not even been prosecuted. This feeling *-
aggravated by the sentence passed, but afterwards remitted, 1
the aged M. de Lesseps, who had involved French peopk .
misfortune only because he too sanguinely desired to repeat iu
triumph he had achieved for France by bis great work in Eiyc;
Within the nation the moral result of the Panama affair rj
a general feeling that politics had become under the KtpJL :
a profession unworthy of honest dtixens. The sentiment eveid
by the scandal was one of sceptical lassitude rather thaa -i
indignation. The reactionaries had crowned their reconi .•
political incompetence. At a crisis which gave legitimate opper«
tunity to a respectable and patriotic Opposition they shot::
that the country had nothing to expect from them but incober*
and exaggerated invective. If the scandal had come to E?L:,
in the time of General Boulanger the parliamentary Reps.
would not have survived it . As it was, the sordid story did le-
mons than produce several changes of ministry. M. Lonte
resigned the premiership in December 1892 to M. Ribot, a forae.
functionary of the Empire, whose ministry lived for three store-
weeks. On the first day of 1893 M. Ribot formed his seccci
cabinet, which survived till the end of March, when he was sk
ceeded by his minister of education, M. Charles Dupuy, &a a-
professor who had never held office till four months previously
M. Dupuy, having taken the portfolio of the interior, supervi^
the general election of 1803, which took place amid the profoa*
indifference of the population, except in certain localities when
personal antagonisms exdted violence. An intelligent Oppos
tion would have roused the country at the polls against the refuse
compromised by the Panama affair. Nothing of the sort occurred
and the electorate preferred the doubtful probity of their re-
publican representatives to the certain incompetence of the
reactionaries. The adversaries of the Republic polled only 16 ■,
of the votes recorded, and the chief feature of the election wu
the increased return of socialist and radical-sodaljst deputies.
When parliament met it turned out the Dupuy ministry, asd
M. Casimir-Perier quitted the presidency of the Chamber to
take his place. The new prime minister was the bearer of as
eminent name, being the grandson of the statesman of 1831,
and the great-grandson of the owner of Vizille, where the estsles
of Dauphine met in 1788, as a prelude to the assembling of lb:
states-general the next year. His acceptance of office aroustd
additional interest because he was a minister possessed of in-
dependent wealth, and therefore a rare example of a French
politician free from the imputation of making a living out «
politics. Neither his repute nor his qualities gave long life to hit
ministry, which fell in four months, and M. Dupuy was sent for
again to form a cabinet in May 1804.
Before the second Dupuy ministry had been in office a mosth
President Carnot died by the knife of an anarchist at Lyons.
He was perhaps the most estimable politician of the AamMmm ^. w .
Third Republic. Although the standard of political uom of
life was not elevated under his presidency, he at all pmcMrat
events set a good personal example, and to have filled c * rw *"
unscathed the most conspicuous position in the land during a
period unprecedented for the scurrility of h'bcis on public men
was a testimony to his blameless character. As the term of his
septennate was near, parliament was not unprepared for a presi-
dential election, and M. Casimir-Perier, who had been spokes
of as bis possible successor, was elected by the Congress rnfmir
which met at Versailles on the 27th of June 1894, three Pwier
days after Carnot's assassination. The election of *******
one who bore respectably a name not less distinguished ***** *
in history than that of Carnot seemed to ensure that the Republic
would reach the end of the century under the headship of a
president of exceptional prestige. But instead of remaining chief
of the state for seven years, in less than seven months M. Casimir-
Perier astonished France and Europe by his resignation. Scurril-
ously defamed by the socialist press, the new president found
that the Republicans in the Chamber were not disposed to defend
him in his high office; so, on the 15th of January 1895, he seised
K1ST0RY1 PRANCE
tKe occasion of the retirement of the Dupuy ministry to address
a. message to the two houses intimating his resignation of the
presidency, which, he said, was endowed with too many responsi-
bilities and not sufficient powers.
This time the Chambers were unprepared for a presidential
-vacancy, and to fill it in forty-eight hours was necessarily a
matter of haphazard. The choice of the congress fell
on Felix Faure, a merchant of Havre, who, though
minister of marine in the retiring cabinet, wa9 one of
the least-known politicians who had held office. The
selection was a good one, and introduced to the presidency a
type of politician unfortunately rare under the Third Republic—
a successful man of business. Felix Faure had a fine presence
and polished manners, and having risen from a humble origin
he displayed in his person the fact that civilisation descends
to a lower social level in France than elsewhere. Although he
•was in a sense a man of the people the Radicals and Socialists
in the Chambers had voted against him. Their candidate, like
almost all democratic leaders in France, had never worked with
bis hands— M. Brisson, the son of an attorney at Bourges, a
member of the Parisian bar, and perpetual candidate fox the
■presidency. Nevertheless the Left tried to take possession of
President Faure. His first ministry, composed of moderate
republicans and presided over by M. Ribot, Jasted until the
autumn session of 1805, when it was turned out and a radical
Cabinet was formed by M. Leon Bourgeois, an ex-functionary,
*rbo when a prefect had been suspected of reactionary tendencies.
The Bourgeois cabinet of 1895 was remarkable as the first
ministry formed since 1877 which did not contain a single
member of the outgoing cabinet. It was said to be exclusively
radical in its composition, and thus to indicate that the days of
" republican concentration " were over, and that the Republic,
being firmly established, an era of party government on the
Knglish model had arrived. The new ministry, however, on
analysis did not differ in character from any of its predecessors.
Seven of its members were old office-holders of the ordinary
" rninistrable " type. The most conspicuous was M. Cavaignac,
the son of the general who had opposed Louis Bonaparte in 1848,
and the grandson of J. B. Cavaignac, the regicide member of the
Convention. Like Carnot and Casimir-Pener, he was, therefore,
one of those rare politicians of the Republic who possessed some
hereditary tradition. An ambitious man, he was now classed
as a Radical-on the strength of his advocacy of the income-tax,
the principle of which has never been popular in France, as being
adverse to the secretive habits of thrift cultivated by the people,
which are a great source of the national wealth. . The radicalism
of the rest of the ministry was not more alarming in character,
and its tenure of office was without legislative result. Its fall, how-
ever, occasioned the only constitutionally interesting ministerial
crisis of the twenty-four which had taken place since Grevy's
election to the presidency sixteen years before. The Senate,
disliking the fiscal policy of the government, refused to vote
supply in spite of the support which the Chamber gave to the
ministry. The collision between the two houses did not produce
the revolutionary rising which the Radicals predicted, and the
Senate actually forced the Bourgeois cabinet to resign amid
profound popular indifference.
The new prime minister was M. Meline, who began his long
political career as a member of the Commune in 1871, but was so
little compromised in the insurrection that Jules Simon gave
him an under-secretaryship in his ministry of 1876. After that
he was once a cabinet minister, and was for a year president of
the Chamber. He was chiefly known as a protectionist; but it
was as leader of the Progressists, as the Opportunists now called
themselves, that he formed his cabinet in April 1896, which was
announced as a moderate ministry opposed to the policy of the
Radicals. It is true that it made no attempt to tax incomes, but
Otherwise its achievements did not differ from those of other
ministries, radical or concentration, except in its long survival.
It lasted for over two years, and lived as long as the second
Ferry cabinet. Its existence was prolonged by certain incidents
of the Franco-Russian alliance. The visit of the Tsar to Paris
X. 15
881
in October 1896, befog the first official visit paid by a Euro-
pean sovereign to the Republic, helped the government over the
critical period at which ministries usually succumbed,
and it was further strengthened in parliament by the £ ^j^
invitation to the president of the Republic to return gfffair*
the imperial visit at St Petersburg in 1897. The
Chamber came to its normal term that autumn; but ft law had
been passed fixing May as the month for general ejections, and
the ministry was allowed to retain office till the dissolution at
Easter 1898.
The long duration of the Meline government was said to be
a further sign of the arrival of an era of party government with
its essential accompaniment, ministerial stability. But in the
country there was no corresponding sign that the electorate
was being organized into two parties of Progressists and Radicals;
while in the Chamber it was ominously observed that persistent
opposition to the moderate ministry came from nominal sup-
porters of its views, who were dismayed at one small band of
fellow-politicians monopolizing office for two years. The last
election of the century was therefore fought on a confused issue,
the most tangible results being the further reduction of the
Monarchists, who secured only xa% of the total poll, and the
advance of the Socialists, who obtained nearly ao% of the votes
recorded. The Radicals returned were less numerous than the
Moderates, but with the aid of the Socialists they nearly balanced
them. A new group entitled Nationalist made its appearance,
supported by a miscellaneous electorate representing the mal-
content element in the nation of all political shades from mon-
archist to revolutionary socialist. The Chamber, so composed,
was as incoherent as either of its predecessors. It refused to re-
elect the radical leader M. Brisson as its president, and then
refused its confidence to the moderate leader M. Meline. M.
Brisson, the rejected of the Chamber, was sent for to form a
ministry, on the 28th of June 1808. which survived till the adjourn-
ment, only to be turned out when the autumn session began. M .
Charles Dupuy thus became prime minister for the third time with
a cabinet of the old concentration pattern, and for the third
time in less than five years under his premiership the Presidency
of the Republic became vacant. Felix Faure had increased in
pomposity rather than in popularity. His contact with European
sovereigns seems to have made him over-conscious of jy**
his superior rank, and he cultivated habits, which tfutiat
austere republicans make believe to be the mono- £**!**'
poly of frivolous courts. The regular domesticity Faw *
of middle-class life may not be disturbed with impunity when
age is advancing, and Felix Faure died with tragic unexpected-
ness on the i6tH of February 1899. The joys of his high office
were so dear to him that nothing but death would have induced
him to lay it down before the term of his septennate. There was
therefore no candidate in waiting for the vacancy; and as Paris
was in an agitated mood the majority in the Congress elected
M. Loubet president of the Republic, because he happened to hold
the second place of dignity in the state, the presidency
of the Senate, and was, moreover, a politician who had p^ m £ m
the confidence of the republican groups as an. adversary
of plebiscitary pretensions. His only competitor was M. Meline,
whose ambitions were not realized, in spite of the alliance of his
Progressist supporters with the Monarchists and Nationalists.
The Dupuy ministry lasted till June 1899, when a new cabinet
was formed by M. Waldeck-Rousseau, who, having held office
under Gambetta and Jules Ferry, had relinquished politics for
the bar, of which he had become a distinguished leader. Though
a moderate republican, he was the first prime minister to give
portfolios to socialist politicians. This was the distinguishing
feature of the last cabinet of the century— the thirty-seventh
which had taken office in the twenty-six years which had elapsed
since the resignation of Thiers in 1873.
It is now necessary to go back a few years in order to refer
to a matter which, though not political in its origin, in its de-
velopment filled the whole political atmosphere of France in the
closing period of the 19th century. Soon after the failure of the
Boulangist movement a journal was founded at Paris called the
88a
FRANCE
(HISTORY
Libre Parole. Its editor, M. Dnimont, was known as the author
of La Front* juire, a violent anti-Semitic work, written to de-
nounce the influence exercised by Jewish financiers in
the politics of the Third Republic It may be said to
, have started the anti-Semitic movement in France,
* where hostility to the Jews had not the pretext
existing In those lands which contain a large Jewish population
exercising local rivalry with the natives of the soil, or spoiling
them with usury. That state of things existed in Algeria, where
the indigenous Jews were made French citizens during the
Franco-Prussian War to secure their support against the Arabs
In rebellion. But political anti-Semitism was introduced into
Algeria only as an offshoot of the movement in continental
France, where the great majority of the Jewish community were
of the same social class as the politicians of the Republic.
Primarily directed against the Jewish financiers, the movement
was originally looked upon as a branch of the anti-capitalist
propaganda of the Socialists. Thus the Libre Parole joined with
the revolutionary press in attacking the repressive legislation
provoked by the dynamite outrages of the anarchists, clerical
reactionaries who supported it being as scurrflously abused by
the anti-Semitic organ as its republican authors. The Panama
affair, in the exposure of which the Libre Parole took a prominent
part soon after its foundation, was also a bond between anti-
Semites and Socialists, to whom, however, the Monarchists,
always incapable of acting alone, united their forces. The
implication of certain Jewish financiers with republican politicians
in the Panama scandal aided the anti-Semites in their special
propaganda, of which a main thesis was that the government of
the Third Republic had been organized by its venal politicians for
the benefit of Jewish immigrants from Germany, who had thus
enriched themselves at the expense of the laborious and un-
suspecting French population. The Libre Parote t which had
become a popular organ with reactionaries and with malcontents
of all classes, enlisted the support of the Catholics by attributing
the anti-religious policy of the Republic to the influence of the
Jews, skilfully reviving bitter memories of the enaction of the
Ferry decrees, when sometimes the laidzation of schools or the
expulsion of monks and nuns had been carried out by a Jewish
functionary. Thus religious sentiment and race prejudice were
introduced into a movement which was at first directed against
capital; and the .campaign was conducted with the weapons of
scurrility and defamation which had made an unlicensed press
under the Third Republic a demoralizing national evil.
An adroit feature of the anti-Semitic campaign was an appeal
to national patriotism to rid the army of Jewish influence. The
Coa+m- J cws * Jt was **"*» not contenl w * tn directing the
BMttoao/ financial, and thereby the general policy of the Re-
CamtMim public, had designs on the French army, in which they
ftnv * 1 * wished to act as secret agents of their German
kindred. In October 1894 the Libre Parole announced that a
Jewish officer of artillery attached to the general staff, Captain
Alfred Dreyfus, had been arrested on the charge of supplying
a government of the Triple Alliance with French military secrets.
Tried by court-martial, he was sentenced to military degradation
and to detention for life in a fortress. He was publicly degraded
at Paris in January 1805, a few days before Casimir-Pencr
resigned the presidency of the Republic, and was transported
to the tie du Diable on the coast of French Guiana. His con-
viction, on the charge of having betrayed to a foreign power
documents relating to the national defence, was based on* the
alleged identity of his handwriting with that of an intercepted
covering-letter, which contained a list of the papers treason-
ably communicated. The possibility of his innocence was not
raised outside the circle of his friends; the Socialists, who sub-
sequently defended him, even complained that common soldiers
were shot for offences less than that for which this richly con-
nected officer had been only transported. The secrecy of his
trial did not shock public sentiment in France, where at that time
all civilians charged with crime were interrogated by a judge in
private, and where all accused persons are presumed guilty
until proved innocent. In a land subject to invasion there was
less disposition to criticize the decision of a military tribunal
acting in the defence of the nation even than there would have
been in the case of a doubtful judgment passed m a civil court.
The country was practically unanimous that Captain Dreyfus
had got his deserts. A few, indeed, suggested that had he net
been a Jew he would never have been accused; but the greater
number replied that an ordinary French traitor of Gentile birth
would have been forgotten from the moment of his condemnation.
The pertinacity with which some of his co-religionists set to
work to show that he had been irregularly condemned seemed to
justify the latter proposition. But it was not a Jew who brought
about the revival of the affair. Colonel Picquart, an officer of
great promise, became head of the intelligence department at the
war office, and in 1806 informed the minister of his suspkioa
that the letter on which Dreyfus had been condemned ▼*$
written by a certain Major Esterhazy. The military authorities
not wishing to have the case reopened, sent Colonel Picquart
oa&reign service, and put in his place Colonel Henry. The ill-
seeing press published various versions of the incident, and the
anti-Semitic journals denounced them as proofs of a Jewish
conspiracy against the French army.
At the end of 1897 M. Scbeurer-Kestner, an Alsatian devoted
to France and a republican senator, tried to persuade his political
friends to reopen the case; but M. Meline, the prime j, fcB
minister, declared in the name of the Republic that the m4* mmt
Dreyfus affair no longer existed. The fact that the mm*±Dnr
senator who championed Dreyfus was a Protestant *— - UJL -
encouraged the clerical press in its already marked tendency to
utilise anti-Semitism as a weapon of ecclesiastical warfare.
But the religious side-issues of the question would have had
little importance had not the army been involved in the con-
troversy, which had become so keen that all the population,
outside that large section of it indifferent to all public questions,
was divided into " Dreyfusards M and " anti-Dreyfusards."
The strong position of the latter was due to their assuming the
position of defenders of the army, which, at an epoch when
neither the legislature nor the government inspired respect, and
the Church was the object of polemic, was the only institution in
France to unite the nation by appealing to its martial and
patriotic instincts. That is the explanation of the enthusiasm
of the public for generals and other officers by whom the trial
of Dreyfus and subsequent, proceedings had been conducted in a
manner repugnant to those who do not favour the arbitrary ways
of military dictatorship, which, however, are not unpopular
in France. The acquittal of Major Esterhazy by a court-mart ial .
the conviction otZola by a civil tribunal for a violent criticism
of the military authorities, and the imprisonment without trial
of Colonel Picquart for his efforts to exonerate Dreyfus, were
practically approved by the nation. This was shown by the
result of the general elections in May 1 898. The clerical reaction-
aries were almost swept out of the Chamber, but the overwhelm-
ing republican majority was practically united in its hostility to
the defenders of Dreyfus, whose only outspoken representatives
were found in the socialist groups. The moderate Meline
ministry was succeeded in June 1808 by the radical Brisson
ministry. But while the new prime minister was said to be
personally disposed to revise the sentence on Dreyfus, his tivOun
minister of war, M. Cavaignac, was as hostile to revision as any
of his military predecessors— General Merrier, under whom the
trial took place, General Zurlindcn, and General Billot, a re-
publican soldier devoted to the parliamentary regime.
The radical minister of war in July 1898 laid before the
Chamber certain new proofs of the guilt of Dreyfus, in a speech
so convincing that the house ordered it to be placarded |y>-
!n all the communes of France. The next month flW ff, M r
Colonel Henry, the chief of the intelligence department, * T*»
confessed to having forged those new proofs, and then *s*««te»
committed suicide. M. Cavaignac thereupon resigned office,
but declared that the crime of Henry did not prove the innocence
of Dreyfus. Many, however, who had hitherto accepted the
judgment of 1894, reflected that the offence of a guilty man d> 1
not need new crime for its proof. It was further remarked that
HISTORY)
FRANCE
««3
lY%c forgery had been committed by tbe intimate colleague of
the officers of the general staff, who bad zealously protected
IS&tcrhaxy, the suspected author of the document on which
X>r«yfus had been convicted. An" uneasy misgiving became
-«ri<lespread; but partisan spirit was too excited for it to cause
at general revulsion of feeling. Some journalists and politicians
of the extreme Left had adopted the defence of Dreyfus as an
armti-clerical movement in response to the intemperate partisaxt-
sh ip of the Catholic press on the other side. Other members of
tlic socialist groups, not content with criticizing the conduct of
tJktc military authorities in the Dreyfus affair, opened a general
axtack on the French army,— an unpopular policy which allowed
tbe anti-Dreyfusards to utilize the old revolutionary device of
making the word " patriotism " a party cry. The defamation
and rancour with which the press on both sides flooded the land
ol>scured the point at issue. However, the Brisson ministry
just before its fall remitted the Dreyfus judgment to the criminal
division of the cour de cassation — the supreme court of revision
in France. M-Dupuy formed a new cabinet in November 1898,
and made M. de Freycinet minister of war, but that adroit
office-holder, though a civilian and a Protestant, did not favour
tixe anti-military and anti-clerical defenders of Dreyfus. The
refusal of the Senate, the stronghold of the Republic, to re-elect
M. Scbeorer-Kestncr as its vice-president, showed that the
opportunist minister of war understood the feeling of parliament ,
which was soon displayed by an extraordinary proceeding.
Trie divisional judges, to whom the case was remitted, showed
signs that their decision would be in favour of a- new trial of
Dreyfus. Tbe republican legislature, therefore, disregarding
t_he principle of the separation of the powers, which is the basis
of constitutional government, took the arbitrary step of interfer-
ing with the judicial authority. It actually passed a law with-
drawing the partly-heard cause from the criminal chamber of the
cour de cassation, and transferring it to the full court of three
divisions, in the hope that a majority of judges would thus be
found to decide against the revision of the sentence on Dreyfus.
This flagrant confusion of the legislative with the judicial
power displayed once more the incompetence of the French
rightly to use parliamentary institutions; but it left the nation
indifferent. It was during the passage of the bill that the
president of the Republic suddenly died. Felix Faure was said
to be hostile to the defenders of Dreyfus and disposed to utilize
tbe popular enthusiasm for the army as a means of making the
presidential office independent of parliament. The Chambers,
therefore, in spite of their anti-Dreyf usard bias, were determined
not to relinquish any of their constitutional prerogative. The
military and plebiscitary parties were now fomenting the public
discontent by noisy demonstrations. The president of the Senate,
M. Loubet, as has been mentioned, was known to have no
sympathy with this agitation, so he was elected president of
the Republic by a large majority at tbe congress held at Versailles
on x8th February x8oa. The new president, who was unknown
to tbe public, though he had once been prime minister for nine
months, was respected in political circles; but bis elevation to
the first office of the State made him the object of that defama-
tion which had become the chief characteristic of the partisan
press under the Third Republic He was recklessly accused of
having been an accomplice of tbe Panama frauds, by screening
certain guilty politicians when he was prime minister in i8o»,
and because he was not opposed Co the revision of the Dreyfus
sentence he was wantonly charged with being bought with
Jewish money. Meanwhile the united- divisions of the cour de
cassation were, in spite of the intimidation of the legislature,
reviewing the case with an independence worthy of praise in an
ill-paid magistracy which owed its promotion to political influence.
Instead of justifying the suggestive interference of parliament
it revised the judgment of the court-martial, and ordered Dreyfus
to be re-tried by a military tribunal at Rcnncs. The Dupuy
ministry, which had wished to prevent this decision, resigned,
and M. Waldeck-Rousseau formed a heterogeneous cabinet in
which Socialists, who for the first time took office, had for their
colleague as minister of war General de Calliffet, whose chief
political fane had been won as the executioner of the Commu-
nards after tbe insurrection of 1871. Dreyfus was brought back
from the Devil's Island, and in August 1809 was put _^-
upon his trial a second time. His old accusers, led 2£7af
by General Merrier, the minister of war of 1894, DnytuM,
redoubled their efforts to prove his guilt, and were
permitted by the officers composing the court a wide license
according to English ideas of criminal jurisprudence. The
published evidence did not, however, seem to connect Dreyfus
with the charges brought against him. Nevertheless the court,
by a majority of five to two, found him guilty, and with illogical
inconsequence added that there were in his treason extenuating
circumstances. He was sentenced to ten years' detention, and
while it was being discussed whether the term he had already
served would count as part of his penalty, the ministry completed
the inconsequency of the situation by advising the president of
the Republic to pardon the prisoner. The result of the second
trial satisfied neither the partisans of the accused, who desired
his rehabilitation, some 6f them reproaching him for accepting
a pardon, nor his adversaries, whose vindictiveness was unsated
by the penalty he had already suffered. But the great mass of
the French people, who are always ready to treat a public
question with indifference, were glad to be rid of a controversy
which had for years infected the national life.
The Dreyfus affair was severely judged by foreign critics as
a miscarriage of justice resulting from race-prejudice. If that
simple appreciation rightly describes its origin, it Aa/
became in its development one of those scandals character
symptomatic of the unhealthy political condition of g /f *f
France, which on a smaller scale had often recurred ?22L.
under the Third Republic, and which were made the "^
pretext by the malcontents of all parties for gratifying their
animosities. That in its later stages it was not a question of
race-persecution was seen in the curious phenomenon of journals
owned or edited by Jews leading the outcry against the Jewish
officer and his defenders. That it was not a mere episode of the
rivalry between Republicans and Monarchists, or between the
advocates of parliamentarism and of military autocracy, was
evident from the fact that the most formidable opponents of
Dreyfus, without whose hostility that of the clericals and
reactionaries would have been ineffective, were republican
politicians. That it was not a phase of the anti-capitalist
movement was shown by the zealous adherence of the socialist
leaders and journalists to the cause of Dreyfus;' indeed, one
remarkable result of the affair was its diversion of the socialist
party and press for several years from their normal campaign
against property. The Dreyfus affair was utilized by the reac-
tionaries against the Republic, by the clericals against the non-
Catholics, by the anti-clericals against the Church, by the military
party against the parliamentarians, and by the revolutionary
socialists against the army. It was also conspicuously utilized
by rival republican politicians against one another, and the chaos
of political groups was further confused by it.
An epilogue to the Dreyfus affair was the trial for treason before
the Senate, at the end of 1809, of a number of persons, mostly
obscure followers cither of M. Derouledc the poet, ThmStMim
who advocated a plebiscitary republic, or of the due IStog
d'Orleans, theprctendcrof theconstitutional monarchy. K99.
On the day of President Faurt's funeral M. Deroutede
had vainly tried to entice General Rogct, a zealous adversary
of Dreyfus, who was on duty with his troops, to march on the
Elysee in order to evict the newly-elected president of the
Republic Other demonstrations against M. Loubet ensued,
the most offensive being a concerted assault upon him on the
racecourse at Autcuil in June 1800. The subsequent resistance
to the police of a band of anti-Semites threatened with arrest,
who barricaded themselves in a house in the rue Chabrol, in the
centre of Paris, and, with the marked approval Of the populace,
sustained a siege for several weeks, indicated thai the capital
was in a condit ion not far removed from anarchy. M. Derouledo,
indicted at the assizes of the Seine for his misdemeanour on
the day of President Faure's funeral, had been triumphantly
884
FRANCE
UUSTo&y
19th
tmy.
acquitted. It was evident that no jury would convict citizens
prosecuted for political offences and the government therefore
decided to make use of the article of the Law of 1875, which
allowed the Senate to be constituted a high court for the trial of
offences endangering the state. A respectable minority of the
Senate, including M. Wallon, the venerable " Father of the
Constitution " of 1875, vainly protested that the framers of the
law intended to invest the upper legislative chamber with
judicial power only for the trial of grave crimes of high treason,
and not of petty political disorders which a well-organized
government ought to be able to repress with the ordinary
machinery of police and justice. The outvoted protest was
justified by the proceedings before the High Court, which, un-
dignified and disorderly, displayed both the fatuity of the so-
called conspirators and the feebleness of the government which
had to cope with them. The trial proved that the plebiscitary
faction was destitute of its essential factor, a chief to put forward
for the headship of the state, and that it was resolved, if it over-
turned the parliamentary system, not to accept under any
conditions the due d'Orleans, the only pretender before the
public. It was shown that royalists and plebiscitary republicans
alike had utilized as an organization of disorder the anti-Semitic
propaganda which had won favour among the masses as a
nationalist movement to protect the French from foreign com-
petition. The evidence adduced before the high court revealed,
moreover, the curious fact that certain Jewish royalists had given
to the due d'Orieans large sums of money to found anti-Semitic
journals as the surest means of popularizing his cause.
The last year of the 19th century, though uneventful for
France, was one of political unrest. This, however, did not take
the form of ministerial crises, as, for the fourth time
pagan* sincc responsible cabinets were introduced in 1873,
<*#dM» a whole year, from the zst of January to the 31st of
•to* December, elapsed without a change of ministry.
The prime minister, M. Waldeck-Rousseau, though
his domestic policy exasperated a large section of the
political world, including one half of the Progressive group
which he had helped to found, displayed qualities of statesman-
ship always respected in France, but rarely exhibited under the
Third Republic He had proved himself to be what the French
call un hommc de gowernemenl — that is to say, an authoritative
administrator of unimpassioned temperament capable of govern-
ing with the arbitrary machinery of Napoleonic centralization.
His alliance with the extreme Left and the admission into his
cabinet of socialist deputies, showed that he understood which
wing of the Chamber it was best to conciliate in order to keep the
government in his hands for an abnormal term. The advent to
office of Socialists disquieted the respectable and prosperous
commercial classes, which in France take little part in politics,
though they had small sympathy with the nationalists, who
were the most violent opponents of the Waldeck-Rousseau
ministry. The alarm caused by the handing over of important
departments of the state to socialist politicians arose upon a
danger which is not always understood beyond the borders of
France. Socialism in France is a movement appealing to the
revolutionary instincts of the French democracy, advocated in
vague terms by the members of rival groups or sects. Thus the
increasing number of socialist deputies in parliament had pro*
duced no legislative results, and their presence in the cabinet
was not feared on that account. The fear which their office*
holding inspired was due to the immense administrative patron-
age which the centralized system confides to each member of
the government. French ministers are wont to bestow the places
at their disposal on their political friends, so the prospect of
administrative posts being filled all over the land by revolu-
tionaries caused some uneasiness. Otherwise the presence of
Socialists on the ministerial bench seemed to have no other effect
than that of partially muzzling the socialist groups in the
Chamber. The opposi tion to the government was heterogeneous.
It included the few Monarchists left in the Chamber, the Nation-
alists, who resembled the Boulangists of twelve years before, and
who had added anti-Semitism to the articles of the revisionist
creed, and a number of republicans, chiefly of the old Opportunist
group, which had renewed itself under the name of Progressist
at the time when M. Waldeck-Rousseau was its most important
member in the Senate. *
The ablest leaders of this Opposition were all malcontent
Republicans; and this fact seemed to show that if ever any
form of monarchy were restored in France, political office would
probably remain in the hands of men who were former ministers
of the Third Republic. Thus the most conspicuous opponents
of the cabinet were three ex-prime ministers, MM. M£Hne,
Charles Dupuy and Ribot. Less distinguished republican
" ministrables " had their normal appetite for office whetted
in 1000 by the international exhibition at Paris. It brought the
ministers of the day into unusual prominence, and endowed
them with large subsidies voted by parliament for official
entertainments. The exhibition was planned on too ambitions
a scale to be a financial success. It also called forth the just
regrets of those who deplored the tendency of Parisians under
the Third Republic to turn their once brilliant city Into aa
international casino. Its most satisfactory feature was the
proof it displayed of the industrial inventiveness and the artistic
instinct of the French. The political importance of the exhibition
lay in the fact that it determined the majority in the Chamber
not to permit the foreigners attracted by it to the capital to
witness a ministerial crisis. Few strangers of distinction, how-
ever, came to it, and not one sovereign of the great powers
visited Paris; but the ministry remained in office, and M.
Waldeck-Rousseau had uninterrupted opportunity of showing
his governmental ability. The only change in his cabinet took
place when General de Galliffet resigned the portfolio of war
to General Andre. The army, as represented by its officers,
tad shown symptoms of hostility to the ministry in consequence
of the pardon of Dreyfus. The new minister of war repressed
such demonstrations with proceedings of the same arbitrary
character as those which had called forth criticism in England
when used in the Dreyfus affair. In both cases the high-handed
policy was regarded either with approval or with indifference by
the great majority of the French nation, which ever since the
Revolution has shown that its instincts are in favour of authorita-
tive government. The emphatic support given by the radical
groups to the autocratic policy of M. Waldeck-Rousseau and his
ministers was not surprising to those who have studied the
history of the French democracy. It has always had a taste
for despotism since it first became a political power in the days
of the Jacobins, to whose early protection General Bonaparte
owed bis career. On the other hand liberalism has always been
repugnant to the masses, and the only period in which the
Liberals governed the country was under the regime of limited
suffrage—during Che Restoration and the Monarchy of July.
The most important event in France during the last year of
the century, not from its political result, but from the lessons
it taught, was perhaps the Paris municipal election. The
quadrennial renewal of all the municipal councils of France took
place in May 1000. The municipality of the capital had been
for many years in the hands of the extreme Radicals and the
revolutionary Socialists. The Parisian electors now sent to the
Hotel de Vilie a council in which the majority were Nationalists,
in general sympathy with the anti-Semitic and plebiscitary
movements. The nationalist councillors did not, however, form
one solid party, but were divided into five or six groups, represent-
ing every shade of political discontent, from monarchism to
revisionist-socialism. While the electorate of Paris thus pro-
nounced for the revision of the Constitution, the provincial
elections, as far as they had a political bearing, were favourable
to the ministry and to the Republic M. Waldeck-Rousseau
accepted the challenge of the capital, and dealt with its repre-
sentatives with the arbitrary weapons of centralization which
the Republic had inherited from the Napoleonic settlement of
the Revolution. Municipal autonomy is unknown in France, and
the town council of Paris has to submit to special restrictions on
its liberty of action. The prefect of the Seine is always present
at its meetings as agent of the government and the minister of
HISTORY]
FRANCE
885
madtb*
the interior can veto any Of its resolution*. The Socialists, when
their party ruled the municipality, clamoured la parliament for
the removal of this administrative control. But now
being in a minority they supported the government
in its anti-autonomic rigours. The majority of the
municipal council authorized its president to invile
to a banquet, in honour of the international exhibition,
the provincial mayors and a number of foreign municipal
magnates, including the lord mayor of London. The ministers
were not invited, and the prefect of the Seine thereupon informed
the president of the municipality that he had no right, without
consulting the agent of the government, to offer a banquet to the
provincial mayors; and they, with the deference which French
officials instinctively show to the central authority, almost all
refused the invitation to the Hotel de Villa The municipal
banquet was therefore abandoned, but the government gave
one in the Tuilcries gardens, at which no f ewer than 22,ooomayors
paid their respects to the chief of the state.. These events showed
that, as in the Terror, as at the coup d'etat of 1851, and as in the
insurrection of the Commune, the French provinces were never
disposed to follow the political lead of the capital, whether
the opinions prevailing there were Jacobin or reactionary.
These incidents displayed the tendency of the French democracy,
in Paris and in the country alike, to submit to and even to en-
courage the arbitrary working of administrative centralisation.
The elected mayors of the provincial communes, urban and
rural, quitted themselves like well-drilled functionaries of the
state, respectful of their hierarchical superiors, just as in the days
when they were the nominees of the government; while the
population of Paris, in spite of its perennial proneness to revolu-
tion, accepted the rebuff inflicted on its chosen representatives
without any hostile demonstration. The municipal elections
in Paris afforded fresh proof of the unchanging political ineptitude
of the reactionaries. The dissatisfaction of the great capital
with the government of the Republic might, in spite of the
reluctance of the provinces to follow the lead of Paris, have had
grave results if skilfully organized. But the anti-republican
groups, instead of putting forward men of high ability or reputa-
tion to take possession of the Hotel de Ville, chose their candidates
among the same inferior class of professional politicians as the
Radicals and the Socialists whom they replaced on the municipal
council
Tie beginning of a century of the common era is a purely
artificial division of time. Yet it has often marked a turning-
point in the history of nations. This was notably the
case in France in 1800. The violent and anarchical
phases of the Revolution of 1789 came to an end with
the 1 8th century; and the dawn of the 19th was
"" wt ' coincident with the administrative reconstruction
of France by Napoleon, on lines which endured with
little modification till the end of that century, surviving seven
revolutions of the executive power. The opening years of the
20th century saw no similar changes in the government of the
country. The Third Republic, which was about to attain an
age double that reached by any other regime since the Revolution,
continued to live on the basis of the Constitution enacted in
1875, before it was five years old. Yet it seems not unlikely that
historians of the future may take the date xooo as a landmark
between two distinct periods in the evolution of the French
nation.
With the dose of the 19th century the Dreyfus affair came
practically to an end. Whatever the political and moral causes
jrnrtu of the agitation which attended it, its practical result
mithm was to strengthen the Radical and Socialist parlies in
JJJJjJ"* the Republic, and to reduce to unprecedentedimpotence
the forces of reaction. This was due more to the
maiadroitness of the Reactionaries than to the virtues or the
prescience of the extreme Left, as the imprisonment of the Jewish
captain, which agitated and divided the nation, could not have
been inflicted without the ardent approval of Republicans of
all shades of opinion. But when the majority at last realized
that a mistake had been committed, the Reactionaries, in great
Pnan
«//*•
measure through their own unwise policy, got the chief credit
for it. Consequently, as the clericals formed the militant section
of the anti-Republican parties, and as the Radical-Socialists
were at that time keener in their hostility to the Church than in
their zeal for social or economic reform, the issue of the Dreyfus
affair brought about an anti-clerical movement, which, though
initiated and organized by a small minority, met with nothing
to resist it in the country, the reactionary forces being effete
and the vast majority of the population indifferent. The main
and absorbing feature therefore of political life in France in the
first years of the aoth century was a campaign against the Roman
Catholic Church, unparalleled in energy since the Revolution.
Its most striking result was the rupture of the Concordat between
France and the Vatican. This act was additionally important
as being the first considerable breach made in the administrative
structure reared by Napoleon, which had hitherto survived all
the vicissitudes of the 19th century. Concurrently with this
the influence of the Socialist party in French policy largely
increased. A primary principle professed by the Socialists
throughout Europe is pacificism, and its dissemination in France
acted m two very different ways. It encouraged in the French
people a growth of anti-military spirit, which showed some sign
of infecting the national army, and it impelled the government
of the Republic to be zealous in cultivating friendly relations
with other powers. The result of the latter phase of pacificism
was that France, under the Radical-Socialist administrations
of the early years of the 20th century, enjoyed a measure of
international prestige of that superficial kind which is expressed
by the state visits of crowned heads to the chief of the executive
power, greater than at any period since the Second Empire.
The voting of the law which separated the Church from the
state will probably mark a capital date in French history; so,
as the ecclesiastical policy of successive ministries
filled almost entirely the interior chronicles of France
for the first five years of the new century, it will be
convenient to set forth in order the events which during that
period led up to the passing of the Separation Act.
The French legislature during the first session of the 20th
century was chiefly occupied with the passing of the Associations
Law. That measure, though it entirely changed the legal
position of all associations in France, was primarily directed
against the religious associations of the Roman Catholic Church.
Their influence in the land, according to the anti-clericals, had
been proved by the Dreyfus affair to be excessive. The Jesuits
were alleged, on their own showing, to exercise considerable
power over the officers of the army, and in this way to have been
largely responsible for the blunders of the Dreyfus case. Another
less celebrated order, which took an active part against Dreyfus,
the Assumptionists, had achieved notoriety by its journalistic
enterprise,. its cheap newspapers of wide circulation being re-
markable for the violence of their attacks pn the institutions
and men of the Republic The mutual antagonism between the
French government and religious congregations is a tradition
which dates from the ancient monarchy and was continued by
Napoleon I. long before the Third Republic adopted it in the
legislation associated with the names of Jules Ferry and Paul
Bert. The prime minister, under whose administration the
20th century succeeded the 19th, was M. Waldeck-Rousseau,
who had been the colleague of Paul Bert in Gambetta's grand
nimsUrt, and in 1883 had served under Jules Ferry in his second
ministry. He had retired from political life, though he remained
a member of the Senate, and was making a large fortune at the
bar, when in June 1899, at pecuniary sacrifice, he consented to
form a ministry for the purpose of " liquidating " the Dreyfus
affair. In 1900, the year after the second condemnation of
Dreyfus and his immediate pardon by the government, M.
Waldeck-Rousseau in a speech at Toulouse announced that
legislation was about to be undertaken on the subject of associa-
tions.
At that period the hostility of the Revolution to the principle
of associations of all kinds, civil as well as religious, was still
enforced by the law. _ With the excep t i o n of certain commercial
886
FRANCE
jmsTti
societies subject to special legislation, no association composed
of more than twenty persons could be formed without govern-
mental authorization which was always revocable, the restriction
applying equally to political and social clubs and to religious
communities. The law was the same for all, but was differently
-applied. Authorization was rarely refused to political or social
societies, though any club was liable to have its authorization
withdrawn and to be shut up or dissolved. But to religious
orders new authorization was practically never granted. Only
four of them, the orders of Saint Lazare, of the Saint Esprit,
of the Missions £trangeres and of Saint Sulpice, were authorized
under the Third Republic— their authorization dating from the
First Empire and the Restoration. The Freres de la Doctrine
Chretienne were also recognized, not, however, as a religious
congregation under the jurisdiction of the minister of public
worship, but as a teaching body under that of the minister of
education. All the great historical orders, preaching, teaching
or contemplative, were " unauthorized "; they led a precarious
life on sufferance, having as corporations no civil existence,
and being subject to dissolution at a moment's notice by the
administrative authority. In spite of this disability and of the
decrees of 1880 directed against unauthorized monastic orders
they had so increased under the anti-clerical Republic, that the
religious of both sexes were more numerous in France at the
beginning of the 20th century than at the end of the ancient
monarchy. Moreover, in the twenty years during which un-
authorized Orders had been supposed to be suppressed, under
the Ferry Decrees, their numbers had become six times more
numerous than before, while it was the authorized Congregations
which had diminished. The bare catalogue of the religious
houses in the land, with the value of their properties (estimated
by M. Waldeck-Rousseau at a milliard— £40,000,000) filled
two White Books of two thousand pages, presented to parlia-
ment on the 4th of December 1000. The hostility to the Con-
gregations was not confined to the anti-clericals. The secular
clergy were suffering materially from the enterprising competition
of their old rivals the regulars. Had the legislation for defining
the legal situation of the religious orders been undertaken with
the sole intention of limiting their excessive growth, such a
measure would have been welcome to the parochial clergy.
But they saw that the attack upon the congregations was only
preliminary to a general attack upon the Church, in spite of the
-sincere assurances of the prime minister, a statesman of con-
servative temperament, that no harm would accrue to the secular
clergy from the passing of the Associations Law.
In January 1001, on the eve of the first debate in the Chamber
of Deputies on the Associations bill, & discussion took place
which showed that the rupture of the Concordat might
be nearing the range of practical politics, though
parliament was as yet unwilling to take it inloconsider-
tion. The archbishop of Paris, Cardinal Richard, had pub-
lished a letter addressed to him by Leo XIII. deploring the
projected legislation as being a breach of the Concordat under
which the free exercise of the Catholic religion in France was
assured. The Socialists argued that this letter was an intolerable
intervention on the part of the Vatican in the domestic politics
of the Republic, and proposed that parliament should after
voting the Associations Law proceed to separate Church and
State. M. Waldeck-Rousseau, the prime minister, calm and
moderate, declined to take this view of the pope's letter, and the
resolution was defeated by a majority of more than two to one.
But another motion, proposed by a Nationalist, that the Chamber
should declare its resolve to maintain the Concordat, was rejected
by a small majority. The discussion of the Associations bill
was then commenced by the Chamber and went on until the
Easter recess. Its main features when finally voted were that
the right to associate for purposes not illicit should be henceforth
free of all restrictions, though " juridical capacity " would be
accorded only to such associations as were formally notified
to the administrative authority. The law did not, however,
accord liberty of association to religious " Congregations,"
none of which could be formed without a special statute, -and
any constituted without such authorization would be dec
illicit. The policy of the measure, as applying to re% -
orders, was attacked by the extreme Right and the enrr
Left from their several standpoints. The clericals prorx*
that under the new law all associations, religious as well asc
should be free. The Socialists proposed that all religkxas cr
munities, authorized or unauthorized, should be suppose
The prime minister took a middle course. But lie went f*r>
than the moderate Republicans, with whom he was gescr.
dassed. While he protected the authorized religious vr&-
against the attacks of the extreme anti-clericals, he acctpt
from the latter a new clause which disqualified any meed*
tof an unauthorized order from teaching in any school. 7L
was a blow at the principle of liberty of instruction, which h:
always been supported by Liberals of the old school, who b
no sympathy with the pretensions of clericalism. ConseqaesL
this provision, though voted by a large majority, was oppa*
by the Liberals of the Republican party, notably by M. RJk
who had been twice prime minister, and M. Aynard, almost li.
sole survivor of the Left Centre. It was remarked that in the?
as in all subsequent debates on ecclesiastical questions, the al&
defenders of the Church were not found among the dmcis.
but among the Liberals, whose primary doctrine was thai *
tolerance, which they believed ought to be applied to the exerts
of the religion nominally professed by a large majority of u.
nation. Few of the ardent professors of that religion p»<
effective aid to the Church during that period of crisis. M. c
Mun still used his eloquence in its defence, but the briOae:
Catholic orator had entered his sixtieth year with health impaiitd.
and among the young reactionary members there was not «e
who displayed any talent. At the other end of the Chamber
M. Viviani, a Socialist member for Paris, made an eJoqusi
speech. As was anticipated the bill received no serious oppos-
tion in the Senate. Though not in sympathy with the attacks
of the Socialists in the Chamber on property, the Upper Hesse
had as a whole no objection to their attacks on the Church, aac
had become a more persistently anti-clerical body than 1st
Chamber of Deputies. The bill was therefore passed withost
any serious amendments, even those which were moved for xht
purpose of affirming the principle of liberty of education boar
supported by very few Republican senators. In the debates
some of the utterances of the prime minister were important.
On the proposal of M. Rambaud, a professor who was xoimstcr
of education in the Meline cabinet of 1806, that religious associa-
tions should be authorized by decree and not by law, M . Waideck-
Rousseau said that inasmuch as vows of poverty and celibacy
were illegal, nothing but a law would suffice to give legafirr
to any association in which such vows were imposed on the
members. It was thus laid down by the responsible author
of the law that the third clause, providing that any assodatioa
founded for an illicit cause was null, applied to religious com-
munities. On the other hand the prime minister in another
speech repudiated the suggestion that the proposed law was
aimed against any form of religion. He argued that the religious
orders, far from being essential to the existence of the Church,
were a hindrance to the work of the parochial clergy, and that
inasmuch as the religious orders were organizations independent
of the State they were by their nature and influence a danger to
the State. Consequently their regulation had become necessary
in the interests both of Church and State. The general suppres-
sion of religious congregations, the prime minister said, was not
contemplated; the case of each one would be decided on its
merits, and he had no doubt that parliament would favourably
consider the authorization of those whose aim was to alleviate
misery at home or to extend French influence abroad. The
tenor of M. Waldeck-Ronsseau's speech was eminently Coo-
cordatory. One of his chief arguments against the religious
orders was that they were not mentioned in the Concordat, and
that their unregulated existence prejudiced the interests of the
Concordatory clergy. The speech was therefore an official
declaration in favour of the maintenance of the relations between
Church and State. That being so, it is Important to notice that
msTORYj • FRANCE
*>y -a majority of neatly two to ohe the Senatevoted the placard-
ins of the prime minister's speech in all the communes of France,
&xi<3 that die mover of the resolution was M. Combes, senator
of the-Charente-lnfeneure t a politician of advanced views who
xag> to that date had held office only once, when he was minister
of education and public worship for about six months, in the
Bourgeois administration in 1895-1896.
The "Law relating to the contract of Association'* was
promulgated on the 2nd of July xoox, and its enactment was the
Tm* Mil onJy Pob'tfc*! event of high importance that year.
The Socialists, except in their anti-clerical capacity,
were more active outside parliament than within. Early in the
year some formidable strikes took place. At Montceau-les-Mines
in Burgundy, where labour demonstrations had often been
-violent, a new feature of a strike was the formation of a trade-
union by the non-strikers, who called their organization " the
yellow trade-union u (fc syndical jaunt) in opposition to the red
trade-union of the 'Strikers, who adopted the revolutionary
flag and were supported by the Socialist press. At the same
time the dock-labourers at Marseilles went out on strike, by the
orders of an international trade-union in that port, as a protest
against the dismissal of a certain number of foreigners. The
number of strikes in France had increased considerably under
the Waldeck-Rousseau government. Its opponents attributed
this to the presence in the cabinet of M. MQlerand, who had been
ranked as a Socialist. On the other hand, the revolutionary
Socialists excommunicated the minister of commerce for having
joined a " bourgeois government " and retired from the general
congress of the Socialist party at Lyons, where MM. Briand and
Viviani, themselves future ministers, persuaded the majority
not to go so far. The federal committee of miners projected a
general strike in all the French coal-fields, and to that end
organized a referendum. But of 125,000 miners inscribed on
their lists nearly 70,000 abstained from voting, and although
the general strike was voted in October by a majority of 341000,
it was not put into effect. Another movement favoured by the
Socialists was that of anti-militarism. M. Herve, a professor
at the lycee of Sens, had written, in a local journal, the Pioupiou
de P Tonne § on the occasion of the departure of the conscripts
for their regiments, some articles outraging the French flag.
Be was prosecuted and acquitted at the assizes at Auxerre in
November, a number of his colleagues in the teaching profession
coming forward to testify that they shared his views. The local
educational authority, the academic council of Dijon, however,
dismissed M. Herve* from his official functions, and its sentence
was confirmed by the superior council of public education to
which he had appealed. Thereupon the Socialists in the Chamber,
under the lead of M. Viviani, violently attacked the Government
shortly before the prorogation at the end of the year. M.
Lcygues, the minister of education, defended the policy of his
department with equal vigour, declaring that if a professor in the
" university " claimed the right of publishing unpatriotic and
anti-military opinions he could exercise it only on the condition
of giving up his employment under government — a thesis which
was supported by the entire Chamber with the exception of the
Socialists. This manifestation of anti-military spirit, though
not widespread, was the more striking as it followed close upon
a second visit of the emperor and empress of Russia to France,
which took place in September 1901 and was of a military rather
than of a popular character. The Russian sovereigns did not
come to Paris. After a naval display at Dunkirk, where they
landed, they were the guests of President Loubet at Compiegnc,
and concluded their visit by attending a review near Reims of
the troops which had taken part in the Eastern manoeuvres.
Compared with the welcome given by the French population
to the emperor and empress in 1896 their reception on this
occasion was not enthusiastic By not visiting Paris they seemed
to wish to avoid contact with the people, who were per-
suaded by a section of the press that the motive of the imperial
journey to France was financial. The Socialists openly repudi-
ated the Russian alliance, and one of them, the mayor of Lille,
who refused to decorate his municipal buildings when the
887
sovereigns visited the department of the Noxd, was neither
revoked nor suspended, although he publicly based his refusal
on grounds insulting to the tsar.
It may be mentioned that the census returns of xoox showed
that the total increase of the population of France since the
previous census in 1806 amounted only to 412464, of which
•389,663 was accounted for by the capital, while on the other
hand the population of sixty out of eighty-seven departments
had diminished.
As the quadrennial election of the Chamber of Deputies was
due to take place in the spring of 1902, the first months of that
year were chiefly occupied by politicians in preparing for It,
though none of them gave any sign of being aware that the
legislation to be effected by the new Chamber would be the
most important which any parliament had undertaken under the
constitution of 1875. At the end of the recess the prime minister
in a speech at Saint Etienne, the capital of the Loire, of which
department he was senator, passed in review the work of his
ministry. With regard to the future, on the eve of the election
which was to return the Chamber destined to disestablish the
Church, he assured the secular clergy that they must not consider
the legislation of the last session as menacing them, far from
that, the recent law, directed primarily against those monastic
orders which were anti-Republican associations, owning political
journals and organizing electioneering funds (whose members
he described as M moines ligueurs et moines d'affaires "}, would
be a guarantee of the Republic's protection of the parochial
clergy. The presence of his colleague, M. Millerand, on this
occasion showed that M. Waldeck-Rousseau did not intend to
separate himself from the Radical-Socialist group which had
supported his government; and the next day the Socialist
minister of commerce, at Flrminy, a mining centre in the same
department, made a speech deprecating the pursuit of unpractical
social ideals, which might have been a version of Gambetta's
famous discourse on opportunism edited by an economist of the
school of Leon Say. The Waldeck-Rousseau programme for
the elections seemed therefore to be an implied promise of a
moderate opportunist policy which would strengthen and unite
the Republic by conciliating all sections of its supporters.
When parliament met, M. Delcassl, minister for foreign affairs,
on a proposal to suppress the Embassy to the Vatican, declared
that even if the Concordat were ever revoked it would still be
necessary for France to maintain diplomatic relations with the
Holy See. On the other hand, the ministry voted, against the
moderate Republicans, for an abstract .resolution, proposed
by M. Brisson, in favour of the abrogation of the Loi Fallout of
1850, which law, by abolishing the monopoly of the " university/'
had established the principle of liberty of education. Another
abstract resolution, supported by the government, which
subsequently become law, was voted in favour of the reduction
of the terms of compulsory military service from three years to
two.
The general elections took place on the 37th of April 1002,
with the second ballots on the x ith of May, and were favourable
to the ministry, j« of its avowed supporters being ttt+n*
returned and 268 members of the Opposition, including • tfoo-o/ .
140 " Progressist " Republicans, many of whom were jffjj***
deputies whose opinions differed little from those of
M. Waldeck-Rousseau, In Paris the government lost a few seats
which were won by the Nationalist group of reactionaries.
The chief surprise of the elections was the announcement made
by M. Waldeck-Rousseau on the 20th of May, while the president
of the Republic was in Russia on a visit to the tsar, of his
intention to resign office. No one but the prime minister's
intimates knew that his shattered health was the true cause of
his resignation, which was attributed to the unwillingness oi an
essentially moderate man to he the leader of an advanced party
and. the instrument of an immoderate policy. His retirement
from public life at this crisis was the most important event of
its kind since the death of his old matter Gambetta, He bad
learned opportunist statesmanship in the short-lived grand
ministbre and in the long-lived Ferry administration of 1883-
888
FRANCE
(HISTORY
1885, after which he had become an inactive politician in the
Senate, while making a large fortune at the bar. In spite of
having eschewed politics he had been ranked in the public mind
with Gambetta and Jules Ferry as one of the small number of
politicians of the Republic who had risen high above mediocrity.
While he had none of the magnetic exuberance which furthered
the popularity of Gambetta, his cold inexpansiveness had not
made him unpopular as was his other chief, Jules Ferry. Indeed,
his unemotional coldness was one of the elements of the power
with which he dominated parliament; and being regarded by the
nation as the strong man whom France is always looking for,
he was the first prime minister of the Republic whose name was
made a rallying cry at a general election. Yet the country gave
him a majority only for it to be handed over to other politicians
to use in a manner which he had not contemplated. On the 3rd
of June 1902 he formally resigned office, his ministry having
lasted for three years, all but a few days, a longer duration than
that of any other under the Third Republic.
M. Loubet called upon M. Lion Bourgeois, who had already
been prime minister under M. Felix Faure, to form a ministry,
but he had been nominated president of the new
jr. Combta Chamber. The president of the Republic then offered
the post to M. Brisson, who had been twice prime
minister in 1885 and 1898, but he also refused. A
third member of the Radical party was then sent for, M. Emile
Combes, and he accepted. The senator of the Charente Infeneure,
in his one short term of office in the Bourgeois ministry, had made
no mark. But he had attained a minor prominence in the debates
of the Senate by his ardent anti-clericalism. He had been
educated as a seminarist and had taken minor orders, without
proceeding to the priesthood, and had subsequently practised
as a country doctor before entering parliament. M. Combes
retained two of the most important members of the Waldeck-
Rousseau cabinet, M. Delcasse*, who had been at the foreign
office for four years, and General Andrt, who had become war
minister in 1900 on the resignation of General de Galliffet.
General Andri was an ardent Dreyfusard, strongly opposed to
clerical and reactionary influences in the army. Among the
new ministers was M. Rouvier. a colleague of Gambetta in the
grand ministirc and prime minister in 1887, whose participation in
the Panama affair had caused his retirement from official life.
Being a moderate opportunist asd reputed the ablest financier
among French politicians, his return to the ministry of finance
reassured those who feared the fiscal experiments of an adminis-
tration supported by the Socialists. The nomination as minister
of marine of M. Camille Pellctan (the son of Eugene Pellctan,
a notable adversary of the Second Empire), who had been a
Radical-Socialist deputy since 1881, though new to office, was
less reassuring. M. Combes reserved for himself the departments
of the interior and public worship, meaning that the centralized
administration of France should be in his own hands while he
was keeping watch over the Church. But in spite of the prime
minister's extreme anti-clericalism there was no hint made in
his ministerial declaration, on the xoth of June 1002, on taking
office that there would be any question of the new Chamber
dealing with the Concordat or with the relations of Church and
state. M. Combes, however, warned the secular clergy not to
make common cause with the religious orders, against which
he soon began vigorous action. Before the end of June he directed
the Presets of the departments to bring political pressure to
bear on all branches of the public service, and he obtained a
presidential decree closing a hundred and twenty-five schools,
which had been recently opened in buildings belonging to private
individuals, on the ground that they were conducted by members
of religions associations and that this brought the schools under
the law of 1901. Such action seemed to be opposed to M.
Waldeck-Rousseau's interpretation of the law; but the Chamber
having supported M. Combes he ordered in July the closing of
3500 schools, conducted by members of religious orders, for which
authorization had not been requested. This again seemed
contrary to the assurances of M. Waldcck-Rousseau, and it » -ailed
forth vain protests in the name of liberty from Radicals of the
old school, such as M. Goblet, prime minister in 1886, and iron
Liberal Protestants, such as M. Gabriel Monod. The execution
of the decrees dosing the schools of the religious orders caused
some violent agitation in the provinces during the parliamentary
recess. But the majority of the departmental councils, at their
meetings in August, passed resolutions in favour of the govern-
mental policy, and a movement led by certain Nationalists,
including M. Drumont, editor of the anti-semitic Libre ParoU,
and M. Francois Coppee, the Academician, to found a league
having similar aims to those of the " passive resisters ** in our
country, was a complete failure. On the reassembling of parfia-
raent, both houses passed votes of confidence in the ministry and
also an act supplementary to the Associations Law penalising
the opening of schools by members of religious orders.
In spite of the ardour of parliamentary discussions the French
public was less moved in 1002 by the anti-clerical action of the
government than by a vulgar case of swindling known „ .
as the " Humbert affair." The wife of a former deputy 2S&
for Seine-et-Marne, who was the son of M. Gustave
Humbert, minister of justice in 1882, had for many years main-
tained a luxurious establishment, which included a political
salon, on the strength of her assertion that she and her family had
inherited several millions sterling from one Crawford, an English-
man. Her story being believed by certain bankers she had bees
enabled to borrow colossal sums on the legend, acd had almost
married her daughter as a great heiress to a Moderate Republican
deputy who held a conspicuous position in the Chamber. The
flight of the Humberts, the exposure of the fraud and their arrest
in Spain excited the French nation more deeply than the relative
qualities of M. Waldeck-Rousseau and M. Combes or the woes
of the religious orders. A by-election to the Senate in the spring
of 1902 merits notice as it brought back to parliament 11
Ci&mcnceau, who had lived in comparative retirement since
1893 when be lost his seat as deputy for Draguignan, owing to a
series of unusually bitter attacks made against him by his political
enemies. He had devoted his years of retirement to journalism,
taking a leading part in the Dreyfus affair on the side of the
accused. His election as senator for the Var, where he had
formerly been deputy, was an event of importance unanticipated
at the time.
The year 1003 saw in progress a momentous development
of the anti-clerical movement in France, though little trace of
this is found in the statute-book. The chief act of
parliament of that year was one which interested the ^**»
population much more than any law affecting the ^ y^ , rr »
Church. This was an act regulating the privileges
of the bouilkurs it cru, the peasant proprietors who, permitted
to distil from their produce an annual quantity of alcohol sup-
posed to be sufficient for their domestic needs, in practice fabri-
cated and sold so large an amount as to prejudice gravely the
inland revenue. As there were a million of these Illicit distillers
in the land they formed a powerful element in the electorate,
The crowded and excited debates affecting their interests, in
which Radicals and Royalists of the rural districts made common
cause against Socialists and Clericals of the towns, were in
striking contrast with the less animated discussions concerning
the Church. The prime minister, an anti-clerical zealot, bitterly
hostile to the Church of which he had been a minister, took
advantage of the relative indifference of parliament and of the
nation in matters ecclesiastical The success of M. Combes in
his campaign against the Church was an example of what energy
and pertinacity can do. There was no great wave of popular
feeling on the question, no mandate given to the deputies at the
general election or asked for by them. Neither was M. Combes
a popular leader or a man of genius. He was rather a trained
politician, with a fixed idea, who knew how to utilize to his ends
the ability and organization of the extreme anti-clerical element
in the Chamber, and the weakness of the extreme clerical
party. The majority of the Chamber did not share the prime
minister's animosity towards the Church, for which at the same
time it had not the least enthusiasm, and under the concordatory
lead of M. Waldeck-Rousseau it would have been content to
HISTORY]
FRANCE
889
curb clerical pretensions without having recourse to extreme
measures of repression. It was, however, equally content to
follow the less tolerant guidance of M. Combes. Thus, early
in the session of 1003 it approved of his circular forbidding the
priests of Brittany to make use of the Breton language in their
religious instruction under pain of losing their salaries. It like-
wise followed him on the 261b of January when he declined to
accept, as being premature and unpractical, a Socialist resolution
in favour of suppressing the budget of public worship, though
the majority was indeed differently composed on those two
occasions. In the Senate on the 19th of January M. VYaldeck-
Rousseau indicated what his policy would have been had he
retained office, by severely criticizing his successor's method of
applying the Associations Law. Instead of asking parliament
to judge on its merits each several demand for authorization
made by a congregation, the government had divided the re-
ligious orders into two chief categories, teaching orders and
preaching orders, and had recommended that all should be
suppressed by a general refusal of authorization. The Grande
Chartreuse was put into a category by itself as a trading associa-
tion and was dissolved; but Lourdes, which with its crowds
of pilgrims enriched the Pyrcncan region and the railway com-
panies serving it, was spared for electioneering reasons. A
dispute arose between the government and the Vatican on the
nomination of bishops to vacant sees. The Vatican insisted on
the words " nobis nominavif in the papal bulls instituting the
bishops nominated by the chief of the executive in France under
the Concordat. M. Combes objected to the pronoun, and main-
tained that the complete nomination belonged to the French
government, the Holy See having no choice in the matter, but
only the power of canonical institution. This produced a dead-
lock, with the consequence that no more bishops were ever again
appointed under the Concordat, which both before and after the
Easter recess M. Combes now threatened to repudiate. These
menaces derived an increased importance from, the failing health
of the pope. Leo XIII. had attained the great age of ninety-
three, and on the choice of his successor grave issues depended.
He died on the 20th of July 1003. The conclave indicated as
his successor his secretary of state, Cardinal Rampolla, an able
exponent of the late pope's diplomatic methods and also a warm
friend of France. It was said to be the latter quality which
induced Austria to exercise its ancient power of veto on the choice
of a conclave, and finally Cardinal Sarto, patriarch of Venice,
a pious prelate inexperienced in diplomacy, was elected and took
the title of Pius X. In September the inauguration of a statue of
Renan at Treguier, his birthplace, was made the occasion of an
anti-clerical demonstration in Catholic and reactionary Brittany,
at which the prime minister made a militant speech in the name
of the freethinkers of France, though Renan was a Voltairian
aristocrat who disliked the aims and methods of modern Radical-
Socialists. In the course of his speech M. Combes- pointed out
that the anti-clerical policy of the government had not caused
the Republic to lose prestige in the eyes of the monarchies of
Europe, which were then showing It unprecedented attentions.
This assertion was true, and had reference to the visit of the king
of England to the president of the Republic in May and the
projected visit of the king of Italy. That of Edward VII.,
which was the first state visit of a British sovereign to France
for nearly fifty years, was returned by President Loubet in July,
and was welcomed by all parties, excepting some of the re-
actionaries. M. Millevoye, a Nationalist deputy for Paris, in
the Patrie counselled the Parisians to remember Fashoda, the
Transvaal War, and the attitude of the English in the Dreyfus
affair, and to greet tbe British monarch with cries of M Vivent Us
Boers." M. Deroulede, the most interesting member of the
Nationalist party, wrote from his exile at Saint-Stbastien
protesting against the folly of this proceeding, which' merits to
be put on record as an example of the incorrigible ineptitude
of the reactionaries in France. The incident served only to
prove their complete lack of influence on popular feeling, while
it damaged the cause of the Church at a most critical moment
by showing that tbe only persons in Fsaace willing to iaank a
friendly monarch who was the guest of the nation, belonged
to the clerical party. Of the royal visits that of the king of Italy,
was the more important in its immediate effects on the history
of France, as will be seen in the narration of the events of 1004.
The session of 1004 began with the election of a new president
of the Chamber, on the retirement of M. Bourgeois. The choice
fell on M. Henri Brisson, an old Radical, but not a Socialist,
who had held that post in 1881 and had subsequently filled it
on ten occasions, the election to the office being annuaL The
narrow majority he obtained over M. Paul Bertrand, a little-
known moderate Republican, by secret ballot, followed by the
defeat of M. Jaures, the Socialist leader, for one of the vice-
presidential chairs, showed that one half of the Chamber was of
moderate tendency. But, as events proved, the Moderates
lacked energy and leadership, so tbe influence of the Radical
prime minister prevailed. In a debate on the 22nd of January
on the expulsion of an Alsatian priest of French birth from a
French frontier department by tbe French police, M. Ribot,
who set an example of activity to younger men of the moderate
groups, reproached M. Combes with reducing all questions m
which the French nation was interested to the single one of anti-
clericalism, and the prime minister retorted that it was solely
for that purpose that he took office. In pursuance of this policy
a bill was introduced, and was passed by the Chamber before
Easter, interdicting from teaching all members of religious
orders, authorized or not authorized. Among other results this
law, which the Senate passed in the summer, swept out Of exist-
ence the schools of the Frercs dc la Doctrine Chretienne (Christian.
Brothers) and closed in all 2400 schools before the end of the
year.
This drastic act of anti-clerical policy, which was a total
repudiation by parliament of the principle of liberty of education,
should have warned the authorities of the Church of the relentless
attitude of the government. The most superficial observation
ought to have shown them that the indifference of the nation
would permit the prime minister to go to any length, and common
prudence should have prevented them from affording him any
pretext for more damaging measures. The President of the
Republic accepted an invitation to return the visit of the king
of Italy. When it was submitted to the Chamber on March
25th, 1004, a reactionary deputy moved the rejection of the vote
for the expenses of the journey on the .ground that the chief
of the French executive ought not to visit the representative
of the dynasty which had plundered the papacy. The amend-
ment was rejected by a majority of 50s votes to is, which showed
that at a time of bitter controversy on ecclesiastical questions
French opinion was unanimous. in approving the visit of the
president of the Republic to Rome as the guest of the king of
Italy. Nothing could be more gratifying to the entire French
nation, both' on racial and on traditional grounds, than such a
testimony of a complete revival of friendship with Italy, of late
years obscured by the Triple Alliance. Yet the Holy See saw
fit to advance pretensions' inevitably certain to serve the ends
of the extreme anti-clericals, whose most intolerant acts at that
moment, such as the removal of the crucifixes from the law-
courts, were followed by new electoral successes. Thus the
reactionary majority on the Paris municipal council was dis-
placed by the Radical-Socialists on the 1st of May, the day that
M. Loubet returned from his visit to Rome. On the z6th of
May M. Jaures' Socialist organ, VHumaniti, published the text
of a protest, addressed by the pope to the powers having diplo-
matic relations with the Vatican, against the visit of the president
of the Republic to the Ring of Italy. This document, dated
the 28th of April, was offensive in tone both to France and to
Italy. It intimated that while Catholic sovereigns refrained
from visiting the person who, contrary to right, exercised civil
sovereignty in Rome, that " duty " was even more " imperious"
for the ruler of France by reason of the " privileges M enjoyed
by that country from the Concordat; that the journey of M.
Loubet to " pay homage " within the pontifical see to that
person was an insult to the sovereign pontiff; and that only for
reasons of special gravity was the nu*cjo permitted to remain
890
PRANCE
(HISTORY
in Pads. The publication of this document caused some joy
among the extreme clericals, but this was nothing to the exulta-
tion of the extreme anti-clericals, who saw that the prudent
diplomacy of Leo XIII., which had risen superior to many a
provocation of the French government, was succeeded by a
papal policy which would facilitate their designs in a manner
' unhoped for. Moderate men were dismayed, seeing
' that the Concordat was now in instant danger; but
the majority of the French nation remained entirely
indifferent to its fate. Within a week France took
the initiative by recalling the ambassador to the Vatican,
hf . Nisard, leaving a third-secretary in charge. In the debate
in the Chamber upon the incident, the foreign minister, M.
Dekasse, said that the ambassador was recalled,' not because
the Vatican had protested against the visit of the president
to the king of Italy, but because it bad communicated this
protest, in terms offensive to France, to foreign powers. The
Chamber on the 2 7 th of May approved the recallof the ambassador
by the large majority of 420 to oa By a much smaller majority
it rejected a Socialist motion that the Nuncio should be given his
passports. The action of the Holy See was not actually an
infringement of the Concordat; so the government, satisfied
with the effect produced on public opinion, which was now
quite prepared for a rupture with the Vatican, was willing
to wait for a new pretext, which was not long in coming. Two
bishops, Mgr. Geay of Laval and Mgr. Le Nordez of Dijon, were
on bad terms with the clerical reactionaries in their dioceses.
The friends of the prelates, including some of their episcopal
brethren, thought that their chief offence was their loyalty to the
Republic, and it was an unfortunate coincidence that these
bishops, subjected to proceedings which had been unknown under
the long pontificate of Leo XIII., should have been two who
had incurred the animosity of anti-republicans. Their enemies
accused Mgr. Geay of immorality and Mgr. Le Nordez of being
in league with the freemasons. The bishop of Laval was
summoned by the Holy Office, without any communication
with the French government, to resign his see, and he submitted
the citation forthwith to the minister of public worship. The
French charge d'affaires at the Vatican was instructed to protest
against this grave infringement of an article of the Concordat,
and, soon after, against another violation of the Concordat
committed by the Nuncio, who had written to the bishop of
Dijon ordering him to suspend his ordinations, the Nuncio
being limited, like all other ambassadors, to communicating
the instructions of his government through the intermediary
of the minister for foreign affairs. The Vatican declined to
give any satisfaction to the French government and summoned
the two bishops to Rome under pain of suspension. . So the
French charge d'affaires was directed to leave Rome, after having
informed the Holy See that the government of the Republic
considered that the mission of the apostolic Nuncio in Paris was
terminated. Thus came to an end on the 30th of July 1004
the diplomatic relations which under the Concordat had subsisted
between France and the Vatican for more than a hundred years.
Twelve days later M. Waldeck-Rousseau died, having lived
just long enough to see this unanticipated result of his policy.
It was said that his resolve to regulate the religious associations
arose from his feeling that whatever injustice had been com-
mitted in the Dreyfus case had been aggravated by the action of
certain unauthorized orders. However that may be, his own
utterances showed that be believed that his policy was one of
finality. But he had not reckoned that his legislation, which
needed hands as calm and impartial, as his own to apply it,
would be used in a manner he had not contemplated by sectarian
politicians who would be further aided by the self-destructive
policy of the highest authorities of the Church. When parlia-
ment assembled for the autumn session a general feeling was
expressed, by moderate politicians as well as by supporters of
the Combes ministry, that disestablishment was inevitable. The
prime minister said that he had been long in favour of it, though
the previous year he had intimated to If. Nisard, ambassador
to the Vatican, that he had not a majority in parliament to vote
it. But the papacy and the clergy had since done everythiat
to change that situation. The Chamber did not move in the
matter beyond appointing a committee to consider the general
question, to which M. Combes submitted in his own name 1
bill for the separation of the churches from the State.
During the last three months of 1004 public opinion was
diverted to the cognate question of the existence of masonic
delation in the army. M. Guyot de Villeneuve, g^
Nationalist deputy for Saint Denis, who had been oam
dismissed from the army by General de Galliffet in f% m
connexion with the Dreyfus affair, brought before the *•***
Chamber a collection of documents which, it seemed, had been
abstracted from the Grand Orient of France, the headquarter*
of French freemasonry, by an official of that order. These papers
showed that an elaborate system of espionage and deUtioe
had been organized by the freemasons throughout France for
the purpose o( obtaining information as to the political opinions
and religious practices of the officers of the army, and that Lbs
system was worked with the connivance of certain onkuh
of the ministry of war. _ Its aim appeared to be to ascertain if
officers went to mass or sent their children to convent schools
or in any way were in sympathy with the Roman Catholic
religion, the names of officers so secretly denounced being placed
on a black-list at the War Office, whereby they were disqualified
for promotion. There was no doubt about the authenticity of
the documents or of the facts which they revealed. Radical
ex-ministers joined with moderate Republicans and reactionaries
in denouncing the system. Anti-clerical deputies declared
that it was no use to cleanse the war office of the influence of the
Jesuits, which was alleged to have prevailed there, if it were to
be replaced by another occult power, more demoralizing because
more widespread. Only the Socialists and a few of the Radical-
Socialists in the Chamber supported the action of the freemason!
General Andre, minister of war, was so clearly implicated, «iiK
the evident approval of the prime minister, that a revulsion
of feeling against the policy of the anti-clerical cabinet began to
operate in the Chamber. Had the opposition been wisely guided
there can be little doubt that a moderate ministry would
have been called to office and the history of the Church in France
might have been changed. But the reactionaries, with their
accustomed folly, played into the bands of their adversaries
The minister of war had made a speech which produced a bad
impression. As he stepped down from the tribune he was
struck, in the face by a Nationalist deputy for Paris, a much
younger man than he. The cowardly assault did not save the
minister, who was too deeply compromised in thedelationscandal
But it saved the anti-clerical party, by rallying a number of
waverers who, until this exhibition of reactionary policy, were
prepared to go over to the Moderates, from the " bloc," as the
ministerial majority was called. The Nationalist deputy was
committed to the assizes on the technical charge of assaulting 1
functionary while performing his official duties. Towards the
end of the year, on the eve of his trial, be met with a violent
death, and the circumstances which led to it, when made
public, showed that this champion of the Church was a man
of low morality. General Andre had previously resigned and
was succeeded as minister of. war by M. Berteaux. a wealthy
stock-broker and a Socialist.
The Combes cabinet could not survive the delation scandal,
in spite of the resignation of the minister of war and the in-
eptitude of the opposition. On the 8th of January j^j
1005, two days before parliament met, an election took •res*
place in Paris to fill the vacancy caused by the death ra«in
of the Nationalist deputy who had assaulted General ******
Andre. The circumstances of his death, at that time partially
revealed, did not deter the electors from choosing by a large
majority a representative of the same party. Admiral Bieztaiate,
who the previous year had been removed for political reasons
from the post of maritime prefect at Toulon, by M. CazmUe
Pelletan, minister of marine. A more serious check to the Combes
ministry was given by the refusal of the Chamber to re-elect as
president M. Brisson, who was defeated by a majority of twenty-
history) FRANCE
five by M. Domner, ex-Governor-General of Indo-Chine, who,
though he had entered politics as a Radical, was now supported
by the antwepublican reactionaries as well as by the moderate
Republicans. A violent debate arose on the question of expelling
from the Legion of Honour certain members of thai order,
including a general officer, who bad been involved in the delation
scandal M. Jaures, the eloquent Socialist deputy for Albi.wbo
played the part of timintnce grist to M. Combes in his anti-
clerical campaign, observed that the party which was now
demanding the purification of the order had been in no hurry
to expel from it Esterhaty long after his crimes had been proved
in connexion with the Dreyfuscase. The debate was inconclusive,
and the government on the 14th of January obtained a vole
of confidence by a majority of six. But M. Combes, whose
animosity towards the church was keener than his love of office,
saw that his ministry would be constantly liable to be put in a
minority, and that thus the consideration of separation might
be postponed until after the general elections of 1906. So
he announced his resignation in an unprecedented manifesto
addressed to the president of the Republic on the 18th January.
M. Rouvier, minister of finance in the outgoing government,
wascalled upon for thesecondtimein his career to form a ministry.
A moderate opportunist himself, he intended to form
a coalition cabinet in which all groups of Republicans,
from the Centre to the extreme Left, would be repre-
sented. But he failed, and the ministry of the 14th
of January 1905 contained no members of the Repubfican opposi-
tion which had combated M. Combes. The prime minister
retained the portfolio of finance; M. Dekasst remained at the
foreign office, which he had directed since 1896, and M. Berteaux
at the war office; M. Etienne, member for Oran, went to the
ministry of the interior; another Algerian deputy, M. Thomson,
succeeded M. Canulle PeUetan at the ministry of marine, which
department was said to have fallen into inefficiency; public
worship was separated from the department of the interior
and joined with that of education under M. Bienvenu-Martin,
Radkal-Socialist deputy for Auxerrev who was new to official
life. Although M. Rouvier, as befitted a politician of the school
of Waldeck-Rousseau, disliked the separation of the churches
from the state, he accepted that poBcy as inevitable. After the
action of the Vatican in 1004, which had produced the rupture of
diplomatic relations with France, many moderates who had been
persistent in their opposition to the Combes ministry, and even
certain Nationalists, accepted the principle of separation, but
urged that it should be effected on liberal terms. So on the 37th
of January, after the minister of education and public worship
had announced that the government intended to introduce a
separation bill, a vote of confidence was obtained by a majority
of 37j to 90, half of the majority being opponents of the Combes
ministry of various Republican .and reactionary groups, while
the minority was composed of 84 Radicals and Socialists and
only 15 reactionaries.
On the 31st of March the debates on the separation of the
churches from thestate began. A commission had beenappoihted
in 1004 to examine the subject. Its reporter was M.
r**_ Aristide Briand, Socialist member for Saint Etienne.
uSmSm. According to French parliamentary procedure, the
reporter of a commission: directed to draw up a great
scheme of legislation, can make himself a more important person
in conducting it through a bouse of legislature than the minister
in charge of the bill. This is what M. Briand succeeded in doing.
He produced with rapidity a " report " on the whole question,
in which he traced with superficial haste the history of the Church
in France from the baptism of Oovis, and upon this drafted a
hill which was accepted by the government. He thus at one
bound came from obscurity into the front rank of politicians,
and in devising a revolutionary measure learned a lesson of
moderate statesmanship. In conducting the debates he took
the line of throwing the responsibility for the rupture of the
Concordat on the pope. The leadership of the Opposition fefl
on M. Ribot. who had been twice prime minister of the Republic
and was not a practising Catholic He recognised that separation
89I
had become inevitable, but argued that It could be accomplished
as a permanent act only in concert with the Holy See. The
clerical party in the Chamber did little in defence of the Church.
The abbes Lemire and Gayraud, the only ecclesiastics in parlia-
ment, spoke with moderation, and M. Groussau, a Catholic
jurist, attacked the measure with less temperate teal; but the
best serious defence of the interests of the Church came from the
Republican centre. Few amendments from the extreme Left
were accepted by M. Briand, whose general tone was moderate
and not illiberal. One feature of the debates was the reluctance
of the prime minister to take part in them, even when financial
clauses were discussed in which his own office was particularly
concerned. The bill finally passed the Chamber on the 3rd of
July by 341 votes against 233, the majority containing a certain
number of conservative Republicans and Nationalists. At the
end the Radical-Socialists manifested considerable discontent
at the liberal tendencies of M. Briand, and declared that the
measure as it left the Chamber could be considered only pro-
visional. In the Senate it underwent no amendment whatever,
not a single word being altered. The prime minister, M. Rouvier,
never once opened his lips during the lengthy debates, in the
course of which M. Clemenceau, as a philosophical Radical who
voted for the bill, criticized it as too concordatory, while M.
Meiine, as a moderate Republican, who voted against it, pre-
dicted that it would create such a state of things as would
necessitate new negotiations with Rome a few years later. It
was finally passed by a majority of 181 to 102, the complete
number of senators being 300, and three days later, on the 9th
of December 1005, it was promulgated as law by the president
of the Republic.
The main features of the act were as follows. The first clauses
guaranteed liberty of conscience and the free practice of public
worship, and declared that henceforth the Republic neither
recognised nor remunerated any form of religion, except in the
case Of chaplains to public schools, hospitals and prisons. It
provided that after inventories had been taken of the real and
personal property in the hands of religious bodies, hitherto
remunerated by the state, to ascertain whether such property
belonged to the state, the department, or the commune, all such
property should be transferred to associations of public worship
(associations cult suites) established in each commune in accordance
with the rules of the religion which they represented, for the pur-
pose of carrying on the practices of that religion. As the Vatican
subsequently refused to permit Catholics to take part in these
associations, the important clauses relating to their organisation
and powers became a dead letter, except in the case of the Pro-
testant and Jewish associations, which affected only a minute
proportion of the religious establishments under the act. Nothing,
therefore, need be said about them except that the chief discus-
sions in the Chamber took place with regard to their constitution,
which was so amended, contrary to the wishes of the extreme
anti-clericals, that many moderate critics of the original bill
thought that thereby the regular practice of the Catholic re-
ligion, under episcopal control, had been safeguarded. A system
of pensions for ministers of religion hitherto paid by the state was
provided, according to the age and the length of service of the
ecclesiastics interested, while in small communes of under a
thousand inhabitants Che clergy were to receive in any case their
full pay for eight years. The bishops' palaces were to be left
gratuitously at the disposal of the occupiers for two years, and
the presbyteries and seminaries for five years. This provision
too became a dead letter, owing to the orders given by the Holy
See to the clergy. Other provisions enacted that the churches
should not be used for political meetings, while the services held
in them were protected by the law from the acts of disturbers.
As the plenary operation of the law depended on the associations
adt wiles, the subsequent failure to create those bodies makes
it useless to give a complete exposition of a statute of which
they were an essential feature.
The passing of the Separation Law was the chief act of the
last year of the presidency of M. Loubet. One other important
measure has to be noted, the law reducing compulsory military
8ga
FRANCE
{HISTORY
service to tiro years. The law of 1889 bad provided a general
service of three years, with an extensive system of dispensations
accorded to persons for domestic reasons, or because they belonged
to certain categories of students, such citizens being let off with
one year's service with the colours or being entirely exempted.
The new law exacted two years' service from every Frenchman,
no one being exempted save for physical incapacity. Under
the act of 1905 even the cadets of the military college of Saint
Cyr and of the Polytechnic had to serve in the ranks before
entering those schools. Anti-military doctrines continued to
be encouraged by the Socialist party, M. Herve, the professor,
who had been revoked in x 001 for his suggestion of a military
strike in case of war and for other unpatriotic utterances, being
elected a member of the administrative committee of the Unified
Socialist party, of which M. Jaures was one of the chiefs. At
a congress of elementary schoolmasters at Lille in August, anti-
military resolutions were passed and a general adherence was
given to the doctrines of M. Herve\ At Longwy, in the Eastern
coal-field, a strike took place in September, during which the
military was called out to keep order and a workman was killed
in a cavalry charge. The minister of war, M. Berteaux, visited
the scene of the disturbance, and was reported to have saluted
the red revolutionary flag which was borne by a procession of
strikers singing the " Internationale."
During the autumn session in November M. Berteaux suddenly
resigned the portfolio of war during a silting of the Chamber,
and was succeeded by M. Etienne, minister of the interior, a
moderate politician who inspired greater confidence. Earlier
in the year other industrial strikes of great gravity had taken
place, notably at Limoges, among the potters, where several
deaths took place in a conflict with the troops and a factory
was burnt. Even more serious were the strikes in the govern*
ment arsenals in November. At Cherbourg and Brest only a
small proportion of the workmen went out, but at Loricnt,
Rochefort and especially at Toulon the strikes were on a much
larger scale. In 1005 solemn warnings were given in the Chamber
of the coming crisis in the wine-growing regions of the South.
Radical-Socialists such as M. Doumergue. the deputy for Nlmes
and a member of the Combes ministry, joined with monarchists
such as M. Lasies, deputy of the Gers, in calling attention to
the distress of the populations dependent on the vine. They^
argued that the wines of the South found no market, not because
of the alleged over-production, but because of the competition
of artificial wines; that formerly only twenty departments of
France were classed in the atlas as wine-producing, but that
thanks to the progress of chemistry seventy departments were
now so described. The deputies of the north of France and of
Paris, irrespective of party, opposed these arguments, and the
government, while promising to punish fraud, did not seem to
take very seriously the legitimate warnings of the representa-
tives of the South.
The Republic continued to extend its friendly relations with
foreign powers, and the end of M. Loubet's term of office was
signalized by a procession of royal visits to Paris, some of which
the president returned. At the end of May the king of Spain
came and narrowly escaped assassination from a bomb which
was thrown at him by a Spaniard as Vie was returning with
the president from the opera. In October M. Loubel returned
this visit at Madrid and went on to Lisbon to sec the king of
Portugal, being received by the queen, who was the daughter
of the comte de Paris and the sister of the due d' Orleans, both
exiled by the Republic In November the king of Portugal
came to Paris, and the president of the Republic also received
during the year less formal visits from the kings of England and
of Greece
One untoward international event affecting the French
ministry occurred in June 100$. M. Dclcasst (see section on
_ Exterior Policy), who had been foreign minister longer
JJJ^JJ^ than any holder of that office under the Republic,
jMtaM*. resigned, and it was believed that he had been sacrificed
by the prime minister to the exigencies of Germany,
which power was said to be disquieted al bis having, in connexion
with the Morocco question. Isolated Germany by promoting the
friendly relations of France with England, Spam and Italy.
Whether it be true or not that the French government was
really in alarm at the possibility of a declaration of wax by
Germany, the impression given was unfavourable, nor was it
removed when M. Rouvier himself took the portfolio of foreign
affairs. ,
The year 1006 is remarkable in the history of the Third
Republic in that it witnessed the renewal of all the public
powers in the state. A new president of the Republic M f ^ lfcni
was elected on the 17th of January ten days after the ^nMw
triennial election of one third of the senate, and the ?/_•*»_
general election of the chamber of deputies followed *** l>afc
in Way— the ninth which had taken place under the constitutioa
of 1875. The senatorial elections of the 7th of January showed
that the delegates of the people who chose the members of the
upper house and represented the average opinion of the country
approved of the anti-clerical legislation of parliament. The
election of M. Fallieres, president of the senate, to the presidency
of the Republic was therefore anticipated, be being the candidate
of the parliamentary majorities which had disestablished the
church. At the congress of the two chambers held at Versailles
on the 17th of January he received the absolute majority of 440
votes out of 840 recorded. The candidate of the Opposition 11 &s
M. Paul Doumer, whose anti-clericalism in the past was so
extreme that when married he had dispensed with a religious
ceremony and his children were unbaptized. So the curious
spectacle was presented of the Moderate Opportunist M. Fallteres
being elected by Radicals and Socialists, while the Radical
candidate was supported by Moderates and Reactionaries. For
the second time a president of the senate, the second official
personage in the Republic, was advanced to the chief magistracy,
M. Loubel having been similarly promoted. As in his case,
M. Fallieres owed his election to M. Clemenceaa. When M.
Loubel was elected M. Clemenceau had not come to the end
of his retirement from parliamentary life; but in political
circles, with his powerful pen and otherwise, he was resuming
his former influence as a "king-maker." He knew of the
precariousness of Felix Faurea health and of the indiscretions
of the elderly president. So when the presidency suddenly
became vacant in January 1809 he had already fixed his choice
on M. Loubet, as a candidate whose unobtrusive name excited
no jealousy among the republicans. At that moment, owing
to the crisis caused by the Dreyfus affair, the Republic needed
a safe man to protect it against the attacks of the plebiscitary
party which had been latterly favoured by President Faure.
M. Coastaus, it was said, had in 1800 desired the presidency of
the senate, vacant by M. Loubet's promotion, in preference to
the post of ambassador at Constantinople. But M. Clemenceau,
deeming that his name had been too much associated with
polemics, in the past, contrived the election of M. Fallieres to the
second place of dignity in the Republic, so as to have another
safe candidate in readiness for the Elysee in case President
Loubet suddenly disappeared. M. Loubet, however, completed
his septennate. and to the end of it }L Fallieres was regarded as
his probable successor. As he fulfilled his high duties in the
senate inoffensively without making enemies among his political
friends, he escaped the fate which had awaited other presidents-
designate of the Republic. Previously to presiding over the senate
this Gascon advocate, who had represented bis native Lot-et-
Garonne, in either chamber, since 187G, had once been prime
minister for three weeks in 1883. He had also held office in
six other ministries,. so no politician in France had a larger
experience in administration and in public affairs.
. On New Year's Day 1006, the absence of the Nuncio from
the presidential reception of the diplomatic body marked con-
spicuously the rupture of the Concordat: for hitherto the repre-
sentative of the Holy See had ranked as doyen of the ambassadors
to the Republic, whatever. the relative seniority of his colleagues,
and in the name of all the foreign powers had officially saluted
the chief of the slate. On the roth of January the inventories
of the churches were commenced, under the 3rd clause of the
history] FRANCE
Separation Act, for the purpose of atwrwrfng the value of the
furniture and other objects which they contained. In Paris
they occasioned some disturbance; but as the protesting rioters
-were led by persons whose hostility to the Republic was more
notorious than their love for religion, the demonstrations were
regarded as political rather than religious. In certain rural
districts, where the church had retained its influence and where
its separation from the state was unpopular, the taking of the
inventories was impeded by the inhabitants, and in some places,
where the troops were called out to protect the civil authorities,
further feeling was aroused by the refusal of officers to act.
But, as a rule, this first manifest operation of the Separation Law
was received with indifference by the population. One region
where popular feeling was displayed in favour of the church was
_ Flanders, where, in March, at Boeschepe on the
Belgian frontier, a man was killed during the taking
of an inventory. This accident caused the fall of the
ministry. The moderate Republicans in the Chamber,
who had helped to keep M. Rouvicr in office, withheld their
support in a debate arising out of the incident, and the govern-
ment was defeated by thirty-three votes. M. Rouvicr resigned,
and the new president of the Republic sent for M. Sarricn, a Radical
of the old school from Burgundy, who had been deputy for his
native Saone-et-Loire from the foundation of the Chamber in
1876 and had previously held office in four cabinets. In M.
Sarrien's ministry of the 14th of March 1906 the president of the
council was only a minor personage, its real conductor being
M. Clemenccau, who accepted the portfolio of the interior. Upon
him, therefore devolved the function of " making the elections"
of 1006, as it is the minister at the Place Beauvau,
where all the wires of administrative government are
centralized, who gives the orders to the prefectures
at each general election. As in France ministers sit
and speak in both houses of parliament, M. Clemenccau,
though a senator, now returned, after an absence of thirteen years,
to the Chamber of Deputies, in which he had played a mighty part
in the first seventeen years of its existence. His political ex-
perience was unique. From aiyearly period after entering the
Chamber in 1876 be had exercised there an influence not exceeded
by any deputy. Yet it was not until 1006, thirty years after his
first election to parliament, that he held office— though in 1888
lie just missed the presidency of the Chamber, receiving the same
number of votes as M. Meline, to whom the post was allotted by
right of seniority. He now returned to the tribune of the Palais
Bourbon, on which he had been a most formidable orator.
During his career as deputy his eloquence was chiefly destructive,
and of the nineteen ministries which fell between the election
of M. Grevy to the presidency of the Republic in 1879 and his
own departure from parliamentary life in 1893 there were few
of which the fall had not been expedited by his mordant criticism
or denunciation. He now came back to the scene of his former
achievements not to attack but to defend a ministry. Though
his old occupation was gone, his re-entry excited the keenest
interest, for at sixty-five he remained the biggest political figure
in France. After M. Clemenccau the most interesting of the
new ministers was M. Briand, who was not nine years old when
M. Oemenceau had become conspicuous in political life as the
mayor of Montmartre on the eve of the Commune. M. Briand
had entered the Chamber, as Socialist deputy for Saint £tiennc,
only in 1009. The mark he had made as " reporter " of the
Separation Bill has been noted, and on that account he became
minister of education and public worship— the terms of the
Separation Law necessitating the continuation of a department
for ecclesiastical affairs. As he had been & militant Socialist
of the* 4 ' unified" group of which M. Jaures was the chief, and
also a member of the superior council of labour, his appointment
indicated that the new ministry courted the support of the
extreme Left. It, however, contained some moderate men,
notably M. Poincare', who had the repute of making the largest
income at the French bar after M. Waldeck-Rousseau gave up
his practice, and who became for the second time minister of
finance. The portfolios of the colonies and of public works were
*93
also given to old ministers of moderate tendencies, M. Georges
Leygues and M. Barthou. A former prime minister, M. Leon
Bourgeois, went to the foreign office, over which he had already
presided, besides having represented France at the peace con-
ference at the Hague; while MM. Eticnne and Thomson re-
tained their portfolios of war and marine. The cabinet contained
so many men of tried ability that it was called the ministry of all
the talents. But the few who understood the origin of the name
knew that it would be even more ephemeral than was the British
ministry of 1806; for the fine show of names belonged to a
transient combination which could not survive the approaching
elections long enough to leave any mark in politics.
Before the elections look place grave labour troubles showed
that social and economical questions were more likely to give
anxiety to the government than any public movement
resulting from the disestablishment of the church. JjJJJJf
Almost the first ministerial act of M. Clemenccau was >?—
to visit the coal basin of the. Pas de Calais, where an
accident causing great loss of life was followed by an uprising of
the working population of the region, which spread into the
adjacent department of the Nord and caused the minister of the
intericr to take unusual precautions to prevent violent demonstra-
tions in Paris on Labour Day, the 1st of May. The activity of
the Socialist leaders in encouraging anti-capitalist agitation
did not seem to alarm the electorate. Nor did it show any sym-
pathy with the appeal of the pope, who in his encyclical letter,
Vckcmenttr nos, addressed to the French cardinals on the 11 lb
of February, denounced the Separation Law. So the result of
the elections of May 1906 was a decisive victory for the anti-
clericals and Socialists.
A brief analysis of the composition of the Chamber of Deputies
is always impossible, the limits of the numerous groups being
ill-defined. But in general terms the majority supporting the
radical policy of the bloc in the last parliament, which bad
usually mustered about 340 votes, now numbered more than 400,
including 230 Radical-Socialists and Socialists. The gains of the
extreme Left were chiefly at the expense of the moderate or
progressist republicans, who, about 1 20 strong in the old Chamber,
now came back little more than half that number. The anii-
rcpublican Right, comprising Royalists, Bonapartists and
Nationalists, had maintained their former position and were
about 130 all told. The general result of the polls of the 6th
and 20th of May was thus an electoral vindication of the advanced
policy adopted by the old Chamber and a repudiation of moderate
Republicanism; while the stationary condition of the reactionary
groups showed that the tribulations inflicted by the last parlia-
ment on the church had not provoked the electorate to increase
its support of clerical politicians.
The Vatican, however, declined to recognize this unmistakable
demonstration. The bishops, taking advantage of their release
from the concordatory restrictions which had withheld from
them the faculty of meeting in assembly, had met at a preliminary
conference to consider their plan of action under the Separation
Law. They had adjourned for further instructions from the
Holy See, which were published on the xoth of August 1906,
in a new encyclical Cratissitno officii, wherein, to the consterna-
tion of many members of the episcopate, the pope interdicted
the associations cultuclles, the bodies which, under the Separation
Law, were to be established In each parish, to hold and to organize
the church property and finances, and were essential to the
working of the act. On the 4th of September the bishops met
again and passed a resolution of submission to the Holy See.
In spite of their loyalty they could not but deplore an injunction
which inevitably would cause distress to the Urge majority of
the clergy after the act came into operation on the lath of
December 1906. They knew only too well how hopeless was
the idea that the distress of the clergy would call forth any
revulsion of popular feeling in France. The excitement of the
public that summer over a painful clerical scandal in the diocese
of Chart res showed that the interest taken by the mass of the
population in church matters was not of a kind which would aid
the clergy in their difficult situation.
894
FRANCE
[HIS! (At
Al the close of the parliamentary recess M. Sarrien resigned
the premiership on the pretext of ill-health, and by a presidential
decree of the 25th of October 1906 M. Clemenceau,
]acoc**a wno na< * ^ een cau **d t0 fiW the vacancy, took office.
ministry. MM. Bourgeois, Poincare 1 , £tienne and Leygues
retired with M. Sarrien. The new prime minister
placed at the foreign office M. Pichon, who had learned politics
on the staff of the Justice, the organ of M. Clemenceau, by whose
influence he had entered the diplomatic service in 1893, after
eight years in the chamber of deputies. He had been minister
at Pckin during the Boxer rebellion and resident at Tunis,
and he was now radical senator for the Jura. M. Cailiaux, a
more adventurous financier than M. Rouvier or M. Poincare,
who had been Waldeck-Rousscau's minister of finance, resumed
that office. The most significant appointment was that of
General Picquart to the war office. The new minister when a
colonel had been willing to sacrifice his career, although he was
an anti-Semite, to redressing the injustice which be believed
had been inflicted on a Jewish officer— whose second condemna-
tion, it may be noted, had been quashed earlier in 1906. M.
Viviani became the first minister of labour (Travail el Prtwyance
soeiale). The creation of the office and the appointment of a
socialist lawyer and journalist to fill it showed that M. Clemenceau
recognized the increasing prominence of social and industrial
questions and the growing power of the trade-unions.
The acts and policy of the Clemenceau ministry and the events
which took place during the years that it held office are too
near the present time to be appraised historically It seems not
unlikely that the first advent to power, after thirty*five years
of strenuous political life, of one who must be ranked among the
ablest of the twenty-seven prime ministers of the Third Republic
wilt be seen to have been coincident with an important evolution
in the history of the French nation. The separation of the Roman
Catholic Church from the state, by the law of December 1005,
had deprived the Socialists, the now most powerful party of the
extreme Left, of the chief outlet for their activity, which hitherto
had chiefly found its scope in anti-clericalism. Having no longer
the church to attack they turned their attention to economical
questions, the solution of which had always been their theoreti-
cal aim. At the same period the law relating to the Contract of
Association of 1901, by removing the restrictions (save in the
case of religious communities) which previously had prevented
French citizens from forming association without the authoriza-
tion of the government, had formally abrogated the individualistic
doctrine of the Revolution, which in all its phases was intolerant
of associations. The law of June 1791 declared the destruction
of all corporations of persons engaged in the same trade or
profession to be a fundamental article of the French constitution,
and it was only in the last six years Qf the Second Empire that
some tolerance was granted to trade-unions, which was extended
by the Third Republic only in 1884. In that year the prohibition
of 1 791 was repealed. Not quite 70 unions existed at the end of
1884. In 1800 they had increased to about 1000, in 1894 to 2000,
and m 1901, when the law relating to the Contract of Association
was passed, they numbered 3287 with 588,832 members. The
law of 1901 did not specially affect them; but this general act,
completely emancipating all associations formed for secular
purposes, was a definitive break with the individualism of the
Revolution which had formed the basis of all legislation in France
for nearly a century after the fall of the ancient monarchy.
It was an encouragement and at the same time a symptom of the
spread of anti-individualistic doctrine. This was seen in the
accelerated increase of syndicated workmen during the years
succeeding the passing of the Associations Law, who in 1009 were
over a million strong. The power exercised by the trade-unions
moved the functionaries of the government, a vast army under
the centralized system of administration, numbering not less than
800,000 persons, to demand equal freedom of association for the
purpose of regulating their salaries paid by the state and their
conditions of labour. This movement brought into new relief
the long-recognized incompatibility of parliamentary government
with administrative centralization as organized by Napoleon.
In another direction the increased activity in the rural chslrir*
of the Socialists, who hitherto had chiefly worked in the indnsthi
centres, indicated that they looked for support from the peastr
propriclors, whose ownership in the soil had hitherto oppow
them to the practice of collcctivist doctrine. In the summer «
1007 an economic crisis in the wine-growing districts of the Sec l
created a general discontent which spread to other rural regkss.
The Clemenceau ministry, while opposing the excesses of reveJa-
tionary socialism and while incurring the strenuous bostiL"/
of M. Jaures, the Socialist leader, adopted a programme wfeo
was more socialistic than that of any previous governmrs
of the republic. Under its direction a bill for the unposiir?
of a graduated income tax was passed by the lower hoest,
involving a scheme of direct taxation which would transfora
the interior fiscal system of France. But the income tax *n
still only a project of law when M. Clemenceau uaezpectHh
fell in July 1909, being succeeded as prime minister by fes
colleague M. Briand. His ministry had, however, passed <s*
important measure which individualists regarded as an act «
state-socialism. It took a long step towards the natsonanzauaa
of railways by purchasing the important Western line and addict
it to the relatively small system of state railways* Previously
a more generally criticized act of the representatives of tic
people was not of a nature to augment the popularity of parlia-
mentary institutions at a period of economic crisis, when seaat«o
and deputies increased their own annual salary, or indemnity a
k is officially called, to 1 5,000 francs. (J. E. C. B.)
Exterior Policy 1870-1909
The Franco-German War marks a turning-point in the history
of the exterior policy of France as distinct as does the fall of ibe
ancient monarchy or the end of the Napoleonic epoch.
With the disappearance of the Second Empire, by *? f lt **
its own fault, on the field of Sedan in September 1870,
followed in the early months of 1871 by the prod«matH»
of the German empire at Versailles and the annexation of
Alsace and Lorraine under the treaty of peace of Frankfort,
France descended from its primacy among the nations of conti-
nental Europe, which it had gradually acquired in the half-
century subsequent to Waterloo. It was the design of Bismarck,
that united Germany, which had been finally established under
his direction by the war of 1870, should take the place hitherto
occupied by France in Europe. The situation of France in 1871
in no wise resembled that after the French defeat of 1815.
when the First Empire, issue of the Revolution, had been upset
by a coalition of the European monarchies which brought back
and supported on his restored throne the legitimate heir to the
French crown. In 187 1 the Republic was founded in isolation.
France was without allies, and outside its frontiers the form of
its executive government was a matter of interest only to its
German conquerors. Bismarck desired that France should
remain isolated in Europe and divided at home. He thought
that the Republican form of government would best serve these
ends. The revolutionary tradition of France would, under a
Republic, keep aloof the monarchies of Europe, whereas, in the
words of the German ambassador at Paris, Prince Hohenlohe,
a " monarchy would strengthen France and place her in a better
position to make alliances and would threaten our alliances."
At the same time Bismarck counted an governmental instability
under a Republic to bring about domestic disorganization which
would so disintegrate the French nation as to render it unformid-
able as a foe and ineffective as an ally. The Franco-German
War thus produced a situation unprecedented in the mutual
relations of two great European powers. From that situation
resulted all the exterior policy of France, for a whole generation,
colonial as well as foreign.
In 1875 Germany saw France in possession of a constitution
which gave promise of durability if not of permanence, German
opinion had already been perturbed by the facility and speed
with which France had paid off the colossal war indemnity
exacted by the conqueror, thus giving proof of the inexhaustible
resources of the country and of its powers of recuperation. The
HISTORY)
FRANCE
»95
•tiSTS.
successful reorganization of the French army under the military
law of 1872 caused further alarm when there appeared to be
some possibility of the withdrawal of Russia from the Dreikaiser-
bund, which bad set the seal on Germany's triumph and France's
abasement in Europe. It seemed, therefore, as though it
might be expedient for Germany to make a sudden aggression
upon France before that country was adequately prepared for
war, in order to crush the nation irreparably and to remove it
from among the great powers of Europe.
The constitution of the Third Republic was voted by the
National Assembly on the 25th of February 1875. The new
constitution had to be completed by electoral laws and other
complementary provisions, so it could not become effective
until the following year, after the first elections of the newly
founded Senate and Chamber of Deputies. M. Buffet was then
charged by the president of the republic, Marshal MacMahon,
to form a provisional ministry in which the due Decazcs, who
had been foreign minister since 1873, was retained at the Quai
d'Orsay. The cabinet met for tbe first time on the 1 ith of March,
and ten days later the National Assembly adjourned for a long
recess.
It was during that interval that occurred the incident known
as " The Scare of 1875." The Kulturkampf had left Prince
Bismarck in a state of nervous irritation. In all
directions he was on the look out for traces of Ultra-
montane intrigue. The clericals in France after the
fall of Thiers had behaved with great indiscretion in their desire
to see the temporal power of the pope revived. But when the
reactionaries had placed MacMahon at the head of the state,
their divisions and their political ineptitude had shown that
the government of France would soon pass from their hands,
and of this the voting of the Republican constitution by
a monarchical assembly was the visible proof. Nevertheless
Bismarck, influenced by the presence at Berlin of a French
ambassador, M. de Gontaut-Biron, whom he regarded as an
Ultramontane agent, seems to have thought otherwise. A
military party at Berlin affected alarm at a law passed by the
French Assembly on the 12th of March, which continued a
provision increasing frorn three to four the battalions of each
infantry regiment, and certain journals, supposed to be inspired
by Bismarck, argued that as the French were preparing, it
might be well to anticipate their designs before they were
ready. Europe was scared by an article on the 6th of May in
The Times, professing to reveal the designs of Bismarck, from
its Paris correspondent, Blowitz, who was in relations with
the French foreign minister, the due Decazcs, and with Prince
Hohenlohe, German ambassador to France, both being prudent
diplomatists, and/ though Catholics, opposed to Ultramontane
pretensions. Europe was astounded at the revelation and
alarmed at the alleged Imminence of war. In England the
Disraeli ministry addressed the governments of Russia, Austria
and Italy, with a view to restraining Germany from its aggressive
designs, and Queen Victoria wrote to the German emperor to
plead the cause of peace. It is probable that there was no need
either for this intervention or for the panic which had produced
it. We know now that the old emperor William was steadfastly
opposed to a fresh war, while his son, the crown prince Frederick,
who then seemed likely soon to succeed him for a long reign,
was also determined that peace should be maintained. The
scare had, however, a most important result, in sowing the seeds
of the subsequent Franco-Russian alliance. Notwithstanding
that the tsar Alexander II. was on terms of affectionate intimacy
with his uncle, the emperor William, he gave a personal assurance
to General Le FI6, French ambassador at St Petersburg, that
France should have the " moral support " of Russia in the case
of an aggression on the part of Germany. It is possible that the
danger of war was exaggerated by the French foreign minister
and his ambassador at Berlin, as is the opinion of certain French
historians, who think that M. de Gontaul-Biron, as an old
royalist, was only too glad to see the Republic under the protec-
tion, as it were, of the most reactionary monarchy of Europe.
At the same time Bismarck's denials of having acted with
terrorizing intent cannot be accepted. He was more sincere when
he criticized the ostentation with which the Russian Chancellor,
Prince Gortchakoff, had claimed for his master the char-
acter of the defender of France and the obstacle to German
ambitions. It was in memory of this that, in 1878 at the
congress of Berlin, Bismarck did his best to impair the
advantages which Russia had obtained under the treaty of San
Stefano.
The events which led to that congress put into abeyance the
prospect of a serious understanding between France and Russia.
The insurrection in Herzegovina in July 1875 reopened
the Eastern question, and in the Orient the interests J/SJS"
of France and Russia had been for many years con-
flicting, as witness the controversy concerning the Holy
Places, which was one of the causes of the Crimean War. France
had from the reign of Louis XIV. claimed the exclusive right
of protecting Roman Catholic interests in the East. This claim
was supported not only by tbe monarchists, for the most part
friendly to Russia in other respects, -who directed the foreign
policy of the Third Republic until tbe Russp-Turkish War of
1877, but by the Republicans, who were coming into perpetual
power at the time of the congress of Berlin*— the ablest of the
anti-clericals, Gambelta, declaring in this connexion that
"anti-clericalism was not an article of exportation." Tbe
defeat of the monarchists at the elections of 1877, after the
" Seize Mai," and the departure from office of the due Decazcs,
whose policy had tended to prepare the way for an alliance with
the tsar, changed the attitude of French diplomacy towards
Russia. M. Waddinglon, the first Republican minister for foreign
affairs, was not a Russophil, while Gambelta was ardently
anti-Russian, and he, though not a minister, was exercising that
preponderant influence in French politics which he retained
until 1882, the last year of bis life. Many Republicans considered
that the monarchists, whom they had turned out, favoured the
support of Russia not only as a defence against Germany, which
was not likely to be effective so long as a friendly uncle and
nephew were reigning at Berlin and at St Petersburg respectively,
but also as a possible means of facilitating a monarchical restora-
tion in France. Consequently at the congress of Berlin M.
Waddinglon and the other French delegates maintained a very
independent attitude towards Russia. They supported the
resolutions which aimed at diminishing the advantages obtained-
by Russia in the war, they affirmed the rights of France over
the Holy Places, and they opposed the anti-Semitic views of
the Russian representatives. The result of the congress of Berlin
seemed therefore to draw France and Russia farther apart,
especially as Gambelta and the Republicans now in power were
more disposed towards an understanding with England. The
contrary, however, happened. The treaty of Berlin, which took
the place of the treaty of San Stefano, was the ruin of Russian
hopes. It was attributed to the support given by Bismarck
to the anti-Russian policy of England and Austria at the
congress, the German chancellor having previously discouraged
tbe project of an alliance between Russia and Germany. The
consequence was that the tsar withdrew from the Dreikaiserbund,
and Germany, finding the support of Austria inadequate for its
purposes, sought an understanding with Italy. Hence arose
the Triple Alliance of 1882, which was the work of Bismarck,
who thus became eventually the author of the Franco-Russian
alliance, which was rather a sedative for the nervous tempera-
ment of the French than a remedy necessary for their protection.
The twofold aim of the Triplice was the development of the
Bismarckian policy of the continued isolation of France and of
the maintenance of the situation in Europe acquired by the
German empire in 1871. The most obvious alliance for Germany
was that with Russia, but it was clear that it could be obtained
only at the price of Russia having a free hand to satisfy its
ambitions in the East. This not only would have irritated
England against Germany, but also Austria, and so might have
brought about a Franco- Austrian alliance, and a day of reckoning
for Germany for the combined rancours of two nations, left
by 1866 and 1871. It was thus that Germany allied itself first
8q6
FRANCE
[HISTOIY
'with Austria and then' with Italy, leaving Russia eventually
to Xuiite with France.
As the congress of Berlin took in review the general situation
of the Turkish empire, it was natural that the French delegates
should formulate the position of France in Egypt.
Thus the powers of Europe accepted the maintenance
of the condominium in Egypt, financial and administra-
tive, of England and France. Egypt, nominally a province of
the Turkish empire, had been invested with a large degree of
autonomy, guaranteed by an agreement made in 1840 and 1841
between the Porte and the then five great powers, though some
opposition was made to France being a party to this compact.
By degrees Austria, Prussia and Russia (as well as Italy when it
attained the rank of a great power) had left the international
control of Egypt to France and England by reason of the pre-
ponderance of the interests of those two powers on the Nile.
In 1875 the interests of England in Egypt, which had hitherto
been considered inferior to those of France, gained a superiority
owing to the purchase by the British government of the shares
of the khedive Ismail in the Suez Canal. Whatever rivalry there
may have been between England and France, they had to present
a united front to the pretensions of Ismail, whose prodigalities
made him impatient of the control which they exercised over his
finances. This led to his deposition and exile. The control was
re-established by his successor Tewfik on the 4th of September
1879. The revival ensued of a so-called national party, which
Ismail for his own purposes had encouraged in its movement
hostile to foreign domination. In September i88z took place
the rising led by Arabi, by whose action an assembly of notables
was convoked for the purpose of deposing the government
authorized by the European powers. The fear lest the sultan
should intervene gave an appearance of harmony to the policy
of England and France, whose interests were too great to permit
of any such interference. At the end of 1879 the first Freycinet
cabinet had succeeded that of M. Waddington and had in turn
been succeeded in September 1880 by the first Ferry cabinet.
In the latter the foreign minister was M. Barth61emy Saint-
Hilaire, an aged philosopher who had first taken part in politics
when he helped to dethrone Charles X. in 1830. In September
1881 lie categorically invited the British government to join
France in a military intervention to oppose any interference
which the Porte might attempt, and the two powers each sent
a war-ship to Alexandria. On the 14th of November Gambetta
formed his grand ministere, in which he was foreign minister.
Though it lasted less than eleven weeks, important measures
were taken by it, as Arabi had become under-secretary for war at
Cairo, and was receiving secret encouragement from the sultan.
On the 7th of January 1882, at the instance of Gambetta, a
joint note was presented by the British and French consuls to
the khedive, to the effect that their governments were resolved
to maintain the status quo, Gambetta having designed this as a
consecration of the Anglo-French alliance in the East. There-
upon the Porte protested, by a circular addressed to the powers,
against this infringement of its suzerainty in Egypt. Meanwhile,
the assembly of notables claimed the right of voting the taxes
and administering the finances cf the country, and Gambetta,
considering this as an attempt to emancipate Egypt from the
financial control of Europe, moved the British government to
join with France in protesting against any interference on the
part of the notables in the budget. But when Lord Granville
accepted this proposal Gambetta had fallen, on the 26th of
January, being succeeded by M. de Freycinet, who for the second
time became president of the council and foreign minister.
Gambetta fell nominally on a scheme of partial revision of the
constitution. It included the re-establishment of scrutin de lisle,
a method of voting to which many Republicans were hostile, so
this gave his enemies in his own party their opportunity. He
thus fell the victim of republican jealousy, nearly half the Re-
publicans in the chamber voting against him in the fatal division.
Tht subsequent debates of 1882 show that many of Gambetia's
adversaries were also opposed to his policy of uniting with
England on the Egyptian question. Henceforth the interior
affairs of Egypt have little to do with the subject we axe txeati&r
but some of the incidents in France which led to the Er*g! a
occupation of Egypt ought to be mentioned. M. de Trcycsa.
was opposed to any armed intervention by France; but in ifee
face of the feeling in the country in favour of maintaining the
traditional influence of France in Egypt, his declaration* of
policy were vague. On the 23rd of February 1882 he said that
he would assure the non-exclusive preponderance in Egypt cf
France and England by means of an understanding with Europe,
and on the nth of May that he wished to retain for France iu
peculiar position of privileged influence. England and Fraace
sent to Alexandria a combined squadron, which did not prevrct
a massacre of Europeans there on the nth of June, the khe£%e
being now in the hands of the military party under Arabi Cfe
the nth of July the English fleet bombarded Alexandria, the
French ships in anticipation of that action having departed the
previous day. On the 18th of July the Chamber debated tbe
supplementary vote for the fleet in the Mediterranean, M. de
Freycinet declaring that France would take no active part ia
Egypt except as the mandatory of the European powers. TKs
was the occasion for the last great speech of Gambetta in parlia-
ment. In it he earnestly urged close co-operation with England,
which he predicted would otherwise become the mistress of
Egypt, and in his concluding sentences he uttered the famous
" Ne rompet jamais V alliance anglaise." A further vote, pro-
posed in consequence of Arabi's open rebellion, was abandoned,
as M. de Freycinet announced that the European powers declined
to give France and England a collective mandate to intervene
in their name. In the Senate on the 25th of July M. Scherer.
better known as a philosopher than as a politician, who had
Gambetta's confidence, read a report on the supplementary voces
which severely criticized the timidity and vacillation of the
government in Egyptian policy. Four days later in the Chamber
M. de Freycinet proposed an understanding with England limited
to the protection of the Suez Canal. Attacked by M. Clemcnceaii
on the impossibility of separating the question of the canal
from the general Egyptian question, the ministry was defeated
by a huge majority, and M. de Freycinet fell, having achieved
the distinction of being the chief instrument in removing Egypt
from the sphere of French interest.
Some of the Republicans whose votes turned out M. de Frey-
cinet wanted Jules Ferry to take his place, as he was considered
to be a strong man in foreign policy, and Gambetta, for this
reason, was willing to see his personal enemy at the head of publk
affairs. But this was prevented by M. Cllmenceau and the
extreme Left, and the new ministry was formed by M. Duclerc,
an old senator whose previous official experience had been under
the Second Republic. On its taking office on the 7 th of August,
the ministerial declaration announced that its policy would be is
conformity with the. vote which, by refusing supplies for the
occupation of the Suez Canal, had overthrown M. de FreyriaeL
The declaration characterized this vote as " a measure of reserve
and of prudence but not as an abdication." Nevertheless the
action of the Chamber — which was due to the hostility to
Gambetta of rival leaders, who had little mutual affection,
including MM. de Freycinet, Jules Ferry, Clemenceau and the
president of the Republic, M. Grevy, rather than tc a desire to
abandon Egypt— did result in the abdication of France. After
England single-handed had subdued the rebellion and restored
the authority of the khedive, the latter signed a decree on the
nth of January 1883 abolishing the joint control of England
and France. Henceforth Egypt continued to be a frequent topic
of debate in the Chambers; the interests of France in respect
of the Egyptian finances, the judicial system and other institu-
tions formed the subject of diplomatic correspondence, as did
the irritating question of the eventual evacuation of Egypt by
England. But though it caused constant friction between the
two countries up to the Anglo-French convention of the Sih of
April 1904, there was no longer a French active policy with regard
to Egypt. Hie lost predominance oi France in that country
did , however, quicken French activity in other regions oi northern
Africa.
HISTORY!
FRANCE
897
The idea that the Mediterranean might become a. French lake
has* in different senses, been a preoccupation for France and for
its rivals in Europe ever since Algeria became a French
y*t^ a province by a series of fortuitous incidents— an insult
offered by the dey to a French consul, his refusal to
make reparation, and the occasion it afforded of diverting public
Attention in France from interior affairs after the Revolution
of 1 83a The French policy of preponderance in Egypt had only
for a secondary aim the domination of the Mediterranean.
The French tradition in Egypt was a relic of Napoleon's vain
scheme to become emperor of the Orient even before he had made
himself emperor of the WesL It was because Egypt was the
highway to India that under Napoleon III. the French had con-
structed the Suez Canal, and for the same reason England could
never permit them to become masters of the Nile delta. But
the possessors of Algeria could extend their coast-line of North
Africa without seriously menacing the power which held Gibraltar
and Malta It was Italy which objected to a French occupation
of Tunis Algeria has never been officially a French " colony "
It is in many respects administered as an integral portion of
French territory, the governor-general, as agent of the central
power, exercising wide jurisdiction. Although tiie Europeans
in Algeria are less than a seventh of the population, and
although the French are actually a minority of the European
inhabitants-— Spaniards prevailing in the west, Italians and
Maltese in the east— the three departments of Constanune.
Algiers and Oran are administered like three French departments.
Consequently, when disturbances occurred on the borderland
separating Constantine from Turns, the French were able to say
to Europe that the integrity of their national frontier was threat*
ened by the proximity of a turbulent neighbour The history of
the relations between Tunis and France were set forth, from the
French standpoint, in a circular, of which Jules Ferry was said
to be the author, addressed by theforeignmimster, M Barthelemy
Saint-Hilaire on the 9th of May 1881, to the diplomatic agents
of France abroad. The most important point emphasized by
y^-u. the French minister was the independence of Tunis
from the Porte, a situation which would obviate diffi-
culties with Turkey such as had always hampered the European
powers in Egypt. In support of this contention a protest made
by the British government in 1830, against the French conquest
of Algiers, was quoted, as in it Lord Aberdeen bad declared that
Europe had always treated the Barbery states as independent
powers. Oft the other hand, there was the incident of the bey
of Tunis having furnished to Turkey a contingent during the
Crimean War, which suggested a recognition of its vassalage
to the Sublime Porte. But in 1864, when the sultan had sent a
fleet to La Goulette to affirm his " rights " in Tunis, the French
ambassador at Constantinople intimated that France declined
to have Turkey for a neighbour in Algeria. France also in 1A68
essayed to obtain control over the finances of the regency; but
England and Italy had also large interests in the country, so an
international financial commission was appointed. In {871,
when France was disabled after the war, the bey obtained from
Constantinople a finnan of investiture, thus recognising the
suzerainty of the Porte. Certain English writers havereproacaed
the Foreign Office for its lack of foresight in not taking advantage
of France's disablement by establishing England as the pre*
pooderant power in Tunis. The fact that five-sixths of .the com*
merce of Tunis is now with France and Algeria may seem to
justify such regrets. Yet by the light of subsequent events it
seems probable that England would have been diverted from
more profitable undertakings had she been saddled with the
virtual administration and military occupation of a vast territory
which such preponderance would have entailed. The wonder is
that this opportunity was not seized by Italy* for Mazsini and
other workers in the cause of Italian unity, before .the Bourbons
bad been driven from Naples, had cast eyes on Tune, lying over
against the coasts of Sicily at a distance of barely 100 m., as a
favourable field for colonization and as the key of the African
Mediterranean. But when Rome became once more the capital
of Italy, Carthage was not fated to fall again under its domination
and the occasion offered by France's temporary impotence was
neglected. In 1875 when France was rapidly recovering, there
went to Tunis as consul an able Frenchman, M Roustan, who
became virtual ruler of the regency in spite of the resistance of
the representative of Italy French action was facilitated by
the attitude of England On the 26th of July 1878 M Wadding-
ton wrote to the marquis d'Harcourt, French ambassador in
London, that at the congress of Berlin Lord Salisbury had said to
him— the two delegates being the foreign ministers of their
respective governments— in reply to his protest, on behalf of
France, against the proposed English occupation of Cyprus,
" Do what you think proper in Tunis. England will offer no
opposition." This was confirmed by Lord Salisbury in a despatch
to Lord Lyons, British ambassador in Paris, on the 8th of August,
and it was followed in October by an intimation made by the
French ambassador at Rome that France intended to exercise
a preponderant influence in Tunis. Italy was not willing to
accept this situation. In January 188 1 a tour made by King
Humbert in Sicily, where he received a Tunisian mission, was
taken to signify that Italy had not done with Tunis, and it was
answered in April by a French expedition in the regency sent from
Algeria, on the pretext of punishing the Kroumirs who had been
marauding on the frontier of Constantine. It was on this occasion
that M Barthclcmy Saint-Hilaire issued the circular quoted
above. France nominally was never at war with Tunis; yet the
result of the invasion was that that country became virtually a
French possession, although officially it is only under the pro-
tection of France. The treaty of El Bardo of the 12th of May
1881, confirmed by the decree of the 22nd of April 1882, placed
Tunis under the protectorate of France. The country is
administered under the direction of the French Foreign Office,
in which there is a department of Tunisian affairs. The governor
is called minister resident-general of France, and he also acta
as foreign minister, being assisted by seven French and two
native ministers.
The annexation of Tunis was important for many reasons.
It was the first successful achievement of France after the
disasters of the Franco-German War, and it was the _.
first enterprise of serious utility to France undertaken jJSLa
beyond its frontiers since the early period of the Second utrumty.
Empire. It was also important as establishing the
hegemony of France on the southern shores of the Mediterranean.
When M. Jules Carabon became governor-general 01 Algeria, nis
brother M Paul Cambon having been previously French resident
in Tunis and remaining the vigilant ambassador to a Mediter-
ranean power, a Parisian wit said that just as Switzerland had its
Lac des ptatn Cantons, so France had made of the midland sea
its Lac det deux Cdntbons The jtu d'esprit indicated what was
the primary significance to the French of their becoming masters
of the Barbery coast from the boundary of Morocco to that of
Tripoli. Apart from the Mediterranean question, when the
scramble for Africa began and the Hinterland doctrine was
asserted by European powers, the possession of this extended
coast-line resulted in France laying claim to the Sahara and the
western Sedan, Consequently, on the maps, the whole of north-
west Africa, from Tunis to the Congo, is claimed by France with
the exception of the relatively small areas on the coast belonging
to Morocco, Spain, Portugal, Liberia, Germany and England*
On this basis, in point of area, France is the greatest African
power, in spite of British annexations in south and equatorial
Africa, its area being estimated at 3,866,950 sq. m. (including
2*7.050 in Madagascar) as against 2,101,411 more effectively
possessed by Great Britain. The immensity of its domain on
paper is no doubt a satisfaction to a people which prefers to
pursue its policy of colonial expansion without the aid of emigra-
tion. The acquisition of Tunis by France is also important as
an example of the system of protectorate as applied to colonic**
tion. Open annexation might have more gravely irritated the
potters having interests in the country. England, in spite of
Lord Salisbury's suggestions to the French foreign minister,
was none too pleased with France's policy; while Italy, with
it* subjects outnumbering all other European settlers in the
698
FRANCE
Th0prm»
legency, mi fa a mood to Accept * pretext for a quarrel for the
reasons already mentioned Apart from these considerations
the French government favoured a protectorate
because it dad not wish to make of Tunis a second
Algeria. While the annexation of the latter had
excellent commercial results for France, it had not
been followed by successful colonization, though it had cost
France 160 millions sterling in the first sixty years after it
became French territory. The French cannot govern at home
or abroad without a centralized system of administration.
The organization of Algeria, as departments of France with their
administrative divisions, was not an example to imitate. In the
beylical government France found, ready-made, a sufficiently
centralized system, such as did not exist in Algeria under native
rule, which could form a basis of administration by French
functionaries under the direction of the Quai d'Orsay. The
resuk has not been unpleasing to the numerous advocates in
France of protectorates as a means of colonization. Accord-
ing to M. Paul Lcroy-Beaulicu, the most eminent French authority
on colonization, who knows Tunis well, a protectorate b the
most pacific, the most supple, and the least costly method of
colonization in countries where an organized form of native
government exists; it is the system in which the French can most
nearly approach that of English crown colonies. One evil which
it avoids i^ the so-called representative system, under which
senators and deputies are sent to the French parliament not only
from Algeria as an integral part of France, but from the colonies
of Martinique, Guadeloupe and French India, while Cochin-
China, Guiana and Senegal send deputies alone. These sixteen
deputies and seven senators attach themselves to the various
Moderate, Radical and Socialist groups in parliament, which
have no connexion with the interests of the colonies, and the
consequent introduction of French political controversies into
colonial elections has not been of advantage to the oversea
possessions of France. From this the protectorate system has
spared Tunis, and the paucity of French immigration will con-
tinue to safeguard that country from parliamentary representa-
tion. After twenty years of French rule, of 120,000 European
residents in Tunis, not counting the army, only 32,000 were
French, while nearly 70,000 were Italian. If under a so-called
representative system the Italians had demanded nationalization,
for the purpose of obtaining the franchise, complications might
have arisen which are not to be feared under a protectorate.
But of all the results of the French annexation of Tunis, the
most important wss undoubtedly the Triple Alliance, into
which Italy entered in resentment at having been
ffiffr deprived of the African territory which seemed marked
aUmsc* out as its natural field for colonial expansion. The
most manifest cause of Italian hostility towards France
had pasted away four years before the annexation of Tunis,
when the reactk>naries,who had favoured the restitution of the
temporal power of the pope, fell for ever from power. The
clericalism of the anti-republicans, who favoured a revival
of the fatal policy of the Second Empire whereby France, after
Magenta and Solferino, had by leaving its garrison at St Angelo,
been the last obstacle to Italian unity, was one of the chief
causes of their downfall. For after the war with Germany, the
mutilated land and the vanquished nation had need to avoid
wanton provocations of foreign powers. Henceforth the French
Republic, governed by Republicans, was to be an anti-clerical
force In Europe, sympathizing with the Italian occupation of
Rome. But to make Italy realize that France was no longer
the enemy of complete Italian unity it would have been necessary
that all causes of irritation between the two Latin sister nations
were removed. Such causes of dissension did, however, remain,
arising from economic questions. The maritime relations of
the two chief Mediterranean powers were based on a treaty
of navigation of 186s— when Venice was no party to it being
an Austrian port— which Crfspi denounced as a relic of Italian
servility towards Napoleon IIL Commercial rivalry was
induced by the industrial development of northern Italy, when
fated from Austrian, nil* Moreover, the emigrant propensity
of the Itafians flooded certain region* of France wfefc
cheap labour, with the natural result of bitter animosity betw-cex
the intruders and the inhabitant* of the districts thus invade-
The annexation of Tunis, coming on the top of these c i: * u
of irritation, exasperated Italy. A new treaty of comnxres
was nevertheless signed between the two countries on the ->ri
of November 1881. Unfortunately for its stability. JL^x
Humbert the previous week had gone to Vienna to see t*t
emperor of Austria. In visiting in his capital the former arcs-
enemy of Italian unity, who could never return the cxrartesr.
Rome being interdicted for Catholic sovereigns by the " ptjnorer
of the Vatican," Humbert had only followed the rramrvlc of La
father Victor Emmanuel, who went both to Berlin and to Yieaaa
in 1873. But that was when in France the due de Brogbe was
prime minister of a clerical government of which many of the
supporters were clamouring for the restitution of the tempore!
power. King Humberts visit to Vienna at the moment when
Gambetta, the great anti-clerical champion, was at the height
of his influence was significant for other reasons. Since the
7tb of October 1879 Germany and Austria had been united by a
defensive treaty, and though its provisions were not pucdHhrri
until 1888, the two central empires were known to be in the
closest alliance. The king of Italy's visit to Vienna, where be
was accompanied by his ministers Depretfs and Manrini. had
therefore the same significance as though he had gone to BerLa
also. On the aoth of May 1881 was signed the treaty of the
Triple Alliance, which for many years bound Italy to Germany
in its relations with the continental powers. The affiance was
first publicly announced on the 13th of March 1883, n the
Italian Chamber, by Signer Mandni, minister for foreign nfiairs.
The aim of Italy in joining the combination was alliance wirh
Germany, the enemy of France. The connexion with Austri
was only tolerated because it secured a union with the powerful
government of Berlin. It effected the complete isolation of
France in Europe. An understanding between the French
Republic and Russia, which alone could alter that situation, was
impracticable, as its only basis seemed to be the possibility of
having a common enemy in Germany or even fat England. But
that double eventuality was anticipated by a secret convention
concluded at Skicrnewice in September 1884 by the tsar and
the German emperor, in which they guaranteed to one another
a benevolent neutrality in case of hostilities between England
and Russia arising out of the Afghan question.
It will be convenient here to refer to the relations of France
with Germany and Italy respectively in the years succeeding
the signature of the Triple Alliance. With Germany both
Gambetta, who died ten weeks before the treaty was announced
and who was a strong Russophobe, and his adversary Jules Ferry
were inclined to come to an understanding. But in tins they
had not the support of French opinion. In September 1SS3
the king of Spain had visited the sovereigns of Austria and
Germany. Alphonso XII., to prove that this journey was not
a sign of hostility to France, came to Paris on his way home
on Michaelmas Day on an official visit to President Grtvy
Unfortunately it was announced that the German emperor had
made the king colonel of a regiment of Uhlans garrisoned at
Strassburg, the anniversary of the taking of which city was being
celebrated by the emperor by the inauguration of a monument
made out of cannon taken from the French, on the very eve of
King Alphonso's arrival. Violent protests were made m Paris
in the monarchical and in not a few republican journals,
with the result that the king of Spain was hooted by the crowd
as he drove with the president from the station to his embassy,
and again on his way to dine the same night at the Elysee The
incident was closed by M. Grevy's apologies and by the retirement
of the minister of war, General Thibaudin, who under pressure
from the extreme Left had declined to meet U roi wAfe*. Though
it displayed the bitter hostility of the population towards
Germany, the incident did not aggravate Franco-German
relations. This was due to the policy of the prime minister
Jules Ferry, who to carry it out made himself foreign minister
in November, in the place of Challemd-Lacour, who resigned
HISTORY]
FRANCE
*99
Franco*
Oermmn
Jules Ferry's, idea war that comma! expansion was the surest
means for Fiance to recover its prestige, and that this could
be obtained only by maintaining peaceful relations
with all the powers of Europe. Hie consequent
unpopularity caused his fall in April 1885, and the next
year a violent change of military policy was marked
by the arrival of General Boulanger at the ministry of
var, where he remained, in the Freydnet and Goblet cabinets,
from January 1886 to the 1 7th of May 1887 His growing popu-
larity in France was answered by Bismarck, who asked for
an increased vote for the German army, indicating that he
considered Boulanger the coming dictator for the wmr of revenge,
so when the Reichstag, on the 14th of January 1887, voted the
supplies for three years, instead of for the seven demanded by the
chancellor, it was dissolved Bismarck redoubled his efforts in the
press and in diplomacy, vainly attempting to come to an under-
standing with Russia and with more success moving the Vatican
to order the German Catholics to support him He obtained
bis vote for seven years m March, and the same month renewed
the Triple Alliance. In April the Schnaebctt incident seemed
nearly to cause war between France and Germany The com-
missary-special, an agent of the ministry of the interior, at
Pagny-sur-Moselle, the last French station on the frontier of the
annexed territory of Lorraine, having stepped across the boundary
to regulate some official matter with the corresponding func-
tionary on the German side, was arrested. It was said that
Schnaebcle* was arrested actually on French soil, and on whichever
side of the line he was standing he had gone to meet the German
official at the request of the latter. Bismarck justified the
outrage in a speech in the Prussian Landtag which suggested
that it was impossible to live at peace with a nation so bellicose
as the French. In France the incident was regarded as a trap
laid by the chancellor to excite French opinion under the aggres-
sive guidance of Boulanger, and to produce events which would
precipitate a war. The French remained calm, in spite of the
growing popularity of Boulanger. The Goblet ministry resigned
on the 17th of May 1887 after a hostile division on the budget,
and the opportunity was taken to get rid of the minister of war,
who posed as the coming restorer of Alsace and Lorraine to France
The Boulangist movement soon became anti-Republican, and
the opposition to it of successive ministries improved the official
relations of the French and German governments. The circunv
stances attending the fall of President Grevy the same year
strengthened the Boulangist agitation, and Jules Ferry, who
seemed indicated as his successor, was discarded by the Republi-
can majority in the electoral congress, as a revolution was
threatened in Paris if the choice fell on " the German Ferry "
Sadi Carnot was consequently elected president of the Republic
on the 3rd of December 1887 Three months later, on the 9th
of March 18S8, died the old emperor William who had personified
the conquest of France by Germany . His son, the pacific emperor
Frederick, died too, on the 15th of June, so the accession of
William II , the pupil of Bismarck, at a moment when Boulanger
threatened to become plebiscitary dictator of France, was
ominous for the peace of Europe But in April 1889 Boulanger
ignominiously fled the country, and in March 1890 Bismarck
fell. France none the less rejected all friendly overtures made
by the young emperor In February 1892 his mother came to
Paris and was unluckily induced to visit the scenes of German
triumph near the capital— the ruins of St Cloud and the Chateau
of Versailles where the German empire was proclaimed. The
incident called forth such an explosion of wrath from the French
press that it was clear that France had not forgotten 1871
By this time, however, France was no longer Isolated and at
the mercy of Germany, which by reason of the increase of its
population while that of France had remained almost stationary,
was, under the system of compulsory military service in the
two countries, more than a match for its neighbour in a single-
handed conflict Even the Triple Alliance ceased to be a tenor
for France. An understanding arose between France and
Russia preliminary to the Franco-Russian alliance, which became
the pivot of French exterior relations until the defeat of Russia
in the Japanese war of xooa. $0 the second renewal of the
Triptice was forthwith answered by a visit of the French squadron
to Kronstadt in July 1891.
While such were the relations between France and the principal
party to the Triple Alliance, the same period was marked by
bitter dissension between France and Italy. Tunis
had made Italy Gallophobe, but the diplomatic %£*
relations between the two countries had been courteous tttir.
until the death of Depretis in 1887. When Cnspi
succeeded' him as prune minister, and till 1891 was the director
of the exterior policy of Italy, a change took place. Crispi,
though not the author of the Triple Alliance, entered with
enthusiasm into its spirit of hostility to France. The old Sicilian
revolutionary hastened to pay his respects to Bismarck at Fried-
richsruh in October 1887, the visit being highly approved in
Italy Before that the French Chamber had, in July 1886, by a
small majority, rejected a new treaty of navigation between
France and Italy, this being followed by the failure to renew
the commercial treaty of 1 881. Irritating incidents were of
constant occurrence. In 1888 a conflict between the French
consul at Massowah and the Italians who occupied that Abyssinian
port induced Bismarck to instruct the German ambassador in
Paris to tell M Goblet, minister for foreign affairs in the Floquet
cabinet, in case he should refer to the matter, that if Italy were
involved thereby in complications it would not stand alone
— this menace being communicated to Crispi by the Italian
ambassador at Berlin and officially printed in a green-book.
But after Bismarck's fall relations improved a little, and in April
1800 the Italian fleet was sent to Toulon to salute President
Carnot in the name of King Humbert, though this did not
prevent the French government being suspected of having
designs on Tripoli. Italian opinion was again incensed against
France by the action of the French clericals, represented by a
band of Catholic " pilgrims " who went to Rome to offer their
sympathy to the pope in the autumn of 1891, and outraged the
burial-place of Victor Emmanuel by writing in the visitors' register
kept at the Pantheon the words " Vive U pope." In August
1893 a fight took place at Aigues Mortes, the medieval walled
city on the salt marshes of the Gulf of Lyons, between French
and Italian workmen, in which seven Italians were killed. But
Crispi bad gone out of office early in 189 1, and the ministers
who succeeded him were more disposed to prevent a rupture
between Italy and France. Crispi became prime minister again
in December 1893, but this time without the portfolio of foreign
affairs. He placed at the Consults Baron Blanc, who though a
strong partisan of the Triple Alliance was closely attached to
France, being a native of Savoy, where he spent his yearly
vacations on French soil. That the relations between the two
nations were better was shown by what occurred after the
murder of President Carnot in June 1894. The fact that the
assassin was an Italian might, have caused trouble a little earlier;
but the grief of the Italians was so sincere, as shown by popular
demonstrations at Rome, that no anti-Italian violence took
place in France, and in the words of the French ambassador,
M Billot, GasernVa crime seemed likely to further an under-
standing between the two peoples. The movement was very
slight and made no progress during the short presidency ol M
Casimir-Perier On the 1st of November r8o4 Alexander III
died, when the Italian press gave proof of the importance attri-
buted by the Triplice to the Franco-Russian understanding
by expressing a hope that the new tsar would put an end to it
But on the roth of June 1895* the foreign minister, M Hanotaux,
intimated to the French Chamber that the understanding had
become an alhance, and on the 17th the Russian ambassador
in Paris conveyed to M Felix Faure, who was now president
of the Republic, the collar of St Andrew, while the same day
the French and Russian men-of-war, invited to the opening of
the Kiel Canal, entered German waters together. The union of
France with Russia was no doubt one cause of the cessation of
Italian hostility to France-, but others were at work. The in-
auguration of the statue of MeeMahoA at Magenta the same week
as the announcement of the Franco-Russian alliance showed that
900
FRANCE
Utere wu a disposition to revive the old sentiment of fraternity
which had once united France with Italy. More important was
the necessity felt by the Italians of improved commercial re-
lations with the French. Crispi fell on the 4th of March 1806,
after the news of the disaster to the Italian troops at Adowa,
the war with Abyssinia being a disastrous legacy left by him.
The previous year he had caused the withdrawal from Paris of
the Italian ambassador Signor Rcssmann, a friend of France,
transferring thither Count Tornielli, who during his mission
in London had made a speech, after the visit of the Italian fleet
to Toulon, which qualified him to rank as a mUogallo. But with
the final disappearance of Crispi the relations of the two Latin
neighbours became more natural. Commerce between them had
diminished, and the business men of both countries, excepting
certain protectionists, felt that the commercial rupture was
mutually prejudicial. Friendly negotiations were initiated on
both sides, and almost the last act of President Felix Faure
before his sudden death — M. Delcasse being then foreign minister
— was to promulgate, on the and of February 1809, a new com-
mercial arrangement between France and Italy which the
French parliament had adopted. By that lime M. Barrcrc was
ambassador at the Quirinal and was engaged in promoting
cordial relations between Italy and France, of which Count
Tornielli in Paris had already become an ardent advocate.
Italy remained a party to the Triple Alliance, which was renewed
for a third period in 1902. But so changed had its significance
become that in October 1903 the French Republic received for
the first time an official visit from the sovereigns of Italy.
This reconciliation of France and Italy was destined to have most
Important results outside the sphere of the Triple Alliance.
The return visit which President Loubet paid to Victor Emmanuel
III. in April 1904, it being the first time that a French chief of the
state had gone to Rome since the pope had lost the temporal
sovereignty, provoked a protest from the Vatican which caused
the rupture of diplomatic relations between France and the Holy
See, followed by the repudiation of the Concordat by an act
passed in France, in 1905, separating the church from the state.
While the decadence of the Triple Alliance had this important
effect on the domestic affairs of France, its inception had pro-
duced the Franco-Russian alliance, which took France
out of its isolation in Europe, and became the pivot
of its exterior policy. It has been noted that in the
years succeeding the Franco-Prussian War the tsar Alexander II.
had shown a disposition to support France against German
aggression, as though to make up for his neutrality during the,
war, which was so benevolent for Germany that his uncle
William I. bad ascribed to it a large share of the German victory.
The assassination of Alexander II. by revolutionaries in 188 1
made it difficult for the new autocrat to cultivate closer relations
with a Republican government, although the Third Republic,
under the influence of Gambetta, to whom its consolidation was
chiefly due, had repudiated that proselytizing spirit, inherited
from the great Revolution, which had disquieted the monarchies
of Europe in 1848 and had provoked their hostility to the Second
Republic. But the Triple Alliance which was concluded the
year after the murder of the tsar indicated the possible expediency
of an understanding between the two great powers of the West
and the East, in response to the combination of the three central
powers of Europe, — though Bismarck after his fall revealed that
in 1884 a secret treaty was concluded between Germany and
Russia, which was, however, said to have in view a war between
England and Russia. Internal dissension on the subject of
colonial policy in the far East, followed by the fall of Jules
Ferry and the Boulangist agitation were some of the causes
which prevented France from strengthening its position in
Europe by seeking a formal understanding with Russia in the
first part of the reign of Alexander III. But when the Boulangist
movement came to an end, entirely from the incompetency of
its leader, it behoved the government of the Republic to find a
means of satisfying the strong patriotic sentiment revealed in
the nation, which, directed by a capable and daring soldier,
would' have swept .away the parliamentary republic and estab-
lished a military dictatorship m its place. The Franco-Russian
understanding provided that means, and Russia was ready for
it, having become, by the termination in 1800 of the secret
treaty with Germany, not less isolated in Europe than France.
In July 1891, when the French fleet visited Kronstadt the
incident caused such enthusiasm throughout the French nation
that the exiled General Boulanger's existence would have been
forgotten, except among his dwindling personal followers, had
he not put an end to it by suicide two months later at Brussels.
The Franco-Russian understanding united all parties, not is
love for one another but in the idea that France was thereby
about to -resume its place in Europe. The Catholic Royalists
ceased to talk of the restitution of the temporal power of the
pope in their joy at the deference of the government of the
republic for the most autocratic monarchy of Christendom;
the Boulangisu, now called Nationalists, hoped that it would
lead to the war of revenge with Germany, and that it ought also
be the means of humiliating England, as shown by their resent-
ment at the visit of the French squadron to Portsmouth on its
way home from Kronstadt. It is, however, extremely improbable
that the understanding and subsequent alliance would have been
effected bad the Boulangist movement succeeded. For the last
thing that the Russian government desired was war with Ger-
many. What it needed and obtained was security against
German aggression on its frontier and financial aid from France;
so a French plebiscitary government, having for its aim the
restitution of Alsace and Lorraine, would have found no support
in Russia. As the German chancellor, Count von Capri vi, said
in the Reichstag on the 27th of November 1891, a few weeks
after a Russian loan had been subscribed in France nearly
eight times over, the naval visit to Kronstadt had not brought
war nearer by one single inch. Nevertheless when in sSgj the
Russian fleet paid a somewhat tardy return visit to Toulon,
where it was reviewed by President Carnot, a party of Russian
officers who came to Paris was received by the population of
the capital, which less than five years before had acclaimed
General Boulangcr, with raptures which could not have been
exceeded had they brought back to France the territory lost in
1871. In November 1894, Alexander III. died, and in January
1895, M. Casimir-Perier resigned the presidency of the Republic,
to which he had succeeded only six months before on the assassi-
nation of M. Carnot. So it was left to Nicholas II. and President
Felix Faure to proclaim the existence of a formal alliance between
France and Russia. It appears that in 1891 and 1892, at the
time of the first public manifestations of friendship between
France and Russia, in the words of M. Ribot, secret conventions
were signed by him, being foreign minister, and M. de Freydnet,
president of the council, which secured for France "* the support
of Russia for the maintenance of the equilibrium in Europe ";
and on a later occasion the same statesman said that it was after
the visit of the empress Frederick to Paris in 1891 that Alexander
III. made to France certain offers which were accepted. The
word " alliance " was not publicly used by any minister to
connote the relations of France with Russia until the 10th of June
1895, when M. Hanotaux used the term with cautious vagueness
amid the applause of the Chamber of Deputies. Yet not even
when Nicholas II. came to France in October 1896 was the word
" alliance " formally pronounced in any of the official speeches.
But the reception given to the tsar and tsaritsa in Paris, where
no European sovereign had come officially since William of
Germany passed down the Champs Eiysees as a conqueror,
was of such a character that none could doubt that this was the
consecration of the alliance. It was at last formally proclaimed
by Nicholas II., on board a French man-of-war, on the occasion
of the visit of the president of the Republic to Russia in August
1897. From that date until the formation of M. Briand's
cabinet in 1009, nine different ministries succeeded one another
and five ministers of foreign affairs; but they all loyally sup-
ported the Franco-Russian alliance, although its popularity
diminished in France long before the war between Russia and
Japan, which deprived it of its efficacy in Europe. In 1001
Nicholas II. came again to France and was the guest of President
history] FRANCE
Loabet at Compiegne. Hit visit excited little enthusiasm
in the nation, which was disposed to attribute it to Russia's
finaiwUi a eed of France; while the Socialists, now a strong
party which provided the Waldeck-Rousseau ministry with an
important part of its majority in the Chamber, violently attacked
the alliance of the Republic with a reactionary autocracy.
However anomalous- that may have been it did not prevent the
whole French nation from welcoming the friendship between
the governments of Russia and of France in its early stages.
Nor can there be any doubt that the popular instinct was right
in according it that welcome. France in its international rela-
tions was strengthened morally by the understanding and by
the alliance, which also served as a check to Germany. But
its association with Russia had not the results hoped for by
the French reactionaries. It encouraged them in their opposition
to the parliamentary Republic during the Dreyfus agitation,
the more so because the Russian autocracy is anti-Semitic It
also made a Nationalist of one president of the Republic, Felix
Faure, whose head was so turned by his imperial frequentarJons
that he adopted some of the less admirable practices of princes,
and also seemed ready to assume the bearing of an autocrat.
His sudden death was as great a relief to the parliamentary
Republicans as it was a disappointment to the plebiscitary
party, which anti-Dreyfusism, with its patriotic pretensions,
had again made a formidable force in the land. But the election
of the pacific and constitutional M. Loubet as president of the
Republic at this critical moment in its history counteracted
any reactionary influence which the Russian alliance might have
had in France; so the general effect of the alliance was to
strengthen the Republic and to add to its prestige. The visit
of the tsar to Paris, the first paid by a friendly sovereign since
the Second Empire, impressed a population, proud of its capital,
by an outward sign which seemed to show that the Republic
was not an obstacle to the recognition by the monarchies of
Europe of the place still held by France among the great powers.
Before M. Loubet laid. down office the nation, grown more
republican, saw the visit of the tsar followed by those of the
kings of England and of Italy, who might never have been
moved to present their respects to the French Republic had not
Russia shown them the way.
While the French rejoiced at the Russian alliance chiefly as
a check to the aggressive designs of Germany, they also liked
the association of France with a power regarded as
hostile to England. This traditional feeling was not
discouraged by one of the chief artificers of the alliance,
Baron Mohrenheim, Russian ambassador in Paris,
who until 1884 had filled the same position in London, where he
had not learned to love England, and who enjoyed in France a
popularity rarely accorded to the diplomatic agent of a foreign
power. An entente cordiak has since been initiated between
England and France. But it is necessary to refer to the less
agreeable relations which existed between the two countries,
as they had some influence on the exterior policy of the Third
Republic. England and France had no causes of friction within
Europe. But in its policy of colonial expansion, during the last
twenty years of the 19th century, France constantly encountered
England all over theglobe. Thefirstimportantenterprisebeyond
the seas seriously undertaken by France after the Franco-
German War. was, as we have seen, in Tunis. But even before
that question had been mentioned at the congress of Berlin,
fn 1878, France had become involved in an adventure in the Far
East, which in its developments attracted more public attention
at home than the extension of French territory in northern
Africa. Had these pages been written before the end of the
xotb century it would have seemed necessary to trace the
operations of France in Indo-China with not less detail than
has been given to the establishment of the protectorate in Tunis.
But French hopes of founding a great empire in the Far East
came to an end with the partial resuscitation of China and the
rise to power of Japan. As we have seen, Jules Ferry's idea
was that in colonial expansion France would find the best means
of recovering prestige after the defeat of 1870^2* hi the years
901
of recuperation when it was essential to be diverted from European
complications. Jules Ferry was not a friend of Gambetta, in
spite of later republican legends. But the policy of colonial
expansion in Tunis and in Indo-China, associated with Ferry's
name, was projected by Gambetta to give satisfaction to France
for the necessity, imposed, in his opinion, on the French govern-
ment, of taking its lead in foreign affairs from Berlin. How
Jules Ferry developed that system we know now from Bismarck's
subsequent expressions of regret at Ferry's falL He believed
that, had Ferry remained in power, an amicable arrangement
would have been made between France and Germany, a formal
agreement having been almost concluded to the effect that France
should maintain peaceable and friendly relations with Germany,
while Bismarck supported France in Tunis, in Indo-China and
generally in its schemes of ovenea colonisation. Even though the
friendly attitude of Germany towards those schemes was not
official the contrast was manifest between the benevolent tone
of the German press and that of the English, which was generally
hostile. Jules Ferry took his stand on the position that his
policy was one not of colonial conquest, but of colonial conserva-
tion, that without Tunis, Algeria was insecure, that without
Tongking and Annam, there was danger of losing Cochin-China,
where the French had been in poss es s io n since 1861. It was on
the Tongking question that Ferry fell. On the 30th of March
1885, on the news of the defeat of the French troops at Lang-Son,
the Chamber refused to vote the money for carrying on the cam-
paign by a majority of 306 to 140. Since that day public opinion
in- France has made amends to the memory of Jules Ferry.
His patriotic foresight has been extolled. Criticism has not been
spared for the opponents of his policy in parliament of whom
theinost conspicuous, M. ClemenceauandM. Ribot,havesurvived
to take a leading part in public affairs in the 20th century.
The attitude of the Parisian press, which compared Lang-Son
with Sedan and Jules Ferry with Exnile OUivier, has been
generally deplored, as has that of the public which was ready
to offer violence to the fallen minister, and which was still so
hostile to him in 2887 that the congress at Versailles was per-
suaded that there would he a revolution in Paris if it elected
" the German Ferry " president of the Republic. Nevertheless
his adversaries in parliament, in the press and in the street have -
been justified— not owing to their superior sagacity, but owing
to a series of unexpected events which the most foreseeing
statesmen of the world never anticipated. The Indo-China
dream of Jules Ferry might have led to a magnificent empire in
the East to compensate for that which Dupleix lost and Napoleon
failed to reconquer.
The Russian alliance, which came at the time when Ferry's
policy was justified in the eyes of the public, too late for him
to enjoy any credit, gave a new impetus to the French idea
of establishing an empire in the Far East. In the opinion of all
the prophets of Europe the great international struggle in the
near future was to be that of England with Russia for the
possession of India. If Russia won, France might have a share
in the dismembered Indian empire, of which part of the frontier
now marched with that of French Indo-China, since Burma
had become British and Tongking French. Such aspirations were
not formulated in white-books or in parliamentary speeches.
Indeed, the apprehension of difficulty with England limited
French ambition on the Siamese frontier. That did not prevent
dangerous friction arising between England and France on the
question of the Mekong, the river which flows from China almost
due south into the China Sea traversing the whole length of
French Indo-China, and forming part of the eastern boundary
of Upper Burma and Siam. The aim of France was to secure the
whole of the left bank of the Mekong, the highway of commerce
from southern China. The opposition of Siam to this delimitation
was believed by the French to be inspired by England, the
supremacy of France on the Mekong river being prejudicial to
British commerce with China. The inevitable rivalry between
the two powers reached an acute crisis in 1893, the British
ambassador in Paris being Lord Dufferin, who well understood
the question, upper Burma having been annexed to India under
goo
FRANCE
pnsraa
mere wu a disposition to revive the old sentiment of fraternity
which had once united France with Italy. More important was
the necessity felt by the Italians of improved commercial re-
lations with the French. Crispi fell on the 4th of March 1896,
after the news of the disaster to the Italian troops at Adowa,
the war with Abyssinia being a disastrous legacy left by him.
The previous year he had caused the withdrawal from Paris of
the Italian ambassador Signor Ressmann, a friend of France,
transferring thither Count Tornielli, who during his mission
in London had made a speech, after the visit of the Italian fleet
to Toulon, which qualified him to rank as a misogallo. But with
the final disappearance of Crispi the relations of the two Latin
neighbours became more natural. Commerce between them had
diminished, and the business men of both countries, excepting
certain protectionists, felt that the commercial rupture was
mutually prejudicial. Friendly negotiations were initiated on
both sides, and almost the last act of President Felix Faure
before his sudden death — M. Delcasse being then foreign minister
— was to promulgate, on the and of February 1899, a new com-
mercial arrangement between France and Italy which the
French parliament had adopted. By that lime M. Barrerc was
ambassador at the Quirinal and was engaged in promoting
cordial relations between Italy and France, of which Count
Tornielli in Paris had already become an ardent advocate.
Italy remained a party to the Triple Alliance, which was renewed
for a third period in 1902. But so changed had its significance
become that in October 1903 the French Republic received for
the first time an official visit from the sovereigns of Italy.
This reconciliation of France and Italy was destined to have most
important results outside the sphere of the Triple Alliance.
The return visit which President Loubet paid to Victor Emmanuel
III. in April 1904, it being the first time that a French chief of the
state had gone to Rome since the pope had lost the temporal
sovereignty, provoked a protest from the Vatican which caused
the rupture of diplomatic relations between France and the Holy
See, followed by the repudiation of the Concordat by an act
passed in France, in 1905, separating the church from the state.
While the decadence of the Triple Alliance had this important
effect on the domestic affairs of France, its inception had pro-
duced the Franco-Russian alliance, which took France
SSSf out of its isolation in Europe, and became the pivot
of its exterior policy. It has been noted that in the
years succeeding the Franco-Prussian War the tsar Alexander II.
had shown a disposition to support France against German
aggression, as though to make up for his neutrality during the,
war, which was so benevolent for Germany that his uncle
William I. had ascribed to it a large share of the German victory.
The assassination of Alexander IL by revolutionaries in 188 1
made it difficult for the new autocrat to cultivate closer relations
with a Republican government, although the Third Republic,
under the influence of Gambetta, to whom its consolidation was
chiefly doe, bad repudiated that proselytizing spirit, inherited
from the great Revolution, which had disquieted the monarchies
of Europe in 1848 and had provoked their hostility to the Second
Republic. But the Triple Alliance which was concluded' the
year after the murder of the tsar indicated the possible expediency
of an understanding between the two great powers of the West
and the East, in response to the combination of the three central
powers of Europe,— though Bismarck after his fall revealed that
in 1884 a secret treaty was concluded between Germany and
Russia, which was, however, said to have in view a war between
England and Russia. Internal dissension on the subject of
colonial policy in the far East, followed by the fall of Jules
Ferry and the Boulangist agitation were some of the causes
which prevented France from strengthening its position in
Europe by seeking a formal understanding with Russia in the
first part of the reign of Alexander III. But when the Boulangist
movement came to an end, entirely from the incompetency of
its leader, it behoved the government of the Republic to find a
means of satisfying the strong patriotic sentiment revealed in
the nation, which, directed by a capable and daring soldier,
would' have swept .away the parliamentary republic and estab-
lished a military dictatorship in its place. The Franco-Ra
understanding provided that means, and Russia was ready Us
it, having become, by the termination in 1800- of the seens
treaty with Germany, not less isolated in Europe than Francs.
In July 1 89 1, when the French fleet visited Kronsladl ibt
incident caused such enthusiasm throughout the French naixp
that the exiled General Boulanger's existence would have beta
forgotten, except among his dwindling personal followers, had
he not put an end to it by suicide two months later at Brussels.
The Franco-Russian understanding united all parties, not m
love for one another but in the idea that France was thereby
about to .resume its place in Europe. The Catholic Royansu
ceased to talk of the restitution of the temporal power of the
pope in their joy at the deference of the government of the
republic for the most autocratic monarchy of Cbristendcct,
the Boulangists, now called Nationalists, hoped that it would
lead to the war of revenge with Germany, and that it might alsa
be the means of humiliating England, as shown by their resent*
ment at the visit of the French squadron to Portsmouth 00 *a
way home from Kronstadt. It is, however, extremely improbable
that the understanding and subsequent alliance would have beea
effected had the Boulangist movement succeeded. For the last
thing that the Russian government desired was war with Ger-
many. What it needed and obtained was security against
German aggression on its frontier and financial aid from France,
so a French plebiscitary government, having for its aim the
restitution of Alsace and Lorraine, would have found no support
in Russia. As the German chancellor, Count von Caprivi, said
in the Reichstag on the 27th of November 1891, a few weeks
after a Russian loan had been subscribed in France nearJy
eight times over, the naval visit to Kronstadt had not brought
war nearer by one single inch. Nevertheless when in 1804 the
Russian fleet paid a somewhat tardy return visit to Tonka,
where it was reviewed by President Carnot, a party of Russian
officers who came to Paris was received by the population of
the capital, which less than five years before had acclaimed
General Boulanger, with raptures which could not have been
exceeded had they brought back to France the territory lost ia
1871. In November 1894, Alexander III. died, and in January
1895, M. Casimir-Pericr resigned the presidency of the Republic,
to which he had succeeded only six months before on the assassi-
nation of M. Carnot. So it was left to Nicholas II. and President
Felix Faure to proclaim the existence of a formal alliance between
France and Russia. It appears that in 1891 and 1893, at the
time of the first public manifestations of friendship between
France and Russia, in the words of M. Ribot, secret conventions
were signed by him, being foreign minister, and M. de Freycinet,
president of the council, which secured for France " the support
of Russia for the maintenance of the equilibrium in Europe ";
and on a later occasion the same statesman said that it was after
the visit of the empress Frederick to Paris in 1891 that Alexander
III. made to France certain offers which were accepted. The
word " alliance " was not publidy used by any minister 10
connote the relations of France with Russia until the 10th of June
1895, when M. Hanotaux used the term with cautious vagueness
amid the applause of the Chamber of Deputies. Yet not even
when Nicholas II. came to France in October 1806 was the word
" alliance " formally pronounced in any of the official speeches.
But the reception given to the tsar and tsaritsa in Paris, where
no European sovereign had come officially since William of
Germany passed down the Champs Elysecs as a conqueror,
was of such a character that none could doubt that this was the
consecration of the alliance. It was at last formally proclaimed
by Nicholas II., on board a French man-of-war, on the occasion
of the visit of the president of the Repubh'c to Russia in August
1897. From that date until the formation of M. Brian d*s
cabinet in 1009, nine different ministries succeeded one another
and five ministers of foreign affairs; but they all loyally sup-
ported the Franco-Russian alliance, although its popularity
diminished in France long before the war between Russia and
Japan, which deprived it of its efficacy in Europe. In 1001
Nicholas IL came again to France and was the guest of President
HISTORY]
PRANCE
901
X-onbet at Compiegne. His visit excited little enthusiasm
in. the nation, which was disposed to attribute it to Russia's
fi»t^nfiVi need of France; while the Socialists, now a strong
X>AJty which provided the Waldeck-Rousseau ministry with an
important part of its majority in the Chamber, violently attacked
th« alliance of the Republic with a reactionary autocracy.
However anomalous' that may have been it did not prevent the
-whole French nation from welcoming the friendship between
the governments of Russia and of France in its early stages.
Nor can there be any doubt that the popular instinct was right
ixa according it that welcome. France in its international rela-
tions was strengthened morally by the understanding and by
the alliance, which also served as a check to Germany. But
its association with Russia had not the results hoped for by
the French reactionaries. It encouraged them in their opposition
to the parliamentary Republic during the Dreyfus agitation,
the more so because the Russian autocracy is anti-Semitic It
also made a Nationalist of one president of the Republic, Felix
Fature, whose head was so turned by his imperial frequentations
that he adopted some of the less admirable practices of princes,
auid also seemed ready to assume the bearing of an autocrat.
His sudden death was as great a relief to the parliamentary
Republicans as it was a disappointment to the plebiscitary
party, which anti-Dreyfusism, with its patriotic pretensions,
had again made a formidable force in the land. But the election
of the pacific and constitutional M. Loubet as president of the
Republic at this critical moment in its history counteracted
any reactionary influence which the Russian alliance might have
haul in France; so the general effect of the alliance was to
strengthen the Republic and to add to its prestige. The visit
of the tsar to Paris, the first paid by a friendly sovereign since
the Second Empire, impressed a population, proud of its capital,
by an outward sign which seemed to show that the Republic
-was not an obstacle to the recognition by the monarrmV* of
Europe of the place still held by France among the great powers.
Before M. Loubet laid, down office the nation, grown more
republican, saw the visit of the tsar followed by those of the
kings of England and of Italy, who might never have been
moved to present their respects to the French Republic had not
Russia shown them the way.
While the French rejoiced at the Russian alliance chiefly as
a check to the aggressive designs of Germany, they also liked
the association of France with a power regarded as
hostile to England. This traditional feeling was not
discouraged by one of the chief artificers of the alliance,
Baron Mohrenheim, Russian ambassador in Paris,
who until 1884 had filled the same position in London, where he
had not learned to love England, and who enjoyed in France a
popularity rarely accorded to the diplomatic agent of a foreign
power. An entente cordial* has since been initiated between
England and France. But it is necessary to refer to the less
agreeable relations which existed between the two countries,
as they had some influence on the exterior policy of the Third
Republic. England and France had no causes of friction within
Europe. But in its policy of colonial expansion, during the last
twenty years of the 19th century, France constantly encountered
England all over the globe. Thefirstimportantenterprisebeyond
the seas seriously undertaken by France after the Franco-
German War. was, as we have seen, in Tunis. But even before
that question had been mentioned at the congress of Berlin,
in 1878, France had become involved in an adventure in the Far
East, which in its developments attracted more public attention
at home than the extension of French territory in northern
Africa. Had these pages been written before the end of the
19th century it would have seemed necessary to trace the
operations of France in Indo-Cbina with not less detail than
has been given to the establishment of the protectorate in Tunis.
But French hopes of founding a great empire in the Far East
came to an end with the partial resuscitation of China and the
rise to power of Japan. As we have seen, Jules Ferry's idea
was that in colonial expansion France would find the best means
of recovering prestige after the defeat of 1870^1 in the years
of recuperation when it was essential to be diverted from European
complications. Jules Ferry was not a friend of Gambetta, in
spite of later republican legends. But the policy of colonial
expansion in Tunis and in Indo-China, associated with Ferry's
name, was projected by Gambetta to give satisfaction to France
for the necessity, imposed, in his opinion, on the French govern-
ment, of taking Us lead* in foreign affairs from Berlin. How
Jules Ferry developed that system we know now from Bismarck's
subsequent expressions of regret at Ferry's falL He believed
that, had Ferry remained in power, an amicable arrangement
would have been made between France and Germany, a formal
agreement having been almost concluded to the effect that France
should maintain peaceable and friendly relations with Germany,
while Bismarck supported France in Tunis, in Indo-China and
generally in its schemes of oversea colonisation. Even though the
friendly attitude of Germany towards those schemes was not
official the contrast was manifest between the benevolent tone
of the German press and that of the English, which was generally
hostile. Jules Ferry took his stand on the position that his
policy was one not of colonial conquest, but of colonial conserva-
tion, that without Tunis, Algeria was insecure, that without
Tongking and Annam, there was danger of losing Cochin-China,
where the French had been in possession since x86i. It was on
the Tongking question that Ferry fell. On the 30th of March
x885,onthe news of the defeat of the French troops at Lang-Son,
the rhannhgr ref used to vote the money for carrying on the cam-
paign by a majority of 306 to 149. Since that day public opinion
in- France has made amends to the memory of Jules Ferry.
His patriotic foresight has been extolled. Criticism has not been
spared for the opponents of his policy In parliament of whom
themost conspicuous, M. Clemenceau and M. Ribot,havesurvived
to take a leading part in public affairs in the 20th century.
The attitude of the Parisian press, which compared Lang-Son
with Sedan and Jules Ferry with £mile OUivier, has been
generally deplored, as has that of the public which was ready
to offer violence to the fallen minister, and which was still so
hostile to him in 1887 that the congress at Versailles was per-
suaded that there would be a revolution in Paris if it elected
" the German Ferry " president of the Republic. Nevertheless
his adversaries in parliament, in the press and in the street have
been justified— not owing to their superior sagacity, but owing
to a series of unexpected events which the most foreseeing
statesmen of the world never anticipated. The Indo-China
dream of Jules Ferry might have led to a magnificent empire in
the East to compensate for that which Dupleix lost and Napoleon
failed to reconquer.
The Russian alliance, which came at the time when Ferry's
policy was justified in the eyes of the public, too late for him
to enjoy any credit, gave a new impetus to the French idea
of establishing an empire in the Far East. In the opinion of all
the prophets of Europe the great international struggle in the
near future was to be that of England with Russia for the
possession of India. If Russia won, France might have a share
in the dismembered Indian empire, of which part of the frontier
now marched with that of French Indo-China, since Burma
had become British and Tongking French. Such aspirations were
not formulated in white-books or in parliamentary speeches.
Indeed, the apprehension of difficulty with England limited
French ambition on the Siamese frontier. That did not prevent
dangerous friction arising between England and France on the
question of the Mekong, the river which flows from China almost
due south into the China Sea traversing the whole length of
French Indo-China, and forming part of the eastern boundary
of Upper Burma and Siam. The aim of France was to secure the
whole of the left bank of the Mekong, the highway of commerce
from southern China. The opposition of Siam to this delimitation
was believed by the French to be inspired by England, the
supremacy of France on the Mekong river being prejudicial to
British commerce with China* The inevitable rivalry between
the two powers reached an acute crisis in 1893, the British
ambassador in Paris being Lord Dufferin, who well understood
the question, upper Burma having been annexed to India under
902
FRANCE
[HISTOtr
his viceroyalty in 1865. The matter was not settled until 1894,
when not only was the French claim to the left bank of the
Mekong allowed, but the neutrality of a 25-kilometre tone on the
Siamese bank was conceded as open to French trade. It is said
that at one moment in July 1893 England and France were more
nearly at war than at any other international crisis under the
Third Republic, not excluding that of Fashoda, though the acute
tension between the governments was unknown to the public.
The Panama affair had left French public opinion in a nervous
condition. Fantastic charges were brought not only in the
press, but in the chamber of deputies, against newspapers and
politicians of having accepted bribes from the British govern-
ment. At the general election in August and September 1893
M. Cllmenceau was pursued into his distant constituency in the
Var by a crowd of Parisian politicians, who brought about his
defeat less by alleging his connexion with the Panama scandal
than by propagating the legend that he was the paid agent of
England. The official republic, which changed its prime minister
three times and its foreign minister twice in 1893, M. Develle
filling that post in the Ribot and Dupuy ministries and M.
Casimir-Perier in his own, repudiated with energy the calumnies
as to the attempted interference of England in French domestic
affairs. But the successive governments were not in a mood to
make concessions in foreign questions, as all France was under
the glamour of the preliminary manifestations of the Russian
alliance. This was seen, a few weeks after the elections, in the
wild enthusiasm with which Paris received Admiral Avelane
and his officers, who had brought the Russian fleet to Toulon to
return the visit of the French fleet to Ktonstadt in 1891. The
death of Marshal MacMahon, who had won his first renown in the
Crimea, and his funeral at the Invalides while the Russians were
in Paris, were used to emphasize the fact that the allies before
Sebastopol were no longer friends. The projector of the French
empire in the Far East did not live to see this phase of the seeming
justification of the policy which had cost him place and popularity.
Jules Ferry had died on the 17th of March 1893, only three weeks
after his triumphant rehabilitation in the political world by his
election to the presidency of the Senate, the second post in the
state. The year he died it seemed as though with the active
aid of Russia and the sympathy of Germany the possessions of
France in south-eastern Asia might have indefinitely expanded
into southern China. A few years later the defeat of Russia
by Japan and the rise of the sea-power of the Japanese practic-
ally ended the French empire in Indo-China. What the French
already had at the end of the last century is virtually guaranteed
to them only by the Anglo- Japanese alliance. It is in the irony
of things that these possessions which were a sign of French rivalry
with England should now be secured to France by England's
friendliness. For it is now recognized by the French that the
defence of Indo-China is impossible.
Had the French dream been realized of a large expansion of
territory into southern China, the success of the new empire would
have been based on free Chinese labour. This might
have counterbalanced an initial obstacle to all French
colonial schemes, more important than those which
arise from international difficulties—the reluctance of the
French to establish themselves as serious colonists in their
oversea possessions. We have noted how Algeria, which is
nearer to Toulon and Marseilles than axe Paris and Havre,
has been comparatively neglected by the French, after eighty
years of occupation, in spite of the amenity of its climate and
its soil for European sealers. The new French colonial school
advocates the withdrawal of France from adventures in distant
tropical countries which can be reached only by long sea voyages,
and the concentration of French activity in the northern half
of the African continent. Madagascar is, as we have seen,
counted as Africa in computing the area of French colonial
territory. But it lies entirely outside the scheme of African
colonization, and in spite'of the loss of life and money incurred
in its conquest, its retention is not popular with the new school,
although- the first claim of France to it was as long ago as the
itign. of Louis XIII., when in 164* a company was founded under
African
the protection of Richelieu for the colonization of the i
The French of the xoth and soth centuries may well be <
less enterprising in both hemispheres than were their ancasaai
of the 17th, and Madagascar, after having .been the cause x
much ill-feeling between England and. France under the Tk-i
Republic down to the time of its formal annexation, by -i*
law of the oth of August 1896, is not now the object of isuo
interest among French politicians. On the African ronriarg
it is different. When the Republic succeeded to the Second
Empire the French African possessions outside Algiers see
inconsiderable in area. The chief was Senegal, which theer:
founded as a French station under Louis XIII., was virt&a^ r
the creation of Faidherbe under the Second Empire, evea z
a greater degree than were Tunis and Tongking of Jules Ferry
under the Third Republic. There was also Gabon, which 1
now included in French Congo. Those outposts in the tropic
became the starting-points for the expansion of a French sphc*
of influence in north Africa, which by the beginning of the aces
century made France the nominal possessor of a vast temtorj
stretching from the equatorial region on the gulf of Guinea u
the Mediterranean. A large portion of it is of no importance,
including the once mysterious Timbuktu and the wilds of lie
waterless Sahara desert. But the steps whereby these w&
tracts of wilderness and of valuable territory came to AfK|
be marked on the maps in French colours, by inter- mm*
national agreement, are important, as they were £■**»
associated with the last serious official dispute between *****
England and France before the period of entente. M. Hanotam.
who was foreign minister for the then unprecedented term of
four years, from 1894 to 1808, with one short interval of a few
months, has thrown an instructive light on the feeling with which
French politicians up to the end of the 19th century regarded
England. He declared in 1009, with the high authority of
one who was during years of Anglo-French tension the mouth-
piece of the Republic in its relations with other powers, that
every move in the direction of colonial expansion made by
France disquieted and irritated England. He complained
that when France, under the stimulating guidance of Jobs
Ferry, undertook the reconstitution of an oversea domain,
England barred the way — in Egypt, in Tunis, in Madagascar,
m Indo-China, in the Congo, in Oceania. Writing with the
knowledge of an ex-foreign minister, who had enjoyed many
years of retirement to enable him to weigh his words, If.
Hanotaux asserted without any qualification that when he
took office England " had conceived a triple design, to assume
the position of heir to the Portuguese possessions in Africa,
to destroy the independence of the South African republics.
and to remain in perpetuity in Egypt." We have not to discuss
the truth of those propositions, We have only to note the tendency
of French policy; and in so doing it is useful to remark that the
official belief of the Third Republic in the last period of the
19th century was that England was the enemy of French colonial
expansion all over the globe, and that in the so-called scramble
for Africa English ambition was the chief .obstacle to the schemes
of France. M. Hanotaux, with the authority of official know-
ledge, indicated that the English project of a railway from the
Cape of Good Hope to Cairo was the provocation which stimu-
lated the French to essay a similar adventure; though he denied
that the Marchand mission and other similar expeditions about
to be mentioned were conceived with the specific object of
preventing the accomplishment of the British plan. The explora-
tions of Stanley had demonstrated that access to the Great Lakes
and the Upper Nile could be effected as easily from the west
coast of Africa as from other directions. The French, from their
ancient possession of Gabun, had extended their operations far
to the east, and had by treaties with European powers obtained
the right bank of the Ubanghi, a great affluent of the Congo,
as a frontier between their territory and that of the Congo
Independent State. They thus found themselves, with respect
to Europe, in possession of a region which approached the
valley of the Upper Nile, Between the fall of Jules Ferry
in J885 and the beginning of the Russian alliance came a period
HISTORY]
FRANCE
9«>3
oC decreased activity in French colonial expansion. The un-
popularity of the Tongking expedition was one of the causes
of the popularity of General Boulanger, who diverted the French
public from distant enterprises to a contemplation of the German
frontier, and when Boulangism came to an end the Panama
affair took its place m the interest it excited. But the colonial
party in France did not lose sight of the possibility of establishing
Upper a position on the Upper Nile. The partition of Africa
jvd* seemed to offer an occasion for France to take com-
*££***' cessation for the English occupation of Egypt In
***■• 1892 the Budget Commission, on the proposal of
M. £tlenne, deputy for Oran, who had three times been colonial
under secretary, voted 300/300 francs for the despatch of a
mission to explore and report on those regions, which had not
had much attention since the days of Emin. But the project
-was not then carried out. Later, parliament voted a sum six
times larger for strengthening the French positions on the Upper
Ubanghi and their means of communication with the coast
But Colonel Montefl's expedition, which was the consequence
of this vote, was diverted, and the 1,800,000 francs were spent
at Loango, the southern port of French Congo, and on the Ivory
Coast, the French territory which lies between Liberia and
the British Gold Coast Colony, where a prolonged war ensued
vrith Samory, a Nigerian chieftain. In September 1804, M.
Dekasse' being colonial minister, M. Liotard was appointed
commissioner of the Upper Ubanghi with instructions to extend
French influence in the Bahr-el-Ghaxal up to the Nile. In
addition to official missions, numerous expeditions of French
explorers took place in Central Africa during this period, and
negotiations were continually going on between the British
and French governments. Towards the end of 1895 Lord Salis-
bury, who had succeeded Lord Kimberley at the foreign office,
informed Baron de Courcel, the French ambassador, that an
expedition to the Upper Nile was projected for the purpose of
putting an end to Mahdism. M. Hanotaux was not at this
moment minister of foreign affafos. He had been succeeded
by M. Berthelot, the eminent chemist, who resigned that office
on the 26th of March 1896, a month before the fall of the Bour-
geois cabinet of which he was a member, in consequence of a
question raised in the chamber on this subject of the English
expedition to the Soudan. According to M. Hanotaux, who
returned to the Qua! d*Orsay, in the Meline ministry, on the
soth of April 1806, Lord Salisbury at the end of the previous
year, in announcing the expedition confidentially to M. de
Courcel, had assured him that it would not go beyond Dongola
without a preliminary understanding with France. There must
have been a misunderstanding on this point, as after reaching
Dongola in September 1896 the Anglo-Egyptian army proceeded
tip the Nile in the direction of Khartoum. Before M. Hanotaux
resumed office the Marchand mission had been formally
planned. On the 24th of February 1806 M. Guieysse,
colonial minister in the Bourgeois ministry, had signed
Captain Marchand's instructions to the effect that he must
march through the Upper Ubanghi, in order to extend French
influence as far as the Nile, and try to reach that river
before Colonel Colvile, who was leading an expedition from
the East. He was also advised to conciliate the Mahdi if the aim
of the mission could be benefited thereby. M. Liotard was
raised to the rank of governor of the Upper Ubanghi, and in
a despatch to him the new colonial minister, M. Andr£ Lebon,
wrote that the Marchand mission was not to be considered a
military enterprise, it being sent out with the intention of
maintaining the political line which for two years M. Liotard
had persistently been following, and of which the establishment
of France in the basin of the Nile ought to be the crowning
reward. Two days later, on the 25th of June 1806, Captain
Marchand embarked for Africa. This is not the place for a
description of his adventures m crossing the continent or when
fronds he encountered General Kitchener at Fashoda, two
* months after his arrival there in July 1898 and a
fortnight after the battle of Omdurman and the capture of
Khartoum. The news was made known, to Europe by the
sirdar's telegrams to the British government in September
announcing the presence of the French mission at Fashoda.
Then ensued a period of acute tension between the French and
English governments, which gave the impression to the public
that war between the two countries was inevitable. But those
who were watching the situation in France on the spot knew
that there was no question of fighting. France was unprepared,
and was also involved in the toils of the Dreyfus affair. Had
the situation been that of a year later, when the French domestic
controversy was ending and the Transvaal War beginning,
England might have been in a very difficult position. General
Kitchener declined to recognize a French occupation of any
part of the Nile valley. A long discussion ensued between the
British and French governments, which was ended by the latter
deciding on the 6th of November 1898 not to maintain the
Marchand mission at Fashoda. Captain Marchand refused to
return to Europe by way of the Nile and Lower Egypt, marching
across Abyssinia to Jibuti in French Somalfland, where he
embarked for France. He was received with well-merited
enthusiasm in Paris. But the most remarkable feature of his
reception was that the ministry became so alarmed lest the
popularity of the hero of Fashoda should be at the expense
of that of the parliamentary republic, that it put an end to the
public acclamations by despatching him secretly from the
capital—a somewhat similar treatment having been accorded to
General Dodds in 1893 on his return to France after conquering
Dahomey. The Marchand mission had little effect on African
questions at issue between France and Great Britain, as a great
settlement had been effected while it was on its way
across the continent. On the 14th of June 1898, the Soa^f
day before the fall of the Meline ministry, when M. t898.
Hanotaux finally quitted the Quai d'Orsay, a conven-
tion of general delimitation was signed at Paris by that minister
and by the British ambassador, Sir Edmund Monson, which as
regards the respective claims of England and France covered
in its scope the whole of the northern half of Africa from Sene-
gambia and the Congo to the valley of the Nile. Comparatively
little attention was paid to it amid the exciting events which
followed, so little that M. de Courcel has officially recorded
that three months later, on the eve of the Fashoda incident,
Lord Salisbury declared to him that he was not sufficiently
acquainted with the geography of Africa- to express an opinion
on certain questions of delimitation arising out of the success
of the British expedition on the Upper Nile. The convention
of June 1898 was, however, of the highest importance, as it
affirmed the junction into one vast territory of the three chief
African domains of France, Algeria and Tunis, Senegal and the
Niger, Chad and the Congo, thus conceding to France the whole
of the north-western continent with the exception of Morocco,
Liberia and the European colonies on the Atlantic This
arrangement, which was completed by an additional convention
on the *ist of March 1899, made Morocco a legitimate object
of French ambition.
The other questions which caused mutual animosity between
England and France in the decline of the 19th century had
nothing whatever to do with their conflicting inter- »»
national interests. The offensive attitude of the •fat*
English press towards France on account of the Jjj^,
Dreyfus affair was repaid by the French in their
criticism of the Boer War. When those sentimental causes of
mutual irritation had become less acute, the press of the two
countries was moved by certain influences to recognize that k
was in their interest to be on good terms with one another.
The importance of their commerical relations was brought
into relief as though it were a new fact. At last in 1903 state
visits between the rulers of England and of France took place
in their respective capitals, for the first time since the early days
of the Second Empire, followed by an Anglo-French convention
signed on the 8th of April 1904. By this an arrangement was
come to on outstanding questions Of controversy between
England and France in various parts of the world. France
undertook not to interfere with the action of England in Egypt,
9°4
while England made a like undertaking as to French influence
in Morocco. France conceded certain of its fishing rights in
Newfoundland which had been a perpetual source of irritation
between the two countries for nearly two hundred years since
the treaty of Utrecht of 1713. In return England made several
concessions to France in Africa, including that of the Los
Islands off Sena Leone and some rectifications of frontier on
the Gambia and between the Niger and Lake Chad. Other
points of difference were arranged as to Siam, the New Hebrides
and Madagascar. The convention of 1004 was on the whole
more advantageous for England than for France. Tht free
hand which England conceded to France in dealing with Morocco
was a somewhat burdensome gift owing to German interference;
but the incidents which arose from the Franco-German conflict
in that country are as yet too recent for any estimate of their
possible consequences.
One result was the retirement of M. Delcasse' from the foreign
office on the 6th of June 1905. He had been foreign minister
for seven years, a consecutive period of rare length,
wZuofM on * v once excced ed in England since the creation of
Doknmk ' the office, when Castlereagh held it for ten years,
and one of prodigious duration in the history of the
Third Republic. He first went to the Quai d'Orsay in the Brisson
ministry of June 1808, remained there during the Dupuy ministry
of the same year, was reappointed by M. Waldeck-Rousseau
in his cabinet which lasted from June 1899 to June 1902, was
retained in the post by M. Combes till his ministry fell in January
1905, and again by his successor M. Rouvier till his own resignation
in June of that year. M. Delcasse" had thusan uninterruptedreign
at the foreign office during a long critical period of transition
both in the interior politics of France and in its exterior relations.
He went to the Quai d'Orsay when the Dreyfus agitation was
most acute, and left it when parliament was absorbed in dis-
cussing the separation of church and state. He saw the Franco-
Russian alliance lose its popularity in the country even before the
Russian defeat by the Japanese in the last days of his ministry.
Although in the course of his official duties at the colonial office
he had been partly responsible for some of the expeditions sent
to Africa for the purpose of checking British influence, he was
fully disposed to pursue a policy which might lead to a friendly
understanding with England. In this he differed from M.
Hanotaux, who was essentially the man of the Franco-Russian
alliance, owing to it much of his prestige, including his election
to the French Academy, and Russia, to which he gave exclu-
sive allegiance, was then deemed to be primarily the enemy of
England. M. Delcasse on the contrary, from the first, desired to
assist a rapprochement between England and Russia as pre-
liminary to the arrangement he proposed between England
and France. He was foreign minister when the tsar paid his
second visit to France, but there was no longer the national
unanimity which welcomed him in 1896. M. Ddcassealsoaccom-
panied President Loubet to Russia when he returned the tsar's
second visit in 1902. But exchange of compliments between
France and Russia were no longer to be the sole international
ceremonials within the attributes of the French foreign office;
M. Delcasse' was minister when the procession of European
sovereigns headed by the kings of England and of Italy in 1003
came officially to Paris, and he went with M. Loubet to London
and to Rome on the president*! return visits to those capitals—
the latter being the immediate cause of the rupture of the con-
cordat with the Vatican, though M. Delcasse" was essentially a
cpneordatory minister. His retirement from the Rouvier
ministry in June 1905 was due to pressure from Germany in
consequence of his opposition to German interference in Morocco.
His resignation took place just a week after the news had arrived
of the destruction of the Russian fleet by the Japanese, which
completed the disablement of the one ally of France. The
impression was current in France that Germany wished to give
the French nation a fright before the understanding with England
had reached an effective stage, and it was actually believed
that the resignation of M. Delcasse" averted a declaration of war.
Although that belief revived to some extent the lading enmity .
FRANCE nnsroar
of the French towards the conquerors of Alsace-Lorraine, J*
fear which accompanied it moved a considerable section of xlz
nation to favour an understanding with Germany in pxefercsce
to, or even at the expense of, friendly relations with V-ntf****
M. Clemenceau, who only late in life came into office, and
attained it at the moment when a better understanding with
England was progressing, had been throughout his long career,
of all French public men in all political groups, the most con-
sistent friend of England. His presence at the head of afius
was a guarantee of amicable Anglo-French relations, so far as
they could be protected by statesmanship.
By reason of the increased duration and stability of min^t™^
the personal influence of ministers in directing the foreign policy
of France has in one sense become greater in the aoth century
than in those earlier periods when France had first to recuperate
its strength after the war and then to take its exterior pohcy
from Germany. Moreover, not only have cabinets lasted longer,
but the foreign minister has often been retained in a successka
of them. Of the thirty years which in 1909 had elapsed since
Marshal MacMahon retired and the republic was governed by
republicans, in the first fifteen years from 1879 to 1804 fourteen
different persons held the office of minister of foreign afiaia,
while six sufficed for the fifteen years succeeding the latter date.
One must not, however, exaggerate the effect of this greater
stability in office-holding upon continuity of policy, which was
well maintained even in the days when there was on an average
a new foreign minister every year. Indeed the most marked
breach in the continuity of the foreign policy of France has bees
made in that later period of long terms of office, which, with the
repudiation of the Concordat, has seen the withdrawal of the
French protectorate over Roman Catholic w"^ in the East—
though it is too soon to estimate the result. In another respect
France has under the republic departed a long way from a tradi-
tion of the Quai d'Orsay. It no longer troubles itself on the
subject of nationalities. Napoleon III., who had more French
temperament than French blood in his constitution, was as
idealist on this question, and one of the causes of his own down-
fall and the defeat of France was his sympathy in this direction
with German unity. Since Sedan little has been done in France
to further the doctrine of nationalities. A faint echo of it was
heard during the Boer war, but French sympathy with the
struggling Dutch republics of South Africa was based rather on
anti-English sentiment than on any abstract theory. (J. E. C B.)
Bibliography op French History.— The scientific study of
the history of France only begins with the 16th century. It was
hampered at first by the traditions of the middle ages and by a
servile imitation of antiquity. Paulus Aemilius of Verona (De
rebus fesiis Francorum, 1517), who may be called the first of modem
historians, merely applies the oratorical methods of the Latin
historiographers. It u not till the second half of the century that
history emancipates itself; Catholics and Protestants alike turn
to it for arguments in their religious and political cootrevcrsies.
Francois Hotman published (1574) his Franco-CaUia; Claude
Fauchct his Anliquitis rauloises el francoises (1579); £tieasc
Pasquier his Reckerches de la France (161 1), "the only work of
erudition of the 16th century which one can read through without
being bored." Amateurs like Petau, A. de Thou, Boogars and
Peiresc collected libraries to which men of learning went to draw
their knowledge of the past ; Pierre Pithou, one of the authors ef
the Satirt Menippee, published the earliest annals of France {A nuales
Francorum, 1588, and Historiae Francorum scriptores coetomei XJ^
1596). Jacques Bongart collected in his Costa Dei per Francos (161 1-
1617) the principal chroniclers of the Crusades. Others made a
study of chronology like J. J. Scaliger {De emeudatioue lemporum,
1583; Thesaurus temponm, 1606), sketched the history of literature;
like Francois Crude, sieur of La Croix in Maine (Bibliaikequefranceise,
1584), and Antoine du Verdier (Catalogue de tout lea outrun out out
hcril ou troduii enfrancois, 1585), or discOTwd the actual principles of
historical research, like Jean Bodin (Metkodns ad f action kistoriarvm
cornilionem, 1566) and Henri Lancelot Voisin de La Popcliniere
(Histoirc des htstoires, 159O).
But the writers of history are as vet very inexpert; the Bisunn
gjhUrale des rois de France of Bernard de Girard, seigneur de Hainan
(1576), the Grandes Annates de France of Francois de Bellefomt
( T 579). the Inoentaire general de thistoirt de France of Jean deSerres
(1597). the Hisieire tenfrate de France depute Pkaromond of Sripkm
Dupieix (1621-1645). the Histoirt de France (1643-1651) of Francois
Eu^deMeaeray.ai>dja»veallhisil^ti«JbfWM^^«Wriu<w»
HISTOttOGRAPHY)
FRANCE
905
ire eegerfy reed when they
historical research tacked
etoPranto (1668). are
Appeared, but are worthies* nowadays. Himncw reacsrcn wwa
method, leaders and trained workers; it found them all in the 17th
century, the golden age of learning which was honoured alike by
laymen, priests and members of the monastic orders, especially the
Benedictines of the congregation of St Maur. The publication of
original documents was carried on with enthusiasm. To Andre
Duchesne we owe two great collections of chronicles: the Historiao
Normannorum scriptores anttoui (1610) and the Hitforiae Francorum
scriptores, continued by his son Francois (5 vols., 1636-1649).
These publications were due to a part only of his prodigious activity ;
his papers and manuscripts, preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale
at Paris, are an inexhaustible mine. Charles du Fresne, seigneur
du Cange, published Villehardouin (1657) and Joinville (1668);
Etienne Baluxe, the Capitularia regum Francorum (1674), the Nova
collecUo conciliorum (1677), the Vita* paparum Avenionensium
(1693). The clergy were very much aided in their work by their
private libraries and by their co-operation; Pere Philippe Labbe
published his BibtioOieca' nova manuscriptorum (1657), and began
(1671) his Collection des conciles, which was successfully completed
by his colleague Pere Cossart (18 vols.). In 1643 the Jesuit Jean
Bolland brought out vol. i. of the Acta sanctorum, * vast collection
of stories and legends which has not yet been completed beyond the
8th of November. (See Bollandists.) The Benedictines, for
neir part, published the Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti
(9 vols., 1668-1701). One of the chief editors of this collection, Dom
jean Mab&oa, published on his own account toe Vetera anatecta
14 vols., 1675-1685) and prepared the Annates ordinis sancti Benedicts
(6 vols., 1 703-1793) • To Dom Thierri Ruinart we owe good editions
of Gregory of Tours and Fredegarius (1699). The learning of the
17th century further inaugurated those specialised studies which are
important aids to history. MabiUon in his Do re difiomoHca (1681)
Adrien de Valois
creates the science of documents or diplomatics.
lays a sound foundation for historical geography by his critical
rum (1675). Numismatics finds an en-
• LebJanc (Traiti historique des numnaies
edition of the Notitia Galliarum (1675'
lightened pioneer in Francois LebJanc ( .......
do Franco, 1690). Du Cange. one of the greatest of the French
scholars who have studied the middle
bearing on institutions in his Gtossarium
. has defined terms
'toe ei infimae totinitatis
(1678), recast by the Benedictines (1733), with an important supple-
ment by Dom Carpentier (1768), republished twice during the 19th
century, with additions, by F. Didot (1840-1850), and by L. Favreat
Niort (1883-1888); this work is still indispensable to every student
of medieval history. Finally, great biographical or bibliographical
works were undertaken} the Gallia Christiana, which gave a chrono-
logical list of the archbishops, bishops and abbots of the Gaols and
of France, was compiled by two twin brothers, Scevole and Louis
de Seinte-Marthe, and by the two sons of Louis (4 vols., 1656); a
fresh edition, on a better plan, and with great additions, was Begun
in 1715 by Denys de Sainte-Marthe. continued throughout the 18th
century by the Benedictines, and finished in the 10th century by
Barthelemy Haureau (1856-1861).
As to the nobility, a series of researches and publications, begun
by Pierre d'Hozier (d. 1660) and continued well on into the 19th
century by several of his descendants, developed into the Armorial
general de la Franco, which was remodelled several times. A similar
work, of a more critical nature, was carried out by Pere Anselme
(Histoire geneatogusut do la maison de Franco et des fronds oficiers
de la couronne, 1674) and by Pere Ange and Pere Sunplicien, who
completed the work (3rd ed. in 9 vols., 1736-1733). Critical biblio-
graphy is especially represented by certain Protestants, expelled
from France by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Pierre
Bayle, the sceptic, famous for his Dictionnairo critique (1690),
which is in part a refutation of the Dictionnairo histonque et gso-
graphique published in 1673 by the Abbe Louis Moren, was the
first to publish the NouoeUes do la ripubliauo des leUres (1684-1687),
which was continued by Henri Basnage de Beauval under the title
of Histoire des overages des savants (24 vols.). In imitation of this,
Jean Le Clerc successively edited a Bibliotheque universeUeet historique
(1686-1693), a Bibliotheque choisio (1703-1713), and a BiUiotheque
ancionno et moderns (1714-1737). These were the first of our
18th century continues the traditions of the 17th. The
Benedictines still for some time hold the first place. Dom Edmond
Martene visited numerous archives (which were then closed) in
France and neighbouring countries, and drew from tbem the material
for two important collections: Thesaurus novus anecdotorum (9 vols.,
1717, in collaboration with Dom Ursin Durand) and Veterum scrip-
torum cotlectio (9 vols., 1724-1733). Dom Bernard de Montfaucon
also travelled in search of illustrated records of antiquity; private
collections, among others the celebrated collection of Gaignieres
(now in the Bibliotheque Nationale), provided him with the illus-
trations which he published in his Monuments de la monarchie
francotse (5 vols., 1729-1733)- The text is in two languages, Latin
and French. Dom Martin Bouquet took up the work Degun by the
two Duchesnes, and in 1738 published vot i. of the Historians of
France (Rerum GoUicarum et Francicarum scriptores), an enormous
collection which was intended to include all the sources of the history
«4 France, grouped under centuries and reigns. He produced the
fast eight volumes himself; his work was continued by several
collaborators, the most active of whom, was Dom Michel J. BriaL
and already comprised thirteen volumes when it was interrupted
by the Revolution. In 17 jj. Ant nine Rivet de L.i Grange produced
vol. i. of the Histoire littiru irr de fa France, which in 1789 numbered
twelve volumes. While Dom C, Francois Toit5taiat and Dom
Rene Prosper Tassin pulLi*h«| a Atawrti« Traiti de diptomatiquo
(6 vols., 1 750-1 765), others wer* undertaking the Art do verifier Us
dates (1750; new and mutlc enlarged edition m 1770} Still others,
with more or less success, attempted historic of the provinces.
In the second half of the 1 M h rmtiiry, the ardour of the Benedic-
tines of St Maur diminished < sad st-itinu'nc work passed more and
more into the hands of laymen- The Academic de* I ascriptions et
Belles-lettres, founded in 1603 and leargunizrcl in 1 70 1, became its
chief instrument, numbering among it j members Denis Francois
Secouase, who continued the collection of Or/. ts des rois do
Franco, begun (1733) by J de Laurierer J, -D.de La Curne de Sainte
Palaye (Memotres sur Fan rienne tkmlcrie, 1759-1781 ; Ghssaire do
la tongue francaiso depuis son vfitint jmqn h 4 fa fin dt Louis XIV,
Srinted only in 1875-1882); J.-O. d'Anvitfc (Notice sur Pancienno
ante tires des monument, 1760)5 and I.. G* de Brequigny, the
greatest of them all, who continued thy publication of the Ordon-
nances, began the Table rhrmoioriqw dts dipt (met concemant
I' histoire de France (3 vol -:., J7 f -9-"7*.JJ. published the Diplomata.
chartae, ad res Franctcas sprrttiniia [170/1, with the collaboration ot
La Porte du Theil), and direct L-d fruitful researches in the archives in
London, to enrich the Cabinet Jn charts*, whe-rv Henri Bertin (1719-'
1792), an enlightened minuter of Louis XV., had in 1 764 set himself
the task of collecting the do. u men tar y sources of the national history.
The example set by the religious orders ana die government bore
fruit. The general assembly of the clergy gave orders that its
Prods verbaux (9 vols., 1767-1780) should be printed; some of the
provinces decided to have their history written, and mostly applied
to the Benedictines to have this done. Brittany was treated by
Dom Lobineau (1707) and Dom Morice (17- %
gundy by Dora Urbain Plancher (173*
Dominique Vaissete (1 730-1749, in col
rice (1742): the duchy of Bur-
'39-1748): Languedoc by Dom
»llaboration with Dom Claude
by Dora Urbain Plancher (17;
ique Vaissete (1 730-1749, in o
de Vic; new ed. 1873-1893); for Paris, its secular history was
treated by Dom Michel Felibien and Dom Lobineau (1725"
ecclesiastical history by the abbe Lebeuf (1745-1760;
new ed.
1881-1800).
Thi* '■-r- ! :-. • r« :■ iag stream of new evidence aroused curiosity,
gavL n-se to pT*ijn.iat comparisons, developed and sharpened the
critical kcuse. 1 1 •... 1 other led to a more and more urgent need for
ex i- l information. The Academic des Inscriptions brought out its
Ht noire de i'A&vifme avec Us memotres de litterature ttris do us
repute j (vol. h 1 71 7 ; 51 vols, appeared before the Revolution, with
five indexes; vide the BibHogruphto of Lasteyrie, voL UL pp. 256 et
seq). Other collections, mostly of the nature of bibliographies,
were the Jcurnot ths savants (in vols., from 1665 to 1792; vide the
Table mmmnitims bv H. Cocberis, i860); the Journal do Trbvoux, or
Mf moirei pour r histoire des sciences et des beaux-arts, edited by
Jesuits {}f<s V.-.N., 1 701-1790);' the Mercure do Franco (977 vols.,
from 1724 w 179T7. To these must be added the dictionaries and
encyclopaedias: the Dictionnairo do Moreri, the last edition of
which numbers 10 vols. ( 1759) I the Dictionnairo tiorraphimu,
historique et politique des Gemlos ot do la Franco, by the abbe J. J.
Expilly (6 vols., 1 762-1770; unfinished); the JUpertoiro universal
et roisonui de Jurisprudence anile, crimineUe, canomque et benificiale,
by Guyot (64 vols., 1775-786: «upplement in 17 vols., 1784-1785),
reorganised and continued by Merlin de Doual, who was afterwards
one of the Monsagnards, a member of the Directory, and a count
under the Empire.
The historians did not use to the greatest advantage the treasures
of learning provided for them; they were for the most part super-
ficial, and dominated by their political or religious prejudices.
Thus works like that of Pere Gabriel Daniel (Histoire do Franco, 3
vols., 1713), of President Henault (Abrigi chronologique, 1744; 25
editions between 1770 and 1834), of the abbe Paul Francois Velly
and those who completed his work (Histoire do Franco, 33 vol*.,
1765 to 1783), of G. H. Gaillard (Histoire de la HvaliU de to Franco
et de FAngtetorre, 11 vols., 1 771-1777), and of L. P. Anquetil (1805),
in spite of the brilliant success with which they met at first, have
fallen into a just oblivion. A separate place must be given to the
works of the theorists and philosophers: Histoire de Vancten g —
ment do to France, by the Comte de Boulainvilliers (1727), Histoire
critique de ritablissemont de to monarchie Jrancoise dans Us deux
Gaules, by the abbe J. B. Dubos (1734): L'Esfrit des his, by the
president de Montesquieu (1748); the Observations sur Fhistotre de
France, by the abbe de MaWy (1765J; the ThiorU de to poliHquo de
to monarchie francaiso, by Marie Pauline de Lesardiere (179*)* These
works have, if nothing else, the merit of provoking reflection.
At the time of the Revolution this activity was c hecked^ The
religious communities and royal academies were suppressed, and
France violently broke with even her most recent past, which was
considered to belong to the ancien rigime. When peace was re-
established, she began the task of making good the damage which
had been done, but a greater effort was now necessary in order to
revive the spirit of the institutions which had been overthrown.
The new state, which wss. In spite of all, bound by so many tfcs
to the former order of things, seconded this effort, and dormf the
9°6
whole of the 19th century-and even longer, had a strong influence on
historical production. The section of the Institut de France,
which in 1816 assumed the old name of Academie des Inscriptions
et Belles-lettres, began to reissue the two series of th- Memoir n
and of the Notices et exlrails des manuscrits litis de la ummkUm
royals (the first volume had appeared in 1787); began (1*144 J tint
of the Memoir** oresentis par divers savants and the Campus »•*•**
(subject index 1857-1000, by G. Lcdos, 1906); and continued the
Recueil des historian de France, the plan of which pa enlarged by
degrees (Historiens des croisades, obituaires, pouiUh, com pus, &c,J,
the Ordonnances and the Table chronclotique des dipt&mes. During
the reign of Louis Philippe, the ministry of the immor reor^uniji 1
the administration of the archives of the departments, communes
and hospitals, of which the Invenlaires sommaires are a mine of
precious information (see the Rapport au ministre, by G. Servois,
1901). In 183a the ministry of public instruction founded a com-
mittee, which has been called since 188 1 the Comite des Travaux
historiques et scientifiques, under the direction of which have been
published: (1) the Collection des documents inidits relatifs d I'kistoire
de France (more than 260 vols, have appeared since 1836); (2) the
. _ y raf
PRANCE (HISTORIOGRAPET
de Sismondi produced' a mediocre Histotre des Jrancais in 31 wk
(if-r -844), and Henri Martin a Histotre de France in 16 -r_k
(1847-1854), now of small use except for the two or three last ==>
tui f the ancien rigime. Finally J. Michelet, in his ffixim
de l-nuies (17 vols., 1833-1856) and his Histoir* de J»
li departments (I
1861 and 1888) ; U) several series of Bulletins, the details of which will
be found in the Bibliographic of Lasteyrie. At the same time were
founded or reorganized, both in Paris and the departments, numerous
societies, devoted sometimes partially and sometimes exclusively to
history and archaeology; the Academie Celtique (1804), which in
1813 became the Societe des Antiquaires de France (general index by
M. Prou, 1894); the Societe de l'Histoire de France (1834); the
Societe de l'Ecole des Chartes (1839) ; the Societe de 1' Histotre de Paris
et de l'lle-de-France (1874 1 four decennial indexes), &c The details
will be found in the excellent Bibliographic ginirale des travaux
historiques et archiologiques publics par tes sociites savantes de France,
which has appeared since 1885 under the direction of Robert de
Lasteyrie.
Individual scholars also associated themselves with this great
literary movement, Gtiizot published a C^\ecl\an dt mhmoirts
rdaitfs & Vkistcire de France lit vols., (824-18.55); Hudson, a
C oil ti- lion des ckraniqurs naticnales frattfriiscs icrttrs en laneu*
fitlgaire du Xlil* au X VI\ silrte {47 vols,. 1834-1829). and 'a
CkoU de thioniquts et mimoires sur I histotre de France (14 vol*.,
1836-1841); Petitot and Monmerquc. a ColUtiion de memoim
relaiifs A Vkistoire de Frame (131 vol v. 1819-1819)1; Michaud arid
F 1 cujouUt, a NoxveUe Collection de mimoirn pour tervir a i'kiiteir*
dt f-ranu [o vols,, 1836-1839); Earru v re and dc Lescure, a BibHo~
tithjue de mimoires relatifs & l'Histoire de France pendant U X VHl*
tihle (30 vols., 1855-1875) ; and finally Bervilfe and Bamtre, a
ColUctton. des mimoires reiatifj d la Rh'oluii&n fragile {55 vols.,
.id 10-1827). The details are to be found in the Source* de i'histoire
de France, by Alfred Franklin (1876). The abb* ]♦ P, Mignc in his
Fatrotoria Latina {231 vols,, 1844' 1804). re-edited a dumber of text*
anterior to tha 13th. century, Under the second empire, the ad-
ministration of the imperial archives at Paris published ten volumes
of documents {Monuments hiitoriqmts t [866; Layelles du tiiior d*s
thirtes* t863. which wtre afterwards continued up to 1270; Act*-s
du parUnrnt de Paris, 1863-1867), not to mention several vol unn-s
q| fnrentaires. The administration of the Bibliotheque imperi^k
had printed the Catalogue fAniral de i'histoire de France tio vols.,
1H55-187OJ vol. xi,, containing the alphabetical index to the names
of the authors, appeared in jSja). Other countries stw supplied
a number of useful text a; there is much in the English Rolls series,
its the collection of CkfOwiqut* hdgti, and especially in the- MonumesOa
Cermaniae historica.
At the same time the scope of history and its auxiliary sciences
becomes more clearly defined ; the Ecole des Chartes prod aces some
excellent palaeographers, as (or instance Natalia de Wailly (Elements
de paliographie, 1838), and L. Delisle (q.v.). who has also left traces of
his profound researches in the most varied departments of medieval
history (Bibliograpkie des travaux de M. Leopold Delisle, 1902):
Anatole de Barthekmy made a study of coins and medals, Douet
d'Arcq and C. Demay of seals. The works of Alexandre Lenoir
(Muse* des monuments Jrancais, 1800-1823), of Arcisse de Caumont
(Histoir* de V architecture du moyen Age, 1837 ; Abfceaair* ou rudiment
d'archiologie. 1850), of A. Napoleon Didron (Annates archiologiques,
1844). of Jules Quicherat (Melanges d'archiologie et d'kistoire, pub-
lished after his death, 1886), and the dictionaries of Viollet le Due
(Dictionnair* raisonni de I' architecture franchise, 1853-1868; Dictum-
naire du mobilier Jrancais, 1855) displayed to the best advantage
one of the most brilliant sides of the French intellect, while other
sciences, such as geology, anthropology, the comparative study of
languages, religions and folk-lore, and political economy, continued
to enlarge the horizon of history. The task of writing the general
history of a country became more and more difficult, especially
for one man, but. the task waa none the less undertaken by several
historians, and by some of eminence. Francois Guizot treated of
the Histoir* de la civilisation en France (1828-1830); Augustin
Thierry after the Ricits des temps tnirovingiens (1840) published
the Monuments de F histotre du tiers itat (1840-1856), the intro-
1 to which was expanded into a book (1855) ; Charles Simonde
(7 vols., 1 847- 1 853), aims at reviving the very soul of the naxxat
pa :.
After the Franco-German War begins a better oraamizadcx a
scientific^ studies, modelled on that of Germany. The Ecole ca
Hautes Etudes, established in 1868, included in its programs** tbr
critical study of the sources, both Latin and French, of the hidr>
of France; and from the siminaire of Gabriel Monod caxoe snre u
learning, already prepared by studying at the Ecole des Ghana
Paul Viollet, who revived the study of the history est French b»
Julien Havet, who revived that of Merovingian diploma tics: Anix
Girv. who resumed the study of municipal institutions where c
had been left by A. Thierry, prepared the Annates careslingiexvi
(written by his pupils, Eckel, Favre, Lauer, Lot, Poupardin), and
brought back into honour the study of diplomatics (Memud it
diplomatique, 1894): Auguste Moliruer, author of the Semrus L
I'histoire de France (1902-1004; general index, |oo6\ &c An
Longnon introduced at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes the 1
historica] geography (Atlas kistorique de la France, in course x
publication since 1888). The universities, at last reorganised
popularized the employment of the new methods. The books i
Fustel de Coulanges and Achilla Luchaire on the middle nges, ssd
those of A. Aulara on the revolution, gave a strong, though «*4-
regulated, impetus to historical production. The Ecole du Loots
(1881) increased the value of the museums and placed the history
of art among the studies of higher education, while the Mue
archeologique of St-Germain-en-Laye offered a fruitful field far
research on Gallic and Gallo- Roman antiquities. Rich archrres,
hitherto inaccessible, were thrown open to students; at Rose
those of the Vatican (Registres pontificaux, published by stodests
at the French school of archaeology, since 1884); at Parts, those of
the Foreign Office (Recueil des instructions donnees aux ambartadnn.
dePuis le IraiU de Weslphalie, 16 vols., 1885-1001 ; besides varisc*
collections of diplomatic papers, inventories. &c.). Those of the
War Office were used by officers who published numerous documents
bearing on the wars of the Revolution and the Empire, and on that d
1870-1871). In 1904 a commission, generously endowed by tb»
French parlement, was entrusted with the task of publishzng tss
documents relating to economic and social life of the time ot the
Revolution, and tour volumes had appeared by 1908. Certais
towns, Paris, Bordeaux, &c, have made it a point of honour to have
their chief historical monuments printed. The work now become*
more and more specialized. L'Histoire de France, by Ernest Lavisse
(1900, Ac.), is the work of fifteen different authors. It is therefore
more than ever necessary that the work should be under soeod
direction. The Manuel de bibliograpkie historique of Ch. V. Langtau
(2nd edition, 1 901-1904) is a good guide, as is his Archives de rhtstevt
de France (1891, in collaboration with H. Stein).
Besides the. special bibliographies mentioned above, it will be
useful to consult the Bibliotheque historique of Pere Jacques Lelcng
(1719; new ed. by Fevret de Fontette, 5 vols., 1768-1778); the
Geschichte der historischen Forschung und Kunst of Ludwig Wachler
(2 vols., 1812-1816); the Bibtiographie de la France, established
-"-* •- - - -* ------ - vol. per annua
liefJVj-
— . --. ,. — - - - . -, - -■ « France,
by Gabriel Monod (1888) ; the Ripertoireol the abbe Ulysse Chevalier
(Biobibliographie; new ed. 1903-1907; and TopcoibHegrapkte,
1894-1899). Bearing exclusively on the middle ages are the Btbli*-
theca historica medii aevi of August Potthast (new ed. 1896) and the
Manuel (Les Sources de V histotre de France, 1901. &c) of A. Molinier;
but the latter is to be continued up to modern times, the 16th century
having already been begun by Henri Hausser (ist part. 1006).
Finally, various special reviews, besides teaching historical method
by criticism and by example, try to keep their readers au eourant
with literary production; tne Revue critique d'kistoire et de litUraturt
(1866 fol.), the Revue des questions historiques (1866 foL). the Rett*
historique (1876 fol.). the Revue d'kistoire moderne et contemporame,
accompanied annually by a valuable Repertoire rnHkodiqu* (1898
fol.) ; the Reom de synthese historique (1900 foL), &c (C. B,*)
Fkencb Law and Institutions
Celtic Period.— The remotest times to which history gives us
access with reference to the law and institutions formerly
existing in the country which is now called France are those in
which the dominant race at least was Celtic. On the whole,
our knowledge is small of the law and institutions of these Celts,
or Gauls, whose tribes constituted independent GauL For their
reconstruction, modern scholars draw upon twb sources; firstly,
there is the information furnished by the classical writers and by
Caesar and Strabo in particular, which is trustworthy but some-
what scanty; the other source, which is. not so pure, consists in
INSTITUTIONS]
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907
t±i«- accounts found in those legal works of the middle ages written
in the neo-Celtic dialects, the most important and the greater
number of which belong to Ireland. A reconstruction from them
is always hazardous, however delicate and scientific be the
criticism which is brought to bear on it, as in the case of d'Arbois
de Jubainville, for example. Moreover, in the historical evolution
of French institutions those of the Celts or Gauls are of little
importance. Not one of them can be shown to have survived
in Utter law. What has survived of the Celtic race is the blood
and temperament, still found in a great many Frenchmen,
certain traits which the ancients remarked in the Gauls being
still recognizable: bettum gerere A argute loqui.
Roman Period. — It was the Roman conquest and rule which
really formed Gaul, for the was Romanised to the point of losing
• almost completely that which persists most stubbornly in a
conquered nation, namely, the language; the Breton-speaking
population came to France later, from Britain. The institutions
1 of Roman Gaul became identical with those of the Roman empire,
provincial and municipal government undergoing the same
evolution as in the other parts of the empire. It was under
Roman supremacy too, as M. d'Arbois de Jubainville has shown,
that the ownership of land became personal ^and free in GaoL
The law for the Gallo-Romans-was that which was administered
by the cenventus of the magistrate; there are only a few peculi-
arities, mere Gallicisms, resulting from conventions or usage,
which are pointed out by Roman jurisconsults of the clawsfral
age. The administrative reforms of Diocletian and Constantine
applied to Gaul as to the rest of the empire. Gaul under this
rule consisted of seventeen provinces, divided between two
dioceses, tea in the diocese of the Gauls, under the authority
of the praetorian prefect, who resided at Treves; and the other
seven in the dioccesir septan provmciarum, under the authority
of a vicarius. The Gelio-Romans became Christian with the
other subjects of the empire; the Church extended thither her
powerful organisation modelled on the administrative organiza-
tion, each cisitas having a bishop, just as it had a atria and
municipal magistrates. But, although endowed with privileges
by the Christian emperors, the Church did not yet encroach upon
the civil power. She had the right of aoquSring property, of
holding councils, subject to the imperial authority, and of the
free election of bishops. But only the first germs of ecclesiastical
jurisdiction are to be traced. In virtue of the laws, the bishops
were privileged arbitrators, and in the matter of public sins
exercised a disciplinary jurisdiction over the clergy and the
faithful. In the second half of the 4th century, monasteries
appeared in GauL After the fall of the Western empire, there was
left to the Gallo-Romans as an expression of its law, which was
also theirs, a written legislation. It consisted of the imperial
constitutions, contained in the Gregorian, Hermogenian and
Theodosian codes (the two former being private compilations,
and the third an official collection),- and the writings of the
five jurists (Gains, Pacinian, Paulus, Ulpian and Modes tinus),
to which Valenthiian III. had in 426 given the force of law.
The Barbarian Invasion.'— The invasions and settlements of
the barbarians open a new period. Though there were robbery
and violence in every case, the various barbarian kingdoms
set up in Gaul were established under different conditions.
In those of thaBurgundians and Visigoths, the owners of the great
estates, which had been the prevailing form of landed property
in Roman Gaul, suffered partial dispossession, according to a
system the rules regulating which can, in the case of the* Bur-
gundians, be traced almost exactly. It is doubtful whether a
similar process took place in the case of the Frankish settlements,
but their first conquests iaJthe north and east seem to have led
to the extermination or total expulsion of the Gallo-Roman
population. It is impossible to say to what extent, in these
various settlements, the system of collective property prevailing
among the Germanic tribes was adopted. Another important
difference was that, in embracing- Christianity, some. of the
barbarian* became Arians, as in the case of the Visigoths and
Burgundians; others Catholic, as In the case of the Franks.
This was probably the main cause of the absorption of the other
kingdoms into the Frankish monarchy. In each case, however,
the barbarian king appeared as wishing not to overthrow the
Roman administration, but to profit by its continuation. The
kings of the Visigoths and Burgundians were at first actually
representatives of the Western empire, and Clovis himself was
ready to accept from the emperor Anastasius the title of consul;
but these' were but empty forms, similar to the fictitious tics
which long existed or still exist between China or Turkey and
certain parts of their former empires, now separated from them
for ever.
As soon as the Merovingian monarch had made himself master
of Gaul, he set himself to maintain and keep in working order
the administrative machinery of the Romans, save that the
administrative unit was henceforth no longer the provincia but
the cioUas, which generally took the name of pogus, and was
placed under the authority of a count, comes or grojh (Craf),
Perhaps this was not entirely an innovation, for it appears that
at the end of the Roman supremacy certain* civUatts had already
a comes. Further, several Pagi could be united under the
authority of a dux. The pogus seems to have generally been
divided into hundreds (centenae).
But the Roman administrative machinery was too delicate
to be handled by barbarians; it could not survive for long,
but underwent changes and finally disappeared. Thus the
Merovingians tried to levy the same direct taxes as the Romans
had done, the capitaiio ttrrena and the eapilaUo humane, but
they ceased to be imposts reassessed periodically in accordance
with the total sum fixed as necessary to meet the needs of the
state, and became fixed annual taxes on lands or persons;
finally, they disappeared as general imposts, continuing to
exist only as personal or territorial dues. In the same way the
Roman municipal organisation, that of the curiae, survived
for a considerable time under the- Merovingians, but was used
only for the registration of written deeds; under the Carolingians
it dlsap-oeared, and with it the old senatorial nobility which
had been that of the Empire. The administration of justice
(apart from the king's tribunal) seems to have been organised
on a system borrowed partly from Roman and partly from
Germanic institutions; it naturally tends to assume popular
forms. Justice is administered by the count (comes) or his
deputy (eentenarius or vicarius), but on the verdict of notables
called in the texts boni homines or rachimburgiu This takes
place in an assembly of all the free subjects, called maUus, at
which every free man is bound to attend at least a certain number
of times a year, and in which are promulgated the general acts
emanating from the king. The latter could issue commands
or prohibitions under the name of bannus, the violation of which
entailed a fine of 60' solidi; the' king also administered justice
(in palatio), assisted by the officers of his household, his jurisdic-
tion being unlimited and at the same time undefined. He could
hear all causes, but was not bound to hear any, except, apparently,
accusations of deliberate failure of justice and. breach of trust
on the part of the rocAimburgiL
But what proved the great disturbing element in Gallo-Roman
society was the fact that the conquerors, owing to their former
customs and the degree of their civilisation, were all warriors,
men whose chief interest was to become practised in the handling
of arms, and whose normal state was that of war. It is true
that under the Roman empire all the men of a civitas were
obliged, in case of necessity, to march against the enemy, and
under the Frankish monarchy the count still called together his
pagenses for this object. But the condition of the barbarian
was vtry different; he lived essentially for fighting. Hence
those gatherings or annual reviews of the Campus Martius,
which continued so long, in Australia at least. They constituted
the chief armed force; for mercenary troops/ in spite of the
assertions of some to the -contrary, play at this period only a
small part. But this military class, though not an aristocracy
(for among the Franks the royal race alone was noble), was
to a large extent independent, and the king had to attach
these leudes or fiddts to himself by gifts and favours. At the
same time the authority of the king gradually underwent a
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in character, though he always claimed to be the
successor of the Roman emperor. It gradually assumed that
Ct \um<m do" 16 *** or personal character that, among the
otute Germans, marked most of the relations between
M*»rtm- men. The household of the king gained in political
{j"" fifc importance, by reason that the heads of the principal
Mnga9t offices in the palace became at the same time high
public officials. There was, moreover, a body of men more
especially attached to the king, the antrusHons (q.v.) and the
commensals (c&nvhoe regis) whose weregdd (i.e. the price of a
man's life in the system of compensation then prevalent) was three
times greater than that of the other subjects of the same race..
The Frankish monarch had also the power of making laws,
which he exercised after consulting the chief men of the kingdom,
both lay and ecclesiastical, in the pUtcita, which were meetings
differing from the Campus Martins and apparently modelled
principally on the councils of the Church. But throughout the
kingdom in many places the direct authority of the king over
the people ceased to make itself felt. The immunitates, granted
chiefly to the great ecclesiastical properties, limited this authority
in a curious way by forbidding public officials to exercise their
functions in the precinct of land which was immunis. The
judicial and fiscal rights frequently passed to the landowner,
who in any case became of necessity the intermediary between
the supreme power and the people. In regard to this last point,
moreover, the case seems to have been the same with all the
great landowners or potentes, whose territory was called potestas,
and who gained a real authority over those living within it;
later in the middle ages they were called homines potesialis
(komma de potste).
Other principles, arising perhaps less from Germanic custom
•strictly speaking than from an inferior level of civilization, also
contributed towards the weakening of the royal power. The
monarch, like his contemporaries, considered the kingdom and
the rights of the king over it to be his property; consequently,
be had the power of dealing with it as if it were a private posses-
sion; it is this which gave rise to the concessions of royal rights
to individuals, and later to the partitions of the kingdom, and
then of the empire, between the sons of the king or emperor,
to the exclusion of die daughters, as in the division of an inherit-
ance in land. This proved one of the chief weaknesses of the
Merovingian monarchy.
In order to rule the Gallo-Romans, the barbarians had had
inevitably to ask the help of the Church, which was the repre-
sentative of Roman civilization. Further, the Mero-
vingian monarch and the Catholic Church had come
into close alliance in their struggle with the Arians.
The result for the Church had been that she gained new
privileges, but at the same time became to a certain extent
dependent. Under the Merovingians the election of the bishop
a dero el popuh is only valid if it obtains the assent {assensus)
of the king, who often directly nominates the prelate. But at
the same time the Church retains her full right of acquiring
property, and has her jurisdiction partially recognized; that is to
say, she not only exercises more freely than ever a disciplinary
jurisdiction, but the bishop, in place of the civil power, ad-
ministers civil and criminal justice over the clergy. The councils
had for a long time forbidden the clergy to cite one another before
secular tribunals; they had also, in the 6th century, forbidden
secular judges under pain of excommunication to cite before them
and judge the clergy, without permission of the bishop. A
decree of Clotaire II. (6x4) acknowledged the validity of these
claims, bnt not completely; a precise interpretation of the text
is, however, difficult.
The Merovingian dynasty perished of decay, amid increasing
anarchy. The crown passed, with the approval of the papacy,
to an Australian mayor of the palace and his family,
one of those mayors of the palace (ia. chief officer of
the king's household) who had been the last support
of the preceding dynasty. It was then that there-
developed a certain number of institutions, which offered them-
selves as useful means of consolidating the political organism,
•ttb*
and were in reality the direct precursors of feudalism. One «a
the royal benefice (beneJUium), of which, without doubt T ibe
Church provided both the model and, in the first instance, the
material The model was the Pretoria, a form of concession by
which it was customary for the Church to grant the possess^
of her lands to free men; this practice she herself had copad
from the five-years leases granted by the Roman exchequer.
Gradually, however, the Pretoria had become a concesskm made,
in most cases, free and for life. As regards the material, who
the Austrasian mayors of the palace (probably Charles
Mattel) wished to secure the support of the jEcfofer
by fresh benefits, the royal treasury being exhausted,
they turned to the Church, which was at that time the
greatest landowner, and took lands from her to give to
their warriors. In order to disguise the robbery it was decided—
perhaps as an afterthought— that these lands should be held as
preeoriae from the Church, or from the monastic houses whks
had furnished them. Later, when the royal treasury *as
reorganized, the grants of land made by the kings naturally took
a similar form: the beneficium, as a free grant for life. Under tfc*
Merovingians royal grants of land were in principle made in fui
ownership, except, as Brunner has shown, that provi si on was
made for a revocation under certain circumstances. No special
services seem to have been attached to the benefice, whether
granted by the king or by some other person, but, in the second
half of the 9th century at least, the possession of the benefice
is found as the characteristic of the military dass and the fora
of their pay. This we find clearly set forth In the treatise
de ecdesiis et capeUis of Hincmar of Reims. The bemeficimm, ia
obedience to a natural law, soon tended to crystallize into a
perpetual and hereditary right. Another institution akin to the
beneficium was the senioratus; by the commendaHo, a form of
solemn contract, probably of Germanic origin, -and chief?
characterized by the placing of the hands b e tw e en those of the
lord, a man swore absolute fidelity to another man, who became
his senior. It became the generally received idea (as expressed
in the capitularies) that it was natural and normal for every
free man to have a senior. At the same time a benefice was
never granted unless accompanied by the commendaiio of the
beneficiary to the grantor. As the most important semiares were
thus bound to the king and received from him their benefices,
he expected through them to command their men; but in reality
the king disappeared little by little in the senior. The king
granted as benefices not only lands, but public functions, sues
as those of count or dux, which thus became rjossessions, held, first
for life, and later as hereditary properties. The Capitulary of
Kiersy-sur-Oise (877), which was formerly considered to have
made fiefs legally and generally hereditary, only proves that it
was already the custom for benefices of this kind, honorts, to
pass from the father to one of the sons.
Charlemagne, while sanctioning these institutions, tried to
arrest the political decomposition. He reorganized the administra-
tion of justice, fixing the respective jurisdictions of the
count and the cenienarius, substituting for the racksm- ***■* y
burgti permanent scabini, chosen by the count in the M
presence of the people, and denning the relations of
the count, as the representative of the central authority, with
the adtocati or judices of imrnuuuates and poUstaies. He re-
organized the army, determining the obligations and the military
outfit of free men according to their means. Finally, he estab-
lished those regular inspections by the missi domimci which are
the subject of so many of his capitularies. From the De ordint
polaiii of Hincmar of Reims, who follows the account of a con-
temporary of the great emperor, we learn that he also regularly
established two general assemblies, consensus or fiactia, in the
year, one in the autumn, the other in the spring, which were
attended by the chief officials, lay and ecclesiastical. It was
here that the capitularies (9.*.) and all important measures were
first drawn up and then promulgated. The revenues of the
Carolingian monarch (which are no longer indentical with the
finances of the state) consisted chiefly in the produce of the
royal lands(wJfoc), which the king and his suite often came and
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909
consumed on the spot; and it is known how carefully Charle-
magne regulated the administration of the vtilac. There were
also the free gifts which the great men were bound, according
to custom, to bring to the convenlus, the contributions
Sa^flJ^/ °f tfib character from the monasteries practically
tystom. amounting to a tax; the regular personal or territorial
dues into which the old taxes had resolved themselves;
the -profits arising from the courts (the royal bannus, and the
Jredum, or part of the compensation-money which went to the
Ling) ; finally, numberless requisitions in kind, a usage which had
without doubt existed continuously since Roman times. The
Church was loaded with honours and had added a fresh pre-
rogative to her former privileges, namely, the right of levying a
real tax in kind, the tithe. Since the 3rd century she had tried to
exact the payment of tithes from the faithful, interpreting as
Applicable to the Christian clergy the texts in the Old Testament
bearing on the Levites; Gallican councils had repeatedly
proclaimed it as an obligation, though, it appears, with little
success. But from the reign of Pippin the Short onwards the
civil law recognized and sanctioned this obligation, and the
capitularies of Charlemagne and Louis the Debonnaire contain
numerous provisions dealing with it. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction
extended farther and farther, but Charlemagne, the
protector of the papacy, maintained firmly his authority
over the Church. He nominated its dignitaries, both
bishops and abbots, who were true ecclesiastical
officials, parallel with the lay officials. In each pagus,
bishop and count owed each other mutual support, and the missi
on the same circuit were ordinarily a count and a bishop. In
the first collection of capitularies, that of Ansegbus, two books
out of four are devoted to ecclesias t ical capitularies.
What, then, was the private and criminal law of this Prankish
monarchy which had come to embrace so many different races ?
•to jp. The men of Roman descent continued under the Roman
r ca» law, and the conquerors could not hope to impose their
customs upon them. The authorised expression of
' the Roman law was henceforth to be found in the Lex
romana Wisigotharum or Bretiarium Aland, drawn up by order
of Alaric II. in 506. It is an abridgment of the codes, of that
of Theodosius especially, and of certain of the writings of the
jurists included under the Law of Citations. As to the barbarians,
they had hitherto had nothing but customs, and these customs,
of which the type nearest to the original is to be found in the oldest
text of the Lex Salica t were nothing more than a series of tariffs
of compensations, that is to say, sums of money due to the injured
party or his family in case of crimcsGommittedagainstindividuals,
for which crimes these compensations were the only penalty.
They also introduced a barbarous system of trial, that by com-
purgation r ie. exculpation by the oath of the defendant supported
by a certain number of cojurantes, and that by ordeal, later called
judicium Dei. In each new kingdom the barbarians naturally
kept their own laws, and when these men of different races all
became subject to the Frankish monarchy, there evolved itself
a system (called the personnotite des lots) by which every subject
had, in principle, the right to be tried by the law of the race to
which he belonged by birth (or sometimes for some other reason,
such as emancipation or marriage). When the two adversaries
were of different race, it was the law of the defendant which had
to be applied. The customs of the barbarians bad been drawn
up in Latin. Sometimes, as in the case of the first text of the
Salic law, the system on which they werocompiled is not exactly
known; but it was generally done under the royal authority.
At this period only these written documents bear the name of
" law •' (leges romanerumi leges barbarorum), and at least the
tacit consent of the people seems to have been required for these
collections of laws, in accordance with an axiom laid down in a
later capitulary; lex fit consensu fopuli el constitutive regis.
It is noteworthy, too, that in the process of being drawn up in
Latin, most of the leges barbarcrum were very much Romanised.
In the midst of this diversity, a certain number of causes
tended to produce a partial unity. The capitularies, which had
in themselves the force of law, when there was no question of
modifying the logos, constituted a legislation which was the same
for all; often they inflicted corporal punishment for grave
offences, which applied to all subjects without distinction. Usage
and individual convenience led to the same result. The Gallo-
Romans, and even the Church itself, to a certain extent, adopted
the methods of trial introduced by the Germans, as was likely
in a country relapsing into barbarism. On the other hand,
written acts became prevalent among the barbarians, and at
the same time they assimilated a certain amount of Roman law;
for these acts continued to be drawn up in Latin, after Roman
models, which were in most cases simply misinterpreted owing
to the general ignorance. The type is preserved for us in those
collections of Formulae, of which complete and scientific editions
have been published by Eugene de Roziere and Carl Zeumer.
During this period, too, the Gallican Church adopted the collec-
tion of councils and decretals, called later the Codex canonum
ecclcsiae Callicanae, which she continued to preserve. This
collection was that of Dionysius Exiguus, which was sent to
Charlemagne in 774 by Pope Adrian I. But in the course- of
the oth century apocryphal collections were also formed in the
Gallican Church; the False Capitularies of Benedictus Levita,
and the False Decretals of Iiidorus Mercator (see Decketals).
AU the subjects of the Frankish monarchy were not of equal
Status. There was, strictly speaking, no nobility, both the
Roman and the Germanic nobility having died out; but slavery
continued to exist. The Church, however, was preparing the
transformation of the slave into the serf, by giving force and
validity to their marriages, in cases, at least, when the master
had approved of them, and by forbidding the latter unjustly
to seise the slave's pcculium. But between the freeman (ingenuus)
and the slave lay a number of persons of intermediate status;
they possessed legal personality but were subject to incapacities
of various kinds, and had to perform various duties towards
other men. There was, to begin with, the Roman colonist
(colonus), a class as to the origin of which there is still a contro-
versy, and of which there is no clear mention in the laws before
the 4th century; they and their children after them were
attached perpetually to a certain piece of land, which they were
allowed to cultivate on payment of a rent. There were, further,
the liti (litus or lidus), a similar class of Germanic origin; also
the greater number of the frcedmen or descendants of freedmen.
Many free men who had fled to the great landowners for protec-
tion took, by arrangement or by custom, a similar position.
Under the Merovingian regime, and especially under the Caroltn-
gians, the occupation of the land tended to assume the character
of tenure; but free ownership of land continued to exist under
toe name of aJod (alodis), and there is even evidence for the
existence of this in the form of small properties, held by free
men; the capitularies contain numerous complaints and threats
against the counts, who endeavoured by the abuse of then*
power to obtain the surrender of these properties.
Period of Anarchy and the Rise of Feudalism. — The 10th and
nth centuries were a period of profound anarchy, during which
feudalism was free to develop itself and to take defini-
tive shape. At that time the French people may be 2S22*«i
said to have lived without laws, without even fixed orfgiiu.
customs and without government. The legislative
power was no longer exercised, for the last Carolingian capitularies
date from the year 884, and the first laws of the Capetian kings
(if they may be called laws) do not appear till during the rath
century. During this period the old capitularies and leges fell
into disuse and in their place territorial customs tended to grow
up, their main constituents being furnished by the law of former
times, but which were at the outset ill-defined and strictly
local. As to the government, if the part played by the Church
be excepted, we shall see that it could be nothing but the applica-
tion of brute force. In this anarchy, as always happens under
similar conditions, men drew together and formed themselves
into groups for mutual defence. A nucleus was formed which
was to become the new social unit, that is to say, the feudal
group. Of this the centre was a chief, around whom gathered
men capable of bearing arms, who commended themselves to
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him according to the old form of vassalage, per mama. Tbey
owed him fidelity and assistance, the support of their arms but
not of their purse, save in quite exceptional cases; while he
owed them protection. Some of them lived in his castle or
fortified house, receiving their equipment only and eating at his
table. Others received lands from him, which were, or later
became, fiefs, on which they lived casati. The name fief, femdum,
does not appear, however, till towards the end of this period;
these lands are frequently called beneficia as before; the term
most in use at first, in many parts, is casamenlnm. The fief,
moreover, was generally held for life and did not become generally
hereditary till the second half of the i ith century. The lands
kept by the chief and those which he granted to his men were
for the most part rented from him, or from them, for a certain
amount in money or in kind. All these conditions had already
existed previously in much the same form; but the new develop-
ment is that the chief was no longer, as before, merely an inter-
mediary between his men and the royal power. The group
had become in effect independent, so organized as to be socially
and politically self-sufficient. It constituted a small army,
led, naturally, by the chief, and composed of his feudatories,
supplemented in case of need by the rustici. It also formed an
assembly in which common interests were discussed, the lord,
according to custom, being bound to consult his feudatories
and they to advise him to the best of their power. It also
formed a court of justice, in which the feudatories gave judgment
under the presidency of their lord; and all of them claimed
to be subject only to the jurisdiction of this tribunal composed
of their peers. Generally they also judged the villeins (vittani)
and the serfs dependent on the group, except in cases where
the latter obtained as a favour judges of their own status, which
was, however, at that time a very rare occurrence.
Under these conditions a nobility was formed, those men
becoming nobles who were able to devote themselves to the
profession of arms and were either chiefs or soldiers in one of the
groups which have just been described. The term designating
a noble, miles, corresponds also to that of knight (Fr. chevalier,
Low Lat. coballerius), for the reason that chivalry, of which the
origins are uncertain, represents essentially the technical skill
and professional duties of this military class. Every noble was
destined on coming of age to become a knight, and the knight
equally as a matter of course received a fief, If he had not one
already by hereditary title. This nobility, moreover, was not
a caste but could be indefinitely recruited by the granting of
fiefs and admission to knighthood (see Knighthood and
Chivalry).
The state of anarchy was by now so far advanced that war
became an individual right, and the custom of private war arose.
Every man had in principle the right of making war
to defend his rights or to avenge his wrongs. Later
on, doubtless, in the 13th century, this was a privilege
of the noble (gentilhomme)\ but the texts defining the limits
which the Church endeavoured to set to this abuse, namely, the
Peace of God and the Truce of God, show that this was at the
outset a power possessed by men of all classes. Even a man
who had appeared in a court of law and received judgment
had the choice of refusing to accept the judgment and of
making war instead. Justice, moreover, with its frequent
employment of trial by combat, did not essentially differ from
private war.
It is unnecessary to go further and to affirm, with certain
historians of our time, for example Guflhermoz and See, that
the only free men at that time, besides the clergy, were the nobles,
all the rest being serfs. There are many Indications which lead
us to assume, not only in the towns but even in the country
districts, the existence of a class of men of free status who were
not miliUs, the class later known in the 1 jtb century as vffajpw,
hommes de poeste, and, later, roturiers. The fact more probably
was that only the nobles and ecclesiastics were exempt from the
exactions of the feudal lords; while from all the others the
seigneurs could at pleasure levy the tattle (a direct and arbitrary
tax), and those innumerable rights then caHcd ccmuctudmts.
Free ownership, the alMittm, even under the form of s&u
freeholds, still existed by way of exception in many parts.
Had, then, the main public authority disappeared ? TL& is
practically the contention of certain writers, who, like M. 5=,
maintain that real property, thepossession of a domain, confer-;.
on the big landed proprietor all rights of taxation, conunaad ti:
coercion over the inhabitants of his domain, who, accordk^: y
this view, were always serfs. But this b an exaggeratioc *
the thesis upheld by old French authors, who saw in feudaSs.
though in a different sense, a confusion of property via
sovereignty. It appears that in (bis state of political disinteg^-
lion each part of the country which had a homogeneous cbsrarftt
tended to form itself into a higher unit. In this unit there arise
a powerful lord, generally a duke, a count, or a viscount, «i*
sometimes came to be called the capiialis daminus. He v^s
either a former official of the monarchy, whose function k*£
become hereditary, or a usurper who had formed himself on thi
model. He laid claim to an authority other than that conferral
by the possession of real property. He still claimed to exera*
over the whole of his former district certain rights, which we ses
him sometimes surrendering for the benefit of churches *
monasteries. His court of justice was held in the highest honosj,
and to it were referred the most important affairs. But in tbs
district there were generally a number of more or less powcrfe!
lords, who as a rule had as yet no particular feudal title and art
often given the name of principes. Often, but not always, they
had commended themselves to this duke or count by doing
homage.
On the other hand, the royal power continued to exist, being
recognized by a considerable part of old Gaul, the ne&nm
F rancor um. But under the last of the Carolingians it
had in fact become elective, asis shown by the elections Ij!^J ra '
of Odo and Robert before that of Hugh Capet. The
electors were the chief lords and prelates of the regmtm Fran-
corum. But following a clever policy, each king during his
lifetime took as partner of his kingdom his eldest son and con-
secrated and crowned him in advance, so that the first of the
Capetians revived the principle of heredity in favour of the
eldest son, while establishing the hereditary indivisibility of
the kingdom. This custom was recognized at the accession of
Louis the Fat, but the authority of the king was very weak,
being merely a vague allegiance. His only real authority lay
where his own possessions were, or where there bad not arisen
a duke, a count, or lord of equal rank with them. He m«int»««— I
however, a general right of administering justice, a curia, the
jurisdiction of which seems to have been universal. It is true
that the parties in a suit had to submit themselves to it voluntarily,
and could accept or reject the judgment given, but this was at
that time the general rule. The king dispensed justice surrounded
by the officers of his household {domestic!) t who thus formed his
council; but these were not the only ones to assist him, whether
in court or council. Periodically, at the great yearly festivals,
he called together the chief lords and prelates of his kingdom,
thus carrying on the tradition of the Carolingjan pladia or
comenlus; but little by little, with the appropriation of the
honor ts, the character of the gathering changed; it was no
longer an assembly of officials but of independent lords. Tms
was now called the curia regis.
While the power of the State was almost disappearing, that
of the Church, apart from the particular acts of violence of
which she was often the victim, continued to grow. _
Her jurisdiction gained ground,- since her procedure
was reasonable and comparatively scientific (except
that she admitted to a certain extent compurgation by oath
and the indicia Dei, with the exception of trial by combat).
Not only was the privilege of clergy, by which accused clerks
were brought under her jurisdiction, almost absolute, but she
had cognizance of a number of causes in which layrnentmly were
concerned, marriage aud everything nearly or remotely affecting
it, wills, crimes and offences against religion; and even contracts,
when the two parties wished it or when the agreement was made
on oath, came within her competence. Such, then, were the
NSTJTUTIONS]
FRANCE
9"
*cdesia&Licad orChristian courts fcrarsrf'egKre, course decMrUienU).
The Clrnrch, moreover, remained in close connexion with the
crown, the king preserving a quasi-ecclesiastical character,
while the royal prerogatives with regard to the election ol bishop*
were maintained more successfully than the rights of the crown,
though in many of the great Eels they none the less passed to
the count or the duke. It was at this time too that the Church
tried to break the last ties which still kept her more or less
dependent on the civil power; this was the true import of the
Investiture Contest (see Investiture, and Chuxcb History),
though this was not very acute in France.
The period of the true feudal monarchy iscmbraced by the i atb
and 23th centuries, that is to say, it was at this time that the
crown again assumed real strength and authority;
J^fir but so far it had no organs and instruments save those
W i M iiij which were furnished by feudalism, now organised
under a regular hierarchy, of which the king was the
head, the "sovereign enfeoffer of the kingdom" (souverain
fecffeux du royaume), as he came later on to be called. This new
. position of affairs was the result of three great factors: the
revival of Roman Law, the final organization of feudalism
and the rise of the privileged towns. The revival of Roman
t law began in France and Italy in the second half
lBW9 of the xith century, developing with extraordinary
brilliance in the latter country at the university of
Bologna, which was destined for a long lime to dominate Europe.
Roman law spread rapidly in the French schools and universities,
except that of Paris, which was closed to it by the papacy; and
the influence of this study was so great that it transformed
society. On the one hand it contributed largely to the rccon-
stitution of the royal power, modelling the rights of the king on
those of the Roman emperor. On the other hand it wrought a
no less profound change in private law. From this time dates
the division of old France into the Pays de droit icril, in which
Roman law, under the form in which it was codified by Justinian,
was received as the ordinary law; and the Pays de
coulumc, where it played only a secondary part, being
generallv valid only as ratio scripta and not as Ux
scripta. In this period the customs also took definitive form,
and over and above the local customs properly so called there
were formed customs known as general, which held good through
a whole province or bailliage, and were based on the jurisprudence
oi the higher jurisdictions.
The final organization of feudalism resulted from the struggle
for organization which was proceeding in each district where
p^ F the more powerful lords compelled the others to do
ifMatoH them homage and become their vassals; the capitalis
i ^ tll mwm dominus had beneath him a whole hierarchy, and was
tkadaSsm. nmlse if a part of the feudal system of France (see
Feudalism). Doubtless in the case of lords like the dukes of
Brittany and Burgundy, the king could not actually demand
the strict fulfilment of the feudal obligations; but the principle
was established. The question now arises, did free and absolute
property, the allodium, entirely disappear in this process, and
were all lands .held as tenures? It continued to exist, by way
oi exception, in most districts, unchanged save in the burden
of proof of ownership, with which, according to the customs,
sometimes the lord and sometimes the holder of the land was held
j . charged. In one respect, however, namely in the
ctura&r administration of justice, the feudal hierarchy had
•/Jwtfc* absolute sway. Towards the end of the 13th century
Beaumanoir clearly laid down this principle: "All
secular jurisdiction in France is held from the king as a fief or
an arrierc'fief. " Henceforth it could also be said that " All
justice emanates from the king. " The law concerning fiefs
became settled also from another point of view, the fief becoming
patrimonial; that is to say, not only hereditary, but freely
alienable by the vassal, subject in both cases to certain rights of
transfer due to the lord, which Were at first fixed by agreement
and later by custom. The most salient features of feudal
succession were the right of primogeniture and the perference
|iven to heirs-male; but from the 13th century onwards the
Tfc*
right of primogeniture, which had at first involved the total
exclusion of the younger members of a family, tended to be
modified, except in the case of the chief lords, the eldest son
obtaining the preponderant share or priciput. Non-noble
(roiurier) tenancies also became patrimonial in similar circum-
stances, except that in their case there was no right of primo-
geniture nor any privilege of males. The tenure of serfs old not
become alienable, and only became hereditary by certain
devices.
Feudal society next saw the rise of a new element within it:
the privileged towns. At this time many towns acquired
privileges, the movement beginning towards the end
of the 11th century; they were sanctioned by a formal JJjJJ^Jf
concession from the lord to whom the town was sub- unm!h
ject, the concession being embodied in a charter or in
a record of customs (coutume). Some towns won for themselves
true political rights, for instance the right of self-administration,
rights of justice over the inhabitants, the right of not being,
taxed except by their own consent, of maintaining an armed
force, and of controlling it themselves. Others only obtained
civil rights, e.g. guarantees against the arbitrary rights of justice
and taxation of the lord or his provost. The chief forms of
municipal organization at this time were the commune jwH of
the north and east, and the consulate which came from Italy and
penetrated as far as Auvergne and Limousin. The towns with ,
important privileges formed in feudal society as it were a new
class of lordships; but their lords, that is to say their burgesses,
were inspired by quite a new spirit. The crown courted their
support, taking them under its protection, and championing
the causes in which they were interested (see Commune) . Finally,
it is in this period, under Philip Augustus, that the great fiefs
began to be effectually reannexed to the crown, a process which,
continued by the kings up to the end of the ancien rigime, re-
founded for their profit the territorial sovereignty of France.
The crown maintained the machinery of feudalism, the chief
central instruments of which were the great officers of the crown,
the seneschal, butler, constable and chancellor, who Qnai
were to become irremovable officials, those at least otfkxnot
who survived. But this period saw the rise of a tin crow a
special college of dignitaries, that of the Twelve Peers JjSjJIS
of France, consisting of six laymen and six ecclesi-
astics, which took definitive shape at the beginning of the
13th century. We cannot yet discern with any certainty by
what process it was formed, why those six prelates and those six
great feudatories in particular were selected rather than others
equally eligible. But there is no doubt that we have here a
result of that process of feudal organization mentioned above;
the formation of a similar assembly of twelve peers occurs also
in a certain number of the great fiefs. Besides the part which
they played at the consecration of kings, the peers of France
formed a court in which they judged one another under the
presidency of the king, their overlord, according to feudal custom.
But the tow des pairs in this sense was not separate from the
carta regis, and later from the parlement of Paris, of which the
peers of France were by right members. From this time, too,
dates another important institution, that of the mattres da
requites.
The legislative power of the crown again began to be exercised
during the 1 3th century, and in the 13th century hadfull authority
over all the territories subject to the crown. Beau-
manoir has a very interesting theory on this subject. 2? JJ?^
The right of war tends to regain its natural equilibrium, power.
the royal power following the Church in the endeavour
to check private wars. Hence arose the quaranlaine It roi,
due to Philip Augustus or Saint Louis, by which those relatives
of the parties to a quarrel who had not been present at the quarrel
were rendered immune from attack for forty days after it;
and above all the assurements imposed by the king or lord;
on these points too Beaumanoir has an interesting theory.
The rule was, moreover, already in force by which private wars
had to cease during the time that the king was engaged in a
foreign war. But the most appreciable progress took place in the
9*2
FRANCE
ILAW15?
adininiatrative and judicial institutions. Under Phifip Augustus
arose the royal baillis (see Bailot: section Bailli), and seneschals
(gj*.), who were the representatives of the king in the provinces,
and superior judges. At the same time the form of the feudal
courts tended to change, as they began more and more to be
influenced by the Romano-canonical law. Saint Louis had
striven to abolish trial by combat, and the Church had condemned
other forms of ordeal, the purgatio vulgaris. In most parts of
the country the feudal lords began to give place in the courts of
law to the provosts (privits) and baillis of the lords or of the
crown, who were the judges, having as their councillors the
avocats (advocates) and procurers (procurators) of the assize.
The feudal courts, which were founded solely on the relations of
homage and tenure, before which the vassals and tenants as
such appeared, disappeared in part from the 15th century on.
Of the seigniorial jurisdictions there soon remained only the
kaufes or bouts justices (in the 14th century arose an intermediate
grade, the moyenne justice), all of which were considered to be
concessions of the royal power, and so delegations of the public
authority. As a result of the application of Roman and canon
law, there arose the appeal strictly so called, both in the class of
royal and of seigniorial jurisdictions, the case in the latter instance
going finally before a royal court, from which henceforth there
was no appeal. In the 13th century too appeared the theory
of crown cases (cos royaux), cases which the lords became in-
competent to try and which were reserved for the royal court.
Finally, the curia regis was gradually transformed into a regular
court of justice, the Parlement (q.v.) t as it was already called
in the second half of the 13th century. At this time the king
no longer appeared in it regularly, and before each session (for
it was not yet a permanent body) a list of properly qualified men
was drawn up in advance to form the parlement, only those whose
names were on the list being capable of sitting in H. Its main
function had come to be that of a final court of appeal. At the
various sessions, which were regularly held at Paris, appeared
the baillis and seneschals, who were called upon to answer for
the cases they had judged and also for their administration.
The accounts were received by members of the parlement at
the Temple, and tins was the origin of the Cour or Chambre des
Comptes.
At the end of this period the nobility became an exclusive
class. It became an established rule that a man had to be noble
in order to be made a knight, and even in order to
acquire a fief; but in this latter respect the king
made exceptions in the case of roturiers, who were
licensed to take up fiefs, subject to a payment known
as the- droits de franc-fief. The roturiers, or villeins
who were not in a state of thraldom, were already a
numerous class not only in the towns but in the country.
The Church maintained her privileges; a few attempts only
were made to restrain the abuse, not the extent, of her jurisdic-
tion. This jurisdiction was, during the xsth century, to a certain
extent regularized, the bishop nominating a special functionary
to hold his court; this was the officialis (Fr. official), whence the
name of efficialiti later applied in France to the ecclesiastical
jurisdictions. On one point, however, her former rights were
diminished. She preserved the right of freely acquiring personal
and real property, but though she could still acquire feudal
tenures she could not keep them; the customs decided that she
must vider Us mains, that is, alienate the property again within
a year and a day. The reason for this new rule- was that the
Church, the ecclesiastical establishment, is a proprietor who
does not die and in principle does not surrender her property;
consequently, the lords had no longer the right of exacting the
transfer duties on those tenures which she acquired. It was
possible, however, to compromise and allow the Church to keep
the tenure on condition of the consent not only 01 the lord
directly concerned, but of all the higher lords up to the capital is
dominus; it goes without saying that this concession was only
obtained by the payment of pecuniary compensations, the chief
of which was the droit d*amorlissemet4, paid to these different
lords. In this period the form of the episcopal elections under-
went a change, the electoral college coming to consist orfy er ±
canons composing the chapter of the cathedral cfrarch- Zi
except for the official candidatures, which were abused fey ±.
kings and great lords, the elections were regular; tne Praglv*
Sanction, attributed to Saint Louis, which implies else c
is nowadays considered apocryphal by the best critics.
Finally, it must be added that during the 13th century- c
law was profoundly modified. Under the influence of Roslt
law a system of arbitrary penalties replaced those c ^^ m
laid down by the customs, which had usually been ^^ mmmt
fixed and crueL The criminal procedure of the feudal imw.
courts bad been based on the right of accusation
vested only in the person wronged and his relations; for lis
was substituted the inquisitorial procedure {processus pe
inquisUionem), which had developed in the canon law at the vet
end of the 12th century, and was to become the p r mdd u n e
l' extraordinaire of the ancien rigime, which was conducted a
secret and without free defence and debate. Of tins piOL e &a*
torture came to be an ordinary and regular part.
The customs, which ai that time contained almost the whek
of the law for a great part of France, were not fixed by best
written down. In that part of France which was
subject to customary law (la France coutumiere) they l^ m \ mm ,
were defined when necessary by the verdict of a jury
of practitioners in what was called the enqutte par turbo; soae
of them, however, were, in part at least, authentically r e co rded
in seigniorial charters, chartes de viUe or ckartes de contumc
Their rules were also recorded by experts in private works er
collections called lines coutumiers, or simply emdumdm
(customaries). The most notable of these are Les Centimes
de Beauvoisis of Philippe de Beamnanoir, which Montesqmes
justly quotes as throwing light on those times; also the Tres
ancienne coutume de NormarCdie and the Grand Coutumier it
Normandie; the Conseil a un ami of Pierre des Fontaines, the
£tabHsscments de Saint Louts; the Here de jostice et de pUL
At the same time the clerks of important judges began to collect
in registers notable decisions; it is in this way that we have
preserved to us the old decisions of the exchequer of Normandy,
and the OUm registers of the parlement of Paris.
The Limited Monarchy.— The 14th and 15th centuries were
the age of the limited monarchy. Feudal institutions kept
their political importance; but side by side with them arose
others of which the object was the direct exercise of the royal
authority; others also arose from the very heart of feudalism,
but at the same time transformed its laws in order to adapt them
to the new needs of the crown. In this period certain rules for
the succession to the throne were fixed by precedents: the
exclusion of women and of male descendants in the female
line, and the principle that a king could not by an act of wul
change the succession of the crown. The old curia regis da>
appeared and was replaced by the parlement as to its judicial
functions, while to fulfil its deliberative functions there was
formed a new body, the royal council (conseil du rot), an ad*
ministrative and governing council, which was in no way of a
feudal character. The number of its members was at first smaU,
but they tended to increase; soon the brevet of conseHler dm
rot en ses conseUs was given to numerous representatives of the
clergy and nobility, the great officers of the crown becoming
members by right. Side by side with these officials, whose power
was then at its height, there were gradually evolved more
subservient ministers who could be dispensed with at wffl;
the secretaires des commandments d u rot of the 15th century,
who in the x6th century developed into the secretaires d'etat,
and were themselves descended from the cleres du secret and
secretaires des finances of the 14th century. . The College of the
Twelve Peers of France had not its full numbers at the end of
the 13th century; the six ecclesiastical peerages existed and
continued to exist to the end, together with the archbishopric
and bishoprics to which they were attached, not being suppressed;
but several of the great fiefs to which six lay peerages had been
attached had been annexed to the crown. To fill these vacancies,
Philip the Fair raised the duchies of Brittany and Anjou tod
INSTITUTIONS)
FRANCE
9*3
the cotintsMp of Artoia to the rank of peerages of France. This
really amounted to changing the nature of the institution;
for the new peers held their rank merely at the king's will,
though the rank continued to belong to a great barony and to
be handed down with it. Before long peers began to be created
when there were no gaps in the ranks of the College, and there
was a constant increase in the numbers of the lay peers.
At the beginning of the 14th century appeared the states
general {Hats gSniraux), which were often convoked, though not
at fixed intervals, throughout the whole of the 14th
century and the greater part of the 15th. Their
power reached its height at a critical moment of the
Hundred Years' War during the reign of King John.
At the same time there arose side by side with them,
and from the same causes, the provincial estates, which were
in miniature for each province what the states general were for
the whole kingdom. Of these provincial assemblies some were
founded in one or other of the great fiefs, being convoked by the
duke or count under the pressure of the same needs which led
the king to convoke the states general; others, in provinces
which had already been annexed to the crown, probably had
their origin in the councils summoned by the baitti or seneschal to
aid him in his administration. Later it became a privilege for
a province to have its own assembly; those which did so were
never of right subject to the royal taUle, and kept, at least
formally, the right of sanctioning, by means of the assembly, the
subsidies which took its place. Hence it became the endeavour
of the crown to suppress these provincial assemblies, which in
the 14th century were to be found everywhere; from the outset
of the 15th century they began to disappear in central France.
The most characteristic feature of this period was the institu-
tion of universal taxation by the crown. So far the king's sole
revenues were those which he exacted, in his capacity
22S*m». °f feudal lord, wherever another lord did not intervene
between him and the inhabitants, in addition to the in-
come arising from certain crown rights which he had preserved or
regained. But these revenues, known later as the income of the
royal domain and later still as the finances ordinaires, became
insufficient in proportion as the royal power increased; it
became a necessity for the monarch to be able to levy imposts
throughout the whole extent of the provinces annexed to the
crown, even upon the subjects of the different lords. This he
could only do by means of the co-operation of those lords, lay and
ecclesiastical, who alone had the right of taxing their subjects;
the co-operation of the privileged towns, which had the right to
tax themselves, was also necessary. It was in order to obtain
this consent that the states general, in most cases, and the pro-
vincial assemblies, in all cases, were convoked. In some cases,
however, the king adopted different methods; for instance,
he sometimes utilized the principle of the feudal aids. In cases
where his vassals owed him, as overlord, a pecuniary aid, he
substituted for the sum paid directly by his vassals a tax levied
by hb own authority on their subjects. It is in this way that for
thirty years the necessary sums were raised, without any vote
from the states general, to pay the ransom of King John. But
in principle the taxes were in the 14th century sanctioned by
the states general Whatever form they took, they were given
the generic name of Aids or auxilia, and were considered as
occasional and extraordinary subsidies, the king being obliged
in principle to "live of his own n (vhrede son domains). Certain
aids, it is true, tended to become permanent under the reign of
Charles VI.; but the taxes subject to the consent of the states
general were at first the sole resource of Charles VIL In the
second half of his reign the two chief taxes became permanent:
in 1435 that of the aids (a tax on the sale of articles of con-
sumption, especially on wine), with the formal consent of the
states general, and that of the tattle in 1430. In the latter case
the consent of the states general was not given; but only the
nobility protested , for at the same time as the royal taiile became
permanent the seigniorial taiile was suppressed. These imposts
*ere increased, on the royal authority, by Louis XI. After his
death the states general, which met at Tours in 1484, endeavoured
X. U*
to re-establish the periodical vote of the tax, and only granted
it for two years, reducing it to the sum which it had reached
at the death of Charles VII. But the promise that they would
again be convoked before the expiry of two years was not kept.
These imposts and that of the gabelle were henceforth permanent
Together with the taxes there was evolved the system of their
administration. Their main outlines were laid down by the
states general in the reign of King John, in 1355 and the following
years. For the administration of the subsidies which they
granted, they nominated from among their own numbers
surintendants giniraux or giniraux des finances, and further,
for each diocese or equivalent district, tins. Both had not only
the active administration but also judicial rights, the latter
constituting courts of the first instance and the former courts of
final appeal. After 1360 the crown again adopted this organiza-
tion, which had before been only temporary; but henceforth
giniraux and tf«* were nominated by the king. The tins, or
ojiciers des elections, only existed in districts which were subject
to the royal taiile', hence the division, so important in old France,
into pays <f factions and pays d*Hais. The tins kept both
administration and jurisdiction; but in the higher stage a differ-
entiation was made: the giniraux des finances, who numbered
four, kept the administration, while their jurisdiction as a court
of final appeal was handed over to another body, the cour des
aides, which had already been founded at the end of the 14th
century. Besides the four giniraux des finances, who administered
the taxation, there were four Treasurers of France (trisoriers
de France), who administered the royal domain; and these eight
officials together formed in the 15th century a kind of ministry
of finance to the monarchy.
The army also was organised. On the one hand, the military
service attached to the fiefs was transformed for the profit
of the king, who alone had the right of making war:
it became the arriere-ban, a term which had formerly jjj^
applied to the letU en masse of all the inhabitants in
times of national danger. Before the 14th century the king
had only bad the power of calling upon his own immediate vassals
for service. Henceforth all possessors of fiefs owed him, whether
within the kingdom or on the frontiers, military service without
pay and at their own expense. This was for long an important
resource for the king. But Charles VIL organized an army on
another footing. It comprised the francs-archers furnished by
the parishes, a militia which was only summoned in case of war,
but in time of peace had to practise archery, and companies of
gendarmerie or heavy cavalry, forming a permanent establish-
ment, which were called compagnies d'ordonnance. It was
chiefly to provide for the expense of the -first nucleus of a per-
manent army that the tailie itself had been made permanent.
The new army led to the institution of the governors of pro-
vinces, who were to command the troops quartered there. At
first they were only appointed for the frontiers and fortified
places, but later die kingdom was divided into gonvernements
giniraux. There were at first twelve of these, which were called
in the middle of the x6th century tbtdotae anciens gonvernements.
Although, strictly speaking, they had only military powers, the
governors, always chosen from among the great lords, became
in the provinces the direct representatives of the king and caused
the baillis and seneschals to take a secondary place.
The courts of law continued to develop on the lines already
laid down. The pariement, which had come to be a judicial
committee nominated every year, but always consisting
in fact of the same persons, changed m the course of the SvuT
14th century into a body, of magistrates who were
permanent but as yet subject to removal. During this period
were evolved its organisation and definitive features (see Parle-
kent). The provincial parlements had arisen after and in imita-
tion of that of Paris, and had for the most part taken the place of
some superior jurisdiction which had formerly existed in the same
district when it had been independent (like Provence) or had
formed one of the great fiefs (like Normandy or Burgundy).
It was during this period also that the parlements acquired the
right oi opposing the registration, that is to say, the promulgation
9*4
FRANCE
0LAWAS
of laws, of revising them, and of making representations {tenon-
trances) to the king when they refused the registration, giving
the reasons for such refusal. The other royal jurisdictions were
completed (see Bailot, Chatelet). Besides them, arose another
of great importance, which was of military origin, but came to
include all citizens under its sway. These were the provosts
of the marshals of France {prevtls des marichaux de France),
who were officers of the Marlchoussie (the gendarmerie of the
time); they exercised criminal jurisdiction without appeal in
the case of crimes committed by vagabonds and fugitives from
justice, this class being called their gibier (game), and of a number
of crimes of violence, whatever the rank of the offender. Further,
another class of officers was created in connexion with the law
courts: the " king's men " (jens du rot), the procurcurs and
avocats du roi, who were at first simply those lawyers who
represented the king in the law courts, or pleaded for him when
he had some interest to follow up or to defend. Later they became
officers of the crown. In the case of the procurcurs du roi this
development took place in the first half of the 14th century.
Their duty was not only to represent the king in the law courts,
whether as plaintiff or defendant, but also to take care that in
each case the law was applied, and to demand its application.
From this time on the procurcurs du roi had full control over
matters concerning the public interest, and especially over
public prosecution. In this period, too, appeared what was
afterwards called justice retenue, that is to say, the justice which
the king administered, or was supposed to administer, in person.
It was based on the idea that, since all justice and all judicial
power reside in the king, he could not deprive himself of them
by delegating their exercise to his officers and to. the feudal
lords. Consequently he could, if he thought fit, take the place
of the judges and call up a case before his own council. He could
reverse even the decisions of the courts of final appeal, and in
some cases used this means of appealing against the decrees of the
parlements {proposition d'erreur, requite civile, pourvoi en revision).
In these cases the king was supposed to judge in person; in
reality they were examined by the maUres des requites and
submitted to the royal council (conseil du rot), at which the king
was always supposed to be present and which had in itself no
power of giving a decision. For this purpose there was soon
formed a special committee of the council, which was called the
conseil privi or de justice. At the end of the 15th century,
Charles VIII., in order to relieve the council of some of its func-
tions, created a new final court, the grand conseil, to deal with
a number of these cases. But before long it again became the
custom to appeal to the conseil du roi, so that the grand conseil
became almost useless. The king frequently, by means of
lettres de justice, intervened in the procedure of the courts, by
granting benifices, by which rules which were too severe were
modified, and faculties or facilities for overcoming difficulties
arising from flaws in contracts or judgments, cases at that time
not covered by the common law. By lettres de gr&ct he granted
reprieve or pardon in individual cases. The most extreme
form of intervention by the king was made by means of lettres de
cachet (q.v.), which ordered a subject to go without trial into a
state prison or into exile.
The condition of the Church changed greatly during this period.
The jurisdiction of the ojfkiaJties was very much reduced, even
over the clergy. They ceased to be competent to
judge actions concerning the possession of real property,
in which the clergy were defendants. In criminal
law the theory of the cos privUigU, which appears in the 14th
century, enabled the royal judges to take action against and judge
the clergy for all serious crimes, though without the power of
inflicting any penalties but arbitrary fines, the ecclesiastical
judge remaining competent, in accordance with the privileges of
clergy, to try the offender for the same crime as what was
technically called a dHU commun. The development of juris-
prudence gradually removed from the officialitis causes of a
purely secular character in which laymen only were concerned,
such as wills and contracts; and in matrimonial cases their
jurisdiction was limited to those in which the joedus matrimonii
was in question. For the acquisition of real property by <
astical establishments the consent of the king to the
ment was always necessary, even in the case of aUoHtnl laada;
and if it was a case of feudal tenures the king and the dim
overlords alone kept their rights, the intermediate lords besg
left out of the question.
As regards the conferring of ecclesiastical' benefice*, from tk
14th century onwards the papacy encroached more and mcr?
upon the rights of the bishops, in whose gift the inferior _
benefices generally were, and of the electors, who f^fH^.
usually conferred the superior benefices; at the same «■*.
time it exacted from newly appointed incumbents
heavy dues, which were included under the generic name of
annates (q.v.). During the Great Schism of the Western Chtuci
these abuses became more and more crying, until by a series d
edicts, promulgated with the consent and advice of the pariernes:
and the clergy, the Galhcan Church was restored to the possesses
of its former liberties, under the royal authority. Thus France
was ready to accept the decrees of reform issued by the council
of Basel (?.*.), which she did, with a few modifications, in ike
Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VTL, adopted after a soksm
assembly of the clergy and nobles at Bourges and registered
by the parlement of Paris in 1438. It suppressed the annates
and most of the means by which the popes disposed of the inferior
benefices: the reservations and the gratiae exprriathma. For
the choice of bishops and abbots, it restored election by the
chapters and convents. The Pragmatic Sanction, however,
was never recognized by the papacy, nor was it consistently and
strictly applied by the royal power. The transformation of the
civil and criminal law under the influence of Roman and canon
law had become more and more marked. The production of the
coutumiers, or livres de pratiques, also continued. The chief of
them were: in the 14th century, the Stylus Vet us Curiae Porta-
menti of Guillaume de Breuil; the Tres ancienne coutume ie
Bretagne; the Grand Coutumier de France, or Comlumier de
Charles VI.', the Somme rural of Boutillier; in the r$th century,
for Auvergne, the Practica foreusis of Masuer. Cfearks VII.,
in an article of the Grand Ordonnance of Montil-ks-Tours (1453),
ordered the general customs to be officially recorded under the
supervision of the crown. It was an enormous work, which
would almost have transformed them into written laws; but
up to the x6th century little recording was done, the procedure
established by the Qrdonnance for the purpose not being very
suitable.
The Absolute Monarchy.— From the 16th century to the
Revolution was the period of the absolute monarchy, but it
can be further divided into two periods: that of the q ^
establishment of this regime, from 1515 to about •
1673; and that of the anckmrigime when definitively
established, from 1673 to 1789. The reigns of Francis '
I. and Henry II* clearly laid down the principle of the l
absolute power of the crown and applied it effectually, as is
plainly seen from the temporary disappearance of the states
general, which were not assembled under these two reigns.
There were merely a few assemblies of notables chosen by the
royal power, the most important of which was that of Cognac,
under Francis I., summoned to advise on the non-fulfilment
of the treaty of Madrid. It is true that in the second half of
the x6th century the states general reappeared. They were
summoned in 1560 at Orleans, then in 1561 at Pontoise, and in
1 576 and x 588 at Blois. The League even convoked one, which
was held at Paris in 1593. This represented a crucial and final
struggle. Two points were then at issue: firstly, whether
France was to be Protestant or Catholic; secondly, whether
she was to have a limited or an absolute monarchy. The two
problems were not necessarily bound up with one another. For
if the Protestants desired political liberty, many of the Catholics
wished for it too, as is proved by the writings of the time, and
even by the fact that the League summoned the estates. But
the states general of the 16th century, in spite of their good in-
tentions and the great talents which were at their service, were
dominated by religious passions, which made them powerless
:NSxrnmoNS] FRANCB
or auiy practical purpose. They only produced * few great
ordinances of reform, which were not well observed. They were,
however, to be called together yet again, as & result of the
disturbances which followed the death of Henry IV.; but their
dissensions and powcrlessncss were again strikingly exemplified
auad they did not reappear until 1780. Other bodies, however,
-which the royal power had created, were to cany on the struggle
against it. There were the parlements, the political rivals of
the states general. Thanks to the principle according to which
no law came into effect so long as it had not been registered by
them, they had, as we have seen, won for themselves the right
of a preliminary discussion of those laws which were presented
to them, and of refusing registration, explaining their reasons
to the king by means of the remontranccs* The royal power saw
in this merely a concession from itself, a consultative power,
which ought to yield before the royal will, when the latter was
clearly manifested, either by Icllres de jussion or by the actual
words and presence of the king, when he came in person to procure
the registration of a law in a so-called lit de justice. But from
the x6th century onwards the members of the parlements
claimed, on the strength of a historical theory, to have inherited
the powers of the ancient assemblies (the Merovingian and
Carolingian placita and the curia regis), powers which they,
moreover, greatly exaggerated. The successful assertion of
this claim would have made them at once independent of and
necessary to the crown. During the minority of kings, they had
possessed, in fact, special opportunities for asserting their preten-
sions, particularly when they had been called upon to intervene
in the organization of the regency. It is on this account that at
the beginning of the reign of Louis XIV. the parlement of Paris
wished to take part in the government, and in 1648, in concert
with the other supreme courts of the capital, temporarily imposed
a sort of charter of liberties. But the first Fronde, of which
the parlement was the centre and soul, led to its downfall, which,
was completed when later on Louis XIV. became all-powerful.
The ordinance of 1667 on civil procedure, and above all a declara-
tion of 1673, ordered the parlement to register the laws as
soon as it received them and without any moai6calk>n. It was
only after this registration that they were allowed to draw up
remonstrances, which were henceforth futile. The nobles, as a
body, had also become politically impotent. They had been
sorely tried by the wars of religion, and Richelieu, in his struggles
against the governors of the provinces, had crushed their chief
leaders. The second Fronde was their last effort (see Fronds).
At the same time the central government underwent changes.
The great officers of the crown disappeared one by one. The
office of constable of France was suppressed by purchase during
the first half of the 17th century, and of those in the first rank
only the chancellor survived till the Revolution. But though
his title could only be taken from him by condemnation on a
capital charge, the king was able to deprive him of his functions
by taking from him the custody and use of the seal of France,
which were entrusted to a garde des sceaux. Apart from the latter,
the king's real ministers were the secretaries of state, generally
four in number, who were always removable and were not chosen
from among the great nobles. For purposes of internal adminis-
tration, the provinces were divided among them, each of them
corresponding by despatches with those which were assigned to
him. Any other business (with the exception of legal affairs,
which belonged to the chancellor, and finance, of which we shall
speak later) was divided among them according to convenience.
At the end of the 16th century, however, were evolved two
regular departments, those of war and foreign affairs. Under
Fronds I. and Henry II., the chief administration of finance
underwent a change; for the four gineraux des finances, who
had become too powerful, were substituted the intendants des
finances, one of whom soon became a chief minister of finance,
with the title surintcndaHt. The gitUraux des finances, like the
trisoriers de France, became provincial officials, each at the head
of a gtniraliU (a superior administrative district for purposes
of finance); under Henry III. the two functions were combined
and assigned to the bureaux des finances. The fall of Fouquct
91s
led to the suppression of the office of surintendant; but soon
Colbert again became practically a minister of finance, under the
name of contrUeur gtniral des finances, both title and office
continuing to exist up to the Revolution.
The conseil du roi f the origin of which we have described,
was an important organ of the central government, and for a
long time included among its members a large number of repre-
sentatives of the nobility and clergy. Besides the councillors
of state (conseillers d'etat), its ordinary members, the great officers
of the crown and secretaries of state, princes of the blood and
peers of France were members of it by right. Further, the king
was accustomed to grant the brevet of councillor to a great
number of the nobility and clergy, who could be called upon
to sit in the council and give an opinion on matters of importance.
But in the 17th century the council tended to differentiate its
functions, forming three principal sections, one for political,
one for financial, and the third for legal affairs. Under Louis
XIV. it took a definitely professional, administrative and
technical character. The conseillers a bretei were all suppressed
in 1673, and the peers of France ceased to be members of the
council. The political council, or conseil d'en kaut, had no ex
officio members, not even the chancellor; the secretary of state
for foreign affairs, however, necessarily had entry to it; it also
induded a small number of persons chosen by the king and
bearing the title of ministers of state (ministres d'Uat)* The
other important sections of the conseil dn *oi were the conseil
des finances, organized after the fall of Fouquet, and the conseil
des dtptches, in which sat the four secretaries of state and where
everything concerned with internal administration (except
finance) was dealt with, including the legal business connected
with this administration. As to the government and the prepara-
tion of laws, under Louis XIV. and Louis XV., the conseil du roi
often passed into the background, when, as the saying went,
a minister who was projecting some important measure travail-
lait seul avec le roi (worked alone with the king), having from
the outset gained the king's ear.
The chief authority in the provincial administration belonged
in the 16th century to the governors of the provinces, though,-
strictly speaking, the governor had only military
powers in his gouvernement; tar, as we have seen, he SiitoS? 1
was the direct representative of the king for general tntfao.
purposes. But at the end of this century were
created the intendants of the provinces, who, after a period
of conflict with the governors and the parlements, became
absolute masters of the administration in all those provinces
which had no provincial estates, and the instruments qf a
complete administrative centralization (see Intendant).
The towns having a corps de ville, that is to say, a municipal
organization, preserved in the 16th century a fairly wide
autonomy, and played an important part in the wars
of religion, especially under the League. But under
Louis XIV. their independence rapidly declined.
They were placed under the tutelage of the intendants, whose
sanction, or that of the conseil du roi, was necessary for all acts
of any importance. In the dosing years of the 17th century,
the municipal officials ceased, even in principle, to be elective.
Their functions ranked as offices which were, like royal offices,
saleable and heritable. The pretext given by the edicts were the
intrigues and dissensions caused by the elections; the real
cause was that the government wanted to sell these offices,
which is proved by the fact that it frequently allowed towns
to redeem them and to re-establish the elections.
The sale of royal offices is one of the characteristic features of
the ancien rtgime. It had begun early, and, apparently, with
the office of councillor of the parlement of Paris, when
this became permanent, in the second half of the 14th
century. It was first practised by magistrates who
wished to dispose of their office in favour of a successor of their
own choice. Thtjresignatio in favor em of ecclesiastical benefices
served as model, and at first care was taken to conceal the
money transaction between the parties. The crown winked
at these resignations in consideration of a payment in money,
gi6
But in the 16th century, under Francis I. at the latest, the crown
itself began officially to sell offices, whether newly created or
vacant by the death of their occupiers, taking a fee from those
upon whom they were conferred. Under Charles IX. the right
of resigning fit favorcm was recognized by law in the case of
royal officials, in return for a payment to the treasury of a
certain proportion of the price. In the case of judicial offices
there was a struggle for at least two centuries between the system
of sale and another, also imitated from canon law, i.e. the election
or presentation of candidates by the legal corporations. The
ordinances of the second half of the x6th century, granted in
answer to complaints of the states general, restored and con-
firmed the latter system, giving a share in the presentation
to the towns or provincial notables and forbidding sales. The
system of sale, however, triumphed in the end, and, in the case
of judges, had, moreover, a favourable result, assuring to them
that irremovability which Louis XI. had promised in vain; for,
under this system, the king could not reasonably dismiss an
official arbitrarily without refunding the fee which he had
paid. On the other hand, it contributed to the development
of the Spices, or dues paid by litigants to the judges. The system
of sale, and with it irremovability, was extended to all official
functions, even to financial posts. The process was completed
by the recognition of the rights in the sale of offices as hereditary,
i.e. the right of resigning the office on payment of a fee, either
in favour of a competent descendant or of a third party, passed
to the heirs of an official who had died without having exercised
this right himself. It was established under Henry IV. in 1604
by the system called the Paulette, in return for the payment
by the official of an annual fee {droit annuel) which was definitely
fixed at a hundredth part of the price of the office. Thus these
offices, though the royal nomination was still required as well
as the professional qualifications required by the law, became
heritable property in virtue of the finance attached to them.
This led to the formation of a class of men who, though bound
in many ways to the crown, were actually independent. Hence
the tendency in the 18th century to create new and important
functions under the form, not of offices, but of simple commissions.
In this period of the history of France were evolved and defined
the essential principles of the old public law. There were,
Puaaa- m tne np5t pl*<*> the fundamental laws of the realm,
watal which were true constitutional principles, established
law* mi for the most part not by law but by custom, and
Fnae9 * considered as binding in respect of the king himself;
so that, although he was sovereign, he could neither abrogate,
nor modify, nor violate them. There was, however, some discus-
sion as to what rules actually came under this category, except in
the case of two series about which there was no doubt. These
were, on the one hand, those which dealt with the succession
to the crown and forbade the king to change its order, and those
which proclaimed the inalienability of the royal domain, against
which no title by prescription was valid. This last principle,
introduced in the 14th century, had been laid down and defined
by the edict of Moulins in 1566; it admitted only two exceptions:
the formation of appanages (q.v.), and selling (engagement), to
meet the necessities of war, with a perpetual option of redeem-
ing it.
There was in the second place the theory of the rights, franchises
and liberties of the Gailican Church, formed of elements some
of which were of great antiquity, and based on the conditions
which had determined the relations of the Gailican Church
with the crown and papacy during the Great Schism and under
the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, and defined at the end of
the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century. This body of
doctrine was defined by the writings of three men especially,
Guy Coquille, Pierre Pithou and Pierre Dupuy, and was solemnly
confirmed by the declaration of the clergy of France, or Declara-
tion des quotres articles of 1682, and by the edict which promul-
gated it. Its substance was based chiefly on three principles:
firstly, that the temporal power was absolutely independent of
the spiritual power; secondly, that the pope had authority
over the clergy of France in temporal matters and matters of
FRANCE ilawa:
discipline only by the consent of the king; thirdly, that i_-
king had authority over and could legislate for the GaSn
Church in temporal matters and matters of discipline The ■-
public law provided a safeguard against the violation of ths
rules. This was the process known as the appd c o mmt tab*
formed of various elements, some of them very anrirpf, c
definitely established during the 16th century. It mas ke*:
before the parlements, but could, like every other case, t<
evoked before the royal council. Its effect was to anmd tr-
act of the ecclesiastical authority due to abuse or contxarj *j
French law. The clergy were, when necessary, reduced :
obedience by means of arbitrary fines and by the seizure of User
temporalities. The Pragmatic Sanction had been abrogzifi:
and replaced by the Concordat of 1515, concluded betvta
Francis I. and Leo X., which remained in force until suppress-:
by the Constituent Assembly. The Concordat, t ut w et>rt t
preserved many of the enactments of the Pragmatic Sanctirs
notably those which protected the collation of the inferior benefm
from the encroachments of the papacy, and which had introdecrd
reforms in certain points of discipline. But in the case of ths
superior benefices (bishoprics and abbeys) election by t£*
chapters was suppressed. The king of France nominated the
candidate, to whom the pope gave canonical institution. .As 1
matter of fact, the pope had no choice; he had to institute tbt
nominee of the king, unless he could show his unworthiness «
incapacity, as the result of inquiries regularly conducted ia
France; for the pope it was, as the ancient French authors
used to say, a case of compulsory collation. The annates were
re-established at the time of the Concordat, but considerab??
diminished in comparison with what they had been before the
Pragmatic Sanction. We must add, to complete this account,
that many of the inferior benefices, in France as in the rest of
Christendom, were conferred according to the rules of patronage,
the patron, whether lay or ecclesiastic, presenting a candidate
whom the bishop was bound to appoint, provided he was neither
incapable nor unsuitable. There was some difficulty in getting
the Concordat registered by the pariement of Paris, and the
latter even announced its intention of not taking the Concordat
into account in those cases concerning benefices which might
come before it. The crown found an easy method of making
this opposition ineffectual, namely, to transfer to the Grand
Conseil the decision of cases arising out of the application of the
Concordat.
In the 16th century also, contributions to the public services
drawn from the immense possessions of the clergy were regu-
larized. Since the second half of the xsth century at least, the
kings had in times of urgent need asked for subsidies from the
church, and ever since the Saladin tithe (di me saladint) of Philip
Augustus this contribution had assumed the form of a tithe,
taking a tenth part of the revenue of the benefices for a given
period. Tithes of this kind were fairly frequently granted by
the clergy of France, either with the pope's consent or without
(this being a disputed point). After the conclusion of the
Concordat, Leo X. granted the king a tithe (dieimc) under the
pretext of a projected war against the Turks; hitherto con-
cessions of this kind had been made by the papacy in view of
the Crusades or of wars against heretics. The concession was
several times renewed, until, by force of custom, the levying of
these tithes became permanent. But in the middle of the 16th
century the system changed. The crown was heavily in debt,
and its needs had increased. The property of the dergy having
been threatened by the states general of 1560 and 1561, the
king proposed to them to remit the bulk of the tithes and other
dues, in return for the payment by them of a sum equivalent
to the proceeds of the taxes which he had mortgaged. A formal
contract to this effect was concluded at Pofssy in 1561 between
the king and the clergy of France, represented by the prelates
who were then gathered together for the Colloquy of Poissy with
the Protestants, and some of those who had been sitting at the
states general of Pontoise. The fulfilment of this agreement was,
however, evaded by the king, who diverted part of the funds
provided by the clergy from their proper purpose. In 15S0,
TNSTmmONSI
FRANCE
917
&ffcer a period of ten years which had been agreed on, a new
asaetably of the clergy was called together and, after protesting
against this action, renewed the agreement, which was hence-
forward always renewed every ten years. Such was the definitive
form of the contribution of the clergy, who also acquired the
right of themselves assessing and levying these taxes on the
feolders of benefices. Thus every ten years there was a great
assembly of the clergy, the members of which were elected.
There were two stages in the election, a preliminary one in the
dioceses and a further election in the ecclesiastical provinces,
each province sending four deputies to the general assembly,
two of the first rank, that is to say, chosen from the episcopate,
and two of the second rank, which included all the other clergy.
The dans gratuits (benevolences) voted by the assembly comprised
av fixed sum equivalent to the old tithes and supplementary sums
paid on one occasion only, which were sometimes considerable.
The church, on her side, profited by this arrangement in order
to obtain the commutation or redemption of the taxes affecting
ecclesiastics considered as individuals. This settlement only
applied to the " clergy of France," that is to say, to the clergy
of those districts which were united to the crown before the end
of the 16th century. The provinces annexed later, called pays
Grangers, or pays cotuptis, had in this matter, as in many others,
an arrangement of their own. At last, under Louis XV. the
edict of 1749, ceneemant Us ttaUissements et acquisitions des gens
da mainmort*, was completely effective in subordinating the
acquisition of property by ecclesiastical establishments to the
consent and control of the crown, rendering them incapable
of acquiring real property by bequests.
At the end of the 16th century a wise law had been made which,
in spite of the traces which it bore of past struggles, had estab-
lished a reasonable balance among the Christians of France.
The edict of Nantes, in 1508, granted the Protestants full dvil
rights, liberty of conscience and public worship in many places,
and notably in all the royal bailUages. The Catholics, whose
religion was essentially a state rehgjon, had never accepted this
arrangement as final, and at last, in 1685, under Louis XIV.,
the edict of Nantes was revoked and the Protestant pastors
expelled from France. Their followers were forbidden to leave
the country, but many succeeded nevertheless in escaping abroad.
The position of those who remained behind was peculiar. Laws
passed in 1715 and 1724 established the legal theory that there
were no looser any Protestants in France, but only vieux lotho-
liquet and noveeaux convertis. The result was that henceforth
they had no longer any regular civil status, the registers con-
taining the lists of Catholics enjoying civil rights being kept by
the Catholic deny.
The form of government established under Louis XIV. was
preserved without any fundamental modification under Louis
XV. After the death of Louis XIV., however, the regent, under
the inspiration of the due de St Simon, made trial of a system of
winch the latter had made a study while in a dose correspondence
with the duke of Burgundy. It consisted in substituting for the
authority of the ministers, secretaries of state and controlkr-
general councils, or governmental bodies, mainly composed of
great lords and prelates. These only lasted for a few years,
when a return was made to the former organisation. The parle-
ments had regained their ancient rights in consequence of the
parlement of Paris having, in 17x5, set aside the will of Louis
XIV. as being contrary to the fundamental laws of the kingdom,
in that it laid down rules for the composition of the council of
regency, and limited the power of the regent. This newly
revived power they exercised freely, and all the more so since they
were the last surviving check on the royal authority. During this
reign there were numerous conflicts between them and the
government, the causes of this being primarily the innumerable
incidents to which the bull UnigenUm gave rise, and the increase
of taxation; proceedings against Jesuits also figure conspicuously
in the action of the parlements. They became at this period
the avowed representatives of the nation; they contested the
validity of the registration of laws in the liis de justice, asserting
that laws could only be made obligatory when the registration
had been freely endorsed by themselves. Before the registration
of edicts concerning taxation they demanded a statement of the
financial situation and the right of examining the accounts.
Finally, by the theory of the classes, which considered the various
parlements of France as parts of one and the same body, they
established among them a political union. These pretensions
the crown refused to recognise. Louis XV. solemnly condemned
them in a lit de puttee of December 1770, and in 1771 the cfcanr
cellor Maupeou took drastic measures against them. The
magistrates of the parlement of Paris were removed, and a new
parlement was constituted, including the members of the grand
conseil, which had also been abolished. The ceur des aides of
Paris, which had made common cause with the parlement, was
also suppressed. Many of the provincial parlements were re-
organized, and a certain number of useful reforms were carried
out in the jurisdiction of the parlement of Paris; the object of
these, however, was in most cases that of diminishing its import-
ance. These actions, the coup d'&at of the chancellor Maupeou,
as they were called, produced an immense sensation. The
repeated conflicts of the reign of Louis XV. had already given
rise to a whole literature of books, pamphlets and tracts in which
the rights of the crown were discussed. At the same time the
political philosophy of the 18th century was disseminating new
principles, and especially those of the supremacy of the peonle
and the differentiation of powers, the government of England
also became known among the French. Thus men's minds were
being prepared for the Revolution.
The personal government of Louis XVI. from 1774 to 1789
was chiefly marked by two series of facts. Firstly, there was
the partial application of the principles propounded by the
French economists of this period, the Physiocrats, who had a
political doctrine peculiar to themselves. They were not in
favour of political liberty, but attached on the contrary to the
absolute monarchy, of which they did not fear the abuses
because they were convinced that so soon as they should be
known, reason (evidence) alone would suffice to make the crown
respect the M natural and essential laws of bodies politic"
(Lois naiurdla et essentieUes des sociiUs politicoes, the title of a
book by Mercier de La Riviere). On the other hand, they
favoured dvil and economic liberty. They wished, in particular,
to decentralise the administration and- restore to the landed
proprietors the administration and levying of taxes, which they
wished to reduce to a tax on land only. This school came into
power with Turgot, who was appointed controller-general of
the finances, and laid the foundations of many reforms. He
actually accomplished for the moment one very important
reform, namely, the suppression of the trade and craft gilds
(eommtmautes, jurandes el maUriscs). This organization, which
was common to the whole of Europe (see Gjlds), had taken
definitive shape in Fiance in the 13th and 14th centuries, but
had subsequently been much abused. Turgot suppressed the
privileges of the mattres, who alone had been able to work on
their own account, or to open shops and workshops, and thus
proclaimed the freedom of labour, industry and commerce.
However, the old organization, slightly amended, was restored
under his successor Necker. It was Turgot 's purpose to organize
provincial and other inferior assemblies, whose chief business
was to be the assessment of taxes. Necker applied this idea,
partially and experimentally, by creating a few of these provin-
cial assemblies in various gtniraliUs of the pays d'Hections. A
general reform on these lines and on a very liberal basis was
proposed by Calonne to the assembly of notables in 1787, and
it was brought into force for all the pays d' factions, though not
under such good conditions, by an edict of the same year.
Louis XVI. had inaugurated his reign by the restoration of the
parlements; all the bodies which had been suppressed by
Maupeou and all the officials whom he bad dismissed were
restored, and all the bodies and officials created by him were
suppressed. But it was not long before the old struggle between
the crown and parlements again broke out. It began by the
conservative opposition offered by the parlement of Paris to
Turgot's reforms. But the real struggle broke out in 1787
9i8
FRANCE
fLAW AS©
oyer the edicts coming from the assembly of notables, and
particularly over the two new taxes, the stamp duty and the
land tax. The parlement of Paris refused to register them,
asserting that the consent of the taxpayers, as represented by the
states general, was necessary to fresh taxation. The struggle
seemed to have come to an end in September; but in the
following November it again broke out, in spite of the king's
promise to summon the states general. It reached its height
in May 1788, when the king had created a cour plinierc distinct
from the parlements, the chief function of which was to register
the laws in their stead. A widespread agitation arose, amounting
to actual anarchy, and was only ended by the recall of Necker
to power and the promise to convoke the slates general for 17S0.
Various Institutions. —The permanent army which, as has
been stated above, was first established under Charles VII.,
The army. was d cve loped and organized during the ancien
rtgime. The gendarmerie or heavy cavalry was
continuously increased in numbers. On the other hand, the
francs archers fell into disuse after Louis XI.; and, after a
fruitless attempt had been made under Francis I. to establish
a national infantry, the system was adopted for this also of
recruiting permanent bodies of mercenaries by voluntary
enlistment. First there were the " old bands " (vieiUcs bandes),
chiefly those of Picardy and Piedmont, and at the end of the
16th century appeared the first regiments, the number of which
was from time to time increased. There were also irr the service
and pay of the king French and foreign regiments, the latter
principally Swiss, Germans and Scots. The system of purchase
penetrated also to the army. Each regiment was the property
of a great lord; the captain was, so to speak, owner of his
company, or rather a contractor, who, in return for the sums
paid him by the king, recruited his men and gave them their
uniform, arms and equipment. In the second half of the reign
of Louis XIV. appeared the militia (milices). To this force each
parish had to furnish one recruii, who was at first chosen by the
assembly of the inhabitants, later by drawing lots among the
bachelors or widowers without children, who were not exempt.
The militia was very rarely raised from the towns. The purpose
for which these men were employed varied from time to time.
Sometimes, as under Louis XIV., they were formed into special
active regiments. Under Louis XV. and Louis XVI. they were
formed into rigiments provinciaux, which constituted an organised
reserve. But their chief use was during war, when they were
individually incorporated into various regiments to fill up the
gaps.
Under Louis XV., with the due de Choiseul as minister of
war, great and useful reforms were effected in the army. Choiseul
suppressed what he called the " farming of companies " {com-
Pcgnte-ferme)\ recruiting became a function of the state, and
voluntary enlistment a contract between the recruit and the
state. Arms, uniform and equipment were furnished by the
king. Choiseul also equalized the numbers of the military
units, and his reforms, together with a few others effected under
Louis XVI., produced the army which fought the first campaigns
of the Revolution.
One of the most distinctive features of the ancien rigimc
was excessive taxation. The taxes imposed by the king were
numerous, and, moreover, hardly any of them fell on
2jJJ!jJJ | £' all parts of the kingdom. To this territorial inequality
was added the inequality arising from privileges.
Ecclesiastics, nobles, and many of the crown officials were
exempted from the heaviest imposts. The chief taxes were the
tailie iq.v.), the aides and the gabtlle (q.v.) , or monopoly of salt, the
consumption of which was generally made compulsory up to the
amount determined by regulations. In the 17th and 18th
centuries certain important new taxes were established: from
1695 to 1608 the capitation, which was re-established in 170s
with considerable modifications, and in 1710 the tax of the
dixiime, which became under Louis XV. the tax of the vingiicmes.
These two imposts had been established on the principle of
equality, being designed to affect every subject in proportion
to his income; but so strong was the system of privileges, that
as a matter of fact the chief burden fell upon the raumc
The income of a rotuner who was not exempt was thus sebjer
in turn to three direct imposts, the tailie, the capilaUam. and \it
vtngttemes, and the apportioning or assessment of these va*
extremely arbitrary In addition to indirect taxation suicl<
so called, which was very extensive in the 1 7 th and 1 8th cent una.
France under the anaen rigme was subject to the traites, 4
customs, which were not only levied at the frontiers, on iorc^
trade, but also included many internal custom-houses for tad?
between different provinces. Their origin was generally due u
historical reasons; thus, among the provinces reputies 4tra*si*u
were those which in the 14th century had refused to pay lU
aids for the ransom of King John, also certain provinces whads
had refused to allow customs offices to be established on their
foreign frontier. Colbert had tried to abolish these inlexaa.
duties, but had only succeeded to a limited extent.
The indirect taxes, the traites and the revenues of the royal
domain were farmed out by the crown. At first a sfpara:r
contract had been made for each impost in each ilection, bu
later they were combined into larger lots, as is shown by the
name of one of the customs districts, V enceinte its cinq grata
femes. From the reign of Henry IV. on the levying of cad
indirect impost was farmed en bloc for the whole kingdom, a
system known as the fermes gSnerales; but the real fermc gemirds*
including all the imposts and revenues which were farmed is
the whole of France, was only established under Colbert. The
fcrme generate was a powerful company, employing a vast number
of men, most of whom enjoyed various privileges. Besides the
royal taxes, seigniorial imposts survived under the form of tolh
and market dues. The lords also often possessed local inonopoiics,
e.g. the right of the common bakehouse {four banal), which were
called the banalitis.
The organization of the royal courts of justice underwent but
few modifications during the ancien rtgime. The number of
parlements, of court des aides and of cours des cemptts _
increased; in the 17th century the name of conseU £j£ ft *
supirieur was given to some new bodies which actually
discharged the functions of the parlement, this being the period
of the decline of the parlement. In the 16th century, under
Henry II., had been created presidioux, or courts of final juris-
diction, intended to avoid numerous appeals in small cases, and
above all to avoid a final appeal to the parlements. s-'fp^r rH
courts survived, but were entirely subordinate to the royal
jurisdictions and were badly officered by Hi-paid and ignorant
judges, the lords having long ago lost the right to sit in them in
person. Their chief use was to deal with cases concerning the
payment of feudal dues to the lord. Both lawyers and people
would have preferred only two degrees of justice; and an
ordinance of May 1788 realized this desire in the main. It did
not suppress the seigniorial jurisdictions, but made their extinc-
tion a certainty by allowing litigants to ignore them and go
straight to the royal judges. This was, however, reversed on the
recall of Necker and the temporary triumph of the parlements.
The ecclesiastical jurisdictions survived to the end, but with
diminished scope. Their competency had been considerably
reduced by the Ordinance of Villers Cotterets of 1539,
and by an edict of 1093. But a series of ingenious legal
theories had been principally efficacious In gradually
depriving them of most of the cases which bad hitherto
come under them. In the 18th century the privilegeof deny did
not prevent civil suits in which the clergy were defendants from
being almost always taken before secular tribunals, and ever since
the first half of the 17th century, for all grave offences, or cos
prtsHigUs, the royal judge could pronounce a sentence of corporal
punishment on a guilty cleric without this irmiifiting his
previous degradation. The Inquiry into the case was, it Is true,
conducted jointly by the royal and the ecclesiastical judge, but
each of them pronounced his sentence independently. All cases
concerning benefices came before the royal judges. Finally,
the oflicialiies had no longer as a rule any jurisdiction over
laymen, even in the matter of marriage, except in questions of
betrothals, and sometimes in cases of opposition to marriages.
ncsxiYtmoNsi FRANCE
The parish priests, however, continued to enter declarations of
toetpUams, marriages and burials in registers kept according to
the civil laws.
The general customs of the pays coutumkrs were almost all
officially recorded in the 16th century, definite procedure for
this purpose having been adopted at the end of the
2mm."*""*" , 5 th century. Drafts were prepared by the officials
of the royal courts in the chief town of the, district
in which the particular customs were valid, and were then
- submitted to the government. The king then appointed com*
nussdosers to visit the district and promulgate the customs on
the spot. For the purpose of this publication the lords, lay and
ecclesiastical, of the district, with representatives of the towns
1 and of various bodies of the inhabitants, were summoned for a
: given day to the chief town. In this assembly each article was
read, discussed and put to the vote. Those which were approved
by the majority were thereupon decreed (dicrHis) by the com-
• urisaionro.in the king's name; those which gave rise to diffi-
> duties were put aside for the parlement to settle when it registered
> the comlume. The couluma in this form became practically
. written law; henceforward their text could only be modified
by a formal revision carried out according to the same procedure
as the first version. Throughout the x6tb century a fair number
of oeutuma were thus revised (rtform£es), with the express object
of profiting by the observations and criticisms on the first text
which had appeared in published commentaries and notes, the
most important of which were those of Charles Dumouhn.
> In the 16th century there had been a revival of the study of
i Roman law, thanks to the historical school, among the most
illustrious representatives of which were Jacques Cujas, Hugues
( Doaeau and Jacques Godefroy; but this study had only slight
influence on practical jurisprudence. Certain institutions,
, however, such as contracts and obligations, were regulated
i throughout the whole of France by the principles of Roman law.
Legislation by ordonnanccs, idiis, didarations or lettres
J patent**, emanating from the king, became more and more
frequent; but the character of the grand** ordonnanccs t which
were of a far-reaching and comprehensive nature, underwent
a change during this period. In the 14th, 1 5th and 1 6th centuries
they had been mainly ordonnoiices dc reformation (i.e. revising
, previous laws), which were most frequently drawn up after a
, sitting of the states general, in accordance with the suggestions
submitted by the deputies. The last of this type was the
, ordinance of 1629, promulgated after the states general of 1614
and the assemblies of notables which had followed it. In the
17th and 18th centuries they became essentially codifications,
, comprising a systematic and detailed statement of the whole
branch of law. There are two of these series of codifying ordin-
ances: the first under Louis XIV., inspired by Colbert and
carried out under has direction. The chief ordinances of this
group are that of 1667 on civil procedure (code of civil pro-
cedure); that of 1670 on the examination of criminal cases
(cede of penal procedure); that of 1673 on the commerce of
merchants, and that of 168 x on the regulation of shipping, which
form between them a complete code of commerce by land and
sea. The ordinance of 1670 determined the formalities of that
secret and written criminal procedure, as opposed to the hearing
of both parties in a suit, which formerly obtained in France;
it even increased its severity, continuing the employment of
} torture, binding the accused by oath to speak the truth, and
refusing them counsel save in exceptional cases. The second
series of codifications was made under Louis XV., through the
action of the chancellor d'Aguesseau. Its chief result was the
regulation, by the ordinances of 1731, 173s and 1747, of deeds
of gift between living persons, wills, and property left in trust.
Under Louis XVI. some mitigation was made of the criminal
law, notably the abolition of torture.
The feudal regime, in spite of the survival of seigniorial com Is
and tolls, was no longer of any political importance; but it still
furnished the common form of real property. The fief, although
it still implied homage from the vassal, no longer involved any
service on bis part (excepting that of the arricrc-ban due to the
919
king); but when a fief changed hands the lord still enacted his
profits. Tenures held by roturiers, in addition to some similar
rights of transfer, were generally subject to periodical
and fixed contributions for the profit of the lord. This
system was still further complicated by tenures which
were simply real and not feudal, e.g. that by payment of
ground rent, which were superadded to the others, and had
become all the heavier since, in the 18th century, royal rights of
transfer had been added to the feudal rights. The inhabitants
of the country districts were longing for the liberation of real
property.
Serfdom had disappeared from most of the provinces of the
kingdom; among all the coutumes which were officially codified,
not more than ten or so still recognized this institution. rf<r<Wtlll
This had been brought about especially by the agency
of the custom by which serfs had been transformed into roturiers.
An edict of Louis XVL of 1 779 abolished serfdom on crown lands,
and mitigated the condition of the serfs who still existed on
the domains of individual lords. The nobility still remained a
privileged class, exempt from certain taxes. Certain offices
were restricted to the nobility; according to an edict of Louis
XVL (1781) it was even necessary to be a noble in Thmfh
order to become an officer in the army. In fact, 0sM o£*
the royal favours were reserved for the nobility.
Certain rules of civil and criminal procedure also distinguished
nobles from roturiers. The acquisition of fiefs had ceased to
bring nobility with it, but the latter was derived from three
sources: birth, lettres d'anoblissemcnl granted by the king and
appointment to certain offices. In the 17th and 18th centuries
the peers of France can be reckoned among the nobility, forming
indeed its highest grade, though the rank of peer was still attached
to a fief, which was handed down with it; on the eve of the
Revolution there were thirty-eight lay peers. The rest of the
nation, apart from the ecclesiastics, consisted of the roturiers,
who were not subject to the disabilities of the serfs, but had not
the privileges of the nobility. Hence the three orders (estates)
of the kingdom, the clergy, the nobility and the tiers ilat (third
estate). An edict of Louis XVI. had made a regular civil status
possible to the Protestants, and had thrown open offices and
professions to them, though not entirely; but the exercise of
their religion was still forbidden.
The Revolution.— With the Revolution France entered the
ranks of constitutional countries, in which the liberty of men is
guaranteed by fixed and definite laws; from this time on, she has
had always (except in the interval between two revolutions) a
written constitution, which could not be touched by the ordinary
legislative power. The first constitution was that of 1791;
the states general of 1789, transformed by their own will, backed
by public opinion, into the Constituent Assembly, drew it up on
their own authority. But their work did not stop there. They
abolished the whole of the old public law of France and part of
the criminal law, or rather, transformed it in accordance with
the principles laid down by the political philosophy of the 18th
century. The principles which were then proclaimed are still,
on most points, the foundation of modern French law. The
development resulting from this extraordinary impetus can be
divided into two quite distinct phases: the first, from 1789 to
the coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire in the year VIII., was the
continuation of the impulse of the Revolution; the .second
includes the Consulate and the first Empire, and was, as it were,
the marriage or fusion of the institutions arising from the Revolu-
tion with those of the ancien regime.
On the whole, the constitutional law of the Revolution is a
remarkably united whole, if we consider only the two consitutions
which were effectively applied during this first phase, j^cow
that of the 3rd of September 1791, and that of the ttuuthm
5th Fructidor in the year III. It is true that between «'<*•
them occurred the ultra-democratic constitution of the JJ|£*"
34th of June 1793, the first voted by the Convention;
but although this was ratified by the popular vote, to whkh it
had been directly submitted, in accordance with a principle pro-
claimed by the Convention and kept in force under the Consulate
920
PRANCE
OAWAB
and the Empire, it was never carried into effect. It was first
suspended by the establishment of the revolutionary government
strictly so called, and after Thermidor, under the pretext of
completing it, the Convention put it aside and made a new one,
being taught by experience. As long as it existed it was the
sovereign assembly of the Convention itself which really exercised
the executive power, governing chiefly by means of its great
committees.
The constitution of 2791 was without doubt monarchical,
in so far as it preserved royalty. The constitution of the year
HI. was, on the contrary, republican. The horror of monarchy
was still so strong at that time that an executive college was
created, a Directory of five members, one of whom retired every
year; they were elected by a complicated and curious procedure,
in which each of the two legislative councils played a distinct part.
But this difference, though apparently essential, was not in reality
very profound; this is proved, for example, by the fact that the
Directory had distinctly more extensive powers than those con-
ferred on Louis XVI. by the Constituent Assembly. On almost
all points of importance the two constitutions were similar.
They were both preceded by a statement of principles, a " Declara-
tion of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen." They were both
based on two principles which they construed alike: the
sovereignty of the people and the separation of powers. Both
of them (with the exception of what has been said with regard to
the ratification of constitutions after 1793) recognized only repre-
sentative government. From the principle of the sovereignty
of the people they had not deduced universal suffrage; though,
short of this, they had extended the suffrage as far as possible.
According to the constitution of 1791, in addition to the con-
ditions of age and residence, an elector was bound to pay a
direct contribution equivalent to three days' work, the con-
stitution of the year III. recognized the payment of any direct
contribution as sufficient; it even conferred on every citizen
the right of having himself enrolled, without any other qualifica-
tion than a payment equivalent to three days' work, and thus
to become an elector. Further, neither of the two constitutions
admitted of a direct suffrage; the elections were carried out in
two stages, and only those who paid at a higher rating could be
chosen as electors for the second stage. The executive power,
which was in the case of both constitutions clearly separated
from thelegislative, could not initiate legislation. The Directory
had no veto; Louis XVI. had with difficulty obtained a merely
suspensive veto, which was overridden in the event of three
legislatures successively voting against it. The right of dis-
solution was possessed by neither the king nor the Directory.
Neither the king's ministers nor those of the Directory could be
members of the legislative body, nor could they even be chosen
from among its ranks. The ministers of Louis XVI. had, how-
ever, thanks to an unfortunate inspiration of the Constituent
Assembly of 1791, the right of entry to, and, to a certain extent,
of speaking in the Legislative Assembly; the constitution of the
year III. showed greater wisdom in not bringing them in any way
into contact with the legislative power. The greatest and most
notable difference between the two constitutions was that that
of 1 79 1 established a single chamber which was entirely renewed
every two years; that of the year III., on the contrary, profiting
by the lessons of the past, established two chambers, one-third of
the members of which were renewed every year. Moreover,
the two chambers, the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of
Ancients, were appointed by the same electors, and almost the
only difference between their members was that of age.
The Revolution entirely abolished the ancien regime, and in
the first instance whatever remained of feudalism. The Con-
AboMHa stituent Assembly, in the course of its immense work
to* of settlement, wished to draw distinctions, abolishing
^* absolutely, without indemnity, all rights which had
amounted in the beginning to a usurpation and could
not be justified, e.g. serfdom and seigniorial courts of justice.
On the other hand, it declared subject to redemption such feudal
charges as had been the subject of contract or of a concession
of lands. But aa It was almost impossible to discover the exact
origin of various feudal rights, the Assembly had pr o ce e d ed s
do this by means of certain legal assumptions which aometaae
admitted of a proof to the contrary. It carefully regained a
conditions and rate of repurchase, and forbade the creatke i.
the future of any perpetual charge which could not be re de cs i a
a principle that has remained permanent in French law. Tia
was a rational and equitable solution, but in a period of aa
violent excitement it could not be maintained. The Legish^t
Assembly declared the abolishment without indemnity of tl
feudal rights for which the original deed of concession could netfe
produced; and to produce this was, of course, in most ass.
impossible. Finally, the Convention entirely abolished ail fe&k
rights, and commanded that the old deeds should be destreyrd,
it maintained on the contrary, though subject to xedemptbs,
those tenures and charges which were solely connected ina
landed property and not feudal.
With feudalism had been abolished serfdom. Further, tie
Constituent Assembly suppressed nobility; it even, forbade asr
one to assume and bear the titles, emblems and arms of aobStf.
Thus was established the equality of dtixens before the hw.
The Assembly also proclaimed the liberty of labour and industry,
and suppressed the corporations of artisans and workmen, tfcr
jwandes and maitrises, as Turgot had done. But, in order tit
maintain this liberty of the individual, it forbade all asaocsanea
between workers or employers, fearing that such contract!
would again lead to the formation of corporationwsanuuur to tfee
old ones. It even forbade and declared punishable, as bean
contrary to the declaration of the rights of man and the dosea,
combinations or strikes, or an agreement between workmen or
employers to refuse to work or to give work except on grwa
conditions. Such, for a long time, was French legislation oa tas
point.
The Constituent Assembly gave to France a new sdndmstranvc
division, that into departments, districts, cantons and communes;
and this division, which was intended to make the
old provincial distinctions disappear, had to serve all
purposes, the department being the unit for all public
services. This settlement was definitive, with the
exception of certain modifications in detail, and exists to the
present day. But there was a peculiar administrative orgaaiso
depending on this arrangement. The constitution of 1791,
it is true, made the king the titulary head of the executive
power, but the internal administration of the kingdom was not
actually in his hands. It was deputed, under his orders,
to bodies elected in each department, district and commune.
The municipal bodies were directly elected by dtixens dury
qualified, other bodies were chosen by the method of double
election. Each body consisted of two parts, a councQ, for
deliberative purposes, and a bureau or dirtcUnre chosen by the
council from among its numbers to form the executive. These
were the only instruments for the general administration and
for that of the direct taxes. The king could, it is true, annul
the illegal acts of these bodies, but not dismiss their members,
he could merely suspend them from exercising their functions,
but the matter then went before the Legislative Assembly,
which could maintain or remit the suspension as it thought fit
The king had not a single agent chosen by himself for general
administrative purposes. This was a reaction, though a very
exaggerated one, against the excessive centralisation of the
ancicii rtgime, and resulted in an absolute administrative anarchy.
The organization of the revolutionary government partly restored
the central authority; the councils of the departments were
suppressed; the Committee of Public Safety and the "repre-
sentatives of the people on mission " were able to remove and
replace the members of the elected bodies; and also, by an
ingenious arrangement, national agents were established in
the districts. The constitution of the year III. continued in
this course, simplifying the organization established by the
Constituent Assembly, while maintaining iu principle. The
department had an administration of five members, elected as
in the past, but having executive as well as deliberative functions.
The district was suppressed. The communes retained only a
13TTTOTH
FRANCE
921
municipal agent elected by themselves, and the actual municipal
xly, the importance of which was considerably increased,
-as removed to the canton, and consisted of the municipal
gents from each commune, and a president elected by the duly
ualified citizens of the canton. The Directory was represented
& each departmental and communal administration by a
omxxtissary appointed and removable by itself, and could dismiss
be members of these administrations.
The Constituent Assembly decided on the complete reorganixa-
ion of the judicial organisation. This was accomplished on a
very simple plan, which realized that ideal of the two
y j?j/y degrees of justice which, as we have noticed, was
that of France under the ancien rtgime. In the lower
legrees it created in each canton a justice of the peace (Jugt de
>aix), the idea and name of which were borrowed from England,
out. which differed very much from the English justice of the
peace. He judged, both with and without appeal, civil cases
af small importance; and, in cases which did not come within
his competency, it was bis duty to try to reconcile the parties.
In each district was established a civil court composed of five
judges. This completed the judicial organization, except for
the court of cassation, which bad functions peculiar to itself,
never judging the facts of the case but only the application of
the law. For cases coming under the district court, the Assembly
had not thought fit to abolish the guarantee of the appeal in
cases involving sums above a certain figure. But by a curious
arrangement the district tribunals could hear appeals from one
another. With regard to penal prosecutions, there was in each
department a criminal court which judged crimes with the
assistance of a jury; it consisted of judges borrowed from
district courts, and had its own president and public prosecutor.
Correctional tribunals, composed of juges de paix, dealt with
misdemeanours. The Assembly preserved the commercial
courts, or consular jurisdictions, of the ancien rtgime. There
was a court of cassation, the purpose of which was to preserve
the unity of jurisprudence in France; it dealt with matters
of law and not of fact , considering appeals based on the violation
of law, whether in point of matter or of form, and if such violation
were proved, sending the matter before another tribunal of
the same rank for re-triaL All judges were elected for a term
of years; the juges de paix by the primary assembly of the canton,
the district judges by the electoral assembly consisting of the
electors of the second degree for the district, the members of the
court of cassation by the electors of the departments, who were
divided for the purpose into two series, which voted alternately.
The Constituent Assembly did, it is true, require professional
guarantees, by proof of a more or less extended exercise of
the profession of lawyer from all judges except the juges de pais.
But the system was really the same as that of the administrative
organisation. The king only appointed the eommissaires du roi
attached to the district courts, criminal tribunals and the court
of cassation; but the appointment once made could not be
revoked by him. These commissaries fulfilled one of the functions
of the old minatere public, their duty being to demand the
application of laws. The Convention did not change this general
organisation; but ft suppressed the professional guarantees
required in the case of candidates for a judgeship, so that hence-
forth all dtizens were eligible; and it also caused new elections
to take place. Moreover, the Convention, either directly or by
means of one of its committees, not infrequently removed and
replaced judges without further election. The constitution of
the year III. preserved this system, but introduced one consider*
able modification. It suppressed the district' courts, and in
their place created in each department a civil tribunal consisting
of twenty judges. The idea was a happy one, for it gave the
courts more importance, and therefore mote weight and dignity.
But this reform, beneficial at it would be nowadays, was at the
time premature, in view of the backward condition of means
of communication,
The Constituent Assembly suppressed the militia and main-
tained the standing army, according to the old type, the numbers
of which were henceforth to be fixed every year by the Legis-
lative Assembly. The army was to be recruited by voluntary
enlistment, careful rules for which were drawn up; the only
change, was in the system of appointment to ranks; n
promotion went chiefly by seniority, and in the lower * vmr *
ranks a system of nomination by equals or inferiors was
organized. The Assembly proclaimed, however, the principle
of compulsory and personal service, but under a particular
form, that of the National Guard, to which all qualified ritisens
belonged, and in which almost all ranks were conferred by
election. Its chief purpose was to maintain order at home;
but it could be called upon to furnish detachments for defence
against foreign invasion. This was an institution which, with
many successive modifications, and after various long periods
of inactivity followed by a revival, lasted more than three*
quarters of a century, and was not suppressed till 1871. For
purposes of war the Convention, in addition to voluntary enlist-
ments and the resources furnished by the National Guards,
and setting aside the forced levy of 200,000 men in 2793, decided
on the expedient of calling upon the communes to furnish men,
a course which revived the principle of the old militia. But the
Directory drew up an important military law, that of the 6th
Fructidor of the year VI., which established compulsory military
service for all, under the form of conscription strictly so called.
Frenchmen aged from so to 25 (dtfenseurs consents) were divided
Into five classes, each including the men born in the same year,
and were liable until they were 25 years old to be called up for
active service, the whole period of service not exceeding four
years. No class was called upon until the younger classes
had been exhausted, and the sending of substitutes was forbidden.
This law, with a few later modifications, provided for the French
armies up to the end of the Empire.
The Constituent Assembly abolished nearly all the taxes
of the ancien rtgime. Almost the only taxes preserved wero
the stamp duty and that on the registration of acts y ^ Vf
(the old contrtle and ceniieme denier), and these were
completely reorganised; the customs were maintained only at
the frontiers for foreign trade. In the establishment of new
taxes the Assembly was influenced by two sentiments: the
hatred which had been inspired by the former arbitrary taxation,
and the influence of the school of the Physiocrats. Consequently
it did away with, indirect taxation on objects of consumption,
and made the principal direct tax the tax on land. Next' in
importance were the contribution personneUe ei mobUOre and the
patentcs. The essential elements of the former were a sort of
capitation-tax equivalent to three days' work, which was the
distinctive and definite sign of a qualified citizen, and a tax on
personal income, calculated according to the rent paid. The
patentee were paid by traders, and were also based on the amount
of rent. These taxes, though considerably modified later, are
still essentially the basis of the French system of direct taxation.
The Constituent Assembly had on principle repudiated the tax
on the gross income, much favoured under the ancien rtgime,
which everybody had felt to be arbitrary and oppressive. The
system of public contributions under the Convention was
arbitrary and revolutionary, but the councils of the Directory,
side by side with certain bad laws devised to tide over temporary
crises, made some excellent laws on the subject of taxation.
They resumed the regulation of the land tax, improving and
partly altering it, and also dealt with theconiribuUon PersonneUe
et mobitiere, the patentee, and the stamp and registration duties.
It was at this time, too, that the door and window tax, which
still exists, was provisionally established; there was' also a
partial reappearance of indirect taxation, in particular the
octrois of the towns, which had beensupprested by the Constituent
Assembly.
The Constituent Assembly gave the Protestants liberty of
worship and full rights; it also gave Jews the status of citizen,
which they had not had under the ancien rtgime,
together with political rights. With regard to the SHE*
Catholic Church, the Assembly placed at the disposal
of the nation the property of the clergy, which had already,
in the course of the ifith century, been regarded by most political
922
FRANCE
PJtWASD
writers as a national possession; at the same time it provided
for salaries for the members of the clergy and pensions for those
who had been monks. It abolished tithes and the religious
orders, and forbade the re-formation of the latter in the future.
The ecclesiastical districts were next reorganised, the depart-
ment being always taken as the chief unit, and a new church
was organized by the civil constitution of the clergy, the bishops
being elected by the electoral assembly of the department (the
usual electors), and the cures by the electoral assembly of the
district. This was an unfortunate piece of legislation, inspired
partly by the old Gailican spirit, partly by the theories on civil
religion of J. J. Rousseau and his school, and, together with the
civic oath imposed on the clergy, it was a source of endless
troubles. The constitutional church established in this- way
was, however, abolished as a state institution by the Convention.
By laws of the years IIL and IV. the Convention and the
Directory, in proclaiming the liberty of worship, declared that
the Republic neither endowed nor recognised any form of
worship. Buildings formerly consecrated to worship which
had not been alienated, were again placed at the disposal of
worshippers for this purpose, but under conditions which were
hard for them to accept.
The Assemblies of the Revolution, besides the laws which,
by abolishing feudalism, altered the character of real property,
crvg j mw passed many others concerning civil law. Hie most
important are those of 1702, passed by the Legislative
Assembly, which organised the registers of the Hat civil kept
by the municipalities, and laid down rules for marriage
as a purely civil contract. Divorce was admitted to a practically
unlimited extent; it was possible not only for causes determined
by law, and by mutual consent, but also for incompatibility
of temper and character proved, by either husband or wife,
to be of a persistent nature. Next came the laws of the Conven-
tion as to inheritance, imposing perfect equality among the
natural heirs and endeavouring to ensure the division of properties.
Illegitimate children were considered by these laws as on the
same level with legitimate children. • The Convention and the
councils of the Directory also made excellent laws on the ad-
ministration of kypotkeques, and worked at the preparation of a
Civil Code (see Code Napoleon). la criminal law
their work was still more important. In 1791 the
Constituent Assembly gave France her first penal
code. It was inspired by humanitarian ideas, still admitting
capital punishment, though accompanied by no cruelty in the
execution; but none of the remaining punishments was for
life. Long imprisonment with hard labour was introduced.
Finally, as a reaction against the former system of arbitrary
penalties, there came a system of fixed penalties determined,
both as to its assessment and its nature, for each offence, which
the judge could not modify. The Constituent Assembly abo
reformed the procedure of criminal trials, taking English law as
model. It introduced the jury, with the double form of jury
a" accusation and jury de jugemenk Before the judges procedure
was always public and oral. The prosecution was left in principle
to the parties concerned, plaintiffs or denoneiateurs cmques,
and the preliminary investigation was handed over to two
magistrates; one was the ju%e de pais, as in English procedure
at this period, and the other a magistrate chosen from the
district court and called the direcUur dujury. The Convention,
before separating, passed the Code des dtiits et des peines of the
3rd Brumaire in the year IV. This piece of work, which was
due to Merlin de Douai, was intended to deal with criminal
procedure and penal law; but only the first part could he
completed. It was the procedure established by the Constituent
Assembly, but further organized and improved.
The Consulate and the Empire.—- The constitutional law of
the Consulate and the Empire is to be found in a series of docu-
ments called later the Constitutions de V Empire, the constitution
promulgated during the Hundred Days being consequently
given the name of AeU additional aux Constitutions de V Empire.
These documents consist of (1) the Constitution of the sand
Frimatre of the year VXII„ -the work of Sieyes and Bonaparte,
the text on which the others were' based; (s) the sematms t
of the 16th Thermidor in the year X., establishing the cxubhAmi
for life; and (3) the senatus consults of the a8th Florcal ia the
year XII., which created the Empire. These constitutional acb.
which were all, whether in their fuU text or in principle, sub-
mitted to the popular vote by means of a pUbisciu, had all ta»
same object: to assure absolute power to Napoleon, viafe
preserving the forms and appearance of liberty. Popular suihast
was maintained, and even became universal; but, since the
system was that of suffrage in many stages, which, moreover,
varied very much, the citizens in effect merely nominated the
candidates, and it was the Senate, playing the part of grsm"
ticclcur which Sieyes had dreamed of as his own, which chest
from among them the members of the various so-called electee
bodies, even those of the political assemblies. According to tit
constitution of the year VIII., the first consul (to whom hzz
been added two colleagues, the second and third consuls, »i»
did not disappear until the Empire) possessed the executive
power in the widest sense of the word, and he alone could initiate
legislation. There were three representative assemblies ia
existence, elected as we have seen; but one of them, the Corps
Legislatif, passed laws without discussing them, and without
the power of amending the suggestions of the govcrnmeaL
The Tribunate, on the contrary, discussed them, but its vote
was not necessary for the passing of the law. The Senate was
the guardian and preserver of the constitution; in addition to it*
role of grand ikcteur, its chief function was to annul laws aad
acts submitted to it by the Tribunate as being unconstitntionaL
This original organization was naturally modified during the
course of the Consulate and the Empire; not only did the
emperor obtain the right of directly nominating senators, and
the princes of the imperial family, and grant dignitaries of tat
Empire that of entering the Senate by right; but a whole body,
the Tribunate, which was the only one which could preserve
some independence, disappeared, without resort having beea
had to a plebiscite; it was modified and weakened by senaim
consults of the year X., and was suppressed in 1807 by a mat
senatus consnUe. The importance of another body, on the
contrary, the conseil d'etat, which had been formed on the
improved type of the ancient context du rei, and consisted of
members appointed by Napoleon and carefully chosen, continu-
ally increased. It was this body which really prepared aad
discussed the laws; and it was its members who advocated
them before the Corps Legislatif, to which the Tribunate abo
sent orators to speak on its. behalf. The ministers, who nan do
relation with the legislative power, were merely the agents
of the head of the state, freely chosen by himself. Napoleon,
however, found these powers insufficient, and arrogated to
himself others, a fact which the Senate did not forget when it
proclaimed bis downfall. Thus he frequently declared war upon
his own authority, in spite of the provisions to the contrary
made by the constitution oL the year VIII.; and similarly,, under
the form of dicrtts, made what were really laws. They were
afterwards catted ddcrets4ois t and those that were not iiHuasoluhly
associated with the political regime of the Empire, and survived
it, were subsequently declared valid by the court of nnwttwm.
on the ground that they had not been submitted to the Senate
as unconstitutional, as had been provided by the constitutioa
of the year VIIL
This period saw the rise of a whole new series of great organic
laws. For administrative organization, the most "lymanf
was that of the s8th fluviose ia the year VIII. It
established as chief authority for each department a ££2j**
prefect, and side by side with him a csmseU gfiutrai rtwun
for deliberative purposes; for each arrendissememt £■**
(corresponding to the old district) a suhprcfect (sous- ^ tmU *
prifet) aad a conseil d'arrondissement; and for each n^in
commune, a mayor and a municipal council. But all
these officials, both the members of the councQsand the individual
agents, were appointed by the head of the state or by the prefect,
so that centralization was restored more completely than ever.
Together with the prefect there was abo established a casual
.INSTITUTIONS)
FRANCE
9*3
eU prdf adore, having adnunfctiatfve functions, and generally
acting at a court of the first instance in dispute* and litigation
arising oat of the acts of the administration; for the Constituent
Assembly had removed such cases from (be jurisdiction of the
civil tribunals, and referred them to the administrative bodies
themselves. The final appeal in these disputes was to the conseU
cTttat, which was supreme judge in these matters. In x3o7
was created another great administrative jurisdiction, the cour
des ctmpus, after the pattern of that which had existed under
the ancicn rigime.
Judicial organization had also been fundamentally altered.
The system of election was preserved for a time in the case of
the juges de paix and the members of the court of
rft«M*a cassation, but finally disappeared there, even where
it had already been no more- than a form. The
fvrqQ******* were in principle appointed for life,. but under the
Empire a device was found for evading the rule of irremovability.
For the judgment of civil cases there was a court of first instance
in every arrondissement, and above these a certain number of
courts of appeal, each of which had within its province several
departments. The separate criminal tribunals were abolished
in 2809 by the Code d'Jnstruction CrimineUe, and ibe magistrates
forming the cour d'atsiscs, which judged crimes with the aid of
a jury, were drawn from the courts of appeal and from the civil
tribunals. The jury d 1 accusation was also abolished by the
Code d'Jnstruction CrimineUe, and the right of pronouncing the
indictment was transferred to a chamber of the court of appeal.
The correctional tribunals were amalgamated with the civil
tribunals of the first instance. The tribunal de cassation, which
took under the Empire the name of cow de cassation, consisted
of magistrates appointed for life, and still kept its powers.
The ministrre public (consisting of imperial avocals and procurcurs)
was restored in practically the same form as under the ancicn
rigime.
The former system of taxation was preserved in principle,
but with one considerable addition: Napoleon re-established
.__ indirect taxation on articles of consumption, which
** had been abolished by the Constituent Assembly;
the chief of these were the duties on liquor {droits rtunis, or
excise) and the monopoly of tobacco.
The Concordat concluded by Napoleon with the papacy on
the 26th Messidor of the year IX. re-established the Catholic
^^ religion in France as the form of worship recognized
leiihi" and endowed by the state. It was in principle drawn
up on the lines of that of 1516, and assured to the
head of the French state in his dealings with the papacy the
same prerogatives as had formerly been enjoyed by the kings;
the chief of these was that he appointed the bishops, who after*
wards had to ask the pope for canonical institution. The
territorial distribution of dioceses was preserved practically
as it had been left by the dvil constitution of the clergy* The
state guaranteed the payment of salaries to bishops and cures;
and the pope agreed to renounce all claims referring to the
appropriation of the goods of the clergy made by the Constituent
Assembly. Later on, a decree restored to the fabriquts (vestries)
such of their former possessions as had not been alienated,
and the churches which had not been alienated were restored
for the purposes of worship. The law of the iSth Germinal
in the year X., ratifying the Concordat, reasserted, under the
name of articles organiques du cults calkolique, all the main
principles contained in the old doctrine of the liberties of the
Gallican Church. The Concordat did not include the restoration
of the religious orders and congregations; Napoleon sanctioned
by decrees only a few establishments of this kind.
One important creation of the Empire was the university.
The ancicn retime had had its universities for purposes of in-
n#»* st ruction asd for the conferring of degrees; it had
^J, also, though without any definite organization, such
secondary schools as the towns admitted within their
wafts, and the primary schools of the parishes. The Revolution
suppressed the universities and the teaching congregations.
The constitution of the year III. proclaimed the liberty of
instruction and coaunsndtd that public schools, both elementary
and secondary, should be established. Under the Directory
there was in each department an stale eensraU, U which aft
branches of human knowledge were taught. Napoleon, develop-
ing ideas which had been started in the second half of the 18th
century, founded by laws and decrees of 1806, 1808 and 18(1
the Universite de France, which provided and organised higher,
secondary and primary .education; this was to be the monopoly
of the state, carried on by iX&jaculUs, lyUes and primary schools.
No private educational establishment could be opened without
the authorisation of the state.
But chief among the documents dating from this period are
the Codes, which still give laws to France. These are the Civil
Code of 1804, the Code de Procedure Civile of 1806,
the Code de Commerce of 1807, the Code ^Instruction
CrimineUe of 1809, and the Code Pinal of 1&10.
These monumental works, in the elaboration of which the conseU
a" Hal took the chief part, contributed, to a greater or less
extent, towards the fusion of the old law of France with the laws
of the Revolution. . It was in the case of the Code Civil that this
task presented the greatest difficulty (see Code Napoleon).
The Code de Commerce was scarcely more than a revised and
emended edition of the ordonnancet of 1673 and 1681; while the
Code de Procedure Civile borrowed its chief elements from the
ordonnanca of 2607. In the case of the Code d'Jnstruction
CrimineUe a distinctly new departure was made; the procedure
introduced by the Revolution into courts where judgment was
given remained public and oral, with full liberty of defence;
the preliminary procedure, however, before the examining court
(juge d'instruclion .or chambre des mites en accusation) was
borrowed from the crdonnanee of 1670; it was the procedure
of the old law, without its cruelty, but secret and written, and
generally not in the presence of both parties. The Code Pinal
maintained the principles of the Revolution, but increased the
penalties. It substituted for the system of fixed penalties, in
cases of temporary punishment, a maximum and a minimum,
between the limits of which judges could assess the amount.
Even in the case of misdemeanours, it admitted the system of
extenuating circumstances, which allowed them still further to
decrease and alter the penalty in sofar as the offence was mitigated
by such circumstances. (See further under Napoleon I.)
The Restored Monarchy. — The Restoration and the Monarchy
of July, though separated by a revolution, form one period in
the history of French institutions, a period in which
the same regime was continued and developed. This PjV**\
was the constitutional monarchy, with a parliamentary aom J c i lr ,
body consisting of two chambers, a system imitated .
from England. The same constitution was preserved under
these two monarchies— the charter granted by Louis XVIII.
in 1814. • The revolution of 1830 took place in defence of the
charter which Charles X. had violated by the ordonnances
of July, so that this Charter was naturally preserved under. the
" July Monarchy." It was merely revised by the Chamber of
Deputies, which had been one of the movers of the revolution,
and by what remained of the House of Peers. In order to give
the constitution the appearance of originating in the will of the
people, the preface, which made it appear to be a favour granted
by the king, was destroyed. The two chambers acquired the
initiative in legislation, whkh had not been recognized as theirs
under the Restoration, but from this time on belonged to them
equally with the king. The sittings of the House of Peers were
henceforth held in public; but this chamber underwent another
and more fundamental transformation. The peers were nomin-
ated by the king, with no limit of numbers, and according
to the charter of 1814 their appointment could be either for life
or hereditary; but, in execution of an ordinance of Louis XVUI.,
during the Restoration they were always appointed under the
latter condition. Under the July Monarchy their, tenure of
office was for life, and the king had to choose them from among
twenty-two classes of notables fixed by law. The franchise
for the election of the Chamber of Deputies had been limited
by a system of money qualifications} but while, under the*
Q24
FRANCE
tLAWASD
Restoration, it had been necessary, in order to be an elector,
to pay three hundred francs in direct taxation, this sum was
reduced in 1831 to two hundred francs, while in certain cases even
a smaller amount sufficed. In order to be elected as a deputy
It was necessary, according to the charter of 1814, to pay a
thousand francs in direct taxation, and according to that of 1830
five hundred francs. From 1817 onwards there was direct
suffrage, the electors directly electing the deputies. The idea of
those who had framed the charter of 1814 had been to give the
chief influence to the great landed proprietors, though the means
adopted to this end were not adequate: in 1830 the chief aim
had been to give a preponderating influence to the middle and
lower middle classes, and this had met with greater success.
The House of Peers, under the name of cow des pairs, had also
the function of judging attempts and plots against the security
of the state, and it had frequently to exercise this function both
under the Restoration and the July Monarchy.
"tha was a period of parliamentary government; that is, of
government by a cabinet, resting on the responsibility of the
ministers to the Chamber of Deputies. The only interruption
was that caused by the resistance of Charles X. at the end of his
reign, which led to the revolution of July. Parliamentary govern-
ment was practised regularly and in an enlightened spirit under
the Restoration, although the Chamber had not then all the
powers which it has since acquired. It is noteworthy that during
this period the right of the House of Peers to force a ministry to
resign by a hostile vote was not recognized. By the creation of a
certain number of new peers, a foumie de pairs, as it was then
called, the majority in this House could be changed when
necessary. But the government of the Restoration had to deal
with two extreme parties of a very opposite nature: the Ultras,
who wished to restore as far as possible the ancicn rigime, to
whom were due the acts of the chambre inirouvabU of 1816, and
later the laws of the ministry of ViUele, especially the law of
sacrilege and that voting compensation to the dispossessed
nobles, known as the milliard des emigres; and on the other
hand the Liberals, including the Bonapartists and Republicans,
who were attached to the principles of the Revolution. In order
to prevent either of these parties from predominating in the
chamber, the government made a free use of its power of dis-
solution. It further employed two means to check the progress
of the Liberals; firstly, there were various alterations successively
made in the electoral law, and the press laws, frequently restrictive
in their effect, which introduced the censorship and a preliminary
authorization in the case of periodical publications, and gave
the correctional tribunals jurisdiction in cases of press offences.
The best electoral law was that of 18x7, and the best press laws
were those of 181 9; but these were not of long duration. Under
the July Monarchy parliamentary government, although its
machinery was further perfected, was not so brilliant. The
majorities in the Chamber of Deputies were often uncertain, so
much so, that more than once the right of dissolution was exer-
cised in order to try by new elections to arrive at an undivided
and certain majority. King Louis Philippe, though sober-
minded, wished to exercise a personal influence on the policy
of the cabinet, so that there were then two schools, represented
respectively by Thiers and Guizot, one of which held the theory
that " the king reigns but does not govern" ; while the other
maintained that he might exercise a personal influence, provided
that he could rely on a ministry supported by a majority of the
Chamber of Deputies. But the weak point in the July Monarchy
was above all the question of the franchise. " A powerful move-
ment of opinion set in towards demanding an extension, some
wishing for universal suffrage, but the majority proposing what
was called the adjonclioii des capaeitis, that is to say, that to the
number of qualified electors should be added those citizens who,
by virtue of their professions, capacity or acquirements, were
inscribed after them on the general list for juries. But the
government obstinately refused all electoral reform, and held
to the law of 183 1. It also refused parliamentary reform, by
which was meant a rule which would have made most public
' offices incompatible with the position of deputy, the Chamber of
Deputies being at that time fuH of officials. The 1
to the Charter, was perfectly free, without either <
or preliminary authorization, and press offences were judged by
a jury.
In another respect also the Restoration and the July Monarchy
were at one, the second continuing the spirit of the first, to.
in maintaining in principle the civil, legal and admiois-
trative institutions of the Empire. The preface to
the charter of 1814 sanctioned and guaranteed most
of the legal rights won by the Revolution; even the j r *' J r ll i
alienation cf national property was confirmed. ' It
was said, it is true, that the old nobility regained their titles, and
that the nobility of the Empire kept those which Napoleon had
given them; but these were merely titles and nothing more;
there was no privileged nobility, and the equality of citisees
before the law was maintained. Judicial and administrate
organization, the system of taxation, military organization, the
relations of church and state, remained the same, and the univer-
sity also continued to exist. The government did, it is true,
negotiate a new Concordat with the papacy in 1817, but did not
dare even to submit it to the chambers. The most import**
reform was that of the law concerning recruiting for the army.
The charter of 18 14 had promised the abolition of conscription,
in the form in which it had been created by the law of the year
VI. The law of the xoth of March 18 18. actually established
a new system. The contingent voted by the chambers for annual
incorporation into the standing army was divided up among all
the cantons; and, in order to furnish it, lots were drawn among
all the men of a certain class, that is to say, among the young
Frenchmen who arrived at their majority that year. Those
who were not chosen by lot were definitely set free from military
service. The sending of substitutes, a custom which had bees
permit ted by Napoleon, was recognized. This was the type of all
the laws on recruiting in France, of which there were a good
number in succession up to 1867. On other points they vary, in
particular as to the duration of service, which was six years,
and later eight years, under the Restoration; but the system
remained the same.
The Restoration produced a code, the Code forcstkr of 18*7,
for the regulation of forests {eaux el fortts). In r8r6 a law had
abolished divorce, making marriage indissoluble, as it had been
in the old law. But the best laws of this period were those on
finance. Now, for the first time, was introduced the practice of
drawing up regular budgets, voted before the year to which they
applied, and divided since 1819 into the budget of expenditure
and budget of receipts.
Together with other institutions of the Empire, the Restora-
tion had preserved the exaggerated system of administrative
centralization established in the year VIII.; and proposals for
its relaxation submitted to the chambers had come to nothing.
It was only under the July Monarchy that it was relaxed. The
municipal law of the aist of March 1831 made the municipal
councils elective, and extended widely the right of voting in the
elections for them; the moires and their assistants continued
to be appointed by the government, but had to be chosen from
among the members of the municipal councils. The law of the
22nd of June 1833 made the general councils of the departments
felso elective, and brought the adjonclum des capaeitis into effect
for their election. The powers of these bodies were enlarged id
1838, and they gained the right of electing their president.
In 1833 was granted another liberty, that of primary education;
but in spite of violent protestations, coming especially from the
Catholics, secondary and higher education continued to be a
monopoly of the state Many organic laws were promulgated,
one concerning the National Guard, which was reorganized in
order to adapt it to the system of citizen qualifications; one in
1832 on the recruiting of the army, fixing the period of service at
seven years; and another in 1834 securing the status of officers.
A law of the nth of June 1842 established the great railway
lines. In 1833 the Code Penal and Code d'lnslruciian CrtmnuOi
were revised, with the object of lightening penalties; the system
of extenuating circumstances, as recognised by a jury, was
INSTITUTIONS)
FRANCE
925
ofiS4X
extended to the judgment of aH crime*. There was also a re-
vision of Book III. of the Code do Commerce, treating of bank-
ruptcy. Finally , from this period date the laws of the 3rd of May
2841, on expropriation for purposes of public utility, and of the
30th of June 1838, on the treatment of the insane, which is still
in force. Judicial organization remained as it was, but the
amount of the sum up to which civil tribunals of the first instance
could judge without appeal was raised from 1000 francs to 1500.
and the competency of the jugesde pais was widened.
The Second Republic end the Second Empire.— From the point
of view of constitutional law, the Second Republic and the Second
Empire were each in a certain sense a return to the past. The
former revived thetiadition of the Asse m blies of the Revolution;
the Utter was obviously and avowedly an imitation of the Con-
sulate and the First Empire.
The provisional government set up by the revolution of the
24th of February 1848 proclaimed universal suffrage, and by
this means was elected a Constituent Assembly, which
sat till May 2849, and, after first organising various
forms of another provisional government, passed the
Republican constitution of the 4th of November 1848.
This constitution, which was preceded by a preface recalling
the Declarations of Rights of the Revolution, gave the legislative
power to a single permanent assembly, elected by direct universal
suffrage, and entirely renewed every three years. The executive
authority, with very extensive powers, was given to a president
of the Republic, also elected by the universal and direct suffrage
of the French citizens. The constitution was not very dear upon
the point of whether it adopted parliamentary government
in the strict sense, or whether the president, who was declared
responsible, was free to choose his ministers and to retain or
dismiss them at his own pleasure. This gave rise to an almost
permanent dispute between the president, who claimed to have
his own political opinions and to direct the government, and the
Assembly, which wished to cany on the traditions of cabinet
government and to make the ministers fully responsible to itself.
Consequently, in January 1851, a solemn debate was held, which
ended in the affirmation of the responsibility of ministers to the
Assembly. On the other hand, the president, though very
properly given great power by the constitution, was not imme-
diately eligible for re-election on giving up his office. Now Louis
Napoleon, who was elected president on the xoth of December
1848 by a huge majority, wished to be re-elected. • Various
propositions were submitted to the Assembly in July 1851 with
a view to modifying the constitution; but they could not succeed,
as the number of votes demanded by the constitution for the
convocation of a Constituent Assembly was not reached. More-
over, the Legislative Assembly elected in May 1849 was very
different from the Constituent Assembly of 1848. The Utter was
animated by that spirit of harmony and, in the main, of adhesion
to' the Republic which had followed on the February Revolution.
The new assembly, on the contrary, was composed for the most
part of representatives of the old parties, and had monarchist
aspirations. By the unfortunate law of the 31st of May 1850 it
even tried by a subterfuge to restrict the universal suffrage
guaranteed by the constitution. It suspended the right of hold-
ing meetings, but, on the whole, respected the liberty of the press.
It was especially impelled to these measures by the growing
fear of socialism. The result was the coup 4' Hat of the and of
December 2852. A detail of some constitutional importance
is to be noticed in this period. The eonseil d'ttat, which had
remained under the Restoration and the July Monarchy an
administrative council and the supreme arbiter in administrative
trials, acquired new importance under the Second Republic.
The ordinary conseillers eVUat (en service ordinaire) were elected
by the Legislative Assembly, and consultation with the eonseil
eVtkU was often Insisted on by the constitution or by law. This
was the means of obtaining a certain modifying power as a sub-
stitute for the second chamber, which had not met with popular
approval. During its short existence the Second Republic
produced many important laws. It abohshed the penalty of
death for political crimes, and suppressed negro slavery in the
colonies. The election of conseillers tjhtirtuz was thrown open
to universal suffrage, and the municipal councils were allowed
to elect the makes and their colleagues. Thd law of the 15th
of March 2850 established the liberty of secondary education,
but it conferred certain privileges on the Catholic clergy, a clear
sign of the spirit of social conservatism which was the leading
motive for its enactment. Certain humanitarian laws were
passed, applying to the working classes.
With the coup d'itot of the 2nd of December 2852 began a new
era of constitutional plebiscites and disguised absolutism.
The proclamations of Napoleon on the 2nd of December coaatMw
contained a criticism of parliamentary government, uoaot
and formulated the wish to restore to France the Jha*'4
constitutional institutions of the Consulate and the USMm
Empire, just as she had preserved their civil, administrative
and military institutions. Napoleon asked the people for the
powers necessary to draw up a constitution on these principles;
the plebiscite issued in a vast majority of votes in his favour,
and the constitution of the 24th of January 1852 was the result.
It bore a strong resemblance to the constitution of the First
Empire after 2807. .The executive power was conferred on
Louis Napoleon for ten years, with the title of president of the
Republic and very extended powers.- -Two assemblies were
created. The conservative Senate, composed of ex officio members
(cardinals, marshals of France and admirals) and life members
appointed by the head of the state, was charged with the task
of seeing that the laws were constitutional, of opposing the
promulgation of unconstitutional laws, and of receiving the
petitions of citizens; it had also the duty of providing everything
not already provided but necessary for the proper working of
the constitution. The second assembly was the Corps LSgislatif,
elected by direct universal suffrage for six years, which passed
the laws, the government having the initiative in legislation.
This body was not altogether a corps des mucts, as in the year
VIII., but its powers were very limited; thus the general session
assured to it by the constitution was only for three months,
and it could only discuss and put to the vote amendments
approved by the eonseil d'Uat; the ministers did not in any way
come into contact with it and could not be members of it, being
responsible only to the head of the state, and only the Senate
having the right of accusing them before a high court of justice.
The eonseil d'itat was composed in the same way and had the
same authority as it had possessed from the year VIII. to 1814;
and it was the members of it who supported projected laws
before the Corps Legislatif. • To this was added a Draconian
press legislation; not only were press offences, many of which
were mere expressions of opinion, judged not by a jury but by
the correctional tribunals; but further, political papers could
not be founded without an authorization, and were subject to
a regular administrative discipline; they could be warned,
suspended or suppressed without a trial, by a simple act of
the administration. The constitution of January 2852 was
still Republican in name, though less so than that of the year
VIII. The period corresponding with the Consulate was also
shorter in the case, of Louis Napoleon. The year 2852 had
not come to an end before a senatus consult*, that of the
roth of November, ratified by a plebiscite, re-established
the imperial rank in favour of Napoleon m.; it also
conferred on him certain new powers, especially with
reference to the budget and foreign treaties; thus ffjjg*
various cracks, which experience had revealed in the Bmpk*
original structure of the Empire, were filled up. This
period was called that of the empire autoritaire. Further features
of it were the free appointment of the metres by the emperor,
the oath of fidelity to him imposed on all officials, and the legal
organization of official candidatures for the elections. Two
measures marked the highest point reached by this system:
the hide sureU gSnerale of the 27th of February 2858, which
allowed the government to intern in France or Algeria, or to
exue certain French citizens, without a trial. The other was
the senatus consults of the 27th of February 2858, which made
the validity of candidatures for the Corps Legislatif subject
926
FRANCE
[LAW ASS
to a preliminary oath of fidelity on the part of the candidate.
But for various causes, which cannot be examined here, a series
of measures was soon to be initiated which were gradually to
lead back again to political liberty, and definitively
1 *J. to found what has been called the empire literal.
J£J2 0° e by onc th e different rules and proceedings of
parliamentary government as it had existed in France
regained their force. The first step was the decree of the 24th
of November i860, which re-established for each ordinary session
the address voted by the chambers in response to the speech
from the throne. In 1867 this movement took a more decisive
form. It led to a new constitution, that of the 21st of May
1870, which was again ratified by popular suffrage. While
maintaining the Empire and the imperial dynasty, it organized
parliamentary government practically in the form in which it
had operated under the July Monarchy, with two legislative
chambers, the Senate and the Corps Legislatif, the consent of
both of which was necessary for legislation, and which, together
with the emperor, had the Initiative in this matter. The laws
of the nth of May 1868 and the 6th of June 1868 restored to a
certain extent the liberty of the press and of holding meetings,
though without abolishing offences of opinion, or again bringing
press offences under the jurisdiction of a jury. ' Laws of the 92nd
and 23rd of July 1870 gave the conseils gtniraux, whose powers
had been somewhat widened, the right of electing their presidents,
and provided that the mains and their colleagues should be
chosen from among the members of the municipal councils.
The legislation of the Second Empire led to a considerable
number of reforms. ' Its chief aim was the development of
commerce, industry and agriculture, and generally the
mndZOcial material prosperity of the country. The Empire,
reform* though restricting liberty in political matters, increased
uadertba j t m economic matters. Such were the decrees and
fJJJJJ, laws of 1852 and 1853 relating to land-banks (itablisse-
mcnls de crtditfoncier) and that of 1857 on trade-marks,
those of 1863 and 1867 on commercial companies, that of 1858
on general stores (magasins gtniraux) and warrants, that of
1856 on drainage, that of 1865 oh the associations syndicates de
propriitaircs, that of 1866 on the mercantile marine. * The law
of the 14th of June 1865 introduced into Prance the institution,
borrowed from England, of cheques. But of still greater import-
ance for economic development than all these laws were the
treaties concluded by the emperor with foreign powers,
in order to introduce, as far as possible, free exchange
irrmiistl of commodities; the chief of these, which was the
model of all the others, was that concluded with Great
Britain on the 23rd of January i860. Moreover, the law of
the 25th of May 1864 admitted for the first time the right of
strikes and lock-outs among workmen or employers, annulling
articles 414 and following of the Cade Pinal, which had so far
made them a penal offence, even when not accompanied by
fraudulent practices, threats or violence, tending to hinder the
liberty of labour. The superannuation fund (eaisse des rdroiles
pour la tieillesse), supported by voluntary payments from those
participating in it, which had been created by the law of the 18th
of June 1850, was reorganized and perfected, and a law of the
nth of July 1868 established, with the guarantee of the state,
two funds for voluntary insurance, one in case of death, the other
against accidents occurring in industrial or agricultural employ-
meat. A decree of 1863 established in principle the freedom
of bakeries, and another in 1864 that of theatrical management.
Criminal law was the subject of important legislation. Two
codes were promulgated on special points, the codes of military
totoTBi justice for the land forces (1857) and for the naval
la tit* forces (1858). But the common law was also largely
crimtaMi remodelled. A law of the 10th of June 1858, it is true,
*■*"• created certain new crimes, with a view to protecting
the members of the imperial family, and that of the 17th of
July 1856 increased the powers and independence of thtjuges
<T instruction; but, on the other hand, useful improvements
were introduced by laws of 1856 and 1865, and notably with
regard to precautionary detention and provisional release with or
without bafl. A law of the 20th of May 1S63 organized a i
and rapid procedure, copied from that followed in Rng b rr
before the police courts, for summary jurisdiction. A Jaw a.
1868 permitted the revision of criminal trials alter the <k=^
of the condemned person. But the most far-reaching refacz.'
took place in 1854, namely, the abolition of the total ksrei
civil rights which formerly accompanied condemnation ::
imprisonment for life, and the law of the 30th of May on pesi.
servitude (travaux fords) which substituted transportation u
the colonies for the system of continental convict prisons.
Finally, in 1863, there was a revision of the Code PewaJ, which,
in the process of lightening penalties, made a certain number a
crimes into misdemeanours, and in consequence transfenu
the judgment of them from the assize courts to the
correctional tribunals. In civil legislation may be £i.
noted the law of the 23rd of March 1855 on hypothecs JZ-T
(see Code Napol£qm); that of the sand of July 1857,
which abolished seizure of the person (contrcinU par corps) k?
civil and commercial debts; and finally, the law of the 14th
of July 1866, on literary copyright. The system of t a xat ion was
hardly modified at all, except for the es t a bl ish me nt ^
of a tax on the income arising from investments J^J - *"
(shares and bonds of companies) in 1857, and the tax armjm
on carriages (1863). On the 1st of February 1868
was promulgated an important military law, which, however,
! passed the Corps Legislatif with some difficulty. It asserted
the principle of universal compulsory military service, at leas:,
in time of war. It preserved, however, the system of drainer
lots to determine the annual contingent to be incorporated
into the standing army; the term of service was fixed at £vt
years, and it was still permissible to send a substitute. Bat
able-bodied men who were not included in the annual contingeat
formed a reserve force called the garde nationale mobile^ each
department organizing its own section. These gardes mettles,
though they were not effectively organized or exercised under the
Empire, took part in the war of 1870-71.
The Third Republic—The Third Republic had at first a
provisional government, unanimously acclaimed by the people
of Paris. It was accepted by France, exercised full powers,
and sustained by no means ingloriously a desperate struggle
against the enemy; a certain number of its decress-4eis are stiO
in force. After the capitulation of Paris, a National Assembly
was elected to treat with Germany. It was elected in accordance
with the electoral law of 1849, which had been revived with a
few modifications, and it met at Bordeaux to the number of
753 members on the 23th of February 1872. It was a sovereign
assembly, since France had no longer a constitution, and for
this very reason it claimed from the outset constituent powers;
the Republican party at the time, however, contested this claim,
the majority in the assembly being frankly monarchist, though
divided as to the choice of a monarch. But for some time the
National Assembly either could not or would not exercise this
power, and up to 1875 affairs remained in a provisional stale,
legalized and regulated this time by the Assembly. This was sa
application, though unconscious, of a form of government which
M. Grevy had proposed to the Constituent Assembly in 1848.
There was a single assembly, with one maa elected by it as bead
of the executive power (the first to be elected was M. Thiers,
who received the title of president of the Republic in August
2871), who was responsible to the Assembly and governed with
the help of ministers chosen by himself, who were also responsible
to it. Thiers fell on the 24th of May 1873. His place was takes
by Marshal MacMahon,on whom the Assembly later conferred, is
November 2873, the position of president of the Republic for
seven years, when the refusal of the comte de Chambordto
accept the tricolour in place of the white flag of the Bourbons
had made any attempt to restore the monarchy impossible.
Henceforth the definitive adaption of the Republican form of
government became inevitable, and the opinion of the country
began to turn in this direction, as was shown by the election
of deputies which took place to fill up the gaps occurring in the
Assembly. The Assembly, however, shrank from the inevitable
wsmrvTioNsi
FRANCE
927
solution, and when a discussion wu begun in January 167s o»
tlie projected constitutional laws prepared by the commission
cUs irente, the only proposals made by the latter were for a more
complete organisation of the powers of one man, Marshal
MacMahon. But on the 30th of January 1875 was adopted,
by 355 votes to 35a, an amendment by M. Wallon which provided
for the election of an indefinite succession of presidents of the
- _ .... Republic; this amounted to a definitive recognition
of the Republic. In this connexion it has often been
said that the Republic was established by a majority
of one. . This is not an accurate statement, for it was
only the case on the first reading of the law; the
majority on the second and third readings increased until it
became considerable. There was a strong movement in the
direction of a reconciliation between the parties; and there had
been a rapprochtnunt between the Republicans and the Right
Centre. At the end of February were passed and promulgated
two constitutional laws, that of the 35th of February 1875, on
the organisation of the public powers, and that of the 24th of
February 1875, on the organization of the senate. In the middle
of the year they were supplemented by a third, that of the 16th
of July 1875, on the relations between the public powers.
Thus was built up the actual constitution of Franca. It
differs fundamentally, both in form and contents, from previous
constitutions. As to its form, instead of a single
methodical text divided into an uninterrupted series of
'articles, it consisted of three distinct laws. As to
matter, it is obviously a work of an essentially practical
nature, the result of compromise and reciprocal concessions.
It does not lay down any theoretical principles, and its provisions,
which were arrived at with difficulty, confine themselves strictly
to what is necessary to ensure the proper operation of the
governmental machinery. The result is a compromise between
Republican principles and the rules of constitutional and parlia-
mentary monarchy. On this account it has been accused, though
unjustly, of being too monarchical. Its duration, by far the
longest of any French constitution since 1791, is a sign of its
value and vitality. It is in fact a product of history, and not
of imagination. Its composition is as follows. The legislative
power was given to two elective chambers, having equal powers,
the vote of both of which is necessary for legislation, and both
having the right of initiating and amending laws. The constitu-
tion assures them an ordinary session of five months, which
opens by right on the second Tuesday in January. One house,
the Chamber of Deputies, is elected by direct universal suffrage
and is entirely renewed every four years; the other, the Senate,
consists of 300 members, divided by the law of the 27 th of
February 1875 into two categories; 75 of the senators were
elected for life and irremovable, and the first of them were elected
by the National Assembly, but afterwards it was the Senate
itself which held elections to fill up vacancies. The 225 remaining
senators were elected by the departments and by certain colonies,
among which they were apportioned in proportion to the popula-
tion; they are elected for nine years, a third of the house being
renewed every three years. The electoral college in each depart-
ment which nominated them included the deputies, the members
of the general council of the department and of the councils
of the arrondissements, and one delegate elected by each municipal
council, whatever the importance of the commune. This was
practically a system of election in two and, partly, three degrees,
but with this distinguishing feature, that, the electors of the
second degree had not been chosen purely with a view to this
election, but chiefly for the exercise of other functions. The
most important elements in this electoral college were the
delegates from the municipal councils, and by giving one delegate
to each, to Paris just as to the smallest commune in France, the
National Assembly intended to counterbalance the power of
numbers, which governed the elections for the Chamber of
Deputies, and, at the same time, to give a preponderance to the
country districts. The 75 irremovable senators were another
precaution against the danger from violent waves of public
opinion. The executive power was entrusted to a president,
elected for seven yean (as Marshal MacMahon had been in 1873),
by the Chamber and the Senate, combined into a single body
under the name. of National Assembly. He is always eligible
for re-election, and is irresponsible except in case of high treason*
His powers are of the widest, including the initiative in legislation
jointly with the two chambers, the appointment to all dvil and
military offices, the disposition, and, if he wish it, the leadership
of the armed forces, the right of pardon, the right of negotiating
treaties with foreign powers, and, in principle, of ratifying them
on his own authority, the consent of the two chambers being
required only in certain cases defined by the constitution. The
nomination of conscilkrs d'itat for ordinary service, whom the
National Assembly had made elective, as in 1848, and elected
itself, was restored to the president of the Republic, together
with the right of dismissing them. But these powers he can
only exercise through the medium of a ministry, politically and
jointly responsible to the chambers, and forming a council,
over which the president usually presides.
The French Republic is essentially a parliamentary republic
The right of dissolving the Chamber of Deputies before the
expiration of its term of office belongs to the president, but in
order to do so he must have, besides a ministry which' will take
the responsibility for it, the preliminary sanction of the Senate,
The Senate is at the same time a high court of justice, which can
judge the president of the Republic and ministers accused of
crimes committed by them in the exercise of their functions;
in these two cases the prosecution is instituted by the Chamber
of Deputies. The Senate can also be called upon to judge any
person accused of an attempt upon the safety of the state, who
is then seized by a decree of the president of the Republic,
drawn up in the council of ministers. Possible revision of the
constitution is provided for yery simply; it has to be proposed
as a law, and for its acceptance a resolution passed by each
chamber separately, by an absolute majority, is necessary,
The revision is then carried out by the Senate and the Chamber of
Deputies to form a National Assembly. . There have been two
revisions since 1875. The first time, in 2870, it was simply a
question of transferring the seat of the government and of the
chambers back to Paris from Versailles, where it had been fixed
by one of the constitutional laws. The second time, in 1884,
more fundamental modifications were required.. • The most
important point was to change the composition and election
of the Senate. With a view to this, the new constitutional law
of the 14th of August 1884 abolished the constitutional character
of a certain number of articles of the law of the 24th of February
1875, thus making it possible to modify them by an ordinary
law. This took place in the same year; the 75 senators for life
were suppressed for the future by a process of extinction, and
their seats divided among the most populous departments.
Further, in the electoral college which elects the senators, there
was allotted to the municipal councils a number of delegates
proportionate to the number of members of the councils, which
depends on the importance of the commune. • The law of the
14th of August 1884 also modified the constitution in another
important respect. The law of the 25th of February 1875 bad
admitted the possibility not only of a partial, but even of a total
revision, which could affect and even change the form of the
state. The law of the 14th of August 1884, however, declared
that no proposition for a revision could be accepted which
aimed at changing the republican form of government. The
composition of the Chamber of Deputies was not fixed by the
constitution, and consequently admitted more easily of variation.
Since 1871 the mode of election has oscillated between the scruiin
it listc for the departments and the scruiin uninominal for the
arrondissements. The organic law of the 30th of November 1875
had established the latter system; in 1885 the scruiin de lisle
was established by law, but in 1889 the scruiin tParrondissemoa
was restored; and in this same year, on account of the ambitions
of General Boulanger and the suggestion which was made for a
sort of plebiscite in his favour, was passed the law on plural
candidatures, which forbids anyone to become a candidate for
the Chamber of Deputies in mere than one district at a time.
9*8
FRANCE
fLAWAKD
The system established by the constitution of 1875 has worked
excellently in some of its departments; for instance, the mode of
Worklag electing the president of the Republic Between 1875
«#<*• and 1906 there were seven elections, sometimes under
eoastMm* tragic or very difficult conditions; the election has
Uoa * always taken place without delay or obstruction,
and the choice has been of the best. The high court of justice,
which has twice been called into requisition, in 2889 and in
1 809- 1 900, has acted as an efficient check, in spite of the diffi-
culties confronting such a tribunal when feeling runs high.
Parliamentary government in the form set up by the constitution,
besides the criticism to which this system is open in all countries
where it is established, even in England, met with special
difficulties in France. In the first place, the useful but rather
secondary role assigned to the president of the Republic has by
no means satisfied all those who have occupied this high office. ■
Two presidents have resigned on the ground that their powers
were insufficient. Another, even after re-election, had to
withdraw in face of the opposition of the two chambers, being
no longer able to obtain a parliamentary ministry. It is difficult,
however, to accept the theory of an eminent American political
writer, Mr John W. Burgess, 1 that in order to attain to a position
of stable equilibrium, the French Republic ought to adopt the
presidential system of the United States. In France this sharp
division between the two powers has never been observed except
in those periods when the representative assemblies were power-
less, under the First and Second Empires. It is true that the
apparent multiplicity of parties and their lack of discipline,
together with the French procedure of interpellations and the
orders of the day by which they are concluded, make the forma-
tion of homogeneous and lasting cabinets difficult; but since
the end of the 19th century there has been great progress in this
respect. Another difficulty arose in 1896. The Senate, appealing
to the letter of the constitution and relying on its elective char-
acter, claimed the right of forcing a ministry to resign by its vote,
in the same way as the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate was
victorious in the struggle, and forced the ministry presided over
by M. Leon Bourgeois to resign; but the precedent is not
decisive, for in order to gain its ends the Senate had recourse to
the means of refusing to sanction the taxes, declining to consider
the proposals for the supplies necessary for the Madagascar
expedition so long as the ministry which it was attacking was
in existence. The weakest point in the French parliamentary
organism is perhaps the right of dissolution. It is difficult of
application, for the reason that the president must obtain the
preliminary consent of the Senate before exercising it; more-
over, this valuable right has been discredited by its abuse by
Marshal MacMahon in the campaign of the x6th of May 1877,
on which occasion he exercised his right of dissolution against
a chamber, the moderate but decidedly republican majority in
which was re-elected by the country*
The legislative reforms carried out under the Third Republic
are very numerous. As to public law, it is only possible to
Reform* mention here those of a really organic character,
aadtrth* chief among which are those which safeguard and
7ft w regulate the exercise of the liberties of the individual.
frpuMfa. The j aw f thc 30th £ j unc lggx ^ nHxjifcd m XOOX|
established the right of holding meetings. * Public meetings,
whether for ordinary or electoral purposes, may be held without
preliminary authorization; the law of 188 1 prescribed a declara-
tion made by a certain number of citizens enjoying full civil
and political rights, which is now remitted. The only really
restrictive provision is that which does not allow them to be
held in the public highway, but only in an enclosed space. But
this is made necessary by the customs of France. The law of the
sxst of July 1 881 on the press is one of the most liberal in the
world. By it all offences committed by any kind of publication
ate submitted to a jury; the punishment for the mere expression
of obnoxious opinions is abolished, the only punishment being
for slander, libel, defamation, inciting to crime, and in certain
1 Political Science and Comparative Constitutional Lam (Boston,
1896).
cases the publication of false newt. The law trf the x*t of Jv
1 00 1 established in France the right of forming assocaaucu.
It recognises the legality of all associations strictly so a2eA\
the objects of which are not contrary to law or to pubSc order
or morality. On condition of a simple declaration to the adota*
strative authority, it grants them a dvfl status in * widest**
of the term. Religious congregations, on the contrary, whka
are not authorised by a law, are forbidden by this law. Thm
This was not a new principle, but the traditional rule 1 ihj*i ■
in France both before and after the Revolution, ^"Jf"" '
except that under certain governments authorisation *****"
by decree had sufficed. As a matter of fact the unauthorized
congregations had been tolerated for a long time, Although ee
various occasions, and especially in v88r, their partial dissofouca
had been proclaimed by decrees. The law of xoox dissoNtd
them all, and made it an offence to belong to such a congregatics.
The members of unauthorised congregations, and later, in 1004,
even those of the authorised congregations, were disqualified
from teaching in any kind of establishment. The liberty -of
primary education was confirmed and reorganised by the kw
of the 30th of October x886, which simply deprived the clergy
of the privileges granted them by the law of 1850, though the
latter remains in force with regard to the liberty of secondary
education. A law passed by the National Assembly (July u,
1875) established the liberty of higher education. It even went
beyond this, for it granted to students in private BOummiam
faculles who aspired to state degrees the right of being
examined before a board composed partly of private and partly
of state professors. The law of the x8th of March 1880 abolished
this privilege. Another law, that of the 12nd of March 18*2,
made primary education obligatory, though allowing parents to
send their children either to private schools or to those of the
state; the law of the 16th of June 1881 established secular
(latque) education in the case of the latter. The Third Republic
also organised secondary education for girls in lycees or special
colleges (colleges de fille). Finally, a law of the roth of July
1896 dealing with higher education and the faculties of the state
reorganized the universities, which form distinct bodies, enjoying
a fairly wide autonomy. A law of the 19th of December 1005,
abrogating that of the x8th Germinal in the year X., which
had sanctioned the Concordat, proclaimed the separa- TcjlMa
tion of the church from the state. It is based on the cfa«e/
principle of the secular state (Hat lalque) which recog- ***™*
nizes no form of religion, though respecting the right ******
of every citizen to worship according to his beliefs, and it aimed
at organizing associations of citizens, the object of which was to
collect the funds and acquire the property necessary for the
maintenance of worship, under the form of associations atltueSts,
differing in certain respects from the associations sanctioned
by the law of the xst of July xoox, but having a wider scope. It
also handed over to these regularly formed associations the pro-
perty of the ecclesiastical establishments formerly in existence,
while taking precautions to ensure their proper application,
and allowed the associations the free use of the churches and
places of worship belonging to the state, the departments or the
communes. If no association culludk was founded in a parish,
the property of the former fabrique should devolve to the com-
mune. But this law was condemned by the papacy, as contrary
to the church hierarchy; and almost nowhere vten~ossocialic*s
culluelles formed, except by Protestants and Jews, who complied
with the law. After many incidents, but no church having been
closed, a new law of the 2nd of January 1907 was enacted.
It permits the public exercise of any cult, by means of ordinary
associations regulated by the law of the xst of July 190X, and even
of public meetings summoned by individuals. Failing all associa-
tions, either culludhs or others, churches, with their ornaments
and furniture, are left to the disposition of the faithful and
ministers, for the purpose of exercising the cult; and, on certain
conditions, the long use of them can be granted as a free gift to
ministers of the cult.
Among the organic laws concerning administrative affairs
there are two of primary importance; that of the xoth of
INSTITUTIONS]
FRANCE
929
August 1871, on the conseUs gSitMroux, considerably Increased
_ the powers and independence of these elective bodies,
^£Z?Sl which have become important deliberative assemblies,
iftBimi tW* sessions being held in public. The law of 1871
created a new administrative organ for the depart-
ments, the commission diparimentale, elected by the council-
general of the department from among its own members and
associated with the administration of the prefect. The other law
is Use municipal law of the 5th of April 1884, which effected a
widespread decentralization; the moires and their adjoint* are
elected by the municipal council.
The war of 1870-71 necessarily led to a modification of the
military organization. The law of the 25th of July 1873 estab-
lished the principle of compulsory service for all, first in
the standing army, the period of service in which was
fixed at five years, then in the reserve, and finally in
the territorial army. Buttheapplicationof thisprinciple
was by no means absolute, only holding good in time of war.
Each annual class was divided into two parts, by means of draw-
ins fot*, and in time of peace one of these parts had only a year of
service with the active army. The previous exemptions, based
either on the position of supporter of the family (as in the case of
the son of a widow or aged father, &c.) or on equivalent services
rendered to the state (as in the case of young ecclesiastics or
members of the teaching profession), were preserved, but only
held good for service in the active army in times of peace.
Finally, the system of conditional engagement for a year allowed
young men, for the purposes of study or apprenticeship to their
profession, only to serve a year with the active army in time of
peace By this means it was sought to combine the advantages of
an army of veterans with those of a numerous and truly national
army. But the conditional volunteering (volontarial conditionnel)
for a year was open to too great a number of people, and so
brought the system into discredit. As those who profiled by
it had to be clothed and maintained at their own expense, and
the sum which they had to furnish for this purpose was generally
fixed at 1500 francs, it came to be considered the privilege of
those who could pay this sum. A new law of the 1 5th of July 1880
lessened the difference between the two terms which it attempted
to reconcile. It reduced the term of service in the active army
to three years, and the exemptions, which were still preserved,
merely reduced the period to a year in times of peace. The same
reduction was also granted to those who were really pursuing
important scientific, terhniral or professional studies; the system
was so strict on this point that the number of those who profited
by those exemptions did not amount to 2000 in a year. This was
a compromise between two opposing principles; the democratic
principle of equality, being the stronger, was bound to triumph.
The law of the sxst of March 1905 reduced the term of service
in the active army to two years, but made it equal for all, admit-
ting of no exemption, but only certain facilities as to the age at
which it had to be accomplished.
In 1883 the judicial personnel was reorganized and reduced
in number. With the exception of a few modifications the main
lines of judicial organization remained the same.
In 1879 the conseil d'etat was also reorganized. The
whokfabricof administrative jurisdiction wascarefully
organized, and almost entirely separated from the
active administration.
The system of taxation has remained essentially unaltered;
we may notice, however, the laws of 1897, 1808 and zooo, which
abolished or lessened the duties on so called hygienic drinks
(wine, beer, cider), and the financial law of 1001, which rearranged
and increased the transfer fees, and established a system of
-progressive taxation in the case of succession dues.
The labour laws, which generally partook of the nature
both of public and of private law, are a sign of our times. Under
the Third Republic they have been numerous, the
most noUble being: the law of the axst of March
1884 on professional syndicates, which introduced
the liberty of association in matters of this kind
before it became part of the common law (see Trade Unions);
the law of the 9th of April 1808 on the liability for accidents
incurred during work, and those which have completed it;
that of the 22nd of December 1892 on conciliation and arbitration
In the case of collective disputes between employers and workmen;
that of the 29th of June 1893 on the hygiene and safeguarding
of workers in industrial establishments, and the laws which
regulate the work of children and women in factories; finally,
that of the 25th of July 1893 on free medical attendance (see
Labour Legislation).
As to criminal law, there have been more than fifty enactments,
mostly involving important modifications, due to more scientific
ideas of punishment, so that we may say that it has
been almost entirely recast since the establishment j£"
of the Third Republic. The separate system applied in
cases of preventive detention and imprisonment for short
periods; liberation before the expiry of the term of sentence,
subject to the condition that no fresh offence shall be committed
within a given time; transportation to the colonies of habitual
offenders; the remission of the penalty in the case of first
offenders, and the lapsing of the penalty when a certain time
has gone by without a fresh condemnation; greater facilities
for the rehabilitation of condemned persons, which now became
simply a matter for the courts, and occurred as a matter of
course at the end of a certain time; such were the chief results
of this legislation. Finally, the law of the 8th of December 1897
completely altered the form of the preliminary examination
before the jugc a" instruction, which had been the weakest point
in the French criminal procedure, though it was still held in
private; the new law made this examination really a hearing
of both sides, and made the appearance of counsel for the defence
practically compulsory.
As to private law, both civil and commercial, we could
enumerate between 1871 and 1906 more than a hundred laws
which have modified it, sometimes profoundly, and have for
the most part done very useful work without attracting much
attention. They are generally examined and drawn up by
commissions of competent men, and pass both chambers almost
without discussion. There have, however, been a few which
aroused public interest and even deep feeling. Firstly, there
was the law of the 27th of July 1884, and those which completed
it; this law re-established divorce, which had been abolished
since 181 6, but only permitted it for certain definite causes
determined by law. On the other hand, the law of the 6th of
February 1893 increased the liberty and independence of a
woman who was simply judicially separated, in order to
encourage separation^ opposed to divorce, when the conditions
allowed it. The law of the 25th of March 1896 on the succession
of illegitimate children, who were recognized by the parents,
treated them not in the same way as legitimate children, but
gave them the title of heirs in the succession of their father and
mother, together with much greater rights than they had
possessed under the Code Civil. The law of the 24th of July 1 809,
on the protection of children who are ill-treated or morally
neglected, also modified some of the provisions of the law
as applied to the family, with a view to greater justice and
humanity. Finally, on the occasion of the centenary of the
Code Civil (see Code Napoleon), a commission, composed
of members of the chambers, magistrates, professors of law,
lawyers, political writers, and even novelists and dramatic
authors, was given the task of revising the whole structure of
the code.
See generally Adhemar Esmcin, Cows Sementaire oVhistoire du
droit francais (6th ed., 1906); J. Britsand, Cours d'histcire ginirale
du droit franfais Public et pnoi (1904); Ernest Glasson, Hisloirt dm
droit et des institutions en France (1887-1904) ; Paul Viollet, Hisloirt
des institutions politique* et administrative* de la France (3rd ed.,
1903); Fustel de Coulanges, Hisioire des institutions politique* de
Vancienne France; Jacques Flach, Les Origines de I'anetenne France
(1875-1889); Achille Luchaire, Histoire des institutions « "-"
de la France sous Us t
premiers CapStiens (2nd ed., 1900); Hipp
Taine, Les Origines de la France contemporaine (1 878-1894) ; Adh<
Esmein, Elements de droit constitutionnel francais et compart (4th ed. t
1906) : Leon Duguit et Henry Monnier,£e« Constitutions et les prtncU.
pfa leis peUtigw de U France depuis 1789 (jfy*). (J. P.&)
93°
FRANCESCHI— FRANCESCHINI
FRANCESCHI, JEAN BAPTISTS, Bason (1766-1813), French
general, was born at Bastta on the 5th of December 1766 and
entered the French service in 2793. He took part in the opera-
tions in Corsica in the following year, and received a wound at
the siege of San Fiorenzo. After this he left the island and was
appointed a field officer in the FrencH Army of Italy, with which
he served from 1795 to 1799. He served as a general officer in
the campaign of Marengo, in the Naples campaign of 1805- 1806,
and in the Peninsular War from 1807 to 1809. He was created
a baron by Napoleon. He commanded a Neapolitan brigade
in -the Russian War of 181 2, and after the retreat from Moscow
took refuge, with the remnant of his command, in Danzig,
where in the course of the siege of 18x3 he died on the 29th of
March.
Two other generals of brigade in Napoleon's wars bore the
name of Franceschi, and the three have often been mistaken for
each other. The first was born at Lyons, Jean Baptiste Masze
Fkancesghi-Delonne (1767-2810), who served throughout
the Revolutionary campaign on the Rhine, took part in the
campaign of Zurich in 2799, and distinguished himself very
greatly by' his escape from, and subsequent return to, Genoa,
when in 1800 Massena was closely besieged in that dty. He
became a cavalry colonel in 2803, was promoted general of
brigade on the field of AustcrliU, and served in southern Italy
and in Spain on the staff of King Joseph Bonaparte. During
the Peninsular War he won great distinction as a cavalry general,
and in x 8 xo Napoleon made him a baron. At this time he was a
prisoner in the hands of the Spaniards, into whose hands he had
fallen while bearing important despatches during the campaign
of Talavera. He was harshly treated by his captors, and died
at Carthagena on the 23rd of October 1810. The second was
Francois Franceschx-Losxo (1770-1810), born at Milan, who
entered the French Revolutionary army in 1795. He served
through the Italian campaign of 1796-97, and subsequently,
like Franceschi-Delonne, with Massena at Zurich and at Genoa,
and at the headquarters of King Joseph in Italy and Spain.
He was killed in a duel by the Neapolitan colonel Filangieri
in 1810.
FRAHCESCHI, PIERO (or Pietoo) DB> (c. 141 6-1492),
Italian painter of the Umbrian school. This master is generally
named Piero della Francesca (Peter, son of Frances), the tradition
being that his father, a woollen-draper named Benedetto, had
died before his birth. This is not correct, for the mother's
name was Romana, and the father continued living during
many years of Piero's career. The painter is also named Piero
Borghese, from his birthplace, Borgo San Sepokro, in Umbria.
The true family name was, as above stated, Franceschi, and
the family still exists under the name of Martini-Franceschi.
Piero first received a scientific education, and became an
adept in mathematics and geometry. This early bent of mind
and course of study influenced to a large extent his development
as a painter. He had more science than either Paolo UcceUo
or Mantegna, both of them his contemporaries, the former
older and the latter younger. Skilful in linear perspective,
he fixed rectangular planes in perfect order and measured them,
and thus got his figures in true proportional height. He preceded
and excelled Domenico Ghirlandajo in projecting shadows,
and rendered with considerable truth atmosphere, the harmony
of colours, and the relief of objects. He was naturally therefore
excellent in architectural painting, and, in point of technique,
he advanced the practice of oil-colouring in Italy.
The earliest trace that we find of Piero as a painter is in 1439,
when he was an apprentice of Domenico Veneziano, and assisted
him in painting the chapel of S. Egidio, in S. Maria Novella of
Florence. Towards 1450 he is said to have been with the same
artist in Lore to; nothing of his, however, can now be identified
in that locality. In 1451 he was by himself, painting in Rimini,
where a fresco still remains. Prior to this he had executed
some extensive frescoes in the Vatican; but these were destroyed
when Raphael undertook on the same walls the " Liberation
of St Peter " and other paintings. His most extensive extant
series of frescoes is in the choir of S. Francesco in Arezso,— the
" History of the Cross/' beginning with legendary subjects ef
the death and burial of Adam, and going on to the entry *
Heraclius into Jerusalem after the overthrow o>f Cfcastn
This series is, in relation to its period, remarkable for efiee
movement, and mastery of the nude. The subject of the " Visia
of Constantine " is particularly vigorous in chiaroscuro; aad a
preparatory design of the same composition was so highly effectm
that it used to be ascribed to Giorgione, and might even (accord-
ing to one authority) have passed for the handiwork of Corrcgpe
or of Rembrandt. A noted fresco in Borgo San Sepokro, tht
" Resurrection," may be later than this series; it is preserved
in the Palazzo de' Conservatori. An important painting of the
" Flagellation of Christ," in the cathedral of Urbino, is later
still, probably towards 147a Piero appears to have been csci
in his native town of Borgo San Sepolcro from about 1445, and
more especially after 1454, when he finished the series in Arezza.
He grew rich there, and there he died, and in October 149a wa
buried.
Two statements made by Vasari regarding "Piero della Fn
are open to much controversy. He says that Piero h««-»-»» bias*
at the age of sixty, which cannot he true, as he continued prat-
ing some years later; but scepticism need perhaps hardly go to the
extent of inferring that he was never blind at all. Vasari also sayi
that Fra Luca racioli, a disciple of Piero in scientific marts*
defrauded his memory by appropriating his researches wrthoat
acknowledgment. This is hard upon the friar, who oonstaatr/
shows a great reverence for his master in the sciences. One of
Pacioli's books was published in 1509, and speaks of Piero as sol
living. Hence it has been propounded that Piero lived to the
patriarchal age of ninety-four or upwards; but, as it is now stated
that he was buried in 1492* we must infer that there is some mxstaJs
in relation to Pacioli's remark— perhaps the date of writing mas
several years earlier than that of publication. Piero was knows
to have left a manuscript of his own on perspective; this remained
undiscovered for a long time, but eventually was found by E. Ham
in the Ambroaian library of Milan, ascribed to some swpposukioie.
" Pietro, Ptttore di Bruges." The treatise shows a knowledge of
perspective as dependent on the point of distance.
the altar-piece of the Priory of the Baptist in Borgo San Sepokro,
is an important example; and still more so the " Nativity." with the
Virgin kneeling, and five angels singing to musical instruments.
This is a very interesting and characteristic specimen, and has
indeed been praised somewhat beyond its deserving! on aesthetic
grounds.
Piero's earlier style was energetic but unrefined, and to the last
he lacked selectness of form and feature. The types of his visages
are peculiar, and the costumes (as especially in the Arezeo series)
singular. He used to work assiduously from clay models swathed
in real drapery. Luca Signorelli was his pupil, and probably to
some extent Peru gi no; and his own influence, furthered by that of
Signorelli, was potent over alt Italy. Belonging as he does to the
Umbrian school, he united with that style something of the Sienese
and more of the Florentine mode.
Besides Vasari and Crowe & Cavalcaselle, the work by W. G.
Waters, Piero ddb Francesca (1899) should be consulted.
(W. M. R)
FRANCBSCHINI, BALDASSARB (1611-1689), Italian painter
of the Tuscan school, named, from Volterra the place of his
birth, U Volterrano, or (to distinguish him from Ricciarelh?
U Volterrano Giuniore, was the son of a sculptor in alabaster.
At a very early age he learned from Cosimo Daddi some of the
elements of art, and he started as an assistant to his father.
This employment being evidently below the level of bis talents,
the marquises Inghirami placed him, at the age of sixteen, under
the Florentine painter Matteo Rossellt. In the ensuing year he
had advanced sufficiently to execute in Volterra some frescoes,
skilful in foreshortening, followed by other frescoes for the
Medici family in the Valle della Pctraia, In 165a the marchese
Filippo Niccolini, being minded to employ Franceschini noon the
frescoes for the cupola and back-wall of bis chapel in & Croce,
Florence, despatched him to various parts of Italy to perfect
bis style. The painter, in a tour which lasted some months,
took more especially to the qualities distinctive of the schools
of Parma and Bologna, and in a measure to those of Pietro
da Cortona, whose acquaintance he made in Rome. He then
undertook the paintings commissioned by Niccohni. whk»
FRANCHE-COXITfe
W
£onMitut« Ms most noted performance, tne design being good,
and the method masterly. Franceschini ranks higher in fresco
than in oil painting. His works in the latter mode were not
unfrequcntly left unfinished, although numerous specimens
remain, the cabinet pictures being marked by much spright lines*
of invention. Among his best oil paintings of large scale is the
** St John the Evangelist " in the church of S. Chiara at Volterra.
One of his latest works was the fresco of the cupola of the Annun-
, ziata, Florence, which occupied him for two years towards
16S3, a production of much labour and energy. Franceschini
died of apoplexy at Volterra on the 6th of January 1680. He is
reckoned among those painters of the decline of art to whom the
general name of " machinist " is applied.
He is not to be confounded with another Franceschini of the
same class, and of rather later date, also of no small eminence
in hia time— the Cavaliere Marcantonio Franceschini (164S-
1729), who was a Bologncse.
FRAtfCHMOMTft, a province of France from 1674 to the
Revolution, It was bounded on the E. by Switzerland, on the
S. by Bresse and Bugey, on the N. by Lorraine, and on the W.
by the duchy of Burgundy and by Bassigny, embracing to the E.
of the Jura the valley of the Saone and most of that of the
Douba. Under the Romans it corresponded to Maxima Scqua-
nor amy and after having formed part of the kingdom of Burgundy
was in the early part of the middle ages split up into the four
countships of Portois, Varais, Amons and Escuens. In the
10th century these four countships were united to form a whole,
which came to be called the countship of Burgundy, and belonged
at that time to the family of the counts of Macon.
The limits of the countship were definitely settled under
Otto William, son of Albert or Adalbert, king of Italy (t 102 7),
who on the death of hia father-in-law, Henry (1002), tried to
seize the duchy of Burgundy ,but without success. The countship,
which formed a fief dependent on the kingdom of Burgundy,
passed to ftenaud I., the second son of Otto William. When
the kingdom of Burgundy was joined to the Germanic empire,
he refused to pay homage to the emperor Henry III., whose
suzerainty over htm never existed except in theory. William
I., sumamed the Great or Headstrong (1059-1087), still further
added to the power of his house by marrying Etiennctte, heiress
of the count of Vienne, and by acquiring from his cousin Guy,
when the latter became a monk at Cluny, the countship of Macon.
One of his sons, Guy, became pope, under the name of Calixtus
II. His grandson, Renaud III. (1097-1148), in his turn refused
to pay homage to the emperor Lothair, who retaliated by con-
fiscating his dominions and giving them to Conrad of Zahringen.
Renaud, however, succeeded in maintaining until his death his
possession of the countships of Burgundy, Vienne and Macon.
He left as sole heiress a daughter, Beatrix, whom his brother
William HI. imprisoned, in order to make an attempt on her
inheritance; she was set free, however, by the emperor Frederick
Barbarossa, who married her in 1156.
On the death of Beatrix (1185) the countship of Burgundy
passed to Otto I. (11 00-1200), the youngest but one of her sons,
who had to dispute its possession with Stephen, count of Auxonne,-
the grandson of William III. Beatrix, the daughter and heiress
of Otto I. (1 200-1 231), married Otto, duke of Meran (fi234),
under whose government the inhabitants of Bcsancon, which
had been since the time of Frederick Barbarossa an imperial
city, formed themselves definitely into a commune. Alix,
daughter of Beatrix and of Otto of Meran, and heiress to the
countship of Burgundy, married Hugh of Chalon, son of John
the Ancient or the Wise (d. 1248), and a descendant of William
III. and consequently of William the Headstrong, thus bringing
the countship back into the family of its former lords. His
son Otto IV. (1270-1303) engaged in war against the bishop
of Basel, and the German king Rudolph I., who supported the
latter, entered Franchc-Comtc and besieged Besancon, but
without success (1789). Otto, in fulfilment of the* treaties of
Ervennes and Vincennes (1291-1295) gave Jeanne, his daughter
by Mahaut of Artois, in marriage to Philip, count of Poitiers,
son of Philip the Fair. The latter took over the administration
of the countship in spite Of strong opposition from the nobles
of the country, but their leader, John of Chalon-Arlay, was
compelled to make his submission. Another of Otto's daughters
married Charles IV., the Handsome, and both princesses,
together with their sister-in-law Margaret of Burgundy, were
concerned in the celebrated trial of the Tour de Nesle. Jeanne,
however, continued to govern her countship when Philip her
husband became king of France (Philip V., " the Long ").
Jeanne, their daughter and heiress, married Odo IV., duke of
Burgundy (1330-1347), and her sister Margaret became the
wife of Louis II., count of Flanders. The countship returned
to Margaret at the death of Odo IV., who was succeeded in his
duchy by his grandson Philip of Rouvre.
The marriage of Philip the Bold with Margaret, daughter of
Louis of Male, caused Franche-Comte to pass to the princes of
the ducal house of Burgundy, who kept it up till the death of
Charles the Bold (1477). On his death Louis XI. laid claim to the
government of the countship as well as of the duchy, as trustee
for the property of the princess Mary, who was closely related
to him and destined to marry the dauphin (later Charles VIII.).
French garrisons occupied the principal towns, and the lord of
Craon was appointed governor of the country. In consequence
of his severity there was a general rising, and at the same time
Mary married Maximilian, archduke of Austria, to whom her
father had formerly betrothed her (Aug. 1477). The French were
expelled from the fortified towns and Craon beaten by the people
of D61e. Charles of Ambolsc, who took his place, reconquered
the province, and even Bcsancon submitted to the authority
of the king of France, who promised to respect its privileges.
On the death of Louis XI. (1483) , the estates of Franchc-Comt6
recognized as sovereign his son Charles, who was betrothed to
the little Margaret of Burgundy, daughter of Maximilian and
Mary (d. 1482), but when Charles VIII. refused Margaret's
hand in order to marry Anne of Brittany there was a fresh rising,
and the French were again driven out. The treaty of Sen lis
(23rd May 1483) put an end to the struggle: Charles abandoned
all his pretensions, and Maximilian was thus left in possession
of Franchc-ComtS, the sovereignty of which he handed on to
his son Philip and ultimately to the crown of Spain. He had,
however, constituted his daughter Margaret sovereign-governess
of Franche-Comte" for life, and under the administration Of this
princess (who died in 1530), as under the rule of Charles V., the
country enjoyed comparative independence, paying a "doA
gratuil" of 200,000 livres every three years, and being actually
governed by the parliament of Dole, and by governors chosen
from the nobility of the country. It was Franche-Comte* which
furnished Philip II. of Spain with one of his best counsellors,
Cardinal Perrenot dc Granvella.
In the 1 6th century the country was disturbed by the preaching
of Protestant doctrines, which gained adherents especially in the
district of Montbeliard, and later by the wars between France
and Spain. In 1595 the armies of Henry IV. levied contributions
on Besancon and other towns; but the people of Franche-Comte'
succeeded in obtaining special terms of neutrality in order to
shelter themselves from injury from either of the parties in the
war, and enjoyed a period of calm under the government of the
infanta Isabella Clara Eugenic and the archduke Albert (1590-
1621). But the country suffered greatly from the ravages of the
Thirty Years' War, from the presence of the army of the Condfe,
which besieged D61e, from the devastation of the troops of Gallas,
and later of those of Bernard of Saxe- Weimar. The peace of
Westphalia (1648) confirmed Spain in the possession of Franche-
Comte. In 1668 the French again entered it, and the conquest,
of which the foundations had been laid by the intrigues of the
abbot of Watteville and the French party constituted by him,
was easily accomplished by Conde and Luxemburg, Louis XIV.
directing the army in Franche-Comte for some time in person.
None the less, the country was restored to Spam at the peace
of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), but in 1674 Louis headed another
expedition there. Besancon capitulated after a siege of twenty-
seven days, and D61e and Salins also fell into the hands of the
invaders.
932
FRANCHISE— FRANCIA
In 1678 the treaty of Nijmwegen gave Franche-Comte to
France (the principality of Montbeiiard remaining in the posses-
sion of the house of Wttrttemberg, which had acquired it by
marriage), and it was in celebration of this conquest that the
Arc dc Triomphe of the Portes Saint Denis and Saint Martin
at Paris was erected. Franche-Comte' became a military govern-
ment (gouvernemenl). The estates ceased to meet, and the old
" don graiuit " was replaced by a tax which became increasingly
heavy. Louis made Besancon, which Vauban fortified, into the
capital of the province, and transferred to it the parliament
and the university, the seat of which had hitherto been Dole.
For purposes of administration, the county was divided among
the four great baUliages of Besancon, Dole, Amont (chief town
Vesoul) and Aval (chief town Salins). At the Revolution were
formed from it the departments of Jura, Doubs and Haute-
Saone.
See Dunod, Histoire des Sequanoss; Hist, du comti de Bourgpgne
(Dijon, 1735-1740) ; E. Clerc, Essai surf histoire deia Franche-Comte
(2nd ed., Besancon, 1870). (R. Po.)
FRANCHISB (from O. Fr. franchise, freedom, franc, free),
in English law, a royal privilege or branch of the crown's pre-
rogative subsisting in the hands of a subject. A franchise is an
incorporeal hereditament, and arises either from royal grants or
from prescription which presupposes a grant. Such franchises are
bodies corporate, the right to hold a fair, market, ferry, free
fishery, &c. The term is also applied to the right of voting at
elections and the qualifications upon which that right is based
(see Registration; Representation; Vote). In the United
States the term is especially applied to the right or powers
of partial appropriation of public property by exclusive use,
or to a privilege of a public nature conferred on a corporation
created for the purpose.
FRANCIA (c. 1450-1517), a Bologncse painter, whose real
name was Francesco Raibolini, his father being Marco di Giacomo
Raibolini, a carpenter, descended from an old and creditable
family, was born at Bologna about 1450. He was apprenticed
to a goldsmith currently named Francia, and from him probably
he got the nickname whereby he is generally known; he more-
over studied design under Marco Zoppo. The youth was thus
originally a goldsmith, and also an engraver of dies and niellos,
and in these arts he became extremely eminent. He was particu-
larly famed for his dies for medals; he rose to be mint-master
at Bologna, and retained that office till the end of his life. A
famous medal of Pope Julius II. as liberator of Bologna is
ascribed to his hand, but not with certainty. As a type-founder
he made for Aldus Manutius the first italic type.
At a mature age — having first, it appears, become acquainted
with Mantegna— he turned his attention to painting. His
earliest known picture is dated 1494 (not 1490, as ordinarily
stated). It shows so much mastery that one is compelled to
believe that Raibolini must before then have practised painting
for some few years. This work is now in the Bologna gallery, —
the " Virgin enthroned, with Augustine and five other saints."
It is an oil picture, and was originally painted for the church
of S. Maria della Misericordia, at the desire of the Bentivoglio
family, the rulers of Bologna. The same patrons employed him
upon frescoes in their own palace; one of " Judith and Holo-
phernes " is especially noted, its style recalling that of Mantegna.
Francia probably studied likewise the works of Perugino; and
he became a friend and ardent admirer of Raphael, to whom he
addressed an enthusiastic sonnet. Raphael cordially responded to
the Bolognese master's admiration, and said, in a letter dated in
1508, that few painters or none had produced Madonnas more
beautiful, more devout, or better portrayed than those of Francia.
If we may trust Vasari — but it is difficult to suppose that he
was entirely correct — the exceeding value which Francia set on
Raphael's art brought him to his grave. Raphael had consigned
to Francia his famous picture of " St Cecilia," destined for the
church of S. Giovanni in Monte, Bologna; and Francia, on
inspecting it, took so much to heart his own inferiority, at the
advanced age of about sixty-six, to the youthful Umbrian, that
he sickened and shortly expired on the 6th of January 1517.
A contemporary record, after attesting his ;
goldsmith, jeweller add painter, states that he 1
some in person and highly eloquent."
Distanced though he may have been by Raphael, Foci
is rightly regarded as the greatest painter of the earlier Boiopc
school, and hardly to be surpassed as representing the z\
termed " antico-moderno," or of the " quattrocento." L u
been well observed that his style is a medium between tha -|
Perugino and that of Giovanni Bellini; he has somewhat sun
of spontaneous naturalism than the former, and of abstaj
dignity in feature and form than the latter. The magxs&sl
portrait in the Louvre of a young man in black, of broc-q
thoughtfulness and saddened profundity of mood, would i£3
suffice to place Francia among the very great masters, if it co I
with confidence be attributed to his hand, but in all prooah- 1
its real author was Franciabigio; it had erewhile passed cadj
the name of Raphael, of Giorgione, or of Sebastian del Pweh
The National Gallery, London, contains two remarkably is
specimens of Francia, once combined together as prific^d
picture and lunette,— the " Virgin " and " Child and St Asa
enthroned, surrounded by saints, and (in the lunette) the " PfcU.
or lamentation of angels over the dead Saviour. They cow
from the Buonvisi chapel in the church of S. Frcdiaoo, Lara
and were among the master's latest paintings. Other kadii
works are— in Munich, the " Virgin " sinking on her knees a
adoration of the Divine Infant, who is lying in a garden wkaa
a rose trellis; in the Borghese gallery, Rome, a Peter Marm"
in Bologna, the frescoes in the church of St Cecilia, fllustiarsi
the life of the saint, all of them from the design' of Raiboku
but not all executed by himself. His landscape backgreeo^
are of uncommon excellence. Francia had more than xc
scholars. Marcantonio Rahnondi, the famous engraver, »
the most renowned of them; next to him Amico Aspertini, as*
Francia's own son Giacomo, and his cousin Julio. Lorcss
Costa was much associated with Francia in pictorial work.
Among the authorities at to the life and work of Franca may >*
mentioned J. A. Calvi, Memorie della vita di Francesco ffaihttimi (iIj:
and especially G. C. Williamson, Francia (1900). (W. M. R.}
FRANCIA, JOSfi GASPAR RODRIGUEZ (c 1 757-15^,
dictator of Paraguay, was born probably about 1757. Accordta
to one account he was of French descent; but the truth seen
to be that his father, Garcia Rodriguez Francia, was a nathe
of S. Paulo in Brazil, and came to Paraguay to take charge a
a plantation of black tobacco for the government. He studied
theology at the college of Cordova de Tucuman, and is said s
have been for some time a professor in that faculty; but k
afterwards turned his attention to the law, and practised s
Asuncion. Having attained a high reputation at once ke
ability and integrity, he was selected for various impetus:
offices. On the declaration of Paraguayan independence is
1811, he was appointed secretary to the national junta, ud
exercised an influence on affairs greatly out of proportion to
his nominal position. When the congress or junta of iSij
changed the constitution and established a duumvirate, flr
Francia and the Gaucho general Yegres were elected to tk
office. In 1814 he secured his own election as dictator for tfciw
years, and at the end of that period he obtained the dictators*?
for life. In the accounts which have been published of his ad-
ministration we find a strange mixture of capacity and caprice,
of far-sighted wisdom and reckless infatuation, strenuoo
endeavours after a high ideal and flagrant violations of tk
simplest principles of justice. He put a stop to the foreign
commerce of the country, but carefully fostered its Internal
industries; was disposed to be hospitable to strangers from
other lands, and kept them prisoners for years; lived a life ef
republican simplicity, and punished with Dionysian severity
the slightest want of respect. As time went on he appears to
have grown more arbitrary and despotic. Deeply imbued with
the principle; of the French Revolution, he was a stern antagosst
of the church. He abolished the Inquisition, suppressed the
college of theology, did away with the tithes, and inflicted
endless indignities on the priests. He discouraged marriafe
FRANCIABIGIO— FRANCIS II. (ROMAN EMPEROR) 933
th t>y precept and example, and left behind him several
rgitim&te children. For the extravagances of his later yean
:. plea, of insanity has been put forward. On the solh of
ptcaber 1840 he was seized with a fit and died.
T*be first and fullest account of Dr Francia was given to the world
two Swiss surgeons, Rengger and Longchamp, whom he had
taincxl from 1819 to 1825— -£«« hislonque sur la revolution de
itsay et la gouvernemenl dictatorial du docteur Francia (Paris,
27 >- sbcir work was almost immediately translated into English
der tHc title of The Reign of Doctor Joseph G. R. De Francia
Paraguay (1827). About eleven years after there appeared at
indon Letters on Paraguay, by J. P. and W. P. Robertson, two
ung Scotsmen whose hopes of commercial success had been rudely
stroyed by the dictator s interference. The account which they
ve of tiis character and government was of the most unfavourable
scription, and they rehearsed and emphasised their accusations ia
ancua's Reign of Terror (1839) and Utters on South America (3 vols.,
43). From the very pages of his detractors Thomas Car I vie
cceeded in extracting materials for a brilliant defence of the die-
tor "ata man or sovereign of iron energy and industry, of great
td severe labour." It appeared in the Foreign Quarterly Review
r 1843. and is reprinted tn his Critical and Miscellaneous Essays.
r Rioba r d F. Burton gives a graphic sketch of Francia s life and a
voura-ble notice of his character in his Letters from the Battlefields
Paraguay (t 870), while C. A. Washburn takes up a hostile position
his History of Paraguay (1871).
FRANCIABIGIO (1482-1525), Florentine painter. The name
f this artist is generally given as Mercantonio Franciabigio;
appears, however, that his only real ascertained name was
raxtcesco di Cristofano; and that he was currently termed
'rancis Bigio, the two appellatives being distinct. He waa
•oris in Florence, and studied under Albertinelli for some months.
n 1505 he formed the acquaintance of Andrea del Sarto; and
iter a while the two painters set up a shop in common in the
>iaxza del Grano. Franciabigio paid much attention to anatomy
md perspective, and to the proportions of his figures, though
hese are often too squat and puffy in form. He had a large
dock of artistic knowledge, and was at first noted for diligence.
\s years went on, and he received frequent commissions for
ill sons of public painting for festive occasions, his diligence
merged in something which may rather be called workmanly
offbandedness. He was particularly proficient in fresco, and
Vasari even says that he surpassed all his contemporaries in this
method — a judgment which modern connoisseurship does not
accept. In the court of the Scrvites (orcloisterof the Annunziata)
in Florence he painted in is *3 the "Marriage of the Virgin,"
as a portion of a series wherein Andrea del Sarto was chiefly
concerned. The friars having uncovered this work before it
was quite finished, Franciabigio was so incensed that, seizing
a mason's hammer, he struck at the head of the Virgin, and some
other heads; and the fresco, which would otherwise be his
masterpiece in that method, remains thus mutilated. At the
Scalzo, in another series of frescoes on which Andrea was likewise
employed, he executed in 1518-1519 the " Departure of John
the Baptist for the Desert," and the " Meeting of the Baptist
with Jesus"; and, at the Medici palace At Poggio a Guano,
in 1521, the " Triumph of Cicero." Various works which have
been ascribed to Raphael are now known or reasonably deemed
to be by Franciabigio. Such are the " Madonna del Pozzo,"
in the Uffizi Gallery; the half figure of a " Young Man," in
the Louvre (see also Francia); and the famous picture in
the Fuller-Maitland collection, a " Young Man with a Letter."
These two works show a close analogy in style to another in the
Pitti gallery, avowedly by Franciabigio, a " Youth at a Window,"
and to someotherswhich bear this painter's recognized monogram.
The series of portraits, taken collectively, placed beyond dispute
the eminent and idiosyncratic genius of the master. Two other
works of his, of some celebrity, are the " Calumny of Apelles,"
in the Pitti, and the " Bath of Bathsheba " (painted in 1523),
in the Dresden gallery.
FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco,
Fr. Francois, Ger. From), a masculine proper name meaning
"Frenchman." As a Christian name it originated with St
Francis of Assisi, whose baptismal name was Giovanni, but who
was called Jxancesco by. his father on returning from a journey
in France. The saint's fame made the name exceedingly popular
from his day onwards.
FRANCIS I. (1708-1765), Roman emperor and grand duke of
Tuscany, second son of Leopold Joseph, duke of Lorraine, and
his wife Elizabeth Charlotte, daughter of Philip, duke of Orleans,
was born on the 8th of December 1708. He was connected
with the Habsburgs through his grandmother Eleanore, daughter
of the emperor Ferdinand III., and wife of Charles Leopold of
Lorraine. The emperor Charles VI. favoured the family, who,
besides being his cousins, had served the house of Austria with
distinction. He had designed to marry his daughter Maria
Theresa to Clement, the elder brother of Francis. On the death
of Clement be adopted the younger brother as her husband.
Francis was brought up at Vienna with Maria Theresa on the
understanding that they were to be married, and a real affection
arose between them. At the age of fifteen, when he was brought
to Vienna, he was established in the Silesian duchy of Teschen,
which had been mediatized and granted to his father by the
emperor in 1722. He succeeded bis father as duke of Lorraine
in 1 720, but the emperor, at the end of the Polish War of Succes-
sion, desiring to compensate his candidate Stanislaus Leszczynskl
for the loss of his crown in 1735, persuaded Francis to exchange
Lorraine for the reversion of the grand duchy of Tuscany. On
the X2th of February 1736 he was 'married to Maria Theresa,
and they went for a short time to Florence, when he succeeded
to the grand duchy in 1737 on the death of John Gaston, the
last of the ruling house of Medici. His wife secured his election
to the Empire on the 13th of September 1745, in succession to
Charles VII., and she made him co-regent of her hereditary
dominions. Francis was well content to leave the reality of
power to his able wife. He had a natural fund of good sense
and some business capacity, and was a useful assistant to Maria
Theresa In the laborious task of governing the complicated
Austrian dominions, but his functions appear to have been of a
purely secretarial character. He died suddenly in his carriage
while returning from the opera at Innsbruck on the 18th of
August 1765.
See A. von Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresias (Vienna, 1863-
1879).
FRANCIS n. (1768- 183 5), the last Roman emperor, and, as
Francis I., first emperor of Austria, was the son of Leopold II.,
grand-duke of Tuscany, afterwards emperor, and of his wife
Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles III. of Spain. He was born
at Florence on the 12th of February 1768. In 1784 he was
brought to Vienna to complete his education under the eye of
his uncle the emperor Joseph II., who was childless. Joseph
was repelled by the frigid and retiring character of his nephew,
and is said to have treated him with an impatient contempt
which confirmed his natural timidity; but after the marriage
of Francis to Elizabeth of Wttrttemberg (1788) their relations
improved. At the close of his uncle's reign he saw some service
in the ill-conducted war with Turkey, and kept a careful diary
of his experiences. The death of his wife in childbirth on the
1 8th of February 1700 was followed by the death of his uncle
on the 20th; and Francis acted as regent with Prince Kaunitz
until his father came from Florence. On the 19th of September
he married his first cousin Maria Theresa, daughter of Ferdinand,
king of Naples, by whom he was the father of his successor
Ferdinand I., of Maria Louisa, wife of Napoleon, and of the
archduke Francis, father of the emperor Francis Joseph. After
her death (1807) he married Maria Ludovica Beatrix of Este
(1S08), and when she died he made a fourth marriage with
Carolina Augusta of Bavaria (1816).
He succeeded to the Austrian dominions and the empire on
the death of his father on the 1st of March 1792. The position
was a trying one for a young prince twenty-four years of age.
The dominions of the house of Austria, widely scattered in the
Low Countries, Germany and Italy, were exposed to the attacks
of the French revolutionary governments and of Napoleon. He
was dragged into all the coalitions against France, and in the
early days of his reign he had to guard against the ambition of
Prussia, and the aggressions of Russia in Poland and Turkey.
934
FRANCIS I. OF FRANCE
For long he had no adviser save such diplomatists as Prince
Kauniu and Thugut, who had been trained in the old Austrian
diplomacy. His own best quality was an invincible patience
supported by reliance on the loyalty of his subjects, and a sense
of his duty to the state. (For the general events of this reign till
1815 see Euxope, Austria, Napoleon, French Revolutionary
Wars, &c.) The emperor's firmness averted what would have
been an irreparable loss of position. Seeing that the Empire
was in the last stage of dissolution, and that, even were it to
survive, it would pass from the house Of Habsburg to that of
Bonaparte, he in 1804 assumed the title of hereditary emperor
of Austria. The object of this prudent measure was double.
In the first place, he guarded against the danger that his house
should sink to a lower rank than the Russian or the French.
In the second place, he gave some semblance of unity to his com-
plex dominions in Germany, Bohemia, Hungary and Italy,
by providing a common title for the supreme ruler. His action
was justified when, in 1806, the establishment of the Confedera-
tion of the Rhine forced him to abdicate the empty title of Holy
Roman emperor.
In 1805 he made an important change in the working of his
administration. He had hitherto been assisted by a cabinet
minister who was in direct relation with all the " chanceries "
and boards which formed the executive government, and who
acted as the channel of communication between them and the
emperor, and was in fact a prime minister. In 2805 Napoleon
insisted on the removal of Count Colloredo, who held the post.
From that time forward the emperor Francis acted as his own
prime minister, superintending every detail of his administration.
In foreign affairs after 1809 he reposed full confidence in Prince
Metternich. But Mctternich himself declared at the close of his
life that he had sometimes held Europe in the palm of his hand,
but never Austria. Francis was sole master, and is entitled to
whatever praise is due to his government. It follows that he
must bear the blame for its errors. The history of the Austrian
empire under his rule and since his death bears testimony to
both his merits and his limitations. His indomitable patience
and loyalty to his inherited task enabled him to triumph over
Napoleon. By consenting to the marriage of his daughter,
Marie Louise, to Napoleon in 1810, he gained a respite which he
turned to good account. By following the guidance of Metternich
in foreign affairs he was able to intervene with decisive effect in
1 81 3. The settlement of Europe in 18x5 left Austria stronger
and more compact than she had been in 179a, and that this
was the case was largely due to the emperor.
During the twenty years which preceded his death in 1835,
Francis continued to oppose the revolutionary spirit. He had
none of the mystical tendencies of the tsar Alexander L, and only
adhered to the half fantastic Holy Alliance of 181 5 out of pure
politeness. But he was wholly in sympathy with the policy of
" repression " which came, in popular view, to be identified with
the Holy Alliance; and though Metternich was primarily re-
sponsible for the part played by Austria in the " policing " of
Europe, Francis cannot but be held personally responsible for the
cruel and impolitic severities, associated especially with the
sinister name of the fortress prison of the Spielberg, which made
so many martyrs to freedom. It is not surprising that Francis
was denounced by Liberals throughout Europe as a tyrant and an
obscurantist. But though at home, as abroad, be met all sugges-
tions of innovation by a steady refusal to depart from old ways,
he was always popular among the mass of his subjects, who
called him " our good Kaiser Franz." In truth, if in the spirit
of the traditional Landcsvata he chastised his disobedient children
mercilessly, be was essentially a well-meaning ruler who for-
warded the material and moral good of his subjects according
to his lights. But he held that, by the will of God, the whole
sovereign authority resided in his person, and could not be
shared with others without a dereliction of duty on his part and
disastrous consequences; and his capital error as a ruler of
Austria was that he persisted in maintaining a system of adminis-
tration which depended upon the indefatigable industry of a
single man, and was entirely outgrown by the modern develop-
ment of his subjects. Before his death, government ia Aa
was almost choked, and it broke down under a succnae 1
had not his capacity for work. like his ancestor Fh2? I
Spain, Francis carried caution, and a disposition to aieep *.
every possible proposal, to a great length. He died ca lt;
of March 1835.
See Baron J. A. Hetfert, Kaiser Frans uud die totrmxkr
Bejreiungs-Kruft (Vienna, 1867). Ample bibliographie ■!
found in Krone* von Marchland's GruMdriss der osterrttA
GesckUhU (Berlin, 188a).
FRANCIS 1. (1404-1547), king of France, son of Qsfc
Valois, count of Angouleme, and Louise of Savoy, «as Uc
Cognac on the 1 2tb of September 1404. The count of Angv^J
who was the great-grandson of King Charles V., died ia »
and Louise watched over ber son with passionate tesdra
On the accession of Louis XII. in 1408, Francis becast i|
presumptive. Louis invested him with the duchy of Vd
and gave him as tutor Marshal de Gi£, and, after Git's <£*=
in 1 503, the sieur de Boisy, Art us Gouffier. Francois de £x
fort, abbot of St Mcsmin, instructed Francis and his &1
Marguerite in Latin and history; Louise herself taught aj
Italian and Spanish; and the library of the ch&teau at Aslsj
was well stocked with romances of the Round Tabk, %H
exalted the lad's imagination. Francis showed an even pd
love for violent exercises, such as hunting, which was his "J
passion, and tennis, and for tournaments, masquerades d
amusements of all kinds. His earliest gallantries are descrdg '
his sister in the 25th and 42nd stories of the Heptane** J
z 507 Francis was betrothed to Claude, the daughter of Lots XL
and in 1 508 he came to court. In x 5 1 2 he gained his first bL'-.
experience in Guienne, and in the following year he comxin
the army of Picardy. He married Claude on the 18th of il»l
1514, and succeeded Louis XII. on the 1st of January h"
Of noble bearing, and, in spite of a very long and large a>
extremely handsome, he was a sturdy and valiant knight, af&
courteous, a brilliant talker and a facile poet. He had a sprigt :
wit, some delicacy of feeling, and some generous impulses wtr
made him amiable. These brilliant qualities, however, wen -
on the surface. At bottom the man was frivolous, profoosc
selfish, unstable, and utterly incapable of consistency or id-
eation. The ambassadors remarked his negligence, aad r:
ministers complained of it. Hunting, tennis, jewelry acd is
gallantry were the chief preoccupations of his life.
His character was at once authoritative and weak. He «
determined to be master and to dedde everything himself. £
he allowed himself to be dominated and easily person-
Favourites, too, without governing entirely for him, pb>*
an important part in his reign. His capricious humour dev£&
and deposed them with die same disconcerting suddeaKB
In the early years of his reign the conduct of affairs was c&r
in the hands of Louise of Savoy, Chancellor Antoine Dupn
Secretary Florimond Robertet, and the two Gouffiers, Boisy c
Bonnivet. The royal favour then elevated Anne de Montmoncr
and Philippe de Chabot, and in the last years of the reign Mani-
d'Annebaud and Cardinal de Tournon. Women too had al«« l
great influence over Francis— his sister, Marguerite d'Angotilfet
and his mistresses. Whatever the number of these, he had ol
two titular mistresses— at the beginning of the reign Franp^
de Chateaubriant, and from about 1526 to his death Agr*
Pisseleu, whom he created duchesse d'Etampes and who entire
dominated him. It has not been proved that he was the lover tf
Diane de Poitiers, nor does the story of " La belle Ferronnftr
appear to rest on any historical foundation. 1
Circumstances alone gave a homogeneous character to it'
foreign policy of Francis. The struggle against the tmptn'
Charles V. filled the greater part of the reign. In reality,^'
policy of Francis, save for some flashes of sagacity, was irreseli"
and vacillating. Attracted at first by Italy, dreaming of f»"
feats of prowess, he led the triumphal Marignano expe&ft
which gained him reputation as a knightly king and as the n^
powerful prince in Europe. In 1519, in spite of wise course
1 On this point see Paulin Paris, ttudts sur It rignc dt froafcii ?■
FRANCIS II. OF FRANCE
935
stood candidate lor the imperial crown. The election of
urles V, caused an inevitable rivalry between the two monarch*
oil accentuated still further the light and chivalrous temper of
icing and the cold and politic character of the emperor.
Acis's personal intervention in this struggle was seldom
»py. He did not succeed in gaining the support of Henry VIII.
England at the interview of the Field of the Cloth of Gold in
o; his want of tact goaded the Constable de Bourbon to
rexxae measures in 1529-1523; and in the Italian campaign
1 5 25 he proved himself a mediocre, vacillating and foolhardy
der, and by his blundering led the army to the disaster of
via. (the 25th of February 1525), where, however, he fought
li great bravery. " Of all things," he wrote to his mother
er the defeat, " nothing remains to me but honour and life,
icb is safe "—the authentic version of the legendary phrase
til is lost save honour." He strove to play the part of royal
>tiv« heroically, but the prison life galled him. He fell ill at
sd rid and was on the point of death. For a moment he thought
abdicating rather than of ceding Burgundy. But this was too
cat a demand upon his fortitude, and he finally yielded and
;ncd the treaty of Madrid, after having drawn up a secret protest .
ter Madrid he wavered unceasingly between two courses, either
at of continuing hostilities, or the policy favoured by Montmor-
cy of peace and understanding with the emperor. At times he
td the sagacity to recognize the utility of alliances, as was shown
f those he concluded with the Porte and with the Protestant
inces of Germany. But he could never pledge himself frankly
. one sense or the other, and this vacillation prevented him
om attaining any decisive results. At his death, however,
ranee was in possession of Savoy and Piedmont.
In his religious policy Francis showed the same instability.
>rawn between various influences, that of Marguerite
'Angoultme, the du Bcllays, and the duchesse* d'Etampcs,
ho was in favour of the Reformation or at least of toleration,
nd the contrary influence of the uncompromising Catholics,
>uprat, and then Montmorency and de Tournon, he gave
•ledges successively to both parties. In the first years of the
eign, following the counsels of Marguerite, he protected Jacques
~cfevre of Etaples and Louis de Berquin, and showed some
avour to the new doctrines. But the violence of the Reformers
brew him into the arms of the opposite party. The affair of the
Placards in 1534 irritated him beyond measure, and determined
aim to adopt a policy of severity. From that time, in spite of
occasional indulgences shown to the Reformers, due to his desire
10 conciliate the Protestant powers, Francis gave a free hand
to the party of repression, of which the most active and most
pitiless member was Cardinal de Tournon; and the end of the
reign was sullied by the massacre of the Waldenses (i54$)»
Francis introduced new methods into government. In his
reign the monarchical authority became more imperious and
more absolute. His was the government " du bon plaisir." By
the unusual development he gave to the court he converted the
nobility into a brilliant household of dependants. The Concordat
brought the clergy into subjection, and enabled him to distribute
benefices at his pleasure among the most docile of his courtiers.
He governed in the midst of a group of favourites, who formed
the conseil des a f aires. The states-general did not meet, and the
remonstrances of the parlement were scarcely tolerated. By
centralizing the financial administration by the creation of the
Trtsor de VfLpargnt, and by developing the military establish-
ments, Francis still further strengthened the royal power. His
government had the vices of his foreign policy. It was uncertain,
irregular and disorderly. The finances were squandered in
gratifying the king's unbridled prodigality, and the treasury
was drained by his luxurious habits, by the innumerable gifts and
pensions he distributed among his mistresses and courtiers, by
his war expenses and by his magnificent buildings. His govern-
ment, too, weighed heavily upon the people, and the king was
less popular than is sometimes imagined.
Francis owes the greater measure of his glory to the artists and
men of letters who vied in celebrating his praises. He was
pre-eminently the king of the Renaissance. Of a quick and
cultivated intelligence, he had a sincere love of letters and art.
He holds a high place in the history of humanism by the founda-
tion of the College de France; he did not found an actual college,
but after much hesitation instituted in 1530, at the instance of
Guillaume Bude* (Budaeus), Lecleurs royaux, who in spite of the
opposition of the Sorbonne were granted full liberty to teach
Hebrew, Greek, Latin, mathematics, &c. The humanists
Bud6, Jacques Colin and Pierre Duchatel were the king's
intimates, and Clement Marot was his favourite poet. Francis
sent to Italy for artists and for works of art, but he protected
his own countrymen also. Here, too, he showed his customary
indecision, wavering between the two schools. At his court he
installed Benvenulo Cellini, Francesco Primaticcio and Rosso
del Rosso, but in the buildings at Chambord, St Germain,
Villers-Cotterets and Fontainebleau the French tradition
triumphed over the Italian.
Francis died on the 31st of March 1547, of a disease of the
urinary ducts according to some accounts, of syphilis according
to others. By his first wife Claude (d. 1524) he had three sons
and four daughters: Louise, who died in infancy; Charlotte,
who died at the age of eight; Francis (d. 1536); Henry, who
came to the throne as Henry II.; Madeleine, who became
queen of Scotland; Charles (d. 4545); and Margaret, duchess
of Savoy. In 1 530 he married Eleanor, the sister of the emperor
Charles V.
Authorities. — For the official acts of the reign, the Catalog**
des octet de Francois 1", published by the Academie dea Sciences
morales et politiq.ues (Pans, 1887-1907), is a valuable guide. The
Bibliotheque Nationale, the National Archives, &c, contain a mass of
unpublished documents. Of the published documents, see N.
Camurat, Mtrianges historiques . (Troves* 1619): Cr. Ribior,
Ltlitu et mimoires denial (Pari*, iGbtn); Letters de Marguerite
d'An'tmilmt, cd. by t". Gen in {Pari*. 1&4I and 11843) ; the Correspond*
ence tf CteliUu* and Mutiifoc ted. by Kaulek, Pari*, lSfls). nf Ode*
de Sfke (ed> by Lcfrvrc-Pontatis. Pari*, 1888), and ot Cttiiteume
Ptlliiiir (cd- by Tauwerat'lladd, Paris, 1900); Ccptipitf du *oi
Ffii«((H> /*% and Pohm ds Ffttacttl /*" (both ed. by CharnpollioJV
Figcac, Pari*, [fttf. -of doubtful authenticity); Relations aes om-
bauadeufs tenitknt. 4c. Of the memoirs and chronicle*, see tin
journal af Louis* itif Savoy in % Gujchcnoa'a Uisioire de la maiion
de Sarnie, vol. iv„ (cd. of I77B-I7B0); Journal de Jean Barilbnti ed.
by de Vaia&itre (Paris, ifloj-iBpq}: Journal d'un bourgeois de Paris,
ed by La la fine (nun, 1^54}; Croniijue du ray Francois /", cd- by
Guiffrcy [Pari*. liH.S); and. ilic mcnnjifs ot l-'leu ranges, Monlluc,
Tavannes, Vieilleville, Brantome and especially Martin du Bellay
(coll. Michaud and Poujoulat). Of the innumerable secondary
authorities, see especially Paulin Paris, Etudes snr U regnede Francois
1" (Paris, 1885), in which the apologetic tendency is excessive;
and H. Lemonnier in vol. v. (Paris, 1903-1904} of E. Lavisse's
Histoir* de France, which gives a list of the principal secondary
authorities. There is a more complete bibliographical study by
V. L. Bourrilly in the Revue d' histoir e moderne et content poraiue, vol.
iv. (1902-1903). The printed sources have been catalogued by
H. Hauser, Les Sources de l' histoir e de France, XVI* Steele, tome u.
(Paris, 1907). 0. 1.)
FRANCIS II. ( 1 544-1 560), king of France, eldest son of Henry
II. and of Catherine de' Medici, was born at Fontainebleau on.
the 19th of January x 544. He married the famous Mary Stuart,
daughter of James V. of Scotland, on the 25th of April 1558, and
ascended the French throne on the xoth of July 1559. During
his short reign the young king, a sickly youth and of feeble
understanding, was the mere tool of his uncles Francis, duke of
Guise, and Charles, cardinal of Lorraine, into whose hands he
virtually delivered the reins of government. The exclusiveness
with which they were favoured, and their high-handed pro-
ceedings, awakened the resentment of the princes Of the blood,
Anthony king of Navarre and Louis prince of Condi, who gave
their countenance to a conspiracy (conspiracy of Amboise)
with the Protestants against the house of Guise. It was, however,
discovered shortly before the time fixed for its execution in
March 1560, and an ambush having been prepared, most of the
conspirators were either killed or taken prisoners. Its leadership
and organization had been entrusted to Godfrey de Barri, lord of
la Rcnaudie (d. 1560); and the prince of Condi, who was not
present> disavowed all connexion with the plot. The duke of
Guise was now named lieutenant-general of the kingdom, but
his Catholic leanings were somewhat held in check by the
936 FRANCIS I. OF SICILY— FRANCIS IV. OF MODENA
chancellor Michel de l'H6pital, through whose mediation the edict
of Romorantin, providing that all cases of heresy should be decided
by the bishops, was passed in May 1560, in opposition to a pro-
posal to introduce the Inquisition. At a meeting of the states-
general held at Orleans in the December following, the prince of
Condi, after being arrested, was condemned to death, and ex-
treme measures were being enacted against the Huguenots;
but the deliberations of the Assembly were broken off, and the
prince was saved from execution, by the king's somewhat sudden
death, on the 5th of the month, from an abscess in the ear.
P R rvcir*L Authorities.— * Lmrw dc Catherine de Medid*,"
cdiftd hy Hector de \& Ferrierc {ifcflo icq.K and " Negotiations . . .
relative* au regne de Fran^oU II," editeii by Louis Paris (1841),
both in the Caikciian de dteumtnts inhitii sur F histoire de France;
notice o\ Francis, duke of Guise, in the Nouvette Collection des
mt moires pour icrvir A Ckiitaite de France 1 edited by J. F. Michaud
and J, J. S\ FoutouLit h scries j. voU vi. (1S36 sea.); MSmoires de
Condi irrvcnl didoitcissemtni , t . A t'hiaoire deii.de Thou,
voto. i And it (1743); Pierre de U Flace> Commenlaires de Pes tat de
ta religion et de la rtpuMioue sous Its eois Henri II, Francois II,
Charles IX (1565); and Louis ReRx.fer de b Planche, Histoire de
festal d* Franc* ... ami ... FranfiHs II {Pantheon litUraire,
new edition, 1884). Sec also Ernest Lavisse, Histoire de France
(vol. vL by J. H. Mariejol, 1904), which contains a bibliography.
FRANCIS I. (1 777-1830), king of the Two Sicilies, was the son
of Ferdinand IV. (I.) and Maria Carolina of Austria. He married
Clementina, daughter of the emperor Leopold II. of Austria,
in 1796, and at her death Isabella, daughter of Charles IV. of
Spain. After the Bourbon family fled from Naples to Sicily
in 1806, and Lord William Bentinck, the British resident, had
established a constitution and deprived Ferdinand IV. of all
power, Francis was appointed regent (1812). On the fall of
Napoleon his father returned to Naples and suppressed the
Sicilian constitution and autonomy, incorporating his two
kingdoms into that of the Two Sicilies (1816); Francis then
assumed the revived title of duke of Calabria. While still heir-
apparent he professed liberal ideas, and on the outbreak of the
revolution of 1820 he accepted the regency apparently in a
friendly spirit towards the new constitution. But he was
playing a double game and proved to be the accomplice of his
father's treachery. On succeeding to the throne in 1825 he cast
aside the mask of liberalism and showed himself as reactionary
as his father. He took little part in the government, which he
left in the hands of favourites and police officials, and lived
with his mistresses, surrounded by soldiers, ever in dread of
assassination. During his reign the only revolutionary move-
ment was the outbreak on the Cilento (1828), savagely repressed
by the marquis Delcarretto, an ex-Liberal turned reactionary.
See Ntsco, II Reame di Napoli sotto Francesco I (Naples, 1893).
FRANCIS IL (1836-1804), king of the Two Sicilies, son of
Ferdinand II. and Maria Cristina of Savoy, was the last of the
Bourbon kings of Naples. His education had been much
neglected and he proved a man of weak character, greatly
influenced by his stepmother Maria Theresa of Austria, by the
priests, and by the Camarilla, or reactionary court set. He
ascended the throne on the death of his father (22nd of May
1859). As prime minister he at once appointed Carlo Filangieri,
who, realizing the importance of the Franco-Piedmontese
victories in Lombardy, advised Francis to accept the alliance
with Piedmont proposed by Cavour. On the 7 th of June a part
of the Swiss Guard mutinied, and while the king mollified them
by promising to redress their grievances, General Nunziante
collected other troops, who surrounded the mutineers and shot
them down. The incident resulted in the disbanding of the
whole Swiss Guard, the strongest bulwark of the dynasty.
Cavour again proposed an alliance to divide the papal states
between Piedmont and Naples, the province of Rome excepted,
but Francis rejected an idea which to him savoured of sacrilege.
Filangieri strongly advocated a constitution as the only measure
which might save the dynasty, and on the king's refusal he
resigned. Meanwhile the revolutionary parties were conspiring
for the overthrow of the Bourbons in Calabria and Sicily, and
Garibaldi was preparing for a raid in the south. A conspiracy
in Sicily was discovered and the plotters punished with brutal
severity, but Rosalino Pilo and Francesco CrispC had ofgaaiaai
the movement, and when Garibaldi landed at Mmrsala (May
i860) he conquered the island with astonishing ease. Thar
events at last frightened Francis into granting a constituti*.
but its promulgation was followed by disorders in Naples lli
the resignation of ministers, and Liborio Romano became be*?
of the government. The disintegration of the array and nary
proceeded apace, and Cavour sent a Piedmontese squads;*
carrying troops on board to watch events. Garibaldi, who ks4
crossed the straits of Messina, was advancing northwards aad
was everywhere received by the people as a liberator. Franca
after long hesitations and even an appeal to Garibaldi hsmscJ.
left Naples (6th of September) with his wife Maria Sophia, tfe
court, the diplomatic corps (the French and English ministers
excepted), and went by sea to Gaeta, where a large part d
the army was concentrated. The next day Garibaldi entered
Naples, was enthusiastically welcomed, and formed a provisions:
government. King Victor Emmanuel had decided oa the in-
vasion of the papal states, and after occupying Romagna and
the Marche entered the Neapolitan kingdom. Garibaldis trooes
defeated the Neapolitan royalists on the Volturno (1st and Toi
of October), while the Piedmontese captured Capua. Only
Gaeta, Messina, and Civitella del Tronto still held oat, and the
siege of the former by the Piedmontese began on the 6th cc
November i860. Both Francis and Maria Sophia behaved «its
great coolness and courage, and even when the French fleet,
whose presence had hitherto prevented an attack by sea, vat
withdrawn, they still resisted; it was not until the ink oc*
February 1 86 1 that the fortress capitulated. Thus the kingdom
of Naples was incorporated in that of Italy, and the royal pas
from that time forth led a wandering life in Austria, France sad
Bavaria. Francis died on the 27th of December 1894 at Area
in Tirol. His widow survived him.
Francis II. was weak-minded, stupid and vacillating, bet,
although his short reign was stained with some cruel «*■«.*« n +
and persecutions, he was less of a tyrant than his father. The
courage and dignity he displayed during his reverses inspired
pity and respect. But the fact that he protected brigandage
in his former dominions and countenanced the most abomxnahk
crimes in the nameof legitimism greatly diminished the sympathy
which was felt for the fallen monarch.
Bibliography.— R. de Cesare, La Fine f un regno, vol. iL (Gtd
di Castello. 1000) gives a detailed account of the reign of Franbs IL,
while H. R. Whitehouse's Collapse of the Kingdom of Naples (Nev
York, 1899) may be recommended to English readers; Nisco't
Francesco II (Naples, 1887) should also be consulted. See under
Naples; Garibaldi ; Bixio; Cavour; Italy; FiLA^creti; Ac
(1~V.*)
FRANCIS IV. (1 779-1846) duke of Modena, was the son of the
archduke Ferdinand, Austrian governor of Lombardy, who
acquired the duchy of Modena through his wife Marie Beatrice,
heiress of the house of Este as well as of many fiefs of the Mala-
spina, Pio da Carpi, Pico dclla Mirandola, Cibd, and other families.
At the time of the French invasion (1796) Francis was sent to
Vienna to be educated, and in 1809 was appointed governor of
Galicia. Later he went to Sardinia, where the exiled King Victor
Emmanuel L and his wife Maria Iberesa were living in retirement.
The latter arranged a marriage between her daughter Marie
Beatrice and Francis, and a secret family compact was made
whereby if the king and his two brothers died without male
issue, the Salic law would be changed so that Francis should
succeed to the kingdom instead of Charles Albert of Carigxuso
(N. Bianchi, Storia dclla diplomatic europea in Italia, i. 42-43).
On the fall of Napoleon in 18x4 Francis received the duchy of
Modena, including Massa-Carrara and Lunigiana; his mother's
advice was»" to be above the law . . . never to forgive the
Republicans of 1 796, nor to listen to the complaints of his subjects,
whom nothing satisfies; the poorer they are the quieter they
are " (Silingardi, " Ciro Menotti," in Rivista europea, Florence,
1880).
The duke was well received at Modena; inordinately ambitious,
strong-willed, immensely rich, avaricious but not unintelligent,
he soon proved one of the most reactionary despots in Italy.
FRANCIS V. OF MODENA— FRANCIS OF ASSISI
937
« still hoped to acquire either Piedmont or some other part
rxorthern Italy, and be was in touch with the Sanfedisti and
ie Conristoro, reactionary Catholic associations opposed to
i^ Carbonari, but not always friendly to Austria. Against the
.a_rtx>nari and other Liberals he issued the severest edicts, and
I though there was no rcvplt at Modena in x8ai as in Piedmont
a<£ Naples, he immediately instituted judicial proceedings
gaXnst the supposed conspirators. Some 350 persons were
nes ted and tortured, 56 being condemned to death (only a
5W of them were executed) and 237 to imprisonment; a large
umber, however, escaped, including Antonio Panizzi (afterwards
Irector of the British Museum). . The ferocious police official
tesini who conducted the trials was afterwards murdered.
7be duke actually proposed to Prince Metternich, the Austrian
faancellor, an agreement whereby the various Italian rulers
rere to arrest every Liberal in the country on a, certain day, but
hkc project fell through owing to opposition from the courts of
Florence and Rome. At the congress of Verona Metternich
ixa.de another attempt to secure the Piedmontese succession
ot Francis, bat without success. The duke became ever more
ie&potic; Modena swarmed with spies and informers, education
wras hampered, feudalism strengthened; for the duke hoped
to consolidate his power by means of the nobility, and the least
expression of liberalism, or even failure to denounce a Carbonaro,
involved arrest and imprisonment. But strange to say, in 1830
we find Francis actually coquetting with revolution. Having
lost all hope of acquiring the Piedmontese throne, he entered
into negotiations with the French Orleanist party with a view
to obtaining its support in his plans for extending his dominions.
He was thus brought into touch with Ciro Menotti (1 798-1 831)
and the Modenese Liberals; what the nature of the connexion
was is still obscure, but it was certainly short-lived and merely
served to betray the Carbonari. As soon as Francis learned that
a conspiracy was on foot to gain possession of the town, he had
Menotti and several other conspirators arrested on the night
of the 3rd of February 183 x, and sent the famous message
to the governor of Reggio: " The conspirators are in my hands;
send me the hangman " (there is some doubt as to the authen-
ticity of the actual words). But the revolt broke out in other
parts of the duchy and in Roxnagna, and Francis retired to
Mantua with Menotti. A provisional government was formed
at Modena which proclaimed that " Italy is one," but the duke
returned a few weeks later with Austrian troops, and resistance
was easily quelled. Then the political trials began; Menotti
and two others were executed, and hundreds condemned to
imprisonment. The population was now officially divided into
four classes, viz* " very loyal, loyal, less loyal, and disloyal/'
and the reaction became worse than ever, the duke interfering
in the minutest details of administration, such as hospitals,
schools, and roads. New methods of procedure were introduced
to deal with political trials, but the ministerial cabal by which
the country was administered intrigued and squabbled to such an
extent that it had to be dismissed.
On the 20th of February 1846 Francis died. Although he had
many domestic virtues and charming manners, was charitable in
times of famine, and was certainly the ablest of the Italian despots,
Liberalism was in his eyes the most heinous of crimes, and his
reign is one long record of barbarous persecution. (L. V.*)
FRANCIS V. (1819-187$), duke of Modena, son of Francis IV.,
succeeded bis father in 1846. Although less cruel and also less
intelligent than his father, he had an equally high opinion of
his own authority. His reign began with disturbances at Flviz-
zano and Pontremoli, which Tuscany surrendered to him accord-
ing to' treaty but against the wishes of the inhabitants (1847),
and at Massa and Carrara, where the troops shot down the
people. Feeling' his position insecure, the duke asked for and
obtained an Austrian garrison, but on the outbreak of revolution
throughout Italy and at Vienna in 1848, further disorders
occurred in the duchy, and on the 20th of March he fled with bis
family to Mantua. A provisional government was formed, and
volunteers were raised who fought with the Piedmontese against
Austria. But after the Piedmontese defeat Francis returned to
Modena, with Austrian assistance, in August and conferred many
appointments on Austrian officers. Like his father, he interfered
in the minutest details of administration, and instituted proceed-
ings against ail who were suspected of Liberalism. Not content
with the severity of his judges, he overrode their sentences in
favour of harsher punishments. The disturbances at Carrara
were ruthlessly suppressed, and the prisons filled with politicals.
In 1859 numbers of young Modenese fled across the frontier to join
the Piedmontese army, as war with Austria seemed imminent;
and after the Austrian defeat at Magenta the duke left Modena to
lead his army in person against the Piedmontese, taking with him
the contents of the state treasury and many valuable books,
pictures, coins, tapestries and furniture from the palace. The
events of 1859-1860 made his return impossible; and after a short
spell of provisional government the duchy was united to Italy.
He retired to Austria, and died at Munich in November 2875.
Bibliography.— N. Bianchi, / Ducati Estensi (Turin, 1853);
Calvani, Memorie di S.A.R. Francesco IV (Modena, 1847); Docu-
ments rignardanti ft governo degli A uslro- Estensi in Modena (Modena,
i860) ; C. Tivaroni, V Italia durante il dominio austrioco, i. 606-653
(Turin, 1892), and L' Italia degli lialiani, i. 114-125 (Turin, 18951;
Silingardi, " Ciro Menotti," in the Rurista europea (Florence, 1880);
F. A. Gualterio, Cli ullimi rivolgimenti itatiani (Florence, 1850);
Bayard de Volo, Vita di Francesco- V (4 vols., Modena, 1878-1885).
(L.V.*)
FRANCIS OF ASSISI, ST. (1181 or 1182-1226), founder of
the Franciscans (q.v.), was born in 1181 or 1182 at Assisi, one
of the independent municipal towns of Umbria. He came
from the upper middle class, his father, named Pietro Bernardone,
being one of the larger merchants of the city. Bernardone's
commercial enterprises made him travel abroad, and it was
from the fact that the father was in France at the time of his
son's birth that the latter was called Francesco. His education
appears to have been of the slightest, even for those days. It
is difficult to decide whether words of the early biographers
imply that his youth was not free from irregularities; in any
case, he was the recognized leader of the young men of the town
in their revels; he was, however, always conspicuous for his
charity to the poor. When he was twenty (1201) the neighbour-
ing and rival city of Perugia attempted to restore by force of
arms the nobles who bad been expelled from Assisi by the
burghers and the populace, and Francis took part in the battle
fought in the plain that lies between the two cities; the men
of Assisi were defeated and Francis was among the prisoners.
He spent a year in prison at Perugia, and when peace was made
at the end of 1202 he returned to Assisi and recommenced his
old life.
Soon a serious and prolonged illness fell upon him, during
which he entered into himself and became dissatisfied with his
way of life. On his recovery he set out on a military expedition,
but at the end of the first day's march he fell ill, and had to stay
at Spoleto and return to Assisi. This disappointment brought
on again the spiritual crisis he had experienced in his illness, and
for a considerable time the conflict went on within him. One
day he gave a banquet to his friends, and after it they sallied
forth with torches, singing through the streets, Francis being
crowned with garlands as the king of the revellers; after a time
they missed him, and on retracing their steps they found him in
a trance or reverie, a permanently altered man. He devoted
himself to solitude, prayer and the service of the poor, and
before long went on a pilgrimage to Rome. Finding the usual
crowd of beggars before St Peter's, he exchanged his clothes
with one of them, and experienced an overpowering joy in
spending the day begging among the rest. The determining
episode of his life followed soon after his return to Assisi; as
he was riding he met a leper who begged an alms; Frauds had
always had a special horror of lepers, and turning his face he
rode on; but immediately an heroic act of self -conquest was
wrought in him; returning he alighted, gave the leper all the
money he had about him, and kissed his hand. From that day he
gave himself up to the service of the lepers and the hospitals.
To the confusion of his father and brothers be went about
dressed in rags, so that his old companions pelted him with mud.
93«
FRANCIS OF ASSISI
Things soon came to a climax with his father: in consequence
of his profuse alms to the poor and to the restoration of the
ruined church of St Damian, his father feared his property would
be dissipated, so he took Francis before the bishop of Assist
to have him legally disinherited; but without waiting for the
documents to be drawn up, Francis cast off his clothes and gave
them back to his father, declaring that now he had better reason
to say " Our Father which art in heaven," and having received
a cloak from the bishop, he went off into the woods of Mount
Subasio singing a French song; some brigands accosted him
and he told them he was the herald of the great king (1206).
The next three years he spent in the neighbourhood of Assisi
in abject poverty and want, ministering to the lepers and the
outcasts of society. It was now that he began to frequent the
ruined little chapel of St Mary of the Angels, known as the
Portiuncula, where much of his time was passed in prayer.
One day while Mass was being said therein, the words of the
Gospel came to Francis as a call: " Everywhere on your road
preach and say — The kingdom of God is at hand. Cure the sick,
raise the dead, cleanse the lepers, drive out devils. Freely have
you received, freely give. Carry neither gold nor silver nor
money in your girdles, nor bag, nor two coats, nor sandals,
nor staff, for the workman is worthy of his hire " (Matt. x. 7-10).
He at once felt that this was his vocation, and the next day,
layman as he was, he went up to Assisi and began. to preach to
the poor (1209). Disciples joined him, and when they were
twelve in number Francis said: "Let us go to our Mother,
the holy Roman Church, and tell the pope what the Lord has
begun to do through us, and carry it out with his sanction."
They obtained the sanction of Innocent III., and returning
to Assisi they gave themselves up to their life of. apostolic
preaching and work among the poor.
The character and development of the order are traced in the
article Franciscans; here the story of Francis's own life and
the portrayal of his personality will be attempted. To delineate
in a few words the character -of the Poverello of Assisi is indeed
a difficult task. There is such a many-sided richness, such a
tenderness, such a poetry, such an originality, such a distinction
revealed by the innumerable anecdotes in the memoirs of his
disciples, that his personality is brought home to us as one of
the most lovable and one of the strongest of men. It is probably
true to say that no one has ever set himself so seriously to imitate
the life of Christ and to carry out so literally Christ's work in
Christ's own way. • This was the secret of his love of poverty as
manifested in the following beautiful prayer which he addressed
to our Lord: " Poverty was in the crib and like a faithful squire
she kept herself armed in the great combat Thou didst wage for
our redemption. * During Thy passion she alone did not forsake
Thee. * Mary Thy Mother stopped at the. foot of the Cross, but
poverty mounted it with Thee and clasped Thee in her embrace
unto the end; and when Thou wast dying of thirst, as a watchful
spouse she prepared for Thee the gall. Thou didst expire in the
ardour of her embraces, nor did she leave Thee when dead,
Lord Jesus, for she allowed not Thy body to rest elsewhere than
in a borrowed grave. O poorest Jesus, the grace I beg of Thee
is to bestow on me the treasure of the highest poverty. Grant
that the distinctive mark of our Order may be never to possess
anything as its own under, the sun for the glory of Thy name,
and to have no other patrimony than begging " (in the Lcgcnda
3 Soc.). This enthusiastic love of poverty is certainly the keynote
of St Francis's spirit; and so one of his disciples in an allegorical
poem (translated into English as The Lady of Poverty by
Montgomery Carmichael, 1001), and Giotto in one of the frescoes
at Assisi, celebrated the " holy nuptials of Francis with Lady
Poverty."
Another striking feature of Francis's character was his constant
joyousness; it was a precept in his rule, and one that he enforced
strictly, that his friars should be always rejoicing in the Lord.
He retained through life his early love of song, and during his
last illness he passed much of his time in singing. His love of
nature, animate and inanimate, was very keen and manifested
itself in ways that appear somewhat naive. His preaching to
the birds is a favourite representation of St Francis in *n 'J
creatures he called his " brothers " or " sisters *' — the ■_ 1
example is the poem of the " Praises of the Creatures* n wV- j
" brother Sun," M sister Moon," " brother Wind," and - t_i
Water " are called on to praise God. In his last Ames* br - 1
cauterized, and on seeing the burning iron he addressed "br..
Fire," reminding him how he had always loved him and & 1
him to deal kindly with him. • It would be an anachrosir: 1
think of Francis as a philanthropist or a " social worker ~ .n
revivalist preacher, though he fulfilled the best functions o .1
these. Before everything he was an ascetic and a mvr -
an ascetic who, though gentle to others, wore out his bode.
self-denial, so much so that when he came to die he begged par: 1
of " brother Ass the body " for having unduly ill treated r
mystic irradiated with the love of God, endowed in uei-i
ordinary degree with the spirit of prayer, and pouring fori j
heart by the hour in the tenderest affections to God and gut L- 1
St Francis was a deacon but not a priest.
From the return of Francis and his eleven compankwis sui
Rome to Assisi in 1 200 or 1 210, their work prosperedina-aroadc- 1
manner. The effect of their preaching, and their example a I
their work among the poor, made itself felt throughout Uch- 1
and brought about a great religious revival. Great numbers cr l
to join the new order which responded so admirably to the ia.i
of the time. In 1212 Francis invested St Clara (?.*.) whk t:i
Franciscan habit, and so instituted the " Second Order/' tfca*
the nuns. ' As the friars became more and more numeroas lLv
missionary labours extended wider and wider, spreading first 0^
Italy, and then to other countries. Francis himself set tv
probably in 121 2, for the Holy Land to preach the Gospd to J*
Saracens, but he was shipwrecked and had to return. A ye? '
two later he went into Spain to preach to the Moors, but L
again to return without accomplishing his object (1715 probab .•
After another period of preaching in Italy and watching c--
the development of the order, Francis once again set out -
the East (1219). This time he was successful ; he made his ^
to Egypt, where the crusaders were besieging Dsmictu. p-
himself taken prisoner and was led before the sultan, 10 «b:r
he openly preached the Gospel. The sultan sent him back -
the Christian camp, and he passed on to the Holy Land. * Hrt
he remained until September 1220. During his absence *e?
manifested the beginnings of the troubles in the order that tc
to attain to such magnitude after his death. The circumstance
under which, at an extraordinary general chapter convxsk?.
by him shortly after his return, he resigned the office of minisro
general (September 1220) are explained in the article Fjusgs-
cans: here, as illustrating the spirit of the man, it is in place '•
cite the words in which his abdication was couched: "Lcri
I give Thee back this family which Thou didst entrust to e*
Thou knowest, most sweet Jesus, that I have no more the po*e?
and the qualities to continue to take care of it. I entrust ii
therefore, to the ministers. Let them be responsible before Thee
at the Day of Judgment, if any brother by their negligence, ar
their bad example, or by a toosevcrcpunishment, shall go astray s
These words seem to contain the mere truth: Francis's pccuKa:
religious genius was probably not adapted for the governntes'.
of an enormous society spread over the world, as the Frun
Minor had now become.
The chief works of the next years were the revision and foi
redaction of the Rule and the formation or organization of tk
" Third Order w or " Brothers and Sisters of Penance." a vast
confraternity of lay men and women who tried to carry out,
without withdrawing from the world, the fundamental prinrip&
of Franciscan life (see Tertiames).
If for no other reason than the prominent place they hold is
art, it would not be right to pass by the Stigmata without 1
special mention. ' The story is well known; two years befot
his death Francis went up Mount Alverno in the Apennins
with some of his disciples, and after forty days of fasting sad
prayer and contemplation, on the morning of the 14th of
September 1224 (to use Sabatier's words), "he had a risks.
in the warm rays of the rising sun he discerned suddenly a strazp
FRANCIS OF MAYRONE— FRANCIS OF PAOLA
939
pire. A seraph with wing* extended flew towards him front
ie horizon and inundated him with pleasure unutterable,
t the centre of the vision appeared a cross, and the seraph was
died to it- When the vision disappeared Francis felt sharp
tins mingling with the delights of the first moment. Disturbed
> the centre of his being he anxiously sought the meaning of it
1, and then he saw on his body the Stigmata of the Crucified."
he early authorities represent the Stigmata not as bleeding
ounds, the holes as it were of the nails, but as fleshy excrescences
aembling in form and colour the nails, the head on the palm
l the hand, and on the back as it were a nail hammered down.
ei the first edition of the Vit, Sabatier rejected the Stigmata;
ut he changed his mind, and in the later editions he accepts their
bjective reality as an historically established fact; in an
ppendix he collects the evidence: there exists what is according
3 all probability an autograph of Br. Leo, the saint's favourite
isciple and companion on Slount Alverno at the time, which
escribes the circumstances of the stigmatization; Elias- of
Norton* (q.t.), the acting superior, wrote on the day after his
leath a circular letter wherein he uses language clearly implying
hat he had himself seen the Stigmata, and there is a considerable
tmount of contemporary authentic second hand evidence. ■ On
he strength of this body of evidence Sabatier rejects all theories
>f fraud or hallucination, whatever may be the explanation of
lie phenomena.
Francis was so exhausted by the sojourn on Mount Alverno
that he had to be carried back to Assisi. The remaining months
of his life were passed in great bodily weakness and suffering,
and he became almost blind. However, he worked on with
his wonted cheerfulness and joyousness. At last, on the 3rd
of October 1 2 26, he died in the PortiuncuU at the age of forty-five.
Two years later he was canonized by Gregory IX., whom, as
Cardinal Hugolino of Ostia, he had chosen to be the protector
of his order.
The works of St Francis consist of the Rule (in two redactions!,
the Testament, spiritual admonitions, canticles and a few
letters. They were first edited by Wadding in 1623. Two
critical editions were published in 1004, one by the Franciscans
of Quaracchi near Florence, the other (in a longer and a shorter
form) by Professor H. Boehmer of Bonn. Sabatier and CoeU
(see below) have investigated the authenticity of the several
works; and the four lists, while exhibiting slight variations,
are insubstantial accord. Besides the works, properly so called,
there is a considerable amount of traditional matter— anecdotes,
savings, sermons — preserved in the biographies and in the
FiorcUi, l a great deal of this matter is no doubt substantially
authentic, but it is not possible to subject it to any critical
sifting.
Note on Sources'.— Tht source* for the life of St Francis and early
Franciscan history are very numerous, and an immense literature
has grown up around them. Any attempt to indicate even a selec-
tion of this literature would here be impossible and also futile;
(or the discovery of new documents has by no means ceased, and the
criticism oi the materials is still in full progress, nor can it be said
that final results have yet emerged from the discussion. Students
will find the chief materials in the following collections: Archivfur
Litteralur und Kirckengeschichte des MitUlalters (ed. by Ehrlc and
Denifle, 1885, 6Vc.); publications of the Franciscans of Quaracchi
(list to be obtained from Herder, Freiburg im Breisgau) ; and the
two series edited by Paul Sabatier, Collection d'itudes et de documents
sur I'kistoire relitieuse et litUrahe du moyen dge (5 vols, published up
to 1906) and Opuscules de critique kistorique (12 fascicules): the
easiest and most consecutive way of following the controversy is
by the aid of the " Bulletin Hagiographique in Analecta BoUan-
dtana. Relatively popular accounts of the most important sources
are supplied in the introductory chapters of Sabatier' s Vie de 5.
Francois and Speculum perfecttonis, and Lempp's Ftere tXie dt
Cortone.
Concerning the life of St Francis and the beginnings of the order,
the chief documents that come under discussion are: the two Lives
by Thomas of Celano (1228 and 1248 respectively; Eng. trans,
with introduction by A. G. Ferrers Howell, 1908). of which the only
critical edition is that of Friar Ed. d'Alencon O906); the so-called
Letenda trium sociorum: the Speculum perfecttonis, discovered by
Paul Sabatier and edited in 1808 (Eng. trans, by Sebastian Evans,
1 The Litik Flotoers of. St Francis.
Mirror of Perfection, 1899). .Sabatier's theory as to the nature of
these documents was, in brief, that the Speculum perfecttonis was
the first of all the Lives of the saint, written in 1227 by Br. Leo, his
favourite and most Intimate disciple, and that the Letenda j Soc.
is what it claims to be— the handiwork of Leo and the two other
most intimate companions of Francis, compiled in 1x46; these are
the most authentic and the only true accounts, Thomas of Celano's
Lives being written precisely in opposition to them, in the interests
of the majority of the order that favoured mitigations of the Rule
especially in regard to poverty. For ten years the domain of
Franciscan origins was explored and discussed by a number of
scholars: and then the whole ground was reviewed by Professor W.
Goetz of Munich in a study entitled Die Quellen sur Cesckickie des
hi. Franz von Assisi (1904). His conclusions are substantially the
same as those of Pere van Ortroy, the Bollandtst, and Friar Lemmens,
an Observant Franciscan, and are the direct contrary of Sa barter's:
the Legendaj Soc. is a forgery;, the Speculum perfecttonis is a com-
E Nation made in the 14th century, also in large measure a forgery,
ut containing an element (not to be precisely determined) derived
from Br. Leo; on the other hand, Thomas of Celano's two Lives
are free from the " tendencies " ascribed to them by Sabatier, and
that of 1248 was written with the collaboration of Leo and the other
companions; thus the best sources of information are those portions
of the Speculum that can with certainty be carried back to Br. Leo,
and the Lives by Thomas of Celano, especially the second Life.
Goeta's criticism of the documents is characterised by exceeding
carefulness and sobriety. Of course he does not suppose that his
conclusions arc in all respects final; but his investigations show
that the time has not yet come when a biography of St Francis
could be produced answering to the demands of modern historical
criticism. The official life of St Francis is St Bonaventura's Letenda,
published m a convenient form by the Franciscans of Quaracchi
(1898); Goetz's estimate of it {op. (it.) ts much more favourable
than Saba tier's.
Paul Sabatier*s fascinating and In many ways sympathetic Vie de
S. Francois (1894; 33rd ed.. 1006; Eng. trans, by L. S. Houghton,
1 901) will probably for a long time to come be accepted by the
ordinary reader as a substantially correct portrait of St Francis;
and yet Goeti declares that the most competent and independent
critics have without any exception pronounced that Sabatier has
depicted St Frauds a great deal too much from the standpoint of
modern religiosity, and has exaggerated his attitude In face of the
church (op. cit. p. 5). In articles in the HuL Vierleijakrssckrift
(1902, 1903) Goetz has shown that Sabatier's presentation of St
Francis's relations with the ecclesiastical authority in general, and
with Cardinal Hugolino (Gregory IX.) in particular, is largely based
on misconception; that the development of the order Was not forced
on Francis against his will; and that the differences in the order
did not during Francis's lifetime attain to such a magnitude as to
cause him dunng his last years the suffering depleted by Sabatier.
This from a Protestant historian like Goeti is most valuable criticism.
In truth Sabatier's St Francis is an anachronism— a man at heart, a
modern pietistic French Protestant of the most liberal type, with a
veneer 01 13th century Catholicism. '
Of lives of St Francis in English may be mentioned those by Mrs
Oliphant (2nd ed., 1871) and by Canon Knox Little (1897). For
general information and references to the literature of the subject,
see Otto Zockler, Askese und Moncktum (1897). M- 470-493. •nd hia
article in Herzog's Realencyklop&dU (ed. *). " Franz von Assisi m
81899); also Max Heimbucher, Orden undlCongregottonen (1896), 1.
\ 38. The chapter on St Francis in Emile Gebhart's Italia mysttque
ed. 3, 1899) Is very remarkable; indeed, though this writer is as
little ecclesiastically-minded as Sabatier himself, his general picture
of the state of religion in Italy at the time is far truer; here also
Sabatier has given way to the usual temptation of biographers to
exalt their hero by depreciating everybody else. (E. CB.)
FRANCIS OF MAYRONE [Francisctjs de Maysonis] (d.
1325), scholastic philosopher, was bora at Mayrone in Provence.
He entered the Franciscan order and subsequently went to
Paris, where he was a pupil of Duns Scotus. At the Sorbonne he
acquired a great reputation for ability in discussion, and was
known as the Doctor Illuminahts and Mobster Acufus. He
became a professor of philosophy, and took part in the discussions
on the nature of Universals. Following Duns Scotus, he adopted
the Platonic theory of ideas, and denied that Aristotle had made
any contribution to metaphysical speculation. It is a curious
commentary on the theories of Duns Scotus that one pupil?
Francis, should have taken this course, while another pupil^
Occam, should have used his arguments in a diametrically
opposite direction and ended in extreme Nominalism.
His works were collected and published at Venicein 15*0 under
the title Praaelarissima at multum subtilia scripta IUuminati Docions
Francisci de Mayronis, 6fc. *..,..
FRANCIS OF PAOLA (or Paula), ST, founder of the Minima,
a religious order in the Catholic Church, was bora of humble
a+o
FRANCIS OF SALES
parentage at Paola in Calabria in 1416, or according to the
Bollandists 1438. As a boy he entered a Franciscan friary,
but left it and went to live as a hermit in a cave on the seashore
near Paola. Soon disciples joined him, and with the bishop's
approval he built a church and monastery. At first they called
themselves "Hermits of St Frands"; but the object they
proposed to themselves was to go beyond even the strict Francis-
cans in fasts and bodily austerities of all kinds, in poverty and
in humility; and therefore, as the Franciscans were the Minors
(minor es, less), the new order took the name of Minims (minimi,
least). By 1474 a number of houses had been established in
southern Italy and Sicily, and the order was recognized and
approved by the pope. In 1482 Louis XI. of France, being on
his deathbed and hearing the reports of the holiness of Francis,
sent to ask him to come and attend him, and at the pope's
command he travelled to Paris. On this occasion Philip de
Comines in his Memoirs says: " I never saw any man living so
holily, nor out of whose mouth the Holy Ghost did more mani-
festly speak." He remained with Louis till his death, and Louis'
successor, Charles VIII., held him in such high esteem that he
kept him in Paris, and enabled him to found various houses of
his order in France; in Spain and Germany, too, houses were
founded during Francis's lifetime. He never left France,
and died in 1507 in the monastery of his order at Plessis-
les-Tours.
The Rule was so strict that the popes long hesitated to confirm
it in its entirety; not until 1506 was it finally sanctioned. The
most special feature is an additional vow to keep a perpetual
Lent of the strictest kind, not only flesh meat but fish and all
animal products— eggs, milk, butter, cheese, dripping— being
forbidden, so that the diet was confined to bread, vegetables,
fruit and oil, and water was the only drink. Thus in matter
of diet the Minims surpassed in austerity all orders in the West,
and probably all permanently organized orders in the East.
The strongly ascetical spirit of the Minims manifested itself in
the title borne by the superiors of the houses— not abbot (father),
or prior, or guardian, or minister, or rector, but corrector; and
the general superior is the corrector general. ' Notwithstanding
its extreme severity the order prospered. At the death of the
founder it had five provinces— Italy, France, Tours, Germany,
Spain. Later there were as many as 450 monasteries, and some
missions in India. There never was a Minim house in England
or Ireland It ranks as one of the Mendicant orders. In 1 000
there were some twenty monasteries, mostly in Sicily, but one
in Rome (S. Andrea delle Fratte), and one in Naples, in Marseilles
and in Cracow. There have been Minim nuns (only one convent
has survived, till recently at Marseilles) and Minim Tertiaries,
in imitation of the Franciscan Tertiaries. The habit of the
Minims is black.
See Helyot, Hist, des ordres reHgieux (1714). vil. c. 56? Max
Heimbucher, Of den und Kongregationcn (1896), i. §5*'. the article
•' Franz von Paula " in Wetaer und Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2),
and in Hcrzog, Reahncyklopddie (ed. 3); Catholic Diclwnary, art.
" Minim*." (E. C. B.)
FRANCIS (Francois) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622), bishop of
Geneva and doctor of the Church (1877), was born at the castle
of Sales, near Annecy, Savoy. His father, also Francois, comte de
Sales, but better known as M. de Boisy, a nobleman and soldier,
had been employed in various affairs of state, but in 1560, at
the age of thirty-eight, settled down on his ancestral estates and
married Francoise de Sionnay, a Savoyard like himself, and an
heiress. St Francis, the first child of this union, was born in
August 1567 when his mother was in ber fifteenth year. M. de
Boisy was renowned for his experience and sound judgment,
and both parents were distinguished by piety, love of peace,
charity to the poor, qualities which early showed themselves in
their eldest son.
He received bis education first at La Roche, in the Arve valley,
then at the college of Annecy, founded by Eustace Chappras,
ambassador in England of Charles V., in 1549- ' At the age of
thirteen or fourteen he went to the Jesuit College of Clermont
at Paris, where he stayed till the summer of 1588, and where be
laid the foundations of his profound knowledge, «&3e peifeUg f
himself in the exercises of a young nobleman and practise t
life of exemplary virtue. At this time also he developed a
ardent love of France, a country which was politically in antag-r-
ism with his own, though so closely linked to it geographicJb,
socially and by language. At the end of 1 588 he went to Pai-^
to take his degree in canon and civil law, a necessary prefc<k : ~
Savoy at that time to distinction in a civil career. His beat.
however, especially from the date of his receiving the toss^t
(1578), was already turned towards the Church, and he gave ka
attention even more to theology, under the great mastes
Antonio Possevino, S.J., and Gesualdo, afterwards general 1
the Friars Minor, than to his legal course. " At Padua," he s*ii
to a friend, " I studied law to please my father, and theology ::
please myself." In that licentious university Francis focc:
the greatest difficulty in resisting attacks on his virtue, and czc
at least had to draw his sword to defend his personal safe!/
against a band of ruffians. The gentleness for which be 71s
already renowned was not that of a weak, but of a slrtzz
character. He returned to Savoy in 1592, and, while seekixj
the occasion to overcome his father's resistance to his resoratk:
of embracing the ecclesiastical profession, took the dipbtsi
of advocate to the senate. Meantime, without his knowledge,
his friends procured for him the post of provost of the chapter cf
Geneva, an honour which reconciled M. de Boisy to the sacrifa
of more ambitious hopes. After a year of zealous work as prcachc
and director he was sent by the bishop, Claude de Granier. u
try and win back the province of Chablais, which had embraced
Calvinism when usurped by Bern in 1535, and had retained it
even after its restitution to Savoy in 1564. • At first the peopk
refused to listen to him, for he was represented to them as n
instrument of Satan, and all who had dealings with him *«
threatened with the vengeance of the consistory. - He therefen
wrote out his message on sheets which were passed from band s-
hand, and these, with the spectacle of his virtues and disintercs: t*
ness, soon produced a strong effect. The sheets just spoken a
still exist in the Chigi library at Rome, and were publish
though with many alterations, in 1672, under the title a
Les Controversy. This must be considered the first work d
St Francis.
The re-erection of a wayside cross in Annemasse, at the gates d
Geneva, amid an enormous concourse of converts, an rcra:
which closed the three years of his apostolate, led to the com-
position of the Defense . . .de la Croix, published in x 600.
An illness brought on by toil and privation forced him to kavt
his work to others for nearly a year, but in August 1598 he re-
turned to his field of labour, and in October of that year pract.-
cally the whole country was Catholic again. Up to that t:=*
preaching and conference had been the only weapons employed
The stories of the use of soldiers to produce simulated con-
versions are incorrect. 1 Possibly the lamentable events of tk
campaigns of 1589 in Gex and Chablais have been applied to tk
t This v at least, is the account given by Catholic authorities.
Less favourable is the view taken by non-Catholic historians, mbkh
seems in some measure to be confirmed by St Francis turnsc-
According to this, Duke Charles Emmanuel of Savoy, who succeed
his more tolerant father in 1580, was determined to reduce the
Chablais to the Catholic religion, by peaceful means if posubk.
by force if necessary. After two years of preaching Francis wrote
to the duke ((Euvres com pi. ii. p. 551) : " During 37 months I bavr
scattered the seed of the Word of God in this miserable land; saaS
I say among thorns or on stony ground? Certainly, save for tk
that employed later by Louis XIV. against the Huguenots in Francr
The Calvinist ministers were expelled; Protestant books mere
confiscated and destroyed; the acts of Protestant lawyers a*-.
officials were declared invalid. The country was flooded miii
Jesuits and friars, whose arguments were reinforced by quartense
troops, veterans of the Indian wars in Mexico, on the refractory
inhabitants. Those whose stubborn persistence in error survntd
all these inducements to repent were sent into exile. See the artk*
" Frana von Sales " by J. Ehni in Henog-Hauck, KeaUfscyUopiOt
(3rd ed.. Leipzig, 1899). • (W A. E)
FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP
941
period 1594-1508. In October of this last year, however, the
duke of Savoy, who came then to assist in person at the great
religious feasts which celebrated the return of the country to
unity of faith, expatriated such of the leading men as obstinately
refused even to listen to the Catholic arguments. He also forbade
Colvinist ministers to reside -in the Chablais, and substituted
Catholic for Huguenot officials. St Francis concurred in these
measures, and, three years later, even requested that those who,
as he said, " follow their heresy, rather as a party than a religion,"
should be ordered either to conform or to leave their country,
with leave to sell their goods. His conduct, judged not by a
modern standard, but by the ideas of his age, will be found
compatible with the highest Christian charity, as that of the duke
with sound political prudence. At this time he was nominated
to the pope as coadjutor of Geneva, 1 and after a visit to Rome
he assisted Bishop de Granier in the administration of the newly
converted countries and of the diocese at large.
In xobs he made his second visit to the French capital, when
his transcendent qualities brought him into the closest relations
with the court of Henry IV., and made him the spiritual father
of that circle of select souls who centred round Madame Acarie.
Among the celebrated personages who became his life friends from
this time were Pierre de Berulle, founder of the French Oratorians,
Gwllaume Duval, the scholar, and the due de Bellegarde, the
latter a special favourite of the king, who begged to be allowed
to share the Saint's friendship. At this time also bis gift as a
preacher became fully recognized, and de Sanzea, afterwards
bishop of Bethlehem, records that Duval exhorted all his
students of the Sorbonne to listen to him and to imitate this,
" the true and excellent method of preaching." His principles
are expressed in the admirable letter to Andre* Fremyot of
October 1604.
De Granier died in September 1602, and the new bishop
entered on the administration of his vast diocese, which, as
a contemporary says, " he found brick and left marble." His
first efforts were directed to securing a virtuous and well-
instructed clergy, with its consequence of a people worthy of
their pastors. All his time was spent in preaching, confessing,
visiting the sick, relieving the poor. His zeal was not confined
to his diocese. In concert with Jeanne Francoise Fremyot
(1 572-1641), widow of the baron de Chantal, whose acquaintance
he made while preaching through Lent at Dijon in 1604, he
founded the order of the Visitation, in favour of " strong souls
with weak bodies," as he said, deterred from entering the orders
already existing, by their inability to undertake severe corporal
austerities. The institution rapidly spread, counting twenty
houses before his death and eighty before that of St Jeanne.
The care of his diocese and of his new foundation were not
enough for his ardent charity, and in 1609 he published his
famous Introduction to a Devout Life, a work which was at once
translated into the chief European languages and of which
he himself published five editions. In 1616 appeared his Treatise
on the Love of God, which teaches that perfection of the spiritual
life to which the former work is meant to be the " Introduction."
The important Lenls of 1617 and 1618 at Grenoble were a
prelude to a still more important apostolate in Paris, " the theatre
of the world," as St Vincent de Paul calls it. This third visit
to the great city lasted from the autumn of 1618 to that of 16x9;
the direct object of it was to assist in negotiating the marriage
of the prince of Piedmont with Chretienne of France, but nearly
all his time was spent in preaching and works of mercy, spiritual
or corporal. He was regarded as a living saint. St Vincent
scarcely left him, and has given the most extraordinary testi-
monies (as yet unpublished) of his heroic virtues. Mere Angelique
Arnaud, who at this time put herself under his direction and
wished to join the Order of the Visitation, attracted by its humility
and sweetness, may be named as the most interesting of his
innumerable penitents of this period. He returned to Savoy,
and after three years more of unwearying labour died at Lyons
on the 28th of December 1622. A universal outburst of venera-
tion followed; indeed his cult had already begun, and alter
» With the tide of Nicopolis in portions.— En.
an episcopal inquiry the pontifical commission in view of his
beatification was instituted by decree of the aist of July 1626,
a celerity unique in the annals of the Congregation of Rites.
The depositions of witnesses were returned to Rome in 1632,
but meantime the forms of the Roman chancery had been
changed by Urban VIII., and the advocates could not at once
continue their work. Eventually a new 1 commission was issued
in 1656, and on its report, into which were inserted nineteen of
the former depositions, the " servant of God " was beatified in
1661. The canonization took place in 1665.
Besides the works which we have named, there were published
posthumously his EntreUens, i.e. a selection of the lectures given
to the Visitation, reported by the sisters who heard them, some of
his sermons, a large number of his letters, various short treatises of
devotion. The first edition of his united or so-called " Complete "
works was published at Toulouse in 1637. Others followed in 164X,
1697, 1632, 1663, 1669, 1685. The LeUres and Opuscules were re-
published in 1768.
The only modern editions of the complete works which it is worth
while to name are those of Blaise (1821), Vires (1856-1858). Migne
(tSfiT\and the crif ic-il edition, published by the Visitation of Anntcy,
of witch the idth volume appeared in 1905.
The biography of Si Franci& de Salej was written immediately
after hi-i death by the celebrated P. de La Riviere and Dom Juhn de
St Francois (Goulu), as well a a by two other Authors of less import-
ance. The aajnt'a nephew and feucte&Vor, Charles Augufeie de bale*,
brought out a more emended lift, Latin and French, in 1633* The
Uvea of Giarda (1050), Maupasdu Tour {1657) ondCotolcmh {16*7}
add Ht tie to Charles Auguste* W artotlier'e Tanger life, in two volu mes
( 1700), jj quite untrustworthy ; still more so that by Loyau cT Amboise
(1633), which is rather 4 romance than a biography. The lives by
Haitian (1B56) and Pefenne* (l36o). without adding much to preced-
ing biographies, a** serious and edifying, A complete life, founded
on the tately discovered process of 1636 and the new let ten. was being
prepared by the author of the present art irlc at the rime of his* death.
With the Liven tnust be mentioned, the Esprit d» B, F, de Sates by
Camus, bishop of Uelley, who. amid innumerable errors, gives
various in tens dug trait* and uyingi of hi* saintly friend- Among
the very numerous modem studies may be named an essay by Lush
Hum entitled "The Gentleman Saint " (The Secr r pi. u- No, 4th
a remarkable causer u by Saince -Beirve [Lundis, \rd Jan. r^Stf);
Le Rfatit du wtiimtiti retifrtnx en France au XVII- siicic, by
Strowiki (Paris, i&>B) ; Feur Essays on S. F. de S. and Tkret Essays
onS.F*d*S.as Prewhet, by Canon H. B. Mart cy. (H . B, M .>
FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (1740-1818), English politician and
pamphleteer, the supposed author of the Letters of Junius,
and the chief antagonist of Warren Hastings, was born in Dublin
on the aand of October 1740. He was the only son of Dr Philip
Francis (c. 1708-1773), a man of some literary celebrity in his
time, known by his translations of Horace, Aeschines and
Demosthenes. He received the rudiments of an excellent
education at a free school in Dublin, and afterwards spent a
year or two (1751-1752) under his father's roof at Skeyton
rectory, Norfolk, and elsewhere, and for a short time be had
Gibbon as a fellow-pupil. In March 1753 he entered St Paul's
school, London, where he remained for three years and a half,
becoming a proficient classical scholar. In 1756, immediately
on his leaving school, he was appointed to a junior clerkship in
the secretary of state's office by Henry Fox (afterwards Lord
Holland), with whose family Dr Francis was at that time on
intimate terms; and this post he retained under the succeeding
administration. In 1758 he was employed as secretary to
General Bligh in the expedition against Cherbourg; and in the
same capacity he accompanied the earl of Kinnoul on his special
embassy to the court of Portugal in 1760.
In 1 761 he became personally known to Pitt, who, recognizing
his ability and discretion, once and again made use of his services
as private amanuensis. In 1762 he was appointed to a principal
clerkship in the war office, where he formed an intimate friendship
with Christopher D'Oyly, the secretary of state's deputy, whose
dismissal from office in 1772 was hotly resented by " Junius ";
and in the same year he married Miss Macrabie, the daughter
of a retired London merchant. His official duties brought him
into direct relations with many who were well versed in the
politics of the time. Jn 1763 the great constitutional questions
arising out of the arrest of Wilkes began to be sharply canvassed.
It was natural that Francis, who from a very early age had
been in the habit of writing occasionally to the newspapers,
FRANCIS JOSEPH I. OF AUSTRIA
942
should be eager to take an active part in the discussion, though
his position as a government official made it necessary that his
intervention should be carefully disguised. He is known to have
written to the Public Ledger and Public Advertiser, as an advocate
of the popular cause, on many occasions about and after the
year 1763; he frequently attended debates in both Houses of
Parliament, especially when American questions were being
discussed; and between 1769 and 1771 he is also known to have
been favourable to the scheme for the overthrow of the Grafton
government and afterwards of that of Lord North, and for
persuading or forcing Lord Chatham into power. In January
1769 the first of the Letters of Junius appeared, and the series
was continued till January 21, 1772. They had been pre-
ceded by others under various signatures such as " Candor/'
'• Father of Candor," " Anti-Sejanus," " Lucius," " Nemesis,"
which have all been attributed, some of them certainly in
error, to one and the same hand. The authorship of the Letters
of Junius has been assigned to Francis on a variety of grounds
(see Junius).
In March 177a Francis finally left the war office, and in July
of the same year he left England for a tour through France,
Germany and Italy, which lasted until the following December.
On his return he was contemplating emigration to New England,
when in June 1773 Lord North, on the recommendation of Lord
Harrington, appointed him a member of the newly constituted
supreme council of Bengal at a salary of £10,000 per annum.
Along with his colleagues Monson and Clavering he reached
Calcutta in October 1774, and a long struggle with Warren
Hastings, the governor-general, immediately began. These
three, actuated probably by petty personal motives, combined
to form a majority of the council in harassing opposition to the
governor-general's policy; and they even accused bim of
corruption, mainly on the evidence of Nuncomar. The death of
Monson in 1776, and of Clavering in the following year, made
Hastings again supreme in the council. But a dispute with
Francis, more than usually embittered, led in August 1780
to a minute being delivered to the council board by Hastings,
in which he stated that " he judged of the public conduct of
-Mr Francis by his experience of his private, which he had found
to be void of truth and honour." A duel was the consequence,
in which Francis received a dangerous wound (see Hastings,
Warren). Though his recovery was rapid and complete, he
did not choose to prolong his stay abroad. He arrived in England
in October 1781, and was received with little favour.
Little is known of the nature of his occupations during the
next two years, except that he was untiring in his efforts to pro-
cure first the recall, and afterwards the impeachment of his
hitherto triumphant adversary. In 1 783 Fox produced his India
Bill, which led to the overthrow of the coalition government. In
1784 Francis was returned by the borough of Yarmouth, Isle
of Wight; and although he took an opportunity to disclaim
every feeling of personal animosity towards Hastings, this did
not prevent him, on the return of the latter in 1785, from doing
all in his power to bring forward and support the charges which
ultimately led to the impeachment resolutions of z 787. Although
excluded by a majority of the House from the list of the managers
of that impeachment, Francis was none the less its most energetic
promoter, supplying his friends Burke and Sheridan with all the
materials for their eloquent orations and burning invectives.
At the general election of 1700 he was returned member for
Bletchingiey. He sympathized warmly and actively with the
French revolutionary doctrines, expostulating with Burke on
his vehement denunciation of the same. In 1703 he supported
Grey's motion for a return to the old constitutional system of
representation, and so earned the title to be regarded as one
of the earnest promoters of the cause of parliamentary reform;
and he was one of the founders of the " Society of the Friends
of the People." The acquittal of Hastings in April 1705 dis-
appointed Francis of the governor-generalship, and in 1708
he had to submit to the additional mortification of a defeat in
the general election. He was once more successful, however,
kk 180a, when he sat for Appleby, and it seemed as if the great
ambitions of his life were about to be realized when the V^
party came into power in 1806. His disappointment was gaa;
when the governor-generalship was, owing to party crigfarirs,
conferred on Sir Gilbert Elliot (Lord Minto); he declined. a j
said, soon afterwards the government of the Cape, but acccptei
a K.C.B. Though re-elected for Appleby in 1806, he fa_*i
to secure a seat in the following year; and the remainder of fcs
life was spent in comparative privacy.
Among the later productions of his pen were, besides ta*
Plan of a Reform in the Election of ike House, of Commons, pamph-
lets entitled Proceedings in the House of Commons on the Siss
Trade (x 706), Reflections on the Abundance of Paper im Circntc&e
and the Scarcity of Specie (18x0), Historical Questions Exki^&
(x3x8), and a Letter to Earl Grey on the Policy of Greed Britea
and the Allies towards Norway (18x4). His first wife, by when
he had six children, died in 1806, and in 1814 he married ha
second wife, Emma Watkins, who long survived him, and whe
left voluminous manuscripts relating to his biography. Francs
died on the 23rd of December 1818. In his domestic relatkss
he was exemplary, and he lived on terms of mutual affection win
a wide circle of friends. He was, however, full of vindictivenesi,
dissimulation and treachery, and there can be little doubt thi:
in his historic conflict with Warren Hastings unworthy personal
motives played a leading part.
Bibliogra phy — For the evidence identifying Frauds with Juaks
see the article Junius, and the authorities there cited. See a-^
Memoirs of Sir Philip Francis, with Correspondence and Journals, r-
Joseph Parkesand Herman Merivale (a vols., London. 1867); J"u
Francis Letters, edited by Beata Francis and Eliza Keary (2 voK
London, 1001); Sir J. F. Stephen, The Story of Nunccwtar amd :«
Impeachment of Sir E. Impey (a vol*- London, 1885) ; Lord Macaubv a
Essay on " Warren Hastings "; G. B. MaUesoo, Life of Warm
Hastings (London. 1894); G. W. Forrest, The Administratis* . J
Warren Hastings, 1772-178$ (Calcutta, 189a); Sir Leslie Stephen*
article on Francis irf Diet; of NaL Btog. vol. xx.
FRANCIS JOSEPH I. (1830- ), emperor of Austria, fc>r.
of Bohemia, and apostolic king of Hungary, was the eldest sec
of the archduke Francis Charles, second son of the reignirr
emperor Francis I. , being born on the x 8th of August 1 830. H ^
mother, the archduchess Sophia, was daughter of Maximilian I
king of Bavaria. She was a woman of great ability and stros$
character, and during the years which followed the death of tfc<
emperor Francis was probably the most influential persona;:
at the Austrian court; for the emperor Ferdinand, who suceeedei
in 1835, was physically and mentally incapable of performier.
the duties of his office; as he was childless, Francis Joseph was
in the direct line of succession. During the disturbances of t 84*.
Francis Joseph spent some time in Italy, where, under Radetaky,
at the battle of St Lucia, he had his first experience of warfare.
At the end of that year, after the rising of Vienna and capture of
the city by Windischgrtta, it was clearly desirable that there
should be a more vigorous ruler at the head of the empire, and
Ferdinand, now that the young archduke was of age, was able
to carry out the abdication which he and his wife had long desire!
All the preparations were made with the utmost secrecy; on tee
and of December 1848, in the archicpiscopal palace at Olmiiri.
whither the court had fled from Vienna, the emperor abdkarc-i.
His brother resigned his rights of succession to his son, and
Francis Joseph was proclaimed emperor. Ferdinand retired
to Prague, where he died in 1875.
The history of the Dual Monarchy during his reign is told under
the heading of Austria-Hungary, and here it is only necessary
to deal with its personal aspects. The young emperor was durirg
the first years of his reign completely in the hands of Prince Felii
Schwarzenberg, to whom, with Windischgr&ta and Radetzky,
he owed it that Austria had emerged from the revolution
apparently stronger than it had been before. The first task was
to reduce Hungary to obedience, for the Magyars refused to
acknowledge the validity of the abdication in so far as it con-
cerned Hungary, on the ground that such an act would only be
valid with the consent of the Hungarian parliament. A further
motive for their attitude was that Francis Joseph, unlike ms
predecessor, had not taken the oath to observe the Hungarian
constitution, which it was the avowed object of Schwarzenberg
FRANCIS JOSEPft I. OF AUSTRIA
to overthrow. Is the war which followed the emperor himself
took part, but it was not brought to a successful conclusion till
the help of the Russians had been called in. Hungary, deprived
of herandent constitution, became an integral part of theAustrian
empire. The new reign began, therefore, under sinister omens,
with the suppression of liberty in Italy, Hungary and Germany.
In 1853 a Hungarian named Lebenyi attempted to assassinate
the emperor, and succeeded in inflicting a serious wound with a
knife. With the death of Schwarzenberg in 185a the personal
government of the emperor really began, and with it that long
series of experiments of which Austria has been the subject.
Generally it may be saJH that throughout his long reign Francis
Joseph remained the real ruler of his dominions; he not only
kept iirliis bands the appointment and dismissal of his ministers,
but himself directed their policy, and. owing to the great know-
ledge of affairs, the unremitting diligence and clearness of
apprehensionf to- which all who transacted business with him
have borne testimony, he was able to keep a very real control even
of the details of government.
The recognition of the separate status of Hungary, and the
restoration of the Magyar constitution in 1866, necessarily made
some change ir his position, and so far as concerns Hungary
be fully accepted the doctrine that ministers are responsible
to parliament In the other half of the monarchy (the so-called
Cisleithan) this was not possible, and the authority and influence
of the emperor were even increased by the contrast with the
weaknesses and failures of the parliamentary system. The most
noticeable features in his reign were the repeated and sudden
changes of policy, which, while they arose from the extreme
difficulty of finding any system by which the Habsburg monarchy
could be governed, were due also to the personal idiosyncrasies
of the emperor. First we have the attempt at the autocratic
centralization of the whole monarchy under Bach; the personal
influence of the emperor is seen in the conclusion of the Concordat
with Rome, by which in 1855 the work of Joseph II. was undone
and the power of the papacy for a while restored. The foreign
policy' of this period brought about the complete isolation of
Austria, and the "ingratitude" towards Russia, as shown
during the period of the Crimean War, which has become
proverbial, caused a permanent estrangement between the two
great Eastern empires and the imperial families. The system
led inevitably to bankruptcy and ruin; the war of 1859, by
bringing it to an end, saved the monarchy. After the first
defeat Francis Joseph hastened to Italy; he commanded in
person at Solferino, and by a meeting with Napoleon arranged
the terms of tbe peace of Villafranca. The next six years, both
in home and foreign policy, were marked by great vacillation.
In order to meet the universal discontent and the financial
difficulties constitutional government was introduced; a parlia-
ment was established in which all races of the empire were
represented, and in place of centralized despotism was established
Liberal centralization under Schmer ling and the German Liberals,
But the Magyars refused to send representatives to the central
parliament, the Slavs, resenting the Germanizing policy of the
government, withdrew; and the emperor had really withdrawn
his confidence from Schmerling long before the constitution
was suspended in 1865 as a first step to a reconciliation with
Hungary. In the complicated German affairs the emperor in
vain sought for a minister on whose knowledge and advice he
could depend. He was guided in turn by the inconsistent advice
of Schmerling, Rechberg, Mensdorff, not to mention more
obscure counsellors, and it is not surprising that Austria was
repeatedly outmatched and outwitted by Prussia. In 1863,
at the FUnUnlcg in Frankfort, the emperor made an attempt
by his personal influence to solve tbe German question. He
invited all the German sovereigns to meet him in conference,
and laid before them a plan for the reconstruction of the con-
federation. The momentary effect was immense; for some
of the halo of the Holy Empire still clung round the head of
the house of Habsburg, and Francis Joseph was welcomed to
the ancient free dty with enthusiasm. In spite of this, however,
and of the skill with which he presided over the debates, tbe
943
conference came to nothing owing to the refusal of the king of
Prussia to attend.
The German question was settled definitively by the battle
of Koniggritz in i860; and the emperor Francis Joseph, with
characteristic Habsburg opportunism, was quick to accommodate
himself to the new circumstances. Above all, he recognized
the necessity for reconciling the Magyars to the monarchy; for
it was their discontent that had mainly contributed to the
collapse of the Austrian power. He had already, in 1850, as die
result of a visit to Budapest, made certain modifications in the
Bach system by way of concession to Magyar sentiment, and in
1861 he had had an interview with Deak, during which, though
unconvinced by that statesman's arguments, he had at least
assured himself of his loyalty. He now made Beust, Bismarck's
Saxon antagonist, the head of his government, as the result
of whose negotiations with Deak this Austro-Hungarian Com-
promise of 1867 was agreed upon. A law was passed by the
Hungarian diet regularizing the abdication of Ferdinand; at
the beginning of June Francis Joseph signed the inaugural
diploma and took the oath in Magyar to observe the constitution;
on the 8th he was solemnly crowned king of Hungary. The
traditional coronation gift of roo,ooo florins he assigned to the
widows and orphans of those who had fallen in the war against
Austria in 1849.
Once having accepted the principle of constitutional govern-
ment, the emperor-king adhered to it loyally, in spite of the
discouragement caused by party struggles embittered by racial
antagonisms. If in the Cisleithan half of the monarchy parlia-
mentary government broke down, this was through no fault
of the emperor, who worked hard to find a modus vivendi between
tbe factions, and did not shrink from introducing manhood
suffrage in the attempt to establish a stable parliamentary
system. This expedieut, indeed, probably also conveyed a
veiled threat to the Magyar chauvinists, who, discontented with
the restrictions placed upon Hungarian independence under the
Compromise, were agitating for the complete separation of
Austria and Hungary under a personal union only; for universal
suffrage in Hungary would mean the subordination of the Magyar
minority to the hitherto subject races. For nearly forty years
after the acceptance of the Compromise the attitude of the
emperor-king towards the Magyar constitution had been scrupu-
lously correct. The agitation for the completely separate
organization of the Hungarian army, and for the substitution
of Magyar for German in words of command in Hungarian
regiments, broke down the patience of the emperor, tenacious
of his prerogative as supreme " war lord " of the common army.
A Hungarian deputation which came to Vienna in September
1005 to urge the Magyar claims was received ungraciously by
the emperor, who did not offer his hand to the members,addresscd
them in German, and referred them brusquely to the chancellor,
Count Goluchowski. This incident caused a considerable sensa-
tion, and was the prelude to a long crisis in Hungarian affairs,
during which the emperor-king, while quick to repair the un-
fortunate impression produced by bis momentary pique, held
inflexibly to his resolve in the matter of the common army.
In his relations with the Slavs the emperor displayed the
same conciliatory disposition as in the case of the Magyars;
but though he more than once held out hopes that he would be
crowned at Prague as king of Bohemia, tbe project was always
abandoned. In this, indeed, as in other cases, it may be said
that the emperor was guided less by any abstract principles
than by a common-sense appreciation of the needs and possi-
bilities of the moment. Whatever bis natural prejudices or
natural resentments, be never allowed these to influence his
policy. The German empire and the Italian kingdom had been
built up out of the ruins of immemorial Habsburg ambitions;
yet he refused to be drawn into an alliance with Fiance in i860
and 1870, and became the mainstay of the Triple Alliance of
Austria- Hungary, Germany and Italy. His reputation as a
consistent moderating influence in European policy and one of
the chief guarantors of European peace was indeed rudely
shaken in October xoo8, the year in which he celebrated his
FRANCIS JOSEPH I. OF AUSTRIA
94+
sixty years' jubilee as emperor, by the issue of the imperial
rescript annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Habsburg
dominions, in violation of the terms of the treaty of Berlin.
But his opportunism was again justified by the result. Europe
lost an ideal; but Austria gained two provinces.
In his private life the emperor was the victim of terrible
catastrophes— his wife, his brother and his only son having
been destroyed by sudden and violent deaths. He married
in 1854 Elizabeth, daughter of Maximilian Joseph, duke of
Bavaria, who belonged to the younger and non-royal branch
of the house of Wittelsbach. The empress, who shared the
remarkable beauty common to all her family, took little part
in the public life of Austria. After the first years of married
life she was seldom seen in Vienna, and spent much of her time
in travelling. She built a castle of great beauty and magnificence,
called the Achilleion, in the island of Corfu, where she often
resided. In 1867 she accompanied the emperor to Budapest,
and took much interest in the reconciliation with the Magyars.
She became a good Hungarian scholar, and spent much time in
Hungary. An admirable horsewoman, in later years she re-
peatedly visited England and Ireland for the hunting season.
In 1897 she was assassinated at Geneva by an Italian anarchist;
previous attempts had been made on her and on her husband
during a visit to Trieste.
There was one son of the marriage, the crown prince RwfcftJ
(1857-1889). A man of much ability and promise, he «*
good linguist, and showed great interest in natural hista
He published two works, FijUen Days on Ike Danube and
Journey in Ike East, and also promoted the publication of t
important illustrated work giving a full description of the wfci
Austro-Hungarian monarchy; he personally shared the laba
of the editorial work. In 1881 he married Stephanie, daugl*:
of the king of the Belgians. On 30th January 1 889 he comnun
suicide at Mayerling, a country house near Vienna. He a,
one daughter, Elizabeth, who was betrothed to Count Ami
Windischgrats in xooi. In xooo his widow, the crown priori
Stephanie, married Count Lonyay; by this she sacrificed ■
rank and position within the Austrian monarchy. Beai
the crown prince the empress gave birth to three daughia
of whom two survive: Gisda (born 1857), who maxrifdi
son of the prince regent of Bavaria; and Marie Yale
(born 1868), who married the archduke Franz Salvator t
Tuscany.
See J. Emmer, Kaiser Pram Joseph (a vols., Vienna. 1S9B
T. Schnitter, From Joseph I. und setne Zeil (2 vols., ib., 1S99
Viribis unitis. Das Buck torn Kaiser, with introduction by J.A.
Halfert, ed. M. Hersig (ib.. 1898); R. Rostok, Die RegienateM
• " - ~ V«J* £ (3rd ed.*., 1903).
des K.n.K. From Jot
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